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utive Power</title>
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<title>Constitution of Canada/1867 IV Legislative Power</title>
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<title>Constitution of Canada/1867 V Provincial Constitutions</title>
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<title>Constitution of Canada/1867 VI Distribution of Legislative Powers</title>
<id>7418</id>
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<timestamp>2006-02-18T00:19:26Z</timestamp>
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<comment>#REDIRECT [[Canadian federalism]]</comment>
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<title>Constitution of Canada/1867 VII Judicature</title>
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<title>Constitution of Canada/1867 VIII Revenues Debts Assets Taxation</title>
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<title>Constitution of Canada/1867 IX Miscellaneous Provisions</title>
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<title>Constitution of Canada/1867 X Intercolonial Railway</title>
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<title>Constitution of Canada/1867 XI Admission of Other Colonies</title>
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<page>
<title>Crochet</title>
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<timestamp>2006-03-01T15:20:56Z</timestamp>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Crohook.jpg|thumb|Crochet Hooks]]
The word '''''crochet''''' is derived from the Middle French word ''croc'' or ''croche,'' meaning ''hook.'' It describes the process of creating fabric from a length of cord, [[yarn]], or thread with a [[Crochet hook|Crochet hook]]. The origin of the crochet technique is a subject of considerable controversy. The word is not to be confused with "crotchet", otherwise known as a [[quarter note]].
Crocheted fabric in the modern sense is begun by placing a [[slip-knot]] loop on the hook, pulling another loop through the first loop, and so on to create a chain. The chain is either turned and worked in rows, or joined end-to-end and worked in rounds. Rounds can also be created by working many stitches into a single loop. Stitches are made by pulling one or more loops through each loop of the chain. This method distinguishes crochet from other methods of fabric-making such as [[knitting]], as it is composed entirely of loops made with a single hook and is only secured when the free end of the strand is pulled through the final loop.
==Origins==
Some theorize that crochet evolved from traditional practices in [[Arabia]], [[South America]], or [[China]], but there is no decisive evidence of the craft being performed before its popularity in [[Europe]] during the [[1800s]]. Many find it likely that crochet was in fact used by early cultures but that a bent forefinger was used in place of a fashioned hook; therefore, there were no artifacts left behind to attest to the practice. These writers point to the "simplicity" of the technique and claim that it "must" have been early.
Other writers point out that woven, knit and knotted textiles survive from very early periods, but that there are no surviving samples of crocheted fabric in any [[ethnology|ethnological]] collection, or [[archeology|archeological]] source prior to 1800. These writers point to the [[tambour hooks]] used in [[tambour]] [[embroidery]] in [[France]] in the [[seventeenth century]], and contend that the hooking of loops through fine fabric in tambour work evolved into "crochet in the air." Most samples of early work claimed to be crochet turn out to actually be samples of [[naalebinding]].
Beginning in the [[1800s]] in [[Europe]], crochet began to be used as a less costly substitute for other forms of [[lace]]. It required minimal equipment and supplies, all easily accessible to persons of all social classes. At this time, thread spun from natural fibers was used without dyeing, and worked with handmade hooks of ivory, brass, or hardwood. Those that survive to this day are often ornately carved or inlaid with mother-of-pearl.
==Early history==
Around the world, crochet became a thriving cottage industry, supporting communities whose traditional livelihoods had been displaced by imperialism. The finished items were purchased mainly by the emerging middle class. The introduction of crochet as an imitation of a [[status symbol]], rather than a unique craft in its own right, had stigmatized the practice as common. Those who could afford lace made by older and more expensive methods disdained crochet as a cheap copy. This impression was partially mitigated by [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]], who conspicuously purchased Irish-made crochet lace and even learned to crochet herself. Irish crochet lace was boosted by Mlle. [[Riego de la Branchardiere]] around 1845 who published patterns and instructions for reproducing [[bobbin lace]] and [[needle lace]] via crochet.
From 1800 to 1950, crochet was done almost exclusively in thread. Crochet in the round or filet crochet, worked in rows of 'open' or 'closed' mesh to create patterns, were most common. Mass-produced steel hooks were used to work the thread beginning in about 1900.
==Modern practice==
In the [[1950s]], [[crocheters]] began to use thicker yarns to create less delicate clothing and home items, though thread crocheting remained more popular until about 1960. The craft remained primarily a homemaker's art until the late [[1960s]] when the younger generation picked up on crochet. Often using granny squares, a motif worked in the round, and incorporating bright colors, these designs became indicative of the era.
Although crochet underwent a subsequent decline in popularity, it has recently benefited from a revival of interest in handcrafts among the younger generation, as well as great strides in improvement of the quality and varieties of yarn.
The following types of crochet are derived from the basic method:
* [[Filet crochet]]
* [[Tunisian crochet]]
* [[Broomstick lace]]
* [[Hairpin lace]]
* [[Cro-hook]]
* [[Irish crochet]]
==References==
* A living mystery : the international art & history of crochet by Annie Louise Potter
* Crochet: History & Technique by Lis Paludan
* "Handmade Lace & Patterns" by Annette Feldman
==External links==
*Crochet Communities, Tutorials, and Basic Information
** [http://www.crochet.org Crochet Guild of America]
** [http://www.crochetville.org/ Crochetville] Message Board
** [http://www.chezcrochet.com/page0002.html ChezCrochet] How-to's
** [http://www.crochetcabana.com Crochet Cabana] How-to's
** [http://crochetnmore.com/123basics.htm CrochetnMore] Crochet Basics
**[http://journals.aol.com/crochetwithdee/CrochetWithDee Crochet With Dee] Blog
** [http://www.crochetpartners.org/ Crochet Partners] Community
** [http://www.anniesattic.com/crochet/content.html?type_id=S Annie's Attic] Stitching Help
** [http://crochet.about
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<title>Eyes Wide Shut</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Film |
name = Eyes Wide Shut |
image = EyesWideShutPoster.jpg |
director = [[Stanley Kubrick]] |
producer = [[Stanley Kubrick]] |
writer = [[Arthur Schnitzler]] (novel ''[[Traumnovelle]]'')<BR \> [[Stanley Kubrick]] (screenplay) <BR \> [[Frederic Raphael]] (screenplay)<BR \> |
starring = [[Tom Cruise]] <BR \> [[Nicole Kidman]] |
distributor = [[Warner Bros.]] |
released = [[13 July]], [[1999]] |
runtime = 159 min. |
language = English |
budget = $65,000,000 |
music = |
awards = |
rating in USA = |'''NC-17'''(uncut) / '''R'''(edited)
imdb_id = 0120663 |
|}}
'''''Eyes Wide Shut''''' ([[1999]]) is a [[erotic]] [[mystery]] [[film]] by [[Stanley Kubrick]] based on the novella ''[[Traumnovelle]]'' by [[Arthur Schnitzler]]. The film stars [[Tom Cruise]] and [[Nicole Kidman]], who were a real-life husband and wife at the time of the production. Kubrick died shortly after completing the editing of the film. After a long shooting schedule, the film was released to a mixed critical reaction.
{{spoiler}}
==Synopsis==
The storyline follows the surreal, possibly imagined, sexual adventures and misadventures of Dr. Bill Harford (Cruise), who is in shock after his wife, Alice, (Kidman) reveals that she has considered an affair, and which culminates in his admittance to a bizarre [[orgy]] held in a mysterious mansion near [[New York City]]. The orgy sequence, which includes elements of [[Hieros Gamos]] symbolism, contains some of the most explicit portrayals of consensual sex in mainstream cinema. Some have also perceived [[Illuminati]] symbolism in the movie.
==Comparison to ''Traumnovelle''==
The film's puzzling narrative has inspired several interpretations, many of which see the film as a [[psychoanalysis|psychological]] [[allegory]], often as a dream, rather than as a straightforward drama.
''Eyes Wide Shut'' is a fairly faithful adaptation of Arthur Schnitzler's ''Traumnovelle'' (or ''Dream Story''), but it leaves out one important piece of information that might have served as the key to understanding it. In Schnitzler's novella, Fridolin, the Bill Harford equivalent, is told by his wife that she first began to fantasize about infidelity while they were on holiday in [[Denmark]]. When Fridolin goes on his strange journey and arrives at the masked ball, the password is "Denmark". Schnitzler does not resolve whether Fridolin's journey is a dream or is meant to be interpreted literally.
In ''Eyes Wide Shut'', the password is changed to "Fidelio", a word that points at the theme of marital fidelty, but does not indicate clearly that Bill's journey is a dream. ("[[Fidelio]]" is also the name of [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]]'s only [[opera]] which, appropriately, has matrimonial fidelity as its subject matter. See [[A Clockwork Orange]] for more allusions to Beethoven by Kubrick.) Kubrick also does not resolve how the movie should be interpreted.
==Stylistic features==
[[Image:Eyes_wide_shut_film_poster.jpg|170px|thumb|Poster artwork. Kubrick used the [[Futura_(typeface)|Futura Extra Bold]] [[typeface]] in the publicity materials and credit sequences of many of his films.]]
===Cinematography and ''mise-en-scène''===
Kubrick adopted several stylistic conventions in ''Eyes Wide Shut''. As with ''[[Barry Lyndon]]'', much of the lighting in "Eyes Wide Shut" comes from the 'pratical' lights (the lights that can be seen in the shot and are meant to be the source of light within the fiction of the story). Kubrick's style can best be described as 'simulated natural lighting' because it looks closer to the way lighting looks in real life as opposed to movies, but is still artificial. For example, the scene with the man in the red cloak and gold mask is lit by a 'pratical' spotlight from high above that one could describe as existing within the fiction of the movie, but the darker shadow areas were lit to some extent by a diffuse fill light that is not motivated by any source within the scene, perhaps a 'china ball' or helium ballon fixture off screen. Kubrick occasionally departs from this naturalistic strategy into overt, unrealistic expressionism such as the intensly saturated blue light that flood the bathroom of the Harfords when they are arguing or the same blue light coming in through the windows of Ziegler's billard room. The film negative was 'pushed' in processing to increase the speed of the film, thus allowing for the use of natural lighting. "Eyes Wide Shut" made extensive use of Christmas lights (the story is set in the Christmas season). The colours red, blue, yellow and green feature predominantly in the film. This is enhanced by the use of Christmas decorations. It is often suggested that the colour scheme is an important symbolic schemata. This theory has weight, considering the four 'modern art' posters in the hospital hallway which individually consist of these colours (suggesting a consonance of location and symbolic meaning) and Kubrick's reputation as a master of detail. More simply it may suggest the primal or basic nature of the thematic content. Shop-fronts and street signs also express a quasi-semiotic meaning in that they convey information to an observant audience that the characters are unaware of. For example, before Bill enters the prostitute's apartment building, they stop at a store with the sign 'The Lotto Shop', perhaps indicating that he is gambling with his health.
===Theatrum mundi===
With ''A Clockwork Orange'', ''Eyes Wide Shut'' is the most theatrical of Kubrick's works. This theatricality is expressed on two different and complementary levels, aesthetic and symbolic, which together compose what critic [[Michel Ciment]] calls "A ''trompe-l'oeil'' universe", where what seems real is fake, and where everything is ambivalent, deceitful. Dr. Bill Harford's shift from the well-established world of his certainties to an unfamiliar world hidden behind (inside) the well-established one, is a shift from what seems real (and which Bill takes for granted) to what in fact is different, if not the opposite of what it seemed. The "reality" in which Bill believes, the one he lives in, is true as a backdrop. Against his will he will discover that Ziegler has a double life (on the evening of the party at his mansion he betrays his wife, by his own admission he was among the masked guests gathered at Somerton), that Nick Nightingale, his old pal from college, who now plays in a jazz band, also plays the piano at the mysterious night gatherings at which Ziegler participates.
Like Militch, the disreputable owner of the costume shop "Rainbow" (who rents costumes and acts as pimp for his own daughter), these characters are something and at the meantime something else, they play an official role that hides a covert one, (like the two Japanese business men with make up and wigs who amuse themselves with Militch's daughter), equal in this to the masked guests attending an ominous ceremony ("I'm not gonna tell you their names, but if I did, I don't think you'd sleep so well", Ziegler tells Bill, implying the prestige and power they have in their day life). But even Marion Nathanson, the daughter of Bill's dead patient, who unexpectedly reveals her feelings for him (she is engaged to a mathematics professor), shows a sudden duplicity similar to that of Alice.
"Domino", the nickname of the prostitute Bill meets, is not arbitrary, for it suggests both dominance, sexual subjugation, and the carnival costume (which by itself evokes conspiracy and mystery and is worn by all the participants to the ceremony), and is also in relation to another name, Beethoven's "Fidelio" (the password that allows Bill to get inside Somerton) which can be either a reference to conjugal fidelity or, once more, to dressing-up (in the homonymous opera, Leonore disguises herself as a male prison guard in order to save her beloved husband Florestan). Thanks to a password which is in itself a mark of ambiguity, dressed-up as a member of a secret confraternity, Dr. Bill Harford will gain access to the gloomiest circle of his progressive descent into darkness. Somerton Manor is where theatrics reaches its visual apex, a place in which everything is carefully staged ("It was a kind of charade", Ziegler will say later) and where also Bill, his face covered by a mask, participates to the general game of concealment.
Like '''A Clockwork Orange''', '''Eyes Wide Shut''' is a movie that strongly insists on the staged, counterfeit nature of identities together (consequently) with its emphasis on the blurring of the line between truth and fiction. This atmosphere is also strongly emphasized by the studio reconstruction of Lower Manhattan, extremely accurate as usual with Kubrick in all its details, but at the same time unequivocally fake. A city suspended like all the rest between dream and reality, expressionism and realism, that would have pleased Cornell Woolrich and Fritz Lang. An actual but magically anachronistic place (as Johnatan Rosenbaum has noticed, the "Sonata Cafe", the club where Nightingale plays, brings us back to the [[1950s]]), full of ironic cross-references (the "Verona" restaurant, the Viennese cafe where Bill stops reading a newspaper, Militch's "Rainbow" shop
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ing [[Artemisia absinthium]], and ''petite absinthe'' being [[Artemisia pontica]]). The word derives from the Latin ''absinthium'', which is in turn a stylization of the Greek ''αψινθιον'' (apsinthion). Some claim that the word means "undrinkable" in Greek, but it may instead be linked to the [[Persian Language|Persian]] root ''spand'' or ''aspand'', or the variant ''esfand'', which may have been, rather, [[Peganum harmala]], a variety of [[rue]], another famously bitter herb. That this particular plant was commonly burned as a protective offering may suggest that its origins lie in the reconstructed [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] root ''*spend'', meaning "to perform a ritual" or "make an offering". Whether the word was a borrowing from Persian into Greek, or rather from a common ancestor is unclear.
==Controversy==
[[Image:Manet, Edouard - The Absinthe Drinker.jpg|thumb|[[Edouard Manet]], "The Absinthe Drinker." An unapologetic look at a street bum.]]
It was thought that excessive absinthe-drinking led to effects which were specifically worse than those associated with over-indulgence in other forms of alcohol &mdash; which is bound to have been true for some of the less-scrupulously adulterated products, creating a condition called ''absinthism''. Undistilled wormwood essential oil contains a substance called [[thujone]], which is an [[epilepsy|epileptic]] (and can cause [[renal failure]]) in extremely high doses, and the supposed ill effects of the drink were blamed on that substance in [[19th century]] studies.
The effects of absinthe have been described by artists as mind opening, and even [[Psychedelics, dissociatives and deliriants|hallucinogenic]] and by prohibitionists as turning good people mad and desolate. Both are exaggerations. Sometimes called "secondary effects", the most commonly-reported is a "clear headed" drunk feeling and thujone was said to be the cause. The [[placebo effect]] and individual reaction to the herbs makes these secondary effects very subjective and minor compared to the [[psychoactive]] effects of alcohol.
More recent studies have shown that very little of the thujone present in wormwood actually makes it into a properly distilled absinthe, even one re-created using historical recipes and methods. Most proper absinthe both vintage and modern are naturally within the EU limits. [http://www.feeverte.net/thujone.html] [http://www.emmert-analytik.de/DLR_100_9_S352-356.pdf] A recent French distiller has had to add pure [[essential oil]] of wormwood to make a "high-thujone" variant of his product. It can remain in higher amounts in oils produced by other methods than distillation, or when wormwood is macerated and not distilled, especially when the plant stems are used, where thujone content is the highest.
A study in the ''Journal of Studies on Alcohol'' concluded that a high concentration of thujone in alcohol has negative effects on attention performance. It slowed down [[reaction time]] and subjects concentrated their attention in the central field of vision. Medium doses did not produce a noticeably different effect than plain alcohol. The high dose of thujone in this study was larger than what one can get from current "high thujone" absinthe before becoming too drunk to notice, also, as most people describe the effects of absinthe as a more lucid and aware drunk, this suggests that thujone alone is not the cause of these effects.
The non-French spelling, "absinth" has been adopted for wormwood-based drinks produced in [[Central Europe]] since the beginning of the [[1990s]] (it is now also considered a spelling variant). Although not always the case, these products bear very little resemblance to the traditional French and Swiss absinthe: they are usually bitter and contain little anise, but are marketed to capitalize on the romantic associations and psychoactive reputation of the historical French product. Typically, the low herbal content of these drinks means that they do not produce the louche effect, and as thujone is still associated with the myth of absinthe as a psychoactive drink, many of them advertise a "higher thujone content".
==Cultural impact==
The legacy of absinthe as a mysterious and addictive, mind-altering drink continues to this day. Absinthe has been seen or featured in [[fine art]], movies, video, music and literature. The modern absinthe revival has had an effect on its portrayal. It is often shown as an unnaturally glowing green liquid which is set on fire before drinking, even though traditionally neither is true.
===Arts & Literature===
Numerous artists and writers living in France during the late 19th and early 20th century were noted absinthe drinkers and featured absinthe in their work. These include [[Vincent Van Gogh]], [[Manet]], [[Guy de Maupassant]], [[Toulouse Lautrec]], and many others. Degas' painting "L'Absinthe" (1876) portrayed absinthe drinkers in a cafe. [[Picasso]] depicted absinthe in different media, including the paintings "Woman Drinking Absinthe" (1901) and "Bottle of Pernod and Glass" (1912), and the sculpture "Absinthe Glass" (1914). [[Oscar Wilde]] has been quoted as saying, "What difference is there between a glass of absinthe and a sunset?"<ref>[http://www.oxygenee.com/absintheFAQ4.html Oxygénée's Absinthe FAQ IV]</ref><!--lots more stuff to include here -->
===Movies & TV===
In ''[[Bram Stoker's Dracula]]'' starring [[Gary Oldman]] and [[Winona Ryder]], Prince Vlad (Oldman) drinks absinthe with Mina/Elizabeta (Ryder) in a London restaurant. [[Paul Verlaine]] is shown drinking absinthe in the 1995 film ''[[Total Eclipse]]''. In the 1997 film ''[[Deceiver]]'', [[Tim Roth]]'s character is shown drinking absinthe; the drink's legendary effects are highlighted in the plot. In the 2001 movie ''[[From Hell]]'', Inspector Abberline ([[Johnny Depp]]) mixes opium with absinthe to make a very addictive drink. Also produced in 2001, ''[[Moulin Rouge!]]'' portrayed absinthe as the drink of the Bohemian revolution. It was used indirectly as the subject of an American independent [[neo-noir]] film, ''[[Bitters and Blue Ruin]]''. In the beginning of the 2002 movie ''[[XXX]]'', the villians can be seen drinking a green liquid that they set on fire before ingesting. In ''[[Murder by Numbers]]'' (2002), absinthe is prepared by [[Michael Pitt]]'s character, who also gives a speech on its effects and ingredients. In the 2004 movie ''[[EuroTrip]]'', several teenagers purchase a bottle of absinthe at a nightclub in [[Bratislava]]. In the 2004 movie ''[[Van Helsing]]'', Van Helsing finds the Frankenstein monster under a windmill full of absinthe bottles. In the remake of ''[[Alfie (2004 film)|Alfie]]'' (2004), Liz ([[Susan Sarandon]]) plies the main character ([[Jude Law]]) with absinthe prepared in contemporary style with a sugar cube set on fire. Absinthe also made an appearance in the [[HBO]] television series ''[[Carnivale|Carnivàle]]'', imbibed by a mysterious blind seer, as well as in the [[CBS]] crime drama ''[[C.S.I.]]''. Absinthe was also featured in the episode "The Big Lockout" of the British comedy series [[Black Books]] where character [[Bernard Black]] says, "What do they say, Absinthe, the drink that makes you want to kill yourself." It was also portrayed in the episode of Friends where Ross wanted to kill Rachel. In the second series of [[Sky One|Sky One's]] ''[[Hex (TV Series)|Hex]]'', Ella ([[Laura Pyper]]) offers Absinthe to the popular students as means to break the ice whe she enrolls in their school. She warns the character of Leon ([[Jamie Davis]]) that it "...rots your brain".
===Music===
Progressive power metal band [[Symphony X]] released "Absinthe And Rue" on their self-titled debut album (1994). The [[John Zorn]]-founded ensemble [[Naked City]] released an ethereal album entitled ''Absinthe'' in 1996. A collaboration between [[Blood Axis]] and [[Les Joyaux De La Princesse]] produced the 2001 [[concept album]] ''[[Absinthe: La Folie Verte]]'', followed up with the live album ''[[Absinthia Taetra]]''. Absinthe appeared in the [[Nine Inch Nails]] video "[[The Perfect Drug]]". [[Mustis]], the keyboardist from the band [[Dimmu Borgir]], is often pictured with a bottle of absinthe, most notably in their 2003 album, ''[[Death Cult Armageddon]]''. The gothic metal band [[Cradle of Filth]] released a song on 2004's ''[[Nymphetamine]]'', called "Absinthe with Faust"; its opening line is, "Pour the emerald wine into crystal glasses." [[Marilyn Manson]] boasts of having written an entire album on absinthe. The famous "One More Saturday Night" logo from the Grateful Dead featured a skeleton swigging absinthe. In the opening number in ''[[Wicked]]'', "No One Mourns The Wicked", a green elixir turns Elphaba ''[[green]]''.
==Regulations==
Currently, most countries do not have a legal definition of absinthe (unlike, for example, [[Scotch whisky]] or [[cognac (spirit)|cognac]]). Therefore, manufacturers can label a product "absinthe" or "[[absinth]]", regardless of whether it matches the traditional definition.
===European Union===
The [[European Union]] permits a maximum thujone level of 10 mg/kg in alcoholic beverages with more than 25% ABV and 35 mg/kg in alcohol labeled as bitters.<ref>European Commission. [http://europa.eu.int/comm/food/fs/sc/scf/out162_en.pdf "Opinion of the Scientific Committee on Food on Thujone"], SCF/CS/FLAV/FLAVOUR/23 ADD2 Final [[6 February]] [[2003]].</ref> Member countries regulate absinthe production within this framework.<!-- needs clarification of EU rulings, dates and details, and also how that applies to the member countries; also, is sa
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irth of humans as other animals, and vice-versa. As a result, many Buddhists do not kill animals and many also do not eat [[meat]]. Other common reasons cited are that killing animals and/or eating their meat are a violation of the [[Buddhism|Five Precepts]], bad for one's own [[karma]], and because of a compassion for other animals. Many vegetarian Buddhists are not [[vegan]], but for those who are vegan, such beliefs are often due to objections about the circumstances in which the animals producing products such as [[milk]] and [[egg (food)|egg]]s are raised.
Some [[Mahayana]] Buddhists in [[China]] and [[Vietnam]] also avoid eating strong-smelling plants such as [[onion]], [[garlic]], [[chives]], [[shallot]], and [[leek (vegetable)|leek]], and refer to these as ''wu hun'' (&#20116;&#33911;, 'Five Spices'). One theory behind this Buddhist dietary restriction is that these vegetables have strong flavours which are supposed to excite the senses and, thus, represent a burden to Buddhists seeking to control their desires. Another theory is that these are all root crops, and harvesting them requires killing organisms in the soil. The latter explanation is accepted in the [[Jain]] religion that sprung up in India at the same time as Buddhism, and quite possibly influenced its practices. It is unclear, historically, what the original reason was for this restriction.
Alcohol and/or other drugs are also avoided by many Buddhists.
=== Only for some Buddhists ===
There are no universally agreed-upon rules for permitted and not-permitted foods in Buddhism. In some regions, it is common for monks to eat no meat and drink no alcohol, but for the laity to, or for the laity to abstain only when they visit a monastery. In some regions, even some Buddhist [[monk]]s will eat meat or drink alcohol. In other regions, it is also common for Buddhists to believe that [[vegetarianism]] is better for their karma than eating meat, but to eat meat anyway and consider it something of a bad habit; and, in some areas, such as [[Japan]], avoidance of ''wu hun'' foods is not a large part of Buddhism. Many Buddhist traditions state the [[Buddha]] himself taught that meat offered as charity to monks and nuns should not be refused, unless the killing was done specifically for the monks and nuns. However, other traditions state this to be inaccurate, and that the Buddha was strictly vegetarian.
While many debate Buddhist teachings, it is widely believed that the Buddha's final words were, "Be a light unto thyself," which might imply that he wanted each individual to choose their own path to [[Bodhi|Enlightenment]]; however, many Buddhists would ask what the sense of calling oneself a Buddhist is, if one is not trying to discern and follow the Buddha's teachings on foods and all other issues. Conflicting aspects of Gautama Buddha's teachings -- compassion, The Five Precepts, and karma, versus the humility to accept meat and other things offered as charity -- are not likely to be easily resolved, given the vagueness of written history.
[[Image:chinese-buddhist-cuisine-taiwan-1.jpg|thumb|right|Vegetarian restaurant buffet, Taipei, Taiwan. July 2003]]
== Common sources for Buddhist foods ==
Buddhist vegetarian chefs have become extremely creative in imitating meat using prepared [[wheat gluten (food)|wheat gluten]], also known as "seitan" or "wheat meat", [[soy]] (such as [[tofu]] or [[tempeh]]), [[agar]], and other [[plant]] products. Some of their recipes are the oldest and most-refined [[meat analogue]]s in the world. [[Soy]] and [[wheat gluten (food)|wheat gluten]] are very versatile materials, because they can be manufactured into various shapes and textures, and they absorb flavourings (including, but not limited to, meat-like flavourings), whilst having very little flavour of their own. With the proper [[seasoning]]s, they can mimic various kinds of meat quite closely.
Some of these Buddhist vegetarian chefs are in the many [[monastery|monasteries]] which serve ''wu hun'' and mock-meat (a.k.a. '[[meat analogue]]s') dishes to the monks and visitors (including non-Buddhists who often stay for a few hours or days, to Buddhists who are not monks, but staying overnight for anywhere up to weeks or months). Many Buddhist restaurants also serve vegetarian, vegan, non-alcoholic, and/or ''wu hun'' dishes. Some Buddhists eat vegetarian only once per week or month, or on special occasions such as annual visits to an ancestor's grave. To cater to this type of customer, as well as full-time vegetarians, the menu of a Buddhist vegetarian restaurant usually shows no difference from a typical Chinese or far-Eastern restaurant, except that in recipes originally made to contain meat, a chicken flavoured soy or wheat gluten might be served instead (e.g. "General Tsao's chicken" made with flavoured wheat gluten).
== See also ==
* [[Buddha's delight]]
* [[Buddhism in China]]
* [[Meat analogue]]
* [[Chinese cuisine]]
* [[Tofu]]
* [[Wheat gluten (food)]]
* [[Vegetarianism]]
* [[Cooking]]
* [[Cuisine]]
== External links ==
* [http://web-japan.org/nipponia/nipponia2/pdf/p14.pdf Culinary Fundamentals: Shojin Ryori]
* [http://www.kikkoman.com/forum/007/ff007.html Shojin Ryori: Vegetarian Cooking]
* [http://www.headcity.com/uptown/bigmouth/hungry/chinese/middle.html Return To The Middle Kingdom: Chinese Vegetarian Eating in East Asia]
[[Category:Buddhism]]
[[Category:Chinese Buddhism]]
[[Category:Chinese cuisine]]
[[Category:Diets]]
[[ja:精進料理]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chinese five spice</title>
<id>6190</id>
<revision>
<id>15904349</id>
<timestamp>2004-11-16T14:19:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Chameleon</username>
<id>50881</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Five-spice powder]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Charles V</title>
<id>6191</id>
<revision>
<id>33630858</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-02T20:13:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gdr</username>
<id>55814</id>
</contributor>
<comment>add pretender "Charles V" of Spain</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Charles V''' may refer to:
* [[Charles V of France]], "the Wise" (1338–1380).
* [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor]] (1500–1558).
* [[Charles V, Duke of Lorraine]] (1643–1690)
* [[Charles II of Spain|Charles V of Naples]] and II of Spain (1661–1700).
* [[Infante Carlos of Spain]] (1788–1855), pretender to the throne of Spain, styled "Charles V" by [[Carlism|Carlists]].
{{disambig}}
[[cs:Karel V. (rozcestník)]]
[[de:Liste der Herrscher namens Karl#Karl IV. bis Karl V.]]
[[eo:Karolo la 5-a]]
[[fr:Charles V]]
[[it:Carlo V]]
[[ja:カール5世]]
[[pl:Karol V]]
[[pt:Carlos V]]
[[zh:查理五世]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Constantin von Tischendorf</title>
<id>6193</id>
<revision>
<id>41467859</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T15:26:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jcbarr</username>
<id>482173</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>disambig link cleanup</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Lobegott Friedrich Constantin (von) Tischendorf''' ([[January 18]], [[1815]] at [[Langenfeld]], [[Saxony]] near [[Plauen]] &ndash; [[December 7]], [[1874]] in [[Leipzig]]) was a noted [[Germany|German]] [[Biblical]] scholar, the son of a physician. He recovered the ''[[Codex Sinaiticus]]'', a 4th century [[Greek language|Greek]] [[manuscript]] of the [[New Testament]], in 1859.
Beginning in 1834, von Tischendorf spent his scholarly career at the [[University of Leipzig]] where he was mainly influenced by [[Georg Benedikt Winer|JGB Winer]], and he began to take special interest in [[New Testament]] criticism. In 1838 he took the degree of [[doctor of philosophy]], then became master at a school near [[Leipzig]].
After a journey through southern Germany and [[Switzerland]], and a visit to [[Strassburg]], he returned to Leipzig, and set to work upon a critical study of the New Testament text. In 1840 he qualified as university lecturer in [[theology]] with a dissertation on the [[recension]]s of the New Testament text -- the main part of which reappeared the following year in the ''[[prolegomena]]'' to his first edition of the Greek New Testament. His critical apparatus included variant readings from earlier scholars -- [[Elsevier]], Knapp, Scholz, and as recent as [[Karl Lachmann|Lachmann]] -- whereby his researches were emboldened to depart from the received text as used in churches.
These early textual studies convinced him of the absolute necessity of new and more exact [[collation]]s of manuscripts. From October 1840 until January 1843 he was in [[Paris]], busy with the treasures of the [[Bibliothèque Nationale]], eking out his scanty means by making collations for other scholars, and producing for the publisher, [[Firmin Didot]], several editions of the Greek New Testament -- one of them exhibiting the form of the text corresponding most closely to the [[Vulgate]]. His second edition retracted the more precarious readings of the first, and included a statement of critical principles that is a landmark for evolving critical studies of Biblical texts. [http://www.bible-researcher.com/bib-t.html]
From Paris, he had paid short visits to the [[Netherlands]] (1841) and [[England]] (1842). In 1843 he visited [[Italy]], and after a stay of thirteen months, went on to [[Egypt]], [[Sinai]], and the [[Levant]], returning by [[Vienna]] and [[Munich]]. In 1844, he paid his first visit to the convent of [[Saint Catherine's Monastery, Mount Sinai|Saint Catherine's Monastery]], on [[Mount Sinai]] where he found, in a trash pile, 44 pages of what was the then oldest known copy of the [[Septuagint]]. The deposited them at the [[University of
|
utor>
<username>Jwhayes</username>
<id>991478</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">General '''Abdul Rashid Dostum''' (also '''Abdurrashid Dostum''', born 1954), a powerful ethnic [[Uzbek]] [[warlord]] is the principal leader of Afghanistan's Uzbek community. He current holds the honorific position of "Chief of Staff to the Commander in Chief of the Afghan Armed Forces".
He is leader of Junbish Milli / [[Junbesh-i Melli]]-i Islami, Jombesh-e Melli Islami ([[National Islamic Movement Afghanistan]]). He later joined the communist government, serving as defense minister for President Muhammad Najibullah, until the mujahideen defeated it in 1992.
One of the best-organized and powerful of the militia groups operated under the command of Abdul Rashid Dostum in the area around [[Sheberghan]] in [[Jawzjan province]], northern Afghanistan. Dostum had been in the Army at the time of the 1978 coup, and was a member of the [[Parcham]] faction of the PDPA.
== Soviet - Afghan war ==
Dostum completed his national service, and had trained as a [[paratrooper]] in the 1970s, as was required by law. Following his demobilization he found employment in the oil fields around [[Sheberghan]] where he was
working at the time of the '''Saur Revolution'''.
As the government started to arm the staff of the [[petroleum|oil]] and [[gas]] refineries—creating “groups for the defense of the revolution” - he was, on the basis of his military training, encouraged to enlist. His group, in response to increasing conflict, was deployed in the rural areas around [[Sheberghan]], under the auspices of the '''Ministry of National Security'''.
By the mid 1980s his platoon had grown in stature, reaching a company level by at least 1987 and a regimental level, Regiment 734, by 1988. While the unit recruited throughout Jauzjan and had a relatively broad base, many of its early troops and commanders came from Dostum’s home village, Khoja Dukoh, and these represented the core of the unit at that juncture and again when it was reconstituted after 2001.
He left the army after the purge of [[Parcham]]is, and returned after the [[Soviet]] occupation began, commanding a militia battalion that became a regiment and ultimately was incorporated into the defense foces as the '''53rd Infantry Division''', but reporting directly to President [[Mohammad Najibullah]]. He then joined the '''Ministry of State Security''' and became commander of unit 374 in Jozjan.
He defended the communist [[Democratic Republic of Afghanistan]] against the [[United States]]-backed [[mujahedin]] in the [[1980s]]. Although he was only a regional commander, he had largely raised the militia he fought with on his own.
The Jauzjani militia, as it became known, was one of the few militia forces to be used outside of its region. They were deployed in [[Qandahar]] in 1988 when Soviet forces withdrew. He also supported the [[Mikhail Gorbachev|Gorbachev]]-era Communist reforms in [[Afghanistan]].
On [[April 18]], [[1992]], he revolted against the government of President [[Najibullah]], allying with [[Ahmed Shah Massoud]]. Together, they captured [[Kabul]], the Afghan [[capital]]. He commanded the principal militia force in [[Kabul]] that ousted Najibullah, creating episodes of [[kidnapping]], [[looting]] and [[fighting]].
== Afghan Civil War ==
In 1994, Dostum again switched sides, allying with forces of [[Gulbuddin Hekmatyar]], in once more laying siege on Kabul, this time against the government of [[Burhanuddin Rabbani]] and Massoud.
In 1996, following the rise of the [[Taliban]] and their capture of [[Herat]] and [[Kabul]], Dostum realigned himself with Rabbani against the Taliban. Along with General [[Mohammed Fahim]] and [[Ismail Khan]], Dostum was one of three factional leaders that comprised the [[Afghan Northern Alliance]]. Facing capture and death by Taliban forces, Dostum fled to Iran as an exile.
In 2001, he returned from exile on the heels of a [[United States|U.S.]]-led bombing campaign that drove the Taliban from power. Since then, he has run parts of the country's north as his own [[fiefdom]], nominally serving as a deputy defense minister in the national government in Kabul but operating almost totally independent of the government.
In November of 2002, the [[United Nations]] began an investigation of alleged [[human rights]] abuses by Dostum. Witnesses claimed that Dostum jailed and tortured witnesses to prevent them from testifying in a war crimes case. Dostum is also under suspicion for the events of the [[Dasht-i-Leili massacre]].
In March 2003, he established a [[North Zone of Afghanistan]], against the wishes of interim president [[Hamid Karzai]]. On [[May 20]], [[2003]], Dostum signed an agreement to no longer serve as Karzai's special envoy for the northern regions. Later, Dostum reached a political compromise with Karzai, assuming the position of "Chief of Staff to the Commander in Chief of the Afghan Armed Forces".
In the aftermath of the Taliban's removal from northern Afghanistan, forces loyal to Dostum frequently clashed with forces loyal to [[Tajiks|Tajik]] General [[Mohammed Atta (Afghan warlord)|Mohammed Atta]]. Through the political mediations of the Karzai regime, the U.S.-led international military Coalition, and the NATO-led International Security Assistance Force, as well as the UN-run Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration program, the Dostum-Atta feud has largely ended. The two are now generally politically allied as part of a larger ideological effort to protect the interests of Afghanistan's war veterans and to preserve their own power.
In most ethnic-Uzbek dominated areas in which Dostum has control or influence, he encourages women to live and work freely, as well as music, sports, alcohol, and allows for people of other religions. However it is claimed that during the civil war he financed his army through [[opium]] trading. He has also been accused by people fleeing Afghanistan of being involved in human rights violations: arresting and killing people all over the country through government infrastructure.
On March 1, 2005 he was appointed chief of staff to the head of the Afghan armed forces, by President [[Hamid Karzai]].
{{start box}}
{{succession box |
before= [[Shahnawaz Tanai]] |
title= [[Afghan Defense Ministry|Minister of Defense]]|
years= March 1990 &ndash; Unknown |
after= Unknown |
}}
{{succession box |
before= Unknown|
title= [[Afghan National Army|Chief of the Army Staff]]|
years= March 2005 &ndash; |
after= Incumbent |
}}
{{end box}}
==External links==
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/1563344.stm BBC online profile]
*[http://www.zmag.org/cockburndostum.htm Biography about Dostum]
[[Category:1954 births|Dostum, Abdul Rashid]]
[[Category:Living people|Dostum, Abdul Rashid]]
[[Category:Afghan people|Dostum, Abdul]]
[[Category:Warlords|Dostum, Abdul]]
[[ar:عبد الرشيد دوستم]]
[[de:Abdul Rashid Dostum]]
[[gl:Abdul Rashid Dostum]]
[[ko:압둘 라시드 도스툼]]
[[ja:ラシッド・ドスタム]]
[[no:Abdul Rashid Dostum]]
[[ru:Дустум, Абдул-Рашид]]
[[sl:Abdul Rašid Dostum]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Andhra Pradesh</title>
<id>2377</id>
<revision>
<id>42048791</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T13:09:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Arunprakashts</username>
<id>563308</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{India state infobox|
state_name=Andhra Pradesh |
image_map=Map AP dist all blank.png |
capital=[[Hyderabad, India|Hyderabad]] |
latd = 17.22|longd=78.26|
largest_city=[[Hyderabad, India|Hyderabad]]|
second largest = [[Visakhapatnam, India|Visakhapatnam]]|
abbreviation=IN-AP |
official_languages=[[Telugu language|Telugu]],[[Urdu]]|
legislature_type=Unicameral |
legislature_strength=295 |
governor_name=[[Rameshwar Thakur]] |
chief_minister=[[Y.S. Rajasekhara Reddy]] |
established_date=[[October 1]] [[1953]]|
area=275,068 |
area_rank=4th |
area_magnitude=11 |
population_year=2001 |
population=75,727,000 |
population_rank=5th |
population_density=275 |
districts=23 |
website=www.aponline.gov.in |
seal=[[Image:Andhraseal.png|center]] |
footnotes = |
}}
'''Andhra Pradesh''' ([[Telugu language|Telugu]]: ఆంధ్ర ప్రదేశ్; ''Āndhra Prādesh''), is a [[States and territories of India|state]] in south-eastern [[India]] and is part of the linguistic-cultural region of [[South India]]. It lies between 12°41' and 22°N latitude and 77° and 84°40'E longitude, and is bounded by [[Maharashtra]], [[Chhattisgarh]] and [[Orissa]] in the north, the [[Bay of Bengal]] in the East, [[Tamil Nadu]] to the south and [[Karnataka]] to the west. Andhra Pradesh is the fifth largest state in India and it forms the major link between the north and the south of India. It is the biggest and most populous state in the south of India. It is considered the [[rice]] bowl of India. The state is crisscrossed by two major rivers, the [[Godavari River|Godavari]] and [[Krishna River|Krishna]]. ("Pradesh" means "region" or "state".)
==Prehistory==
Andhra society is one of the ancient societies of India. One can encounter several tales about Andhras in epics like Mahabharatam and Ramayanam, in great puranas, and Buddhist Jataka Tales. This confirms the ancient nature of Andhra society. The name Andhra is ancient and remained unchanged throughout history. [[Sanskrit]] writings from the [[7th century BCE]] describe the Andhra people as [[Aryan]]s from the north who migrated south of the [[Vindhya Range]] and mixed with [[Dravidian race|Dravidians]].
==History==
[[Image:charminar.jpg|right|thumbnail|250px|''Charminar'' or Four [[Minaret]]s in [[Hyderabad]]. Hyderabad was the capital of the Nizam kingdom and later the Nizam dominion.]]
It is only in the [[Mauryan]] age that there is historical evidence of the existence of Andhras as a political pow
|
cotics Control Board.
*[http://www.hhs.gov/asl/testify/t990311b.html Statement on "Date Rape" Drugs by Nicholas Reuter, M.P.H.], Mar. 11, 1999.
*US Department of Justice (Drug Enforcement Administration), ''Marijuana Rescheduling Petition: Opinion and recommended ruling, findings of fact, conclusions of law and decision of administrative law judge'', [[6 September]] [[1988]], Section VIII, Part 16 [http://www.angeljustice.org/downloads/Marijuana%20Rescheduling%20Petition%20Doc%20No%2086%2022.pdf]
*Boaz, David: [http://www.cato.org/dailys/3-03-97.html Drug Prohibition Has Failed], Mar. 3, 1997.
*[http://www.usdoj.gov/dea/pubs/scheduling.html DEA Drug Scheduling Reference]
[[Category:1970 in law]]
[[Category:United States federal controlled substances legislation]]
[[pl:Controlled Substances Act]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Claude Piron</title>
<id>7728</id>
<revision>
<id>37043766</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-28T04:42:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>D6</username>
<id>75561</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>adding [[category:Living people]] (test)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Claude_Piron.jpg|200px|thumb|Claude Piron at the 2005 Bologne Congress.]]
'''Claude Piron''' (born [[1931]]), a [[linguistics|linguist]] and a [[psychology|psychologist]], was a translator for the [[United Nations]] (from [[Chinese language|Chinese]], [[English language|English]], [[Russian language|Russian]] and [[Spanish language|Spanish]] into [[French language|French]]) from [[1956]] to [[1961]]. After leaving the UN he worked for the [[World Health Organization]] all over the world, as well as being a prolific author of [[Esperanto]] works. He has used Esperanto in many countries, including [[Japan]], [[China]], [[Uzbekistan]], [[Kazakhstan]], a few places in [[Africa]] and [[Latin America]], and almost all [[Europe|European]] countries.
He is a psychotherapist and taught in the psychology department of [[Geneva]] University ([[Switzerland]]) from [[1973]] to [[1994]]. His French language book ''Le defi des langues - Du gachis au bon sens'' (''The language challenge - From chaos to common sense'') ([[Paris]]: L'[[Harmattan]], [[1994]]) is a kind of [[psychoanalysis]] of international communication. A [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] version, ''O desafio das linguas'', was published in 2002 ([[Campinas, Sao Paulo]]: Pontes, [[2002]]).
In a [http://www.claude-piron.ch/hidden-perverse-effects.html lecture on the current system of international communication] Piron argued that "Esperanto relies entirely on innate reflexes." and "...differs from all other languages in that you can always trust your natural tendency to generalize patterns...The same neuropsychological law...- called by...[[Jean Piaget]] ''generalizing assimilation'' - applies to word formation as well as to grammar."
His diverse Esperanto writings include instructional books, books for beginners, novels, short stories, poems, articles and non-fiction books. His most famous works are ''[[Gerda Malaperis]]'' and ''[[La Bona Lingvo]]'' (The Good Language). ''Gerda Malaperis'' is a novella which uses basic grammar and vocabulary in the first chapter and builds up to expert Esperanto by the end, including word lists so beginners can easily follow along. In ''La Bona Lingvo'', Piron captures the basic linguistic and social aspects of Esperanto. He argues strongly for imaginative use of the basic Esperanto morpheme inventory and word formation techniques, and against unnecessary importation of neologisms from European languages. He also presents the idea that once one has learned enough vocabulary to express oneself, it is easier to think clearly in Esperanto than in many other languages.
== External links ==
Many articles and texts in a number of languages at *[http://claudepiron.free.fr/]
*[http://www.claude-piron.ch/englishindex.htm www.claude-piron.ch] the homepage of Claude Piron by Stefano Keller
*[http://claudepiron.free.fr Claude Piron, texts in many languages]
*[http://www.geocities.com/c_piron/ About Language Problems] by Claude Piron
[[Category:Esperanto literature|Piron, Claude]]
[[Category:Swiss linguists|Piron, Claude]]
[[Category:1931 births|Piron, Claude]][[Category:Living people|Piron, Claude]]
[[Category:Esperantists|Piron, Claude]]
[[cs:Claude Piron]]
[[de:Claude Piron]]
[[eo:Claude PIRON]]
[[fr:Claude Piron]]
[[ja:クロード・ピロン]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Captain America</title>
<id>7729</id>
<revision>
<id>41952162</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T21:14:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Wickethewok</username>
<id>810366</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rvv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Superherobox| <!--Wikipedia:WikiProject Comics-->
|image=[[Image:secretwarcap.jpg|250px]]
|caption=''Secret War'' #3 (October 2004). <br>Art by [[Gabriele Dell'Otto]].
|comic_color=background:#ff8080
|character_name=Captain America
|real_name=Steve Rogers
|publisher=Marvel Comics
|debut=''Captain America Comics'' #1 (historical, March 1941), [[Avengers (comics)|Avengers]] Vol. 1, #4 (modern, March 1964)
|creators=[[Joe Simon]]<br>[[Jack Kirby]]
|alliance_color=background:#ffc0c0
|status=Active
|alliances=[[Avengers (comics)|The Avengers]]<br>[[S.H.I.E.L.D.]]
|previous_alliances=[[Invaders (comics)|The Invaders]]<br>[[Defenders (comics)|The Defenders]]
|aliases=Nomad, The Captain, Cap
|relatives=None
|powers=An artificially enhanced physiology at the maximum human level of strength, endurance and agility. Briefly had super-human strength.
|}}
'''Captain America''', the alter ego of '''Steve Rogers''' (in some accounts Steven Grant Rogers), is a [[Marvel Comics]] [[superhero]]. Created by [[Joe Simon]] and [[Jack Kirby]], he first appeared in [[Timely Comics]]' ''Captain America Comics'' #1 (March 1941).
==Publication history==
Captain America was one of the most popular characters that Marvel Comics (then known as [[Timely Comics|Timely]]) had during the [[Golden Age of Comic Books]]. He was, if not the [[The Shield (Archie)|first]], certainly the most prominent and enduring of a wave of patriotically themed superheroes that American [[comic book]] companies introduced just prior to and during [[World War II]]. With his sidekick [[Bucky]], Captain America faced [[Nazism|Nazis]] and [[Japan|Japanese]] troops during his 1940s heyday, but after the end of the war, his main reason for existence (as a fictional war hero) was gone, and the character's popularity faded. Bucky disappeared from the comic in 1948 and was replaced by Captain America's girlfriend, Betty Ross, or [[Golden Girl]]. By the end of 1949, after the publication of ''Captain America's Weird Tales'' #74, Captain America had disappeared from comic book pages.
He was briefly revived, along with the [[Human Torch (Golden Age)|original Human Torch]] and the [[Sub-Mariner]], by Marvel's 1950s iteration, [[Atlas Comics (1950s)|Atlas Comics]], in ''Young Men'' #24 (December 1953) as an anti-[[Communist]] superhero. Captain America made several appearances over the next year in ''Young Men'' and ''Men's Adventures'', as well as in three issues of his eponymous title, but sales were poor. After the publication of ''Captain America'' #78 (September 1954), the character disappeared again. In the 1970s, this version of Captain America would be [[retcon]]ned into a separate character&mdash;not Steve Rogers&mdash;who briefly took up the mantle.
In 1964, by which point Atlas had evolved into [[Marvel Comics]], Captain America was revived with the explanation that he had fallen from an experimental [[unmanned aerial vehicle|drone plane]] into the [[Atlantic Ocean|North Atlantic]] in the final days of the war and spent the past decades frozen in a state of [[suspended animation]]. (Retellings sometimes place the event over the [[English Channel]].) The hero found a new generation of readers as the leader of the all-star group the [[Avengers (comics)|Avengers]] and in a new solo series.
Since then, Captain America has been a much more serious and less jingoistic hero. Writers have used the character to reflect the conflict between politics and ideology by placing him at odds with the United States government and angry and troubled about the state of the country. He considers himself dedicated to defending America’s ideals rather than its political leadership, a conviction summed up when Captain America confronted an [[United States Army|army]] general who tried to manipulate him by appealing to his loyalty. Rogers responded, "I'm loyal to nothing, General.. except the [[American Dream|Dream]]." (''[[Daredevil]]'' #233, August 1986)
Marvel has repeatedly revised the Captain America continuity; the character's unbreakable ties to a specific time period make it particularly difficult for the series to avoid conspicuous anomalies and inconsistencies.
==Character biography==
====1940s - Operation: Rebirth====
[[Image:Captainamerica1.jpg|thumb|left|200px|''Captain America Comics'' #1 (March 1941), art by [[Jack Kirby]].]]
In current [[Marvel Universe]] history, Steven Rogers was a scrawny [[United States|American]] [[fine arts]] student specializing in illustration in the early 1940s before America's entry into [[World War II]]. He was disturbed by the rise of the [[Third Reich]] enough to attempt to enlist only to be rejected due to his poor constitution. By chance, a US Army officer looking for test subjects for a top secret defense research project offered Rogers an alternate way to serve his country. This project, Operation: Rebirth, consisted of developing a means to create physically superior soldiers and Rogers was deemed ideal.
Rogers agreed to volunteer for the research and after a rigorous physical and combat training a
|
or=Feynman, Richard | title=Six Easy Pieces | publisher=Perseus Publishing | year=1996 | id=ISBN 0201408252}}
*{{cite book | author=Feynman, Richard; Phillips, Richard | title=Six Easy Pieces | publisher=Perseus Publishing | year=1998 | id=ISBN 0201328410}}
*{{cite book | author=Feynman, Richard | title=Lectures on Physics | publisher=Perseus Publishing | year=1999 | id=ISBN 0738200921}}
*{{cite book | author=Landau, L. D.; Lifshitz, E. M. | title=Mechanics and Electrodynamics, Vol. 1 | publisher=Franklin Book Company, Inc. | year=1972 | id=ISBN 008016739X}}
* Kleppner, D. and Kolenkow, R. J., ''An Introduction to Mechanics'', McGraw-Hill (1973). ISBN 0070350485
* [[Gerald Jay Sussman]] and [[Jack Wisdom]], ''Structure and Interpretation of Classical Mechanics'' ([[SICM]]), MIT Press (2001). ISBN 0-262-019455-4
* [[Herbert Goldstein]], Charles P. Poole, John L. Safko, ''Classical Mechanics (3rd Edition)'', Addison Wesley; ISBN 0201657023
* Robert Martin Eisberg, ''Fundamentals of Modern Physics'', John Wiley and Sons, 1961
==External links==
* Binney, Kames. [http://www-thphys.physics.ox.ac.uk/users/JamesBinney/ Classical Mechanics] (Lagrangian and Hamiltonian formalisms)
* Crowell, Benjamin. [http://www.lightandmatter.com/area1book1.html Newtonian Physics] (an introductory text, uses algebra with optional sections involving calculus)
* Fitzpatrick, Richard. [http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/teaching/301/301.html Classical Mechanics] (uses calculus)
* Hoiland, Paul (2004). [http://doc.cern.ch//archive/electronic/other/ext/ext-2004-126.pdf Preferred Frames of Reference & Relativity]
* Horbatsch, Marko, "''[http://www.yorku.ca/marko/PHYS2010/index.htm Classical Mechanics Course Notes]''".
* Rosu, Haret C., "''[http://arxiv.org/abs/physics/9909035 Classical Mechanics]''". Physics Education. 1999. [arxiv.org : physics/9909035]
* Schiller, Christoph. [http://www.dse.nl/motionmountain/welcome.html Motion Mountain] (an introductory text, uses some calculus)
* Sussman, Gerald Jay & Wisdom, Jack (2001). [http://mitpress.mit.edu/SICM/ Structure and Interpretation of Classical Mechanics]
* Tong, David. [http://www.damtp.cam.ac.uk/user/tong/dynamics.html Classical Dynamics] (Cambridge lecture notes on Lagrangian and Hamiltonian formalism)
{{Physics-footer}}
[[Category:Classical mechanics|*]]
[[ar:ميكانيكا كلاسيكية]]
[[bg:Класическа механика]]
[[da:Klassisk mekanik]]
[[de:Klassische Mechanik]]
[[el:Κλασική Μηχανική]]
[[es:Mecánica clásica]]
[[fr:Mécanique newtonienne]]
[[gl:Mecánica clásica]]
[[ko:고전 역학]]
[[hr:Klasična mehanika]]
[[id:Mekanik klasik]]
[[is:Klassísk aflfræði]]
[[it:Meccanica classica]]
[[he:מכניקה קלאסית]]
[[la:Mechanica classica]]
[[hu:Klasszikus mechanika]]
[[nl:Klassieke mechanica]]
[[ja:古典力学]]
[[no:Klassisk mekanikk]]
[[pl:Mechanika klasyczna]]
[[pt:Mecânica clássica]]
[[ro:Mecanica clasică]]
[[ru:Классическая механика]]
[[fi:Klassinen mekaniikka]]
[[vi:Cơ học cổ điển]]
[[uk:Класична механіка]]
[[zh:经典力学]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of equations in classical mechanics</title>
<id>6050</id>
<revision>
<id>36878682</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-27T01:35:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bbatsell</username>
<id>176814</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/71.139.237.12|71.139.237.12]] to last version by Kbh3rd</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">This page gives a summary of important equations in [[classical mechanics]].
== Nomenclature ==
: '''''a''''' = acceleration (m/s&sup2;)
: ''g'' = gravitational constant (m/s&sup2;)
: '''''F''''' = force (N = kg m/s&sup2;)
: ''E''<sub>k</sub> = kinetic energy (J = kg m&sup2;/s&sup2;)
: ''E''<sub>p</sub> = potential energy (J = kg m&sup2;/s&sup2;)
: ''m'' = mass (kg)
: '''''p''''' = momentum (kg m/s)
: '''''s''''' = position (m)
: '''''R''''' = radius (m)
: ''t'' = time (s)
: '''''v''''' = velocity (m/s)
: '''''v'''''<sub>0</sub> = velocity at time t=0
: ''W'' = work (J = kg m&sup2;/s&sup2;)
: '''''&tau;''''' = torque (J = N m) (torque is the rotational form of force)
: '''''s'''''(t) = position at time t
: '''''s'''''<sub>0</sub> = position at time t=0
: '''''r'''''<sub>unit</sub> = unit vector pointing from the origin in polar coordinates
: '''''&theta;'''''<sub>unit</sub> = unit vector pointing in the direction of increasing values of theta in polor coordinates
Note: All quantities in bold represent vectors.
== Defining Equations ==
=== [[Center of mass]] ===
In the discrete case:
: <math>\mathbf{s}_{\hbox{CM}} = {1 \over m_{\hbox{total}}} \sum_{i = 0}^{n} m_i \mathbf{s}_i</math>
where <math>n</math> is the number of mass particles.
Or in the continuous case:
: <math>\mathbf{s}_{\hbox{CM}} = {1 \over m_{\hbox{total}}} \int \rho(\mathbf{s}) dV</math>
where &rho;('''s''') is the scalar mass density as a function of the position vector
=== Velocity ===
: <math>\mathbf{v}_{\mbox{average}} = {\Delta \mathbf{s} \over \Delta t}</math>
: <math>\mathbf{v} = {d\mathbf{s} \over dt}</math>
=== Acceleration ===
: <math>\mathbf{a}_{\mbox{average}} = \frac{\Delta\mathbf{v}}{\Delta t} </math>
: <math>\mathbf{a} = \frac{d\mathbf{v}}{dt} = \frac{d^2\mathbf{s}}{dt^2} </math>
*Centripetal Acceleration
: <math> |\mathbf{a}_c | = \omega^2 R = v^2 / R </math>
(''R'' = radius of the circle, &omega; = ''v/R'' [[angular velocity]])
=== Momentum ===
: <math>\mathbf{p} = m\mathbf{v}</math>
=== Force ===
:<math> \sum \mathbf{F} = \frac{d\mathbf{p}}{dt} = \frac{d(m\mathbf{v})}{dt} </math>
:<math> \sum \mathbf{F} = m\mathbf{a} \quad\ </math> &nbsp; (Constant Mass)
=== Impulse ===
:<math> \mathbf{J} = \Delta \mathbf{p} = \int \mathbf{F} dt </math>
:<div style="vertical-align: 10%;display:inline;"><math> \mathbf{J} = \mathbf{F} \Delta t \quad\ </math></div> &nbsp; if '''F''' is constant
=== [[Moment of inertia]] ===
For a single [[axis of rotation]]:
The moment of inertia for an object is the sum of the products of the mass element and the square of their distances from the axis of rotation:
<math>I = \sum r_i^2 m_i =\int_M r^2 \mathrm{d} m = \iiint_V r^2 \rho(x,y,z) \mathrm{d} V</math>
=== [[Angular momentum]] ===
:<math> |L| = mvr \quad\ </math> &nbsp; if '''v''' is perpendicular to '''r'''
Vector form:
:<math> \mathbf{L} = \mathbf{r} \times \mathbf{p} = \mathbf{I}\, \omega </math>
(Note: '''I''' can be treated like a vector if it is diagonalized first, but it is actually a 3&times;3 matrix - a [[tensor]] of rank-2)
'''r''' is the radius vector.
=== [[Torque]] ===
:<math> \sum \boldsymbol{\tau} = \frac{d\mathbf{L}}{dt} </math>
:<math> \sum \boldsymbol{\tau} = \mathbf{r} \times \mathbf{F} \quad </math>
if |'''r'''| and the sine of the angle between '''r''' and '''p''' remains constant.
:<math> \sum \boldsymbol{\tau} = \mathbf{I} \boldsymbol{\alpha} </math>
This one is very limited, more added later. '''&alpha;''' = d'''&omega;'''/dt
=== Precession ===
=== Energy ===
''m'' is here constant.
:<math> \Delta E_k = \int \mathbf{F}_{\mbox{net}} \cdot d\mathbf{s} = \int \mathbf{v} \cdot d\mathbf{p} = \begin{matrix}\frac{1}{2}\end{matrix} mv^2 - \begin{matrix}\frac{1}{2}\end{matrix} m{v_0}^2 \quad\ </math>
:<math> \Delta E_p = mgh \quad\ \,\!</math> in field of gravity
=== Central Force Motion ===
: <math>\frac{d^2}{d\theta^2}\left(\frac{1}{\mathbf{r}}\right) + \frac{1}{\mathbf{r}} = -\frac{\mu\mathbf{r}^2}{\mathbf{l}^2}\mathbf{F}(\mathbf{r})</math>
== Useful derived equations ==
=== Position of an accelerating body ===
:<math> \mathbf{s}(t) = \begin{matrix}\frac{1}{2}\end{matrix} \mathbf{a} t^2 + \mathbf{v}_0 t + \mathbf{s}_0 \quad\ </math> &nbsp; if '''a''' is constant.
=== Equation for velocity ===
:<math> v^2 =v_0^2 + 2\mathbf{a} \cdot \Delta s</math>
:
[[Category:Classical mechanics]]
[[de:Formelsammlung Mechanik]]
[[ko:역학 공식집]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cursus honorum</title>
<id>6051</id>
<revision>
<id>41621735</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T16:05:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>EvilOverlordX</username>
<id>183154</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Spelling</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Roman government}}
The '''cursus honorum''' ([[Latin language|Latin]]: "succession of magistracies") was the sequential order of public offices held by aspiring [[politician]]s in both the [[Roman Republic]] and the early [[Roman Empire|Empire]]. It was designed for men of [[Roman senate|senatorial]] rank. The ''cursus honorum'' comprised a mixture of military and political administration posts. Each office had a minimum age for [[election]]. There were minimum intervals between holding successive offices and laws forbade repeating an office. These rules were altered and flagrantly ignored in the course of the last century of the Republic. For example, [[Marius|Gaius Marius]] held consulships for five years in a row between [[104 BC|104]] and [[100 BC]]. Officially presented as opportunities for [[public service]], the offices often became mere opportunities for self-aggrandizement. The reforms of [[Lucius Cornelius Sulla|Sulla]] required a 2-year period between holding offices or before another term in the same office.
In Rome, there was nothing resembling the modern [[political party]]. Candidates were elected based on their familial and personal reputations. Candidates from older, established families were favoured b
|
1 - A bomb exploded in the [[Liberal Party (Philippines)|Liberal Party]] campaign rally in Plaza Miranda, [[Manila]], [[Philippines]] with several anti-[[Ferdinand Marcos|Marcos]] political candidates injured.
*[[1976]] - [[Operation Paul Bunyan]] at [[Panmunjeom]], [[Korea]]
*[[1983]] - Philippine opposition leader [[Benigno Aquino, Jr.]] was assassinated at the [[Manila International Airport]].
*[[1986]] - Toxic gas erupts from [[volcano|volcanic]] [[Lake Nyos]] in [[Cameroon]], killing over 1700 people.
*[[1987]] - [[Hard rock]] band [[Guns N' Roses]] release their classic debut ''[[Appetite for Destruction]].''
*[[1991]] - [[Latvia]] declares its full independence from the [[Soviet Union]].
*1991 - [[coup d'état|Coup]] attempt against [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] collapses.
*[[1993]] - [[NASA]] loses contact with the [[Mars Observer]] spacecraft.
*[[1997]] - The British Rock Group [[Oasis (band)|Oasis]] release album, ''[[Be Here Now]]''.
*[[1998]] - The [[United States]] destroys a pharmaceutical plant (erroneously believed to be a chemical weapons plant) in [[Sudan]].
*[[2001]] - [[NATO]] decides to send a peace-keeping force to the former [[Yugoslavia|Yugoslav]] [[Republic of Macedonia]].
*2001 - A sixth-century temple is discovered in central [[Mexico]].
*2001 - The [[Red Cross]] announces that a [[famine]] is striking [[Tajikistan]], and calls for international financial aid for Tajikistan and [[Uzbekistan]].
*[[2002]] - [[Jean Chrétien]], [[Prime Minister of Canada]], announces that he will not seek re-election and would resign within eighteen months.
*[[2004]] - A grenade attack on Bangladesh Awamee League, the bigest political party in [[Bangladesh]] kills 22 and injures more than a thousand, including party president [[Sheikh Hasina]].
*[[2005]] - [[Pope Benedict XVI]] concludes [[World Youth Day 2005|World Youth Day]] with a mass. Over 1,100,000+ people attended the closing liturgy.
==Births==
*[[1165]] - King [[Philip II of France]] (d. [[1223]])
*[[1535]] - [[Shimazu Yoshihiro]], Japanese samurai and warlord (d. [[1619]])
*[[1567]] - [[Francis de Sales]], Bishop of Geneva and saint (d. [[1622]])
*[[1597]] - [[Roger Twysden]], English antiquarian and royalist (d. [[1672]])
*[[1643]] - King [[Afonso VI of Portugal]] (b. [[1683]])
*[[1660]] - [[Hubert Gautier]], French scientist and civil engineer (d. [[1737]])
*[[1665]] - [[Giacomo F. Maraldi]], French-Italian astronomer (d. [[1729]])
*[[1670]] - [[James FitzJames, 1st Duke of Berwick]], French military leader (d. [[1734]])
*[[1725]] - [[Jean-Baptiste Greuze]], French painter (d. [[1805]])
*[[1754]] - [[William Murdoch]], Scottish inventor (d. [[1839]])
*[[1765]] - [[William IV of the United Kingdom]] (d. [[1837]])
*[[1789]] - [[Augustin Louis Cauchy]], French mathematician (d. [[1857]])
*[[1801]] - [[Guillaume Groen van Prinsterer]], Dutch politician (d. [[1876]])
*[[1811]] - [[William Kelly (inventor)|William Kelly]], American inventor (d. [[1888]])
*[[1813]] - [[Jean Stas]], Belgian chemist (d. [[1891]])
*[[1816]] - [[Charles Frédéric Gerhardt]], French chemist (d. [[1856]])
*[[1826]] - [[Karl Gegenbaur]], German anatomist (d. [[1903]])
*[[1872]] - [[Aubrey Beardsley]], English illustrator (d. [[1898]])
*[[1904]] - [[Count Basie|William "Count" Basie]], American bandleader (d. [[1984]])
*[[1906]] - [[Friz Freleng]], American movie animator (d. [[1995]])
*[[1908]] - [[M. M. Kaye]], British writer (d. [[2004]])
*[[1915]] - [[Raquel Rastenni]], Danish singer (d. [[1998]])
*[[1923]] - [[Shimon Peres]], [[Prime Minister of Israel]], recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]]
*[[1924]] - [[Jack Buck]], American sports announcer (d. [[2002]])
*1924 - [[Chris Schenkel]], American sports journalist (d. [[2005]])
*1924 - [[Jack Weston]], American actor (d. [[1996]])
*[[1925]] - [[Maurice Pialat]], French actor and director (d. [[2003]])
*[[1928]] - [[Art Farmer]], American trumpet player (d. [[1999]])
*[[1930]] - [[Princess Margaret, Countess of Snowdon]] (d. [[2002]])
*[[1932]] - [[Melvin Van Peebles]], American actor and screenwriter
*[[1933]] - [[Janet Baker]], English opera singer ([[mezzo-soprano]])
*[[1936]] - [[Wilt Chamberlain]], American basketball player (d. [[1999]])
*[[1938]] - [[Kenny Rogers]], American singer and actor
*[[1939]] - [[James Burton]], American guitarist
*1939 - [[Clarence Williams III]], American actor
*[[1944]] - [[Jackie DeShannon]], American singer
*1944 - [[Peter Weir]], Australian film director
*[[1950]] - [[Patrick Juvet]], Swiss singer
*[[1951]] - [[Eric Goles]], Chilean mathematician and computer scientist
*[[1952]] - [[Joe Strummer]], British musician and singer ([[The Clash]]) (d. [[2002]])
*[[1954]] - [[Ivan Stang]], American writer
*[[1956]] - [[Kim Cattrall]], English-born actress
*[[1959]] - [[Jim McMahon]], American football player
*[[1962]] - [[Jeff Stryker]], American adult film actor
*[[1963]] - [[Mohammed VI of Morocco]]
*[[1964]] - [[Trinity Loren]], American actress and model (d. [[1998]])
*[[1967]] - [[Carrie-Anne Moss]], Canadian actress
*1967 - [[Serj Tankian]], Lebanese-born singer ([[System of a Down]])
*[[1969]] - [[Josée Chouinard]], Canadian figure skater
*[[1970]] - [[Erik Dekker]], Dutch professional cyclist
*[[1971]] - [[Liam Howlett]], British musician (([[The Prodigy]])
*[[1978]] - [[Reuben Droughns]], American football player
*1978 - [[Jason Marquis]], American baseball player
*[[1980]] - [[Burney Lamar]], American race car driver
*[[1984]] - [[Alizée]], French singer
*[[1991]] - [[Tess Gaerthé]], Dutch singer and actress
==Deaths==
*[[1157]] - King [[Alfonso VII of Castile]] (b. 1104/1105)
*[[1153]] - [[Bernard of Clairvaux]], French theologian (b. [[1090]])
*[[1271]] - [[Alphonse of Toulouse]], son of [[Louis VIII of France]] (b. [[1220]])
*[[1581]] - [[Sakuma Nobumori]], Japanese retainer and samurai (b. [[1527]])
*[[1614]] - [[Elizabeth Báthory]], Hungarian serial killer (b. [[1560]])
*[[1627]] - [[Jacques Mauduit]], French composer (b. [[1557]])
*[[1673]] - [[Henry Grey, 1st Earl of Stamford]], English soldier
*[[1689]] - [[William Cleland]], Scottish poet and soldier
*[[1762]] - [[Lady Mary Wortley Montagu]], English writer (b. [[1689]])
*[[1763]] - [[Charles Wyndham, 2nd Earl of Egremont]], British statesman (b. [[1710]])
*[[1796]] - [[John McKinly]], American physician and President of Delaware (b. [[1721]])
*[[1814]] - [[Benjamin Thompson]], American physicist and inventor (b. [[1753]])
*[[1836]] - [[Claude-Louis Navier]], French physicist (b. [[1785]])
*[[1838]] - [[Adelbert von Chamisso]], German writer (b. [[1781]])
*[[1940]] - [[Leon Trotsky]], Russian revolutionary (b. [[1879]])
*1940 - [[Ernest Lawrence Thayer]], American poet (b. [[1863]])
*[[1943]] - [[Henrik Pontoppidan]], Danish writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] (b. [[1857]])
*[[1947]] - [[Ettore Bugatti]], Italian automobile manufacturer (b. [[1881]])
*[[1951]] - [[Constant Lambert]], British composer and conductor (b. [[1905]])
*[[1957]] - [[Harald Ulrik Sverdrup]], Norwegian meteorologist and oceanographer (b. [[1888]])
*[[1960]] - [[David Barnard Steinman]], American civil engineer and bridge designer (b. [[1886]])
*[[1978]] - [[Charles Eames]], American designer and architect (b. [[1907]])
*[[1982]] - [[Sobhuza II]], [[King of Swaziland]] (b. [[1899]])
*[[1983]] - [[Benigno S. Aquino Jr.]], Philippine opposition leader (b. [[1932]])
*[[1995]] - [[Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar]], Indian-born astrophysicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1910]])
*[[1997]] - [[Norris Bradbury]], American physicist (b. [[1909]])
*[[2000]] - [[Daniel Lisulo]], Zambian prime minister (b. [[1930]])
*[[2003]] - [[Kathy Wilkes]], English philosopher and aid worker (b. [[1946]])
*2003 - [[Wesley Willis]], American musician (b. [[1963]])
*[[2005]] - [[Marcus Schmuck]], Austrian mountaineer (b. [[1925]])
*2005 - [[Robert Moog]], American pioneer of electronic music (b. [[1934]])
*2005 - [[Dalia Rabikovich]], Israeli poet (b. [[1936]])
==Holidays and observances==
*[[Ninoy Aquino|Ninoy Aquino Day]] - special holiday in the [[Philippines]].
*[[Roman festivals]] - [[Consualia]], in honor of [[Consus]], is held
*[[List of saints|RC saints]] - Pope [[Pius X]]
*[[Orthodox]] - [[Thaddaeus]]
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/21 BBC: On This Day]
----
[[August 20]] - [[August 22]] - [[July 21]] - [[September 21]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[af:21 Augustus]]
[[ar:21 أغسطس]]
[[an:21 d'agosto]]
[[ast:21 d'agostu]]
[[bg:21 август]]
[[be:21 жніўня]]
[[bs:21. august]]
[[ca:21 d'agost]]
[[ceb:Agosto 21]]
[[cv:Çурла, 21]]
[[co:21 d'aostu]]
[[cs:21. srpen]]
[[cy:21 Awst]]
[[da:21. august]]
[[de:21. August]]
[[et:21. august]]
[[el:21 Αυγούστου]]
[[es:21 de agosto]]
[[eo:21-a de aŭgusto]]
[[eu:Abuztuaren 21]]
[[fo:21. august]]
[[fr:21 août]]
[[fy:21 augustus]]
[[ga:21 Lúnasa]]
[[gl:21 de agosto]]
[[ko:8월 21일]]
[[hr:21. kolovoza]]
[[io:21 di agosto]]
[[id:21 Agustus]]
[[ia:21 de augusto]]
[[ie:21 august]]
[[is:21. ágúst]]
[[it:21 agosto]]
[[he:21 באוגוסט]]
[[jv:21 Agustus]]
[[ka:21 აგვისტო]]
[[csb:21 zélnika]]
[[ku:21'ê gelawêjê]]
[[la:21 Augusti]]
[[lt:Rugpjūčio 21]]
[[lb:21. August]]
[[li:21 augustus]]
[[hu:Augusztus 21]]
[[mk:21 август]]
[[ms:21 Ogos]]
[[nap:21 'e aùsto]]
[[nl:21 augustus]]
[[ja:8月21日]]
[[no:21. august]]
[[nn:21. august]]
[[oc:21 d'agost]]
[[pl:21 sierpnia]]
[[pt:21 de Agosto]]
[[ro:21 august]]
[[ru:21 августа]]
[[sco:21 August]]
[[sq:21 Gusht]]
[[scn:21 di austu]]
[[simple:August 21]]
[[sk:21. august]]
[[sl:21. avgust]]
[[sr:21. август]]
[[fi:21. elokuuta]]
[[sv:21 augusti]]
[[tl:Agosto 21]]
[[tt:21. August]]
[[te:ఆగష్టు 21]]
[[th:21 สิงหาคม]]
[[vi:21 tháng 8]]
[[tr:21 Ağustos]]
[[uk:21 серпня]]
[[wa:21 d' awousse]]
[[war:Agosto 21]]
[[zh:8月21日]]
[[pam:Agostu 21]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dodo (Alice's Adventures in Wonderland)</title>
<id>1500</id>
<revision>
<id>33591757</id>
|
hteous Babe Records]]
* [[List of Righteous Babe Artists]]
* [[:Category:Righteous Babe Artists]]
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.righteousbabe.com/ The Righteous Babe homepage]
* [http://www.onherown.net/ On-Her-Own-dot-net, a community of Ani lovers.] Has an active message board. Named after the Righteous Babe Records phone number: 1-800-ON-HER-OWN.
* [http://www.danah.org/ani/ A collection of Ani DiFranco lyrics collected by a longtime fan]
* [http://www.hourfollowshour.org/ A streaming Ani radio station]
* [http://www.columbia.edu/~marg/ani/ "Marg's" Ani DiFranco page] The first DiFranco fanpage, posted in 1994.
* {{imdb name|id=0226459|name=Ani DiFranco}}
* [http://www.floydfest.com/2005/perform.php?dir_id=2 Ani at FloydFest 2005]
* [http://www.fretsmag.com/story.asp?sectioncode=52&storycode=8649 Frets magazine profile]
* [http://www.pavementmagazine.com/ani_difranco.html Pavement magazine profile]
* [http://www.npr.org/programs/asc/archives/asc53/index.html#difranco Ani DiFranco on NPR's ''All Song's Considered'']
* [http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4818696 Ani DiFranco on NPR's ''World Cafe'']
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio2/r2music/folk/reviews/evolve.shtml BBC review of ''Evolve'']
* [http://www.squidoo.com/anidifranco/ Ani Difranco on Squidoo]
[[Category:1970 births|DiFranco, Ani]]
[[Category:Living people|DiFranco, Ani]]
[[Category:American composers|DiFranco, Ani]]
[[Category:American female singers|DiFranco, Ani]]
[[Category:American guitarists|DiFranco, Ani]]
[[Category:American singer-songwriters|DiFranco, Ani]]
[[Category:Anti-corporate activism|DiFranco, Ani]]
[[Category:Anti-war people|DiFranco, Ani]]
[[Category:Atheists|DiFranco, Ani]]
[[Category:Bisexual musicians|DiFranco, Ani]]
[[Category:Female guitarists|DiFranco, Ani]]
[[Category:Feminists|DiFranco, Ani]]
[[Category:Feminist artists|DiFranco, Ani]]
[[Category:Folk singers|DiFranco, Ani]]
[[Category:Gay icons|DiFranco, Ani]]
[[Category:Italian-Americans|DiFranco, Ani]]
[[Category:Jewish-American singers|DiFranco, Ani]]
[[Category:Musical activists|DiFranco, Ani]]
[[Category:New York musicians|DiFranco, Ani]]
[[Category:Pro-choice celebrities|DiFranco, Ani]]
[[Category:Righteous Babe Artists|DiFranco, Ani]]
[[Category:People from Buffalo, New York]]
[[de:Ani DiFranco]]
[[es:Ani DiFranco]]
[[fr:Ani DiFranco]]
[[it:Ani DiFranco]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Arene</title>
<id>2127</id>
<revision>
<id>41209698</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T20:26:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.192.147.217</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Arene''' or '''Arênê''' or '''Arène''' means several things:
* Another term for [[aromatic hydrocarbon]]
*In [[Greek mythology]], '''[[Arene (mythology)|Arene]]''' was the wife of [[Aphareus]] and mother of [[Idas]] and [[Lynceus]].
* A french [[surname]] of the [[Provence]] region with the same origin as the Spanish [[Arenas]] and Italian [[Areno]], all derived from the Latin root word [[(h)arena]], meaning [[sand]]. By family tradition, the sand in question was that of the [[Roman]] [[arena]] (or [[colosseum]]), thus making the original bearer a [[gladiator]]. More likely, however, the name simply signifies a person who lived on or near sand, such as on a [[beach]].
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Anaheim Angels</title>
<id>2128</id>
<revision>
<id>40354331</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T00:38:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Neier</username>
<id>430157</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Add cat to uncategorized article</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:ANA_487.jpg|right|250px|Anaheim Angels logo]]
"'''Anaheim Angels'''" was the former name of the [[Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim]], a [[Major League Baseball]] franchise based in [[Anaheim, California]], and aligned in the Western Division of the [[American League]]. The team, originally based in [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] and known as the '''Los Angeles Angels''', began play in 1961. During the 1965 season, the club changed its name to the '''California Angels'''. The team moved to Anaheim in 1966. The team changed its name again in 1997, to the '''Anaheim Angels''', to comply with a clause in the team's stadium lease requiring that the team name "include the name Anaheim therein."
On [[January 3]], [[2005]] Angels Baseball, L.P. announced that it would change the name of the club from the Anaheim Angels to the '''Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim'''. As stated in the club's 2005 media guide: "The inclusion of Los Angeles reflects the original expansion name and returns the Angels as Major League Baseball's American League representative in the [[Greater Los Angeles]] territory." The change, Angels officials claimed, was compliant to the lease agreement.
The City of Anaheim, the owner of [[Angel Stadium]], felt the new name to be a violation of the intent, if not the precise letter, of the naming clause of the lease agreement by club ownership. Infuriated Anaheim city leaders filed suit against Angels Baseball, L.P. in [[Orange County, California|Orange County Superior Court]], claiming the team violated its lease with the City of Anaheim. The city asked that the team name revert to Anaheim Angels and requested monetary damages for lost revenues to the city as a result of the name change. The trial, initially set for [[November 7]], [[2005]], was postponed until [[January 9]], [[2006]].
On [[February 9]], [[2006]], the jury in the case found in favor of the team, allowing it to keep the name "Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim," and denied the city any monetary compensation. Although a final decision has not yet been made, Anaheim city officials have indicated that it is unlikely that the city will attempt to [[appeal]] the decision.
====See Also====
:''Complete history of the franchise: [[Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim]]
{{main|Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim name dispute}}
[[Category:Anaheim Angels]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Arizona Diamondbacks</title>
<id>2129</id>
<revision>
<id>41827877</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T00:27:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>204.155.161.143</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{MLB infobox Diamondbacks}}
The '''Arizona Diamondbacks''' are a [[Major League Baseball]] team based in [[Phoenix, Arizona]]. They are in the [[National League]] West division. They are popularly referred in the local press as the '''D-Backs''' or the '''Snakes'''.
== Franchise history ==
'''The desire for baseball in the desert'''
In the fall of 1993, [[Jerry Colangelo]], owner of the [[Phoenix Suns]], the area's wildly popular and successful [[NBA]] franchise, announced he was assembling an ownership group to apply for a Major League Baseball expansion team. This was after a great deal of lobbying by the [[Maricopa County Sports Authority]], a local group formed to preserve spring training in Arizona and eventually secure a Major League franchise for the state. This group was headed at the time by sports attorney [[Joe Garagiola, Jr.]] (Garagiola would go on to become the team's first general manager). Maricopa County superviors [[Jim Bruner]] and [[Mary Rose Wilcox]] were also key proponents of baseball in Phoenix, aligning themselves with Garagiola's group. A firestorm of local controversy was the result. Many area residents did not want public tax money used for a sports team. However, just as many residents felt that by the early 1990's, Phoenix had finally "arrived" as a major American city and deserved a Major League Baseball team.
All this was after a previous attempt was mounted by [[Martin Stone]], owner of the [[Phoenix Firebirds]], the city's [[Triple-A]] minor league baseball team and an affiliate of the [[San Francisco Giants]]. In the late 1980's Stone approached [[Arizona Cardinals|St. Louis (football) Cardinals]] owner Bill Bidwill about sharing a proposed 70,000 seat domed stadium in Phoenix; Bidwill, with plans already in the works to leave St. Louis, opted instead to sign a long term lease with [[Arizona State University]] to use its [[Sun Devil Stadium]] as the home of his soon-to-be Arizona based NFL franchise, thus ending Stone's bid.
Colangelo's group was ultimately successful. On March 9, 1995, the city of [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]] was awarded the Arizona Diamondbacks franchise for play beginning in the 1998 season, along with plans for a new retractable-roof ballpark, Bank One Ballpark (renamed in 2005 to [[Chase Field]]) to be built in an industrial/warehouse district on the southern edge of downtown Phoenix.
The name "Diamondbacks" was the winning choice in a name-the-team contest sponsored by Colangelo's group, which took out a full page ad promoting the contest in the sports section of the Feburary 13, 1995 edition of the [[Arizona Republic]]. (The group was known as "Arizona Baseball, Inc." and seemed reasonably confident that a franchise would be awarded.) First prize was a pair of lifetime season tickets awarded to the person who submitted the winning entry.
As noted above, there was some controversy over public financing of a new stadium, but in the spring of 1994, the [[Maricopa County]] Board of Supervisors approved a quarter-cent increase in the county sales tax to pay for their portion of the stadium funding.
The Diamondbacks replaced the [[Phoenix Firebirds|Firebirds]], as that team was obligated to leave Phoenix soon after the Diamondbacks announcement, and is now the [[San Francisco Giants]] AAA affiliate, the [[Fresno Grizzlies]].
Two seasons before their first opening day, Colangelo hired [[Buck Showalter]], the American League Manager of the Year in 1994 with the [[New York Yankees]].
Their
|
]. He went to [[Rugby School]], and thence to [[Christ Church, Oxford]]. He was [[mathematics|mathematically]] gifted and won a double first degree which could have been the prelude to a brilliant academic career. Instead he married his first cousin in 1827 and retired into obscurity as a country [[parson]].
Young Charles was born in the little [[parsonage]] of [[Daresbury]] in [[Warrington]], [[Cheshire]], the oldest boy but already the third child of the four-and-a-half year old marriage. Eight more were to follow and, remarkably for the time, all of them&mdash;seven girls and four boys&mdash; survived into adulthood. When Charles was 11 his father was given the living of [[Croft-on-Tees]] in north [[Yorkshire]], and the whole family moved to the spacious Rectory. This remained their home for the next 25 years.
Dodgson senior made some progress through the ranks of the church: he published some sermons, translated [[Tertullian]], became an Archdeacon of [[Ripon Cathedral]], and involved himself, sometimes influentially, in the intense religious disputes that were dividing the Anglican church. He was High Church, inclining to [[Anglo-Catholicism]], an admirer of [[John Henry Newman|Newman]] and the [[Tractarian movement]], and he did his best to instil such views in his children.
In the early years young Charles was educated at home. His "reading lists" preserved in the family testify to a precocious intellect: at the age of seven the child was reading ''[[The Pilgrim's Progress]]''. It is often said that he was naturally left-handed and suffered severe psychological trauma by being forced to counteract this tendency, but there is no documentary evidence to support this. Charles also suffered from another disability, a stutter that often influenced his social life throughout his years. At twelve he was sent away to a small private school at nearby Richmond, where he appears to have been happy and settled. But in [[1845]], young Dodgson moved on to [[Rugby School]], where he was evidently less happy, for as he wrote some years after leaving the place:
<blockquote>''I cannot say ... that any earthly considerations would induce me to go through my three years again ... I can honestly say that if I could have been ... secure from annoyance at night, the hardships of the daily life would have been comparative trifles to bear.''</blockquote>
The nature of this nocturnal 'annoyance' will probably never now be fully understood, but it may be that he is delicately referring to some form of sexual molestation. Scholastically, though, he excelled with apparent ease. "I have not had a more promising boy his age since I came to Rugby" observed R.B. Mayor, the Maths master.
== Academic life ==
He left [[Rugby_School|Rugby]] at the end of [[1850]] and, after an interval which remains unexplained, went on in January [[1851]] to [[University of Oxford|Oxford]], attending his father's old college, [[Christ Church, Oxford|Christ Church]]. He had only been at Oxford two days when he received a summons home. His mother had died of "inflammation of the brain"&mdash;perhaps [[meningitis]] or a [[stroke]]&mdash;at the age of forty-seven.
Whatever Dodgson's feelings may have been about this [[death]], he did not allow them to distract him too much from his purpose at Oxford. He may not always have worked hard, but he was exceptionally gifted and achievement came easily to him. The following year he received a first in Honour Moderations, and shortly after he was nominated to a Studentship (the Christ Church equivalent of a fellowship), by his father's old friend Canon [[Edward Pusey]].
His early academic career veered between high-octane promise and irresistible distraction. Through his own laziness, he failed an important scholarship, but still his clear brilliance as a mathematician won him the Christ Church Mathematical Lectureship, which he continued to hold for the next 26 years. The income was good, but the work bored him and his stammer hampered him. Many of his pupils were older and richer than he was, and almost all of them were uninterested. They didn't want to be taught; he didn't want to teach them. Mutual apathy ruled.
At Oxford he was also diagnosed as an [[epileptic]], then a considerable social stigma to bear. However, recently John R. Hughes, director of the [[University of Illinois at Chicago]]'s epilepsy clinic, has argued that Carroll may have been misdiagnosed.
== Photography ==
[[Image:Alice_Liddell 2.jpg|thumb|Photo of [[Alice Liddell]] by Lewis Carroll. (1858)]]
In [[1856]], Dodgson took up the new art form of [[photography]], first under the influence of his uncle Skeffington Lutwidge, and later his Oxford friend [[Reginald Southey]] and art photography pioneer [[Oscar Rejlander]].
Dodgson soon excelled at the art, and it became an expression of his very personal inner philosophy; a belief in the divinity of what he called [[beauty]], by which he seemed to mean a state of moral or aesthetic or physical perfection. He found this divine beauty not simply in the magic of theatre, but in the poetry of words, in a mathematical formula and perhaps supremely, in the human form; in the body-images that moved him.
When he took up photography he sought with his own representations to combine the ideals of freedom and beauty into the innocence of [[Garden of Eden|Eden]], where the human body and human contact could be enjoyed without shame. In his [[middle age]], he was to re-form this philosophy into the pursuit of beauty as a state of Grace, a means of retrieving lost innocence. This, along with his lifelong passion for the theatre, was to bring him into confrontation with [[Victorian morality]] and his own family's High Church beliefs. As his main biographer Morton Cohen noted... "He rejected outright the [[Calvinist]] principle of [[original sin]] and replaced it with the notion of inborn divinity."
The definitive work on his photography (Roger Taylor's ''Lewis Carroll, Photographer'' (2002) exhaustively lists every surviving print, and Taylor calculates that just over fifty percent of his surviving work depicts young girls. However it should be noted that less than a third of his original portfolio has survived (see below). His favourite girl model was [[Alexandra Kitchin]] ("Xie"), whom he photographed around fifty times from the age of four until the age of about 16. In 1880 he was striving to be allowed to photograph the 16 year old Xie in 'bathing dress', but was not allowed this liberty. Most of his girl subjects would write their name on the corner of the print in coloured ink. It's assumed that Dodgson either destroyed or returned the nude photographs to the families of the girls he had photographed. They were long presumed lost, but six nudes have since surfaced, four of which have been published and another two of which little is known. Dodgson's practice of photographing or sketching nude
girls has added to speculation that he was a [[pedophilia|pedophile]] (see below). There is a clear difference between Dodgson's girls and depictions by other Victorian artists; in almost all of his solo portraits of girls they are depicted unburdened by the heavy weight of Victorian symbolism, and are simply and strongly themselves.
[[Image:Effie&john.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Photo of [[John Everett Millais]] and his wife [[Effie Gray]] with two of their children, signed by Effie. (c1860)]] He also found photography to be a useful entré into higher social circles. Once he had a studio of his own, he made portraits of notable sitters such as [[John Everett Millais]], [[Ellen Terry]], [[Dante Gabriel Rossetti]], [[Julia Margaret Cameron]] and [[Alfred, Lord Tennyson]]. He also made some landscapes and anatomy studies.
Dodgson abruptly ceased to photograph in [[1880]]. Over 24 years he had completely mastered the medium, set up his own studio at the top of Tom Quad, and created around 3,000 images. Less than 1000 have survived time and deliberate destruction. He spent several hours each day creating a diary detailing the circumstances surrounding the making of each photograph, but this register was later destroyed.
With the advent of [[Modernism]] tastes changed, and his photography became forgotten from around 1920 until the 1960s. He is now considered one of the very best Victorian photographers, and is certainly the one who has had the most influence on modern [[Fine art photography|art photographers]].
== Character ==
The young adult Charles Dodgson was about six feet tall, slender and handsome in a soft-focused dreamy sort of way, with curling brown hair and blue eyes. At the unusually late age of seventeen, he suffered a severe attack of [[whooping cough]] which left him with poor hearing in his right ear and was probably responsible for his chronically weak chest in later life. The only overt defect he carried into adulthood was what he referred to as his "hesitation"&mdash;a [[Stuttering|stammer]] he had acquired in early childhood and which was to plague him throughout his entire life.
The stammer has always been a potent part of the myth. It is part of the mythology that Dodgson only stammered in adult company, and was free and fluent with children, but there is no evidence to support this idea. Many children of his acquaintance remembered the stammer while many adults failed to notice it. It came and went for its own reasons, but not as a clichéd manifestation of fear of the adult world. Dodgson himself was far more acutely aware of it than most people he met; he caracatured himself as 'the Dodo' in [[Alice's_Adventures_in_Wonderland|Alice's Adventures in Wonderland]], referring to his difficulty in pronouncing his last name. Although his stammer troubled him &mdash; even obsessed him sometimes &mdash; it was never bad enough to stop him using his other
|
h-performance, but also touring machines) have four.
*Small portable appliances such as [[chainsaw]]s, generators and domestic [[lawn mower]]s most commonly have one cylinder, although two-cylinder chainsaws exist.
===Ignition system===
Internal combustion engines can be classified by their [[ignition system]]. Today most engines use an [[spark plug|electrical]] or [[compression heating ignition|compression heating]] system for ignition. However [[outside flame ignitor|outside flame]] and [[hot-tube ignitor|hot-tube]] systems have been used historically. [[Nikola Tesla]] gained one of the first patents on the mechanical ignition system with {{US patent|609250}}, "''Electrical Igniter for Gas Engines''", on [[16 August]] [[1898]].
===Fuel systems===
Often for simpler reciprocating engines a [[carburetor]] is used to supply fuel into the cylinder. However, exact control of the correct amount of fuel supplied to the engine is impossible.
Larger gasoline engines such as used in cars have mostly moved to [[Fuel injection]] systems. LPG engines use a mix of [[Fuel injection]] systems and closed loop [[carburetor]]s. [[Diesel engines]] always use [[fuel injection]].
Other internal combustion engines like [[Jet engines]] use burners, and rocket engines use various different ideas including impinging jets, gas/liquid shear, preburners and many other ideas.
===Engine configuration===
Internal combustion engines can be classified by their [[engine configuration|configuration]] which affects their physical size and smoothness (with smoother engines producing less [[vibration]]). Common configurations include the [[straight engine|straight or inline configuration]], the more compact [[V engine|V configuration]] and the wider but smoother [[flat engine|flat or boxer configuration]]. Aircraft engines can also adopt a [[radial engine|radial configuration]] which allows more effective cooling. More unusual configurations, such as "[[H engine|H]]", "[[U engine|U]]", "X", or "[[W engine|W]]" have also been used.
Multiple-crankshaft configurations do not necessarily need a cylinder head at all, but can instead have a piston at each end of the cylinder, called an [[opposed piston]] design. This design was used in the [[Junkers Jumo 205]] diesel aircraft engine, using two crankshafts, one at either end of a single bank of cylinders, and most remarkably in the [[Napier Deltic]] diesel engines, which used three crankshafts to serve three banks of double-ended cylinders arranged in an equilateral triangle with the crankshafts at the corners. It was also used in single-bank locomotive engines, and continues to be used for marine engines, both for propulsion and for auxiliary generators. The [[Gnome Rotary]] engine, used in several early aircraft, had a stationary crankshaft and a bank of radially arranged cylinders rotating around it.
===Engine capacity===
An engine's capacity is the [[engine displacement|displacement]] or [[swept volume]] by the pistons of the engine. It is generally measured in [[litre]]s or cubic inches for larger engines and [[cubic centimetre]]s (abbreviated to cc's) for smaller engines. Engines with greater capacities are usually more powerful and provide greater torque at lower rpms but also consume more fuel.
Apart from designing an engine with more cylinders, there are two ways to increase an engine's capacity. The first is to lengthen the stroke and the second is to increase the piston's diameter. In either case, it may be necessary to make further adjustments to the fuel intake of the engine to ensure optimal performance.
An engine's quoted capacity can be more a matter of [[marketing]] than of engineering. The [[Morris Minor]] 1000, the Morris 1100, and the [[Austin-Healey Sprite]] Mark II all had engines of the same stroke and bore according to their specifications, and were from the same maker. However the engine capacities were quoted as 1000cc, 1100cc and 1098cc respectively in the sales literature and on the vehicle badges.
===Engine pollution===
Generally internal combustion engines, particularly reciprocating internal combustion engines, produce moderately high pollution levels, due to incomplete combustion of carbonaceous fuel, leading to carbon monoxide and some soot along with oxides of nitrogen & sulfur and some unburnt hydrocarbons depending on the operating conditions and the fuel/air ratio.
Diesel engines produce a wide range of pollutants including aerosols of many small particles that are believed to penetrate deeply into human lungs.
* Many fuels contain [[sulfur]] leading to [[sulfur oxide]]s (SOx) in the exhaust, promoting acid rain.
* The high temperature of combustion creates greater proportions of [[nitrogen oxide]]s (NOx), demonstrated to be hazardous to both plant and animal health.
* Net carbon dioxide production is not a necessary feature of engines, but since most engines are run from fossil fuels this usually occurs. If engines are run from biomass, then no net carbon dioxide is produced as the growing plants absorb as much, or more carbon dioxide while growing.
* Hydrogen engines need only produce water, but when air is used as the oxidizer nitrogen oxides are also produced.
==Bibliography==
*Singer, Charles Joseph; Raper, Richard, ''A history of technology : The Internal Combustion Engine'', edited by Charles Singer ... [et al.], Clarendon Press, 1954-1978. pp.157-176[http://proxy.bib.uottawa.ca:2398/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?c=acls&cc=acls&idno=heb02191.0005.001&q1=bicycle&frm=frameset&seq=5]
*Hardenberg, Horst O., ''The Middle Ages of the Internal combustion Engine'', Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE), 1999
==External links==
{{Commons|Category:Internal combustion engine}}
*[http://www.keveney.com/Engines.html Animated Engines] - explains a variety of types
*[http://auto.howstuffworks.com/engine3.htm How Internal Combustion Works] - with animation
[[Category:Engines]]
[[Category:Engine technology]]
[[Category:Energy conversion]]
[[af:Binnebrandenjin]]
[[bg:Двигател с вътрешно горене]]
[[cs:Spalovací motor]]
[[de:Verbrennungsmotor]]
[[es:Motor de combustión interna]]
[[eo:Eksplodmotoro]]
[[fr:Moteur à combustion interne]]
[[io:Motoro per interna explozo]]
[[id:Mesin pembakaran dalam]]
[[it:Motore a combustione interna]]
[[he:מנוע בעירה פנימית]]
[[nl:Verbrandingsmotor]]
[[ja:内燃機関]]
[[no:Forbrenningsmotor]]
[[pl:Silnik o spalaniu wewnętrznym]]
[[pt:Motor de combustão interna]]
[[ru:Двигатель внутреннего сгорания]]
[[sk:Spaľovací motor]]
[[sl:Motor z notranjim izgorevanjem]]
[[sv:Förbränningsmotor]]
[[tr:İçten yanmalı motor]]
[[zh:内燃机]]
[[fi:Polttomoottori]]
[[uk:Двигун внутрішнього згорання]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Inoculation</title>
<id>14798</id>
<revision>
<id>40334442</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T22:05:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Midgley</username>
<id>278218</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Origins and Importation to Christendom */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!--several detailed sources are given in the paragraphs immediately below the first one, within this section. Is it too much to actually read the article before deciding that there is not a reference in teh first line and therefore there is none at all? -->
'''Inoculation''', originally '''Variolation''', is a method of minimising the harm done by [[infection]] with [[smallpox]] (Variola). It preceded [[vaccination]] - though today popular usage of ''inoculation'', ''vaccination'' and [[immunisation]]<!-- ENglish spelling, no less international than AMerican, and I'm English--> is more or less interchangable and refer to the process of [[Immunization (medicine)|artifically inducing immunity]] against various infectious [[disease]]s. The microorganisms used in an inoculation are called the inoculant or inoculum.
Inoculation in the East was performed by blowing Smallpox crusts into the nostril, but in Britain, Europe and the American Colonies the preferred method was rubbing material from a smallpox pustule from a selected mild case - Variola Minor - into a scratch between the thumb and forefinger. <!--Pollux, some people say--> [[Image:Inoculation.jpg|thumb|right|Typical site of inoculation in Europe and the British colonies]][http://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/smallpox/sp_variolation.html]
__TOC__
It would not be performed when the recipient was in less than normal good health, and thus at his peak resistance. The recipient would develop smallpox. However, because of the selection of the donor and the moment, and presumably because of the small inoculum, and the single point of initial infection compared to the eruption over much of the body of natural Variola after inhalation a particularly mild form of smallpox developed, which had a far lower [[mortality rate]] than catching smallpox in the normal way, and as with the survivors of the natural disease left an immunity to later re-infection. The inoculated subject also usually recovered from the infection with far less facial scarring than occurred with naturally acquired smallpox.
== Origins and Importation to Christendom ==
The earliest use of the practice remains unknown. It had occurred in various manners in East [[Africa]], [[India]] and in [[China]] for centuries, but documentation exists of its adoption in western [[Europe]]. In the early 18th century, [[Lady Mary Wortley Montagu]], whose husband [[Edward Wortley Montagu (politician)|Edward Wortley Montagu]] served as the [[England|English]] [[ambassador]] to the [[Ottoman Empire]] from 1716 to 1717, witnessed inoculation in [[Constantinople]]. The process impressed her greatly: she had lost a brother to smallpox and bore facial scars from the disease herself. In March [[1718]] she had the embassy surgeon, Charles Maitland, inoculate her five-year-old son. In [[1721]
|
Confederacy, a million copies of the Emancipation Proclamation were distributed in the Union-occupied South and, as hoped, news of it spread rapidly by word of mouth, arousing hopes of freedom, creating general confusion, and encouraging many to escape.
== International Impact ==
Abroad, as Lincoln hoped, the Proclamation turned foreign popular opinion in favor of the Union for its new commitment to end slavery. That shift ended any hope the Confederacy might have had of gaining official recognition, particularly with the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]]. As [[Henry Adams]] noted, "The Emancipation Proclamation has done more for us than all our former victories and all our diplomacy."
== Postbellum ==
Near the end of the war, Republican [[Abolitionism|abolitionists]] were concerned that the Emancipation Proclamation would be construed solely as a war act and thus unconstitutional once fighting ended. They were also increasingly anxious to secure the freedom of all slaves, not just those freed by the Emancipation Proclamation. Thus pressed, Lincoln staked a large part of his 1864 presidential campaign on a constitutional amendment to abolish slavery uniformly throughout the United States. Lincoln's campaign was bolstered by separate votes in both Maryland and Missouri to abolish slavery in those states. Maryland's new constitution abolishing slavery took effect [[November 1]], [[1864]]. Winning re-election, Lincoln pressed the lame-duck [[Thirty-eighth United States Congress|38th Congress]] to pass the proposed amendment immediately rather than wait for the incoming [[Thirty-ninth United States Congress|39th Congress]] to convene. On [[January 31]], [[1865]], Congress sent to the state legislatures for ratification what became the [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|13th Amendment]], banning slavery in all U.S. states and territories. The amendment was ratified by the legislatures of enough states by [[December 6]], [[1865]]. As a practical matter, by the time that the amendment was ratified, [[Kentucky]] was the only remaining state in the nation where there were still significant numbers of slaves who had not already been freed by other means.
{{wikisource}}
==References==
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=103250477 Herman Belz, ''Emancipation and Equal Rights: Politics and Constitutionalism in the Civil War Era'' (1978)]
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=10793158 John Hope Franklin, ''The Emancipation Proclamation'' (1963)]
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=6928200 Howard Jones, ''Abraham Lincoln and a New Birth of Freedom: The Union and Slavery in the Diplomacy of the Civil War'' (1999)]
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=105216005 Mitch Kachun, ''Festivals of Freedom: Memory and Meaning in African American Emancipation Celebrations, 1808-1915'' (2003)]
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=37435583 C. Peter Ripley, Roy E. Finkenbine, Michael F. Hembree, Donald Yacovone, ''Witness for Freedom: African American Voices on Race, Slavery, and Emancipation'' (1993)]
* Silvana R. Siddali, ''From Property To Person: Slavery And The Confiscation Acts, 1861-1862'' (2005)
* John Syrett. ''Civil War Confiscation Acts: Failing to Reconstruct the South'' (2005)
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=105900244 Michael Vorenberg, ''Final Freedom: The Civil War, the Abolition of Slavery, and the Thirteenth Amendment'' (2001)]
==External links==
* [http://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/ourdocs/EmanProc.html Emancipation Proclamation and related resources at the Library of Congress]
* [http://www.mrlincolnandfreedom.org/inside.asp?ID=39&subjectID=3 Mr. Lincoln and Freedom: Emancipation Proclamation]
* [http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq57-2.htm The text of the Emancipation proclamation]
* First Edition [http://www.sonofthesouth.net/leefoundation/civil-war/1862/october/emancipation-proclamation.htm Emancipation Proclamation]in 1862 Harper's Weekly
* [http://www.history.umd.edu/Freedmen/chronol.htm Chronology of Emancipation during the Civil War]
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5010848510 Christopher Ewan, "The Emancipation Proclamation and British Public Opinion" ''The Historian'', Vol. 67, 2005]
[[Category:1863 in law]]
[[Category:African-American history]]
[[Category:History of slavery in the United States]]
[[Category:United States executive orders]]
[[Category:United States historical documents]]
[[ja:奴隷解放宣言]]
[[nl:Emancipatieproclamatie]]
[[pt:Proclamação de Emancipação]]
[[zh:解放黑奴宣言]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Erwin Rommel</title>
<id>9516</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>41980853</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T00:48:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Adrian</username>
<id>103917</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Reverted edits by [[User:65.32.103.165|65.32.103.165]] ([[User talk:65.32.103.165|t]]) ([[Special:Contributions/65.32.103.165|c]]) to last version by Leithp</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Biography |
subject_name = Erwin Rommel |
image_name = Rommel portrait.jpg |
image_caption = Field Marshal Erwin Rommel in 1942 |
date_of_birth = [[November 15]], [[1891]] |
place_of_birth = [[Heidenheim]], [[Germany]] |
dead=dead |
date_of_death = [[October 14]], [[1944]] |
place_of_death = [[Herrlingen]], [[Germany]] |
}}
'''Erwin Johannes Eugen Rommel''' or "Rommel" for short ({{Audio|De-Erwin_Rommel-pronunciation.ogg|<small>listen</small>}}) ([[November 15]], [[1891]] – [[October 14]], [[1944]]) was one of the most distinguished [[Germany|German]] [[Generalfeldmarschall|Field Marshals]], and one of the greatest military leaders of his time. He was the commander of the [[Deutsches Afrika Korps]] in [[World War II]], and is also known by the nickname ''The Desert Fox'' (''Wüstenfuchs'', {{Audio|De-Wüstenfuchs-pronunciation.ogg|<small>listen</small>}}), for the skillful military campaigns he waged on behalf of the [[Wehrmacht|German Army]] in [[North Africa]]. He was later put in command of the German forces following the Allied invasion at [[Normandy]] in the final effort to defend the Fatherland.
Rommel is often remembered not only for his remarkable military prowess, but also for his [[chivalry]] towards his adversaries - being one of the German commanders who disobeyed the [[Commando Order|commando order]]. He is also noted for possibly having taken part in a plot to assassinate Hitler, for which he was forced to commit suicide before the war's end.
==Early life and career==
Rommel was born in [[Heidenheim]], approximately 45 [[kilometre|km]] from [[Ulm]], in the state of [[Württemberg]]. He was baptised on the [[November 17]] [[1891]]. He was the second son of a [[Protestantism|Protestant]] Headmaster of the secondary school at [[Aalen]], Erwin Rommel the elder and Helene von Luz, a daughter of a prominent local dignitary. The couple also had three more children, two sons, Karl and Gerhard, and a daughter, Helene. Later recalling his childhood, Rommel (The Desert Fox) wrote that "my early years passed very happily". At the age of 14, Rommel and a friend built a full-scale glider that was able to fly, although not very far. Young Erwin considered becoming an [[aeronautical engineering|engineer]]; however, on his father's insistence, he joined the local 124th Württemberg Infantry Regiment as an officer cadet in [[1910]] and, shortly after, was sent to the Officer Cadet School in [[Gdansk|Danzig]].
[[Image:Rommel cadet.jpg|thumb|right|160px|A young Rommel as an officer cadet around 1910]]
While at Cadet School, early in [[1911]], Rommel met his future wife, Lucie Maria Mollin. He graduated in November [[1911]] and was commissioned as a [[Lieutenant]] January [[1912]]. Rommel and Lucie married in [[1916]], and in [[1928]], they had a son, [[Manfred Rommel|Manfred]], who would later become the mayor of [[Stuttgart]]. Scholars [[John Bierman|Bierman]] and [[Colin Smith|Smith]] argue that, during this time, Rommel also had an affair with [[Walburga Stemmer]] in [[1912]] and that relationship produced a daughter named Gertrud (''[[The Battle of Alamein: Turning Point, World War II|1 p. 56]]'').
===World War I===
During [[World War I]], Rommel served in [[France]], as well as on the [[Romania|Romanian]] and [[Italy|Italian]] fronts, during which time he was wounded three times and awarded the [[Iron Cross|Iron Cross - First and Second Class]]. Rommel became the youngest recipient of [[Prussia]]'s highest medal, the [[Pour le Mérite]], an honor traditionally reserved for generals only and which he received after fighting in the mountains of west [[Slovenia]] - [[Battle of the Isonzo]] - Soca front. The award came as a result specifically from the [[Battle of Longarone]], and the capture of [[Mount Matajur]] - [[Slovenia]] and its defenders, numbering 150 Italian officers, 7000 men and 81 artillery guns. His batallion also played a key role in the decisive victory of the Central Powers over the [[Italian Army]] named the [[Battle of Caporetto]].
===Inter-War Years===
After the war Rommel held battalion commands, and was instructor at the Dresden Infantry School from [[1929]]-[[1933]] and the Potsdam War Academy from [[1935]]-[[1938]]. Rommel's war diaries, ''Infanterie greift an'' (''[[Infantry Attacks]]''), published in [[1937]], became a highly regarded military textbook, and also attracted the attention of [[Adolf Hitler]], who placed him in charge of the training of the ''[[Hitler Jugend]]'' that same year, all the while retaining his place at Potsdam. In [[1938]], Rommel, now a colonel, was appointed commandant of the War Academy at Wiener Neustadt. Here Rommel started his follow up to ''Infantry Attacks'', ''Panzer greift an'' (''Tank Attacks'' sometimes translated as ''[[The Tank In Attack]]'' ).
|
characteristic [[malleability]] of metallic materials.
Dislocations can be observed using [[transmission electron microscopy]], [[field ion microscopy]] and [[atom probe]] techniques.
[[Disinclination]]s are line defects corresponding to "adding" or "subtracting" an angle around a line. Basically, this means that if you track the crystal orientation around the line defect, you get a rotation.
==Planar defects==
* Grain boundaries occur where the crystallographic direction of the lattice abruptly changes. This commonly occurs when two crystals begin growing separately and then meet.
*Anti phase boundaries occur in ordered alloys: in this case, the crystallographic direction remains the same, each side of the boundary has an opposite phase: For example if the ordering is usually ABABABAB, an anti phase boundary takes the form of ABABBABA.
*Stacking faults occur in a number of crystal structures, but the common example is in close packed structures. face centered cubic (fcc) structures differ from hexagonal close packed (hcp) structures only in stacking order: both structures have close packed atomic planes with six fold symmetry -- the atoms form equilateral triangles. When stacking one of these layers on top of another, the atoms are not directly on top of one another -- the first two layers are identical for hcp and fcc, and labelled AB. If the third layer is placed so that its atoms are directly above those of the first layer, the stacking will be ABA -- this is the hcp structure, and it continues ABABABAB. However there is another location for the third layer, such that its atoms are not above the first layer. Instead, the fourth layer is placed so that its atoms are directly above the first layer. This produces the stacking ABCABCABC, and is actually a cubic arrangement of the atoms. A stacking fault is a one or two layer interruption in the stacking sequence, for example if the sequence ABCABABCAB were found in an fcc structure.
==Bulk defects==
* Voids are small regions where there are no atoms, and can be thought of as clusters of vacancies.
* Impurities can cluster together to form small regions of a different phase. These are often called precipitates.
== See also ==
*[[Crystallographic defects in diamond]]
==Books==
* [[Hagen Kleinert]], ''Gauge Fields in Condensed Matter'', Vol. II, "STRESSES AND DEFECTS", pp. 743-1456, [http://www.worldscibooks.com/physics/0356.htm World Scientific (Singapore, 1989)]; Paperback ISBN 9971-50-210-0 '' (also available online [http://www.physik.fu-berlin.de/~kleinert/kleiner_reb1/contents2.html here])''
[[Category:Crystallography]]
[[de:Gitterfehler]]
[[fr:Défaut cristallin]]
[[nl:Roosterdefect]]
[[es:Defecto cristalino]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chomsky normal form</title>
<id>7850</id>
<revision>
<id>40551832</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T10:39:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Phil Boswell</username>
<id>24373</id>
</contributor>
<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] migrate {{[[template:book reference|book reference]]}} to {{[[template:cite book|cite book]]}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[computer science]], a [[formal grammar]] is in '''Chomsky normal form''' ''[[iff]]'' all production rules are of the form:
:''A'' → ''BC'' or
:''A'' → α or
:''S'' → ε
where ''A'', ''B'' and ''C'' are nonterminal symbols, &alpha; is a [[terminal symbol]] (a symbol that represents a constant value), ''S'' is the start symbol, and &epsilon; is the empty string.
Every grammar in Chomsky normal form is [[context-free grammar|context-free]], and conversely, every context-free grammar can be efficiently transformed into an equivalent one which is in Chomsky normal form.
With the exception of the optional rule ''S'' → ε (included when the grammar may generate the empty string), all rules of a grammar in Chomsky normal form are expansive; thus, throughout the derivation of a string, each string of terminals and nonterminals is always either the same length or one element longer than the previous such string. The derivation of a string of length n is always exactly 2n-1 steps long. Furthermore, since all rules deriving nonterminals transform one nonterminal to exactly two nonterminals, a parse tree based on a grammar in Chomsky normal form is a binary tree, and the height of this tree is limited to at most the length of the string.
Because of these properties, many proofs in the field of languages and computability make use of the Chomsky normal form. These properties also yield various efficient algorithms based on grammars in Chomsky normal form; for example, the [[CYK algorithm]] that decides whether a given string can be generated by a given grammar uses the Chomsky normal form.
The Chomsky normal form is named after [[Noam Chomsky]], the [[United States|US]] linguist who invented the [[Chomsky hierarchy]].
==See also==
* [[Backus-Naur form]]
* [[Greibach normal form]]
* [[Kuroda normal form]]
== References ==
* {{cite book
| authorlink = Michael Sipser
| author = Michael Sipser
| year = 1997
| title = Introduction to the Theory of Computation
| publisher = PWS Publishing
| id = ISBN 0-534-94728-X
}} Pages 98–101 of section 2.1: context-free grammars. Page 156.
[[Category:Formal languages]]
[[Category:Noam Chomsky]]
[[af:Chomsky-normaal-vorm]]
[[de:Chomsky-Normalform]]
[[fi:Chomskyn normaalimuoto]]
[[pl:Postać normalna Chomsky'ego]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty</title>
<id>7851</id>
<revision>
<id>41253920</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T02:17:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Engwar</username>
<id>675753</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* References and external links */ Added link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Treatybox|
treaty_name=Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty
|colour_scheme=background:red
|image=[[image:Nuclear test Nevada test site 1955.jpg]]
|caption=
|place_signed=[[New York]]
|date_signed=[[September 10]], [[1996]][http://www.ctbto.org/]
|date_entered_into_force=''Not yet in force''
|conditions_for_entry_into_force=The treaty will enter into force 180 days after it is ratified by all of the following 44 (Annex 2) countries: [[Algeria]], [[Argentina]], [[Australia]], [[Austria]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Belgium]], [[Brazil]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Canada]], [[Chile]], [[China]], [[Colombia]], [[Democratic People's Republic of Korea]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Egypt]], [[Finland]], [[France]], [[Germany]], [[Hungary]], [[India]], [[Indonesia]], [[Iran (Islamic Republic of)]], [[Israel]], [[Italy]], [[Japan]], [[Mexico]], [[Netherlands]], [[Norway]], [[Pakistan]], [[Peru]], [[Poland]], [[Romania]], [[Republic of Korea]], [[Russian Federation]], [[Slovakia]], [[South Africa]], [[Spain]], [[Sweden]], [[Switzerland]], [[Turkey]], [[Ukraine]], [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]], [[United States of America]], [[Vietnam]].
|parties=128, including 33 of the 44 Annex 2 countries [http://www.ctbto.org/] (as at [[9 February]] [[2006]]
|}}
The '''Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (CTBT)''' bans all [[nuclear weapon|nuclear]] explosions in all environments, for military or civilian purposes.
==Status==
The Treaty was opened for signature in New York on [[24 September]] [[1996]], when it was signed by 71 States, including five of the seven then nuclear-capable states. The CTBT had been later endorsed by one hundred seventy five states parties and been ratified by a hundred twenty. [[India]] and [[Pakistan]], though not nuclear weapons states as defined by the [[Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty]] (NPT), did not sign; neither did [[North Korea]].
Additionally, to enter into force, the treaty has yet to be ratified by (as of December 2005) [[China]], [[Colombia]], [[Egypt]], [[Indonesia]], [[Iran]], [[Israel]], the [[United States of America|U.S.A.]] and [[Vietnam]], which is unlikely to happen in the near future.
==Obligations==
(Article I):
#Each State Party undertakes not to carry out any [[nuclear weapon]] test explosion or any other nuclear explosion, and to prohibit and prevent any such nuclear explosion at any place under its jurisdiction or control.
#Each State Party undertakes, furthermore, to refrain from causing, encouraging, or in any way participating in the carrying out of any nuclear weapon test explosion or any other nuclear explosion.
==History==
Arms control advocates had campaigned for the adoption of a treaty banning all nuclear explosions since the early [[1950s]], when public concern was aroused as a result of radioactive fall-out from atmospheric nuclear tests and the escalating arms race. Over 50 nuclear explosions were registered between [[16 July]] [[1945]], when the first nuclear explosive test was conducted by the United States at [[Alamogordo, New Mexico]], and [[31 December]] [[1953]]. [[Prime Minister of India|Prime Minister]] [[Jawaharlal Nehru|Nehru]] of [[India]] voiced the heightened international concern in [[1954]], when he proposed the elimination of all nuclear test explosions worldwide. However, within the context of the [[Cold War]], scepticism in the capability to verify compliance with a comprehensive nuclear test ban treaty posed a major obstacle to any agreement. On [[13 October]] [[1999]] the [[United States Senate]] rejected ratification of the CTBT.
===[[Partial Test Ban Treaty]], 1963===
Limited success was achieved with the signing of the Partial Test Ban Treaty in 1963, which banned nuclear tests in the atmosphere, underwater and in space. However, neither France nor China, both nuclear weapon States, signed the PTBT.
===[[Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty]], 1968===
A major step towards the [[nuclear proliferation |non-proliferation]] of nuclear weapons came with the signing of the Nuclear Non-proliferatio
|
laws]], and he was responsible for the [[Licensing Act 1872]], which made the [[magistrate]]s the licensing authority, increased the penalties for misconduct in public-houses and shortened the number of hours for the sale of drink. In [[1873]] he relinquished the home secretaryship, at Gladstone's request, to become [[Lord President of the Council]], and was almost simultaneously raised to the [[peerage]] as '''Baron Aberdare'''.
The defeat of the Liberal government in the following year terminated Lord Aberdare's official political life, and he subsequently devoted himself to social, educational and economic questions. In [[1876]] he was elected a [[Fellow of the Royal Society]]; from [[1878]] to [[1891]] he was president of the [[Royal Historical Society]]; and in [[1881]] he became president of the [[Royal Geographical Society]]. In [[1882]] he began a connection with [[West Africa]] which lasted the rest of his life, by accepting the chairmanship of the [[National African Company]], formed by Sir [[George Taubman Goldie]], which in [[1886]] received a charter under the title of the [[Royal Niger Company]] and in [[1899]] was taken over by the British government, its territories being constituted the protectorate of [[Nigeria]].
West African affairs, however, by no means exhausted Lord Aberdare's energies, and it was principally through his efforts that a charter was in [[1894]] obtained for the [[University of Wales]] at [[Cardiff]]. Lord Aberdare, who in [[1885]] was made a [[Order of the Bath|GCB]], presided over several [[Royal Commission]]s at different times. He died in [[London]] on [[February 25]], [[1895]]. His second wife was the daughter of [[William Francis Patrick Napier|Sir William Napier]], the historian of the [[Peninsular War]], whose biography he edited.
{{start box}}
{{succession box | before=G. Clive | title=[[Under-Secretary of State for the Home Department]] | years=1862&ndash;1864 | after=[[Thomas George Baring, 1st Earl of Northbrook|Thomas George Baring]]}}
{{succession box | before=[[Gathorne Hardy, 1st Earl of Cranbrook|Gathorne Hardy]] | title=[[Secretary of State for the Home Department|Home Secretary]] | years=1868&ndash;1873 | after=[[Robert Lowe, 1st Viscount Sherbrooke|Robert Lowe]]}}
{{succession box | before=[[George Robinson, 1st Marquess of Ripon|The Marquess of Ripon]] | title=[[Lord President of the Council]] | years=1873&ndash;1874 | after=[[Charles Gordon-Lennox, 6th Duke of Richmond|The Duke of Richmond]]}}
{{end box}}
{{start box}}
{{succession box | before=New Creation | title=[[Baron Aberdare]] | years=1873&ndash;1895 | after=[[Henry Bruce, 2nd Baron Aberdare|Henry Bruce]]}}
{{end box}}
{{1911}}
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Aberdare, Henry Austin Bruce, 1st Baron}}
[[Category:1815 births|Aberdare, Henry Austin Bruce, 1st Baron]]
[[Category:1895 deaths|Aberdare, Henry Austin Bruce, 1st Baron]]
[[Category:Lord Presidents of the Council|Aberdare, Henry Austin Bruce, 1st Baron]]
[[Category:Barons in the Peerage of the United Kingdom|Aberdare, Henry Austin Bruce, 1st Baron]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society|Bruce, Henry]]
[[Category:British MPs|Aberdare, Henry Austin Bruce, 1st Baron]]
[[Category:UK Liberal Party politicians|Aberdare, Henry Austin Bruce, 1st Baron]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Bath|Aberdare, Henry Austin Bruce, 1st Baron]]
[[Category:Secretaries of State for the Home Department (UK)|Aberdare, Henry Austin Bruce, 1st Baron]]
[[sv:Henry Austin Bruce Aberdare]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Harpers Ferry (disambiguation)</title>
<id>14203</id>
<revision>
<id>38829671</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-08T22:40:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tsca.bot</username>
<id>601940</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot adding: pl</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Harpers Ferry''' is the name of several places in the [[United States|United States of America]]:
*[[Harpers Ferry, Iowa]]
*[[Harpers Ferry, West Virginia]] (site of [[John Brown (abolitionist)|John Brown]]'s raid on a federal [[Armory (military)|armory]] in [[1859]] and the [[Battle of Harpers Ferry]] during the [[American Civil War]], and present day location of the [[Harpers Ferry National Historical Park]])
{{geodis}}
[[pl:Harpers Ferry]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Halophile</title>
<id>14204</id>
<revision>
<id>40564770</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T13:39:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Wikify dates</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Halophiles''' are [[extremophile]]s that thrive in [[natural environment|environment]]s with very high concentrations of [[salt]] (at least 2 [[Concentration#Molarity|M]], approximately ten times the salt level of ocean water). The name comes from [[Greek language|Greek]] for "salt-loving".
High salinity represents an extreme environment that relatively few organisms have been able to adapt to and occupy. Most halophilic and all halotolerant organisms expend energy to exclude salt from their cytoplasm to avoid protein aggregation (‘salting out’). In order to survive the high salinities, halophiles employ two differing strategies to prevent dessication through osmotic movement of water out of their cytoplasm. Both strategies work by increasing the internal osmolarity of the cell. In the first (that employed by the majority of Bacteria, some Archaea, yeasts, algae and fungi) specific low molecular weight organic compounds are accumulated in the cytoplasm – these are known as compatible solutes. These can be synthesised de novo or accumulated from the environment (Santos and da Costa, 2002). The most common compatible solutes are neutral or zwitterionic and include amino acids, sugars, polyols, betaines and ectoines, as well as deriavatives of some of these compounds.
The second, more radical, adaptation involves the selective influx of K+ ions into the cytoplasm. This adaptation is restricted to the moderately halophilic bacterial Order Halanerobiales, the extremely halophilic archaeal Family Halobacteriaceae and the extremely halophilic bacterium ''Salinibacter ruber''. The presence of this adaptation in three distinct evolutionary lineages suggests convergent evolution of this strategy, it being unlikely to be an ancient characteristic retained in only scattered groups or through massive lateral gene transfer (Santos and da Costa, 2002). The primary reason for this is that the entire intracellular machinery (enzymes, structural proteins etc) must be adapted to high salt levels, whereas in the compatible solute adaptation little or no adjustment is required to intracellular macromolecules – in fact, the compatible solutes often act as more general stress protectants as well as just osmoprotectants (Santos and da Costa, 2002).
Of particular note are the extreme halophiles or haloarchaea (often known as [[halobacteria]]), a group of [[archaea]], which require at least a 2 M salt concentration and are usually found in saturated solutions (about 36% w/v salts). These are the primary inhabitants of salt lakes, inland seas, and evaporating ponds of seawater, such as the [[Dead Sea]] and solar salterns, where they tint the water column and sediments bright colors. In other words, they will most definitely perish if they are exposed to anything besides a very high, intense salt-conditioned environment. These prokaryotes require salt for growth. The high concentration of NaCl in their enviroment limits the availility of oxygen for respiration. Their cellular machinery is adapted to high salt concentrations by having charged amino acids on their surfaces, allowing the retention of water molecules around these components. They are heterotrophs that normally respire by aerobic means. Most halophiles are unable to survive outside their high-salt native environment. Indeed, many cells are so fragile that when placed in distilled water they immediately lyse from the change in osmotic conditions.
Haloarchaea, and particularly, the family Halobacteriaceae are members of the Domain [[Archaea]], and comprise the majority of the prokaryotic population in hypersaline environments (Oren 2002). There are currently 15 recognised genera in the family (Gutierrez et al., 2002). The domain Bacteria (mainly ''Salinibacter ruber'') can comprise up to 25% of the prokaryotic community, but is more commonly a much lower percentage of the overall population (Anton ''et al''., 2000). At times, the alga ''Dunaliella salina'' can also proliferate in this environment (Casamayor ''et al''., 2002).
A comparatively wide range of taxa have been isolated from saltern crystalliser ponds, including members of the following genera: ''Haloferax, Halogeometricum, Halococcus, Haloterrigena, Halorubrum, Haloarcula'' and ''Halobacterium'' families (Oren 2002). However, the viable counts in these cultivation studies have been small when compared to total counts, and the numerical significance of these isolates has been unclear. Only recently has it become possible to determine the identities and relative abundances of organisms in natural populations, typically using PCR-based strategies that target 16S small subunit ribosomal ribonucleic acid (16S rRNA) genes. While comparatively few studies of this type have been performed, results from these suggest that some of the most readily isolated and studied genera may not in fact be significant in the in-situ community. This is seen in cases such as the genus ''Haloarcula'', which is estimated to make up less than 0.1% of the in situ community (Anton ''et al.'', 1999) but commonly appears in isolation studies.
==References and Links==
"Halophiles." Extremeophiles. [[1 February]]. 2006 <http://library.org/CR0212089/halo.htm>.
Ma
|
ams met Cannon in the end zone following LSU's Sugar Bowl victory, and ended in court, with the AFL winning against the NFL. That put the fledgling league on the football map. Cannon was one of the American Football League's most celebrated combatants. At halfback, he scored an 88-yard touchdown on a pass from [[George Blanda]] in the first AFL Championship game. Cannon became the only player ever selected to an All-star team as a halfback in one year (1961) and as a tight end in another (1969).
On [[June 9]], the league signed a five-year [[television]] contract with [[American_Broadcasting_Company|ABC]], which brought in revenues of roughly $2,125,000 per year for the entire league. On [[June 17]], the AFL filed an antitrust lawsuit against the NFL. The suit was dismissed in 1962 after a two-month trial.
The AFL began regular-season play (a night game on Friday, [[September 9]], [[1960]]) with eight teams in the league - the [[Boston Patriots]], [[Buffalo Bills]], [[Kansas City Chiefs|Dallas Texans]], [[Denver Broncos]], [[Houston Oilers]], [[Los Angeles Chargers]], [[New York Titans]] and [[Oakland Raiders]]. The Oilers became the first-ever league champions, defeating the Chargers 24-16 in the AFL Championship Game on [[January 1]], [[1961]].
Attendance for the 1960 season was respectable for a new league, but not nearly that of the NFL. Whereas the more popular NFL teams in 1960 regularly saw attendance figures of 50,000+, AFL attendance generally hovered between 10-20,000 [http://nflhistory.net/linescores/pdf/1960a.pdf]. With the low attendance came financial losses. The Raiders, for instance, lost $500,000 in their first year. In an early sign of stability, however, the AFL did not lose any teams after its first year of operation. In fact, the only major change was the relocation of the Chargers from Los Angeles to [[San Diego, California|San Diego]].
===Movement and instability (1962-63)===
While some teams (such as the Oilers) found instant success in the AFL, others were not as fortunate. The Oakland Raiders and New York Titans struggled on and off the field during their first few seasons in the league. Oakland's eight-man ownership group was reduced to just three in 1961, after heavy financial losses their first season. Attendance for home games was poor, partly due to the fact that the team was playing in the [[San Francisco Bay Area]], which already had an established NFL team (the [[San Francisco 49ers]]). The product on the field was also to blame. After winning six games their debut season, the Raiders won just three times combined in the 1962 and 1963 seasons. Oakland took part in a 1962 supplemental draft meant to boost the weaker teams in the league, but it did little good. They participated in another such draft in 1963.
The Titans fared a little better on the field but had their own financial troubles. Attendance was so low for home games that fans were moved to seats closer to the field to give the illusion of a fuller stadium on television. Things got so bad that owner Harry Wisner was unable to meet his payroll, and on [[November 8]], [[1962]] the AFL took over operations of the team. The Titans were sold to a five-person ownership ground headed by [[Sonny Werblin]] on [[March 28]], [[1963]]. Werblin changed the team's name to the '''New York Jets'''.
In the December 23, 1962 [[Professional American football championship games|AFL Championship game]], the Dallas Texans dethroned the two-time defending champion Oilers 20-17 in what at that time was professional football's longest game, a double-overtime thriller.
In 1963 the Texans became the second AFL team to relocate. Lamar Hunt felt that despite winning the league championship in 1962, the Texans could not succeed financially in the same market as the [[Dallas Cowboys]]. After meetings with [[Atlanta]] and [[Miami]], Hunt decided on [[Kansas City, Missouri|Kansas City]] as the new home for his team. On [[May 22]] Hunt announced the move, and the team was christened the '''Kansas City Chiefs''' on [[May 26]].
===Watershed years (1964-65)===
1964 started off very well for the AFL. On [[January 29]] the league signed a lucrative $36 million television contract with [[NBC]], to start in the 1965 season. This gave the league money it desperately needed to compete with the NFL for talent.
A new single-game attendance record was set on [[November 8]], [[1964]] when 61,929 fans packed [[Shea Stadium]] to watch the New York Jets and Buffalo Bills [http://nflhistory.net/linescores/pdf/1964a.pdf].
The bidding war between the AFL and NFL for players escalated in 1965. The Chiefs drafted [[Gale Sayers]] in the first round of the AFL's 1965 draft, while the [[Chicago Bears]] did the same in the NFL draft. Sayers signed with the Bears in a victory for the older league.
A similar situation occurred when the St. Louis Cardinals (NFL) and New York Jets (AFL) both drafted [[University of Alabama]] [[quarterback]] [[Joe Namath]]. But this time the AFL emerged the victor. On [[January 2]], Namath signed a $427,000 contract with the Jets [http://www.newyorkjets.com/history/index.php?section=highlights&years=1969-1959&highlight_id=35#34]. It was the highest amount of money ever paid to a collegiate football player. The signing was important not just for the Jets (one of the worst teams in the league) but for the AFL as well.
The AFL expanded to nine teams in 1965 when Minneapolis attorney [[Joseph Robbie]] and television star [[Danny Thomas]] were awarded a franchise on [[August 16]] for a fee of $7.5 million. Their team, the [[Miami Dolphins]], started play in the AFL's East division in 1966.
On the playing field, the quality of play continued to improve and bona fide stars began to emerge, such as [[Lance Alworth]], [[George Blanda]], [[Willie Brown (football player)|Willie Brown]], [[Nick Buoniconti]], [[Ron Mix]], and [[Jim Otto]]. AFL teams such as the [[San Diego Chargers]], the [[Kansas City Chiefs]], and the [[Buffalo Bills]] offered fans exciting games as alternatives to the conservative NFL variety.
===Escalation and merger (1966-67)===
{{Details|AFL-NFL Merger}}
1966 saw the rivalry between the AFL and NFL reach an all-time peak. On [[April 7]] Joe Foss, the only commissioner the AFL had ever known, resigned. His chosen successor was Oakland Raiders general manager [[Al Davis]], who had been instrumental in turning around the fortunes of the franchise. No longer content with trying to outbid the NFL for talent, the AFL under Davis actively started to recruit players already on NFL squads. NFL players such as [[Mike Ditka]], [[Roman Gabriel]] and [[John Brodie]] were offered and/or signed to lucrative AFL contracts.
The same month Davis was named commissioner, Lamar Hunt and Dallas Cowboys owner [[Tex Schramm]] held a series of secret meetings in Dallas to discuss their concerns over rapidly increasing player salaries, as well as the practice of player poaching. Hunt and Schramm completed the basic groundwork for a merger by the end of May. On [[June 8]], [[1966]] the merger was officially announced. Under the terms of the agreement, the two leagues would hold a common player draft. The agreement also called for a title game to be played between the champions of the respective leagues. The two leagues would be fully merged by 1970, and NFL commissioner [[Pete Rozelle]] would remain as commissioner of the merged league. The AFL also agreed to pay indemnities of $18 million to the NFL over 20 years. In protest, Davis resigned as AFL commissioner on [[July 25]] rather than remain until the completion of the merger.
On [[January 15]], [[1967]], the first-ever World Championship Game between the champions of the two separate professional football leagues, the AFL-NFL Championship Game (retroactively referred to as [[Super Bowl I]]), was played in Los Angeles. The NFL champion [[Green Bay Packers]] overwhelmed the AFL champion Kansas City Chiefs, 35-10.
The [[Cincinnati Bengals]] became the second AFL expansion franchise on [[May 24]], [[1967]]. The Bengals were the tenth and final team to begin play as an AFL franchise. In a clear indication of the success of the AFL, Paul Brown paid $10,000,000 for the Bengals franchise–''four hundred times more'' than the original AFL franchise value of $25,000 only eight years earlier.
===Legitimacy and the end of an era (1968-70)===
During the first two Super Bowl matchups, the Green Bay Packers won games against the Kansas City Chiefs and Oakland Raiders by comfortable margins, leading some NFL executives to doubt the wisdom in merging with the upstart league. That perception changed forever on [[January 12]], [[1969]], when the AFL Champion New York Jets shocked the heavily favored NFL Champion [[Baltimore Colts]] in [[Super Bowl III]].
The Colts, who entered the contest as an 18-point favorite, had completed the [[1968 NFL season]] with a 13-1 record, then won two playoff games, the latter a 34-0 dismantling of the [[Cleveland Browns]]. Baltimore's defense was considered one of the finest of its era, having allowed just 144 points in 1968. In contrast, the Jets had allowed 280 points, the highest total for any division winner in the two leagues.
But Jets quarterback Joe Namath seemed unimpressed. Three days before the game, Namath spoke to a group at the Touchdown Club in [[Miami]] and declared, "We're going to win Sunday, I'll guarantee you." [http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/football/news/2001/01/22/afl_history_2/]
Namath and the Jets made good on his guarantee as they held the Colts scoreless until late in the fourth quarter. The Jets won, 16-7, in what is considered by many to be one of the greatest upsets in American sports history. [http://espn.go.com/page2/s/list/topupsets/010525.html] [http://football.about.com/cs/superbowl/a/bl_superbowl3.htm] [http://www.courierpostonline.com/columnists/cxww020105a.ht
|
ered of Essex|Sigered]]'''
|<small>'''SIGERED SIGERICING''' <small>ESTSEAXNA CYNING<br>'''SIGERED REX''' <small>SAXONVM ORIENTALIVM
|
|- valign=top bgcolor="#ffffec"
|<small>[[812]] to [[825]]
|<small>'''SIGERED DVX''' <small>SAXONVM ORIENTALIVM
|<small>Rank reduced by [[Mercia]]n overlords
|- valign=top
|''c.''[[825]]||colspan="3"|''[[Mercia]] defeated by [[Egbert of Wessex]], sub-kingdom of Essex subsumed into [[Wessex]]''
|}
Sigered was the last king of Essex, and he ceded the kingdom to [[Egbert of Wessex]].
{{heptarchy}}
=== Sources ===
* '''''Kings, Rulers and Statesmen''', Clive Carpenter, Guinness Superlatives Ltd''
* '''''Rulers and Governments of the World, Vol1, Earliest Times to 1491''', Martha Ross''
[[Category:Anglo-Saxon England]]
[[Category:History of Essex]]
[[Category:Former monarchies|Essex]]
[[de:Königreich Essex]]
[[fr:Royaume d'Essex]]
[[it:Regno dell'Essex]]
[[no:Kongedømmet Essex]]
[[pt:Reino de Essex]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Eve (disambiguation)</title>
<id>9939</id>
<revision>
<id>41212997</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T20:52:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dermo</username>
<id>946385</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Persons */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Eve''' is a word with several meanings:
==Days==
*'''[[wiktionary:Eve|Eve]]''', meaning "the day before" (related to [[wiktionary:Evening|Evening]]);
** '''[[St. John's Eve]]''' (aka [[Midsummer Eve]], [[Bonfire Night]], [[Midsummer Night]]) is celebrated on the evening of [[June 23]] in many parts of [[Ireland]] and [[Norway]] with the lighting of [[bonfire]]s.
** '''[[Christmas Eve]]''', [[December 24]], the day before [[Christmas Day]], is treated to a greater or a lesser extent in most [[Christian]] societies as part of the Christmas festivities.
** '''[[New Year's Eve]]''', a celebration held the day before [[New Year's Day]], on [[December 31]], the final day of the year.
** '''[[The Eve of St. Agnes]]''', [[January 20]], considered especially in the [[British Isles]] to be the night on which young women dream of their future husbands.
==Persons==
'''Eve''' is a girl's [[given name]], the 562nd most popular name for a baby girl in 2002 in the [[United States|United States of America]].
*'''[[Mitochondrial Eve]]''' is the theoretical common female ancestor from whom all living humans have inherited their [[mitochondrial DNA]];
*'''[[Eve (rapper)|Eve]]''' is a [[hip hop music|hip hop]] artist and [[Actor|actress]] who has made several albums and starred in the movie ''[[Barbershop (movie)|Barbershop]]'', and her own self-titled [[UPN]] show as the character "Shelly";
*'''Eve''' is the name given by the [[Raelian]] corporation [[Clonaid]] to a girl born in 2002 whom they claim to be the first successful human clone.
===Fictional persons===
*'''Eve''' was the first woman in the [[Bible|Biblical]] story of '''[[Adam and Eve]]'''
*'''[[Eve (DC Comics)|Eve]]''' is a fictionalized version of the Biblical Eve in the ''[[The Sandman (DC Comics Modern Age)|Sandman]]'' [[comic book]] series by [[Neil Gaiman]];
*'''[[Eve (Buffyverse)|Eve]]''' is a villain on the [[television series]] ''[[Angel (TV series)|Angel]]''
*'''Eve''' is the daughter of [[Xena]] in the TV series ''[[Xena: Warrior Princess]]''
*'''[[Eve (Applegeeks)|Eve]]''' is an [[android]] created from [[Apple Mac]] parts in the ''[[Applegeeks]]'' [[webcomic]]
*'''Eve''' is a female superhero in the ''[[Freedom Force (computer game)|Freedom Force]]'' [[computer game]] series
==Places==
*'''[[Ève]]''' is a [[commune in France|commune]] in the [[Oise]] ''[[département in France|département]]
==Other==
*'''''[[Eve (TV series)|Eve]]''''' is a [[television show]] that debuted in [[2003]]-[[2004]] on [[UPN]], starring rapper [[Eve (rapper)|Eve]] as the character "Shelly";
*'''[[EVE Online]]''' is an [[MMORPG]] [[computer game]] created by [[CCP Games]] of [[Reykjavík]], [[Iceland]];
*'''eve''' is a [[online community|Web site community]] platform hosted by [[Infopop Corporation]].
*'''Eve''' is an alternate spelling for the [[Ewe language]] - a [[Niger-Congo]] language spoken in [[Ghana]] and [[Togo]].
*'''Eve''' is a symbolic name for an "[[eavesdropper]]" in [[cryptography]] discussions; see [[Alice and Bob]] for more details
*'''[[Extensible Versatile Editor|EVE]]''' is an acronym for "Extensible Versatile Editor," a text editor provided with the [[VMS]] operating system.
*'''[[EVE_(mortar)|Eve]]''' was one of Germany's large mortars used in Second World War
*'''[[Eve (airplane)|Eve]]''' is another name for [[White Knight Two]], the [[Virgin Galactic]] launch craft.
*'''[[Eve (cigarette)|Eve]]''' is a brandname of cigarette marketed specifically to ladies
*'''[[Evolving Virtual Enterprise|EVE(TM)]]''' stands for the '''Evolving Virtual Enterprise''', an adaptive Web Portal System that uses the [[XIERE (TM)]] or X-tier Intelligent Engine for Real-time Environments.
*'''"And Eve was Weak"''' is the name of a song from the ill fated musical, 'Carrie'
==See also==
*'''[[Eve 6]]''', a [[California]] [[rock band]]
{{disambig}}
<!--force Table Of contents to be hidden-->
__NOTOC__
[[ca:Eva]]
[[de:Eve]]
[[fr:Ève (homonymie)]]
[[la:Eva]]
[[nl:Eva]]
[[pl:Ewa (strona ujednoznaczniająca)]]
*'''EVE''', a [[Korean visual rock band]].</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Edentata</title>
<id>9940</id>
<revision>
<id>15907791</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Xenarthra]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ethelbert of Kent</title>
<id>9941</id>
<revision>
<id>40527423</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T05:26:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ryanmcdaniel</username>
<id>121715</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Changed succession box to s-template</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Ethelbert''' (or '''Æthelbert''', or '''Aethelberht''') (c. [[552]] - [[February 24]], [[616]]<sup>[[#Notes|1]]</sup>) was [[Kings of Kent|King]] of [[Kingdom of Kent|Kent]] from around [[580]] or [[590]] until his death. After his death, he was regarded as a [[saint]].
He was the son of [[Eormenric of Kent|Eormenric]], whom he succeeded as king, according to the ''[[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]]''. [[Gregory of Tours]], who was a close acquaintance of Queen [[Ingoberg]] (the mother of Ethelbert's wife [[Berthe]]), twice calls him simply "a man of Kent", indicating that he was not king at the time Gregory's ''History of the Franks'' was written, and that Ethelbert more likely became king closer to [[590]].
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that he attempted at one stage to wrest the position of [[Bretwalda]] from [[Ceawlin of Wessex]] but was unsuccessful. His standing was advanced by his marriage with Berthe, daughter of [[Charibert]], king of the [[Franks]], thus building an alliance with the most powerful state in [[Europe]] at that time. This prestige enabled him to claim the title of Bretwalda after Ceawlin's death.
The influence of Berthe, who had brought her [[chaplain]] [[Liuhard of Canterbury|Liuhard]] (or Letard) with her to Kent, may have led to the invitation to [[Pope Gregory I]] to send [[missionaries]] from [[Rome]]. [[Augustine of Canterbury|Augustine]] landed on the [[Isle of Thanet]] in [[597]], and Ethelbert first met him under an oak tree, in accordance with his belief that he could thus dispel any magic the Christians might attempt. Tradition has it that Augustine [[baptism|baptized]] Ethelbert only a few days after landing in Kent, although a letter from Gregory to Berthe suggests that it cannot have happened before [[601]]. In any case, churches were established and efforts began to [[religious conversion|convert]] the people to [[Christianity]].
Ethelbert also established a written code of laws for Kent, the earliest in any [[Heptarchy|Anglo-Saxon kingdom]], which provided for the protection of the Church and instituted a complex system of fines. The nature of the law code is evidence that Kent was a relatively organized and centralized kingdom under Ethelbert.
Ethelbert was later [[Canonization of Saints|canonised]] for his role in restoring Christianity to [[England]]. Although he died on [[February 24]], [[616]], his [[feast day]] was usually celebrated on [[February 25]] so that it would not overlap with the feast of [[Saint Matthias]] on the previous day.
==Notes==
# The year of Ethelbert's death may have been slightly later, perhaps [[618]].
{{s-start}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Eormenric of Kent|Eormenric]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Kingdom of Kent|King of Kent]]|years=c.590-616}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Eadbald of Kent|Eadbald]]}}
|-
{{s-bef|before=[[Ceawlin of Wessex]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Bretwalda]]|years=591-616}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Raedwald of East Anglia]]}}
{{end}}
==See also==
[[List of monarchs of Kent]]
==External links==
* The [[Catholic Encyclopedia]] entry on Ethelbert: http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05553b.htm
{{wikisource author}}
[[Category:550s births]]
[[Category:616 deaths]]
[[Category:Anglo-Saxon saints]]
[[Category:Kentish monarchs]]
[[de:Ethelbert von Kent]]
[[fr:Ethelbert]]
[[nl:Ethelbert van Kent]]
[[no:Aethelbert av Kent]]
[[pl:Aethelbert z Kentu]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Erwin Schrödinger</title>
<id>9942</id>
<revision>
<id>40877099</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T16:36:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>193.224.148.62</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>+hu:</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Schrdngr.jpg|thumb|1
|
e is an effort, however, to convert books that are in the [[public domain]] into a digital medium for unlimited redistribution and infinite availability. The effort is spearheaded by [[Project Gutenberg]] combined with [[Distributed Proofreaders]].
There have also been new developments in the process of publishing books. Technologies such as [[print on demand]] have made it easier for less known authors to make their work available to a larger audience.
== Related articles and lists ==
* [[Author]]
* [[Bookbinding]]
* [[Bookselling]]
* [[List of books by title]]
* [[lists of authors|List of books by author]]
* [[List of books by genre or type]]
* [[List of books by award or notoriety]]
* [[List of years in literature|List of books by year of publication]]
* [[List of banned books]]
* [[List of fictional books]]
* [[Metasearch engine]] sites search multiple online bookstore sites. Some require separate searches for new or used books.
** [[Addall]]
** [[BookFinder.com]]
* Online bookstores
** [[Abebooks]]
** [[Alibris]]
** [[Amazon.com]]
** [[BibliOZ]]
** [[Barnes & Noble]]
** [[Borders Group|Borders]]
** [[Powell's City of Books]]
** [[Book Sense]]
** [[Thriftbooks]]
== Online book databases and lists ==
* [[The Internet Book Database of Fiction]]
* [[Internet Book List]]
* [[ISBNdb.com]], books database built from libraries data
* [http://librariesaustralia.nla.gov.au Libraries Australia] - catalog of books in 800+ Australian libraries
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{Commons|Illustrations of book titles}}
*[http://headlesschicken.ca/eng204/ ''The History & Future of the Book'' - course syllabus & extensive bibliography]
*[http://www.thebookstandard.com/bookstandard/search/books_authors/index.jsp The Book Standard Books & Authors Database]
*[http://www.lostcrafts.com/Printed-Book/Book-Main.html History of the Printed Book]
[[Category:Books|*]]
[[Category:Documents]]
[[be:Кніга]]
[[cs:Kniha]]
[[cv:Кĕнеке]]
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[[de:Buch]]
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[[es:Libro]]
[[et:Raamat]]
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[[fr:Livre_(document)]]
[[he:ספר]]
[[id:Buku]]
[[io:Libro]]
[[it:Libro]]
[[ja:&#26412;]]
[[la:Liber]]
[[lt:Knyga]]
[[nds:Book]]
[[nl:Boek (document)]]
[[no:Bok]]
[[pl:Ksi&#261;&#380;ka]]
[[pt:Livro]]
[[ro:Carte]]
[[ru:Книга]]
[[simple:Book]]
[[sl:Knjiga]]
[[sr:Књига]]
[[sv:bok]]
[[tokipona:lipu toki]]
[[tr:Kitap]]
[[uk:Книга]]
[[zh:&#22270;&#20070;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>B-52 (disambiguation)</title>
<id>3779</id>
<revision>
<id>36502673</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-24T14:31:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>N328KF</username>
<id>77722</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>moved [[B-52]] to [[B-52 (disambiguation)]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''B-52''' may refer to:
* [[B-52 Stratofortress]], a strategic bomber aircraft designed by [[Boeing]]
* [[B-52 (hairstyle)|B-52]], a hairstyle, named after the aircraft
* [[The B-52's]], a rock band, named after the hairstyle named after the aircraft
* [[B-52 shooter]], a cocktail
* [[B-52 (strain)|B-52]], a [[Strain (biology)|strain]] of ''[[Cannabis sativa]]''
'''B52''' may refer to:
* One of the [[Encyclopaedia of Chess Openings|ECO]] codes for the [[Sicilian Defence]] in [[chess]]
{{disambig}}
[[de:B52]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bal Thackeray</title>
<id>3780</id>
<revision>
<id>41867503</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T06:15:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Raintaster</username>
<id>119636</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Revert to last version by Hnsampat</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''"Bal" Keshav Thackeray''', popularly called 'Balasaheb', (born [[January 23]], [[1927]]) is the founder and 'Pramukh' (President) of the right wing [[Hindu]] party, [[Shiv Sena]] in [[India]]. He has gained notoriety for his racist attacks upon minority groups in Bombay and for being hostile toward Western culture.
==Background==
[[Image:bthackeray1.jpg|thumb|right|Bal Keshav Thackeray]]
Thackeray is a right-wing [[Hindu nationalism|Hindu nationalist]], and has referred to himself on occasion as the "[[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]] of [[Mumbai|Mumbai]]" and the "Hitler of India" [http://www.asiaweek.com/asiaweek/95/0922/nat5.html]. Several right-wing nationalists within the [[Shiv Sena]] (which he help found) and other Hindu-centric political parties brand him as ''Hindu Hridaysamrat'' ("Emperor of the Hindu heart").
Thackeray started his career as a [[cartoonist]] in the ''[[Free Press Journal]]'' of [[Bombay]] in the [[1950s]], and was a contemporary of [[R K Laxman]] during his early years. His cartoons were also published in the Sunday edition of ''[[The New York Times]]''. In [[1960]], he launched a cartoon weekly ''[[Marmik]]'' with his brother. He used it to campaign against the growing influence of non-[[Marathi]] people in Mumbai. He has also fought trade union control battles with the [[Communist]]s and [[Indian National Congress]].
He formed the Shiv Sena in [[1966]] with the intent of fighting for the rights of the natives of the state of Maharashtra (called Maharashtrians). There was a great exodus of people from all over India into Mumbai, the commercial capital and economic center of the nation, for employment. The Shiv Sena became an advocate of the 'Bhúmiputra' (or "Sons of the Soil") policy, in response to a perceived threat amongst the native Maharashtrians that such an exodus would deny them of employment opportunities which were rightfully theirs. Politically, it has allied with the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] (BJP). Bal Thackeray is said to have strong links with the [[Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh]] (RSS) and [[Vishva Hindu Parishad]] (VHP), which acts as the fountainhead of all pro-Hindu-right wing thought and political action in India.
==Controversy==
Thackeray is notorious for his intolerant stance towards people who have migrated to Mumbai from other parts of India, non-[[Hindu]]s and [[Pakistan]]is. In the late [[1970s]], the firebrand politician dared [[South India]]ns to leave Mumbai, or face the consequences.
Thackeray's latest skirmishes with the law stem from the inflammatory editorials he continues to publish in his party mouthpiece, [[Sāmna]] (Confrontation).
==Targeting Muslims==
Bal Thackeray fired his first salvo against Indian Muslims through his party mouthpiece, Sāmna around the time the 16th century [[Babri Mosque|Babri Masjid]] was demolished by right-wing cadres of the [[Bharatiya Janta Party|BJP]] in the northern town of [[Ayodhya]], on 6<sup>th</sup> December, [[1992]].
The Justice Srikrishna Commission of Enquiry, which investigated the ensuing communal riots in Mumbai, indicted Thackeray of sparking anti-Muslim violence, which led to more than 1,000 deaths in several massacres. The Srikrishna Commission found that Thackeray was personally responsible, not only for inciting the mobs through his incendiary speeches, but also directly coordinating the movement of the rioters.
Thackeray's Shiv Sena is also perceived to be responsible for orchestrating violence against [[Christian]]s and other religious and linguistic minorities (non-Maharashtrians). After the Pakistan-backed militant actions began in Jammu & Kashmir, Thackeray has constantly maintained that the Indian Muslims should consider themselves as "Indians first and Muslims later".
The regular destruction of shops and restaurants that allow young people to celebrate [[St. Valentine's Day]], interpreted as indecent and un-Indian by Thackeray, is one of his most famous actions. Thackeray's supporters are known for their ability to enforce general strikes around [[Mumbai]]. Shiv Sena has, in the past, shut down the [[Pakistan]]i [[Consulate]] in the city, and has made it impossible for Pakistani sports teams to play in the city.
==Recent News==
More recently, the Shiv Sena has pushed for a ban on "public obscenity" by young couples in the metropolitan area.
On [[September 5]], [[2004]], he announced his decision not to shave his beard "'till we win the assembly elections in the state". A general decline in Shiv Sena support in recent years has resulted in increased intra-party rivalry between Bal Thackeray's son [[Udhav Thackeray]], and nephew [[Raj Thackeray]] in which senior Sena leaders, such as former Chief Minister [[Manohar Joshi]] have sided with Udhav, while hard-line leaders such as [[Narayan Rane]] and [[Sanjay Nirupam]] have sided with Raj. Both these leaders were later expelled from Sena and joined Indian National Congress.
On December 18, 2005, Raj Thackeray announced his resignation as a primary member of the Shiv Sena.
On February 14, 2006, Bal Thackeray astonishingly condemned and apologized for the violent attacks of Shiv Sena members upon a private Valentine's Day celebration in Mumbai. "It is said that women were beaten up in the Nallasopara incident. If that really happened, then it is a symbol of cowardice," Thackeray said, "I have always instructed Shiv Sainiks that in any situation women should not be humiliated and harassed."[http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/1419743.cms] Thackeray and the Shiv Sena remain opposed to Valentine's Day celebrations, although they may support an "Indian alternative."[http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/1413273.cms]
==External links==
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/841488.stm Profile] by [[BBC]] dated July 19, 2000 referring to him as the "uncrowned [[monarch]] of [[Maharashtra]]"
*[http://www.hindustantimes.com/news/181_994563,001301310002.htm "''Bal Thackeray: The Tiger who can't be tamed''"] - HindustanTimes.com article dated September 8, 2004
[[Category:1927 births|Thackeray, Balasaheb]]
|
highly popular and influential among the early [[United Kingdom|British]] rockers; bands like [[the Rolling Stones]] and [[the Yardbirds]] had recorded covers of many classic blues songs, sometimes speeding up the [[tempo]] and using [[electric guitar]] where the original used [[acoustic guitar|acoustic]]. (Similar adaptations of blues and other [[race music]] had formed the basis of the earliest rock and roll, notably that of [[Elvis Presley]]).
Such powered-up blues music was encouraged by the [[intellectual]] and artistic experimentation that arose when musicians started to exploit the opportunities of the electrically amplified guitar to produce a louder, more [[discordant]] sound. Where blues-rock drumming styles had been largely simple [[shuffle beat]]s on small drum kits, drummers began using a more muscular, complex, and amplified approach to match and be heard with the increasingly loud guitar sounds; similarly vocalists modified their technique and increased their reliance on amplification, often becoming more stylised and dramatic in the process. Simultaneous advances in amplification and recording technology made it possible to successfully capture the power of this heavier approach on record.
[[Image:BlackSabbathParanoid.jpg|right|thumb|Black Sabbath - Paranoid]] The earliest music commonly identified as heavy metal came out of the [[Birmingham]] area of the [[United Kingdom]] in the late [[1960s]] when bands such as [[Led Zeppelin]] and [[Black Sabbath]] applied an overtly non-traditional approach to blues standards and created new music often based on blues scales and arrangements. These bands were highly influenced by [[United States|American]] [[psychedelic rock]] musicians including [[Jimi Hendrix]], who had pioneered amplified and processed blues-rock guitar and acted as a bridge between black American music and white European rockers.
Other oft-cited influences include [[Vanilla Fudge]], who had slowed down and psychedelicised pop tunes, as well as earlier British rockers such as [[The Who]] and [[The Kinks]], who had paved the way for heavy metal styles by introducing [[power chord]]s and more aggressive percussion to the rock genre. Another key influence was [[Cream (band)|Cream]], who exemplified the [[power trio]] format that would become a staple of heavy metal.
Perhaps the earliest song that is clearly identifiable as prototype heavy metal is "You Really Got Me" by [[The Kinks]] ([[1965]]). Some also cite [[The Beatles]] as a key influence; they had increasingly used distortion and heavier arrangements as early as [[1967]]'s ''[[Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band]]''.
By late 1968 heavy blues sounds were becoming common: many fans and scholars point to [[Blue Cheer]]'s 1968 cover of [[Eddie Cochran]]'s hit "[[Summertime Blues]]" as the first true heavy-metal song; Beatles scholars cite in particular the song "[[Helter Skelter]]" from ''[[The White Album]]'' ([[1968]]), which set new standards for distortion and aggressive sound on a pop album. [[Dave Edmunds]]' band [[Love Sculpture]] released an aggressive heavy guitar version of [[Khachaturian]]'s ''[[Sabre Dance]]'' in [[November]] [[1968]]. The [[Jeff Beck]] Group's album ''Truth'' (late 1968) was an important and influential rock album released just before [[Led Zeppelin]]'s first [[Led Zeppelin (album)|album]], leading some (especially British blues fans) to argue that ''Truth'' was the first heavy metal album. The Yardbirds' 1968 single "Think About It" should also be mentioned, as that employed a similar sound to that which [[Jimmy Page]] would employ with Led Zeppelin.
Also, [[progressive rock]] band [[King Crimson]]'s "21st Century Schizoid Man" from their debut album, [[In The Court Of The Crimson King]] (1969), featured most of the thematic, compositional and musical characteristics of heavy metal: a very heavily distorted guitar tone and discordant soloing by [[Robert Fripp]], lyrics that focused on what is wrong about what the 21st century human would be, a dark mood and even [[Greg Lake]]'s vocals were passed through a distortion box.
However, it was the release of ''Led Zeppelin'' in 1969 that brought worldwide notice of the formation of a new genre. The first heavy metal bands -- [[Led Zeppelin]], [[Uriah Heep]], [[UFO (band)|UFO]] and [[Black Sabbath]], among a few -- are often now called [[hard rock]] bands by the modern metal community rather than heavy metal, especially those bands whose sound was more similar to traditional rock music. In general, the terms ''heavy metal'' and ''hard rock'' are often used interchangeably, in particular when discussing the [[1970s]]. Indeed, many such bands are not considered "heavy metal bands" per se, but rather as having contributed individual songs or works that contributed to the genre; few would consider [[Jethro Tull (band)|Jethro Tull]] a heavy metal band in any real sense, for example, but few would dispute that their song [[Aqualung]] was a quintessential early Heavy Metal song.
===Classic Heavy Metal (Late 1970s and early 1980s)===
[[Image:VanHalenVanHalen.jpg|right|thumb|Album by [[Van Halen]] ]] The late 1970s and early 1980s history of heavy metal music is highly debated among music historians. Some would call the period an era of "[[sell out|selling-out]]", in which bands like [[Blue Öyster Cult]] achieved moderate mainstream success and the [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] [[hair metal]] scene began finding pop audiences, especially in the [[1980s]]. Others ignore or downplay the importance of these bands, instead focusing on the arrival of classical influences, which can be heard in the work of [[Eddie Van Halen]] and [[Randy Rhoads]] and such like. Others still highlight the late-70s cross-fertilization of heavy metal with fast-paced, youthful [[punk rock]] (e.g. [[Sex Pistols]]), culminating in the [[New Wave of British Heavy Metal]] around the year 1980, led by bands like [[Judas Priest]] and [[Iron Maiden]].
Many people, including Heavy Metal musicians of prominent groups, believe that the foundations of the definite style and sound of pure heavy metal were laid down by [[Judas Priest]] (another Birmingham band) with three of their early albums: "Sad Wings Of Destiny" (1976), "Sin After Sin" (1977) and "Stained Class" (1978).
(Although [[Rainbow (band)|Rainbow]] are also sometimes cited as pioneering a sort of pure heavy metal, although one could also make this claim about the later albums of [[Deep Purple]] such as ''[[Burn (album)|Burn]]'' and ''[[Stormbringer (album)|Stormbringer]]'', these bands are generally considered to be hard rock bands).
The explosion of guitar virtuosity (pioneered by Jimi Hendrix a musical generation earlier) was brought to the fore by Eddie Van Halen, and many consider his 1978 solo "[[Eruption (song)|Eruption]]" (''[[Van Halen (album)|Van Halen]]'', [[1978]]) a milestone. [[Ritchie Blackmore]] (formerly of Deep Purple), [[Randy Rhoads]] (with pioneers [[Ozzy Osbourne]] and [[Quiet Riot]]) and [[Yngwie Malmsteen]] went on to solidify this explosion of virtuoso guitar work, and in some cases, classical guitars and nylon-stringed guitars were played at heavy metal concerts. Classical icons such as [[Liona Boyd]] also became associated with the heavy metal stars as peers in a newly diverse guitar fraternity where conservative and aggressive guitarists could come together to "trade licks".
This explosion would cool down in the music of [[Ronnie James Dio]] (who himself had a tenure at lead vocals with the legendary [[Black Sabbath]]) and continue to settle towards [[Judas Priest]] and [[Iron Maiden]], who may be the final and complete consummation of "pure" heavy metal in the lineage of the "grandfathers" - Hendrix, Black Sabbath, Led Zeppelin and Deep Purple.
===Metal Goes Mainstream (1980s)===
[[Image:QuietRiotMetalHealthalbumcover.jpg|right|thumb|Quiet Riot - Metal Health]] In a related development, taking place mostly in the U.S., heavy metal would return full circle through the pop vanity of the L.A. scene, led by [[Mötley Crüe]]. In the beginning, this form was led by legends like [[Judas Priest]], [[Dio]], [[Dokken]] and [[Twisted Sister]]. During the 1980s, a pop-based form of hard rock, with a party-hearty spirit and a glam-influenced visual aesthetic (sometimes referred to as "hair metal" due to the long and painstakingly-styled hair of band members) dominated the music charts in some parts of the world, and superstars like [[Def Leppard]], Poison, Bon Jovi, Mötley Crüe, and [[Ratt]] helped lead the way. While their music has endured as representative of a particular view, time and place, this form is not always seen by metal purists as a particularly pure or well-executed form of metal. The 1987 debut of [[Guns N' Roses]], a hard rock band with its Aerosmith influences worn prominently on its sleeve, and whose image reflected the grittier underbelly of the Sunset Strip, was at least in part a reaction against the overly-polished image of hair metal, but that band's wild success was in many ways the last gasp of the L.A. hard-rock and metal scene.
===Underground Metal (1980s, 1990s, and 2000s)===
[[Image:SlayerReigninBlood.jpg|left|thumb|[[Slayer]]'s seminal album ''Reign in Blood'']] By the mid-1980s, as the term "heavy metal" became the subject of much contestation, heavy metal had branched out in so many different directions that new sub-classifications were created by fans, record companies, and fanzines, although sometimes the differences between various sub-genres were unclear, even to the artists purportedly belonging to a given style (see [[List of heavy metal genres]]).
Notable early 80s sub-genres include the faster [[thrash metal]], pioneered by the '[[Big Four Of Thrash]]' (including [[Anthrax (band)|Anthrax]],
|
er of different groups, the main ones being the [[Akawaio]], [[Arawak]], [[Carib]], [[Macushi]], [[Makuxi]], [[Pemon]] and [[Wapishana]]. Several smaller groups, including [[Ethnic Chinese|Chinese]], [[Portuguese (Guyana)|Portuguese]], "Whites" ([[Europe]]ans other than Portuguese, including [[United Kingdom|British]]) and others make up less than 1% of the population. The overwhelming majority of the population - around 90% - live along the coastal strip, where population density is more than 115 persons per km². There is much racial tension between the Indian and African communities, and the two main parties are largely mono-racial. The trend over time is for the Amerindian and mixed-race proportion to grow, mainly at the expense of the Indo-Guyanese proportion, while the black percentage remains roughly stable. In 1980, Guyana had an absolute majority (51.9%) of Indo-Guyanese, but now no group forms a majority.
Religion in Guyana runs mainly along racial lines. [[Christianity]] (50%) predominantly [[Anglicanism]], is the main religion practiced by Afro-Guyanese, though some are [[Black Muslim]] or other Christian denominations. The Indo-Guyanese community mainly follow [[Hinduism]] (35%), though there is a sizable minority who practice [[Islam]] (10%). Guyana is the country with the largest percentage of [[Bahá'í Faith|Bahá'ís]] (7%).
[[Emigration]] has been a large and persistent problem in Guyana, with an estimated 500,000 Guyanese living abroad. Since independence, as many as 10,000 Guyanese have left and settled permanently in the [[United States]] alone per year and demand to emigrate remains very high. [[Canada]], the [[United Kingdom]] and English-speaking Caribbean islands are the other main countries people choose to emigrate to. At the same time, the birth rate has fallen sharply, and because of the emigration, can no longer sustain the country's population level. Many in the government worry that the country may become depopulated, but few concrete steps have been taken to stem the outflow. Results from the 2002 census, however, suggest that emigration in the last decade has decreased somewhat compared to the 1980s.
==Culture==
<TABLE border="1" align="right" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0">
<CAPTION><font size="+1">'''Holidays'''</font></caption>
<TR><TH style="background:#efefef;">Date</TH><TH style="background:#efefef;">English Name</TH><TH style="background:#efefef;">Remarks</TH></TR>
<TR><TD>[[January 1]]</TD><TD>[[New Year's Day]]</TD><TD></TD></TR>
<TR><TD>[[February 23]]</TD><TD>[[Mashramani-Republic Day]]</TD><TD></TD></TR>
<TR><TD>[[Variable]]</TD><TD>[[Phagwah]]</TD><TD></TD></TR>
<TR><TD>Variable</TD><TD>[[Eid-ul-Fitr]]</TD><TD></TD></TR>
<TR><TD>[[Variable]]</TD><TD>[[Good Friday]]</TD><TD></TD></TR>
<TR><TD>Variable</TD><TD>[[Easter Monday]]</TD><TD></TD></TR>
<TR><TD>[[May 1]]</TD><TD>[[Labour Day]]</TD><TD></TD></TR>
<TR><TD>[[May 26]]</TD><TD>[[Independence Day]]</TD><TD></TD></TR>
<TR><TD>[[July]]</TD><TD>[[CARICOM Day]]</TD><TD></TD></TR>
<TR><TD>[[August 1]]</TD><TD>[[Emancipation Day]]</TD><TD></TD></TR>
<TR><TD>Variable</TD><TD>[[Diwali]]</TD><TD></TD></TR>
<TR><TD>[[December 25]]</TD><TD>[[Christmas]]</TD><TD></TD></TR>
<TR><TD>[[December 26]]</TD><TD>[[Boxing Day]]</TD><TD></TD></TR>
</TABLE>
''Main article: [[Culture of Guyana]]''
'''Guyana's culture''' is very similar to that of the English-speaking [[Caribbean]]. It is so similar that Guyana is included and accepted as a Caribbean Nation and is a member of the Caribbean Community [[Caricom]] economic bloc. Only its geographical location differentiates it from the rest of the English speaking Caribbean countries. Guyana shares similar interests with the islands in the [[West Indies]], such as food, festive events, music, sports, etc. Guyana plays international cricket as a part of the [[West Indian cricket team|West Indies cricket team]], and the [[Guyanese cricket team|Guyana team]] plays [[first class cricket]] against other nations of the Caribbean.
''For Guyanese writers see [[Literature of Guyana]]''.
'''Music & Entertainment''' in Guyana follows the lead of other Caribbean countries and India. Radio stations play the latest [[reggae]], [[dancehall]], [[soca]] and [[chutney]] as well as [[Bollywood]] influences of bhangra and other hindi music. Local television stations air American, British and Indian broadcasts. There are teen clubs in which many youths attend to dance and have a good time with others that are in the same age limit.
'''Cuisine and Recipes'''
For the main article, see [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Cookbook:Cuisine_of_Guyana Guyanese Cuisine and Recipes]
'''Cultural events in Guyana'''
*[[Mashramani]] (Mash)
*[[Phagwah]] ([[Holi]])
*[[Deepavali]] ([[Diwali]])
The major religion in Guyana is Christianity, accounting for approx. 48% of the population. Hindus make up approx. 36%, while Muslims account for 12% of the population. The rest of the population is split into a number of other religious groups.
'''Sports in Guyana'''
The major sports in Guyana are [[cricket]], [[softball cricket]] ([[beach cricket]]) and [[football (soccer)|football]]. The minor sports in Guyana are [[netball]], [[rounders]], [[lawn tennis]], [[basketball]], [[table tennis]], [[boxing]], and a few others.
'''Languages'''
English (official language), Amerindian dialects (see [[Cariban languages]]), [[Guyanese Creole]], [[Hindi]], [[Urdu]].
==Ecology and World Heritage Site status==
Countries interested in the conservation and protection of natural and cultural heritage sites of the world accede to the Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage that was adopted by [[UNESCO]] in 1972. Guyana is no exception, and signed the treaty in 1977. In fact, Guyana was the first Caribbean State Party to sign the treaty. Sometime in the latter half of the mid-1990s Guyana seriously began the process of selecting sites for World Heritage nomination and three sites were considered: [[Kaieteur National Park]], [[Shell Beach, Guyana|Shell Beach]] and Historic Georgetown. By 1997, work on Kaieteur National Park was started and in 1998 work on Historic Georgetown was begun. To date, however, Guyana has not made a successful nomination.
In 2000(?) Guyana submitted the Kaieteur National Park, including the [[Kaieteur Falls]], to UNESCO as its first World Heritage Site nomination. The proposed area and surrounds have some of Guyana’s most diversified life zones with one of the highest levels of endemic species found anywhere in South America. The Kaieteur Falls is the most spectacular feature of the park falling a distance of 226 m and exceeding the height of Niagara Falls (USA/Canada) five times. Unfortunately, the nomination of Kaieteur Park as a World Heritage Site was not successful, primarily because the area was seen by the evaluators as being too small, especially when compared with the Central Suriname Nature Reserve that had just been nominated as a World Heritage Site (2000). The dossier was thus returned to Guyana for revision.
Guyana continues in its bid for a World Heritage Site. Work continues, after a period of hiatus, on the nomination dossier for Historic Georgetown – a Tentative List indicating Historic Georgetown as being put forward for nomination was submitted to UNESCO in December 2004. There is now a small committee put together by the Guyana National Commission for UNESCO to complete the nomination dossier and the management plan for the site. Recently, in April 2005, two Dutch experts in Conservation spent two weeks in Georgetown supervising Architecture staff and students of the University of Guyana in a historic building survey of the selected area. This is part of the data collection for the nomination dossier. It is expected that the completed nomination document will be submitted in 2006.
Meanwhile, as a result of the Kaieteur National Park being considered too small, there is a proposal to prepare a nomination for a Cluster Site that will include the Kaieteur National Park, the Iwokrama Rain Forest and the Kanuku Mountains. The Iwokrama Forest, an area rich in biological diversity, has been described by Major General (Rtd) Joseph Singh as “a flagship project for conservation.” The Kanuku Mountains area is in a pristine state, and is home to more than 400 birds and animals. These three sites together, we feel, more than adequately meet the requirements of exceptional natural beauty and biological diversity, as well as the requirements of size and integrity, for a successful nomination.
There is much work to be done for the successful nomination of these sites to the World Heritage List. The State, the private sector and the ordinary Guyanese each have a role to play in this process and in the later protection of the sites. Inscription on the UNESCO World Heritage will open Guyana to more serious tourists thereby assisting in its economic development.
Guyana exhibits two of the WWF's [[Global 200]] ecoregions most crucial to the conservation of global biodiversity, Guianan moist forests and Guyana Highlands moist forests and is home to several endemic spec
|
nd for Gutim, the [[Guti]] being a people who lived to the east of [[Kurdistan]]. Nevertheless, there is as yet no monumental evidence for the genuineness of the story, and the most that can be said with certainty is that the author (of whatever date) has derived his names from a trustworthy source, and in representing an invasion of Canaan by Babylonian overlords, has given expression to a possible situation. It may be that only the bare outlines are historical. If it is a historical romance (cf., e.g., the book of Judith), it is possible that a writer who lived in the [[post-exilic]] age, and was acquainted with Babylonian history, decided to enhance the greatness of Abraham by exhibiting his military success against the monarchs of the [[Tigris]] and [[Euphrates]], the high esteem he enjoyed in Canaan, and the practical character displayed in his brief exchange with [[Melchizedek]]. The historical section of the article [[Tithe]] provides more evidence on the historicity of the meeting with Melchizedek.
Several minimalist professors of archaeology claim that many stories in the Old Testament, including important chronicles about Abraham, [[Moses]], and others, were actually made up by scribes hired by King [[Josiah]] ([[7th century BC]]) in order to rationalize monotheistic belief in Yahweh. Mimimalists claim that the neighboring countries that kept many written records, such as Egypt, Assyria, etc., have no writings about the stories of the Bible or its main characters before [[650 BC]], and vehemently dispute the validity of any evidence to the contrary. Such claims are detailed in "Who Were the Early Israelites?" by William G. Dever, (William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., Grand Rapids, MI, 2003). Another such book by Neil A. Silberman and colleagues is "The Bible Unearthed," (Simon and Schuster, New York, 2001). Of course, the historical annals and tributes to "great kings" are not well-served by preserving great defeats by their enemies (in this case, the Hebrews), and therefore, such records are understandably scanty. Also, many great kings did not long survive great defeats, as it was a sign to their followers that these "great leaders" had lost the favor of their God, gods and goddesses, and the kings were quickly assassinated and replaced.
==References==
* [[1911 Encyclopedia Britannica]].
* [[Genesis]]
* [http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/0814736548 Hoffman, Joel M. ''In the Beginning: A Short History of the Hebrew Language'']
==See also==
*[[Abrahamic religions]]
*[[Abraham's bosom]]
*[[List of founders of major religions]]
==External links==
*[http://www.soundvision.com/info/hajj/abraham.asp Abraham in all three Abrahamic faiths]
*[http://www.hajj.ca/Ismail.html Abraham's sacrifice: an Islamic perspective]
*[http://www.GospelTruth.info/ GospelTruth] -- God's promises to Abraham according to Christian belief
*[http://www.BiblicalArcheology.Net/ Biblical Archeology] -- Bible-related article about Abraham
*[http://www.time.com/time/covers/1101020930/ The Legacy of Abraham] -- Time magazine cover story
*[http://www.islamfrominside.com/Pages/Tafsir/Tafsir%286-74_to_79%29.html Abraham's vision in the Qur'an]
*[http://www.clearvision.com.pk/perspectives.php?func=show&id=8#_edn2 Millat-e-Ibrahim Abraham's Way] by [http://clearvision.com.pk ClearVisionPk]
*[http://speakingoffaith.publicradio.org/programs/2004/09/09_abraham/ Children of Abraham] -- episode of the weekly [[Minnesota Public Radio]] show ''[[Speaking of Faith]]''
* [http://www.biblicalstudies.org.uk/article_abraham.html ''Abraham'' by Rob Bradshaw] An extensive dictionary-style article.
* [http://www.biblicalstudies.org.uk/epn.html A.R. Millard & D.J. Wiseman, eds., ''Essays on the Patriarchal Narratives''. Leicester: IVP, 1980. Hbk. ISBN: 0851117430.]
{{1911}}
[[Category:Abrahamic religions]]
[[Category:Christian prophets]]
[[Category:Islamic prophets]]
[[Category:Torah people]]
[[ar:ابراهيم]]
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[[gl:Abraham]]
[[he:אברהם אבינו]]
[[hr:Abraham]]
[[hu:Ábrahám]]
[[ia:Abraham]]
[[id:Nabi Ibrahim]]
[[it:Abramo (Bibbia)]]
[[ja:アブラハム]]
[[ko:아브라함]]
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[[la:Abraham]]
[[ms:Nabi Ibrahim a.s.]]
[[nl:Abraham]]
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[[no:Abraham]]
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[[pt:Abraão]]
[[ru:Авраам]]
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[[sr:Абрахам]]
[[sv:Abraham (patriark)]]
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[[zh:亞伯拉罕]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Abraxas</title>
<id>1437</id>
<revision>
<id>39605574</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-14T16:43:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Msablic</username>
<id>8725</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>ref. to solar cycle (calendar), I don't really understand the text but it certainly does not refer to sunspots</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{cleanup-date|August 2005}}
[[image:Abraxas.png|frame|right|Engraving from an Abraxas stone.]]
The word '''Abraxas''' (or '''Abrasax''' or '''Abracax''') was engraved on certain antique stones, called on that account '''Abraxas stones''', which were used as amulets or charms by [[Gnosticism|Gnostic]] sects. It was believed that Abraxas was the name of a god who incorporated both Good and Evil (God and [[Demiurge]]) in one entity, and therefore representing the [[monotheistic]] [[God]], singular, but (unlike e.g. the Christian God) not [[eutheism|omni-benevolent]]. Abraxas has been claimed to be both an [[Egypt]]ian god and a [[demon]], sometimes even being associated with the dual nature of [[Satan]]/[[Lucifer]]. This is possibly the origin of the word [[abracadabra]], although other explanations exist.
==Meaning==
:''"The bird fights its way out of the egg. The egg is the world. Who would be born first must destroy a world. The bird flies to God. That God's name is Abraxas"'' - [[Hermann Hesse]], ''[[Demian]]''
[[Image:Abraxas Artistic representationi.jpg|frame|left| Medieval Seal representing Abraxas]]
Abraxas was an [[Archon]] with a [[Chimera (mythology)|Chimera]]-like appearance (somewhat resembling a [[basilisk]]): he had the head of a [[rooster]] (or sometimes a king), the body of a man, and legs fashioned like [[snake]]s and sometimes depicted with a whip in his hand - a form referred to as the [[Anguipede]]. Abraxas was redeemed and rose above the seven spheres and now reigns beyond the worlds. There are references to Abraxas in several gnostic writings.
The letters of abraxas, in the [[Greek language|Greek]] notation, make up the number 365, and the [[Basilideans]] gave the name to the 365 orders of spirits which, as they conceived, emanated in succession from the Supreme Being. These orders were supposed to occupy 365 heavens, each fashioned like, but inferior to that above it; and the lowest of the heavens was thought to be the abode of the spirits who formed Earth and its inhabitants, and to whom was committed the administration of its affairs.
In addition to the word Abraxas and other mystical characters, they have often cabalistic figures engraved on them. The commonest of these have the head of a fowl, and the arms and bust of a man, and terminate in the body and tail of a serpent.
===Text from the Catholic Encyclopedia===
The study of Abraxas is, at first sight, as discouraging as it is possible to imagine. The name has been given to a class of ancient stone articles, of small dimensions, inscribed with outlandish figures and formulas, sometimes wholly indecipherable, specimens of which are to be found in almost every museum and private collection. These, for the most part, have hitherto resisted all attempts at interpretation, though it would be rash to conclude that a fuller knowledge may not solve enigmas which remain closed to us.
The true name, moreover, is Abrasax, and not, as incorrectly written, Abraxas, a reading due to the confusion made by the Latins between Sigma and Xi. Among the early Gnostics, Abrasax appears to have had various meanings. Basilides gave this title to Almighty God, and claimed that the [[isopsephy|numerical value of its letters]] gave the sum of 365, because the Abrasax is enclosed in the [[solar cycle (calendar)|solar cycle]]. Sometimes the number 365 signifies the series of the heavens. In view of such imaginings, it is easy to guess at the course taken by an untrammelled Gnostic fancy, whereby its adherents strove to discover the meaning of the mysterious word.
It is, however, an error to give the name Abrasax to all stones of Gnostic origin, as has been done up to the present day. It is not the name which applies to talismans, any more than the names of Jupiter and Venus apply to all ancient statues indiscriminately. Abrasax is the name given by the Gnostics to the Supreme Deity, and it is quite possible that we shall find a clue to its etymological meaning in the influences of numbers. The subject is one which has exercised the ingenuity of many savants, but it may be said that all the engraved stones to which the name is commonly given fall into three classes:
#Abrasax, or stones of Basilidian origin.
#Abrasaxtes, or stones originating in ancient forms of worship, and adapted by the Gnostics to their peculiar opinions.
#Abraxoïdes, or stones absolutely unconnected with the doctrine of Basilides.
Bellermann, following Montfaucon, made a tentative classification of Gnostic stones, which, however, is nowadays looked upon as wholly inadequate. His mistake consisted in wishing, as it were, to make a frontal attack on Gnosticism. Kopp, endowed with greater skill and patience, seems to have realized in some measure how wide the problem actually is. Ad. Franck and, quite lately, Moses Schwab have made diligent researches in the direction of the [[Cabbala]] (or Kabbala). "The demonology devised by the Cabbalists"
|
], [[color]], [[Conductor (material)|conductor]], [[covalent]], [[crystalline]], [[coherent]], [[concentration]], [[degree (angle)]], [[degree (temperature)]], [[density]], [[dielectric]], [[diploid]], [[direction]], [[dipole]], [[dissociation]], [[distance]], [[ductile]], [[electron]], [[electronegativity]], [[elastic]], [[element]], [[energy]], [[enthalpy]], [[entropy]], [[equilibrium]], [[experiment]], [[Field_%28physics%29|field]], [[induction]], [[torque]], [[velocity]], [[wave]].
Similarly, there are concepts in [[biological sciences]], for example, [[animal]], [[biome]], [[chromosome]], [[death]], [[egg]], [[fertile]], [[gene]], [[growth]], [[gymnosperm]], [[heredity]], [[hybrid]], [[life]], [[living being]], [[Organ (anatomy)|organ]], [[organism]], [[ovule]], [[plant]], [[prokaryote]], [[soil]], [[vascular]], [[zygote]] and there are concepts in [[social sciences]] viz. [[Capital_%28disambiguation%29|capital]], [[commodity]], [[finance]], [[Geist_%28philosophy%29|geist]], [[Psyche_%28psychology%29|psyche]], [[society]], [[wealth]] [[community]] etc.
Concepts help to integrate apparently unrelated [[obsevations]] and [[phenomena]] into viable hypothesis and theories, the basic ingredients of science. But, somehow this nature of these concepts is rarely emphasized when they are introduced in school. The result is that many students feel confused. Many people have realized this and have introduced a term [[concept map]] that helps students to learn the inter-relationships between various concepts.
==Concepts in Mathematics==
According to [[Carl Benjamin Boyer]], in the introduction to his ''The History of the Calculus and its Conceptual Development'', concepts in calculus do not refer to perceptions. As long as the concepts are useful and mutually compatible, they are accepted on their own. For example, the concepts of the [[derivative]] and the [[integral]] are not considered to refer to spatial or temporal perceptions of the external world of experience. Neither are they related in any way to mysterious [[limit]]s in which quantities are on the verge of nascence or evanescence, that is, coming into or going out of appearance or existence. The abstract concepts are now considered to be totally autonomous, even though they originated from the process of abstracting or taking away qualities from perceptions until only the common, essential attributes remained.
== See also ==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* [[Abstraction]]
* [[Categorization]]
* [[Class (philosophy)]]
* [[Concept and object]]
* [[Concept map]]
* [[Conceptual art]]
* [[Conceptual framework]]
* [[Formal concept analysis]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Hypostatic abstraction]]
* [[Idea]]
* [[Meme]]
* [[Misconception]]
* [[Philosophy]]
* [[Prescisive abstraction]]
* [[Social construction]]
* [[Symbol grounding|Symbol Grounding]] Problem
{{col-end}}
==References==
*''The History of Calculus and its Conceptual Development'', [[Carl Benjamin Boyer]], Dover Publications, ISBN 486-60509-4
*''The Writings of William James'', University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226-39188-4
*''[[Logic]]'', Immanuel [[Kant]], Dover Publications, ISBN 0-486-25650-2
*''[[A System of Logic]]'', John Stuart Mill, University Press of the Pacific, ISBN 1-4102-0252-6
*''[[Parerga and Paralipomena]]'', Arthur Schopenhauer, Volume I, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-824508-4
*''What is Philosophy?'', Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari
==External links==
*[http://www.medinf.mu-luebeck.de/~ingenerf/pg_term/fn4#fn4 ISO 1087 - Terminology / Vocabulary (1990)]
[[Category:Logic]]
[[Category:Semantics]]
[[Category:Philosophical terminology]]
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[[zh:概念]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cell Cycle</title>
<id>6979</id>
<revision>
<id>15905086</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cell cycle]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Caltrans</title>
<id>6980</id>
<revision>
<id>15905087</id>
<timestamp>2004-09-20T05:50:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Radiojon</username>
<id>15970</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[California Department of Transportation]] [[category:portmanteaus]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of classical music competitions</title>
<id>6982</id>
<revision>
<id>40123866</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T08:21:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>71.142.246.5</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">This is a list of [[European classical music|classical music]] [[competition]]s.
* [[Bathroom Divas|Bathroom Divas: So You Want To Be An Opera Star?]]
* [[Bartok-Kabalevsky-Prokofieff Piano Competition]]
* [[BBC Singer of the World competition]], [http://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/singeroftheworld03/]
* [[Cleveland International Piano Competition]], summer of each odd numbered year, $50,000 1st prize. [http://clevelandpiano.org]
* [[Concert Artist's Guild]], a series of competitions for younger, up-and-coming musicians, [http://www.concertartists.org]
* [[Concurso Internacional de Piano Paloma O'shea]] (also known as Concurso de Piano de Santander)[http://www.fundacionalbeniz.com/]
* [[CyberSing 2004]], an international web-based art song competition, [http://www.lottelehmann.org/cybersing2004/]
* [[5 Town Music Piano Competition]], [http://www.uk-piano.org/5towns/index.html]
* [[Guido Cantelli Conducting Competition]], one winner was [[Eliahu Inbal]].
* [[Glenn Gould Prize]].
* [[Kingsville International Piano Concerto Competition]]
* [[Leeds]] International Pianoforte Competition [http://www.leedspiano.com/]
* [[Marguerite Long-Jacques Thibaud Competition]] Paris
* [[Naumburg International Piano Competition ]]
* The [[Queen Elisabeth Concours]], located in [[Brussels]], [[Belgium]], it is a competition for performers.
* [[International Frederick Chopin Piano Competition]] - The most prestigious competition of its kind in the world.
* International Franz Liszt Piano Competition [http://www.liszt.nl/]
* [[Sydney International Piano Competition of Australia]], June 2004 marks the 8th annum
* [[Terence Judd Award]]
* [[International Tchaikovsky Competition]]
* The [[Van Cliburn International Piano Competition]], held by the [[Van Cliburn Foundation]]. [[Van Cliburn]] himself was a winner of the Tchaikovsky. [http://cliburn.org]
* [[Henryk Wieniawski Violin Competition]] in [[Poznan]], [[Poland]]
* [[International Jean Sibelius Violin Competition]], [[Finland]]
* International [[Paganini competition]]
==External links==
*[http://www.classical.net/music/links/musicfest.html ClassicalNet: Festivals, Competitions, Concerts & Concert Venues]
*{{dmoz|Arts/Music/Resources/Competitions/Classical | Classical music competitions}}
{{classical-composition-stub}}
[[Category:Music competitions]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Colin Powell</title>
<id>6984</id>
<revision>
<id>41968310</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T23:10:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>66.65.105.150</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| id="infobox" style="margin-left:1em; float:right;"
|+ style="font-size:larger;"|
|-
|style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"| [[Image:SecyPowell.png|Secretary of State Colin Powell]]
|-
|'''Order'''
|65th Secretary of State
|-
|style="padding-right:1em;"|'''Term of Office'''
|[[January 20]], [[2001]] -<br />[[January 26]], [[2005]]
|-
|'''Predecessor'''
|[[Madeleine Albright]]
|-
|'''Successor'''
|[[Condoleezza Rice]]
|-
|'''Date of Birth'''
|[[April 5]], [[1937]]
|-
|'''Place of Birth'''
|[[The Bronx, New York]]
|-
|'''[[Spouse]]'''
|Alma Vivian Johnson Powell
|-
|'''[[Profession]]'''
|[[Soldier]], [[Statesman]]
|-
|'''[[Political party|Political Party]]'''
|[[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]
|}
'''General Colin Luther Powell, United States Army (Ret.)''' [[Order of the Bath|KCB]] (born [[April 5]], [[1937]]) was the 65th [[United States Secretary of State]], serving from [[January 20]], [[2001]] to [[January 23]], [[2005]] under [[President of the United States|President]] [[George W. Bush]]. Nominated by Bush on [[December 16]], [[2000]] and unanimously confirmed by the [[United States Senate]], Powell became the highest ranking [[African American]] government official in the history of the United States (now having been tied by his successor, [[Condoleezza Rice]]). As a [[general]] in the [[United States Army]], Powell also served as [[United States National Security Advisor|National Security Advisor]] (1987–1989) and [[Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff]] (1989–1993).
==Military career==
[[Image:genpowell.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Colin Powell as Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff.]]
Colin Powell was born in The [[Bronx]], [[New York City]] in [[1937]]. His parents had immigrated from [[Jamaica]]. Powell always spoke warmly of his parents as loving and hard working. He wrote in his autobiography "Its the luck of the draw when you are given parents and I couldn't have been luckier". An indifferent student, Powell attended the [[City College of New York]] and obtained a degree in geology. He later spoke of how he "found himself" when he joined [[ROTC]]. He later described it as one of the happiest experiences of his life finding something he loved and could do well. Cadet Powell joined the Pershing Rifles. This was the elite ROTC drill team named after [[General of the Army
|
rinciples of international humanitarian law and the [[statute]]s of the International Movement. Depending on their specific circumstances and capacities, national societies can take on additional humanitarian tasks that are not directly defined by international humanitarian law or the [[mandate]]s of the International Movement. See the [[list of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies]] to find information about a particular national society.
The term ''International Red Cross'' and the respective acronym ''IRC'' is actually a misnomer, as no official organization exists bearing that name. Furthermore, the use of this label can result in confusion regarding the distinction between the ICRC and the Federation, potentially adversely politicizing its efforts.
==History of the Movement==
===The International Committee of the Red Cross===
====Solferino, Henry Dunant and the foundation of the ICRC====
[[Image:Jean_Henri_Dunant.jpg|250px|thumb|[[Henry Dunant]], Author of "[[A Memory of Solferino]]"]]
Up until the middle of the 19<sup>th</sup> century, there were no organized and well-established [[army nursing]] systems for casualties and no safe and protected institutions to accommodate and treat those who were wounded on the battlefield. In June 1859, the Swiss businessman [[Henry Dunant]] traveled to [[Italy]] to meet French emperor [[Napoléon III]] with the intention of discussing difficulties in conducting business in [[Algeria]], at that time occupied by [[France]]. When he arrived in the small town of [[Solferino]] on the evening of [[June 24]], he witnessed the [[Battle of Solferino]], an engagement in the [[Austro-Sardinian War]]. In a single day, about 40,000 soldiers on both sides died or were left wounded on the field. Henry Dunant was shocked by the terrible aftermath of the battle, the suffering of the wounded soldiers, and the near-total lack of medical attendance and basic care. He completely abandoned the original intent of his trip and for several days he devoted himself to helping with the treatment and care for the wounded. He succeeded in organizing an overwhelming level of relief assistance by motivating the local population to aid without discrimination. Back in his home in [[Geneva]], he decided to write a book entitled ''[[A Memory of Solferino]]'' which he published with his own money in 1862. He sent copies of the book to leading political and military figures throughout [[Europe]]. In addition to penning a vivid description of his experiences in Solferino in 1859, he explicitly advocated the formation of national voluntary relief organizations to help nurse wounded soldiers in the case of war. In addition, he called for the development of international treaties to guarantee the neutrality and protection of those wounded on the battlefield as well as medics and field hospitals.
[[Image:Original_Geneva_Conventions.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Original document of the first Geneva Convention, 1864.]]
On [[February 9]], [[1863]] in Geneva, Henry Dunant founded the "Committee of the Five" (together with four other leading figures from well-known [[Geneva families]]) as an investigatory commission of the [[Geneva Society for Public Welfare]]. Their aim was to examine the feasibility of Dunant's ideas and to organize an international conference about their possible implementation. The members of this committee, aside from Dunant himself, were [[Gustave Moynier]], lawyer and chairman of the Geneva Society for Public Welfare; physician [[Louis Appia]], who had significant experience working as a field surgeon; Appia's friend and colleague [[Théodore Maunoir]], from the [[Geneva Hygiene and Health Commission]]; and [[Guillaume Henri Dufour|Guillaume-Henri Dufour]], a [[Swiss Army]] general of great renown. Eight days later, the five men decided to rename the committee to the "International Committee for Relief to the Wounded." In October (26-29) 1863, the international conference organized by the committee was held in Geneva to develop possible measures to improve medical services on the battle field. The conference was attended by 36 individuals: eighteen official delegates from national governments, six delegates from other non-governmental organizations, seven non-official foreign delegates, and the five members of the International Committee. The states and kingdoms represented by official delegates were [[Baden Germany|Baden]], [[Bavaria]], [[France]], [[Britain]], [[Hanover]], [[Hesse]], [[Italy]], [[Netherlands|the Netherlands]], [[Austria]], [[Prussia]], [[Russia]], [[Saxony]], [[Sweden]], and [[Spain]]. Among the proposals written in the final resolutions of the conference, adopted on [[October 29]], 1863, were:
* The foundation of national relief societies for wounded soldiers;
* Neutrality and protection for wounded soldiers;
* The utilization of volunteer forces for relief assistance on the battlefield;
* The organization of additional conferences to enact these concepts in legally binding international treaties; and
* The introduction of a common distinctive protection symbol for medical personnel in the field, namely a white armlet bearing a red cross.
[[Image:Gedenkstein-rotes-kreuz-1864.jpg|250px|thumb|Memorial commemorating the first use of the Red Cross symbol in an armed conflict during the Battle of [[Dybbøl]] (Denmark) in 1864; jointly erected in 1989 by the national Red Cross societies of [[Denmark]] and [[Germany]].]]
Only one year later, the Swiss government invited the governments of all European countries, as well as the [[United States]], [[Brazil]], and [[Mexico]], to attend an official diplomatic conference. 16 countries sent a total of 26 delegates to Geneva. On [[August 22]], 1864, the conference adopted the first [[Geneva Conventions|Geneva Convention]] "for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded in Armies in the Field." Representatives of 12 states and kingdoms signed the convention: Baden, Belgium, Denmark, France, Hesse, Italy, the Netherlands, [[Portugal]], Prussia, Switzerland, Spain, and [[Württemberg]]. The convention contained ten articles, establishing for the first time legally binding rules guaranteeing neutrality and protection for wounded soldiers, field medical personnel, and specific humanitarian institutions in an armed conflict. Furthermore, the convention defined two specific requirements for recognition of a national relief society by the International Committee:
* The national society must be recognized by its own national government as a relief society according to the convention, and
* The national government of the respective country must be a state party to the Geneva Convention.
Directly following the establishment of the Geneva Convention, the first national societies were founded in Belgium, Denmark, France, [[Oldenburg]], Prussia, Spain, and Württemberg. Also in 1864, Louis Appia and [[Charles Van de Velde]], a captain of the [[Royal Netherlands Army|Dutch Army]], became the first independent and neutral delegates to work under the symbol of the Red Cross in an armed conflict. Three years later in 1867, the first [[International Conference of National Aid Societies for the Nursing of the War Wounded]] was convened.
Also in 1867, Henry Dunant was forced to declare bankruptcy due to business failures in Algeria, partly because he had neglected his business interests during his tireless activities for the International Committee. Controversy surrounding Dunant's business dealings and the resulting negative public opinion combined with an ongoing conflict with Gustave Moynier led to Dunant's expulsion from his position as a member and secretary. He was forced to leave Geneva and never returned to his home city. In the following years, national societies were founded in nearly every country in Europe. In 1876, the committee adopted the name "International Committee of the Red Cross" (ICRC), which is still its official designation today. Five years later, the [[American Red Cross]] was founded through the efforts of [[Clara Barton]]. More and more countries signed the Geneva Convention and began to respect it in practice during armed conflicts. In a rather short period of time, the Red Cross gained huge momentum as an internationally respected movement, and the national societies became increasingly popular as a venue for volunteer work.
When the first [[Nobel Peace Prize]] was awarded in 1901, the [[Norway|Norwegian]] Nobel Committee opted to give it jointly to Henry Dunant and [[Frédéric Passy]], a leading international pacifist. More significant than the honor of the prize itself, the official congratulation from the International Committee of the Red Cross marked the overdue rehabilitation of Henry Dunant and represented a tribute to his key role in the formation of the Red Cross. Dunant died nine years later in the small Swiss health resort of [[Heiden]]. Only two months earlier his long-standing adversary Gustave Moynier had also died, leaving a mark in the history of the Committee as its longest-running president ever.
In 1906, the 1864 Geneva Convention was revised for the first time. One year later, the [[Hague Conventions (1899 and 1907)|Hague Convention]] X, adopted at the second International Peace Konferenz in [[The Hague]], extended the scope of the Geneva Convention to naval warfare. Shortly before the beginning of the [[First World War]] in 1914, 50 years after the foundation of the ICRC and the adoption of the first Geneva Convention, there were already 45 national relief societies throughout the world. The movement had extended itself beyond [[Europe]] and [[North America]] to [[Central America|Central]] and [[South America]] ([[Argentina]], [[Brazil]], [[Chile]], [[Cuba]], [[Mexico]], [[Peru]], [[El Salvador]], [[Uruguay]], [[Venezuela]]), [[Asia]] ([[China]], [[Japan]], [[Korea]], [[Siam]]), and [[Africa]] ([[Republic of South Africa]]).
====The ICR
|
ng and was called a "snowshoe cymbal beater", and was operated in a similar way as it is today. At the same time another drum company was developing a similar product called a "low boy", at a lower position compared with a modern hihat. This then developed into the hihat as we know it today, with the introduction of many different branded products from companies (such as Gretsch and Ludwig).
[[Image:Neil Peartcollection.jpg|right|thumb|275px|[[Neil Peart]]'s various drum kits]]
== Modern kits ==
The exact collection of components to a drum kit varies greatly according to musical style, personal preference, financial and transportation resources of the drummer. At a minimum a kit usually contains a [[bass drum]] sitting on the floor and played with a pedal, a [[snare drum]] on a stand, two or three [[tom-tom]]s, some of which are mounted on top of the bass drum and the largest typically free-standing alongside it (on the floor - hence the word "[[floor tom]]"), a [[hi-hat]] (sometimes known as a 'sock' cymbal) comprising two small cymbals played by means of pedal with the left foot, a [[ride cymbal]] and a [[crash cymbal]] arrangement.
== Kit additions and variations ==
Some drummers may add a second bass drum (played by the left foot), additional toms, more cymbals, tambourines, woodblocks, cowbells, electronic pads that trigger sampled sounds, or any of a whole galaxy of accessory instruments. Some drummers, such as [[Billy Cobham]], [[Joey Jordison]], [[Neil Peart]], [[Terry Bozzio]], [[Keith Moon]] and [[Mike Portnoy]] have gone to extreme lengths and built massive kits including features such as ranges of tuned tom-toms, allowing them to contribute melodically as well as rhythmically. These huge kits reached their zenith in the arena rock of the 1980s, and the trend since then has been towards a smaller instrument.
=== Electronic drums ===
The first electronic drums were used in the early 1970's (and recorded by [[Carl Palmer]] of [[ELP]]) with the development of the synthesiser, it was inevitable that the drums would eventually be incoporated into the electronic sound. During the early 1980's drummers such as [[Bill Bruford]] of [[King Crimson]] incorporated large electronic setups within their acoustic setups and in Bruford's case almost completely diminished the need for acoustic drums. These drums were primarily made by the now defunct Simmons company and later by [[Tama]] of [[Japan]]. Although many criticised the use of electronic drums; there is a wider level of acceptance now and indeed some drummers such as [[Akira Jimbo]] and [[Tony Verderosa]] incorporate electronics into their sets in an interesting and innovative way.
Yamaha, Roland and many others have created [[electronic drum|electronic drum sets]] which use pads or triggers (mounted on acoustic drums) to play [[sampler (musical instrument)|sampled]] or [[synthesizer|synthesized]] sounds (see [[DTX]]). The trend in electronics since the late 1980s has been away from overtly electronic sounds and more towards an intensified acoustic sound.
Not only has the sound of electronic drums changed considerably towards a more naturalistic approach, indeed the 'feel' of electronic pads has also changed. With companies like [[Roland Corporation|Roland]] and Pintech offering their popular 'Mesh' or 'V-drum' pads; designed to emulate the 'feel' of a real drum head. Yamaha offer rubber pads also designed to mimic the feel of 'real' drums. Originally, the feel of electronic pads was very hard and unforgiving and as a result many drummers suffered from wrist pains and other related injuries.
=== Drum Set Notation ===
Drum set notation once commonly employed the bass clef, but a neutral staff of two parallel vertical lines is usually preferred now. (All note letter references below, however, refer to the bass clef.)
Drums:
Bass drum: low A. Snare: E. Floor tom: C. High tom: high G. Middle tom: high F.
Cymbals:
Hi-hat with foot: low F with X. Hi-hat with stick, mallet, brush, or hand: high G with X. Ride cymbal: high A with X. Crash cymbal: high B with unfilled-in diamond. China cymbal and splash cymbal: high B with filled-in diamond and "China" or "splash" written above.
Other:
Tambourine: leger-line high C with X.
Techniques:
Rolls: three diagonal lines across stem (or above whole note). Bell of ride: circle high-B X. Open hi-hat: o above high-G X. Closed hi-hat: + above high-G X. Rim click (also known as side stick or cross stick): X in E snare space. Rim shot (strike rim and snare simultaneously): diagonal slash through note head. Brush sweep (formerly known as "stirring soup"): horizontal line (replacing note head) in E snare space with slur to show brush is not lifted.
Dynamic accents:
Light: -- (tenuto)
Medium: >
Heavy: ^ (marcato)
Anti-accents:
1) slightly softer than surrounding notes: u (breve)
2) significantly softer than surrounding notes: ( ) (note head in parentheses)
3) much softer than surrounding notes: [ ] (note head in brackets)
All drums, cymbals, and techniques should be introduced the first time they appear in every score with accompanying abbreviation, name, or explanatory footnote, after which their notations can be used freely.
==See also==
*[[List of drummers]]
*[[Drum solo]]
<!-- _________________Table________________________. -->
{| border="2" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right"
!colspan="3" style="background:#4B95B5;" | '''Audio samples'''
|-
!width="30" style="background:#87BBC8;" | Component
!width="160" style="background:#87BBC8;" | Content
!width="70" style="background:#87BBC8;" | Audio <small>([[Ogg Vorbis]])</small>
|-
|align="center" rowspan="3 "|'''Snare'''
|Unmuffled snare drum
|align="center" | {{Audio|Snare drum unmuffled.ogg |53 KB}}
|-
|Muffled snare drum
|align="center" | {{Audio|Snare drum muffled.ogg |37 KB}}
|-
|Rim click on a snare
|align="center" | {{Audio|Snare drum rim.ogg|46 KB}}
|-
|align="center" |'''Bass drum'''
|Muffled bass drum
|align="center" | {{Audio|Bass drum.ogg|54 KB}}
|-
|align="center" rowspan="3 "|''' Toms'''
|8-inch rack tom
|align="center" | {{Audio|Tom drum 8 inch.ogg|59 KB}}
|-
|12-inch rack tom
|align="center" | {{Audio|Tom 12 inch.ogg|41 KB}}
|-
|Floor tom
|align="center" | {{Audio|Floor tom.ogg|39 KB}}
|-
|align="center" rowspan="3 "|'''Hi-hat'''
|Closed hi-hat
|align="center" | {{Audio|Hi hat closed.ogg |41 KB}}
|-
|Open hi-hat
|align="center" | {{Audio|Hi hat open.ogg|58 KB}}
|-
|Hi-hat being opened and closed by its foot pedal
|align="center" | {{Audio|Hi hat foot pedal.ogg|48 KB}}
|-
|align="center" | '''Crash'''
|Crash cymbal
|align="center" | {{Audio|Crash cymbal.ogg|52 KB}}
|-
|align="center" rowspan="3 "|'''Ride'''
|Hit normally
|align="center" | {{Audio|Ride cymbal.ogg|61 KB}}
|-
|Hit on the ''bell'' of the cymbal
|align="center" | {{Audio|Ride cymbal bell.ogg|71 KB}}
|-
|Hit on the rim
|align="center" | {{Audio|Ride cymbal rim.ogg|67 KB}}
|-
|align="center" rowspan="2 "| '''Beat'''
|A typical rock beat on hi-hat
|align="center" |{{Audio|Rock beat hi hat.ogg|95 KB}}
|-
|Typical rock beat on ride cymbal
|align="center" | {{Audio|Rock beat ride cymbal.ogg|89 KB}}
|-
|align="center" colspan="3" style="background:#fffdead;" | <small>''See the [[Commons:Drums|Drums]] category at [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Main_Page Wikipedia Commons] for more'' </small>
|}
== External links ==
*[http://www.musicinstructionbooks.com/index.php Music Instruction] - Drum instructional books, dvd's, songbooks and viedeos.
*[http://www.drummerworld.com Drummerworld.com] - A site full of videos and pictures of famous jazz and rock drummers. Also includes a forum.
*[http://www.drum-forum.com Drum-Forum.com] - A diversified drum forum for drummers, percussionists, and intellects.
*[http://www.rocklyricsdb.com/drum.asp VirtualDrumSet] - Virtual Drum Simulators
*[http://www.411Drums.com 411Drums.com] - Free drum lessons, articles, history, drum links, FAQ's, drum tips, glossary and drum tabs.
*[http://www.gigpig.org The GigPig] a new type of compact drum kit.
*[http://www.drumsetkits.com Drum Sets] - Drum kits for every level of drumming
* [http://www.drummerworld.com/Videos/Neilpeartkit.html Drum Kit] Quicktime panorama view
*[http://www.drumsdatabase.com Drum Database]- Very large database for drum lessons.
*[http://www.drumlinks.com DrumLinks.com]- Hundreds of links to drumming sites.
*[http://www.drummeressentials.com DrummerEssentials.com]- Free 45+ Page Drum eBook
*[http://www.drumtips.com DrumTips.com]- Over 1000 Drum Tips.
*[http://www.drumscore.com/ Drum Score - High Quality Drum Kit Scores]
*[http://www.onehandedroll.com One Handed Drum Roll]- Advanced method for one handed drum speed.
*[http://www.tabhall.co.uk/ Tab Hall - Drum Music]
*[http://www.nicedrums.com/forum/index.php Nice Drums - Drum Forum]
*[http://www.heeltoetechnique.com Heel-Toe Technique]- Advanced bass drum technique for speed and [control.
*[http://www.fretland.com/howtosetupdr.html Assemble a Drumset] - How to Set Up a Drumset
*[http://www.jazzdrummingsecrets.com Jazz Drumming Video Lessons]
*[http://www.pearldrum.com Pearl (drum manufacturer)]
*[http://www.porkpiedrums.com Pork Pie Percussion (drum manufacturer)]
*[http://www.yamaha.com/yamahavgn/CDA/Catalog/DrumsHome/0,6869,CTID%253D560000%2526CNTYP%253DPRODUCT,00.html Yamaha (drum manufacturer)]
*[http://www.gretschdrums.com/ Gretsch (drum manufacturer)]
*[http://www.sonor.com/ Sonor (drum manufacturer)
|
t|stewardesses]]''' or '''reverberated'''. Conversely, using the right hand alone, the longest word that can be typed is '''[[Heartsease|johnny-jump-up]]''', or excluding [[hyphen]]s, '''[[polyphony]]'''. The longest word typable using only the top row of letters is ''not'' '''[[typewriter]]''', as is assumed by many: '''proterotype''' and '''rupturewort''' are longer, though not in common usage.
The longest words typable by alternating left and right hands are '''dismantlement''' and '''neuroticisms''', starting with the left and right side respectively.
Word with the most double letters: Racoonnookkeeper.
Word with the vowels in order: Facetiously, abstemiously
==Constructions==
English is a language which permits the legitimate extension of existing words to serve new purposes by the addition of prefixes and suffixes. This is sometimes referred to as [[agglutinative language|agglutinative]] construction. This process can create arbitrarily long words: for example, the prefixes ''pseudo-'' (false, spurious) and ''anti-'' (against, opposed to) can be added as many times as desired. Multiple observers have played on this in noting that a word like ''[[anti-aircraft]]'' (pertaining to the defense against aircraft) is easily extended to ''anti-anti-aircraft'' (pertaining to counteracting the defense against aircraft, a legitimate concept) and can from thereon be prefixed with an endless stream of "anti-"s, each time creating a new level of counteraction. It also must be noted that the concept of double negatives does not apply here; for instance, ''anti-anti-aircraft'' does not reduce to simply ''aircraft'', it specifically pertains to counteracting the defense against aircraft.
The earlier mentioned "antidisestablishmentarianism" is the longest common example of a word formed by [[agglutinative]] construction. The stepwise construction is as follows:
;''[[establish]]'': to set up, put in place, or institute (originally from the Latin ''stāre'', to stand)
;'''''[[disestablish|dis'''-establish]]'': ending the [[established]] status of a body, in particular a church, given such status by law, such as the [[Church of England]]
;''[[disestablishment|disestablish-'''ment''']]'': the separation of church and state (specifically in this context it is the political movement of the [[1860s]] in [[United Kingdom|Britain]])
;'''''anti'''-disestablishment'': opposition to disestablishment
;''antidisestablishment-'''arian''''': an advocate of opposition to disestablishment (alternatively, but less likely and quite similar in meaning, "opposed to disestablishmentarians", depending on what "anti-" is taken to belong to)
;''antidisestablishmentarian-'''[[ism]]''''': the movement or ideology of advocates of opposition to disestablishment; the movement or ideology that opposes disestablishment
Of course, the process need not stop there: prefixes like ''neo-'' and ''contra-'' can be added, and ''-istically'' can be used in place of ''-ism''. The words so created are increasingly more contrived, however, and given that there is essentially no limit to their length (unless artificial constraints are introduced, such as not using any prefix more than once), it is dubious whether any of them can lay a claim to being the "longest" word.
Constructing long words in [[agglutinative language]]s for humorous effect is a practice as old as the languages themselves. In his play ''[[Assemblywomen]]'', the [[ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] comedic poet [[Aristophanes]] created [[wiktionary:Lopadotemachoselachogaleokranioleipsanodrimhypotrimmatosilphioparaomelitokatakechymenokichlepikossyphophattoperisteralektryonoptekephalliokigklopeleiolagoiosiraiobaphetraganopterygon|a word of 183 letters describing a dish]] by stringing together its ingredients.
[[Henry Carey]]'s farce ''[[Chrononhotonthologos]]'' ([[1743]]) holds the opening line: "Aldiborontiphoscophornio! Where left you Chrononhotonthologos?"
==Technical terms ==
A number of scientific naming schemes can be used to generate arbitrarily long words.
''Gammaracanthuskytodermogammarus loricatobaicalensis'' is possibly the longest [[binomial name]], which stands for a kind of [[amphipod]].
[[John Horton Conway]] and [[Landon Curt Noll]] developed an open-ended system for naming powers of 10, in which ''one sexmilliaquingentsexagintillion'', coming from the Latin name for 6560, is the name for 10<sup>3(6560+1)</sup> = 10<sup>19683</sup>.
Names of chemical compounds can be extremely long if written as one word, which is sometimes done. An example of this is '''[[Neosalvarsan|sodiummetadiaminoparadioxyarsenobenzoemethylenesulphoxylate]]''', an arsenic-containing drug. There are also other chemical naming systems, using numbers instead of "meta", "para" etc. as descriptive dividers, breaking up the name, which then no longer can be considered a single long word.
The [[IUPAC nomenclature]] for [[organic chemical compound]]s is open-ended, giving rise to such words as ''[[Methionylthreonylthreonyl...isoleucine]]'' (189,819 letters), ''[[Methionylalanylthreonyl...leucine]]'' (64,060 letters), ''[[Methionylglutaminyl...serine]]'' (1913 letters), and ''[[Acetylseryltyrosylserylisol...serine]]'' (1185 letters).
==Place names==
There is some debate as to whether or not a place name is a legitimate word. Without entering that debate, the longest officially recognized place name in an English-speaking country is
'''[[Taumatawhakatang&shy;ihangakoauauot&shy;amateaturipukaka&shy;pikimaunga&shy;horonuku&shy;pokaiwhenuak&shy;itanatahu]]''' (85 letters) which is a hill in New Zealand.
The longest place name in the United States (45 letters) is '''[[Chargoggagoggmanchauggagoggchaubunagungamaugg|Chargoggagogg&shy;manchauggagogg&shy;chaubunagungamaugg]]''', a lake in [[Massachusetts]]. The longest hyphenated names in the U.S. are '''[[Winchester-on-the-Severn]]''', a town in [[Maryland]], and '''[[Washington-on-the-Brazos]]''', a notable place in [[Texas]] history.
[[Image:Llanfairpwllgwyngyllgogerychwyrndrobwllllantysiliogogogoch station sign (cropped version 1).jpg|thumb|right|The station sign at [[Llanfairpwllgwyngyllgogerychwyrndrobwllllantysiliogogogoch|Llanfairpwllgwyngyllgogerychwyrn- drobwllllantysiliogogogoch]] in North [[Wales]]]]
The 58 character name '''[[Llanfairpwllgwyngyllgogerychwyrndrobwllllantysiliogogogoch|Llanfair&shy;pwllgwyngyll&shy;gogerychwyrndrobwll&shy;llantysiliogogogoch]]''' is the famous name of a town in [[Anglesey]] in the [[United Kingdom]]. This place name is actually 51 letters long, as certain character groups in [[Welsh language|Welsh]] are considered as one letter, for instance ll, ng and ch. It is generally agreed, however, that this invented name, adopted in the mid-[[19th century]], was contrived solely to be the longest name of any town in Britain. The official name of the place is [[Llanfair PG|Llanfairpwllgwyngyll]], commonly abbreviated to "Llanfairpwll" or the somewhat jocular "Llanfair PG". The longest station name in the UK, at 68 letters, is also in Wales: '''[[Gorsafawddacha'idraigodanheddogleddollônpenrhynareurdraethceredigion]]''' was specifically contrived to "beat" Llanfairpwllgwyngyll.
In [[Ireland]], the longest English placename at 22 letters is [[Muckanaghederdauhaulia]] (from the [[Irish language]], ''Muiceanach idir dhá sháile'', meaning pig-marsh between two saltwater inlets) in [[County Galway]]. If this is disallowed for being derived from Irish, or not a town, the longest at 19 letters is [[Newtownmountkennedy]] in [[County Wicklow]].
It is questionable whether any of the above (with the exception of Newtownmountkennedy) are properly considered English words, being derived from [[Māori language|Māori]], [[Nipmuck]], Welsh and Irish words respectively, or being a conjunction of individual English words.
{{See also|List of short place names}}
==Jokes==
A popular joke answer to the "longest word" question is the word '''smiles''', credited as the longest word because there is a ''[[mile]]'' between each ''s''.
Of course, by this reckoning the word '''beleaguered''', which contains a ''[[league (unit)|league]]'', is even longer.
A popular [[playground]] joke in [[United Kingdom|Britain]] states that the longest word in the English language is [[Rubber band|elastic]] because it will always stretch.
According to some, the longest word is the "word" after the sentence "And now, a word from our sponsors," because in radio [[advertisements]], this phrase is conventionally followed by a rapid string of explanation equivalent to [[fine print]] in paper ads.
Although only fourteen letters long, ''sesquipedalian'' deserves a mention. It is derived from a [[nonce word]] used by the [[Rome|Roman]] author [[Horace]], in his work "[[Ars Poetica]]" (The Art of Poetry). The quote is as follows: "Proicit ampullas et sesquipedalia verba," which means, "He throws aside his paint pots and his words that are a foot and a half long". The [[Oxford English dictionary]] lists ''sesquipedalianism'' ("the practice of using words one and a half feet long"), and further derivations can be created as described in the "Constructions" section above.
==Morphemes==
A [[morpheme]] is the smallest part of a word that retains an individual significance.
For example, the word 'antidisestablishmentarianism' can be broken down into the following morphemes: anti/dis/establish/ment/ari/an/ism (7 morphemes).
The morphemes in this word that are perhaps less obvious in their individual meanings are:
* "ari" (makes the antidisestablishment an adjective)
* "an" (an individual who subscribes to antidisestablishmentary views)
==See also==
* [[English language]]
* [[One-letter English words]]
* [[Tw
|
li-conflict.asp Arab-Israeli Conflict: Basic Facts] from the Israeli Science and Technology Homepage
===Views of the Conflict: Pro-Arab===
* [http://www.wrmea.com/ Washington Report on Mideast Affairs], published by the American Educational Trust, Inc.
* [http://www.aaiusa.org/palestine.htm Arab American Institute] on the Arab-Israeli conflict
* [http://www.jatonyc.org/ Jews Against the Occupation], an American activist organization
* [http://www.gush-shalom.org/english/ Gush Shalom], the Bloc of the Peaceful, an Israeli peace organization founded by Uri Avnery
===Historical Sources===
* [http://www.mideastweb.org/history.htm Source Documents and texts on the Arab-Israeli and Palestinian-Israeli conflict, and history of Israel and Palestine]
* [http://www.zionismontheweb.org/zionism_documents.htm Source Documents and texts on Zionism and the Creation of Modern Israel]
* [http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/me.htm Documents related to the Mideast Conflict] from Mt. Holyoke College
* [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/mideast/mideast.htm The Avalon Project at Yale Law School] records from 1916-1999
===Maps===
* [http://www.mideastweb.org/maps.htm MideastWeb Middle East Map Collection]
* [http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/middle_east.html University of Texas Map Collection]
[[Category:Arab]]
[[Category:Arab-Israeli conflict|*]]
[[Category:History of Israel]]
[[cs:Arabsko-izraelské války]]
[[fr:Conflit israélo-arabe]]
[[he:הסכסוך הישראלי ערבי]]
[[it:Conflitto Arabo-Israeliano]]
[[ja:中東戦争]]
[[ko:중동 전쟁]]
[[nl:Arabisch-Israëlisch conflict]]
[[no:Midtøsten-konflikten]]
[[pl:Konflikt izraelsko-palestyński]]
[[sk:Arabsko-izraelský konflikt]]
[[zh:中东战争]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Anyone Can Whistle</title>
<id>2950</id>
<revision>
<id>36963901</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-27T17:10:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>82.7.17.14</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| class="toccolours" style="float:right; margin:0 0 0.5em 1em; width:25em;"
|-
|colspan=2 style="text-align:center;" | '''''[[Broadway_theatre|Broadway]]'' Show'''
|-
|colspan=2 style="text-align:center;" |
|-
!colspan=2 style="font-size: larger; background-color:{{{bgcolor}}}; color:{{{fgcolor}}};" | ''Anyone Can Whistle''
|-
|'''Theatre''' || [[Majestic Theatre]]
|-
|'''Opening Night''' || [[4 April]] [[1964]]
|-
|'''Tony Nominations''' ||1
|-
|'''Tony Awards''' ||0
|-
|'''Author(s)''' || Music and lyrics by [[Stephen Sondheim]]; book by [[Arthur Laurents]]
|-
|'''Director''' || Arthur Laurents
|-
|'''Leading Original Cast Members''' || [[Harry Guardino]], [[Angela Lansbury]] and [[Lee Remick]]
|-
|'''Closing Night''' || [[11 April]] [[1964]]
|-
|}
'''''Anyone Can Whistle''''' is a [[Musical theater|musical]] with music and lyrics by [[Stephen Sondheim]] and book by [[Arthur Laurents]]. It is an imaginative fable about a town going through hard times due to having "manufactured a product that never wore out", according to its narrator. The mayoress, Cora Hoover Hooper ([[Angela Lansbury]] in the original production), and the town council, Comptroller Schub, Treasurer Cooley, and Police Chief MacGruder hatch a scheme to provide the town with a "miracle" consisting of water pouring from a rock, in the hopes that it will bring tourists to the town and revive its failing economy. However, they are opposed by Fay Apple ([[Lee Remick]]), a nurse at the local sanitarium, The Cookie Jar, who brings her 49 patients (or "cookies") to the miracle hoping to prove that it is a fake (which it is.) Eventually, her "cookies" escape, leaving the town council to determine "which is what and who is who." Suddenly a new doctor (or so he claims), J. Bowden Hapgood ([[Harry Guardino]]), appears on the scene, who divides the town into "Group A" and "Group 1" claiming one group is sane and the other loony... but refusing to tell which group is what. However, nothing in the town is what it seems. As expected, hilarity ensues.
''Anyone Can Whistle'' was a financial failure, running only nine performances, but some critics saw it as a musical that was simply ahead of its time, and it has gone on to be a cult favorite, even though there has never been a major revival of the show. The Original Cast Recording, which was made after the show had closed, also has a strong following. Among the songs in the show are the title song, "Me and My Town", "Everybody Says Don't", and "With So Little to Be Sure Of". "There Won't Be Trumpets", a song cut from the show before its opening, has also become a cabaret favorite.
''Anyone Can Whistle'' opened on [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] at the Majestic Theatre on [[April 4]], [[1964]], and closed after nine performances. Theatre wags often joke that if everyone who claimed to have seen the original production truly had, the show would still be running on Broadway.
In 1995 a concert reading of the show was performed at [[Carnegie Hall]] in New York as a benefit for the [[Gay Men's Health Crisis]]. The concert was recorded, preserving for the first time musical passages and numbers not included on the original Broadway cast recording. [[Angela Lansbury]] served as narrator, with [[Madeline Kahn]] taking on the role of Cora. [[Bernadette Peters]] and [[Scott Bakula]] played Fay and Hapgood. Additional cast included [[Harolyn Blackwell]], [[Chip Zien]], [[Ken Page (Actor)|Ken Page]], and [[Harvey Evans]] -the only cast member to reprise his role from the original production.
==External links==
*[http://www.ibdb.com/production.asp?ID=3058 Internet Broadway Database listing]
*[http://www.geocities.com/joecable1997/anyonecanwhistle.html Live, Laugh, Love: Anyone Can Whistle]
[[Category:Musicals]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Althusser</title>
<id>2951</id>
<revision>
<id>15901329</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Louis Althusser]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alcopop</title>
<id>2952</id>
<revision>
<id>41771995</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T17:10:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Matt Gies</username>
<id>37551</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>disambiguate link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Alcopop''' is a term coined by the popular [[Mass media|media]] of the [[United Kingdom]] to describe bottled alcoholic [[beverage]]s that resemble sweet drinks such as soft drinks and lemonade.
In the [[alcoholic beverage]] [[industry]] they are known as '''RTD'''s ('''ready to drink''') or '''FAB'''s ('''Flavoured Alcoholic Beverages'''). These drinks, such as alcoholic [[lemonade]], tend to be [[sweet]], served in small [[bottle]]s (typically 200&ndash;275[[Millilitre|ml]]), and between 5–7% [[alcohol by volume]]. In [[Europe]], alcopops tend to be pre-mixed spirits, including vodka (e.g. [[Smirnoff Ice]]) or rum (e.g. [[Bacardi Breezer]]). In the [[United States]], alcopops are often [[hop (plant)|un-hopped]] [[beer]]s with added flavoring ("malternative" drinks), which are classified as beers and therefore can be sold in outlets that spirit based drinks could not be.
These drinks emerged onto the market in the mid-[[1990s]] with the launch of [[Merrydown]]'s [[Two Dogs]] and [[Hooper's Hooch]]. [[Zima]], introduced in 1994, was the first widely known and widely purchased alcopop. Many more have followed, as the drinks became increasingly popular, especially with younger people.
Later, [[Mike's Hard Lemonade]] was released in the [[United States]], with humorous commercials depicting what they called "violence against lemons". [[Smirnoff]] also came out with another [[citrus]]-[[flavour]]ed [[malt beverage]] in the United States in the late 90s called [[Smirnoff Ice]], which promoted itself with flashy commercials, usually involving trendy young people dancing in unlikely situations and places (In the UK [[Smirnoff Ice]], is marketed by [[Diagio]] as a [[Premium Packaged Spirits (PPS)|PPS]]).
Some parts of the media expressed intense concern that such drinks might appeal to [[child]]ren as they tend to be sweet and brightly coloured. Many [[Alcohol advertising|alcopop advertising campaigns]] have been criticised as trying to make alcopops appeal to young drinkers. However, the majority of those who consume such beverages in the U.S. are over age 27, according to the [[Federal Trade Commission]] (Federal Trade Commission, 2003). Nevertheless concern remains. As a result [[Germany]] has imposed an extra duty of 0.80 to 0.90 [[euro]] per bottle effective [[August 1]], [[2004]]. Some now carry a warning stating that they are not for consumption by minors (under 18 in the UK and 21 in the [[United States]]). Other sweet [[alcoholic beverage]]s that had been around for years, such as [[cider]], [[wine cooler]]s, and [[liqueur]]s, escaped this concern.
While the amount of [[beer]] being sold worldwide has dropped, the sale of alcopops has taken off dramatically. This is thought to be because the sweetness of alcopops appeals to younger drinkers more readily than the taste of [[wine]] or beer, and are less detectable on the drinker's breath.
==Reference==
* ''Alcohol Marketing and Advertising: A Report to Congress''. Washington, DC: Federal Trade Commission, 2003
==See also==
*[[Alcoholic beverage]]
*[[Alcoholism]]
*[[Drunkenness]]
*[[Hangover]]
==External links==
*[http://owen.massey.net/alcopops/ Spin the Bottle: A Consumer's Guide to Alcopops]
*[http://www.portman-group.org.uk Portman Group]
*[http://www2.potsdam.edu/hansondj/InTheNews/UnderageDrink
|
er, it threatened to use it against the Commission headed by [[Jacques Santer]] in 1999, with the result that the [[Resignation of the Santer Commission|whole Commission resigned of its own accord]]).
The present Commission, the [[Barroso Commission]], consists of 25 Commissioners. This Commission will serve from [[22 November]], [[2004]] to [[31 October]], [[2009]].
The [[Enlargement of the European Union|enlargement of the Union]] on [[1 May]] [[2004]] increased the number of member states from 15 to 25, and had an effect on the make-up of the Commission. Prior to this date, there were 20 Commissioners. In the months after May 2004 the size of the Commission was temporarily increased to 30 members - consisting of the 20 Commissioners already in post, plus one from each of the 10 acceding member states. The number was reduced to 25, with one Commissioner from each member state, when the Barroso commission took office in November 2004.
If the new [[Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe]] is adopted, the size of the Commission will be further reduced. Member states will take it in turns to nominate Commissioners, with any given state making a nomination on two out of every three occasions that a new Commission is to be appointed.
=== Directorates-General ===
:''Main article: [[Directorate-General]]''
The Commission is divided into departments known as Directorates-General (DG) that can be likened to [[Ministry (government department)|government ministries]]. The DGs cover either internal policies (e.g. the [[Directorate-General for Information Society and Media]]), external policies (e.g. the [[Directorate-General for External Relations]]) or internal services (e.g. the [[Directorate-General for Translation (European Commission)|Directorate-General for Translation]]). Each Directorate-General is supervised by a senior [[civil service|civil servant]] known as the [[Director-General]], who reports directly to the Commissioner or Commissioners responsible for that policy area. [http://publications.eu.int/code/en/en-390600.htm (Full list of DGs)]
== History ==
The Commission originated in the High Authority of the [[European Coal and Steel Community]], which was established in 1952 under the terms of the Treaty Establishing the European Coal and Steel Community. In 1958 two further bodies were established under the terms of the Treaties of Rome. These were the Commission of the European Economic Community and the Commission of the European Atomic Energy Community . Finally, in 1967, these three bodies merged to form the Commission of the European Communities, established under the terms of the Merger Treaty. This is the body that continues to exist to this day.
==Decision-making procedure==
Individual commissioners take responsibility for advancing the work of European Commission in their areas of interest, but any key decisions are generally taken collectively by the Commission as a whole. To make this possible, there are regular meetings of all the Commissioners, which have two types of agenda items [http://europa.eu.int/comm/secretariat_general/meeting/index_en.htm]:
*'''A-item''' is an item that is not controversial and can be passed without discussion
*'''B-item''' still needs discussion before being accepted
==Criticism of the Commission==
''Main article: [[Democratic deficit]]''
Many [[Euroscepticism|eurosceptic]]s argue that the European Commission, its appointment and powers exemplify the alleged [[democratic deficit]] in the European Union.
Furthermore, specific recent actions of the Commission have been heavily criticised by eurosceptics. For instance, although the proposed [[Treaty establishing a constitution for Europe|European constitution]] has been abandoned following the [[French referendum on the European Constitution|French]] and [[Dutch referendum on the European Constitution|Dutch]] "no" votes, there has been controversy over the Commission's decision to continue with several initiatives for which it is argued that only the Constitution would have provided a legal basis [http://www.hannan.co.uk/eurobriefings.htm#constitutioninforce]. These allegedly include the proposed [[European Defence Agency]], [[Frontex|External Borders Agency]], [[Human Rights Institute]], the [[Charter of Fundamental Rights]], the [[European Public Prosecutor]], politico-military structures, a collective security clause, a diplomatic service and even a space policy.
The Commission has also been criticised over its proposal for a [[European Political Parties Directive]], which seeks to provide state funding for Europe-wide political parties. This has been seen by some as an attempt to put [[Euroscepticism|eurosceptic]] parties, which arguably would not meet the funding criteria, at a financial disadvantage [http://www.hannan.co.uk/eurobriefings.htm#whycourt]. Some eurosceptic commentators see this as an attempt by the European Commission to further its own views and quieten dissenters who might challenge them.
==See also==
* [[Institutions of the European Union]]
* [[President of the European Commission]]
* Commissions
** [[Thorn Commission]]
** [[Delors Commission]]
** [[Santer Commission]]
** [[Prodi Commission]]
** [[Barroso Commission]]
* [[Directive on the patentability of computer-implemented inventions]], a legislative proposal which caused controversy over how much power the European Commission should have
* [[Democratic deficit]], an alleged EU failing which some commentators say is exemplified by the Commission
== External links ==
*[http://europa.eu.int/comm/index_en.htm European Commission]
*[http://europa.eu.int/comm/represent_en.htm Representations of the European Commission in the Member States]
*[http://www.ena.lu?lang=2&doc=4166 All the presidents of the European Commission on www.ena.lu]
*[http://www.eu-exams.com Non affiliated website that helps people find jobs with the European Commission]
== Criticism and discussion ==
*[http://www.democracyineurope.com Democracy in Europe]
*[http://www.ufppc.org/content/view/3615/ George Parker, "Right Turn Ahead," ''Financial Times'' (London), Nov. 10, 2005]
[[Category:European Commission|*]]
[[bg:Европейска комисия]]
[[ca:Comissió Europea]]
[[cs:Evropská komise]]
[[cy:Comisiwn Ewropeaidd]]
[[da:Europa-Kommissionen]]
[[de:Europäische Kommission]]
[[et:Euroopa Komisjon]]
[[es:Comisión Europea]]
[[eo:Eŭropa Komisiono]]
[[fr:Commission européenne]]
[[gl:Comisión Europea]]
[[is:Framkvæmdastjórn Evrópusambandsins]]
[[it:Commissione europea]]
[[ka:ევროკომისია]]
[[lv:Eiropas Komisija]]
[[lt:Europos Komisija]]
[[lb:Europäesch Commissioun]]
[[hu:Európai Bizottság]]
[[nl:Europese Commissie]]
[[ja:欧州委員会]]
[[no:Europakommisjonen]]
[[pl:Komisja Europejska]]
[[pt:Comissão Europeia]]
[[ro:Comisia Europeană]]
[[ru:Европейский Союз#Еврокомиссия]]
[[sl:Evropska komisija]]
[[sr:Европска комисија]]
[[fi:Euroopan komissio]]
[[sv:Europeiska kommissionen]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Linear filter</title>
<id>9975</id>
<revision>
<id>40505264</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T01:27:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jeff3000</username>
<id>170884</id>
</contributor>
<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] migrate {{[[template:book reference|book reference]]}} to {{[[template:cite book|cite book]]}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''linear filter''' applies a [[linear operator]] to a time-varying input signal. Linear filters are very common in [[electronics]] and [[digital signal processing]] (see the article on [[electronic filter]]s), but they can also be found in [[mechanical engineering]] and other technologies.
They are often used to eliminate unwanted [[frequency|frequencies]] from an input [[Signal (information theory)|signal]] or to select a wanted frequency amongst many others. There are a wide range of types of filter and filter technologies, of which this article will present an overview.
Regardless of whether they are electronic, electrical, or mechanical, or what frequency ranges or timescales they work on, the mathematical theory of linear filters is universal.
== Classification by transfer function ==
=== Impulse response ===
Linear filters can be divided into two classes: [[infinite impulse response]] (IIR), and [[finite impulse response]] (FIR) filters. In general, a filter with a compact frequency response will have an infinite impulse response and a filter with a compact impulse response will have an infinite frequency response. Until recently, only analog IIR filters were practical to construct. However, technologies such as [[analog delay line]]s and [[digital filter]]s have made the construction of FIR filters practical.
=== Frequency response ===
There are several common kinds of linear filters:
*A [[low-pass filter]] passes low frequencies.
*A [[high-pass filter]] passes high frequencies.
*A [[band-pass filter]] passes a limited range of frequencies.
*A [[band-stop filter]] passes all frequencies except a limited range.
*An [[all-pass filter]] passes all frequencies, but alters the phase relationship among them.
*A [[notch filter]] is a specific type of band-stop filter that acts on a particularly narrow range of frequencies.
* some filters are not designed to stop any frequencies, but instead to gently vary the amplitude response at different frequencies: filters used as [[pre-emphasis filter]]s, [[equalization|equalizer]]s, or [[tone control]]s are good examples of this
Band-stop and band-pass filters can be constructed by combining low-pass and high-pass filters.
A popular form of 2 [[pole (complex analysis)|pole]] filter is the [[Sallen Key filter|Sallen-Key]] type. This is able to provide low-pass, band-pass, and high pass versions.
== Mathematics of filter design ==
Linear filters of all types can be completely described by their [[frequency response]] and [[phase response]], the specification of which uniquely def
|
ead are examples of external aerodynamics. ''Internal'' aerodynamics is the study of flow through passages in solid objects. For instance, internal aerodynamics encompasses the study of the airflow through a [[jet engine]] or through an [[air conditioning]] pipe.
The ratio of the problem's characteristic flow speed to the [[speed of sound]] comprises a second classification of aerodynamic problems. A problem is called [[subsonic]] if all the speeds in the problem are less than the speed of sound, [[transonic]] if speeds both below and above the speed of sound are present (normally when the characteristic speed is approximately the speed of sound), [[supersonic]] when the characteristic flow speed is greater than the speed of sound, and [[hypersonic]] when the flow speed is much greater than the speed of sound. Aerodynamicists disagree over the precise definition of hypersonic flow; minimum [[Mach number]]s for hypersonic flow range from 3 to 12. Most aerodynamicists use numbers between 5 and 8.
The influence of [[viscosity]] in the flow dictates a third classification. Some problems involve only negligible viscous effects on the solution, in which case viscosity can be considered to be nonexistent. The approximations to these problems are called [[inviscid flow]]s. Flows for which viscosity cannot be neglected are called [[viscous flow]]s.
==Aerodynamic forces on aircraft==
[[Image:aeroforces.jpg|thumb|350px|Forces on an aircraft ([[airfoil]] pictured)]]
One of the major goals of aerodynamics is to predict the aerodynamic forces on aircraft.
The four basic forces that act on a powered aircraft are [[lift (force)|lift]], [[weight]] (or [[gravity]]), [[thrust]], and [[drag (physics)|drag]].
Weight is the force due to gravity and thrust is the force generated by the engine. Lift and drag are forces due to the motion of the vehicle through the air. Lift is defined as the aerodynamic force acting perpendicular to the relative airflow and drag is defined as the aerodynamic force acting parallel to the relative airflow. Lift is positive upwards and drag is positive rearwards.
==Aerodynamics in other fields==
Aerodynamics is important in a number of applications other than aerospace engineering. It is a significant factor in any type of vehicle design, including [[automobile]]s. It is important in the prediction of forces and moments in [[sailing]]. It is used in the design of small components such as [[hard drive]] heads. [[Civil engineering|Civil engineers]] also use aerodynamics, and particularly [[aeroelasticity]], to calculate [[wind]] loads in the design of large buildings and bridges. Urban aerodynamics seeks to help town planners and designers improve comfort in outdoor spaces, create urban microclimates and reduce the effects of urban pollution. The field of environmental aerodynamics studies the ways atmospheric circulation and flight mechanics affects ecosystems. The aerodynamics of internal passages is important in heating/ventalation, gas piping, and in automotive engines where detailed flow patterns strongly affect the performance of the engine.
==Continuity assumption==
Gases are composed of [[molecule]]s which collide with one another and solid objects. In aerodynamics, however, gases are considered to have continuous quantities. That is, properties such as density, pressure, temperature, and velocity are taken to be well-defined at infinitely small points, and are assumed to vary continuously from one point to another. The discrete, molecular nature of a gas is ignored.
The continuity assumption becomes less valid as a gas becomes more rarefied. In these cases, [[statistical mechanics]] is a more valid method of solving the problem than aerodynamics.
==Conservation laws==
Aerodynamic problems are solved using the conservation laws, or equations derived from the conservation laws. In aerodynamics, three conservation laws are used:
*Conservation of mass: Matter is not created or destroyed. If a certain mass of fluid enters a volume, it must either exit the volume or increase the mass inside the volume.
*Conservation of momentum: Also called [[Newton's second law of motion]]
*Conservation of energy: Although it can be converted from one form to another, the total [[energy]] in a given system remains constant.
All aerodynamic problems are therefore solved by the same set of equations. However, they differ by the assumptions made in each problem. The equations become simpler as assumptions are made.
Note that in [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]]'s [[special relativity|relativistic mechanics]] the conserved energy includes the rest mass energy through the equation E=Mc<sup>2</sup>.
==Boundary layer==
The concept of [[boundary layer]] is important in most aerodynamic problems. The viscosity and fluid friction in the air is usually important only in this thin layer. This principle makes aerodynamics much more tractable mathematically and also intuitively.
==Subsonic aerodynamics==
In a [[subsonic]] aerodynamic problem, all of the flow speeds are less than the speed of sound. This class of problems encompasses nearly all internal aerodynamic problems, as well as external aerodynamics for most aircraft, model aircraft, and automobiles.
In solving a subsonic problem, one decision to be made by the aerodynamicist is whether or not to incorporate the effects of compressibility. Compressibility is a description of the amount of change of density in the problem. When the effects of compressibility on the solution are small, the aerodynamicist may choose to assume that density is constant. The problem is then an incompressible problem. When the density is allowed to vary, the problem is called a compressible problem. In air, compressibility effects can be ignored when the [[Mach number]] in the flow does not exceed 0.3. Above 0.3, the problem should be solved using compressible aerodynamics.
==Transonic aerodynamics==
Transonic aerodynamic problems are defined as problems in which both supersonic and subsonic flow exist. Normally the term is reserved for problems in which the characteristic [[Mach number]] is very close to one.
Transonic flows are characterized by [[shock wave]]s and [[expansion wave]]s. A shock wave or expansion wave is a region of very large changes in the flow properties. In fact, the properties change so quickly they are nearly discontinuous across the waves.
Transonic problems are arguably the most difficult to solve. Flows behave very differently at subsonic and supersonic speeds, therefore a problem involving both types is more complex than one in which the flow is either purely subsonic or purely supersonic.
==Supersonic aerodynamics==
[[Supersonic]] aerodynamic problems are those involving flow speeds greater than the speed of sound. Calculating the lift on the [[Concorde (aeroplane)|Concorde]] during cruise can be an example of a supersonic aerodynamic problem.
Supersonic flow behaves very differently from subsonic flow. The speed of sound can be considered the fastest speed that "information" can travel in the flow. Gas travelling at subsonic speed diverts around a body before striking it, so it can be said to "know" that the body is there. Air cannot divert around a body when it is travelling at supersonic speeds.
==See also==
*[[List of aerospace engineering topics]]
*[[List of engineering topics]]
*[[Automotive aerodynamics]]
*[[Aeronautics]]
*[[Fluid dynamics]]
*[[Nose cone design]]
*[[Bernoulli's equation]]
*[[Navier-Stokes equations]]
*[[Center of pressure]]
[[Category:Fluid dynamics]]
[[Category:Aerospace engineering]]
[[Category:Aerodynamics| ]]
[[cs:Aerodynamika]]
[[da:Aerodynamik]]
[[de:Aerodynamik]]
[[es:Aerodinámica]]
[[eo:Aerodinamiko]]
[[fr:Aérodynamisme]]
[[it:Aerodinamica]]
[[he:אווירודינמיקה]]
[[hu:Aerodinamika]]
[[nl:Aerodynamica]]
[[pl:Aerodynamika]]
[[pt:Aerodinâmica]]
[[sq:Aerodinamika]]
[[sl:Aerodinamika]]
[[fi:Aerodynamiikka]]
[[sv:Aerodynamik]]
[[vi:Khí động lực học]]
[[zh:空气动力学]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Andreas Schlüter</title>
<id>2820</id>
<revision>
<id>36453190</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-24T03:30:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sparkit</username>
<id>194762</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>categories</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Andreas Schlüter''' ([[May 20]] [[1660]] in Danzig – May [[1714]] in [[St. Petersburg]]) was a [[baroque]] sculptor and architect associated with the [[Petrine Baroque]] style of architecture and decoration. [[Image:Kikin.jpg|thumb|300px|Kikin Palace in [[St Petersburg]] is often attributed to Schlüter, although there is no proof of his authorship.]]
Schlüter was probably born in Polish city of [[Gdańsk]] (Danzig), where he also spent his early years. In [[1681]], he started working for King [[Jan III Sobieski]], decorating the [[facade]] of the royal chapel in Gdańsk, and creating statues for the [[Wilanów Palace]] and sepulchral sculptures in [[Zolkiew|Żółkiew]]. In [[1689]], he moved to [[Warsaw]], where he worked for [[Jan Dobrogost Krasinski|Jan Dobrogost Krasiński]] and did the [[pediment]] reliefs and sculptural work of [[Krasinski Palace]].
In [[1694]], he left Poland to work as court sculptor for Duke [[Friedrich Wilhelm I of Brandenburg|Frederick Wilhelm I]], in [[Berlin]]. He also worked as an architect and built many state buildings. The castle he designed in [[Berlin]] was partially destroyed by bombing in [[World War II]] and its remains were demolished by the subsequent [[Communist]] regime. He designed the famous [[Amber Room]]. His sculpted decoration for [[Arsenal]] in Berlin is a masterpiece of [[baroque]] expression and [[pathos]]. In 1713 his fame brought him to work for Tsar [[Peter I of Russia|Peter the Great]] in [[Saint Petersburg|St. Petersburg]], [[Russia]], where he not long after died of an
|
(a limitation from 1.x)
* HTML documentation
* MP3 and CD audio player (OS3.9)
* Dock program (OS3.9)
* Improved Workbench
* Find utility (OS3.9)
* ASync workbench (no more waiting for files to be copied)
===AmigaOS 4===
A new version of AmigaOS is being developed by [http://www.hyperion-entertainment.biz Hyperion Entertainment] under license from [http://www.amiga.com Amiga, Inc]. The 4.0 version will be a major update a decade after the last official release.
The new version will be [[PowerPC]] native, finally abandoning the [[Motorola]] [[68k]] [[central processing unit|processor]]. Since there is no more [[68000]] based Amiga hardware, AmigaOS 4.0 will run on [[PowerPC]] hardware, which currently only includes [[A1200|1200]] and [[A4000|4000]] with PowerPC accelerator boards and [[AmigaOne]] motherboards. Amiga, Inc.'s distribution policies for AmigaOS 4.0 and any later versions requires that for third party hardware the OS must be bundled with it, with the sole exception of Amigas with Phase 5 PowerPC accelerator boards, for which the OS will be sold separately.
As of February 2005, there were two license holders. The first being the company that was consulted by Amiga, Inc. to create this distribution model, [http://www.eyetech.co.uk Eyetech], who currently offer [http://www.mai.com/ Mai Logic]'s [http://www.mai.com/products/Mainboard.htm Teron series motherboards] under the licensed label "AmigaOne", and the second being ACK Software Controls, who are creating PowerPC motherboards that can be connected to the Amiga 1200 for improved backward compatibility.
A developer pre-release version was sent to purchasers of AmigaOne hardware in June of 2004, and currently ships with new AmigaOne boards. This does not have all of the features planned for the full release version, but includes a full [[SDK]] based on [[GNU Compiler Collection|GCC]], and VBCC C/C++ compilers.
Main features planned for AmigaOS 4.0:
* Tripos legacy code finally removed
* Improved TCP/IP networking
* Fully skinnable GUI
* Virtual memory
* Limited memory protection
* CD/DVD writer support, including [[Mount Rainier (packet writing)|Mt. Rainier]]
* Integrated debugger
* Integrated viewer for PDF and other document formats
* Enhanced shared library model
* Support for PowerPC (native) and 68k (emulated JIT) applications
* Improved input device support
* Support for modern hardware devices
* New USB stack
* New PCI stack
* New interface module (replaces the jump table of classic AmigaOS)
* Stack enlargement
* Resource tracking
* Faster memory allocation system, similar to what’s used on Solaris
* 2 GB file limit removed
* New version of AmiDock with plug in support
* New CDFilesystem with Joliet and HFS support, DVDRW support
* HDToolbox replacement
* New HD Recovery tool
* Added support for Truetype and Postscript fonts, with optional anti-aliasing
[[Image:AmigaOS.png|thumb]]
==AmigaOS influence on other Operating Systems==
AmigaOS has spawned at least two "clone" operating systems over time.
[[AROS]], or ''Amiga Research Operating System'' is an attempt to clone the AmigaOS API in a portable open-source operating system. Although not binary compatible with AmigaOS (unless running on 68k), it is reported to be highly sourcecode compatible.
[[MorphOS]] is a PowerPC native operating system, originally created when the future of the Amiga looked uncertain. It provides binary compatibility with system-friendly AmigaOS applications.
Although not strictly Amiga related, a recent fork of [[FreeBSD]]-4.8 called [[DragonFly BSD]] has been created by a former FreeBSD developer and Amiga programmer Matt Dillon. DragonFly BSD (although still a work in progress) aims to make the BSD core more like the Amiga architectually, featuring a message-passing kernel, allowing for a very efficient and virtually [[Mutual exclusion|mutex]]-free SMP design.
==Trivia==
Some versions of AmigaOS included [[copyright]] messages as [[Easter eggs (virtual)|Easter eggs]] that required some trickery to access.
* In version 1.x, by holding down both Shift keys and both Alt keys and pressing the function keys F1 through F10, you could see copyright messages in the title bar. As an example, pressing F10 resulted in the message "Moral support: [[Joe Pillow and the Dancing Fools]]".
* In versions 2.x and 3.0, the secret message was accessed by repeatedly selecting the "About..." option from the Workbench menu, and leaving the resulting [[dialog box]] open. When there were enough (approximately 20) dialog boxes open at the same time, the next one had a secret message instead of the normal one. In version 3.1 the secret message was openly integrated into the "About..." dialog box.
==See also==
*[[AROS]]
*[[Comparison of operating systems]]
==External links==
*[http://os4.hyperion-entertainment.biz Official AmigaOS 4 homepage]
*[http://os.amiga.com AmigaOS homepage]
*[http://os.amigaworld.de/index.php?lang=en AmigaOS Support homepage]
*[http://www.gregdonner.org/workbench The Workbench Nostalgia Page] - Very detailed information on all known versions of AmigaOS.
*[http://www.amigahistory.co.uk Amiga History Guide]
[[Category:CBM software]]
[[Category:Commodore Amiga]]
[[Category:Operating systems]]
[[ca:AmigaOS]]
[[da:AmigaOS]]
[[de:AmigaOS]]
[[es:AmigaOS]]
[[fr:AmigaOS]]
[[gl:AmigaOS]]
[[hr:Amiga OS]]
[[it:AmigaOS]]
[[nl:AmigaOS]]
[[pl:AmigaOS]]
[[pt:AmigaOS]]
[[ru:AmigaOS]]
[[sv:AmigaOS]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Apple Airport</title>
<id>3106</id>
<revision>
<id>15901471</id>
<timestamp>2005-01-31T11:13:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Austin Hair</username>
<id>67595</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[AirPort]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Asymptote</title>
<id>3107</id>
<revision>
<id>40790249</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T01:02:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>KocjoBot</username>
<id>467651</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: sl</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
An '''asymptote''' is a straight or curved [[line (mathematics)|line]] which a curve will approach arbitrarily closely.
[[image:1-over-x.png|thumb|320px|In the graph of 1/x, the x and y axes are the asymptotes.]]
A specific example of asymptotes can be found in the [[graph of a function|graph]] of the [[function (mathematics)|function]] ''f''(''x'') = 1/''x'', in which two asymptotes are being approached: the line ''y'' = 0 and the line ''x'' = 0. A curve approaching a [[vertical]] asymptote (such as the preceding example's ''x'' = 0, which has an undefined [[slope]]) could be said to approach an "[[limit (mathematics)|infinite limit]]," while a curve approaching a [[horizontal]] line (such as the previous example's ''y'' = 0) could be said to approach a [[limit (mathematics)|limit]] at infinity.
[[image:1-over-x-plus-x.png|thumb|320px|In the graph of (1/x)+x, the y-axis and the line x=y are both asymptotes.]]
Asymptotes need not be parallel to the ''x''- or ''y''-axis, as shown by the graph of ''x''&nbsp;+&nbsp;''x''<sup>&minus;1</sup>, which is asymptotic to both the ''y''-axis and the line ''y''&nbsp;=&nbsp;''x''. When an asymptote is not parallel to the ''x''- or ''y''-axis, it is called an oblique asymptote.
Asymptotes, especially vertical asymptotes, also not need to go to infinity when approached at both sides. Asymptote x=a is a vertical asymptote for f(x) if it just satisfies ''at least one'' of the following conditions:
# <math>\lim_{x \to a-} f(x)=\infty</math>
# <math>\lim_{x \to a+} f(x)=\infty</math>
# <math>\lim_{x \to a-} f(x)=-\infty</math>
#<math>\lim_{x \to a+} f(x)=-\infty</math>
Note that ''f''(''x'') need not be undefined at ''a''. For example, consider the function
:<math>f(x) = \begin{cases} 1/x & x \neq 0 \\ 5 & x = 0 \end{cases}</math>
As both <math>\lim_{x \to 0+} f(x) = \infty</math> and <math>\lim_{x \to 0-} f(x) = -\infty</math>, ''f''(''x'') has a vertical asymptote at 0, even though <math>f(0) = 5</math>.
A function ''f''(''x'') can be said to be '''asymptotic''' to a function ''g''(''x'') as ''x''&nbsp;&rarr;&nbsp;&infin;. This has any of four distinct meanings:
# ''f''(''x'')&nbsp;&minus;&nbsp;''g''(''x'') &rarr; 0.
# ''f''(''x'') / ''g''(''x'') &rarr; 1.
# ''f''(''x'') / ''g''(''x'') has a nonzero limit.
# ''f''(''x'') / ''g''(''x'') is bounded and does not approach zero. See [[Big O notation]].
:''See also [[asymptotic analysis]], but contrast with [[asymptotic curve]]''.
[[Category:Mathematical analysis]]
[[da:Asymptote]]
[[de:Asymptote]]
[[es:Asíntota]]
[[eo:Asimptoto]]
[[fr:Asymptote]]
[[he:אסימפטוטה]]
[[nl:Asymptoot]]
[[pl:Asymptota]]
[[ru:Асимптота]]
[[sl:Asimptota]]
[[sv:Asymptot]]
[[uk:Асимптота]]
[[zh:渐近线]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Andrew Tanenbaum</title>
<id>3108</id>
<revision>
<id>15901473</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Andrew S. Tanenbaum]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Andrew S. Tanenbaum</title>
<id>3110</id>
<revision>
<id>38162633</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-04T16:56:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>D6</username>
<id>75561</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>adding [[category:Living people]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">Dr. '''Andrew Stuart "Andy" Tanenbaum''' (born 1944) is a [[professor]]
|
to induce [[hallucination]]s. If one ingests the plant, one does not stop [[dream]]ing even when awake. Hallucinations caused by anticholinergics are extremely powerful in that they can create fully realistic three-dimensional objects that blend in perfectly with the person's view of the world. This frequently results in dangerous and erratic behavior; hence, experiences with Datura and other members of the Solanaceae are justifiably infamous.
===Records of use===
''Datura stramonium'' is also called '''[[jimsonweed]]'''. This name comes from the town of [[Jamestown, Virginia]]. Various versions of the story exist, but in the most common version, British soldiers sent to quell [[Bacon's Rebellion]] of [[1676]] were accidentally served this unfamiliar plant as food, causing many to be incapacitated for 11 days. ''[[Datura wrightii]]'', also called '''sacred datura''' or '''western jimsonweed''', has similar effects.
Perhaps the most famous account of jimsonweed intoxication is given in ''[[The Teachings of Don Juan]]'' by [[Carlos Castaneda]]. The narrator records several experiences with the subtly addictive "devil's weed", which his mentor describes as having power similar to that of a woman:
:''She is as powerful as the best of allies, but there is something I personally don't like about her. She distorts men. She gives them a taste of power too soon without fortifying their hearts and makes them domineering and unpredictable. She makes them weak in the middle of their great power.''
In [[2003]], a [[Germany|German]] student known just as "[[Andreas W]]", from [[Halle]] cut off his own [[penis]] and [[tongue]] with a pair of garden shears while under the influence of datura. Neither organ was re-attached successfully.
===In literature===
[[Image:SacredDaturaFx Wb2.jpg|thumb|right|The distinctive datura flower]]
[[Jean M. Auel]] described use of datura in her [[Earth's Children]] series. In [[The Clan of the Cave Bear]], the clan share a retrocognitive vision under influence of datura. In [[The Plains of Passage]] Ayla uses datura as a [[analgesic]] and [[sedative]].
In [[Paul Theroux]]'s 2005 novel ''Blinding Light'', a writer becomes addicted to a rare species of datura. Under its influence he is blind, but inspired, transcendently aware, and megalomaniacal.
==See also==
*[[Henbane]]
*[[Belladonna]]
==External links==
*[http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/splist.pl?3415 Germplasm Resources Information Network: ''Datura'']
*[http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=DATUR USDA Plant Profile: ''Datura'']
*[http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=109368 Flora of China: ''Datura'']
*[http://www.bmj.org/cgi/content/full/321/7255/219 Account of accidental minor poisoning by Datura] from the [[British Medical Journal]]
*[http://www.erowid.org/plants/datura/datura.shtml Erowid Datura Vault]
*[http://www.maripoisoncenter.com/ctr/9512jimsonweed.html Clinical Toxicology Review of Datura Poisoning]
*[http://www.herbalgram.org/herbalgram/articleview.asp?a=2930 JimsonWeed: History, Perceptions, Traditional Uses, and Potential Therapeutic Benefits of the Genus Datura HerbalGram. 2006;69:40-50 © American Botanical Council by Kofi Busia & Fiona Heckels]
----
'''''Datura''''' is also the name of a [[trance music|trance]] song by [[singer]]/[[songwriter]] [[Tori Amos]]. Appearing on her album [[To Venus and Back]], the song features Amos reading a list of various plants that are growing in her garden over hypnotic [[piano]] and rhythms. She consistently mentions datura within the list, as if to indicate it is overgrowing and destroying her garden. The flower, in the song, is used as a metaphor for destructive relationships.
'''''Datura''''' is also the name of an Italian [[Techno music|techno]]/trance group formed [[1991]] in [[Bologna]] by the musicians [[Ciro Pagano]] and [[Stefano Mazzavillani]] and the DJs Ricci & Cirillo. One of their biggest hit singles ''Yerba del diablo'' ("Devil's weed") also pays reference to the plant.
'''''Datura''''' is also the name of a fictional chemical in [[Ryu Murakami]]'s surreal 1980 novel [[Coin Locker Babies]]. It's a gas that, when ingested, completely destroys a person's self-control and restraint, resulting in "a form of criminal psychosis [and] the creation of an irreversibly destructive personality" without remorse. [Kodansha Intl. Ltd. (English trans., 1995), p.118]
[[Category:Deliriants]]
[[Category:Entheogens]]
[[Category:Herbal and fungal hallucinogens]]
[[Category:Solanaceae]]
[[de:Stechapfel]]
[[fr:Datura]]
[[it:Datura]]
[[lt:Durnaropė]]
[[nl:Datura]]
[[ja:チョウセンアサガオ]]
[[pl:Bieluń dziędzierzawa]]
[[sq:Datura]]
[[sv:Spikklubbor]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Commutator subgroup</title>
<id>8847</id>
<revision>
<id>40024337</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T16:00:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Zundark</username>
<id>70</id>
</contributor>
<comment>fix one I missed, and some tidying up</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], the '''commutator subgroup''' (or '''derived subgroup''') of a [[group (mathematics)|group]] ''G'' is the [[subgroup]] <math>[G,G]</math> (also denoted <math>G'</math> or <math>G^{(1)}</math>) [[generating set of a group | generated]] by all the
[[commutator]]s of elements of ''G''; that is, <math>[G,G]</math> =
<[''g'',''h'']&nbsp;: ''g'',''h'' in ''G''>.
The commutator subgroup can also be defined as the set of elements ''g'' of the group which have an expression as a product ''g=g''<sub>1</sub>''g''<sub>2</sub>...''g''<sub>k</sub> that can be rearranged to give the identity.
Note that the set of all commutators of the group is, generally, not a group (in any interesting case). While clumsily defined, the commutator subgroup is important.
An abelian group has only trivial commutators. Hence its commutator subgroup is {1}. The converse is also (trivially) true.
The derived subgroup, in a sense, gives a measure of how far ''G'' is from being [[abelian group|abelian]]; the larger <math>[G,G]</math>, the "less abelian" ''G'' is. In particular, <math>[G,G]</math> is equal to {1} if and only if the group ''G'' is abelian. A '''perfect group''' ''G'' is one with <math>[G,G]=G</math>.
If ''f'' : ''G'' &rarr; ''H'' is a [[group homomorphism]], then <math>f([G,G])</math> is a subgroup of <math>[H,H]</math>, because ''f'' maps commutators to commutators. This implies that the operation of forming derived groups is a [[functor]] from the [[category theory|category]] of groups to the category of groups.
Applying this to endomorphisms ''f'', we find that <math>[G,G]</math> is a [[characteristic subgroup | fully characteristic subgroup]] of ''G'', and in particular a [[normal subgroup]] of ''G''. The [[factor group|quotient]] <math>G/[G,G]</math>
is an abelian group sometimes called ''G'' '''made abelian''', or the '''abelianization''' of ''G''. In a sense, it is the abelian group that's "closest" to ''G'', which can be expressed by the following [[universal property]]: if ''p'' : ''G'' &rarr; <math>G/[G,G]</math> is the canonical projection, and ''f'' : ''G'' &rarr; ''A'' is any homomorphism from ''G'' to an ''abelian'' group ''A'', then there exists exactly one homomorphism ''s'' : <math>G/[G,G]</math> &rarr; ''A'' such that ''s'' o ''p'' = ''f''. In the language of category theory: the functor which assigns to every group its abelianization is [[adjoint functors|left adjoint]] to the forgetful functor which assigns to every abelian group its underlying group.
In particular, a quotient ''G''/''N'' of ''G'' is abelian if and only if ''N'' includes <math>[G,G]</math>.
==See also==
*[[solvable group]]
*[[nilpotent group]]
[[Category:Group theory]]
[[de:Kommutatorgruppe]]
[[fr:Groupe dérivé]]
[[ru:Коммутант]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>December 19</title>
<id>8848</id>
<revision>
<id>42011634</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T05:14:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rklawton</username>
<id>754622</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Deaths */ added birth year</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[December 19]]''' is the 353rd day of the year (354th in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian calendar]]. There are 12 days remaining.
{{DecemberCalendar}}
==Events==
<!-- Please don't Wikify years that have already been linked (that means you, Skoglund) -->
*[[324]] - [[Licinius]] abdicates his position as [[List of Roman Emperors|Roman Emperor]].
*[[1187]] - [[Pope Clement III]] is elected.
*[[1777]] - [[American Revolutionary War]]: [[George Washington]]'s [[Continental Army]] goes into winter quarters at [[Valley Forge, Pennsylvania]].
*[[1828]] - [[Nullification Crisis]]: [[Vice President of the United States]] [[John C. Calhoun]] pens the ''[[South Carolina Exposition and Protest]]'', protesting the [[Tariff of 1828]].
*[[1835]] - The first issue of ''[[The Blade]]'' newspaper is published in [[Toledo, Ohio]].
*[[1912]] - William H. Van Schaick, captain of the [[steamship]] ''[[General Slocum]]'' which caught fire and killed over 1,000 people, is pardoned by [[President Taft]] after 3-and-a-half-years in [[Sing Sing]] prison .
*[[1916]] - [[World War I]]: [[Battle of Verdun]] - On the [[Western Front]], the [[French Army]] successfully holds off the [[German Army]] and drives it back to its starting position.
*[[1941]] - [[Hitler]] becomes Supreme [[Commander-in-Chief]] of the [[German Army]]
*[[1961]] - [[India]] annexes [[Daman and Diu]], part of [[Portuguese India]].
*[[1963]] - [[Zanzibar]] receives its [[independence]] from the
|
tatus of a classic.
The last verse reads:
{| border="0" width="35%" cellpadding="5" class="noprint" style="float:right; clear:both; border:solid #008 2px; margin:0em 0em 0.5em 0.5em; width:35%;"
|-
|[[Image:Sourceberg.jpg|50px|none|Wikisource|<nowiki></nowiki>]]
|'''[[Wikisource]] has the [[wikisource:Casey at the Bat|full text of "Casey at the Bat"]].'''
|}
:Oh, somewhere in this favored land the sun is shining bright;
:The band is playing somewhere, and somewhere hearts are light,
:And somewhere men are laughing, and somewhere children shout;
:But there is no joy in Mudville&mdash;mighty Casey has struck out.
Residents of [[Stockton, California]] have often claimed that Mudville was inspired by Stockton, and for the [[2002 in baseball|2002]] season, Stockton's [[California League]] team was named the Mudville Nine. (Since then, the team's name has reverted to the [[Stockton Ports]].)
Residents of [[Holliston, Massachusetts]] have made similar claims, and a rivalry of sorts has developed between the two cities over the location of the poem, if it was either. Thayer did in fact grow up in nearby [[Worcester, Massachusetts]].
==Other adaptations, as well as sequels==
A month after the poem was published, a [[parody]], "Kelly at the Bat," was published in the ''Sporting Times.'' The only changes from the original are substitutions of Kelly for Casey, and [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] for Mudville. [[King Kelly|Mike "King" Kelly]], then of the [[Atlanta Braves|Boston Beaneaters]], was one of baseball's two biggest stars at the time (along with [[Cap Anson]]).
In [[1897]], ''Current Literature'' noted the two versions and said, "The locality, as originally given, is Mudville, not Boston; the latter was substituted to give the poem local color."
Based on Thayer's original, there have been two [[animated film]]s by [[Walt Disney]]: ''Casey at the Bat'' ([[1946 in film|1946]]), which is a direct adaptation, and ''Casey Bats Again'' ([[1954 in film|1954]]), in which his daughters redeem his reputation. A parody of the original, replaying the same events from the perspective of the opposing team, was written by [[Garrison Keillor]].
Several other parodies exist: one where Casey gets revenge the next season with the same pitcher ''(see [[Casey's Revenge]])'', one including Casey coming to the plate 20 years later getting his revenge, and one taking place in [[Russia]] which ends with "Kasey" in a [[gulag]] [[prison]].
In [[1988]], on the 100th anniversary of the poem, ''[[Sports Illustrated]]'' writer [[Frank DeFord]] constructed a fanciful story (later expanded to book form) which posited Katie Casey, the subject of the song ''[[Take Me Out to the Ball Game]]'', as being the daughter of the famous slugger from the poem.
==External links==
*[http://members.aol.com/jhatfi1006/casey2.htm "Casey at the Bat (road game)", by Garrison Keillor]
*[[media:CaseyAtTheBat.ogg|Hear Hopper recite the poem]].
*[http://cylinders.library.ucsb.edu/search.php?queryType=@attr%201=21&query=humorous%20recitations&num=1&start=8&sortBy=&sortOrder=ia Hear Russell Hunting version]
[[Category:American poems]]
[[Category:Baseball culture]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Classical guitar</title>
<id>5810</id>
<revision>
<id>41135506</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T07:01:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.130.173.185</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:ClassicalGuitar.jpg|frame|Classical guitar]]
A '''classical guitar''', also called a '''Spanish guitar''', is a [[musical instrument]] from the [[guitar]] family.
==Background information==
The classical guitar is distinguished by a number of features:
*It is an [[wiktionary:acoustic|acoustic]] instrument. The sound is amplified by a [[sound box]].
*It has six [[string (music)|strings]]. A few classical guitars have eight or more strings to expand the bass scale, even out overtone production, and allow [[lute]] music written for lutes with more than six courses of strings to be played.
*The strings are usually made from [[nylon]] (formerly [[catgut]], which is made from [[sheep]] intestine, despite the name), as opposed to the metal strings found in some other forms of guitar. These strings have a much lower [[Tension (mechanics)|tension]] than steel strings. The lower three strings ('bass strings') are wound with metal, commonly silver or nickel. Some less common stringings use a fourth wound string.
*Because of the low tension of the strings the neck can be made entirely of wood, not requiring a steel truss rod.
*Also because of the low tension of the strings, the interior bracing of the sound board can be lighter, which allows more complex tonal qualities. The spruce top or sound board of each type has a different bracing pattern. A common classical guitar bracing pattern in is called fan bracing. A center spruce brace is glued on the inside of the soundboard along the center line of the guitar under the bridge. Additional braces fan out on ether side of the first brace. The extreme tension of steel-strings requires stronger bracing. A common steel-string pattern is called X bracing and was first developed by the [[C.F. Martin & Co.]] X bracing consists of two larger braced crossed under the sound board of a steel-string guitar. The center of the X is usually centered between the underside of the bridge and the sound hole.
*The neck tends to be broader than with steel string guitars, making more complex fingerwork easier, but which may require a more exacting left hand position. The classical fingerboard is normally flat, whereas the steel string fingerboard has a slight radius.
*The strings are usually plucked with the fingers. Most players shape their fingernails so that they contact the string in a certain way to achieve the desired tone.
*Traditionally, the tuning pegs (or "keys") at the head the fingerboard of a classical guitar point backwards (towards the player when the guitar is in playing position; perpendicular to the plane of the [[fretboard]]). This is in contrast to a traditional steel-string guitar design, in which the tuning pegs point outward (up and down from playing position; parallel to the plane of the [[fretboard]]).
*Classical guitars are typically built without ''[[pickguard]]s''. A pickguard is a piece of plastic affixed just below the strings on steel-string guitars to protect the sound board of the guitar from damage by aggressive strumming with a pick. It is assumed that a classical guitar will be played only with the fingers, and that a pick-guard is unnecessary. On flamenco guitars a tapping, or golpe board is attached to the front of the guitar, below the sound hole to allow the use of techniques that would normally damage a classical guitar.
Classical guitars are normally played without amplification of any sort but they can be equipped with an electronic pickup, which is sometimes used by performers in noisy environments. Either a piezoelectric pickup is placed under the bridge, or a microphone is suspended within the body.
==History of the classical guitar==
===The Golden Age===
The first 'Golden Age' of the classical guitar repertoire was the 19th century. Some notable guitar composers from this period are:
*[[Dionisio Aguado]] [[1784]]-[[1849]]
*[[Julián Arcas]] [[1832]]-[[1882]]
*[[Luigi Boccherini]] [[1743]]-[[1805]]
*[[Jose Broca]] [[1805]]-[[1882]]
*[[Matteo Carcassi]] [[1792]]-[[1853]]
*[[Ferdinando Carulli]] [[1770]]-[[1841]]
*[[Napoléon Coste]] [[1806]]-[[1883]]
*[[Anton Diabelli]] [[1781]]-[[1858]]
*[[Fernando Ferandiere]] [[1771]]-[[1816]]
*[[Francois de Fossa]] [[1775]]-[[1849]]
*[[Mauro Giuliani]] [[1781]]-[[1829]]
*[[Luigi Legnani]] [[1790]]-[[1877]]
*[[Antoine de Lhoyer]] [[1768]]-[[1852]]
*[[Antonio Gimeniz Manjon]] [[1866]]-[[1919]]
*[[Wenzeslaus Matiegka]] [[1773]]-[[1830]]
*[[Johann Kaspar Mertz]] [[1806]]-[[1856]]
*[[Francesco Molino]] [[1768]]-[[1847]]
*[[Giulio Regondi]] [[1822]]-[[1872]]
*[[Fernando Sor]] [[1778]]-[[1839]]
*[[Francisco Tárrega]] [[1852]]-[[1909]]
*[[Marco Aurelio Zani de Ferranti]] [[1800]]-[[1878]]
===Guitarist-composers of the 20th century===
*[[Sergio Assad]] [[1952]]-
*[[Agustín Barrios Mangoré]] [[1885]]-[[1944]]
*[[Gilbert Biberian]] [[1944]]-
*[[Leo Brouwer]] [[1939]]-
*[[Kevin Callahan]] [[1958]]-
*[[Abel Carlevaro]] [[1918]]-[[2002]]
*[[Carlo Domeniconi]] [[1947]]-
*[[John W Duarte]] [[1919]]-[[2004]]
*[[Roland Dyens]] [[1955]]-
*[[Dimitris Fampas]] [[1921]] - [[1996]]
*[[Angelo Gilardino]] [[1941]]-
*[[Brian Head]] [[1965]]-
*[[Evan Hirschelman]] [[1976]]-
*[[Francis Kleynjans]] [[1951]]-
*[[Nikita Koshkin]] [[1956]]-
*[[Annette Kruisbrink]] [[1958]]-
*[[Ian Krouse]] [[1956]]-
*[[Antonio Lauro]] [[1917]]-[[1986]]
*[[Miguel Llobet]] [[1878]]-[[1938]]
*[[Jorge Morel]] [[1931]]-
*[[Maximo Diego Pujol]] [[1957]]-
*[[Eduardo Sainz de la Maza]] [[1903]]-[[1982]]
*[[Teresa de Rogatis]] [[1893]]-[[1979]]
*[[Reginald Smith Brindle]] [[1917]]-[[2003]]
*[[Stepán Rak]] [[1945]]-
*[[Brad Richter]] [[1969]]-
*[[D.R. Auten]] [[1951]]-
*[[Heitor Villa-Lobos]] [[1887]]-[[1959]]
*[[Andrew York]] [[1958]]-
===Composers for the classical guitar===
In the 20th century, many non-guitarist composers wrote for the instrument, which previously only players of the instrument had done. These include:
*[[Malcolm Arnold]] [[1921]]-
*[[Vicente Asencio]] [[1908]]-[[1979]]
*[[Milton Babbitt]] [[1916]]-
*[[Richard Rodney Bennett]] [[1936]]-
*[[Luciano Berio]] [[1925]]-[[2003]]
*[[Lennox Berkeley]] [[1903]]-[[1989]]
*[[Benjamin Britten]] [[1913]]-[[1976]]
*[[Elliott Carter]] [[1908]]-
*[[Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco]] [[1895]]-[[1968]]
*[[Peter Maxwell Davies]] [[1934]]-
*[[Stephen Dodgson]] [[1924]]-
*[[René Eespere]] [[1953]]-
*[[Manuel de Falla]] [[1876]]-[[1946]]
|
een derived. While some prefer to try to find substantiation for the traditional identification of Ahasuerus with [[Xerxes I]], others have argued for different identifications.
For the last hundred and fifty years, most scholars have seen the Book of Esther as a work of fiction, although some have joined with traditionalists in attempting to find a historical basis for the story. Some Christian readers have also tried to see the story as a Christian allegory, in the same vein as the [[Song of Solomon]]. The various major readings are considered separately in the sections that follow:
==Interpretation of Esther as an allegory of Babylonian Mythology==
The ''History of Religions'' school of thought, popular in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, argued against the historicity of the Bible by drawing comparisons between Biblical narratives and pagan myths. In particular, these scholars drew comparisons between individuals in the ''Book of Esther'' and various real and alleged Babylonian and Elamite gods and goddesses:
*Esther was equated with the similarly sounding [[Ishtar]]. Her original Hebrew name ''Hadassah'' was compared with Akkadian ''hadashatu'' said to be a title of Ishtar meaning "bride". The custom of preparing [[hamantaschen]] at Purim is reminiscent of a description of Ishtar in [[Jeremiah]] 7:18, when it was customary "to make cakes to the Queen of Heaven."
*Mordecai was equated with [[Marduk]]. Marduk is a cousin of Ishtar in Chaldean mythology, as was Mordecai a cousin of Esther.
*Vashti was said to be an [[Elam]]ite goddess named Mashti.
*Haman was said to be an Elamite god named Uman or Human (or other variations) or alternatively a Babylonian demon.
*The festival of Purim was equated with various real and conjectural pagan festivals, including an alleged Elamite or Babylonian festival marking the victory of Ishtar and Marduk over Uman and Mashti similar to the triumph of Esther and Mordecai over their rivals Haman and Vashti. Other suggestions were: the Babylonian New Year festival (Sumerian ''Zagmuk'', Akkadian ''Akitu'', called ''Sacaea'' by [[Berosus]]) honouring Marduk -it was suggested that ''purim'' ("lots") originally referred to a belief that the gods chose one's fate for the year by lots; the Persian festival of [[Farvardigan]]; or the Greek festival of [[Pithoigia]] ("wine flask opening") - it was noted that Hebrew for wine press is ''purah'' resembling ''purim''.
These views have largely been rejected by later scholars:
*Ishtar was well known to the Jews who opposed her worship, moreover her name in Hebrew is [[Ashtoreth]] which is phonetically unrelated to Esther despite the superfical similarity when transliterated into English (consonantal root ''aleph-shin-tav-resh'' vs ''ayin-samech-tav-resh''). Esther is most commonly understood to be related to the Persian word for star and the Median word for myrtle, and the Hebrew name Hadassah means [[myrtle]]. (See ''[[Esther]]'' for a discussion of the meaning of the name.) Akkadian ''hadashatu'' is not a standard title of Ishtar, it occurs once in a description of Ishtar as a "new bride" and its meaning is "new" not "bride". It is a cognate of Hebrew ''hadash'' (with a guttural ''h'') and is phonetically unrelated to "Hadassah" (consonantal root ''chet-dalet-shin'' vs ''he-dalet-samech''). Moreover hamantaschen originated amongst Jews of Eastern Europe in relatively recent times.
*The name Mordecai is indeed most commonly connected with that of the god Marduk but its meaning is understood to be "[servant] of Marduk". It is considered equivalent to ''Marduka'' or ''Marduku'', well attested in the Persepolis texts as a genuine name of the period. Jewish tradition relates that it was a replacement of his Hebrew name Bilshan. (Similar accounts of Jews in exile being assigned names relating to Babylonian gods is seen in the [[Book of Daniel]].) Babylonian gods and goddesses are indeed organized into familes making many including Marduk and Ishtar some form of cousins but this is never a point explicitly stated in Babylonian texts.
*An Elamite goddess named Mashti is purely conjectural and unattested in sources, whereas "Vashti" can be understood as a genuine Persian name meaning "beautiful".
*Elamite theophoric elements such as ''Khuban'', ''[[Khumban]]'' or ''Khumma'' are known but are pronounced with an initial guttural consonant and not as Uman or Human, and are phonetically unrelated to the Persian name Haman meaning "magnificent". The Babylonian demon is named ''Humbaba'' or ''Huwawa'' also pronounced with an initial guttural consonant ''kh'' and unrelated to Haman.
*An Elamite or Babylonian festival marking a victory of Ishtar and Marduk over alleged Uman and Mashti is purely conjectural and unattested in sources. The Babylonian New Year occurs at a very different date to Purim (in the month of ''Nisan'' not ''Adar''). A decision of fate by lots by the gods is not attested in any sources. [[Farvardigan]] was a five day commeration of the dead bearing no resemblance to Purim. Pithoigia also occurs at a different time to Purim and although Purim is celebrated with wine drinking this not its focus; moreover the plural of the Hebrew for wine press is ''puroth'' not ''purim''.
==Historical reading==
Those arguing in favour of an historical reading of Esther, who usually write from a traditionalist Jewish or Christian perspective, most commonly identify Ahasuerus with [[Xerxes I]] (ruled [[486 BC|486]] - [[465 BC|465 B.C.E.]]) or occasionally with [[Artaxerxes II of Persia|Artaxerxes II]] (ruled [[405 BC|405]] - [[359 BC|359 B.C.E.]]).
The [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] ''Ahasuerus'' is mostly likely derived from [[Persian language|Persian]] ''Khshayarsha'', the origin of the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''Xerxes''. The Greek historian [[Herodotus]] wrote that Xerxes sought his [[Harem (household)|harem]] after being defeated in the [[Greco-Persian Wars]]. He makes no reference to individual members of the harem with the exception of a domineering [[Queen consort]] [[Amestris]], a daughter of one of his generals, Otanes. ([[Ctesias]] however refers to a father-in-law and general of Xerxes named Onaphas). Amestris has often been identified with [[Vashti]] by those arguing the historical reading. The identification is problematic however - Amestris remained a powerful figure well into the reign of her son, [[Artaxerxes I]] while Vashti is portrayed as dismissed in the early part of Xerxes's reign. (Alternative attempts have been made to identify her with [[Esther]], although Esther's father is a Jew named Abihail and she is portrayed as merely one of numerous concubines in Ahasuerus' harem.) The name ''Marduka'' or ''Marduku'' (considered equivalent to ''Mordecai'') has been found as the name of officials in the Persian court in thirty texts from the period of Xerxes I and his father Darius, and may refer to up to four individuals with the possibility that one of these is the Biblical Mordecai.
The Septuagint version of Esther however translates the name Ahasuerus as ''Artaxerxes'' - a Greek name derived from the [[Persian language|Persian]]: ''Artakhshatra''. [[Josephus]] too relates that this was the name by which he was known to the Greeks. It should be noted, however, that a version of the name Artaxerxes, distinct from the Hebrew for Ahasuerus, and can be found in the Books of Ezra and Nehemiah. Nevertheless, some have attempted to identify Ahasuerus with one of the Kings Artaxerxes. Identification as [[Artaxerxes II of Persia|Artaxerxes II]] has been more popular than with [[Artaxerxes I of Persia|Artaxerxes I]] (ruled [[465 BC|465]] - [[424 BC|424 B.C.E.]]) however the latter had a Babylonian concubine, [[Kosmartydene]], who was the mother of his son [[Darius II of Persia|Darius II]] (ruled [[424 BC|424]] - [[405 BC|405 B.C.E.]]). Jewish tradition relates that Esther was the mother of a King Darius and so some identify Ahasuerus with Artaxerxes I and Esther with Kosmartydene.
Based on the view that the [[Ahasuerus]] of the ''[[Book of Tobit]]'' is identical with that of the ''Book of Esther'', some have also identified him as Nebuchadnezzar's ally [[Cyaxares]] (ruled [[625 BC|625]] - [[585 BC|585 B.C.E.]]). In certain manuscripts of Tobit the former is called ''Achiachar'' which like the [[Greek language|Greek]]: ''Cyaxares'' is thought to be derived from [[Persian language|Persian]]: ''Akhuwakhshatra''. Depending on the interpretation of ''Esther'' 2:5-6, Mordecai or his great-grandfather Kish was carried away from [[Jerusalem]] with [[Jeconiah]] by [[Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon|Nebuchadnezzar]], in [[597 BC|597 B.C.E]]. The view that it was Mordecai would be consistent with the identification of Ahasuerus with Cyaxares. Identifications with other Persian monarchs have also been suggested.
Jacob Hoschander (''The Book of Esther in the Light of History'', Oxford University Press, 1923) has argued that evidence of the historicity of Haman and his father Hamedatha is seen in ''Omanus'' and ''Anadatus'' mentioned by [[Strabo]] as being honoured with [[Anahita]] in the city of [[Zela]]. Hoschander argues that these were not deities as Strabo supposed but garbled forms of "Haman" and "Hamedatha" who were being worshipped as martyrs. The names are indeed unattested in Persian texts as gods. (An alternative explanation connects ''Omanus'' with the Zoroastrian term [[Vohu Mana]].)
==Narrative reading==
{{sectstub}}
Most modern scholars consider the Book of Esther a work of fiction. The name Ahasuerus is seen to be based on Xerxes but the exploits of a real Persian king do not enter into the ''Book of Esther'', which is a fictional tale of palace intrigue, attempted [[genocide]], and a brave Jewish queen. Some have read the story as a [[parable]] of quintessentially assimilated Jews
|
s Claudio Simpkins]] 2005
===Politics, government, and sociology===
*[[Herman Badillo]] [[1951]], former Congressman and Chairman of [[CUNY]]'s Board of Trustees, was an architect of the University's academic rebirth.
*[[Daniel Bell]] - sociologist, professor at [[Harvard University]]
*[[Bernard Baruch|Bernard M. Baruch]] - [[Wall Street]] financier and adviser to American Presidents for 40 years, from [[Woodrow Wilson]] to [[John F. Kennedy]].
*[[Abraham D. Beame]] 1928 - mayor of [[New York City]], [[1974]] to [[1977]]
*[[Stephen Bronner]] - political theorist, Marxist, professor at [[Rutgers University]]
*[[Felix Frankfurter]] 1902 - justice of the [[U.S. Supreme Court]], January 30, [[1939]]–August 28, [[1962]].
*[[George Friedman]] - founder of [[Stratfor]], author, professor of [[Political Science]], security and defense analyst
*[[Nathan Glazer]] - [[neoconservative]] political pundit
*[[Irving Howe]] - coined the phrase "New York Jewish Intellectual"
*[[Ed Koch]] 1945 - mayor of [[New York City]], [[1978]] to [[1989]]
*[[Irving Kristol]] - [[neoconservatism|neoconservative]] pundit
*[[Robert T. Johnson]] 1972 - [[Bronx District Attorney]].
*[[Guillermo Linares]] 1975 - the first [[Dominican-American]] [[New York City Council]] Member.
*[[Colin Powell|Colin L. Powell]] - Former [[United States Secretary of State]], [[2001]] to [[2005]]
*[[Julius Rosenberg]] - infamous convicted spy during the [[Cold War]]
*[[Robert F. Wagner| Robert F. Wagner Sr.]] - [[United States Senator]] from New York, [[1927]] to [[1949]]
*[[Michelle Wallace]] 1975 - a major figure in African-American studies, feminist studies and cultural studies
===The arts===
*[[Maurice Ashley]] 1993 - the first [[African-American]] [[International Chess Grandmaster]].
*[[Paddy Chayevsky]] - famed playwright for the stage and screen, wrote ''[[Marty]]'' and ''[[Altered States]]''
*[[Ira Gershwin]] 1918 - American lyricist, collaborator with, and brother of [[George Gershwin]]
*[[Marv Goldberg]] - Music historian in the field of [[rhythm & blues]]
*[[Hazelle Goodman]] 1986 - Stage, screen and TV actress, was the first [[African-American]] to hold a leading role in a [[Woody Allen]] film, [[Deconstructing Harry]].
*[[Arthur Guiterman]], humorous poet
*[[Luis Guzmán]] - actor
*[[Yip Harburg|E.Y. "Yip" Harburg]] 1918 - American lyricist (''[[The Wizard of Oz (1939 movie)|The Wizard of Oz]], [[Finian's Rainbow]]'', others)
*[[Oscar Hijuelos]] 1975 - won the [[1990]] [[Pulitzer Prize]] for his novel ''[[The Mambo Kings Play Songs of Love]]''.
*[[Judd Hirsch]] 1960 - American actor
*[[Walter Mosley]] 1991 MA, best-selling author whose novels about [[private investigator|private eye]] [[Easy Rawlins]] have received [[Edgar Award|Edgar]] and [[Golden Dagger Award|Golden Dagger]] Awards.
*[[Michael Oreskes]] 1975 - Executive Editor of The [[International Herald Tribune]]
*[[Edward G. Robinson]] 1914 - actor
*[[A.M. Rosenthal]] 1949, former Executive Editor of The New York Times.
*[[Richard Schiff]] 1983 - [[Emmy]] award winning actor and a star of ''[[The West Wing (television)|The West Wing]]''.
*[[Eli Wallach]] 1938 (MA) - actor
*[[Upton Sinclair]] 1897 (BA) - Author ( ''The Jungle (1906)'' )
*[[Bernard Malamud]] 1936 (BA) - Author ( ''The Natural (1952)'' )
*[[William Gati, AIA]] 1981,1982,1984 (BS, BArch, MArch) - Architect and Educator
*[[Ernest Lehman]] 1937 (BS) - Screenwriter ("[[North by Northwest]], "[[The Sound of Music]]", "[[Sweet Smell Of Success]]", "[[Who's Afraid Of Virginia Woolf|Who's Afraid Of Virginia Woolf?]]")
===Science and technology===
*[[Solomon Asch]] - psychologist, known for the [[Asch conformity experiments]]
*[[Julius Blank]] - engineer, member of the [[Traitorous Eight]] that founded [[Silicon Valley]]
*[[Adin Falkoff]] - engineer, computer scientist, co-inventor of the [[APL language]] interactive system
*[[George Washington Goethals]] 1887 - [[civil engineer]], best known for his supervision of construction and the opening of the [[Panama Canal]]
*[[Dan Goldin]] - served as the 9th and longest-tenured administrator of [[NASA]].
*[[Robert E. Kahn]] - [[Internet]] pioneer, co-inventor of the [[Internet protocol suite|TCP/IP]] protocol, co-recipient of the [[Turing Award]] in 2004.
*[[Leonard Kleinrock]] 1957 - Internet pioneer
*[[Solomon Kullback]] - Mathematician; NSA cryptology pioneer
*[[Michael A. Liguori]] 1979 - listed among the New York area's 100 best primary care doctors by [[New York Magazine]].
*[[Albert Medwin]] 1949 BSEE - engineer and inventor, developed [[CMOS]] integrated circuit technology
*[[Lewis Mumford]] - historian of technology
*[[Charles Lane Poor]] - noted astronomer
*[[Howard Rosenblum]] 1950 BSEE - NSA Engineer; developer of the STU (Secure Telephone Unit)
*[[Mario Runco, Jr.]] 1974 - astronaut.
*[[Jonas Salk]] 1934 - inventor of the Salk [[vaccine]] (see [[polio vaccine]])
*[[Abraham Sinkov]] - Mathematician; NSA (National Security Agency) cryptology pioneer
*[[David B. Steinman]] 1906 - engineer; bridge designer (Class 1906)
*[[Leonard Susskind]] 1962 - physicist, string theory
===Business===
*[[Robert Catell]] 1958 - CEO of KeySpan.
*[[Andy Grove]] 1960 - 4th employee of [[Intel]], and eventually its president, CEO, and chairman, and [[TIME magazine]]'s [[Man of the Year]] in [[1997]]
*[[Stanley H. Kaplan]] 1939 - founded [[Kaplan Educational Services]].
*[[Jack Rudin]] 1941 - real estate developer.
*[[Frank J. Sciame]] 1974 - architect and developer
*[[Linda Kaplan Thaler]] 1972, the CEO of the fastest growing ad agency in New York, brought us the Aflac Duck.
===Sports===
*[[Red Holzman]] 1948 - legendary [[basketball]] coach for the [[New York Knicks]].
==Footnotes==
* {{ent|1|Nobel1}} see article [[Nobel Prize laureates by university affiliation]]
==References==
* S. Willis Rudy, ''College of the City of New York 1847-1947'', 1949.
* Paul David Pearson, ''The City College of New York: 150 years of academic architecture'', 1997.
==External links==
*[http://www.ccny.cuny.edu/ Official website]
*[http://www.ccny.cuny.edu/library/onlinexhibits.html City College Library Historical CCNY Exhibits]
*[http://origin.admin.ccny.cuny.edu/library/exhibitions/lostworld/ The Lost World of CCNY exhibit at CCNY Library]
*[http://www.ccny.cuny.edu/public_safety/FUN_STUFF.HTML Old CCNY photographs and memorabilia]
*[http://www.ccnycampus.com/ The Campus] - Student Newspaper
*[http://www.pbs.org/arguing/ Arguing the World] - [[PBS]] documentary about the "[[New York Intellectuals]]," who came of age at City College
*[http://www1.ccny.cuny.edu/advancement/pr/Andrew-Grove-Donation.cfm Press release regarding Dr. Andrew Grove's 2005 donation of $26,000,000 to the Engineering School]
*[http://www.economist.com/world/na/displaystory.cfm?story_id=5417329 Economist article on emerging 'elitism' at the City University of New York.]
{{CUNY}}
[[Category:City University of New York]]
[[Category:1847 establishments]]
[[ja:ニューヨーク市立大学シティカレッジ]]
[[zh:纽约市立学院]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Constitution of Canada</title>
<id>7411</id>
<revision>
<id>41342302</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T18:47:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gbambino</username>
<id>187401</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Unwritten Sources of the Canadian Constitution */ clarifying Can. crown vs. British crown</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Canadian politics}}
The '''[[Constitution]] of [[Canada]]''' is the supreme law in Canada. It is an amalgam of codified [[act]]s and [[uncodified constitution|uncodified]] traditions and [[constitutional convention (political custom)|convention]]s. It outlines Canada's [[system of government]], as well as the [[civil rights]] of all Canadian citizens.
The composition of the Constitution of Canada is defined in section 52(2) of the [[Constitution Act, 1982]] as consisting of the [[Canada Act 1982]] (including the Constitution Act, 1982), all acts and orders referred to in the schedule (including the [[Constitution Act, 1867]]), and any amendments to these documents. Effectively, this includes all British legislation that predates or modifies the [[British North America Act]]{{ref|ConstList}}. The [[Supreme Court of Canada]] held that the list is not exhaustive and includes unwritten doctrines as well {{ref|NBBC}}. Nevertheless, almost all constitutional [[jurisprudence]] focuses on the Constitution Act, 1867, the Constitution Act, 1982, including the [[Charter of Rights and Freedoms]], and the so-called "unwritten constitution".
== History of the Constitution ==
{{seealso|Constitutional history of Canada}}
The first semblance of a Constitution for Canada was the [[Royal Proclamation of 1763]]. The Act renamed Canada "The Province of Quebec" and redefined its borders and established a British-appointed colonial government. The proclamation was considered as the de facto constitution of Quebec until 1774 when the British government passed the [[Quebec Act]] of 1774 which set out many procedures of governance in the area of Quebec. It extended the boundaries of the colony and adopted the British criminal code among other things.
The colony of Canada received its first full constitution in the [[Constitutional Act of 1791]] which established much of the composition of the government. This was later superseded by the British North America Act in 1867 which established the Dominion of Canada.
In [[1931]], the British Parliament passed the [[Statute of Westminster, 1931]] (22 Geo. V, c.4 (U.K.)). This Act gave all dominion countries equal legislative authority with the United Kingdom. This was followed up in [[1982]], when the British Parliament passed the '''[[Canada Act 1982|Canada Act, 1982]]''' ((U.K.) 1982, c.11) giving up all remaining constitutional and legislative ties to Canada and accepted as law the Constitution Act of
|
that the persons they are paid to extract from religious organizations are victims of [[mind control]] (or "[[brainwashing]]"). Books written by deprogrammers and [[exit counseling|exit counselor]]s assert that the most essential part of "freeing the mind" of the person is to convince him that he had been under "control".
In practice, the vast majority of the time spent during deprogramming sessions is the marshalling of evidence aimed at proving that the "cult" deceived and manipulated the recruit into joining. Once the person accepts this premise, the remainder of the process is relatively easy.
Psychologist Steve Dubrow-Eichel found in published deprogramming accounts besides a lot of variations a number of common factors:
* voluntary or involuntary removal from the cultic milieu
* establishing a personal relationship
* disputing cult information and imparting new information on the cult
* interference with cult-supported attentional patterns used to block oneself from outside influences (chanting, self-induced trance states, etc.)
* an overt or covert sign that the deprogrammee has renounced his or her allegiance to the cult
The deprogramming observed by Dubrow-Eichel did not stress emotion, but information and logical analysis of contradiction between words and deeds of the ISCON leaders.
[[Ted Patrick]], one of the pioneers of deprogramming, used a confrontational method:
:"When you deprogram people, you force them to think. ... But I keep them off balance and this forces them to begin questioning, to open their minds. When the mind gets to a certain point, they can see through all the lies that they've been programmed to believe. They realize that they've been duped and they come out of it. Their minds start working again. "
Sylvia Buford, an associate of Ted Patrick who has assisted him on many deprogrammings, described five stages of deprogramming (Stoner, C., & Parke, J. (1977). All God's children: The cult experience - salvation or slavery? Radrior, PA: Chilton ):
* Discredit the figure of authority: the cult leader
* Present contradictions (ideology vs. reality): "How can he preach love when he exploits people?" is an example.
* The breaking point: When a subject begins to listen to the deprogrammer; when reality begins to take precedence over ideology.
* Self-expression: When the subject begins to open up and to voice some of his own gripes against the cult.
* Identification and transference: when the subject begins to identify with the deprogrammers, starts to think of himself as an opponent of the cult rather than a member of it.
=== Deprogramming and kidnapping ===
Deprogramming has often been associated with [[kidnapping]], which has in some cases been part of the procedure. The percentage of cases involving kidnapping varies a lot, depending on the source. Joseph Szimhart, a former deprogrammer, says ''"until [[1992]], in a low percentage of my cases, included situations in which families elected to confine and sometimes abduct a 'cultist' to a deprogramming."'' (Kent & Szimhart, 2002). Former deprogrammer Rick Ross states that 90% of his deprogrammings since [[1982]] had been voluntary [http://www.rickross.com/reference/deprogramming/deprogramming9.html], other figures talk about 30% of the cases including kidnapping.
=== Deprogramming and violence ===
The deprogramming accounts vary a lot regarding the use of force, with the most dramatic accounts coming from deprogrammees who returned to the cult.
[[Steven Hassan]] in his book ''Releasing the Bonds'' spoke decidedly against coercive deprogramming methods using force or threats.
The deprogramming case observed by Dubrow-Eichel did not include any violence.
Sociologist Eileen Barker wrote in [http://www.cesnur.org/2001/london2001/barker.htm Watching for Violence]:
:"Although deprogramming has become less violent in the course of time ... Numerous testimonies by those who were subjected to a deprogramming describe how they were threatened with a gun, beaten, denied sleep and food and/or sexually assaulted. But one does not have to rely on the victims for stories of violence: [[Ted Patrick]], one of the most notorious deprogrammers used by CAGs (who has spent several terms in prison for his exploits) openly boasts about some of the violence he employed; in November 1987, [[Cyril Vosper]], a Committee member of the British cult-awareness group, [[Family Action Information Resource|FAIR]], was convicted in Munich of "causing bodily harm" in the course of one of his many deprogramming attempts; and a number of similar convictions are on record for prominent members of CAGs elsewhere."
In ''Colombrito vs. Kelly'', the Court accepted the definition of deprogramming by J. Le Moult published in 1978 in the Fordham Law Review:
:"Deprogrammers are people who, at the request of a parent or other close relative, will have a member of a religious sect seized, then hold him against his will and subject him to mental, emotional, and even physical pressures until he renounces his religious beliefs. Deprogrammers usually work for a fee, which may easily run as high as $25,000. The deprogramming process begins with abduction. Often strong men muscle the subject into a car and take him to a place where he is cut from everyone but his captors. He may be held against his will for upward of three weeks. Frequently, however, the initial deprogramming only last a few days. The subject's sleep is limited and he is told that he will not be released until his beliefs meet his captors' approval. Members of the deprogramming group, as well as members of the family, come into the room where the victim is held and barrage him with questions and denunciations until he recants his newly found religion "
Exit counselor Carol Giambalvo writes in [http://www.csj.org/studyindex/studyintervention/study_deprog_threfrmconsult.htm From Deprogramming to Thought Reform Consultation]
:"It was believed that the hold of the brainwashing over the cognitive processes of a cult member needed to be broken – or "snapped" as some termed it – by means that would shock or frighten the cultist into thinking again. For that reason in some cases cult leader's pictures were burned or there were highly confrontational interactions between deprogrammers and cultist. What was often sought was an emotional response to the information, the shock, the fear, and the confrontation. There are horror stories – promoted most vehemently by the cults themselves – about restraint, beatings, and even rape. And we have to admit that we have met former members who have related to us their deprogramming experience – several of handcuffs, weapons wielded and sexual abuse. But thankfully, these are in the minority – and in our minds, never justified. Nevertheless, deprogramming helped to free many individuals held captive to destructive cults at a time when other alternatives did not seem viable. "
== History ==
The American Ted Patrick was one of its most prominent proponents. Most of the deprogramming cases took place in the [[United States]], with only sporadic cases in [[Western Europe]]. In Europe, attempts to justify deprogramming continue on the basis of opinions by psychiatrists and psychologists, even though in the United States, such opinions have been successfully challenged in court and debunked by the [[APA]]. [http://www.cesnur.org/conferences/BrainWash.htm]
:"The number of forcible deprogrammings had diminished by the end of the [[1980s]]. Not only did the anticult movement lose the academic battle to make its theories accepted, the legal battle to make its activity excusable, and the legislative battle to pass laws that would allow it to 'legalize' its activity, but it also became obvious how easy it was to defeat deprogramming. The person just had, at some point, to pretend to go along with deprogrammers. The deprogrammer then 'recognized' that the person had snapped out of the cult 'mind-control' (which proves that this notion is based on nothing else than animus towards the person's choice) and switched to the 'rehabilitation' phases, then released him - after which the deprogrammer found himself in front of the Court." [http://bernie.cncfamily.com/sc/can.htm]
==Controversy and related issues==
One of the points which fired deprogramming controversies was the fact that they were in the majority of cases successful.
One of main objections raised to deprogramming (as well as to [[exit counseling]]) is the contention that they begin with a false premise. Lawyers for some groups who have lost members due to deprogramming, as well as some [[civil libertarian]]s, [[sociologist]]s and [[psychologist]]s, argue that it is not the religious groups but rather the deprogrammers who are the ones who deceive and manipulate people.
Public support for deprogramming hinges on the degree to which people agree or disagree with the [[mind control]] model. In the United States, from the mid-[[1970s]] and throughout the [[1980s]] [[mind control]] was widely accepted, and the vast majority of [[newspaper]] and [[magazine]] accounts of deprogrammings assumed that recruits' relatives were well justified to seek [[conservatorship]]s and to hire deprogrammers. It took nearly 20 years for public opinion to shift.
One aspect that gradually became disturbing from a civil rights point of view, was that relatives would use deception, or legal dealings or even kidnapping to get the recruit into deprogrammers' hands, without allowing the person any recourse to a lawyer or psychiatrist of their own choosing. In the old days, there would be a sanity hearing first, and only then a commitment to an asylum or involuntary therapy. But with deprogramming, judges routinely granted parents legal authority over their adult children without a hearing.
After 10 or 15 years o
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with the aim of elucidating cause and effect relationships. Foresters often focus on wood extraction and [[silviculture]], including tree [[regeneration]] and growth processes.
Forests can be altered when [[logging]], [[forest fire]]s, [[acid rain]], [[herbivores]], or [[diseases]], among other things, cause damage to trees. In the [[United States]], most forests have historically been affected by humans to some degree, though in recent years [[environmental protection]] has helped regulate or moderate large scale or severe impacts.
For more comprehensive information on this sub-topic visit the [http://www.iifm.ac.in Indian Institute of Forest Management] in India.
==References==
*[http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/01/060112035906.htm 2006-01-13, Sciencedaily: Deep-rooted Plants Have Much Greater Impact On Climate Than Experts Thought] Citat: "...The [[tap root]]s transfer [[Rain|rainwater]] from the surface to [[reservoir]]s deep underground and redistribute water...increases [[photosynthesis]] and the evaporation of water...by 40 percent in the [[dry season]]...During the wet season, these plants can store as much as 10 percent of the annual [[precipitation]] as deep as 13 meters (43 feet) underground, to be tapped during the dry months...tree roots acting like pipes to allow water to shift around much faster than it could otherwise [[percolate]] through the [[soil]]..."
==See also==
[[Image:Forest on San Juan Island.jpg|thumb|250px|A forest on [[San Juan Island]] in [[Washington]]]]
{{Commons|Forest}}
;General
*[[Biosphere]]
*[[Ecological succession]]
*[[Forest Schools]]
*[[Jungle (terrain)]]
*[[Plant]]
*[[Plantation]]
*[[Primeval forest]]
*[[Rainforest]]
*[[Royal forest]]
*[[Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests]]
*[[Temperate coniferous forests]]
*[[Tree]]
*[[Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests]]
*[[Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests]]
*[[vegetation]]
[[Image:Maple,OakForest.jpg|thumb|[[Maple]] and [[Oak]] (broadleaf, deciduous) forest in [[Wisconsin]] in winter.]]
;Activities related to forest
*[[Controlled burn]]
*[[Deforestation]]
*[[Logging]] and [[illegal logging]]
*[[Reforestation]]
*[[Shifting cultivation]]
;Forests by country
*[[Forests of Sweden]]
*[[Forests in the United Kingdom]]
*[[U.S. National Forest]]
;Lists
*[[List of forests]]
*[[Trees of Canada|List of trees in Canadian forests]]
*[[List of U.S. state forests]]
[[Category:Forestry]][[Category:Landforms]]
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[[zh:森林]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Finger Lake</title>
<id>11091</id>
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<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Finger Lakes]]
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<page>
<title>Finger Lakes</title>
<id>11092</id>
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<timestamp>2006-02-15T00:06:30Z</timestamp>
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<username>Sertraline</username>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:New York's Finger Lakes.jpg|thumb|300px|New York's Finger Lakes]]
The '''Finger Lakes''' are [[glacier |glacially]] formed lakes in [[upstate New York]], mainly linear in shape, each lake oriented on a north-south axis. The longest, Cayuga Lake, is 40 miles from end to end, but never more than 3.5 miles wide and not atypical in shape, reminding early map-makers of the fingers of a hand. Considering their narrow width, both Cayuga and Seneca Lakes have a remarkable trait; they rival much larger [[Lake Ontario]] for depth, each more than 400 feet.
== The Finger Lakes ==
The 11 Finger Lakes from east to west:
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:FingerLakes.jpeg|right|Map of region]] -->
*[[Otisco Lake]]
*[[Skaneateles Lake]]
*[[Owasco Lake]]
*[[Cayuga Lake]]
*[[Seneca Lake]]
*[[Keuka Lake]]
*[[Canandaigua Lake]]
*[[Honeoye Lake]]
*[[Canadice Lake]]
*[[Hemlock Lake]]
*[[Conesus Lake]]
[[Oneida Lake]], to the northeast of [[Syracuse, New York]], is sometimes included as the "thumb," although it is shallow and somewhat different in character from the rest. [[Onondaga Lake]], though located just north of the Finger Lakes region, is not considered one of the Finger Lakes. '''Conesus''', '''Hemlock''', '''Canadice''', '''Honeoye''', and '''Otisco''' are considered the minor Finger Lakes. Other, smaller lakes, including Silver, Waneta, and Lamoka Lakes, dot this region.
== The Finger Lakes Region ==
Roughly the western half of the Finger Lakes region comprised the [[Phelps and Gorham Purchase]] of 1790, the largest land purchase in the world to that date. The Finger Lakes region, together with the [[Genesee Country]] of Western New York, has been referred to as the [[Burned-Over District]], where, in the [[19th century]], the [[Second Great Awakening]] was a revival of [[Christianity]], and some new [[religion]]s were also formed.
The Finger Lakes region is an important agricultural belt of New York. The state [[land-grant university|land grant institution]] is [[Cornell University]]. Its [[alma mater]] begins "[[Far Above Cayuga's Waters]]", because it is on the hills overlooking the city of [[Ithaca, New York|Ithaca]] and the southern end of Cayuga Lake. Cornell also maintains the [[New York State Agricultural Experiment Station]] and horticultural [[seedbank|gene bank]] at [[Geneva, New York|Geneva]] on the north end of Seneca Lake.
The rolling land between the lakes is occupied with [[dairy]] farms, many of them owned by [[Amish]] and [[Mennonite]] families. These farms raise [[maize|corn]], [[hay]], [[wheat]], [[oat]]s, [[barley]], and [[soybean]]s. [[Cabbage]]s, [[sweetcorn]], and [[potato]]es are major vegetable crops. [[Maple syrup]] and [[honey]] are also local products.
[[Image:KeukaLake2192.JPG|right|frame|Vineyard near Keuka Lake [[Penn Yan, New York]]]]
Especially around Keuka Lake and the south ends of both Canandaigua and Seneca Lakes are many [[vineyard]]s and [[farm winery |wineries]] where one can often taste the [[wine]]s before purchasing them. Most of the area was originally forested with [[oak]], [[maple]], [[chestnut]], [[ash_tree|ash]], [[Tsuga |hemlock]], and [[beech]] trees, but the [[Iroquois]] maintained, by annual burning, the land between Cayuga and Seneca Lakes as [[prairie]], with herds of [[American Bison|bison]], normally thought of as a western animal. Today the Finger Lakes area is still known for [[fishing]] and [[hunting]]. Winter sports are also popular, with [[skiing]], [[snowmobile |snowmobling]] and [[ice fishing]] available.
The southern ends of the lakes are characterized by steeper hills and glacial ''[[hanging valley]]s'' which are [[tributary|tributaries]] that drop steeply to the lake, often with [[waterfall]]s. [[Taughannock_Falls_State_Park|Taughannock Falls State Park]], [[Fillmore Glen State Park |Fillmore Glen]], and [[Watkins Glen State Park|Watkins Glen]] are especially scenic examples that have been made into parks. The Village of [[Watkins Glen, New York|Watkins Glen]] is a producer of [[Sodium chloride|table salt]] and the site of an [[Watkins Glen International|auto racing course]].
== Finger Lake history ==
[[Hammondsport, New York |Hammondsport]] was the home of aviation pioneer [[Glenn Curtiss]], and the favorable air currents make the area a popular spot for [[glider]] pilots. [[Elmira, New York|Elmira]], just to the south, was the home of [[Mark Twain]] in his later life, and the site of an infamous [[Civil War prison]]. [[Corning, New York|Corning]] is most noted as the home of [[Corning Glass Works]]. [[Hornell, New York|Hornell]], just southwest of the Finger Lakes was a major [[railroad]] center. [[Locomotive]]s were repaired there until recently.
On the northern end of the Finger Lakes is also [[Seneca Falls (village), New York |Seneca Falls]], the birthplace of the [[Women's suffrage]] movement, [[Waterloo (village), New York|Waterloo]], the birthplace of [[Memorial Day]], and [[Palmyra (village), New York |Palmyra]], the birthplace of [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]], also known as the [[Mormon]] Church. An annual outdoor drama, The ''Hill Cumorah Pageant'', produced by the Mormons draws thousands of visitors each year.
== Educational institutes ==
The area is also known for education, with the largest institution being [[Cornell University]] in Ithaca. There is also the [[State University of New York at Geneseo]] and [[State University of New York at Cortland |Cortland]], [[Ithaca College]] in Ithaca, [[Hobart and William Smith Colleges]] in Geneva, [[Wells College]] in [[Aurora, New York|Aurora]], [[Keuka College]], and several [[community college]]s.
== External links ==
*[http://www.villaserendip.com/ Finger Lakes Bed and Breakfast Accommodations]
*[http://www.fingerlakes.org Finger Lakes information site]
*[http://www.stayfingerlakes.com/lastminute/ Finger Lakes Vacation Accommodations]
*[http://www.ars-grin.gov/gen/ Plant Genetics Resource Unit at Geneva]
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|42.75967|-76.94514}}
{{New_York}}
[[Category:Appellations]]
[[Category:Lakes of New York]]
[[Category:Wine regions of the United States]]
[[de:Finger Lakes]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Fox hunt</title>
<id>11093</id>
<revision>
<id>15908858</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-07T13:1
|
bosons]] cooled to [[temperature]]s very near to [[absolute zero]]. The first such condensate was produced by [[Eric Allin Cornell|Eric Cornell]] and [[Carl Wieman]] in [[1995]] at the [[University of Colorado at Boulder]], using a gas of [[rubidium]] atoms cooled to 170 [[Kelvin|nanokelvins]] (nK). Under such conditions, a large fraction of the atoms collapse into the lowest [[quantum state]], at which point quantum effects become apparent on a macroscopic scale.
[[Image:Bose_Einstein_condensate.png|right|thumb|350px|Velocity-distribution data confirming the discovery of a new phase of matter, the Bose-Einstein condensate, out of a gas of rubidium atoms. The artificial colors indicate the number of atoms at each velocity, with red being the fewest and white being the most. The areas appearing white and light blue are at the lowest velocities. Left: just before the appearance of the Bose-Einstein condensate. Center: just after the appearance of the condensate. Right: after further evaporation, leaving a sample of nearly pure condensate. The peak is not infinitely narrow because of the [[uncertainty principle|Heisenberg uncertainty principle]]: since the atoms are trapped in a particular region of space, their velocity distribution necessarily possesses a certain minimum width.]]
==Introduction==
Bose-Einstein condensates are best known to laypersons as extremely low temperature fluids with so far not completely understood properties, such as spontaneously flowing out of their container. The effect is the consequence of [[quantum mechanics]], which states that systems can only acquire energy in discrete steps. Now, if a system is at such a low temperature that it is in the lowest energy state, it is no longer possible for it to reduce its energy, not even by friction. Therefore, without friction, the fluid will easily overcome gravity because of [[adhesion]] between the fluid and the container wall, and it will take up the most favorable position, i.e. all around the container.
==Theory==
The collapse of the atoms into a single quantum state is known as '''Bose condensation''' or '''Bose-Einstein condensation'''. This phenomenon was predicted in the [[1920s]] by [[Satyendra Nath Bose]] and [[Albert Einstein]], based on Bose's work on the [[statistical mechanics]] of [[photon]]s, which was then formalized and generalized by Einstein. The result of the efforts of Bose and Einstein is the concept of a [[Bose gas]], governed by the [[Bose-Einstein statistics]], which describes the statistical distribution of [[identical particles]] with [[integer]] [[spin (physics)|spin]], now known as [[bosons]]. Bosonic particles, which include the photon as well as atoms such as [[helium|helium-4]], are allowed to share [[quantum states]] with each other. Einstein speculated that cooling bosonic atoms to a very low temperature would cause them to fall (or "condense") into the lowest accessible quantum state, resulting in a new form of matter.
This transition occurs below a critical temperature, which for a uniform three-dimensional gas consisting of non-interacting particles with no apparent internal degrees of freedom is given by:
:<math>T_c=\left(\frac{n}{\zeta(3/2)}\right)^{2/3}\frac{h^2}{2\pi m k_B}</math>
where:
<dl><dd>
{|cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"
|-
| <math>T_c</math>
| &nbsp;is&nbsp;
| the critical temperature,
|-
| <math>n</math>
|
| the particle density,
|-
| <math>m</math>
|
| the mass per boson,
|-
| <math>h</math>
|
| [[Planck's constant]],
|-
| <math>k_B</math>
|
| the [[Boltzmann constant]], and
|-
| <math>\zeta</math>
|
| the [[Riemann zeta function]]; <math>\zeta(3/2)</math>&nbsp;&asymp;&nbsp;2.6124.
|}
</dd></dl>
==Discovery==
In [[1938]], [[Pyotr Leonidovich Kapitsa|Pyotr Kapitsa]], [[John F. Allen|John Allen]] and [[Don Misener]] discovered that [[Helium|helium-4]] became a new kind of fluid, now known as a [[superfluid]], at temperatures below 2.17 kelvins (K) (lambda point). Superfluid helium has many unusual properties, including zero [[viscosity]] (the ability to flow without dissipating energy) and the existence of quantized [[vortex|vortices]]. It was quickly realized that the superfluidity was due to Bose-Einstein condensation of the helium-4 atoms, which are bosons. In fact, many of the properties of superfluid helium also appear in the gaseous Bose-Einstein condensates created by Cornell, Wieman and Ketterle (see below). However, superfluid helium-4 is not commonly referred to as a "Bose-Einstein condensate" because it is a liquid rather than a gas, which means that the interactions between the atoms are relatively strong. The original theory of Bose-Einstein condensation must be heavily modified in order to describe it.
The first "true" Bose-Einstein condensate was created by Cornell, Wieman, and co-workers at [[Joint Institute for Laboratory Astrophysics|JILA]] on [[June 5]], [[1995]]. They did this by cooling a dilute vapor consisting of approximately 2000 [[rubidium|rubidium-87]] atoms to below 170 nK using a combination of [[laser cooling]] (a technique that won its inventors [[Steven Chu]], [[Claude Cohen-Tannoudji]], and [[William D. Phillips]] the [[1997]] [[Nobel Prize in Physics]]) and [[magnetic evaporative cooling]]. About four months later, an independent effort led by [[Wolfgang Ketterle]] at [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] created a condensate made of [[sodium|sodium-23]]. Ketterle's condensate had about a hundred times more atoms, allowing him to obtain several important results such as the observation of [[quantum mechanics|quantum mechanical]] [[interference]] between two different condensates. Cornell, Wieman and Ketterle won the [[2001]] Nobel Prize for their achievement.
The Bose-Einstein condensation also applies to [[quasiparticle]]s in solids. A [[magnon]] in an antiferromagnet carries spin 1 and thus obeys the Bose-Einstein statistics. The density of magnons is controlled by an external magnetic field, which plays the role of the magnon [[chemical potential]]. This technique provides access to a wide range of boson densities from the limit of a dilute Bose gas to that of a strongly interacting Bose liquid. A magnetic ordering observed at the point of condensation is the analog of superfluidity. In [[1999]] Bose condensation of magnons was demonstrated in the antiferromagnet TlCuCl3 by Oosawa et al. The condensation was observed at temperatures as large as 14 K. Such a high transition temperature (relative to that of atomic gases) is due to a greater density achievable with magnons and a smaller mass (roughly equal to the mass of an electron).
==Unusual characteristics==
Further experimentation by the JILA team in 2000 uncovered a hitherto unknown property of Bose-Einstein condensate. Cornell, Wieman, and their coworkers originally used rubidium-87, an isotope whose atoms naturally repel each other making a more stable condensate. The JILA team instrumentation now had better control over the condensate so experimentation was made on naturally ''attracting'' atoms of another rubidium isotope, rubidium-85 (having negative atom-atom scattering length). Through a process called [[Feshbach resonance]] involving a sweep of the magnetic field causing spin flip collisions, the JILA researchers lowered the characteristic, discrete energies at which the rubidium atoms bond into molecules making their Rb-85 atoms repulsive and creating a stable condensate. The reversible flip from attraction to repulsion stems from quantum interference among condensate atoms which behave as waves.
When the scientists raised the magnetic field strength still further, the condensate suddenly reverted back to attraction, imploded and shrank beyond detection, and then exploded, blowing off about two-thirds of its 10,000 or so atoms. About half of the atoms in the condensate seem to have disappeared from the experiment altogether and are unaccounted for and are not seen either in the cold remnant or the expanding gas cloud. Carl Wieman explained that under current atomic theory this characteristic of Bose-Einstein condensate could not be explained because the energy state of an atom near absolute zero should not be enough to cause an implosion, however, subsequent mean-field theories have been proposed to explain it.
Due to the fact that supernovae explosions are implosions, the explosion of collapsing Bose-Einstein condensate was christened a "[[bosenova]]."
==Current research==
Compared to more commonly-encountered states of matter, Bose-Einstein condensates are extremely fragile. The slightest interaction with the outside world can be enough to warm them past the condensation threshold, forming a normal gas and losing their interesting properties. It is likely to be some time before any practical applications are developed.
Nevertheless, they have proved to be useful in exploring a wide range of questions in fundamental physics, and the years since the initial discoveries by the JILA and MIT groups have seen an explosion in experimental and theoretical activity. Examples include experiments that have demonstrated [[interference]] between condensates due to [[wave-particle duality]] [http://cua.mit.edu/ketterle_group/Projects_1997/Interference/Interference_BEC.htm], the study of [[superfluidity]] and quantized [[vortex|vortices]] [http://www.aip.org/pt/vol-53/iss-8/p19.html], and the [[speed of light|slowing of light]] pulses to very low speeds using [[electromagnetically induced transparency]] [http://www.europhysicsnews.com/full/26/article1/article1.html]. Experimentalists have also realized "optical lattices", where the interference pattern from overlapping lasers provides a periodic potential for the condensate. These have been use
|
Andorrans constitute a minority in their own country; only 33% of inhabitants hold Andorran nationality. The largest group of foreign nationals is that of [[Spain|Spaniards]] (43%), with [[Portugal|Portuguese]] (11%) and [[France|French]] (7%) nationals the other main groups. The remaining 6% belong to several other nationalities.
The only official language is [[Catalan language|Catalan]], the language of the nearby Spanish [[Autonomous communities of Spain|autonomous region]] of [[Catalonia]], with which Andorra shares many cultural traits, though [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Portuguese Language|Portuguese]] and [[French language|French]] are also commonly spoken. The predominant religion is [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholicism]].
== Culture ==
{{main|Culture of Andorra}}
{{seealso|Music of Andorra}}
Andorra's long [[history]] has provided it with a rich [[mythology]] and an abundance of [[Fable|folk tales]], with roots originating in as far as [[Andalusia]] in the south and [[Netherlands]] in the north.
== Miscellaneous topics ==
* [[Communications in Andorra]]
* [[Civil unions in Andorra]]
* [[Foreign relations of Andorra]]
* [[Postal services in Andorra]]
* [[Tourism in Andorra]]
* [[Transportation in Andorra]]
== See also ==
*[[List of sovereign states]]
== External links ==
{{sisterlinks|Andorra}}
* [http://www.andorra.ad/ang/home/index.htm Andorra.ad] - Main portal
* [http://www.andorra-intern.com/index_en.htm Andorra-Intern] - Andorra Inside Information
* [http://www.andorraonline.ad/index.asp?newlang=english Andorra Online] - Information on various Andorran topics
* [http://www.andorramania.co.uk Andorra Mania] - Information on various Andorran topics
* [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/an.html CIA - The World Factbook -- Andorra] - [[CIA]]'s Factbook on Andorra
* [http://based.in/?Andorra Financial institutions in Andorra]
* [http://www.govern.ad/ Govern d'Andorra] - Official governmental site (in Catalan)
* [http://www.loc.gov/rr/international/hispanic/andorra/andorra.html Library of Congress Portals on the World - Andorra]
{{Europe}}
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[[oc:Andòrra]]
[[ps:انډورا]]
[[pl:Andora]]
[[pt:Andorra]]
[[ro:Andorra]]
[[ru:Андорра]]
[[se:Andorra]]
[[sa:अंडोरा]]
[[sq:Andora]]
[[scn:Andorra]]
[[simple:Andorra]]
[[sk:Andorra]]
[[sl:Andora]]
[[sr:Андора]]
[[fi:Andorra]]
[[sv:Andorra]]
[[tl:Andorra]]
[[th:ประเทศอันดอร์รา]]
[[tr:Andorra]]
[[udm:Андорра]]
[[uk:Андорра]]
[[war:Andorra]]
[[zh:安道尔]]
[[fiu-vro:Andorra]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Andorra/History</title>
<id>601</id>
<revision>
<id>15899132</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>LA2</username>
<id>445</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Andorra]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Andorra/Geography</title>
<id>602</id>
<revision>
<id>15899133</id>
<timestamp>2002-06-13T21:19:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Karen Johnson</username>
<id>1300</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Geography of Andorra]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Andorra/People</title>
<id>603</id>
<revision>
<id>15899134</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-20T15:34:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
<id>90</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Demographics of Andorra]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Andorra/Government</title>
<id>604</id>
<revision>
<id>15899135</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-04T11:16:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ellmist</username>
<id>2214</id>
</contributor>
<comment>move to Politics of Andorra</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Politics of Andorra]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Andorra/Economy</title>
<id>605</id>
<revision>
<id>15899136</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-04T11:19:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ellmist</username>
<id>2214</id>
</contributor>
<comment>move to Economy of Andorra</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Economy of Andorra]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Andorra/Military</title>
<id>606</id>
<revision>
<id>15899137</id>
<timestamp>2003-05-25T18:56:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Camembert</username>
<id>3113</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix redir</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Andorra]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Andorra/Communications</title>
<id>607</id>
<revision>
<id>15899138</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-04T11:19:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ellmist</username>
<id>2214</id>
</contributor>
<comment>move to Communications in Adorra</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Communications in Andorra]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Andorra/Transportation</title>
<id>608</id>
<revision>
<id>15899139</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-04T11:20:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ellmist</username>
<id>2214</id>
</contributor>
<comment>move to Transportation in Andorra</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Transportation in Andorra]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Andorra/Transnational issues</title>
<id>609</id>
<revision>
<id>15899140</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-04T11:24:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ellmist</username>
<id>2214</id>
</contributor>
<comment>move to Foreign relations of Andorra</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Andorra]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Andorra/Foreign Relations</title>
<id>610</id>
<revision>
<id>15899141</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-09T13:48:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Andorra]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Andorra]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Andorra/Foreign relations</title>
<id>611</id>
<revision>
<id>15899142</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-04T11:22:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ellmist</username>
<id>2214</id>
</contributor>
<comment>move to Foreign relations of Andorra</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Andorra]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Arithmetic mean</title>
<id>612</id>
<revision>
<id>39274572</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-12T00:51:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Michael Hardy</username>
<id>4626</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]] and [[statistics]], the '''arithmetic [[mean]]''' of a set of numbers is the sum of all the members of the set divided by the number of items in the set (cardinality). (The word ''set'' is used perhaps somewhat loosely; for example, the number 3.8 could occur more than once in such a "set".) If one particular number occurs more times than others in the set, it is called a mode. The arithmetic mean is what pupils are taught very early to call the "[[average]]." If the set is a [[statistical population]], then we speak of the '''population mean'''. If the set is a [[sampling (statistics)|statistical sample]], we call the resulting [[statistic]] a '''sample mean'''.
When the mean is not an accurate estimate of the median, the set of numbers, or [[frequency distribution]], is said to be [[skewness|skewed]].
The symbol &mu; (Greek: mu) is used to denote the arithmetic mean of a population.
If we denote a set of data by ''X'' = { ''x''<sub>1</sub>, ''x''<sub>2</sub>, ..., ''x''<sub>''n''</sub>}, then the sample mean is typically denoted with a horizontal bar over the variable (''x̅'', generally enunciated "''x'' bar").
In practice, the difference between &mu; and ''x̅'' is that &mu; is typically unobservable because one observes only a sample rather than the whole population, and if the sample is drawn randomly, then one may treat ''x̅'', but not &mu;, as a [[random variable]], attributing a [[probability distribution]] to it.
Both are computed in the same way:
:<math>\mathrm{mean} = \bar{x} = (x_1+\cdots+x_n)/n.</math>
The arithmetic mean is greatly influenced by [[outlier]]s. For instance, reporting the "average" [[net worth]] in [[Redmond, Washington]] as the arithmetic mean of all annual net worths would yield a surprisingly high number because of [[Bill
|
lists]] would repeat the same charges of tyranny (lodging and quartering of troops in civilian properties; taxation without representation; deprivation of the common law right to jury trial; denial of judicial life-tenure; and the use of various tortures, etc.) against the British Crown a century later in the American Revolution.
[[Image:Charlesx3.JPG|thumb|left|350px|Sir Anthony van Dyck, Charles I's court painter, created the famous "Charles I, King of England, from Three Angles", commonly known as the "Triple Portrait". The oil painting was made on canvas around 1636, and is an example of how Van Dyck tended to mask Charles I's small stature, portraying him in a more dignified manner.]]
In the meantime Charles still had to acquire funds in order to maintain his treasury. Relying on an all but forgotten feudal statute passed in 1278, requiring anyone who earned £40 or more each year to present himself at the King's coronation so that he may join the royal army as a knight, Charles fined all individuals who failed to attend his coronation in 1626. He reintroduced the obsolete feudal tax known as [[ship money]] which was even more unpopular. A writ issued in 1634 ordered the collection of ship money in peacetime, notwithstanding statutes of [[Edward I of England|Edward I]] and [[Edward III of England|Edward III]] that had prohibited the levying of such a tax except during wars. This first writ of 1634, however, did not encourage much opposition on legal grounds, but a second writ of 1635 did. Charles' third writ demanding ship money, issued in 1636, made it clear that the ancient prohibition on collecting ship money during peacetime had been swept away. Many attempted to resist payment, but Charles' judges, whose tenure depended on his "good pleasure," declared that the tax was within the King's prerogative. This action of demanding ship money to be raised in peacetime aggravated rebellion thus forcing him to call parliament into session by 1640.
==Religious conflicts==
Charles believed in a sacramental version of the [[Church]] of [[England]] called [[Anglicanism|High Anglicanism]], with a theology based upon [[Arminianism]], a belief shared by his main political advisor, Archbishop [[William Laud]]. Laud was appointed by Charles as the [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] in 1633 and started a series of reforms in the Church to make it more ceremonial, starting with the replacement of the wooden [[Eucharist|communion]] tables with stone altars. Laud attempted to ensure religious uniformity by dismissing non-conformist clergymen and closing Puritan organisations, thereby violating the average man's freedom of conscience. This was actively hostile to the [[Reformed churches|Reformist]] tendencies of many of his English and Scottish subjects. His policy was obnoxious to [[Calvinism|Calvinist]] theology, and insisted that the Church of England's [[liturgy]] be celebrated with all of the ceremony and [[vestment]]s called for by the [[Book of Common Prayer]].
In order to punish those who refused to conform to the religious norms established by the Church of England he used the two most feared and most arbitrary courts in the land, the [[Court of High Commission]] and the [[Star Chamber|Court of Star Chamber]]. The former could compel individuals to provide self-incriminating testimony, whilst the latter could inflict any punishment whatsoever (including torture), with the sole exception of death.
The lawlessness of the Court of Star Chamber under Charles I far exceeded that under any of his predecessors. Under Charles' reign, defendants were regularly hauled before the Court without indictment, due process of the law, right to confront witnesses, and their testimonies were routinely extracted by the King and his courtiers through extensive torture.
The first years of the Eleven Year Tyranny were marked by peace (guaranteed by what was essentially a police state) in England. Several individuals opposed Charles' taxes and Laud's policies, but remained under control. When, however, Charles attempted to impose his religious policies in Scotland he faced numerous difficulties. The King ordered the use of a new Prayer Book modeled on the English ''[[Book of Common Prayer]]'', which, although supported by the Scottish Bishops, was resisted by many Presbyterian Scots, who saw the new Prayer Book as a vehicle for introducing Anglicanism to Scotland. When the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland abolished Episcopalian government (that is, governance of the Church by Bishops) in 1638, replacing it with Presbyterian government (that is, governance by Elders and Deacons), Charles sought to put down what he saw as a rebellion against his authority.
In 1639, when the [[Bishops' Wars|First Bishops' War]] broke out, he sought to collect taxes from his subjects, who refused to yield any further. Charles's war ended in a humiliating truce in June of the same year. In the Pacification of Berwick, Charles agreed to grant his Scottish subjects civil and ecclesiastical freedoms.
==Short and Long Parliaments==
Disputes regarding the interpretation of the peace treaty between Charles and the Church of Scotland led to further conflict. To subdue the Scots, Charles needed more money; therefore, he took the fateful step of recalling Parliament in April 1640. Although Charles offered to repeal ship money, the House of Commons proved obdurate. It demanded the discussion of various abuses of power during the Personal Rule. As Parliament stood fast, it was dissolved in May 1640, less than a month after it assembled; thus, the Parliament became known as the "[[Short Parliament]]".
In the meantime, Charles attempted to defeat the Scots, but failed miserably. The humiliating [[Treaty of Ripon]], signed after the end of the [[Bishops' Wars|Second Bishops' War]] in October 1640, required the King to pay the expenses of the Scottish army he had just fought. Charles took the unusual step of summoning the ''[[magnum concilium]]'', the ancient council of all the Peers of the Realm, who were considered the King's hereditary counsellors. The ''magnum concilium'' had not been summoned in centuries, and it has not been summoned since Charles's reign. On the advice of the peers, Charles summoned another Parliament, which, in contrast with its predecessor, became known as the [[Long Parliament]].
[[Image:Carolus I Angliae.jpg|thumb|200px|Sir Anthony van Dyck. Equestrian portrait of Charles I with Seignior de St. Antoine]]
The Long Parliament assembled in November 1640 under the leadership of [[John Pym]], and proved just as difficult to negotiate with as the Short Parliament. It undertook measures which both threatened Charles' political position and caused him some personal grief. The members of the House of Commons thought of themselves as conservatives defending the King, the Church and parliamentary government against innovations in religion and the tyranny of Charles's cronies, but their actions made Charles view many of them as dangerous rebels trying to undermine traditional government. For example, Charles was unable to resist demands for the execution of his advisor [[Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of Strafford]].
To prevent the King from dissolving it at will, Parliament passed the [[Triennial Act]], to which the Royal Assent was granted in February 1641. The Act required that Parliament was to be summoned at least once every three years, and that when the King failed to issue proper summons, the members could assemble on their own. In May, he assented to an even more far-reaching Act, which provided that Parliament could not be dissolved without its own consent. Charles was forced into one concession after another. He agreed to [[bill of attainder|bills of attainder]] authorising the executions of Thomas Wentworth and William Laud. Ship money, fines in destraint of knighthood and forced loans were declared unlawful, and the hated Courts of [[Star Chamber]] and [[High Commission]] were abolished. Although he made several important concessions, Charles improved his own military position by securing the favour of the Scots. He finally agreed to the official establishment of Presbyterianism; in return, he was able to enlist considerable anti-parliamentary support.
[[Image:Henrietta Maria.jpg|thumb|Henrietta Maria (c. 1633) by Sir Anthony van Dyke]]
In November 1641, the House of Commons passed the [[Grand Remonstrance]], denouncing all the abuses of power Charles had committed since the beginning of his reign. The tension was heightened when the [[Irish Rebellion of 1641|Irish rebelled]] against Protestant English rule and rumours of Charles' complicity reached Parliament. An army was required to put down the rebellion but many members of the House of Commons feared that Charles might later use it against Parliament itself. The [[Militia Bill]] was intended to wrest control of the army from the King, but Charles refused to give up such an important part of his royal prerogative.
The House of Commons then threatened to impeach Charles' Catholic Queen, Henrietta Maria, finally leading the King to take desperate action. His wife persuaded him to arrest the five members of the House of Commons who led the anti-Stuart faction on charges of high treason, but, when the King had made his decision, she made the mistake of informing a friend who in turn alerted Parliament. Charles entered the House of Commons with an armed force on [[4 January]] [[1642]], but found that his opponents had already escaped. By violating Parliament with an armed force, Charles made the breach permanent. Many in Parliament thought Charles's actions outrageous, but others had similar sentiments about the actions of Parliament itself. Several members of the House of Commons left to join the royalist party, leaving the King's opponents with a majority. It was no longer safe for Charles to be in [[London]], and he went north to raise an a
|
;
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">83</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">84</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Other Northern America</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">129</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">84</TD>
</TR>
<TR></TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">85</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">Region or country not reported</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">6,596</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">8,925</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">9,614</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">10,742</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">6,012</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">4,068</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,592</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,888</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">41,977</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">85</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">86</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Born at sea</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">5,008</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">5,336</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">6,927</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">8,196</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">5,533</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">4,068</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,638</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,522</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">86</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">87</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Not reported</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,588</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,589</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,687</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,546</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">479</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">-</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">954</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,366</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">41,977</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">87</TD>
</TR>
</TABLE>
<P>
* Indicates sample data.<BR>
(NA) Not available.<BR>
n.e.c. Not elsewhere classified.<BR>
1/ Prior to 1980, Taiwan included with China. See Table 3.
'''Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Population Division [http://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0029/tab04.html]'''
[[Category:History of immigration to the United States]]
[[Category:Demographics of the United States]]
[[de:Einwanderung in die USA]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ISIS</title>
<id>15052</id>
<revision>
<id>40629311</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T23:02:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Deltazero</username>
<id>320081</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the scanning technology. For other meanings see [[Isis (disambiguation)]].''
[[Image:emccaptiva.png|frame|EMC captiva logo]]
'''ISIS''' ('''''I'''mage and '''S'''canner '''I'''nterface '''S'''pecification'') is an industry standard interface for [[image scanner|image scanning]] technologies. It was developed by Pixel Translations in 1990 (today: [[EMC]] captiva), and they retain control over development and licensing.
ISIS can be considered as a "big brother" to the [[TWAIN]] standard, which tends to be used on small scanner hardware for home use.
ISIS compatible scanners typically use a [[SCSI]]-2 interface, while TWAIN hardware now mostly uses [[USB]].
ISIS has a wider feature set than TWAIN, can handle greater speeds, and also handles some aspects of image display and manipulation for the client application.
Most major scanner manufacturers, including [[Kodak]], [[Canon (company)|Canon]], [[Hewlett-Packard]], and [[Fujitsu]] use the ISIS interface for their departmental and high-capacity scanner hardware.
The ISIS architecture is a mutable architecture based on modules&#8212;software components that perform specific imaging functions (such as image acquisition, file conversion, data extraction, and file read/write commands). ISIS architecture allows for new modules to be added without making system-wide changes: one simply adds what is needed.
ISIS modules interact with each other through a system of tags (data storage areas) and choices (value sets). A combination of two or more ISIS modules put together to perform a specific imaging function is called an ISIS pipe. ISIS pipes can be constructed according to each developers specific imaging needs.
First and foremost in the benefits ISIS delivers to developers is compatibility: ISIS-compatible drivers are available for more than 300 scanner models, most of them certified by Pixel Translations to be compatible with any properly written ISIS application. ISIS' compatibility is further evidenced by its being the basis for the AIIM (The Association for Information and Image Management) MS61 standard since 1996, which is in the public domain.
==See also==
* [[TWAIN|TWAIN]]
* [[Windows Image Acquisition|Windows Image Acquisition (WIA)]]
* [[Scanner Access Now Easy|Scanner Access Now Easy (SANE)]]
==External links==
* [http://www.captivasoftware.com/products/pixtran.asp Homepage of EMC captiva]
* [http://www.captivasoftware.com/downloads/ds_isis_vs_twain.pdf Comparison ISIS vs. TWAIN by EMC captiva]
[[Category:Imaging]]
[[Category:Standards]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ivo Caprino</title>
<id>15053</id>
<revision>
<id>40364443</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:58:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Ivo Caprino''' ([[Oslo]], [[February 17]] [[1920]] &ndash; [[February 8]] [[2001]] in Oslo) was a [[Norway|Norwegian]] [[film director]] and [[writer]], best known for his [[puppet]] films. His most famous film is ''[[Flåklypa Grand Prix]]'' ("Pinchcliffe Grand Prix"), made in [[1975]].
Caprino was the son of furniture designer Mario Caprino and the artist Ingeborg Gude. In the mid forties, he helped his mother design puppets for a puppet theatre, which inspired him to try making a film using his mother's designs. The result of their collaboration was Tim og Tøffe, an 8 minute film released in [[1948]]. Several films followed in the next couple of years, including two 15 minute shorts that are still shown regularly in Norway today, Veslefrikk og Fela (Little Freddy and his Fiddle), based on a Norwegian folk tale, and Karius og Baktus, a story of two little trolls living in a boy's teeth. Ingeborg Gude made the puppets for these films as well, as she would continue to do up until her death in the mid sixties.
When making Tim og Tøffe, Caprino invented an ingenious method for controlling the puppet's movements in real time. The technique can be described as a primitive, mechanical version of [[Audio-animatronics|animatronics]].
Caprino's films received rave reviews, and he quickly became a celebrity in Norway. In particular, the public were fascinated with the secret technology used to make his films. When he switched to traditional stop motion, Caprino tried to maintain the impression that he was still using some kind of "magic" technology to make the puppets move, even though all his later films were made with traditional stop motion techniques.
In addition to the short films, Caprino produced dozens of advertising films with puppets. In 1959, he directed a live action feature film, Ugler i Mosen, which also contained stop motion sequences. He then embarked on his most ambitious project, a feature film about Peter Christen Asbjørnsen, who travelled around Norway in the 19th century collecting traditional folk tales. The plan was to use live action for the sequences showing Asbjørnsen, and then to realise the folk tales using stop motion. Unfortunately, Caprino was unable to secure funding for the project, so he ended up making the planned
|
es), but this was removed from service on [[30 September]] [[2004 in aviation|2004]]. The F-14 was the only aircraft to carry this weapon, which was designed as an integral part of the Tomcat weapons system. Although it could carry up to six of these large weapons, its heavy weight only enabled the F-14 to land on a carrier with a maximum load of two. Medium-range armament is provided by the [[AIM-7 Sparrow]] [[semi-active radar homing]] missile, backed by [[AIM-9 Sidewinder]] [[infrared homing|infrared]] missiles and a single [[M61 Vulcan]] 20 mm [[cannon]] for close-in use. The F-14 was designed with some air-to-ground capability, but this was not explored until late in its career; Tomcats have now been equipped to carry the LANTIRN targeting system for use by [[laser-guided bomb]]s and other precision-guided weapons. Some F-14's are also equipped to carry the [[Tactical Air Reconnaissance Pod System]] (TARPS) pod, giving the Navy what was then its only manned tactical reconnaissance platform.
The F-14 was one of the most maneuverable and agile airplanes of its generation. The flat, pancake-like section between the engines acts as an airfoil to provide additional lift, giving the Tomcat an effective wing area about 40% greater than its actual wing dimensions. This results in relatively low effective [[wing loading]]. The Tomcat also has a Mach Sweep Programmer (MSP) that automatically adjusts the wing angle for optimum flight performance (the only VG aircraft so equipped — a similar system was tested but not used for the [[Panavia]] [[Panavia Tornado|Tornado ADV]]), and movable glove vanes that offset the migration of the center of lift rearwards as airspeed increased. Pilots could also manually deploy them for extra assist in turns. However, the benefits were not considered worth the maintenace workload caused by the vanes and they were subsequently removed on later variants. Most variable-geometry aircraft are optimized for fast, low-altitude attack, emphasizing good gust response rather than maneuverability. Despite the Tomcat's considerable size, its agility compares well to many other fighters, although that created problems for the troublesome and unreliable TF30 turbofans, which were subject to compressor stalls in violent maneuvers or high [[angle of attack|alpha]]. Once the reliable F110 engines arrived, which also provided the F-14 with the full thrust for which it was designed, the full capability of the aircraft became apparent. The plane accelerates and decelerates very rapidly, and while it can't match it in roll, is said to be able to consistently fight F-16Cs to a draw close in while retaining its speed, endurance and avionics advantages. Although the F-14 is capable of Mach 2.4+, experience has shown that very little time is spent above Mach 2. Despite its agility in the air, the F-14 is notoriously difficult to land on a carrier deck and its service has been marred by numerous landing accidents.
The F-14 entered the fleet in [[1972 in aviation|1972]], replacing the [[F-4 Phantom II]] which was phased out in 1986, and entered operational service with Navy fighter squadrons [[VF-1]] Wolfpack and [[VF-2]] Bounty Hunters aboard the [[USS Enterprise (CVN-65)|USS Enterprise (CVN 65)]] in September 1974. The F-14B, introduced in November 1987, incorporated the new General Electric F110 engines. In [[1995 in aviation|1995]], an upgrade program was initiated to incorporate new digital avionics and weapon system improvements to strengthen its multi-mission competitive edge. The F-14D, delivered in [[1990 in aviation|1990]] in reduced numbers, was a major upgrade with F-110 engines, new AN/APG-71 radar system, Airborne Self Protection Jammer (ASPJ), Joint Tactical Information Distribution System (JTIDS) and [[Infra-red search and track|Infrared Search and Track (IRST)]]. Additionally, all F-14 variants were given precision strike capability using the LANTIRN targeting system, night vision compatibility, new defensive countermeasures systems and a new digital flight control system.
[[Image:F-14-vf-84.jpg|thumb|left|300px|An F-14A of [[VF-84 Jolly Rogers]], in the old color scheme from the beginning of its service.]]
The Tomcat is said to be named for the late [[Vice Admiral]] Thomas Connolly, whose testimony before the Senate was critical in the cancellation of the deeply-flawed [[General Dynamics F-111|TFX]] project. Connolly's [[Aviator call sign|call sign]] was "Tomcat," hence the popular name which also conformed with the Navy's tradition of giving feline names to [[Grumman]] fighters. In addition, "Tomcat" was first used for the [[F7F Tigercat]] in 1943, but was rejected by the navy as being inappropriately suggestive.
The Tomcat had only one foreign export sale due to its cost, initial lack of ground attack capacity, and the fact that the US government generally would not allow the export of the aircraft, preferring to champion the F-15. Its one sale made for one of the more colorful events in its history. The United States in the late 1970s supplied F-14s to [[Iran]], only to have them fall into the hands of the [[Islamic Republic of Iran]] after the [[1979 in aviation|1979]] revolution. The US subsequently cut off tech support for the Iranian Tomcats. For many years it was thought that from that point forward Iran used the fighter primarily as an airborne radar controller, escorted and protected by other fighters, but later information indicates this was incorrect. Given apparent asistance from the Soviet Union, [[Iran-Contra Affair|Iran-Contra]] supplies, cannibalization, back channel acquisition of certain parts, reverse engineering and virtually unlimited supplies of labor, the Iranians were able to keep a number of the aircraft operational.
There are reports that the aircraft was used extensively in the Iran-Iraq War and some claim it achieved over 100 kills. Although information received about that war is notably sketchy and some sources may be suspect, a phenomenon from the early part of the [[Gulf War]] tends to lend some credibility to these claims. In the Gulf War, F-14s were used primarily for strike package escort and reconnaissance due to the way the Air Tasking Orders were set up. The emissions from the AWG-9 are instantly recognizable, due to its very powerful transmitter (retained for the APG-71). When Iraqi fighters were detected inbound, as soon as the Tomcats "lighted up", the Iraqis would immediately abandon the attack while well out of range, perhaps indicating their familiarity with both the Tomcat and the AIM-54.
Some rumors suggest that a few of the [[AIM-54 Phoenix]] missiles supplied to Iran before the revolution were sold to the [[Soviet Union]], where they may have strongly influenced the development of the similar [[Vympel]] [[Vympel R-33|AA-9 'Amos']] long-range missile. In return, the Soviets may have assisted in returning the Phoenix to service in Iran. Furthermore, an attempt was made to adapt the [[MIM-23 HAWK]] [[surface-to-air defence missile]]s that were also a carryover from the pre-revolution period to be used as [[air-to-air missile]]s for the F-14, but this proved unsuccessful.
=== The future of the F-14 ===
[[Image:Tomcat.f14.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|285px|Sailors prepare an F-14 Tomcat for flight on the aircraft carrier [[USS Abraham Lincoln (CVN-72)|USS Abraham Lincoln]], in support of [[2003 invasion of Iraq|Operation Iraqi Freedom]] ([[2003 in aviation|2003]]).]]
The original F-14 was intended to be a multi-role aircraft with a potent strike capability from the outset. However, budget constraints, and the assigning of the strike role to the [[F/A-18]] meant that this capability was dropped before the F-14 was brought into service. It was resurrected later in its life, however, with the ability for later model F-14s to carry the [[LANTIRN]] pod. With this accessory the F-14 could deliver [[Laser-guided bomb]]s or many other Navy air-to-ground munitions with a fair amount of accuracy over intermediate ranges. After the retirement of the A-6 [[attack aircraft]], the F-14 was the longest range strike platform on U.S. [[supercarrier]]s. It is debatable, and to many doubtful, whether the [[Super Hornet]] will be able to deliver the quantity of munitions that the F-14 can over similar ranges. Unfortunately, without the ability to re-manufacture or replace the F-14 fleet, the tired and high-maintenance airframes and engines fitted mostly with technology from the 1970s are on their way out, though by many standards it is still superior to the fighters of many airforces. Regardless, the decision to incorporate the [[Super Hornet]] and decommission the F-14 is mainly due to the high amount of maintenance required to keep the Tomcats operational. On average, an F-14 requires nearly 50 maintenance hours for every flight hour, while the [[Super Hornet]] requires five to 10 maintenance hours for every flight hour.
Grumman had submitted several proposals to the Navy to upgrade the Tomcat beyond the D model (such as the '''Super Tomcat 21''', the cheaper '''QuickStrike''' version, and the more advanced '''Attack Super Tomcat 21''') but the [[Super Hornet]] was chosen as the future Navy [[attack aircraft]] instead. Grumman was acquired by [[Northrop]] in [[1994 in aviation|1994]] (the F-14 was probably the only program keeping them in business), sealing the fate of the F-14.
The F-14 is rapidly disappearing from U.S. Navy service. It originally was slated to remain in service through at least 2008, but all F-14A and F-14B airframes have already been retired, and only two squadrons, the [[VF-31]] Tomcatters and the [[VF-213]] Black Lions, which both fly the "D" models, remain, and will be disestablished or converted by September 2006, to be replaced by the Boeing [[F/A-18E/F Super Hornet]].
The last F-14 combat mission was completed on February 8, 2006, when a pair of Tomcats landed aboard the [[USS T
|
cus]]
* [[Jeff Gordon]] - "Le Clown Gordoon", star clown with the [[Big Apple Circus]]
* [[Greg and Karen DeSanto]] - Husband and wife clown/comedy team.
* [[Pat Cashin]] - American clown and "Comedy Ringmaster" with the Shrine Circuses.
*[[Jorn 'Erasorhead' Barger]] - from Hoboken, a hobo-clown in the tradition of Freddy the Freeloader of Red Skelton fame.
* [[Rik Gern]] - Bonzo Crunch: Fool at Large; a popular circus and event clown from Austin, Tx.
* [[John Gilkey]], American clown and comic juggler who has appeared with the [[New Pickle Circus]] and [[Cirque du Soleil]].
* [[Timothy Noel Tegge]] - American whiteface clown and ringmaster with the Shrine Circus.
* [[Fumagalli]], European star clown soon to appear with the [[Big Apple Circus]]
* [[Chris and Gina Allison]] - "Bucky and Gigi"; Husband and wife clown team and founders of Cirque du Jour
* Billy Vaughn
* Mike Snyder
* Bill Machtell - Mr. Bill, longtime clown at the Circus World Museum in Baraboo, WI
* [[Giovanni Zoppe]] - Youngest performer ever to be inducted into the International [[Clown]] Hall of Fame.
* [[Steve Smith]] - "T.J. Tatters"; longtime director of Ringling [[Clown College]]
* [[Ernest Borgnine]], the American film and television actor, enjoys performing as a clown in parades, particularly in [[New York City]].
* [[Cepillin|Cepillín]], a Mexican clown.
* [[VeeKay the Zoot Suit Clown]] - Circus clown and official greeter at the Orange County Fair in Orange County, California.
* [[Buffo]], claimed to be the worlds strongest clown has a Master's degree in education and has been to the White House three times. One of the only clowns in history known to have ridden a Buffalo.
== Famous Film Clowns ==
* [[Charlie Chaplin]] - (April 16, 1889 – December 25, 1977) British born comedian. The most famous actor in early to mid Hollywood cinema era, he acted in, directed, scripted, produced, and eventually scored his own films. His principal character was "The Little Tramp".
* [[Buster Keaton]] - (October 4, 1895 – February 1, 1966) The Great Stoneface. His innovative work as both a comedian and a director made great contributions to the development of the art of cinema.
* [[Harry Langdon]] - (June 15, 1884 – December 22, 1944) was an American silent film comedianand a first class mime.
* [[Laurel & Hardy]] - perhaps the most famous comedy duo in film history.
* [[Ben Turpin]] (September 19, 1869 - July 1, 1940) cross-eyed comedian, best remembered for his work in silent films.
* [[Chester Conklin]] (January 11, 1886 - October 11, 1971) American comedian and actor.
* [[Snub Pollard]] (November 9, 1889, Melbourne, Australia, - January 19, 1962) was a silent movie comedian, popular in the 1920s.
* [[Keystone Cops]] incompetent group of policemen created by Mack Sennett for his Keystone Film Company between 1912 and 1917.
* [[Roscoe "Fatty" Arbuckle]] (March 24, 1887 – June 29, 1933) One of the most popular actors of his era, but is best known today for his central role in the so-called "Fatty Arbuckle scandal."
* [[W.C. Fields]] - (January 29, 1880 – December 25, 1946) was an American comedian and actor. Fields created one of the great American comic personas of the first half of the 20th century
* [[The Marx Brothers]] - a team of sibling comedians that appeared in vaudeville, stage plays, film and television.
* [[The Three Stooges]] - starred in many short features that consisted of masterful ways of showcasing their extremely physical brand of slapstick comedy.
* [[Abbott & Costello]] (William (Bud) Abbott, 1897-1974); Louis Costello, 1906-1959) American comedy duo whose mastery of the white clown (straight man) /red clown (comic) relationship made them one of the most popular and respected teams in American comedy history.
* [[Martin & Lewis]] - an American comedy duo, comprised of singer Dean Martin (as the "straight man") and comedian Jerry Lewis (as his stooge).
* [[Jacques Tati]] - (October 9, 1908 – November 5, 1982) was a French comedian, mime and filmmaker best known as the socially inept Monsieur Hulot.
* [[Peter Sellers]] - (September 8, 1925 – July 24, 1980) Extremely versatile and talented English comedian and actor best remembered for the character of Inspector Clouseu.
== Famous Television Clowns ==
* [[Milton Berle]] - Texaco Star Theater, Berle's Buick Hour
* [[Sid Caesar]] - Your Show of Shows and Caesar's Hour
* [[Lucille Ball]] - I Love Lucy, The Lucy-Desi Comedy Hour, The Lucy Show, Here's Lucy
* [[Jackie Gleason]] - The Jackie Gleason Show, The Honeymooners
* [[Red Skelton]] - The Red Skelton Show
* [[Pinky Lee]] - The Pinky Lee Show
* [[Soupy Sales]] - The Soupy Sales Show
* [[Paul Reubens]] - Pee-Wee's Playhouse
* [[Rowan Atkinson]] - Mr. Bean, The Black Adder, The Thin Blue Line
* [[Benny Hill]] - The Benny Hill Show
* [[John Belushi]] - Saturday Night Live
* [[Michael Richards]] - Seinfeld
== Famous Theatrical Clowns ==
* [[Will Kemp]] (fl c 1589&ndash;1600) actor dancer and clown who worked with Shakespeare.
* [[Joseph Grimaldi]] credited with being "the first whiteface clown" &mdash; in an homage to Grimaldi, circus clowns began referring to them selves and each other as "Joey"s, and the term 'joey' is now a synonym for clown.
* [[George Washington Lafayette Fox]], perhaps the most famous American stage clown during the 19th century and one of the first known performers to become typecast in a role.
* [[Bobby Clark]] - Half of Clark & McCullough and Broadway star
* [[Olsen & Johnson]] - Stars of Broadway's ''Hellzapoppin'''
* [[Tommy Cooper]] - British comedy magician
* [[Carl Ballantine]] - Amercan comedy magician
* [[Andy Kaufman]] American comic and one of the most famous practitioners of ''anti-humor''
* [[George Carl]] - Longtime star of the Crazy Horse Saloon in Paris
* [[Bill Irwin]] - Tony award winning clown known for his new [[vaudeville]]-style performances.
* [[Avner Eisenberg]], a.k.a. Avner the Eccentric a "Broadway" clown.
* [[Slava Polunin]] - Russian-born clown and creator of "Slava's Snowshow," a theatrical experience currently running at Union Square Theater in New York, New York.
* [[Blue Man Group]] - Trio of silent characters that perform covered in blue paint.
* [[Dario Fo]] - Capo Comicio - creator of "Mistero Buffo" & "Accidental Death of an Anarchist" winner of 1997 Nobel prize for literature, takes Arlecchino as base for his stage persona, political activist.
== Famous Rodeo Clowns ==
* [[Quail Dobbs]], rodeo clown
* [[Johnny Tatum]], rodeo clown
* [[Slim Pickens]], rodeo clown and actor in film and television
== Fictional Clowns ==
* [[Bozo the Clown]], a franchised clown played by many local [[television]] performers and on [[cartoon]]s, based on the character created in 1946 by [[Alan W. Livingston]] for [[Capitol Records]]' record-reader series.
* [[Clarabell]] the clown was a regular character from the ''[[Howdy Doody]]'' television program, originally played by [[Bob Keeshan]] of ''[[Captain Kangaroo]]'' fame.
* [[Ronald McDonald]], [[McDonald's]] [[fast-food restaurant]] chain's advertising clown character, performed by various performers, all of whom were trained to portray the character in an identical manner. Prior to this standardization of the character, Ronald McDonald was played by several performers. In the first television ad featuring Ronald McDonald, the clown was portrayed by [[Willard Scott]] in Washington, D.C.
* [[Mr. Noodle]], character created by [[Bill Irwin]] for the [[Elmo's World]] segment of [[Sesame Street]].
* [[Loonette]], character played by Alyson Court on the [[The Big Comfy Couch]]
* [[Jojo]], main character on the [[Disney Channel]]'s [[Jojo's Circus]]
*[[Krusty the Clown]] the television clown from the animated television series ''[[The Simpsons]]''.
* [[J. P. Patches]], seattle children's television clown.
* Rusty Nails, Pacific Northwest Children's television clown, and model (in part) for Matt Groening's "Krusty" character on the television program "The Simpsons"
* Jack, advertising icon for the [[fast food]] company, [[Jack in the Box]].
* Binky the Clown, a character from [[Garfield]] comics.
* [[Buttons (clown)]], a central character from the [[1952]] movie ''[[The Greatest Show on Earth]]'', played by [[Jimmy Stewart]].
*''[[Pagliacci|I Pagliacci]]'', (''The Clowns'') a tragic [[opera]] by [[Ruggiero Leoncavallo]] prominently features [[Arlecchino]] as a character. This opera was inspired by a true story.
* [[Yorick]] was a court jester who featured as the subject of a lengthy soliloquy in [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare's]] ''[[Hamlet]]''.
* [[Chuckles the Clown]] was a ''[[Mary Tyler Moore Show]]'' background character who was trampled to death in one of the best-known episodes.
* [[Calvero]] was a famous clown character played by [[Charlie Chaplin]] in the film [[Limelight (film)]].
* [[Koko the Clown]] from [[Max Fleischer]]'s ''[[Out of the Inkwell]]'' series of [[animated cartoon]]s.
== Negative Portrayals of Clowns ==
* [[Joker (comics)|The Joker]] is a supervillain often called the "Clown Prince of Crime" from [[DC Comics]].
* [[Buggy the Clown]] is a fictional character & antagonist of the [[manga]] and [[anime]] [[One Piece]]. His appearance is best described as a mix between a blue-haired clown and a stereotypical pirate. He is extreamly sensitive about his real nose (which actually looks like a false clown nose) and anyone who says any thing that he thinks sounds like an insult to his nose, (even if the statement has absolutly nothing to do with his nose) will cause him to get extremely violent. (if you watch the episodes in japanese you will see the words are similer to "big" "red" & "nose")
* [[Doink the Clown]], a [[gimmick (professional wrestling)|gimmick]] used by several wr
|
can scientist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]]
*[[1938]] - [[Ishmael Reed]], American writer
*[[1941]] - [[Hipólito Mejía]], [[President of the Dominican Republic]]
*[[1944]] - [[Jonathan Demme]], American director
*1944 - [[Robert Kardashian]], American lawyer
*1944 - [[Tom Okker]], Dutch tennis player
*[[1945]] - [[Leslie Charleson]], American actress
*[[1949]] - [[Niki Lauda]], Austrian race car driver
*1949 - [[Olga Morozova]], Russian tennis player
*[[1950]] - [[Julius Erving]], American basketball player
*1950 - [[Ellen Greene]], American actress
*1950 - [[Miou-Miou]], French actress
*1950 - [[Julie Walters]], English actress
*1950 - [[Lenny Kuhr]], Dutch singer and [[Eurovision Song Contest]] winner
*[[1952]] - [[Bill Frist]], U.S. senator from Tennessee
*[[1953]] - [[William Petersen]], American actor
*[[1955]] - [[Tim Young]], Canadian ice hockey player
*[[1959]] - [[Kyle MacLachlan]], American actor
*[[1962]] - [[Steve Irwin]], Australian herpetologist and televison personality
*[[1963]] - [[Vijay Singh]], Fijian golfer
*[[1965]] - [[Pat LaFontaine]], American [[ice hockey]] player
*[[1966]] - [[Rachel Dratch]], American actress and comedienne
*1966 - [[Brian Greig]], Australian politician
*[[1967]] - [[Alf Poier]], Austrian comedian
*[[1968]] - [[Bradley Nowell]], American musician and singer for [[Sublime (band)|Sublime]] (d. [[1996]])
*1968 - [[Jeri Ryan]], American actress
*[[1969]] - [[Byron Stroud]], American bassist ([[Fear Factory]])
*[[1971]] - [[Lea Salonga]], Filipina actress and singer
*[[1972]] - [[Claudia Pechstein]], German speed skater
*1972 - [[Michael Chang]], American tennis player
*[[1974]] - [[James Blunt]], British musician
*1974 - [[Chris Moyles]], British DJ
*[[1975]] - [[Drew Barrymore]], American actress
*[[1979]] - [[Brett Emerton]], Australian footballer
*[[1982]] - [[Jenna Haze]], American pornographic actress
*[[1986]] - [[Miko Hughes]], American actor
<!-- Do not add yourself, or anyone else who does not already have a Wikipedia article, to this list. Duplicate instances of years should not be links. -->
==Deaths==
*[[965]] - [[Odo, Duke of Burgundy]]
*[[1071]] - [[Arnulf III, Count of Flanders]] (killed in battle)
*[[1111]] - [[Roger Borsa]], King of Sicily
<!-- Borsa is not a King ! -->
*[[1371]] - King [[David II of Scotland]] (b. [[1324]])
*[[1512]] - [[Amerigo Vespucci (explorer)|Amerigo Vespucci]], Italian merchant and explorer (b. [[1454]])
*[[1627]] - [[Olivier van Noort]], Dutch navigator (b. [[1558]])
*[[1674]] - [[Jean Chapelain]], French writer (b. [[1595]])
*[[1680]] - [[Catherine Monvoisin]], French sorceress
*[[1690]] - [[Charles Le Brun]], French artist (b. [[1619]])
*[[1727]] - [[Francesco Gasparini]], Italian composer (b. [[1661]])
*[[1731]] - [[Frederik Ruysch]], Dutch physician and anatomist (b. [[1638]])
*[[1732]] - [[Francis Atterbury]], English bishop and man of letters (b. [[1663]])
*[[1742]] - [[Charles Rivington]], English publisher (b. [[1688]])
*[[1797]] - [[Karl Friedrich Hieronymus Freiherr von Münchhausen]], German officer and adventurer (b. [[1720]])
*[[1816]] - [[Adam Ferguson]], Scottish philosopher and historian (b. [[1723]])
*[[1875]] - [[Jean-Baptiste Camille Corot]], French painter (b. [[1796]])
*1875 - Sir [[Charles Lyell]], Scottish geologist (b. [[1797]])
*[[1890]] - [[John Jacob Astor III]], American businessman (b. [[1822]])
*1890 - [[Carl Heinrich Bloch]], Danish painter (b. [[1834]])
*[[1892]] - [[Herman Koeckemann]], German Catholic prelate (b. [[1828]])
*[[1903]] - [[Hugo Wolf]], Austrian composer (b. [[1860]])
*[[1913]] - [[Ferdinand de Saussure]], Swiss linguist (b. [[1857]])
*[[1921]] - [[Salim Al-Mubarak Al-Sabah]], Emir of Kuwait (b. [[1864]])
*[[1923]] - [[Théophile Delcassé]], French statesman (b. [[1852]])
*[[1939]] - [[Antonio Machado]], Spanish poet (b. [[1875]])
*[[1943]] - [[Hans Scholl]], German resistance fighter (b. [[1918]])
*1943 - [[Sophie Scholl]], German resistance fighter (b. [[1921]])
*[[1945]] - [[Osip Brik]], Russian writer (d. [[1888]])
*[[1961]] - [[Nick LaRocca]], American jazz musician (b. [[1889]])
*[[1965]] - [[Felix Frankfurter]], Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court (b. [[1882]])
*[[1968]] - [[Peter Arno]], American cartoonist (b. [[1904]])
*[[1976]] - [[Angela Baddeley]], English actress (b. [[1904]])
*1976 - [[Florence Ballard]], American singer ([[The Supremes]]) (b. [[1943]])
*[[1980]] - [[Oskar Kokoschka]], Austrian artist (b. [[1886]])
*[[1983]] - Sir [[Adrian Boult]], English conductor (b. [[1889]])
*[[1984]] - [[Jessamyn West (writer)|Jessamyn West]], American writer (b. [[1902]])
*[[1985]] - [[Alexander Scourby]], American actor (b. [[1913]])
*1985 - [[Efrem Zimbalist]], Russian violinist (b. [[1889]])
*[[1987]] - [[Andy Warhol]], American artist, director, and writer (b. [[1928]])
*[[1994]] - [[Papa John Creach]], American musician
*[[1995]] - [[Ed Flanders]], American actor (b. [[1934]])
*[[1997]] - [[Joseph Aiuppa]], American gangster (b. [[1907]])
*[[1998]] - [[Abraham Ribicoff]], American politician (b. [[1910]])
*[[2000]] - [[Fernando Buesa]], Spanish politician (b. [[1946]])
*[[2002]] - [[Chuck Jones]], American animator (b. [[1912]])
*2002 - [[Jonas Savimbi]], Angolan rebel leader (b. [[1934]])
*[[2004]] - [[Roque Máspoli]], Uruguayan footballer (b. [[1917]])
*2004 - [[Andy Seminick]], baseball player (b. [[1920]])
*[[2005]] - [[Zdzislaw Beksinski|Zdzis&#322;aw Beksi&#324;ski]], Polish artist (b. [[1929]])
*2005 - [[Simone Simon]], French actress (b. [[1910]])
*2005 - [[Lee Eun Ju]], Korean actress (b. [[1980]])
*2006 - [[Bill Tung]], Hong Kong actor, horse racing commentator (b. [[1933]])
==Holidays and observances==
*[[Roman Catholic Church]] - [[Cathedra Petri|Feast of the Chair of Saint Peter]].
*[[United States]] - [[Washington's Birthday]] (traditionally).
*[[Saint Lucia]] - independence ([[1979]]).
*The [[Scouts|Scouting]] movement celebrates this day as "[[B.-P. day]]" or "[[Founder's Day]]" as it is the shared birthday of the [[Scouts]]' founder [[Sir]] [[Robert Baden-Powell]] and his wife, [[Lady]] [[Olave Baden-Powell]], the [[World Chief Guide]].
*The [[World Association of Girl Guides and Girl Scouts]] celebrates this day as "[[Thinking Day]]" as it is the shared birthday of the [[Scouts]]' founder [[Sir]] [[Robert Baden-Powell]], and his wife, [[Lady]] [[Olave Baden-Powell]], the [[World Chief Guide]].
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/22 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20060222.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day]
* [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Feb&day=22 On This Day in Canada]
----
[[February 21]] - [[February 23]] - [[January 22]] - [[March 22]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[af:22 Februarie]]
[[an:22 de frebero]]
[[ar:22 فبراير]]
[[ast:22 de febreru]]
[[be:22 лютага]]
[[bg:22 февруари]]
[[ca:22 de febrer]]
[[co:22 di frivaghju]]
[[cs:22. únor]]
[[csb:22 gromicznika]]
[[cy:22 Chwefror]]
[[da:22. februar]]
[[de:22. Februar]]
[[el:22 Φεβρουαρίου]]
[[eo:22-a de februaro]]
[[es:22 de febrero]]
[[et:22. veebruar]]
[[fi:22. helmikuuta]]
[[fo:22. februar]]
[[fr:22 février]]
[[fy:22 febrewaris]]
[[ga:22 Feabhra]]
[[gl:22 de febreiro]]
[[he:22 בפברואר]]
[[hr:22. veljače]]
[[hu:Február 22]]
[[ia:22 de februario]]
[[id:22 Februari]]
[[io:22 di februaro]]
[[is:22. febrúar]]
[[it:22 febbraio]]
[[ja:2月22日]]
[[ko:2월 22일]]
[[ku:22'ê reşemiyê]]
[[lb:22. Februar]]
[[lt:Vasario 22]]
[[mk:22 февруари]]
[[nl:22 februari]]
[[nn:22. februar]]
[[no:22. februar]]
[[oc:22 de febrièr]]
[[pl:22 lutego]]
[[pt:22 de Fevereiro]]
[[ro:22 februarie]]
[[ru:22 февраля]]
[[scn:22 di frivaru]]
[[se:Guovvamánu 22.]]
[[sco:22 Februar]]
[[simple:February 22]]
[[sk:22. február]]
[[sl:22. februar]]
[[sq:22 Shkurt]]
[[sr:22. фебруар]]
[[sv:22 februari]]
[[th:22 กุมภาพันธ์]]
[[tl:Pebrero 22]]
[[tr:22 Şubat]]
[[tt:22. Febräl]]
[[uk:22 лютого]]
[[wa:22 d' fevrî]]
[[zh:2月22日]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>February 21</title>
<id>11010</id>
<revision>
<id>41947382</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T20:39:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Durova</username>
<id>521374</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Events */ Sorry, this was the middle of the judges' investigations. Joan of Arc's trial began March 6.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| style="float:right;"
|-
|{{FebruaryCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=February|Day=21}}
|}
'''February 21''' is the 52nd day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 313 days remaining, 314 in [[leap year]]s.
==Events==
* [[362]] - [[Athanasius]] returns to [[Alexandria]].
* [[1440]] - The [[Prussian Confederation]] is formed.
* [[1543]] - [[Battle of Wayna Daga]] - A combined army of [[Ethiopia]]n and [[Portugal|Portuguese]] troops defeated a [[Muslim]] army led by [[Ahmed Gragn]].
* [[1613]] - [[Michael I of Russia|Mikhail I]] is elected unanimously as [[Tsar]] by a [[Zemsky Sobor|national assembly]], beginning the [[Romanov]] [[dynasty]] of [[Imperial Russia]] .
* [[1743]] - The premiere in [[London]] of [[George Frideric Handel]]'s [[oratorio]], "[[Samson (oratorio)|Samson]]".
* [[1804]] - The first self-propelling [[steam locomotive]] makes its outing at the [[Pen-y-Darren ironworks]] in [[Wales]].
* [[1842]] - [[John J. Greenough]] patents the [[sewing machine]].
* [[1848]] - [[Karl Marx]] publishes the [[Communist Manifesto]].
* [[1874]] - The ''[[Oakland Tribune|Oakland Daily Tribune]]'' publishes its first [[newspaper]].
* [[1875]] - [[Jeanne Calment]] was born, going on to live for 122 years 164 days, the [[Supercentenarian|longest confirmed lifespan]] for any human being in history.
* [[1878]] - The first [[telephone book]] is issued in [[New Haven, Connecticut]].
* [[1885]] - The newly com
|
zil|name=[[Gladstone Pereira della Valentina|Gladstone]]|pos=DF|other=on loan from [[Juventus F.C.|Juventus]]}}
{{Fs player|no=46|name=[[Enrico Rossi]]|pos=GK|nat=Italy|other=on loan from [[S.S.C. Venezia|Venezia]]}}
{{Fs player|no=77|name=[[Nico Pulzetti]]|pos=MF|nat=Italy}}
{{Fs player|no=99|name=[[Ferdinando Sforzini]]|pos=FW|nat=Italy}}
{{Fs end}}
== Further reading ==
*''[[A Season with Verona]]: Travels Around Italy in Search of Illusion, National Character, and...Goals!'' by [[Tim Parks]]
==External links==
*[http://www.hellasverona.it/ Official website]
*[http://www.hellastory.net/index.cfm Hellastory.net] With a complete database, daily updates, thoughtful editorials, and guestbook. In Italian only, but "required surfing" for all football fans.
*[http://www.hellastory.net/popups/news_box.cfm?larghezza=500px/ Latest news] From Hellastory.net (in [[Italian language|Italian]]).
{{Serie B}}
[[Category:Italian football clubs|Verona]]
[[Category:1903 establishments]]
[[de:Hellas Verona]]
[[es:Hellas Verona]]
[[fr:Hellas Vérone]]
[[it:Hellas Verona Football Club]]
[[nl:Hellas Verona]]
[[pt:Hellas Verona F.C.]]
[[sv:Hellas Verona FC]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hinayana</title>
<id>14036</id>
<revision>
<id>42009198</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T04:48:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>BorgHunter</username>
<id>200762</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/125.184.240.9|125.184.240.9]] ([[User talk:125.184.240.9|talk]]) to last version by 20040302</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{buddhism}}
'''Hinayana''' ([[Sanskrit]]: "inferior vehicle"; [[Chinese language|Chinese]]: 小乘 ''Xiǎoshèng''; [[Japanese language|Japanese]]: ''Shōjō''; [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]]: ''Tiểu thừa'') is a term coined by the [[Mahayana]], which appeared publicly around the 1st century CE. There are differing views on the use and meaning of the term, both among scholars and within Buddhism. The meaning of 'vehicle' here is probably best understood as a 'movement', rather than some sort of school or tradition.
==In brief==
Hinayana is used as a name to refer variously (to one or more of ''doctrines'', ''traditions'', ''practitioners'' or ''thoughts'' that are) generally concerned with the achievement of [[Nirvana]] as a [[Sravaka-Buddha]] or a [[Pratyeka-Buddha]], as opposed to the achievement of liberation as a Samyaksam-Buddha. For those that view the term as being relevant to ''traditions'', some hold the view that Hinayana is cognate with solely the [[Early Buddhist Schools]], while others hold the view that Hinayana is ''also'' cognate with the modern [[Theravada]] tradition. Moreover, many hold that the term was coined to be purposely pejorative, while others do not.
*Hinayana as ''doctrine'' would include the [[Sutras]] taught by [[Buddha]] that admonish the practitioner to achieve Sravaka-Buddhahood or Pratyeka-Buddhahood.
*Hinayana as ''ancient tradition'' would include those schools who solely followed such sutras, some of whom actively rejected the Mahayana sutras during the time of the rise of the Mahayana, around 2,000 years ago, cognate with most of the [[Early Buddhist Schools]].
*Hinayana as a ''tradition'' in general would include those schools who solely follow the sutras above. This would be cognate with what is also known as [[Nikaya Buddhism]].
*Hinayana as ''practitioner'' would be an individual of any school (including Mahayana) whose goal is that of a Sravaka-Buddha or a Pratyeka-Buddha.
*Hinayana as ''thought'' similarly would be a thought of any practitioner that leads to the goal of a Sravaka-Buddha or a Pratyeka-Buddha, but not to Samyaksam-Buddha.
From the outside the distinctions between these differing definitions would appear to be minimal, even trivial. However within Buddhism the differing interpretations of ''Hinayana'' have consequences that are sometimes quite far-reaching. It is primarily the interpretation of Hinayana as a tradition that has led to the most concern, especially as many people have seen the term as a slur against the schools of [[Nikaya Buddhism]]–schools that solely follow the sutras given by Buddha that admonish the practitioner to achieve Sravaka-Buddhahood.
==Three types of Buddha==
Buddhists (both Nikaya and Mahayana traditions) accept that there are [[Three Buddhas|three types of Buddha]], and generally accept their definitions as follows:
*[[Samyaksam-Buddha]]s (Pali: Sammasambuddha): (also known in the Mahayana as Bodhisattva-Buddhas) gain Nirvana by their own efforts, without a teacher of the entire path. They may then lead others to [[bodhi|Enlightenment]] by teaching the Dharma in a time or world where it has been forgotten or has not been taught before, because a Samyaksam-Buddha does not depend upon a tradition that stretches back to a previous Samyaksam-Buddha, but instead discovers the path anew.
*[[Pratyeka-Buddha]]s (Pali: Paccekabuddha): are similar to Samyaksam-Buddha, in that they attain Nirvana by themselves, but they remain silent and keep the discovered Dharma to themselves.
*[[Sravaka-Buddha]]s (Pali: Savakabuddhas): gain Nirvana, but attain [[bodhi|Enlightenment]] by hearing the Dharma as initially taught by a Samyaksam-Buddha. After attaining enlightenment, Sravaka-Buddhas might also lead others to enlightenment, but cannot teach the Dharma in a time or world where it has been forgotten or has not been taught before, because they depend upon a tradition that stretches back to a Sammasambuddha.
==Origins of ''Hinayana'': Vehicles and Paths==
It appears that the distinction between vehicles and paths arises in early Mahayana sutras, such as the ''Lotus Sutra'', where it is stated that there is one ''path'' - the path to [[Nirvana]] -, but there are different ''vehicles''. In this sense, the vehicles are described as representing the fruit of three types of Buddha found in Nikaya sutras, as mentioned above. For instance, in Chapter three of the ''Lotus Sutra'', there is a parable of a father promising three carts to lure sons out of a burning building, where the goat-cart represents Sravaka-Buddhahood; the deer-cart, Pratyeka-Buddhahood; and the bullock-cart, Samyaksam-Buddhahood.
The Lotus Sutra (Ch.3) declares: "''Though he (the [[Buddha]]) has power and fearlessness, he does not use them, but only by his wise tact does he remove and save all living creatures from the burning house of the triple world (a Buddhist term for [[Samsara]]), teaching the three vehicles: the sravaka-buddha, pratyeka-buddha, and samyaksam-buddha vehicles.''"
This quote tells us something more about early Mahayana views: That it is the ''vehicles'' that are taught as a method for journeying on the path to [[bodhi|enlightenment]]. It is here that we can see the basis for term being used to indicate differences of doctrine.
The Lotus Sutra (Ch.3) continues: "''Know this! All these three vehicles are praised by sages; [in them you will be] free and independent, without wanting to rely on anything else. [...]''
''If there are beings who [...] desire speedily to escape from the triple world and seek nirvana for themselves, these will have the vehicle named the 'sravakayana', just as some of those children come out of the house for the sake of a goat-cart.''
''If there are beings who [...] seek self-gained wisdom, delighting in the tranquility of their individual goodness, these will have the vehicle named the 'pratyekayana', just as some of those children come out of the house for the sake of a deer-cart.''
''If there are beings who [...] seek the wisdom without a teacher, who take pity on and comfort innumerable creatures, benefiting gods and men, and save all beings, these will have the vehicle named the 'mahayana', just as some of those children come out of the house for the sake of a bullock-cart."''
The Sutra then continues, declaring that the bullock-cart is "supremely restful", implying that the goat-cart and the deer-cart are inferior to the bullock-cart. This is where we begin to see the terminological origins for the term ''Hinayana'': The Sravakayana and the Pratyekayana as vehicles inferior to the superior bullock-cart of the ''Mahayana''.
The Lotus Sutra therefore makes the distinction between the vehicles according to the type of Buddha that arises, and all Buddhists agree that a Samyaksam-Buddha is superior to a Sravaka-Buddha or a Pratyeka-Buddha, at least on the basis that only a Samyaksam-Buddha can teach the Dharma where (or when) it has not been taught before.
==''Hinayana'' as a pejorative==
There remains an open and active debate regarding the issue of whether ''Hinayana'' was coined to be pejorative or merely classificatory. Those who assert the idea tend to be among those who subscribe the idea of an early [[Mahayana]] schism, and who believe that there was a strong history of polemics between the early Mahayana and other early Buddhist schools. Those who assert that the term was coined in a merely classificatory manner, generally consider the pejorative accusation to be a [[Fundamental attribution error]].
The arguments for the term as being pejorative largely depends upon the etymological roots of the prefix 'Hina':
Hina- is defined as such: "inferior, less, low, base, mean, incomplete, deficient, wanting and so on."
Most agree that the usage of 'hina-' as a prefix represents those "inferior", -inferior because they do not lead to the attainment of Samyaksam Buddhahood; so, the hinayana vehicles are those vehicles that lead to Sravaka Buddhahood or Pratyeka Buddhahood.
The difference of opinion is whether or not the term was chosen because of the other meanings attributed to it - apparently suggesting a nuance to the otherwise categorative term.
Another argument for criticism of the Hinayana by the early Mahayana is a
|
category
*[http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Central_African_Republic Open Directory Project - ''Central African Republic''] directory category
*[http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/centralafr.html Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara: ''Central African Republic''] directory category
*[http://www.kodro.net/ The Index on Africa - ''Central African Republic''] directory category
*[http://www.sas.upenn.edu/African_Studies/Country_Specific/CAR.html University of Pennsylvania - African Studies Center: ''Central African Republic''] directory category
*[http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/Central_African_Republic/ Yahoo! - ''Central African Republic''] directory category
===Ethnic Groups===
* [http://www.pygmies.info/ African Pygmies] Culture and music of the first inhabitants of the Central African Republic, with photos and ethnographic notes
===Tourism===
*{{wikitravel}}
{{Africa}}
[[Category:African Union member states]]
[[Category:Central African Republic|*]]
[[Category:Landlocked countries]]
[[am:የመካከለኛው አፍሪካ ሪፑብሊክ]]
[[ar:جمهورية أفريقيا الوسطى]]
[[an:Republica Zentroafricana]]
[[bg:Централноафриканска република]]
[[bs:Centralna Afrička Republika]]
[[zh-min-nan:Tiong-hui Kiōng-hô-kok]]
[[bn:মধ্য আফ্রিকা]]
[[ca:República Centreafricana]]
[[cs:Středoafrická republika]]
[[da:Centralafrikanske Republik]]
[[de:Zentralafrikanische Republik]]
[[et:Kesk-Aafrika Vabariik]]
[[es:República Centroafricana]]
[[eo:Centr-Afrika Respubliko]]
[[fr:République centrafricaine]]
[[gl:República Centroafricana - République Centroafricaine]]
[[ko:중앙아프리카 공화국]]
[[hr:Srednjoafrička Republika]]
[[io:Centrafrika]]
[[id:Republik Afrika Tengah]]
[[is:Mið-Afríkulýðveldið]]
[[it:Repubblica Centrafricana]]
[[he:הרפובליקה המרכז אפריקאית]]
[[jv:Republik Afrika Tengah]]
[[lv:Centrālāfrika]]
[[lt:Centrinės Afrikos Respublika]]
[[li:Centraal Afrika]]
[[hu:Közép-afrikai Köztársaság]]
[[ms:Republik Afrika Tengah]]
[[nl:Centraal-Afrikaanse Republiek]]
[[nds:Zentraalafrikaansche Republiek]]
[[ja:中央アフリカ]]
[[no:Den sentralafrikanske republikk]]
[[nn:Den sentralafrikanske republikken]]
[[pl:Republika Środkowoafrykańska]]
[[pt:República Centro-Africana]]
[[ro:Republica Centrafricană]]
[[ru:Центрально-Африканская Республика]]
[[sa:केन्द्रीय अफ्रीका गणराज्य]]
[[sq:Afrika Qendrore]]
[[simple:Central African Republic]]
[[sk:Stredoafrická republika]]
[[sl:Srednjeafriška republika]]
[[sr:Централноафричка Република]]
[[fi:Keski-Afrikan tasavalta]]
[[sv:Centralafrikanska republiken]]
[[tl:Central African Republic]]
[[th:สาธารณรัฐแอฟริกากลาง]]
[[tr:Orta Afrika Cumhuriyeti]]
[[uk:Центрально-Африканська Республіка]]
[[zh:中非共和國]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>History of the Central African Republic</title>
<id>5479</id>
<revision>
<id>36805971</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-26T16:30:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bobblewik</username>
<id>51235</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>reduce linking to date elements</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The [[Central African Republic]] is believed to have been settled from at least the 7th century on by overlapping empires, including the [[Kanem-Bornu Empire|Kanem-Bornu]], [[Ouaddai]], [[Baguirmi]], and Dafour groups based around [[Lake Chad]] region and along [[Upper Nile]]. Later, various [[sultanate]]s claimed present-day C.A.R, using the entire [[Oubangui]] region as a [[Slavery|slave]] reservoir, from which slaves were traded north across the [[Sahara]] and to West Africa for export by the [[Europe]]ans. Population [[Migration (human)|migration]] in the 18th and 19th centuries brought new migrants into the area, including the [[Zande]], [[Banda (CAR)|Banda]], and [[Baya-Mandjia]].
In [[1875]] the [[Egypt|Egyptian]] sultan [[Rabah]] governed Upper-Oubangui, which included present-day C.A.R. Europeans, primarily the French, [[Ethnic German|German]], and [[Belgium|Belgian]]s, arrived in the area in [[1885]]. The French consolidated their legal claim to the area through an [[1887]] convention with [[Congo Free State]], which granted [[France]] possession of the right bank of the [[Oubangui River]]. Two years later, the French established an outpost at [[Bangui]], and in [[1894]], [[Oubangui-Chari]] became a French territory. However, the French did not consolidate their control over the area until [[1903]] after having defeated the forces of Sultan, Rabah, and established colonial administration throughout the territory. In [[1906]], the Oubangui-Chari territory was united with the [[Chad]] colony; in [[1910]], it became one of the four territories of the [[Federation of French Equatorial Africa]] (A.E.F.), along with [[Chad]], [[Republic of the Congo]], and [[Gabon]]. The next thirty years were marked by smallscale revolts against French rule and the development of a [[plantation]]-style economy.
In August [[1940]], the territory responded, with the rest of the A.E.F., to the call from General [[Charles de Gaulle]] to fight for [[Free France]]. After [[World War II]], the [[French Constitution]] of [[1946]] inaugurated the first of a series of reforms that led eventually to complete independence for all French territories in western and equatorial Africa. In [[1946]], all A.E.F. inhabitants were granted French citizenship and allowed to establish local assemblies. The assembly in C.A.R. was led by [[Barthélemy Boganda]], a [[Roman Catholic|Catholic]] priest who also was known for his forthright statements in the French Assembly on the need for [[Africa|African]] [[emancipation]]. In [[1956]] French legislation eliminated certain voting inequalities and provided for the creation of some organs of self-government in each territory. The French constitutional referendum of September [[1958]] dissolved the A.E.F., and on [[December 1]] of the same year the Assembly declared the birth of the Central African Republic with Boganda as head of government. Boganda ruled until his death in a March [[1959]] plane crash. His cousin, [[David Dacko]], replaced him, governing the country until [[1965]] and overseeing the country's declaration of independence on [[August 13]], [[1960]].
On [[January 1]], [[1966]], following a swift and almost bloodless coup, Colonel [[Jean-Bédel Bokassa]] assumed power as president of the Republic. Bokassa abolished the constitution of [[1959]], dissolved the National Assembly, and issued a decree that placed all legislative and executive powers in the hands of the president. On [[December 4]], [[1977]], the republic became a monarchy -- the [[Central African Empire]] -- with the promulgation of the imperial constitution and the proclamation of the president as Emperor Bokassa I. His regime was characterized by numerous human rights atrocities.
Following riots in Bangui and the murder of between 50 and 200 schoolchildren, former President Dacko led a successful [[France|French]]-backed coup against Bokassa on [[September 20]], [[1979]] and restored the Republic. Dacko's efforts to promote economic and political reforms proved ineffectual, and on [[September 20]], [[1981]], he in turn was overthrown in a bloodless coup by General [[André Kolingba]]. For four years, Kolingba led the country as head of the Military Committee for National Recovery (CRMN). In [[1985]] the CRMN was dissolved, and Kolingba named a new cabinet with increased civilian participation, signaling the start of a return to civilian rule. The process of democratization quickened in [[1986]] with the creation of a new political party, the Rassemblement Démocratique Centrafricain (RDC), and the drafting of a new constitution that subsequently was ratified in a national referendum. General Kolingba was sworn in as constitutional President on [[November 29]], [[1986]]. The constitution established a National Assembly made up of 52 elected deputies, elected in July [[1987]]. Due to mounting political pressure, in [[1991]] President Kolingba announced the creation of National Commission to rewrite the constitution to provide for a [[multi-party]] system. Multi-party presidential elections were conducted in [[1992]] but were later cancelled due to serious logistical and other irregularities. [[Ange-Félix Patassé]] won a second-round victory in rescheduled elections held in October [[1993]], and was re-elected for another 6-year term in September [[1999]].
Salary arrears, labor unrest, and unequal treatment of military officers from different ethnic groups led to three mutinies against the Patassé government in [[1996]] and [[1997]]. The French succeeded in quelling the disturbances, and an African peacekeeping force (MISAB) occupied Bangui until [[1998]] when they were relieved by a United Nations peacekeeping mission ([[MINURCA]]). Economic difficulties caused by the looting and destruction during the [[1996]] and [[1997]] mutinies, energy crises, and government mismanagement continued to trouble Patassé's government through [[2000]]. In March [[2000]] the last of the MINURCA forces departed Bangui.
On [[15 March]] [[2003]] rebels who controlled part of the country moved into Bangui and installed their commander, General [[François Bozizé]], as president, while President Patassé was out of the country.
== See also ==
*[[Central African Republic]]
{{Africa in topic|History of}}
[[Category:Central African Republic]]
[[de:Geschichte der Zentralafrikanischen Republik]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Geography of the Central African Republic</title>
<id>5480</id>
<revision>
<id>40556796</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T11:54:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lupo</username>
<id>34978</id>
</contributor>
<comment>better map</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Central African Republic Map.jpg|thumb|300px||right|Map Of Central African Republic]]
'''Location:'''
Central [[Africa]], north of [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
'''G
|
]]| after = [[Gunthamund]]}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:484 deaths]]
[[Category:Kings of the Vandals]]
[[de:Hunerich]]
[[fr:Hunéric]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hasdingi</title>
<id>14409</id>
<revision>
<id>38314376</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-05T14:45:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pinktulip</username>
<id>739543</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Hasdingi''' were the southern tribes of the [[Vandals]], an [[East Germanic tribe]]. They lived in areas of today's southern [[Poland]], [[Slovakia]] and [[Hungary]]. They where part of the migratory movements of the Vandals, into the [[Iberian peninsula]] and later on to [[North Africa]].
The '''Hasdingi''' were also a dynasty which ruled the Vandals.
==See also==
*[[Migrations period]]
*[[Silingi]]
*[[Alans#The_.27western.27_Alans_and_Vandals|The western Alans and Vandals]]
*[[Timeline of Portuguese history (Germanic Kingdoms)|Timeline of Portuguese history - Germanic Kingdoms (5th to 8th Century)]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Europe]]
[[Category:Vandal history]]
{{ethno-stub}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hermes</title>
<id>14410</id>
<revision>
<id>41997246</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T03:01:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>154.20.38.179</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Other roles */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For other meanings see [[Hermes (disambiguation)]]}}
[[Image:Hermes by Praxiteles.jpg|thumb|200px|Hermes bearing the infant [[Dionysus]], by [[Praxiteles]]]]
'''Hermes''' ([[Ancient Greek|Greek]] {{polytonic|ʽἙρμῆς}} [[IPA]] {{IPA|[her'me:s]}}), in [[Greek mythology]], is the god of boundaries and of the travelers who cross them, of [[shepherd]]s and cowherds, of orators, literature and poets, of athletics, of weights and measures and invention and commerce in general, of liars, and of the cunning of thieves. As a translator, he is the messenger from the gods to humans. A lucky find was a ''hermaion''. An interpreter who bridges the boundaries with strangers is a ''hermeneus.'' Hermes gives us our word "[[hermeneutics]]" for the art of interpreting hidden meaning.
1 In the Roman adaptation of the Greek religion, Hermes was identified with the Roman God [[Mercury (mythology)|Mercury]], who had many similar characteristics, such as both being gods of commerce.
:''Main article: [[Hermes Trismegistus]]''.
In the Hellenistic and then Greco-Roman culture of [[Alexandria]], [[syncreticism|syncretic conflation]] of Hermes with the Egyptian god of wisdom [[Thoth]] produced the figure of [[Hermes Trismegistus]], to whom a body of arcane lore was attributed. The writings attributed to Hermes Trismegistus were edited and published in the Italian [[Renaissance]]. This figure should not be confused with Greek Hermes.
Among the [[Greeks|Hellene]]s, as the related word ''[[herma]]'' "a boundary stone, crossing point" would suggest, Hermes embodies the spirit of crossing-over: he was seen to be manifest in any kind of interchange, transfer, transgressions, transcendence, transition, transit or traversal, all of which activities involve some form of crossing in some sense. This explains his connection with transitions in one’s fortunes, with the interchanges of goods, words and information involved in trade, interpreting, oratory, writing, with the way in which the wind may transfer objects from one place to another, and with the transition to the afterlife.
{{TOCleft}}
In the fully-developed Olympian pantheon, Hermes is the son of [[Zeus]] and [[Maia (mythology)|Maia]]. The name ''Hermes'' has been thought to be derived from the Greek word ''[[herma]]'' (ἕρμα), which denotes a square or rectangular pillar with the head of Hermes (usually with a beard) adorning the top of the pillar, and male genitals below; however, due to the god's attestation in the Mycenaean pantheon, as '''Hermes Araoia'' ("Ram Hermes") in [[Linear B]] inscriptions at [[Pylos]] and Mycenaean [[Knossos]] [http://www.csun.edu/~hcfll004/mycen.html], the connection is more likely to have moved the opposite way, ''from'' deity ''to'' pillar representations. From the subsequent association of these cairns &mdash; which were used in [[Athens]] to ward off evil and also as road and boundary markers all over Greece &mdash; Hermes acquired patronage over land travel. He was also the god of shepherds, merchants, weights and measurements, oratory, literature, athletics, and thieves. His symbols were the [[Chicken|cock]], tortoise, purse or pouch, winged sandals, winged cap, and the heralds staff. Hermes was the god of thieves because he was very cunning and shrewd and was a thief himself from the night he was born. The night Hermes was born he snuck away from his mother and ran away to steal his Brother [[Apollo]]'s cattle. He drove the cattle back to Greece and hid them and covered their tracks. When Apollo accused Hermes, Maia said that it could not be him because he was with her the whole night, however Zeus entered into the argument and said that Hermes did steal the cattle and they should be returned. While arguing with Apollo, Hermes began to play his [[lyre]]. The instrument enchanted Apollo and he agreed to let Hermes keep the cattle in exchange for the lyre. Hermes was the herald to the gods (messenger of the gods) so he had to guide the souls of the dead to the [[Hades|underworld]], the person who does this is called a [[psychopomp]]. Hermes was very loyal to his father Zeus, when Zeus fell in love with the nymph Io, Hermes saved her from the many-eyed Argus by lulling him to sleep with stories and songs, decapitating him with a crescent-shaped sword. Some say that is representative of killing the disapproving eyes of the community, always policing good conduct in a shame-based society through their disapproving gaze.
== Cult ==
{{Greek myth (Olympian)}}
General article: [[Cult (religion)]]''.
Though temples to Hermés existed throughout [[Greece]], a center of his cult was at [[Pheneos]] in [[Arcadia]], where festivals in his honor were called ''Hermoea''.
[[Image:Mercurybyhendrickgoltzius.jpeg|thumb|left|200px|''Mercury'' by [[Hendrick Goltzius]], 1611 (Frans Halsmuseum, Haarlem)]]
As a crosser of boundaries, ''Hermés Psychopompos''' ("conductor of the soul") was a psychopomp, meaning he brought newly-dead souls to the underworld, [[Hades]]. In the Homeric ''Hymn to Demeter'', Hermes conducts the [[Kore]] safely back to [[Demeter]]. He also brought dreams to living mortals.
Hermes as an inventor of fire is a parallel of the [[Titan (mythology)|Titan]], [[Prometheus]]. In addition to the [[syrinx]] and the [[lyre]], Hermes invented many types of racing and the sport of [[boxing]]. In the 6th century the traditional bearded phallic Hermes was reimagined as an athletic youth (''illustration, top right''); statues of the new type of Hermés stood at stadia and [[gymnasium (ancient Greece)|gymnasium]]s throughout Greece.
=== [[Herma|Hermai]] ===
In very ancient Greece, Hermés was a phallic god of boundaries. His name in the form ''herma'' referred to a wayside marker pile of stones; each traveller added a stone to the pile. In the 6th century, [[Hipparchus (tyrant)|Hipparchos]], the son of [[Pisistratus]] replaced the [[cairn]]s that marked the midway point between each village ''[[deme]]'' at the central ''[[agora]]'' of Athens with a square or rectangular pillar of stone or bronze topped by a bust of Hermés usually with a [[beard]]; an erect [[phallus]] rose from the base. In the more primitive "Cyllenian" herms, the standing stone or wooden pillar was simply a phallus. The ''hermai'' were used to mark roads and boundaries. In Athens, they were placed outside houses for good luck. "That a monument of this kind could be transformed into an [[Twelve Olympians|Olympian]] god is astounding," [[Walter Burkert]] remarked (Burkert 1985).
In [[415 BCE]], when the Athenian fleet was about to set sail for [[Syracuse, Italy|Syracuse]] during the [[Peloponnesian War]], all of the Athenian hermai were vandalized. The Athenians at the time believed it was the work of saboteurs, either from Syracuse or the anti-war faction within Athens itself. [[Socrates]]' pupil [[Alcibiades]] was suspected to have been involved, and Socrates indirectly paid for the impiety with his life.
=== Hermes' [[iconography]] ===
Hermés was usually portrayed wearing a broad-brimmed traveller's hat or a winged cap (petasos or more commonly [[petasus]]), wearing winged sandals ([[talaria]]) and carrying his Near Eastern herald's staff, entwined by copulating [[Serpent (symbolism)|serpents]], called the ''kerykeion'', more familiar in its Latinized form, the ''[[caduceus]]''. He wore the garments of a traveler, worker or shepherd. He was represented by purses, roosters (''illustration, left/above'') and tortoises.
== Birth ==
Hermes was born on [[Mount Kyllini|Mount Cyllene]] in [[Arcadia]] to [[Maia]]. As the story is told in the [[Homeric Hymns|Homeric Hymn]], the ''Hymn to Hermes,'' Maia was a [[nymph]], but Greeks generally applied the name to a midwife or a wise and gentle old woman, so the nymph appears to have been an ancient one, one of the [[Pleiades (mythology)|Pleiades]] taking refuge in a cave of Arcadia.
The god was precocious: on the day of his birth, by midday he had invented the lyre, using the shell of a tortoise, and by nightfall he had rustled the immortal cattle of Apollo. For the first Olympian sacrifice, the taboos surrounding the sacred [[wiktionary:kine|kine]] of Apollo had to be transgressed, and the trickster god of boundaries was the one to do it.
His [[epithet]] ''Argeiphontes'', or Argus-slayer, recalls his slaying of the many-eyed giant [[Argus]] who was watching over the [[cattle|heifer]]-nymph [[Io (mythology)|Io]]
|
the [[Bellis|daisy]] and [[sweet pea]].
*April's [[birthstone]] is the [[diamond]].
*April in the [[Northern Hemisphere]] is the seasonal equivalent to [[October]] in the [[Southern Hemisphere]] and vise versa.
==Events in Aprils==
===Monthlong events in April===
*Chocolate Eaters Month
*Poetry Month
*Cancer Control Month
*Marcus H. Birthday (National Holiday in Australia)
*Child Abuse Prevention Month
*International Guitar Month
*Mathematics Education Month
*National Humor Month
*National Welding Month
*National Smile Month
*National Pecan Month
*VD Awareness Month
*Stress Awareness Month
*Alcohol Awareness Month
*Autism Awareness Month
*Keep America Beautiful Month
===Weeklong events in April===
1st Week in April
*Medic Alert Week
*Cherry Blossom Festival
*Publicity Stunt Week
*National Birthparents Week
*Week of the Young Child
*Straw Hat Week
*National Bake Week (begins 1st Mon)
*Consider Christianity Week
*National Reading a Road Map Week
2nd Week in April
*Be Kind to Animals Week
*Masters Golf Tournament
*National Medical Laboratory Week
*Private Property Week (10th-16th)
*National Library Week
*Harmony Week
*National Garden Week
*TV Turn-Off Week
*National Guitar Week
*National Building Safety Week
*National Home Safety Week
3rd Week in April
*National Police Week
*Boys and Girls Club Week
*National Coin Week
*Bike Safety Week
*National Bubblegum Week
*Pan American Week
*National Week of the Ocean
*National Crime Victims’ Rights Week
*National Volunteer Week
*National Adult Films Week
Last Week in April
*Forest Week
*National Lingerie Week
*Canada-US Goodwill Week
*Big Brothers/Sisters Appreciation Week
*Consumer Protection Week
*National TV-Free Week
*Jewish Heritage Week
*Keep America Beautiful Week
*National YMCA Week
*Professional Secretaries Week
*Intergenerational Week
*Reading Is Fun Week
*Egg Salad Week
*Teacher Appreciation Week (begins Last Mon)
A Week in April
*Astronomy Week (determined by 1st Quarter Moon)
===April movable daily holidays===
1st Sunday
*Set-Your Clock-Forward-Day (Daylight Saving Time begins in the United States; turn your clock ahead at 2:00 a.m.)
*Budoha Day (Hawaii)
*Vesak (Buddha's Birthday)
1st Saturday
*Saturday Market Day (Oregon)
1st Saturday before 5th
*Tax Saturday (UK)
1st Thursday
*Glarus Festival (Switzerland)
1st Friday
*Student Government Day (Massachusetts)
Friday after 1st
*Arbor Day (Apache, Navajo, Coconino, Mohave, Yavapai; Arizona)
2nd Friday
*Audubon Day
3rd Sunday & Monday
*Sechselauten (Six Ringing Festival; Switzerland)
3rd Monday
*Patriot's Day (Maine, Massachusetts)
*Boston Marathon
Thursday between 19th & 26th
*First Day of Summer (Iceland)
Saturday nearest St. George's Day (23rd)
*Peppercorn Day (Bermuda)
Monday nearest Feast Day of St. George (23rd)
*St. George's Day (Newfoundland)
Sunday after 1st full moon after vernal equinox following Passover
*Lambri (Bright Day; Greece)
3rd Monday
*Patriots' Day (Maine, Massachusetts)
4th Monday
*Fast Day (New Hampshire)
4th Thursday
*Take Our Daughters (and Sons) to Work Day
4th Weekend
*Just Pray No weekend
Last Monday
*Confederate Memorial Day (Alabama, Mississippi)
Last Friday
*Arbor Day
*Bird Day
Wednesday of Last Full Week
*Administrative Professionals Day
Last Saturday
*[[National Sense of Smell Day]] ([[USA]])
===April Indeterminate Holidays===
Full Moon Day of 6th Buddhist month (@ Apr/May)
*Vesak
Sun enters Aries
*Solar New Year (Southeast Asia)
*aka Thingyan (Burma)
*aka Songkran (Thailand)
10th through 15th Day of 2nd lunar month
*Paro Tsechu (Bhutan)
During planting season (@ Apr/May)
*Tyi Wara (Mali)
Early April to late July (every 4 years)
*Summer Olympics begin
Late April or May
*Alp Aufzug (Switzerland)
Before 1st rainfall (@ Apr/May)
*Bobo Masquerade (Burkina Faso)
Sometime in April
*World Championship Cow Chip Throwing Contest
*Palm Sunday - Christian
*Palm Sunday - Armenian Christian
*Good Friday - Christian
*Easter - Christian
*Pesach (Passover) - Jewish
===Other special days===
*April Fools' Day ([[April 1]])
==See also==
* [[List of historical anniversaries]]
* [[April-Fools' Day]]
==References==
* Chambers's ''Book of Days''
* Grimm's ''Geschichte der deutschen Sprache''. Cap. "Monate"
* {{1911}}
{{months}}
[[Category:Months]]
[[af:April]]
[[an:Abril]]
[[ang:Ēastermōnaþ]]
[[ar:إبريل]]
[[ast:Abril]]
[[be:Красавік]]
[[bg:Април]]
[[br:Ebrel]]
[[bs:April]]
[[ca:Abril]]
[[cs:Duben]]
[[csb:Łżëkwiôt]]
[[cv:Ака]]
[[cy:Ebrill]]
[[da:April]]
[[de:April]]
[[el:Απρίλιος]]
[[eo:Aprilo]]
[[es:Abril]]
[[et:Aprill]]
[[eu:Apiril]]
[[fa:آوریل]]
[[fi:Huhtikuu]]
[[fo:Apríl]]
[[fr:Avril]]
[[fur:Avrîl]]
[[fy:April]]
[[ga:Aibreán]]
[[gl:Abril]]
[[he:אפריל]]
[[hr:Travanj]]
[[hu:Április]]
[[ia:April]]
[[id:April]]
[[ie:April]]
[[ilo:Abril]]
[[io:Aprilo]]
[[is:Apríl]]
[[it:Aprile]]
[[ja:4月]]
[[jv:April]]
[[ka:აპრილი]]
[[kn:ಎಪ್ರಿಲ್]]
[[ko:4월]]
[[ku:Avrêl]]
[[kw:Mys Ebrel]]
[[la:Aprilis]]
[[lb:Abrëll]]
[[li:April]]
[[lt:Balandis]]
[[lv:Aprīlis]]
[[mi:Paenga-whāwhā]]
[[mr:एप्रिल]]
[[ms:April]]
[[nap:Abbrile]]
[[nl:April]]
[[nn:April]]
[[no:April]]
[[oc:Abril]]
[[pl:Kwiecień]]
[[pt:Abril]]
[[ro:Aprilie]]
[[ru:Апрель]]
[[scn:Aprili]]
[[sco:Aprile]]
[[se:Cuoŋománnu]]
[[simple:April]]
[[sk:Apríl]]
[[sl:April]]
[[sq:Prilli]]
[[sr:Април]]
[[sv:April]]
[[ta:ஏப்ரல்]]
[[th:เมษายน]]
[[tl:Abril]]
[[tpi:Epril]]
[[tr:Nisan]]
[[tt:Äpril]]
[[uk:Квітень]]
[[ur:اپريل]]
[[vi:Tháng tư]]
[[vo:Prilul]]
[[wa:Avri]]
[[zh:4月]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>August</title>
<id>1005</id>
<revision>
<id>42001275</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T03:38:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Anthonyken0109</username>
<id>906087</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Trivia */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{AugustCalendar}}
'''August''' is the [[eighth]] month of the [[year]] in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] and one of seven Gregorian months with the length of 31 [[days]].
August begins (astrologically) with the sun in the sign of [[Leo]] and ends in the sign of [[Virgo]]. Astronomically speaking, the sun begins in the constellation of [[Cancer (constellation)|Cancer]] and ends in the constellation of [[Leo]].
August was named in honor of [[Augustus]]. The month reputedly has 31 days because Augustus wanted as many days as [[Julius Caesar]]'s [[July]]. Augustus placed the month where it is because that is when [[Cleopatra VII of Egypt|Cleopatra]] died. Before Augustus renamed August, it was called ''[[Sextilis]]'' in [[Latin]], since it was the sixth month in the [[Roman calendar]] which started in [[March]].
In the [[neopaganism|pagan]] [[wheel of the year]] August begins at or near [[Lughnasadh]] in the [[northern hemisphere]] and [[Imbolc]] in the [[southern hemisphere]].
In [[Ireland]], (in the [[Irish language]]) August is known as '''Lúnasa''', a modern rendition of [[Lughnasadh]], named after the god [[Lugh]] and [[August 1]], (Lá Lúnasa) in the [[Irish Calendar]] is still regarded as the first day of [[Autumn]]. The first Monday in August is one of the [[public holidays in the Republic of Ireland]].
In the [[Japanese calendar|old Japanese calendar]], the month is called ''hatsuki'' (&#33865;&#26376;).
In [[Finnish language|Finnish]], the month is called ''elokuu'', meaning "month of reaping".
In the [[UK]], August is generally when all academic exam results are published, especially for [[GCSE]]s and [[A-Levels]] as well as other exams. Also, scholars and school workers such as teachers, have a holiday or non-contact time, and there are two bank holidays (UK). It is typically when people go on holiday due to the availability of time.
During August 13 to 19, [[Philippines]] schools and theaters celebrate the National Week of the [[Tagalog|Filipino]] Language.
In [[Spain]], August is the holiday month for most workers.
In [[Brazil]], folk superstition associates bad luck to August, with the proverb ''"Agosto, o mês do desgosto"'' ("August, the month of misfortune") being often heard. This may come from the sinister memories of the [[Bartholomew|St. Bartholomew]]'s day (August 24), which is particularly dreaded in the Northeast of the country. August 24 is also, in the tradition of [[Candomblé]], the day of [[Eshu]], one of the most malevolent deities. Coincidentally, some unfortunate polical events took place in August, like the suicide of the then President [[Getúlio Vargas]]. [http://www.tvgazeta.com.br/todoseu/assuntos_programas_notas.php?v_id_notas=55&r_titulo=A]
Every last Sunday of August, the [[Philippines]] celebrates National Heroes Day in commemoration of the First Cry of the Philippine Revolution on [[August 23]], [[1896]].
August is also the name of a Japanese [[visual novel]] company.
==Events & Months in August==
* National Back To School Month
* National Investors Month
* Admit You're Happy Month
* Women's Small Business Month
==Trivia==
[[Image:Les Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry aout.jpg|right|thumb|August, from the ''Très riches heures du duc de Berry'']]
*'''August''' begins on the same day of the week as '''February''' in a leap year.
*August's [[flower]] is the [[poppy]].
*August's [[birthstone]] is the [[peridot]].
*August contains no [[United States]] holiday.
*August in the [[Northern Hemisphere]] is the seasonal equivalent to [[February]] in the [[Southern Hemisphere]] and vise versa.
{{wiktionary}}
{{months}}
[[Category:Months]]
[[af:Augustus]]
[[als:August]]
[[ang:Wēodmōnaþ]]
[[ar:أغسطس]]
[[an:Agosto]]
[[ast:Agostu]]
[[bg:Август]]
[[be:Жнівень]]
[[bs:August]]
[[br:Eost]]
[[ca:Agost]]
[[ceb:Agosto]]
[[cv:Çурла]]
[[cs:Srpen]]
[[cy:Awst]]
[[da:August]]
[[de:August]]
[[et:August]]
[[el:Αύγουστος]]
[[es:Agosto]]
[[eo:Aŭgusto]]
[[eu:Abuztu]]
[[fa:اوت]]
[[fo:August]]
[[fr:Août]]
[[fy:Augustus]]
[[fur:Avost]]
[[ga:Lúnasa]]
[[gl:Agosto]]
[[ko:8월]]
[[hr:Kolovoz]]
[[io:Agosto]]
[[id:Agustus]]
[[ia:Augusto]]
[[ie:August]]
[[is:Ágúst]]
[[it:Ag
|
[[Hungary]] (Republic of)
|-
| HB
| [[Switzerland]] (Confederation of)
|-
| HB0&ndash;HB0
| [[Liechtenstein]]
|-
| HC&ndash;HD
| [[Ecuador]]
|-
| HE
| [[Switzerland]] (Confederation of)
|-
| HF
| [[Poland]] (Republic of)
|-
| HG
| [[Hungary]] (Republic of)
|-
| HH
| [[Haiti]] (Republic of)
|-
| HI
| [[Dominican Republic]]
|-
| HJ&ndash;HK
| [[Colombia]] (Republic of)
|-
| HL
| [[Korea]] (Republic of)
|-
| HM
| [[Democratic People's Republic of Korea]]
|-
| HN
| [[Iraq]] (Republic of)
|-
| HO&ndash;HP
| [[Panama]] (Republic of)
|-
| HQ&ndash;HR
| [[Honduras]] (Republic of)
|-
| HS
| [[Thailand]]
|-
| HT
| [[Nicaragua]]
|-
| HU
| [[El Salvador]] (Republic of)
|-
| HV
| [[Vatican City State]]
|-
| HW&ndash;HY
| [[France]]
|-
| HZ
| [[Saudi Arabia]] (Kingdom of)
|-
| H2
| [[Cyprus]] (Republic of)
|-
| H3
| [[Panama]] (Republic of)
|-
| H4
| [[Solomon Islands]]
|-
| H6&ndash;H7
| [[Nicaragua]]
|-
| H8&ndash;H9
| [[Panama]] (Republic of)
|-
!"#CCCCCC" colspan="2"|I
|-
| '''I'''| [[Italy]]
|-
!"#CCCCCC" colspan="2"|J
|-
| JA&ndash;JS
| [[Japan]]
|-
| JT&ndash;JV
| [[Mongolia]]
|-
| JW&ndash;JX
| [[Norway]]
|-
| JY
| [[Jordan]] (Hashemite Kingdom of)
|-
| JZ
| [[Indonesia]] (Republic of)
|-
| J2
| [[Djibouti]] (Republic of)
|-
| J3
| [[Grenada]]
|-
| J4
| [[Greece]]
|-
| J5
| [[Guine&ndash;Bissau]] (Republic of)
|-
| J6
| [[Saint Lucia]]
|-
| J7
| [[Dominica]] (Commonwealth of)
|-
| J8
| [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]]
|-
!"#CCCCCC" colspan="2"|K
|-
| '''K'''
| [[United States|United States of America]] (west of the [[Mississippi River]], including [[Alaska]] and [[Hawaii]])
|-
!"#CCCCCC" colspan="2"|L
|-
| LA&ndash;LN
| [[Norway]]
|-
| LO&ndash;LW
| [[Argentine Republic]]
|-
| LX
| [[Luxembourg]]
|-
| LY
| [[Lithuania]] (Republic of)
|-
| LZ
| [[Bulgaria]] (Republic of)
|-
| L2&ndash;L9
| [[Argentine Republic]]
|-
!"#CCCCCC" colspan="2"|M
|-
| '''M'''
| [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]]
|-
!"#CCCCCC" colspan="2"|N
|-
| '''N'''
| [[United States|United States of America]]
|-
!"#CCCCCC" colspan="2"|O
|-
| OA&ndash;OC
| [[Peru]]
|-
| OD
| [[Lebanon]]
|-
| OE
| [[Austria]]
|-
| OF&ndash;OJ
| [[Finland]]
|-
| OK&ndash;OL
| [[Czech Republic]]
|-
| OM
| [[Slovakia]]
|-
| ON&ndash;OT
| [[Belgium]]
|-
| OU&ndash;OZ
| [[Denmark]]
|-
!"#CCCCCC" colspan="2"|P
|-
| PA&ndash;PI
| [[Netherlands]] (Kingdom of the)
|-
| PJ
| [[Netherlands]] (Kingdom of the) &mdash; Netherlands Antilles
|-
| PK&ndash;PO
| [[Indonesia]] (Republic of)
|-
| PP&ndash;PY
| [[Brazil]] (Federative Republic of)
|-
| PZ
| [[Suriname]] (Republic of)
|-
| P2
| [[Papua New Guinea]]
|-
| P3
| [[Cyprus]] (Republic of)
|-
| P4
| [[Aruba]]
|-
| P5&ndash;P9
| [[Democratic People's Republic of Korea]]
|-
!"#CCCCCC" colspan="2"|Q
|-
!colspan="2"|There are no [[Q code|prefixes beginning Q]] (See note 3)
|-
!"#CCCCCC" colspan="2"|R
|-
| '''R'''
| [[Russian Federation]]
|-
!"#CCCCCC" colspan="2"|S
|-
| SA&ndash;SM
| [[Sweden]]
|-
| SN&ndash;SR
| [[Poland]] (Republic of)
|-
| SS
| [[Egypt]] (Arab Republic of)
|-
| SSN&ndash;ST
| [[Sudan]] (Republic of the)
|-
| SU
| [[Egypt]] (Arab Republic of)
|-
| SV&ndash;SZ
| [[Greece]]
|-
| S2&ndash;S3
| [[Bangladesh]] (People's Republic of)
|-
| S5
| [[Slovenia]] (Republic of)
|-
| S6
| [[Singapore]] (Republic of)
|-
| S7
| [[Seychelles]] (Republic of)
|-
| S8
| [[South Africa]] (Republic of)
|-
| S9
| [[São Tomé and Príncipe]] (Democratic Republic of)
|-
!"#CCCCCC" colspan="2"|T
|-
| TA&ndash;TC
| [[Turkey]]
|-
| TD
| [[Guatemala]] (Republic of)
|-
| TE
| [[Costa Rica]]
|-
| TF
| [[Iceland]]
|-
| TG
| [[Guatemala]] (Republic of)
|-
| TH
| [[France]]
|-
| TI
| [[Costa Rica]]
|-
| TJ
| [[Cameroon]] (Republic of)
|-
| TK
| [[France]]
|-
| TL
| [[Central African Republic]]
|-
| TM
| [[France]]
|-
| TN
| [[Republic of the Congo|Congo]] (Republic of the)
|-
| TO&ndash;TQ
| [[France]]
|-
| TR
| [[Gabonese Republic]]
|-
| TS
| [[Tunisia]]
|-
| TT
| [[Chad]] (Republic of)
|-
| TU
| [[Côte d'Ivoire]] (Republic of)
|-
| TV&ndash;TX
| [[France]]
|-
| TY
| [[Benin]] (Republic of)
|-
| TZ
| [[Mali]] (Republic of)
|-
| T2
| [[Tuvalu]]
|-
| T3
| [[Kiribati]] (Republic of)
|-
| T4
| [[Cuba]]
|-
| T5
| [[Somali Democratic Republic]]
|-
| T6
| [[Afghanistan]] (Islamic State of)
|-
| T7
| [[San Marino]] (Republic of)
|-
| T8
| [[Palau]] (Republic of)
|-
| T9
| [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] (Republic of)
|-|
!"#CCCCCC" colspan="2"|U
|-
| UA&ndash;UI
| [[Russian Federation]]
|-
| UJ&ndash;UM
| [[Uzbekistan]] (Republic of)
|-
| UN&ndash;UQ
| [[Kazakhstan]] (Republic of)
|-
| UR&ndash;UZ
| [[Ukraine]]
|-
!"#CCCCCC" colspan="2"|V
|-
| VA&ndash;VG
| [[Canada]]
|-
| VH&ndash;VN
| [[Australia]]
|-
| VO
| [[Canada]] ([[Newfoundland]])
|-
| VP&ndash;VQ
| [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]]
|-
| VR
| [[China]] (People's Republic of)&mdash;[[Hong Kong]] (See note 2)
|-
| VS
| [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]]
|-
| VT&ndash;VW
| [[India]] (Republic of)
|-
| VX&ndash;VY
| [[Canada]]
|-
| VZ
| [[Australia]]
|-
| V2
| [[Antigua and Barbuda]]
|-
| V3
| [[Belize]]
|-
| V4
| [[Saint Kitts and Nevis]]
|-
| V5
| [[Namibia]] (Republic of)
|-
| V6
| [[Micronesia]] (Federated States of)
|-
| V7
| [[Marshall Islands]] (Republic of the)
|-
| V8
| [[Brunei Darussalam]]
|-
!"#CCCCCC" colspan="2"|W
|-
| '''W'''
| [[United States|United States of America]] (east of the [[Mississippi River]])
|-
!"#CCCCCC" colspan="2"|X
|-
| XA&ndash;XI
| [[Mexico]]
|-
| XJ&ndash;XO
| [[Canada]]
|-
| XP
| [[Denmark]]
|-
| XQ&ndash;XR
| [[Chile]]
|-
| XS
| [[China]] (People's Republic of)
|-
| XT
| [[Burkina Faso]]
|-
| XU
| [[Cambodia]] (Kingdom of)
|-
| XV
| [[Vietnam]] (Socialist Republic of)
|-
| XW
| [[Lao People's Democratic Republic]]
|-
| XX
| [[Portugal]]
|-
| XY&ndash;XZ
| [[Myanmar]] (Union of)
|-
!"#CCCCCC" colspan="2"|Y
|-
| YA
| [[Afghanistan]] (Islamic State of)
|-
| YB&ndash;YH
| [[Indonesia]] (Republic of)
|-
| YI
| [[Iraq]] (Republic of)
|-
| YJ
| [[Vanuatu]] (Republic of)
|-
| YK
| [[Syrian Arab Republic]]
|-
| YL
|[[Latvia]] (Republic of)
|-
| YM
| [[Turkey]]
|-
| YN
| [[Nicaragua]]
|-
| YO&ndash;YR
| [[Romania]]
|-
| YS
| [[El Salvador]] (Republic of)
|-
| YT&ndash;YU
| [[Serbia and Montenegro]]
|-
| YV&ndash;YY
| [[Venezuela]] (Republic of)
|-
| YZ
| [[Serbia and Montenegro]]
|-
| Y2&ndash;Y9
| [[Germany]] (Federal Republic of)
|-
!"#CCCCCC" colspan="2"|Z
|-
| ZA
| [[Albania]] (Republic of)
|-
| ZB&ndash;ZJ
| [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]]
|-
| ZK&ndash;ZM
| [[New Zealand]]
|-
| ZN&ndash;ZO
| [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]]
|-
| ZP
| [[Paraguay]] (Republic of)
|-
| ZQ
| [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]]
|-
| ZR&ndash;ZU
| [[South Africa]] (Republic of)
|-
| ZV&ndash;ZZ
| [[Brazil]] (Federative Republic of)
|-
| Z2
| [[Zimbabwe]] (Republic of)
|-
| Z3
| [[Republic of Macedonia]]
|-
!"#CCCCCC" colspan="2"|2
|-
| '''2'''
| [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]]
|-
!"#CCCCCC" colspan="2"|3
|-
| 3A
| [[Monaco]] (Principality of)
|-
| 3B
| [[Mauritius]] (Republic of)
|-
| 3C
| [[Equatorial Guinea]] (Republic of)
|-
| 3DA&ndash;3DM
| [[Swaziland]] (Kingdom of) (See note 4)
|-
| 3DN&ndash;3DZ
| [[Fiji]] (Republic of) (See note 4)
|-
| 3E&ndash;3F
| [[Panama]] (Republic of)
|-
| 3G
| [[Chile]]
|-
| 3H&ndash;3U
| [[China]] (People's Republic of)
|-
| 3V
| [[Tunisia]]
|-
| 3W
| [[Vietnam]] (Socialist Republic of)
|-
| 3X
| [[Guinea]] (Republic of)
|-
| 3Y
| [[Norway]]
|-
| 3Z
| [[Poland]] (Republic of)
|-
!"#CCCCCC" colspan="2"|4
|-
| 4A&ndash;4C
| [[Mexico]]
|-
| 4D&ndash;4I
| [[Philippines]] (Republic of the)
|-
| 4J&ndash;4K
| [[Azerbaijani Republic]]
|-
| 4L
| [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] (Republic of)
|-
| 4M
| [[Venezuela]] (Republic of)
|-
| 4N&ndash;4O
| [[Serbia and Montenegro]]
|-
| 4P&ndash;4S
| [[Sri Lanka]] (Democratic Socialist Republic of)
|-
| 4T
| [[Peru]]
|-
| 4U
| ''[[United Nations]]'' (See note 1)
|-
| 4V
| [[Haiti]] (Republic of)
|-
| 4W
| [[Timor&ndash;Leste]] (East Timor)
|-
| 4X
| [[Israel]] (State of)
|-
| 4Y
| ''[[International Civil Aviation Organization]]'' (See note 1)
|-
| 4Z
| [[Israel]] (State of)
|-
!"#CCCCCC" colspan="2"|5
|-
| 5A
| [[Libya]] (Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya)
|-
| 5B
| [[Cyprus]] (Republic of)
|-
| 5C&ndash;5G
| [[Morocco]] (Kingdom of)
|-
| 5H&ndash;5I
| [[Tanzania]] (United Republic of)
|-
| 5J&ndash;5K
| [[Colombia]] (Republic of)
|-
| 5L&ndash;5M
| [[Liberia]] (Republic of)
|-
| 5N&ndash;5O
| [[Nigeria]] (Federal Republic of)
|-
| 5P&ndash;5Q
| [[Denmark]]
|-
| 5R&ndash;5S
| [[Madagascar]] (Republic of)
|-
| 5T
| [[Mauritania]] (Islamic Republic of)
|-
| 5U
| [[Niger]] (Republic of the)
|-
| 5V
| [[Togolese Republic]]
|-
| 5W
| [[Western Samoa]] (Independent State of)
|-
| 5X
| [[Uganda]] (Republic of)
|-
| 5Y&ndash;5Z
| [[Kenya]] (Republic of)
|-
!"#CCCCCC" colspan="2"|6
|-
| 6A&ndash;6B
| [[Egypt]] (Arab Republic of)
|-
| 6C
| [[Syrian Arab Republic]]
|-
| 6D&ndash;6J
| [[Mexico]]
|-
| 6K&ndash;6N
| [[Korea]] (Republic of)
|-
| 6O
| [[Somali Democratic Republic]]
|-
| 6P&ndash;6S
| [[Pakistan]] (Islamic Republic of)
|-
| 6T&ndash;6U
| [[Sudan]] (Republic of the)
|-
| 6V&ndash;6W
| [[Se
|
Emperor|Conrad II]], the first emperor of the [[Salian]] dynasty.
During the reign of his son [[Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry III]] Germany supported the [[Cluny|Cluniac]] reform of the Church - the [[Peace and Truce of God|Peace of God]], the prohibition of simony (the purchase of clerical offices) and the celibacy of priests. Imperial authority over the Pope reached its peak. An imperial stronghold (''Pfalz'') was built at [[Goslar]], as the Empire continued its expansion to the East.
In the [[Investiture Controversy|Investiture Dispute]] which began between [[Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry IV]] and [[Pope Gregory VII]] over appointments to ecclesiastical offices, the emperor was compelled to submit to the Pope at [[Canossa]] in 1077, after having been excommunicated. In 1122 a temporary reconciliation was reached between [[Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry V]] and the Pope with the [[Concordat of Worms]]. The consequences of the investiture dispute were a weakening of the [[Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor|Ottonian]] ''Reichskirche'' and a strengthening of the German secular princes.
[[Image:Zamek krzyzacki w Malborku.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Castle of the [[Teutonic Knights|Teutonic Order]] in [[Malbork]] ([[German language|German]]: Marienburg)]]
The time between 1096 and 1291 was the age of the [[Crusade|crusades]]. Knightly religious orders were established, including the [[Knights Templar (military order)|Templars]], the [[Knights Hospitaller|Knights of St John]] and the [[Teutonic Knights|Teutonic Order]].
From 1100, new towns were founded around imperial strongholds, castles, bishops' palaces and monasteries. The towns began to establish municipal rights and liberties, while the rural population remained in a state of serfdom. In particular, several cities became [[Imperial Free City|Imperial Free Cities]], which did not depend on princes or bishops, but were immediately subject to the Emperor. The towns were ruled by patricians (merchants carrying on long-distance trade). The craftsmen formed guilds, governed by strict rules, which sought to obtain control of the towns. Trade with the East and North intensified, as the major trading towns came together in the [[Hanseatic League]], under the leadership of [[Lübeck]].
The Germanic expansion into the east began ([[''Drang nach Osten'']]: German settlers, including peasants, towns-people and the Teutonic Order, moved into Slav populated territories east of the Oder ([[Bohemia]], [[Silesia]], [[Pomerania]], [[Poland]], [[Courland]]), settling into towns and villages. (''See'' [[Ostsiedlung]]).
Between 1152 and 1190, during the reign of [[Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick I]] (Barbarossa), of the [[Hohenstaufen]] dynasty, an accommodation was reached with the rival [[Welf|Guelph]] party by the grant of the duchy of [[Bavaria]] to [[Henry the Lion]], duke of [[Saxony]]. [[Austria]] became a separate duchy by virtue of the [[Privilegium Minus]] in 1156. Barbarossa tried to reassertain his control over Italy. In 1177 a final reconciliation was reached between the emperor and the Pope in [[Venice]].
In 1180 Henry the Lion was outlawed and Bavaria was given to [[Otto I Wittelsbach, Duke of Bavaria|Otto of Wittelsbach]] (founder of the [[Wittelsbach|Wittelsbach dynasty]] which was to rule Bavaria until 1918), while Saxony was divided.
From 1184 to 1186 the Hohenstaufen empire under Barbarossa reached its peak in the ''Reichsfest'' (imperial celebrations) held at [[Mainz]] and the marriage of his son [[Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry]] in [[Milan]] to the Norman princess [[Constance of Sicily]]. The power of the feudal lords was undermined by the appointment of "ministerials" (unfree servants of the Emperor) as officials. Chivalry and the court life flowered, leading to a development of German culture and literature (see [[Wolfram von Eschenbach]]).
Between 1212 and 1250 [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]] established a modern, professionally administered state in [[Sicily]]. He resumed the conquest of Italy, leading to further conflict with the Papacy. In the Empire, extensive sovereign powers were granted to ecclesiastical and secular princes, leading to the rise of independent territorial states. The struggle with the Pope sapped the Empire's strength, as Frederick II was excommunicated three times. After his death, the Hohenstaufen dynasty fell, followed by an interregnum during which there was no Emperor.
In 1226 parts of [[Prussia]] were conquered, christianized and its population slaughtered by the Teutonic Order invited to [[Poland]] by [[Konrad of Masovia]], a Polish duke who ruled in the [[Masovia]]. But from 1300, the Empire started to lose territory on all its frontiers.
The failure of negotiations between [[Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Louis IV]] with the papacy led 1338 to the declaration at Rhense by six electors to the effect that election by all or the majority of the electors automatically conferred the royal title and rule over the empire, without papal confirmation.
Between 1346 and 1378 [[Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Charles IV]] of [[Luxembourg]], king of [[Bohemia]], sought to restore the imperial authority.
[[Image:Holbein-death.png|thumb|200px|right|Around the middle of the 14th century, the [[Black Death]] ravaged Germany and Europe. From the Dance of Death by [[Hans Holbein]] (1491)]]
Around 1350 Germany and almost the whole of Europe were ravaged by the [[Black Death]]. [[Jew]]s were persecuted on religious and economic grounds; many fled to [[Poland]].
The [[Golden Bull]] of 1356 stipulated that in future the emperor was to be chosen by seven electors - the Archbishops of Mainz, Trier and Cologne, the King of Bohemia, the Count Palatine of the Rhine, the Duke of Saxony and the Margrave of Brandenburg.
After the disasters of the fourteenth century, early-modern European society gradually came into being as a result of economic, religious and political changes. A money economy arose which provoked social discontent among knights and peasants. Gradually, a proto-capitalistic system evolved out of feudalism. The [[Fugger]] family gained prominence through commercial and financial activities and became financiers to both ecclesiastical and secular rulers.
The knightly classes found their monopoly on arms and military skill undermined by the introduction of mercenary armies and foot soldiers. Predatory activity by "robber knights" became common. From 1438 the [[Habsburg]]s, who controlled most of the southeast of the Empire (more or less modern-day [[Austria]] and [[Slovenia]], and, from 1526 onwards - after the death of the last of the [[Jagiellonian|Jagiellonians]] Ludwig, [[Bohemia]] and [[Moravia]]), maintained a constant grip on the position of the Holy Roman Emperor until 1806 (with the exception of the years between 1742 and 1745). This situation, however, gave rise to increased disunity among Germany's territorial rulers and prevented all sections of the nation from coming together in the manner of [[France]] and [[England]].
During his reign from 1493 to 1519, [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian I]] tried to reform the Empire: an Imperial Supreme Court (''Reichskammergericht'') was established, imperial taxes were levied, the power of the Imperial Diet (''Reichstag'') was increased. The reforms were, however, frustrated by the continued territorial fragmentation of the Empire.
===Reformation and Thirty Years War===
[[Image:Luther46c.jpg|thumb|200px|left|[[Martin Luther]], German reformer and reformer of Germany, 1529]]
Around the beginning of the 16th century there was much discontent in Germany with abuses in the Catholic Church and a desire for reform.
In 1517 the [[Reformation]] began: [[Martin Luther|Luther]] nailed his [[95 Theses|95 "theses"]] against the abuse of indulgences to the church door in [[Wittenberg]].
In 1521 Luther was outlawed at the [[Diet of Worms]]. But the Reformation spread rapidly, helped by the [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Charles V]]'s wars with [[France]] and the [[Ottoman Empire|Turks]]. Hiding in the [[Wartburg Castle]], Luther translated the Bible, establishing the basis of modern German.
In 1524 the [[Peasants' War]] broke out in [[Swabia]], [[Franconia]] and [[Thuringia]] against ruling princes and lords, following the preachings of Reformist priests. But the revolts, which were assisted by war-experienced noblemen like [[Götz von Berlichingen]] and [[Florian Geyer]] (in Franconia), and by the theologian [[Thomas Münzer]] (in Thuringia), were soon repressed by the territorial princes.
From 1545 the [[Catholic Reformation|Counter-Reformation]] began in Germany. The main force was provided by the [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit order]], founded by the Spaniard [[Ignatius of Loyola]]. Central and north-eastern Germany were by this time almost wholly Protestant, whereas western and southern Germany remained predominantly Catholic. In the War of the [[Schmalkaldic League]] in 1546/1547, the Emperor Charles V defeated the Protestant rulers.
The [[Peace of Augsburg]] in 1555 brought recognition of the Lutheran faith. But the treaty also stipulated that the religion of a state was to be that of its ruler ([[Cuius regio, eius religio]]).
In 1556 Charles V abdicated. The Habsburg Empire was divided, as Spain was separated from the German possessions.
In 1608/1609 the [[Protestant Union]] and the [[Catholic League (German)|Catholic League]] were formed.
[[Image:The Ratification of the Treaty of Münster (Gerard Terborch 1648).jpg|thumb|250px|right|The [[Peace of Westphalia]] marked the end of the Thirty Years' War]]
From 1618 to 1648 the [[Thirty Years' War]] ravaged Germany. The causes were the conflicts between Catholics and Protestants, the efforts by the various states within the Empire to increase their power and the Emperor's attempt to achieve the religious and political unity o
|
|-
|[[Image:Cologne_cathedral_at_dusk.jpg|thumb|188px|Cologne Cathedral (Front View)]]
|-
|[[Image:Cologne old church.jpg|thumb|188px|Great St. Martin Church]]
|-
|[[Image:Koeln 1945.jpg|thumb|188px|Devastation of Cologne in 1945]]
|-
|[[Image:Kölnturm.JPG|thumb|188px|The Kölnturm (150 m)]]
|}
'''Cologne''' ([[German language|German]]: {{Audio|De-Köln.ogg|''Köln''}} [kœln]; [[Kölsch language|Kölsch]]: ''Kölle'') is [[Germany]]'s fourth-largest city after [[Berlin]], [[Hamburg]] and [[Munich]] and is the largest city both in the German Federal State of [[North Rhine-Westphalia]] and within the [[Rhine-Ruhr|Rhine-Ruhr Metropolitan Area]], one of the [[largest European metropolitan areas]] with over 12 million inhabitants.
Cologne lies at the River [[Rhine]] and the city's world famous [[Cologne Cathedral]] (Kölner Dom) is seat to a [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] [[Archdiocese]] and just as important to the city as its specially brewed [[Kölsch (beer)|Kölsch]] beer. [[Cologne University]] is one of [[Europe]]'s oldest universities and internationally renowned for its economics department.
Cologne is the economic and cultural capital of the [[Rhineland]] and has one of [[Europe]]'s most vibrant and thriving art scenes. Cologne counts over 30 museums and hundreds of galleries. Exhibitions range from local [[Ancient Roman]] archeological findings to contemporary graphics and sculpture. The city's [[Cologne Trade Fair|Trade Fair Grounds]] are host to a number of trade shows such as the [[Art Cologne|Art Cologne Fair]], the International Furniture Fair (IMM) and the [[Photokina]]. Cologne is also well known for its celebration of [[Carnival|Cologne Carnival]] and the [[Cologne Gay Pride]] events.
In [[2005]] Cologne hosted the 20th and one of the largest-ever meetings of the [[Catholic]] [[World Youth Day 2005|World Youth Day]] with [[Pope Benedict XVI]] and over a million participants.
==Geography==
The city covers an area of [[1 E8 m²|405.15]] [[square kilometre|km²]] (about 156 miles²), on both sides of the River [[Rhine]]. Cologne lies between 37.5 and 118.04 [[metre|m]] above sea level. The city of [[Bonn]] lies 30 km to the south, and [[Düsseldorf]] lies 40 km to the north.
==The Coat of Arms of Cologne==
The three crowns symbolise the [[Magi]] or [[Three Wise Men|Three Kings]] whose bones are said to be kept in a golden sarcophagus in [[Cologne Cathedral]] (see [[Shrine of the Three Kings at Cologne Cathedral]]). In [[1164]], Cologne's archbishop [[Rainald of Dassel]] brought the [[Relic|relics]] to the city, making it a major pilgrimage destination. This led to the design of the current cathedral as the predecessor was considered too small to accommodate the pilgrims.
The eleven flames are a reminder of the Britannic princess [[St. Ursula]] and her legendary 11,000 virgin companions who were supposedly martyred by [[Attila the Hun]] at Cologne for their [[Christian]] faith in [[383]] A.D. In reality, the entourage of St. Ursula and the number of victims was probably significantly smaller.
==History==
''Main article: [[History of Cologne]]''
===Roman Cologne===
Cologne became a Roman city in [[50]] A.D. In [[310]] [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine]] built a [[bridge]] over the Rhine at Cologne.
Cologne elected a [[bishop]] as early as [[313]], and in [[785]], became the seat of an [[archbishop]].
===Middle Ages===
During the time of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] the [[Archbishop of Cologne]] was one of the seven [[Prince-elector|Electors]]. He ruled a large area as a secular lord in the [[Middle Ages]], but in [[1288]] he was defeated by the Cologne citizens and forced to move to [[Bonn]]. Cologne's location at the intersection of the river [[Rhine]] with one of the major trade routes between East and West was the basis of Cologne's growth. Cologne was a member of the [[Hanseatic League]], but became a [[Imperial_Free_City|Imperial Free City]] officially in [[1475]]. Interestingly the archbishop nevertheless preserved the right of capital punishment. Thus, the municipal council (though in strict political opposition towards the archbishop) depended upon him in all matters concerning criminal jurisdiction. This included torture, which sentence was only allowed to be handed down by the episcopal judge, the so-called "Greve". This legal situation lasted until the French conquest of Cologne. As a free city Cologne was an [[estate]] within the Holy Roman Empire and as such had the right (and obligation) of maintaining its own military force. Wearing a red uniform these troops were known as the "Rote Funken" (red sparks). These soldiers were part of the Army of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] ("Reichskontingent") and fought in the wars of the [[17th century|17th]] and [[18th century|18th]] century including the wars against revolutionary France, where the small force almost completely perished in combat. The tradition of these troops is preserved as a military persiflage by Cologne's most outstanding carnival society, the "[http://www.rote-funken.de/ Rote Funken]".
The free city of Cologne must not be confused with the Archbishops of Cologne. The latter were an estate of their own within the body of the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. Since the second half of the 16th century the archbishops were taken from the [[Bavaria]]n dynasty [[Wittelsbach]]. Due to the free status of Cologne, the archbishops usually were not allowed to enter the town. Thus they took residence in [[Bonn]] and later on in [[Brühl]] on Rhine. As members of an influential and powerful family and supported by their outstanding status as [[electors]] the archbishops of Cologne repeatedly challenged and threatened the free status of Cologne during the 17th and 18th century, resulting in complicated affairs, which were handled by diplomatic means and propaganda as well as by the supreme courts of the Holy Roman Empire.
=== 19th and 20th century ===
Cologne lost its status as a [[free city]] during the French period. According to the Peace [[Treaty of Lunéville]] ([[1801]]) all the territories of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] on the left bank of the Rhine were officially incorporated into the [[French Republic]] (which already had occupied Cologne in [[1798]]). Thus, this region later became part of [[Napoleon Bonaparte|Napoleon]]'s Empire. Cologne was part of the French [[Département]] [[Roer]] (named after the River Roer, German: Rur) with [[Aachen]] (Aix-la-Chapelle) as its capital. The French modernised public life by introducing the [[Code Napoleon]] as civil code and removing the old elites from power, to cite two examples. The [[Code Napoleon]] was in use in the German territories on the left bank of the Rhine until the year [[1900]], when for the first time the [[German Empire]] passed a nationwide unique civil code ("[[Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch]]"). In [[1815]], at the [[Congress of Vienna]], Cologne was made part of the kingdom of [[Prussia]].
The permanent tensions between the catholic [[Rhineland]] and the overwhelmingly protestant Prussian state repeatedly escalated with Cologne being in the focus of the conflict. In 1837 the archbishop of Cologne [[Clemens August Droste zu Vischering]] was arrested and imprisoned for two years after a dispute over the legal status of marriages between Protestants and Catholics ("Mischehenstreit"). In 1874 during the [[Kulturkampf]] archbishop cardinal [[Paul Melchers]] was arrested and imprisoned. He fled to the Netherlands and was searched for like an ordinary criminal by a warrant of apprehension. These conflicts alienated the catholic population from Berlin and contributed to a deeply felt anti-Prussian resentment, that was still significant after World War II, when the former mayor of Cologne [[Konrad Adenauer]] became the first West German chancellor.
During the [[19th century|nineteenth]] and [[20th century|twentieth]] centuries, Cologne incorporated numerous surrounding towns, and by the time of [[World War I]] had already grown to 600,000 inhabitants. Industrialization changed the city and spurred its growth. Especially booming branches were vehicle construction and engine building. Heavy industry was less ubiquitous as opposed to the [[ruhr_area|Ruhr Area]]. The [[Cologne Cathedral|cathedral]], started in [[1248]] but abandoned around [[1560]], was eventually finished in [[1880]] not only as a religious building but also as a German national monument celebrating the newly founded [[German empire]] as well as the continuity of the German nation since the middle ages. Sometimes urban growth happened very much at the expense of the town's historic heritage with many buildings being broken down (e.g. the city walls or the surroundings of the cathedral) or replaced by contemporary constructions. On the other side Cologne was turned into a heavily armed fortress (opposing the French and Belgian fortresses of [[Verdun]] and [[Li%C3%A8ge_%28city%29|Liège]]) with two fortified belts surrounding the town, the [http://www.altearmee.de/zwischenwerk/index.htm relics of which] can be seen until today. The military demands of what finally turned out to be Germany's largest fortress meant a huge obstacle to urban development, as forts, bunkers and dugouts with a vast and plain shooting field before them completely encircled the town and prevented any expansion beyond the fortified line, resulting in a very dense built-up area within town itself.[http://www.tipota.de/afk/Plan%20Neupreussisch%20Koeln.jpg]
After WWI, during which several minor air raids had targeted the city, Cologne was occupied by British Forces under the terms of the armistice and the subsequent [[Peace Treaty of Versailles|Versailles Peace Treaty]]. The occupation lasted until [[1926]]. In contrast to the harsh measures of French occupation troops in the Rhineland the British acted much more tactfully towards the local population. The mayor of Cologne (the future
|
itical issue in the U.S., because it is a part of [[culture war]] over the ongoing debate over the response to high crime rate. In other democracies, this is not the case. In democracies both in abolitionist Europe and in retentionist Asia, the existing policy in those countries has wide public support and receives little attention by politicians. In some abolitionist countries, the majority of the public support or has supported the death penalty. Abolition was often adopted due to political change, such as when countries shifted from authoritarianism to democracy, or it became an entry condition for the European Union. In Western Europe, abolition was initially brought in by a moratorium on the death penalty that later become a ''[[de facto]]'' ban. It is rare for the death penalty to be abolished due to an active public discussion of its validity.
In abolitionist countries, debate is sometimes revived by particularly brutal murders, though few countries have brought it back after abolition. However, in some instance, such as terrorist attacks, it has prompted some countries (such as Sri Lanka) to effectively end the moratorium on the death penalty. Some polls in Europe and Canada suggest that the death penalty has similar support there to that in the United States. Other polls show that Western European support of the death penalty dropped significantly in the years after abolition. In most Eastern European countries, there is still a majority for reintroduction. In retentionist countries, the debate is sometimes revived when miscarriage of justice occurs, though this tends to cause legislative efforts to "improve" the judicial process rather than to abolish the death penalty. However, use of the death penalty is increasingly restrained in these countries, which is often seen as the main cause of high public support for the death penalty in countries such as Korea, Japan, or Taiwan.
A [[Gallup]] International poll from 2000 found that "Worldwide support was expressed in favour of the death penalty, with just more than half (52%) indicating that they were in favour of this form of punishment." A break down of the numbers of support versus opposition: Worldwide 52%/39%, North America 66%/27%, Asia 63%/21%, Eastern Europe 60%/29%, Africa 54%/43%, Latin America 37%/55%, Western Europe 34%/60%.[http://www.gallup-international.com/]
In the U.S, polls show a majority support for death penalty. A [[Gallup]] Poll in 2005 found that 64% of the public voted in favour of capital punishment, and 56% preferred the death penalty versus 39% preferring life imprisonment.[http://poll.gallup.com/content/default.aspx?ci=20350] A Harris Poll in 2004 concluded that 69% of Americans supported the death penalty whilst only 22% were against it. 41% of people believed that it deterred murder, while 53% stated that there was not much effect. 36% of people believed that there should be more executions versus 21% favouring a decrease.{{ref|poll5}}
===International organizations===
A number of regional conventions prohibit the death penalty, most notably, the Sixth Protocol to the [[European Convention on Human Rights]]. However, most existing international treaty categorically exempt death penalty from prohibition in case of serious crime, most notably, [[International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights]], while some provide opotional protocol to abolish it.
Several international organisations have made the abolition of the death penalty a requirement of membership, most notably the [[European Union]] (EU) and the [[Council of Europe]]. The EU and the Council of Europe are willing to accept a [[moratorium]] as an interim measure. Thus, while [[Russia]] is a member of the Council of Europe, and practices the death penalty in law, it has not made use of it since becoming a member of the Council. Another example is [[Latvia]] which entered a moratorium in 1996. Latvia retains the death penalty in extraordinary circumstances (as does non-EU-member [[Albania]]), and is the only EU member not to have ratified the 13th Protocol to the European Convention on Human Rights (which prohibits the death penalty in all circumstances). Latvia's parliament has, however, signed the 13th Protocol, and as an EU member Latvia has pledged to abolish the death penalty.
[[Turkey]] has recently, as a move towards EU membership, undergone a reform of its legal system. Previously there was a ''de facto'' moratorium on death penalty in Turkey as the last execution took place in 1984. The death penalty was removed from peacetime law in August 2002, and in May 2004 Turkey amended its constitution in order to remove capital punishment in all circumstances. As a result, Europe is a continent free of the death penalty in practice (all states having ratified the Sixth Protocol to the European Convention on Human Rights), with the sole exception of [[Belarus]], which is not a member of the Council of Europe. The Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe has been lobbying for Council of Europe observer states who practice the death penalty, namely the US and [[Japan]], to abolish it or lose their observer status.
Among non-governmental organisations, [[Amnesty International]] and [[Human Rights Watch]] are noted for their opposition to the death penalty.
===Juvenile capital punishment===
Only six countries practice the death penalty for [[juvenile|juveniles]], that is, criminals aged under 18 years at the time of their crime. In the 1980s and 1990s, most executions for juvenile crime took place in the United States, although, due to the slow process of appeals, no one under age 19 has been executed in recent years.{{ref|juv1}} In 2005, the [[Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]] ruled in ''[[Roper v. Simmons]]'' that the death penalty cannot be applied to persons who were under age 18 at the time of commission of the crime. That decision resulted in 72 convicted murderers being taken off [[death row]]. In the US and ancestral political bodies since 1642, an estimated 364 juvenile offenders have been executed by states and the federal government.{{ref|juv2}} Although the [[People's Republic of China]] accounts for the vast majority of executions in the world, it does not allow for the executions of those under 18.{{ref|juv3}} Execution of those aged under age 18 has occurred in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Pakistan]], [[Yemen]], [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Nigeria]], and [[Iran]] since 1990. The [[United Nations]] [[Convention on the Rights of the Child]], which among other things forbids capital punishment for juveniles, has been signed and [[ratification|ratified]] by all countries except the USA and [[Somalia]] {{ref|juv4}}. Furthermore some, such as the UN Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights, maintain that the death penalty for juveniles has become contrary to [[customary international law]].
===The death penalty in specific countries===
* [[Capital punishment in Belarus]]
* [[Capital punishment in Canada]]
* [[Capital punishment in the People's Republic of China]]
* [[Capital punishment in Denmark]]
* [[Capital punishment in France]]
* [[Capital punishment in Germany]]
* [[Capital punishment in India]]
* [[Capital punishment in New Zealand]]
* [[Capital punishment in Singapore]]
* [[Capital punishment in the United Kingdom]]
* [[Capital punishment in the United States]]
* [[Capital punishment in Japan]]
See also: [[Use of death penalty worldwide]]
== Abolitionary Movements ==
===The ''lex talionis''===
[[Image:Milkau Oberer Teil der Stele mit dem Text von Hammurapis Gesetzescode 369-2.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Hammurabi]] receives his laws from [[Shamash]].]]
The ''[[lex talionis]]'' (also known by the principle "an eye for an eye") describes criminal law systems in which punishments fit the crime. As applied to the death penalty, application of the ''lex talionis'' restricts the range of crimes to murder. While the ''lex talionis'' may seem severe from a modern perspective, in its origin it was reformist, involving a liberalisation of penalties compared to previous practices. The earliest known application of the ''lex talionis'' for death penalty crimes was in the [[Code of Hammurabi]] (c. 1750 BC). A similar example of the reforming introduction of the ''lex talionis'' is the Athenian [[Solon]]'s (638 BC – 558 BC) restriction of the death penalty to murder (a reform of the previous laws instituted by [[Draco]]).
=== Sacrifice and entertainment ===
: ''"All of the inhabitants of Gaul are completely devoted to superstitious rites. Indeed, therefore those who are afflicted by unusually severe diseases and those who are engaged in battles and dangers either sacrifice human victims or vow to ask Druids to perform such sacrifices. For they feel that unless one man's life be offered for that of another, the immortal gods cannot be placated..."'' ([[Julius Caesar]], ''[[De Bello Gallico]]'', Book VI)
[[Human sacrifice]] is well documented from the earliest times, but what was the rationale? According to Caesar, for the Celts it was ''"pro vita hominis nisi hominis vita reddatur"'' - roughly, "a life for a life". If the gods are displeased with you for a wrongdoing, they demand blood payment and may send a disease to perform the execution. However, it is possible to negotiate with the gods and perform a ''substitution'' - somebody else's life will pay the blood debt instead. Similarly, there is a risk when going into battle that one might have some unpaid blood debt with the gods, for which reason the gods might ensure defeat and death. So as a safety precaution it was possible to promise the gods an alternative blood payment - presumably the blood of one's enemies, but again as a substitution for one's own blood. See also: [[Celts and human sacrifice]].
[[Image:Abraham.jpg|thumb|300px|right|"Abraham Sacrificing Isaac" by Laurent de La
|
a thrill from seeing, in due course, all the planes of a particular type ever built (or existing at that date). Spotters are generally well-aware of the hazards facing aviators and will stay alert when near active aerodromes, taking care not to interfere with aircraft or cause anxiety to their owners or users.
[[Image:tornado.za463.arp.jpg|thumb|300px|right|The large tail of the RAF Tornado makes identifying the aircraft easy]]
Many airfields in Australasia, Europe and North America recognise the public's interest in aviation as something to be encouraged and provide viewing areas in safe locations. Many organised [[airshow]]s draw large crowds and some raise funds for charitable causes such as [[museum]]s, organisations restoring historic planes, or bodies that assist injured aircrew or the dependents of Armed Forces' personnel. Some shows have a more commercial motive, and some aircraft photographers can make a profit from their hobby. The World Wide Web has provided a new outlet for some of their photographs and assists all spotters in letting each other know what is flying where.
See [[bus spotting]], [[train spotting]], [[birding]], and [[butterfly watching]] for examples of similar hobbies.
==External links==
*[http://www.jetphotos.net/ JetPhotos.Net] &ndash; Aircraft spotter website
*[http://www.airliners.net/ Airliners.net] &ndash; Aircraft spotter and aviation website
*[http://www.jetspotter.com/ Jetspotter.com] &ndash; Aircraft spotter website
*[http://www.planespotters.net/ Planespotters.net] Aircraft photos and production Lists
*[http://www.spotterswiki.com/ SpottersWiki.com] &ndash; Aircraft spotter website
*[http://www.planepictures.net/ PlanePictures.net]&ndash; Aircraft pictures, spotter page
*[[Category:Hobbies]]
[[Category:Recreation]]
[[nl:Vliegtuigspotter]]
[[pl:Planespotting]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Advertising</title>
<id>2861</id>
<revision>
<id>41921788</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T17:10:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Monkeyman</username>
<id>79245</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Critical views */ Removing self promotion.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">Generally speaking, '''advertising''' is the promotion of [[Good (economics and accounting)|goods]], [[service]]s, companies and ideas, usually by an identified [[sponsor]]. [[Marketing|Marketers]] see advertising as part of an overall promotional strategy. Other components of the promotional mix include [[publicity]], [[public relations]], [[sales|personal selling]] and [[sales promotion]].
[[Image:Ad Encyclopaedia-Britannica 05-1913.jpg|right|thumb|300px|A print advertisement from a 1913 issue of [[National Geographic]]]]
==History==
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:12th street Wellner Motors(enhanced).jpg|right|thumb|250px|Advertisements painted on the side of buildings were common in the early-20th century U.S. This instance, now faded from lack of upkeep, is an example of a '''ghost ad'''.]] -->
In ancient times the most common form of advertising was "[[word of mouth]]". However, commercial messages and [[election campaign]] displays were found in the ruins of [[Pompeii]]. [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptians]] used [[papyrus]] to create sales messages and wall posters. Lost-and-found advertising on papyrus was common in [[Ancient Greece|Greece]] and [[Roman Empire|Rome]]. As printing developed in the [[15th century|15th]] and [[16th century]], advertising expanded to include handbills. In the [[17th century]] advertisements started to appear in weekly [[newspaper]]s in England.
These early print ads were used mainly to promote books (which were increasingly affordable) and [[medicine]]s (which were increasingly sought after as [[disease]] ravaged Europe). [[Quackery|Quack ads]] became a problem, which ushered in [[Advertising regulation|regulation of advertising]] content.
As the economy was expanding during the [[19th century]], the need for advertising grew at the same pace. In [[United States|America]], the [[classified ad]]s became popular, filling pages of newspapers with small print messages promoting all kinds of goods. The success of this advertising format led to the growth of mail-order advertising. In [[1843]] the first [[advertising agency]] was established by [[Volney Palmer]] in [[Philadelphia]]. At first the agencies were just brokers for ad space in newspapers, but by the [[20th century]], advertising agencies started to take over responsibility for the content as well.
The [[1960s]] saw advertising transform into a modern, more scientific approach in which creativity was allowed to shine, producing unexpected messages that made advertisements interesting to read. The [[Volkswagen]] ad campaign featuring such headlines as "Think Small" and "Lemon" ushered in the era of modern advertising by promoting a "position" or "unique selling proposition" designed to associate each brand with a specific idea in the reader or viewer's mind.
Today, advertising is evolving even further, with "[[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]]" promotions that involve unusual approaches such as staged encounters in public places, giveaways of products such as cars that are covered with brand messages, and interactive advertising where the viewer can respond to become part of the advertising message.
==Media ==
[[Image:Advertisingman.jpg|thumb|right|250px|One effective advertising method is to pay people to hold signs in public places, such as the [http://money.guardian.co.uk/work/story/0,1456,1643687,00.html 'board guy'] pictured above]]
[[Image:Pedapodviews.jpg|thumb|right|Transit advertising is combined with experiential marketing using pedapods in Australia]]
Commercial advertising [[mass media|media]] can include [[Billboard (advertising)|billboard]]s ([[outdoor advertising]]), [[street furniture components]], printed [[flyer]]s, [[radio]], [[film|cinema]] and [[television]] ads, [[web banner]]s, web [[popups]], [[skywriting]], [[bus stop]] benches, [[magazine]]s, [[newspaper]]s, [[town crier]]s, [[side of a bus|sides of buses]], [[taxicab]] doors and roof mounts, [[industrial musical|musical stage shows]], [[metro|subway]] platforms and trains, elastic bands on disposable [[diapers]], stickers on apples in [[supermarket]]s, the opening section of [[Streaming media|streaming]] audio and video, and the backs of event tickets and supermarket receipts. Any place an "identified" sponsor pays to deliver their message through a [[medium]] is advertising.
Covert advertising embedded in other entertainment media is known as [[product placement]].
A more recent version of this is advertising in [[film]], by having a main character use an item or other of a definite [[brand]] - an example is in the movie ''[[Minority Report]]'', where [[Tom Cruise]]'s character owns a computer with the ''[[Nokia]]'' logo clearly written in the top corner, or his watch engraved with the ''[[Bulgari]]'' logo.
The [[television commercial|TV commercial]] is generally considered the most effective mass-market advertising format and this is reflected by the high prices TV networks charge for commercial [[airtime]] during popular TV events. The annual [[Super Bowl]] [[American football|football]] game in the [[United States]] is known as much for its commercial advertisements as for the game itself, and the average cost of a single thirty-second TV spot during this game has reached $2.5 million (as of [[2006]]).
Increasingly, other mediums such as those discussed below are overtaking television due to a shift towards consumer's usage of the Internet as well as devices such as [[TiVo]].
Advertising on the [[World Wide Web]] is a recent phenomenon. Prices of Web-based advertising space are dependent on the "relevance" of the surrounding web content and the traffic that the website receives.
[[E-mail]] advertising is another recent phenomenon. Unsolicited bulk E-mail advertising is known as "[[spamming|spam]]".
Some [[types of companies|companies]] have proposed to place messages or [[corporate logo]]s on the side of booster [[rocket]]s and the [[International Space Station]]. [[Controversy]] exists on the effectiveness of [[subliminal message|subliminal advertising]] (see [[mind control]]), and the pervasiveness of mass messages (see [[propaganda]]).
Unpaid advertising (also called [[word of mouth]] advertising), can provide good exposure at minimal cost. Personal recommendations ("bring a friend", "sell it by zealot"), spreading buzz, or achieving the feat of equating a [[brand]] with a common noun ("[[Xerox]]" = "[[photocopier]]", "[[Kleenex]]" = "[[Facial tissue|tissue]]" , "[[Scotch Tape]]" = "[[Adhesive_tape|Clear Tape]]", "[[Band-aid]]" =
"[[bandage]]" , "[[Apple iPod |iPod]]" = "[[MP3_Player|MP3 Player]]" ) -- these must provide the stuff of fantasy to the holder of an advertising budget.
The most common method for measuring the impact of mass media advertising is the use of the rating point (rp) or the more accurate target rating point (trp). These two measures refer to the percentage of the universe of the existing base of audience members that can be reached by the use of each media outlet in a particular moment in time. The difference between the two is that the rating point refers to the percentage to the entire universe while the target rating point refers to the percentage to a particular segment or target. This becomes very useful when focusing advertising efforts on a particular group of people. For example, think of an advertising campaign targeting a female audience aged 25 to 45. While the overall rating of a TV show might be well over 10 rating points it might very well happen that t
|
United States to implement UN Security Council Resolution 940, designed to facilitate the departure of Haiti's de facto authorities from power. The country agreed to contribute personnel to the multinational force which restored the democratically elected government of Haiti in October 1994.
In May 1997, Prime Minister Bird joined 14 other Caribbean leaders and President Clinton for the first-ever U.S.-regional summit in Bridgetown, Barbados. The summit strengthened the basis for regional cooperation on justice and counter-narcotics issues, finance and development, and trade.
'''Disputes - international:'''
none
'''Illicit drugs:'''
considered a minor transshipment point for narcotics bound for the US and Europe; more significant as a drug-money-laundering center
==Reference==
''Much of the material in this article comes from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000 and the 2003 U.S. Department of State website.''
[[Category:Antigua and Barbuda]]
[[Category:Foreign relations by country|Antigua and Barbuda]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Anti-Semitism</title>
<id>1078</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>41984309</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T01:15:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Goodoldpolonius2</username>
<id>131285</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Huchimama|Huchimama]] ([[User talk:Huchimama|talk]]) to last version by 195.38.113.141</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- NOTE. Please first read the section [[#Etymology and usage]] below if you intend to insert corrections -->{{dablink|This article describes the development and history of traditional anti-Semitism. A separate article exists on the more recent concept of the [[New anti-Semitism]].}}
[[Image:Der ewige jude.jpg|thumb|''[[Der ewige Jude|The Eternal Jew]]'': 1937 German poster. In his hands are "Zuckerbrot und Peitsche", or "cookies and knout", an allusion to a saying similar to that of "carrot and stick".]]
'''Anti-Semitism''' (alternatively spelled '''antisemitism''') is hostility toward or [[prejudice]] against [[Jew]]s as a religious, ethnic, or racial group, which can range from individual [[hatred]] to institutionalized, violent [[persecution]]. The highly explicit [[Nuremberg laws|ideology]] of [[Adolf Hitler]]'s [[Nazism]] was the most extreme example of this phenomenon, leading to a [[genocide]] of the European Jewry. Anti-Semitism has historically taken different forms:
*[[Religion|Religious]] anti-Semitism, or [[anti-Judaism]]. Before the 19th century, most anti-Semitism was primarily religious in nature, based on [[Christian]] or [[Islam]]ic interactions with and interpretations of [[Judaism]]. Since Judaism was generally the largest [[minority]] religion in Christian [[Europe]] and much of the Islamic world, Jews were often the primary targets of religiously-motivated violence and persecution from Christian, and to a lesser degree, Islamic rulers. Unlike anti-Semitism in general, this form of prejudice is directed at the religion itself, and so generally does not affect those of Jewish [[kinship and descent|ancestry]] who have [[religious conversion|converted]] to another religion, although the case of [[Converso]]s in [[Spain]] was a notable exception. Laws banning Jewish religious practices may be rooted in religious anti-Semitism, as were the [[expulsion]]s of the Jews that happened throughout the [[Middle Ages]].
*[[Racism|Racial]] anti-Semitism. With its origins in the [[cultural anthropology|anthropological]] ideas of [[race]] that started during the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], racial anti-Semitism became the dominant form of anti-Semitism from the late 19th century through today. Racial anti-Semitism replaced the hatred of Judaism as a religion with the idea that the Jews themselves were a racially distinct group, regardless of their religious practice, and that they were inferior or worthy of animosity. With the rise of racial anti-Semitism, [[conspiracy theories]] about Jewish plots in which Jews were somehow acting in concert to dominate the world became a popular form of anti-Semitic expression.
Some analysts and Jewish groups believe that there is a distinctly new form of late 20th century anti-Semitism, often called [[new anti-Semitism]], which borrows language and concepts from [[anti-Zionism]], but which attacks Jews as a group, rather than [[Zionism]] as a movement. A second group of observers [[Anti-Zionism#Anti-Zionism dictionary definitions|controversially]] identify anti-Zionism itself with anti-Semitism, arguing that anti-Zionism, "advocates denial of the right to self-determination of the Jewish people" (Matas 2005, p. 31).
{{Jew}}
== Etymology and usage ==
[[Image:Bookcover-1880-Marr-German uber Juden.jpg|left|thumb|120px|Cover page of Marr's ''The Way to Victory of Germanicism over Judaism'', 1880 edition]]
The word ''antisemitic'' (''{{lang|de|antisemitisch}}'' in German) was probably first used in 1860 by the Jewish [[scholar]] [[Moritz Steinschneider]] in the [[phrase]] "antisemitic prejudices" ({{lang-de|"antisemitische Vorurteile"}}). Steinschneider used this phrase to characterize [[Ernest Renan]]'s ideas about how "[[Semitic]] races" were inferior to "[[Aryan]] races." These pseudo-scientific theories had become quite widespread in Europe in the second half of the 19th century, especially as [[Prussia]]n nationalistic historian [[Heinrich von Treitschke]] did much to promote this form of racism. In Treitschke's writings ''Semitic'' was practically [[synonym|synonymous]] with ''Jewish''.
German political agitator [[Wilhelm Marr]] coined the related [[German language|German]] word ''Antisemitismus'' in his book ''"The Way to Victory of Germanicism over Judaism"'' in 1879. Marr used the phrase to mean ''Jew-hatred'' or ''Judenhass,'' and he used the new word ''antisemitism'' to make hatred of the Jews seem rational and sanctioned by scientific knowledge. Marr's book became very popular, and in the same year he founded the ''"League of Anti-Semites"'' ("Antisemiten-Liga"), the first [[Germany|German]] organization committed specifically to combatting the alleged threat to Germany posed by the Jews, and advocating their [[population transfer|forced removal]] from the country.
So far as can be ascertained, the word was first widely printed in 1881, when Marr published ''"Zwanglose Antisemitische Hefte,"'' and [[Wilhelm Scherer]] used the term "Antisemiten" in the ''"Neue Freie Presse"'' of January. The related word ''[[semitism]]'' was coined around 1885. See also the coinage of the term "[[Definitions of Palestine and Palestinian#Referring to Jews in a national rather than religious sense|Palestinian]]" by Germans to refer to the nation or people known as [[Jew]]s, as distinct from the religion of [[Judaism]].
Despite the use of the prefix "anti," the terms ''Semitic'' and ''Anti-Semitic'' are not [[antonym]]s. To avoid the confusion of the [[misnomer]], many scholars on the subject (such as [[Emil Fackenheim]] of the [[Hebrew University]]) now favor the unhyphenated term ''antisemitism''. [[Yehuda Bauer]] articulated this view in his writings and lectures: (the term) "Antisemitism, especially in its [[hyphen]]ated spelling, is inane nonsense, because there is no [[Semitism]] that you can be [[anti]] to." [http://humwww.ucsc.edu/jewishstudies/docs/YBauerLecture.pdf], also in his ''A History of the Holocaust'', p.52)
The term ''anti-Semitism'' has historically referred to prejudice towards [[Jew]]s alone, and this was the only use of this word for more than a century. It does not traditionally refer to prejudice toward other people who speak [[Semitic language]]s (e.g. [[Arab]]s or [[Syriacs]]). [[Bernard Lewis]], Professor of Near Eastern Studies Emeritus at Princeton University, says that "Anti-Semitism has never anywhere been concerned with anyone but Jews."[http://middleeastinfo.org/library/lewis_antisemitism.html]
In recent decades some groups have argued that the term should be extended to include prejudice against Arabs, [[Anti-Arabism]], in the context of accusations of Arab anti-Semitism; further, some, including the [[Islamic Association of Palestine]], have argued that this implies that Arabs can not, ''by definition'', be anti-Semitic, despite the acknowledged high level of [[Arab anti-Semitism]]. The argument for such extension comes out of the claim that since the [[Semitic]] [[language family]] includes Arabic, Hebrew and Aramaic languages, and the historical term "Semite" refers to all those who consider themselves descendants of the Biblical [[Shem]], anti-Semitism should be likewise inclusive. This usage is not generally accepted.
=== Definitions of the term ===
[[Image:Antisemiticroths.jpg|thumb|left|Anti-semitic caricature (France, 1898)]]
Though the general definition of anti-Semitism is hostility or prejudice towards [[Jew]]s, a number of authorities have developed more formal definitions. [[The Holocaust|Holocaust]] scholar and [[City University of New York]] professor Helen Fein's definition has been particularly influential. She defines anti-Semitism as "a persisting latent structure of hostile beliefs towards Jews as a collective manifested in individuals as attitudes, and in culture as myth, ideology, folklore and imagery, and in actions – social or legal discrimination, political mobilisation against the Jews, and collective or state violence – which results in and/or is designed to distance, displace, or destroy Jews as Jews."
Professor Dietz Bering of the [[University of Cologne]] further expanded on Professor Fein's definition by describing the structure of anti-Semitic beliefs. To
|
stantial criticism in recent years of the suburban electricity network due to its inability to cope with high-usage periods. Adelaide derives its electricity from a coal-fired plant at [[Torrens Island, South Australia|Torrens Island]] and connections to the national grid. Adelaide's water supply is gained from its reservoirs: [[Mount Bold Reservoir|Mount Bold]], [[Happy Valley Reservoir|Happy Valley]], Myponga, Millbrook, Hope Valley, Little Para and South Para. Further water demands result in the pumping of water from the [[River Murray]]. The provider of water services is by the government-owned [[SA Water]].
==Notes and References==
<div style="font-size: 90%">
# {{note|cathuni}} ''Adelaide Council Naming Practices, courtesy Catholic University'' [http://online.cesanet.adl.catholic.edu.au/docushare/dsweb/GetRendition/Document-2903/html]
# {{note|placenames}} ''South Australian Place Names. courtesy Government of South Australia'' [http://www.placenames.sa.gov.au/pno/pnores.phtml?recno=SA0076000]
#{{note|ringroute}} ''Adelaide's Inner and Outer Ring Routes, courtesy South Australian Department of Transport'' [http://www.transport.sa.gov.au/transport_network/projects/better_roads/adelaides_inner_outer_ring_routes.asp]
#{{note|ozroads}} ''Adelaide's Freeways - A History from MATS to the Port River Expressway, courtesy Ozroads'' [http://www.ozroads.com.au/SA/freeways.htm]
#{{note|capcity}} ''Capital City Committee'' [http://www.capcity.adelaide.sa.gov.au/]
#{{note|adelabsstats}} ''Adelaide (Statistical Division), courtesy Australian Bureau of Statistics'' [http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@census.nsf/ddc9b4f92657325cca256c3e000bdbaf/6663e40d8994aa22ca256bbf000144a3!OpenDocument]
#{{note|carmanufacture}} ''South Australia Fact Sheet: Automotive, courtesy Business South Australia'' [http://www.southaustralia.biz/fact_sheets/fact_automotive.biz.pdf] ''(.pdf)''
#{{note|creditrating}} ''South Australia's Credit Rating the Highest, courtesy Business South Australia'' [http://www.southaustralia.biz/news/sa_creditrating.htm]
#{{note|growth}} ''South Australia's Economic Performance Update, courtesy Business South Australia'' [http://www.southaustralia.biz/PDFs/economic_performance_update_dec05.pdf] ''(.pdf)''
#{{note|defencestate}} ''South Australia: The Defence Industry Choice, courtesy Defence SA'' [http://www.defence-sa.com/]
#{{note|livingcost}} ''Adelaide Cost of Living, courtesy Business South Australia'' [http://factsheet.southaustralia.biz/public/content/default.asp?xcid=52]
#{{note|20mincity}} ''Metro Malcontent - The Twenty Minute City No More, courtesy RAA'' [http://www.raa.net/download.asp?file=documents\document_677.pdf] ''(.pdf)''
</div>
==Sister cities==
Adelaide has several [[sister city|sister cities]]. They are:
{|
| valign="top" |
*{{flagicon|USA}} - [[Austin, Texas]], [[United States]] - [[1983]]
*{{flagicon|New Zealand}} - [[Christchurch]], [[New Zealand]] - [[1972]]
| valign="top" |
*{{flagicon|Malaysia}} - [[George Town, Penang|George Town]], [[Penang]]/[[Malaysia]] - [[1973]]
*{{flagicon|Japan}} - [[Himeji]], [[Japan]] - [[1982]]
|}
==See also==
*[[Tallest Buildings in Adelaide]]
*[[People of Adelaide]]
*[[List of Adelaide railway stations]]
*[[List of Adelaide suburbs]]
*[[List of churches in Adelaide]]
*[[List of sports clubs in Adelaide]]
==Further reading==
*Kathryn Gargett; Susan Marsden, ''Adelaide: A Brief History''. Adelaide: State History Centre, History Trust of South Australia in association with Adelaide City Council, 1952. ISBN 0730801160
*Derek Whitelock et al, ''Adelaide : a sense of difference''. Melbourne: Arcadia, 2000. ISBN 0875606571
==External links==
{{commonscat|Adelaide}}
{{sisterlinks|Adelaide}}
{{Mapit-AUS-suburbscale|long=138.601|lat=-34.929}}
*{{wikitravel}}
*[http://www.adelaidecitycouncil.com/ City of Adelaide]
*[http://www.sacentral.sa.gov.au/ SA Central]
**[http://www.sa.gov.au/site/page.cfm?u=57&area=2&path=4873,4913,4917&listMode=listLinks City highlights]
**[http://www.sa.gov.au/site/page.cfm?u=57&area=2&path=4873,4913,4915&listMode=listLinks Metropolitan highlights]
*[http://www.sensational-adelaide.com Sensational Adelaide]
<br clear="all">
{{AustralianCapitalCities}}
[[Category:Adelaide| ]]
[[Category:Australian capital cities]]
[[Category:Cities in South Australia]]
[[Category:Coastal cities in Australia]]
[[bg:Аделаида]]
[[da:Adelaide (Australien)]]
[[de:Adelaide]]
[[eo:Adelajdo]]
[[es:Adelaida]]
[[fa:آدلاید]]
[[fi:Adelaide]]
[[fr:Adélaïde (Australie)]]
[[gl:Adelaida - Adelaide]]
[[he:אדלייד]]
[[hu:Adelaida]]
[[id:Adelaide]]
[[is:Adelaide]]
[[it:Adelaide (Australia)]]
[[ja:アデレード]]
[[nl:Adelaide]]
[[pl:Adelajda]]
[[pt:Adelaide]]
[[ru:Аделаида]]
[[simple:Adelaide]]
[[sv:Adelaide]]
[[uk:Аделаїда]]
[[vi:Adelaide]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Australian Football Leauge</title>
<id>1149</id>
<revision>
<id>15899651</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Australian Football League]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Australian Football League</title>
<id>1150</id>
<revision>
<id>41819899</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T23:24:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Schmiteye</username>
<id>523205</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Present */ fix redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| class="infobox" style="width: 25em; font-size: 95%;"
|+ style="font-size: larger;" | '''Australian Football League'''
|-
| align="center" colspan="2" |
[[Image:Australian Football League.svg|200px]]
|-
! colspan="2" bgcolor="#b0c4de" | '''General Information'''
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
| '''Founded'''
| [[1989]], [[Melbourne, Australia|Melbourne]]
|-
| '''Previous Names'''
| [[VFL/AFL|Victorian Football League]] or [[VFL/AFL|VFL]] (1897-1988)
|-
| '''Current Clubs'''
| [[Adelaide Crows|Adelaide]]<br>[[Brisbane Lions]]<br>[[Carlton Football Club|Carlton]]<br>[[Collingwood Football Club|Collingwood]]<br>[[Essendon Football Club|Essendon]]<br>[[Fremantle Football Club|Fremantle]]<br>[[Geelong Football Club|Geelong]]<br>[[Hawthorn Football Club|Hawthorn]]<br>[[Kangaroos Football Club|Kangaroos]]<br>[[Melbourne Football Club|Melbourne]]<br>[[Port Adelaide Football Club|Port Adelaide]]<br>[[Richmond Football Club|Richmond]]<br>[[St Kilda Football Club|St Kilda]]<br>[[Sydney Swans|Sydney]]<br>[[West Coast Eagles|West Coast]]<br>[[Western Bulldogs]]
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
| '''Defunct Clubs'''
| [[Fitzroy Football Club|Fitzroy]]<br> [[Melbourne University Football Club|University]]<br>
|-
| '''Stadiums'''
| [[Melbourne Cricket Ground]]<br>[[Telstra Stadium]]<br>[[Telstra Dome]] <br>[[AAMI Stadium]]<br>[[Sydney Cricket Ground]]<br>[[Subiaco Oval]]<br>[[Brisbane Cricket Ground|The Gabba]]<br>[[Skilled Stadium]]<br>[[Aurora Stadium]]<br>[[Manuka Oval]]<br>[[Marrara Oval]]<br>[[Carrara Stadium]]
|-
! colspan="2" bgcolor="#b0c4de" | '''2005 Season'''
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
| '''Premiers'''
| '''[[Sydney Swans|Sydney]]''' 8.10 (58) defeated [[West Coast Eagles|West Coast]] 7.12 (54)
|-
| '''Minor Premiers'''
| [[Adelaide Crows|Adelaide]]
|-
| '''Wooden Spoon'''
| [[Carlton Blues|Carlton]]
|-
| '''NAB Cup/Wizard Cup Premiers'''
| [[Carlton Blues|Carlton]]
|-
| '''Brownlow Medalist'''
| [[Ben Cousins]]
|-
| '''Coleman Medalist'''
| [[Fraser Gehrig]]
|-
| '''Total Attendance'''
| 6,283,788
|-
| '''Average Match Attendance'''
| 35,703
|-
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
|}
''This is a page about the national league in Australian Rules Football. For information about the rules and history of the game see the [[Australian Rules Football]] page.''
The '''Australian Football League''' is the national competition in [[Australian Rules Football]]. It was formed through the expansion of the [[Victorian Football League]], during the 1980s and 1990s. In 2005 it had a total regular season attendance of 6,283,788, and the average attendance of 35,703 was the [[sports league attendances|third highest]] of any professional sports league in the world.
==Administration==
===AFL===
*'''CEO''': [[Andrew Demetriou]]
*'''General Manager- Broadcasting, Strategy & Major Projects''': [[Ben Buckley]]
*'''General Manager- Football Operations''': [[Adrian Anderson]]
===[[AFL Players' Association]]===
*'''President''': [[Peter F. Bell|Peter Bell]]
*'''Vice President''': [[Nathan Buckley]]
*'''CEO''': [[Brendon Gale]]
===AFL Tribunal===
====AFL Tribunal====
*'''Chairman''': David Jones (replacing [[Brian Collins]])
*'''Members''':<br>John Hassett<br>Will Houghton QC<br>Andrew Tinney<br>Emmett Dunne<br>[[Michael Sexton]]<br>[[Wayne Schimmelbusch]]<br>Richard Loveridge
====AFL Appeals Board====
*'''Chairman''': [[Peter O'Callaghan]]
*'''Members''':<br>[[Brian Collis]] QC<br>Brian Bourke<br>[[John Schultz]]<br>[[Michael Gree]]
====AFL Grievance Tribunal====
*'''Chairman''': Jack Rush QC
*'''Members''':<br>Kevin Power<br>Michael Moncrieff<br>Darren Baxter<br>James Dowsley<br>Roger Berryman
====AFL Match Review Panel====
*'''Chairman''': [[Peter Schwab]]
*'''Members''':<br>[[Peter Carey]]<br>[[Andrew McKay]]
===Season/Tournaments===
====Toyota AFL Premiership Season====
The ''Toyota AFL Premiership Season'' lasts for 22 rounds and begins in late March, contested between 1
|
lling of blood, decided to appoint Mussolini, who at that moment had the support of about 22 deputies in Parliament, [[Prime Minister|President of the Council]]. Victor Emmanuel continued to maintain control of the armed forces: if he had wanted to, he would have had no difficulties in booting Mussolini and the completely inferior fascist forces out of Rome. Therefore, it is not appropriate to refer to Mussolini's rise as a "coup d'etat" since he obtained his post legally with the blessing of the sovereign of the nation.
As Prime Minister, the first years of Mussolini's reign were characterized by a coalition government composed of nationalists, liberals and populists and did not assume dictatorial connotations until the assassination of [[Giacomo Matteotti|Matteotti]]. In domestic politics, Mussolini favoured the complete restoration of State authority, with the integration of the ''Fasci di Combattimento'' into the armed forces (the foundation in January 1923 of the ''Milizia Voluntaria per la Sicurezza Nazionale'') and the progressive identification of the Party with the State. In political and social economy, he emanated legislation that favoured the wealthy industrial and agrarian classes (privatizations, liberalizations of rent laws and dismantlement of the unions).
In June of 1923, a new majoritarian electoral law was approved which assigned two thirds of the seats in Parliament to the coalition which had obtained at least 25% of the votes. This law was punctually applied in the elections of [[6 April]] [[1924]], in which the fascist "listone" obtained an extraordinary success, aided by the use of shenanigans, violence and intimidatory tactics against opponents.
The assassination of the socialist deputy [[Giacomo Matteotti]], who had requested the annulment of the elections because of the irregularities committed, provoked a momentary crisis of the Mussolini government. The weak response of the opposition (the [[secession of the Aventine]]), incapable of transforming their posturing into a mass antifascist action, was not sufficient to distance the ruling classes and the Monarchy from Mussolini who, on [[3 January]] [[1925]], broke open the floodgates and, in a famous discourse in which he took upon himself all of the responsibility for the assassination of Matteoti and the other squadrist violence, proclaimed
a ''de facto'' dictatorship, suppressing every residual liberty and completing the identification of the Fascist Party with the State.
From 1925 until the middle of the 1930's, fascism experienced little and isolated opposition, although that which it experienced was memorable, consisting in large part of communists such as [[Antonio Gramsci]], socialists such as [[Pietro Nenni]] and liberals such as [[Piero Gobetti]] and [[Giovanni Amendola]].
While failing to outline a coherent program, fascism evolved into a new political and economic system that combined corporatism, totalitarianism, nationalism, and anti-Communism in a state designed to bind all classes together under a capitalist system. This was a new capitalist system, however, one in which the state seized control of the organization of vital industries. Under the banners of nationalism and state power, Fascism seemed to synthesize the glorious Roman past with a futuristic utopia.
Despite the themes of social and economic reform in the initial [[Fascist manifesto]] of June 1919, the movement came to be supported by sections of the middle class fearful of socialism and communism. Industrialists and landowners supported the movement as a defense against labour militancy. Under threat of a fascist [[March on Rome]], in October 1922, Mussolini assumed the premiership of a right-wing coalition [[Cabinet]] initially including members of the pro-church ''[[Christian Democracy (Italy)|Partito Popolare]]'' (People's Party).
The [[regime]]'s most lasting political achievement was perhaps the [[Lateran Treaty]] of February 1929 between the Italian state and the [[Holy See]]. Under this treaty, the [[Papacy]] was granted temporal sovereignty over the [[Vatican City]] and guaranteed the free exercise of Roman Catholicism as the sole state religion throughout Italy in return for its acceptance of Italian sovereignty over the Pope's former dominions.
In the 1930s, Italy recovered from the [[Great Depression]], and achieved economic growth in part by developing domestic substitutes for imports ([[Autarky|''Autarchia'']]). The draining of the malaria-infested Pontine Marshes south of Rome was one of the regime's proudest boasts. But growth was undermined by international sanctions following Italy's October 1935 invasion of [[Ethiopia]] (the [[Abyssinia crisis]]), and by the government's costly military support for Franco's Nationalists in [[Spain]].
The invasion of Ethiopia was accomplished rapidly (the proclamation of Empire took place in May of 1936) and involved several atrocities such as the use of [[chemical weapon]]s ([[mustard gas]] and [[phosgene]]) and the indiscriminate slaughter of much of the local population to prevent opposition.
The armed forces disposed of a vast arsenal of grenades and bombs loaded with mustard gas which were dropped from airplanes. This substance was also sprayed directly from above like an "insecticide" on to enemy combatants and villages. It was Mussolini himself who authorized the use of the weapons: "Rome, [[27 October]] '35. A.S.E. Graziani. The use of gas as an ''ultima ratio'' to overwhelm enemy resistance and in case of counterattack is authorized. Mussolini." "Rome, [[28 December]] '35. A.S.E. Badoglio. Given the enemy system I have authorized V.E. the use even on a vast scale of any gas and flamethrowers. Mussolini." Mussolini and his generals sought to cloak the operations of chemical warfare in the utmost secrecy, but the crimes of the fascist army were revealed to the world through the denunciations of the International Red Cross and of many foreign observers. The Italian reaction to these revelations consisted in the "erroneous" bombardment (at least 19 times) of Red Cross tents posted in the areas of military encampment of the Ethiopian resistance. The orders imparted by Mussolini, with respect to the Ethiopian population, were very clear: "Rome, [[5 June]] [[1936]]. A.S.E. Graziani. All rebels taken prisoner must be killed. Mussolini." "Rome, [[8 July]] [[1936]]. A.S.E. Graziani. I have authorized once again V.E. to begin and systematically conduct a politics of terror and extermination of the rebels and the complicit population. Without the ''legge taglionis'' one cannot cure the infection in time. Await confirmation. Mussolini." {{ref|Candeloro}} The predominant part of the work of repression was carried out by Italians who, besides the bombs laced with mustard gas, instituted lagers, installed public gallows, killed hostages, and mutilated the corpses of their enemies. Graziani ordered the elimination of captured guerrillas by way of throwing them out of airplanes in mid-flight. Many Italian troops had themselves photographed next to cadavers hanging from the gallows or hanging around chests full of detached heads. One episode in the Italian occupation of Ethiopia was the slaughter of Addis Ababa of February, 1937 which followed upon an attempt to assassinate Graziani. In the course of an official ceremony a bomb exploded next to the general. The response was immediate and cruel. The thirty or so Ethiopians present at the ceremony were impaled, and immediately after, the black shirts of the fascist Militias poured out into the streets of Addis Ababa where they tortured and killed all of the men, women and children that they encountered on their path. They also set fire to homes in order to prevent the inhabitants from leaving and organized the mass executions of groups of 50-100 people. {{ref|Del}}
International isolation and their common involvement in Spain brought about increasing diplomatic collaboration between Italy and [[Nazi Germany]]. This was reflected also in the Fascist regime's domestic policies as the first [[anti-semitic]] laws were passed in 1938. From that year on, with the publication of the ''Manifesto degli scienziati razzisti'' (Manifesto of the Racist Scientists) (in reality about 90% written by Mussolini himself), fascism declared itself explicitly anti-Semite.
Italy's intervention ([[June 10]] [[1940]]) as Germany's ally in World War II brought military disaster, and resulted in the loss of her north and east African colonies and the [[United States|American]]-[[United Kingdom|British]]-[[Canada|Canadian]] invasion of Sicily in July 1943 and southern Italy in September 1943.
Mussolini was dismissed as prime minister by Victor Emmanuel III on [[July 25]]th 1943, and subsequently arrested. He was freed in September by German paratroopers under command of [[Otto Skorzeny]] and installed as head of a puppet "[[Italian Social Republic]]" at [[Salo]] in German-occupied northern Italy. His association with the German occupation regime eroded much of what little support remained to him. His summary execution on [[April 28]]th [[1945]] during the war's violent closing stages by the [[Italian resistance movement|northern partisans]] was widely seen as a fitting end to his regime.
After the war, the remnants of Italian fascism largely regrouped under the banner of the neo-Fascist "[[Italian Social Movement]]" (MSI). The MSI merged in 1994 with conservative former [[Democrazia Cristiana|Christian Democrats]] to form the [[Alleanza Nazionale|"National Alliance" (AN)]], which proclaims its commitment to [[constitutionalism]], [[Parliamentarism|parliamentary government]] and political pluralism.
===Mussolini's influences===
Fascism did not spring forth full-grown, and the writings of Fascist theoreticians cannot be taken as a full description of Mussolini's ideolo
|
the south edge of the present-day city at a location favourable for landing canoes. Brant's crossing of the river gave the original name to the area: Brant's ford. By 1847, European settlers began to settle further up the river at a ford in the [[Grand River (Ontario)|Grand River]] and named the village [[Brantford, Ontario]].
==Beliefs==
These tribes, mostly members of the Iroquois nation, lived in the Northeastern territories of the U.S. and [[Canada]], from the [[St. Lawrence River]] down to the [[Delaware Bay]] and inland to the [[Great Lakes]]. Their close contact with Europeans makes investigation of their original mythology and religion extremely difficult, but core beliefs included a conception of life as a struggle between the forces of good and evil. The "All-Father," an all-embracing deity, was formless and had little contact with humans. Spirits animated all of nature and controlled the changing of the season. Key festivals coincided with the major events of the agricultural calendar.
[[Seventh Generation]] is a precept of the Great Law of the Haudenosaunee (Six Nations Iroquois Confederacy), which requires that chiefs consider the impact of their decisions on the seventh generation.
In [[1799]], Iroquois prophet [[Handsome Lake]], half-brother of Cornplanter, received a vision and introduced the [[Longhouse religion]] to the Seneca. Handsome Lake's religion fused elements of [[Christianity]], especially [[Quakerism]], with traditional Iroquois beliefs including seasonal festivals. About 5,000 people continue to follow the Longhouse religion today.[http://www.religion-encyclopedia.com/H/handsome_lake_religion.htm]
== The Haudenosaunee ==
The combined leadership of the Nations is known as the ''Haudenosaunee''. It should be noted that "Haudenosaunee" is the term that the people use to refer to themselves. The word "Iroquois" is reputed to come from a French version of a [[Huron]] (Wendat) name&mdash;considered an insult&mdash;meaning "Black Snakes." The Iroquois were enemies of the Huron and the [[Algonquin]], who were allied with the French, due to their rivalry in the fur trade. Haudenosaunee means "People Building a [[Native American long house|Long House]]." The term is said to have been introduced by [[The Great Peacemaker]] at the time of the formation of the Confederacy. It implies that the Nations of the confederacy should live together as families in the same longhouse. Symbolically, the Seneca were the guardians of the western door of the "tribal long house," and the Mohawk were the guardians of the eastern door.
There exists another, perhaps more compelling, version explaining the origin of the word "Iroquois," as the French combination of two distinct terms used in the language of the Haudenosaunee. The participants and writers developing the nascent US government compared the Haudenosaunee and their ways to a state of achievement in administrative self-governance that Rome itself never reached, and an ideal that they hoped the US would aspire to and achieve.
The Iroquois nations' political union and [[democracy|democratic]] [[government]] has been credited [http://www.ratical.org/many_worlds/6Nations/index.html by some] as one of the influences on the [[United States Constitution]]. However, that theory has fallen into disfavor among many historians, and is regarded by some as mythology. Historian [http://hnn.us/articles/12974.html Jack Rakove] writes: "The voluminous records we have for the constitutional debates of the late 1780s contain no significant references to the Iroquois."
==Member Nations==
{| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" align="center"
|+
|<center>'''English Name'''
|<center>'''Iroquoian Name'''
|<center>'''Meaning'''
|<center>'''Primarily 17th and 18th Century Location'''
|-
|[[Seneca tribe|Seneca]] (1)
|''Onondowahgah''
|''People of the Great Hill''
|[[Seneca Lake]] and [[Genesee River]]
|-
|[[Cayuga tribe|Cayuga]] (1)
|''Guyohkohnyoh''
|''People of the Great Swamp''
|[[Cayuga Lake]]
|-
|[[Onondaga (tribe)|Onondaga]] (1)
|''Onundagaono''
|''People of the Hills''
|[[Onondaga Lake]]
|-
|[[Oneida tribe|Oneida]] (1)
|''Onayotekaono''
|''People of the Upright Stone''
|[[Oneida Lake]]
|-
|[[Mohawk nation|Mohawk]] (1)
|''Kanien'kéhaka''
|''People of the Flint''
|[[Mohawk River]]
|-
|[[Tuscarora]] (2)
|''Ska-Ruh-Reh''
|''Shirt-Wearing People''
|From [[North Carolina]], settled between Oneidas and Onondagas
|}
:::'''Note 1:''' Member of Original [[Five Nations]] (listed from west to east)
:::'''Note 2:''' Sixth Nation (Joined in 1720)
<center>
{|
|[[Image:Iroquois 5 Nation Map c1650.png|320px|Iroquois Five Nations c.1650]]
|[[Image:Iroquois 6 Nations map c1720.png|320px|Iroquois Six Nations c.1720]]
|}
</center>
==Iroquois Clans==
Within each of the six nations, people are divided into a number of [[matrilineal]] [[clan|clans]]. The number of clans varies by nation, currently from three to seven, with a total of nine different clan names.
<center>
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0"
|+'''Current Iroquois Clans'''
|-
! width="70"|Onondaga
! width="70"|Tuscarora
! width="70"|Oneida
! width="70"|Mohawk
|-
| [[Wolf]] || Wolf || Wolf || Wolf || Wolf || Wolf
|-
| [[Bear]] || Bear || Bear || Bear || Bear || Bear
|-
| [[Turtle]] || Turtle || Turtle || Turtle || Turtle || Turtle
|-
| [[Snipe]] || Snipe || &mdash; || Snipe || &mdash;|| &mdash;
|-
| [[Deer]] || &mdash;|| Deer || Deer || &mdash;|| &mdash;
|-
| [[Beaver]] || &mdash;|| Beaver || Beaver || &mdash;|| &mdash;
|-
| [[Heron]] || Heron || &mdash; || &mdash; || &mdash;|| &mdash;
|-
| [[Hawk]] || &mdash;|| Hawk || &mdash; || &mdash;|| &mdash;
|-
| &mdash; || &mdash;|| [[Eel]] || Eel || &mdash;|| &mdash;
|}</center>
== Government ==
The Iroquois have a representative government known as the Grand Council. Each tribe sends chiefs to act as respresentatives and make decisions for the whole nation. The number of chiefs has never changed.
* Onondaga 14
* Cayuga 10
* Oneida 9
* Mohawk 9
* Seneca 8
==References==
* "The Ordeal of the Longhouse", by Daniel K. Richter
* For a detailed account of Iroquois actions during the American Revolution, see: Williams, Glenn F. ''Year of the Hangman: George Washington's Campaign Against the Iroquois'' Yardley: Westholme Publishing, 2005.
*[http://sixnations.buffnet.net/Culture/?article=who_we_are Who Are the Haudenosaunee?]
*[http://www.ratical.org/many_worlds/6Nations/ Oldest Living Participatory Democracy]
*[http://www.iroquoismuseum.org Iroquois Indian Museum, Howes Cave, NY]
== See also ==
*[[Joseph Brant]]
*[[Red Jacket]]
*[[Sir William Johnson]]
*[[Smoke Johnson]]
*[[Cornplanter]]
*[[Ely S. Parker]]
*[[Sullivan Expedition]]
*[[History of New York]]
*[[Economy of the Iroquois]]
*[[Iroquoian languages]]
*[[Iroquois mythology]]
*[[Six Nations of the Grand River]]
*[[Covenant Chain]]
*[[Ganondagan State Historic Site]]
*[[False Face Society]]
*[[Mohawk Chapel]]
*[[David Cusick]]
== External links ==
*[http://www.sixnations.org/ Haudenosaunee Home Page] : the official source of news and information from the Haudenosaunee.
*[http://sixnations.buffnet.net/Great_Law_of_Peace/ Gayanashagowa]
*[http://www.upstate-citizens.org/Iroquois-origin.htm History and origin of the Five Nations]
*[http://ah.bfn.org/h/iroq/iroqlinks.html Long list of Iroquois links]
*[http://www.sullivanclinton.com The Sullivan-Clinton Campaign Hits Iroquoia, 1779]
*[http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libraryscience/24/ David Cusick’s Sketches of Ancient History of the Six Nations (1828)]
*[http://www.iroquois.net/ Iroquois Home Page]
[[Category:First Nations in Ontario]]
[[Category:First Nations in Quebec]]
[[Category:Iroquois]]
[[Category:Historical legislatures]]
[[ca:Confederació Iroquesa]]
[[da:Irokeserføderationen]]
[[de:Irokesen]]
[[eo:Haudenosaunee]]
[[fr:Iroquois]]
[[ja:イロコイ連邦]]
[[nl:Iroquois (volk)]]
[[pl:Irokezi]]
[[pt:Iroqueses]]
[[ru:Ирокезы]]
[[sl:Irokezi]]
[[sv:Irokes]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ionosphere</title>
<id>15097</id>
<revision>
<id>40409700</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T09:35:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>QEDquid</username>
<id>525074</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Scientific research on Ionspheric propagation */ +link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''ionosphere''' is the part of the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] that is ionized by solar radiation. It forms the inner edge of the [[magnetosphere]] and has practical importance because it influences [[high-frequency]] (HF) (3–30 [[Megahertz|MHz]]) [[radio propagation]] to distant places on the Earth.
==Geophysics==
The lowest part of the [[Earth's atmosphere]] is called the [[troposphere]] and it extends from the surface up to about 10 [[Kilometre|km]] (6 miles). The atmosphere above 10 km is called the [[stratosphere]], followed by the [[mesosphere]]. It is in the stratosphere that incoming solar radiation creates the [[ozone layer]]. At heights of above 80 km (50 miles), in the [[thermosphere]], the atmosphere is so thin that free [[electrons]] can exist for short periods of time before they are captured by a nearby positive [[ion]]. The number of these free electrons is sufficient to affect [[radio propagation]]. This portion of the atmosphere is ''ionized'' and contains a [[Plasma physics|plasma]] which is referred to as the ionosphere. In a plasma, the negative free electrons and the positive ions are attracted to each other by the electromagnetic force, but they are too energetic to stay fixed to
|
than the lowest layer at [[Hissarlik]]. It closes with the introduction of incised, white-filled decoration on pottery, whose motifs are found reproduced in [[monochrome]] [[pigment]]. Following the end of this period was the beginning of the [[Bronze Age]], and the first of the Minoan periods (see [[Crete]]). Thereafter, by exact observation of [[stratification]], eight more periods have been distinguished, each marked by some important development in pottery. These periods fill the whole Bronze Age, with whose close, by the introduction of the superior metal, iron, the Aegean Age is conventionally held to end.
[[Iron]] came into general Aegean use about 1000 B.C., and possibly was the means by which a body of northern invaders established their power on the ruins of the earlier dominion. Throughout the nine Knossian periods, following the Neolithic period, there is evidence of a perfectly orderly and continuous evolution in, at any rate, ceramic art. From one stage to another, fabrics, forms and motifs of decoration develop gradually; so that, at the close of a span of more than two thousand years, at the least, the influences of the beginning can still be clearly seen and no trace of violent change can be detected. This fact would go far to prove that the civilization continued fundamentally and essentially the same throughout.
It is supported by less abundant remains of other arts. That of painting in fresco, for instance, shows the same orderly development for the later part of the period. In religion, it can at least be said that there is no trace of sharp change; beginning with a uniform [[nature worship]] passing through all the normal stages down to the [[anthropomorphism]] in the latest period. There is no appearance of intrusive [[deities]] or [[cult]]-ideas.
The Aegean civilization was indigenous, firmly rooted and strong enough to persist essentially unchanged and dominant in its own geographical area throughout the [[Neolithic]] and [[Bronze Age]]s.
There is slight evidence of such changes as might be due to the intrusion of small conquering tribes, which adopted the superior civilization of the conquered people and became assimilated by them. The various rebuildings of the palace at [[Knossos]] give credence to this. A similar rebuilding took place at the same period at [[Phaestus]], and possibly at [[Hagia Triada]].
The [[megaron]] arrangement, which we find in the palaces discovered in the north of the Aegean area, at [[Mycenae]], [[Tiryns]] and [[Hissarlik]], indicate they were from a later date, for none of them display the designs so characteristic of Crete.
===Chronology===
The Chronology was originally based on linking archaeological remains with known Egyptian remains which can be dated to Dynasties.
The first was inferred from a similarity between early Minoan vases and others found in Egypt and dated to the 1st Dynasty [[4000BC]].
Other remains found at [[Knossos]] are similar to the 12th Dynasty c[[2500BC]] Egyptian remains.
A [[diorite]] statuette, referable by its style and inscription to the 13th Dynasty, was discovered in deposit in the Central Court,of [[Knossos]] and a [[cartouche]] of the "Shepherd King," [[Khyan]], was also found there. He is usually dated about 1900 B.C.
Discoveries of [[scarab]]s and other Egyptian objects made at [[Mycenae]], [[Ialysus]], [[Vaphio]], and others. with the 18th Dynasty (ca. 1600-1400 BC). While in Egypt itself, Refti tributaries, bearing vases of Aegean form, and themselves similar in fashion of dress and arrangement of hair to figures on Cretan [[fresco]]es and gems, are depicted under this and the succeeding Dynasties (e.g. Rekhmara tomb at Thebes).
Actual vases of late Minoan style have been found with remains of the 18th Dynasty, while in the Aegean area itself was evidence of a great wave of Egyptian influence beginning with this same Dynasty, such as the [[Nilotic]] scenes depicted on the [[Mycenae]] daggers, on [[fresco]] and other artefacts.
The end of Aegean civilisation is less certain -- iron does not begin to be used for weapons in the Aegean until about [[1000 BC]], perhaps coinciding with the incursion of northern tribes remembered by the classical Greeks as the [[Dorian Invasion]]. This incursion did not altogether stamp out Aegean civilization, at least in the southern part of its area. But it finally destroyed the palace at [[Knossos]] and initiated the [[Geometric Age]], with which the history of Aegean civilization proper can be said to have closed.
===Annals===
From anthropological data based on skull shapes, a people, similar to the Mediterranean race of North Africa, was settled in the Aegean area from a remote Neolithic antiquity, but, except in Crete, where insular security was combined with great natural fertility, remained in an undeveloped state until far into the [[4th millennium BC|4th millennium B.C.]].
In Crete, however, it had long been developing a certain civilization, and at a period more or less contemporary with Egyptian Dynasties 11 and 12. (2500 B.C.?) the scattered communities of the center of the island coalesced into a strong monarchical state, the [[Minoan civilization]], whose capital was at [[Knossos]]. There the king, probably also high priest of the prevailing nature-cult, built a great stone palace, and received the tribute of lesser communities, likely of whom the prince of [[Phaestus]], who commanded the [[Messara]] plain, was chief. The Minoan monarch had maritime relations with Egypt, and presently sent his wares all over the south Aegean (e.g. to [[Melos]] in the earlier Second City Period of [[Phylakope]]) and to [[Cyprus]], receiving in return such commodities as Melian [[obsidian]] knives. A system of [[pictographic writing]] came into use early in this Minoan period, but only a few documents made of durable material have survived. Pictorial art of a purely indigenous character, whether on ceramic material or plaster, made great strides, and from ceramic forms we may infer also a high skill in [[metallurgy]].
The absence of fortifications both at Knossos and Phaestus suggest that at this time Crete was internally peaceful and externally secure. Small settlements, in very close relation with the capital, were founded in the east of the island to command fertile districts and assist maritime commerce. [[Gournia]] and [[Palaikastro]] fulfilled both these ends: [[Zakros]] must have had mainly a commercial purpose, as the starting-point for the African coast. The peak of this dominion was reached about the end of the [[3rd millennium BC|3rd millennium B.C.]], and thereafter there ensued a certain, though not very serious, decline.
Meanwhile, at other favourable spots in the Aegean, but chiefly on sites in easy relation to maritime commerce, e.g. [[Tiryns]] and [[Hissarlik]], other communities of the early race began to arrive at civilization, but were naturally influenced by the more advanced culture of Crete in proportion to their nearness or vicinity. Early [[Hissarlik]] shows less Cretan influence and more external (i.e. Asiatic) than early [[Melos]]. The inner Greek mainland remained still in a backward state.
Five hundred years later -- about 1600 B.C. -- certain striking changes have taken place. The Aegean remains have become astonishingly uniform over the whole area; the local ceramic developments have almost ceased and been replaced by ware of one general type both of fabric and decoration. The Cretans have avoided their previous decadence and are once more possessors of a progressive civilization. They have developed a more convenient and expressive written language by stages, which is best represented by the tablets of [[Hagia Triada]]. The art of the entire area gives evidence of one spirit and common models. In religious representations it shows the same anthropomorphic personification and the same ritual furniture. Objects produced in one locality are found in others. The area of Aegean influence has widened and become more busy. Commerce with Egypt, for example, has increased in a marked degree, and Aegean objects or imitations of them are found to have begun to penetrate into [[Syria]], inland [[Asia Minor]], and the central and western Mediterranean lands, e.g. [[Sicily]], [[Sardinia]] and [[Spain]]. There can be little doubt that a strong power was now fixed in one Aegean center, and that all the area had come under its political, social and artistic influence.
The seat of power was in Crete, but envigorated by an influx of new blood from the north, large enough to instil fresh vigour, but too small to change the civilization in its essential character.
This Cretan dominance was short-lived. The security of the island was apparently violated not long after 1500 BC, when the palace at Knossos was sacked and burned, and Cretan art suffered an irreparable blow, due to the invasion of all the Aegean lands (or at least the Greek mainland and isles) by some less civilized conquerors, who remained politically dominant, but, like their forerunners, having no culture of their own, adopted, while they spoiled, that which they found. Who these invaders were we cannot say, but the probability is that they too came from the north and were precursors of the later "Hellenes." Under their rule peace was re-established, and art production, though of inferior quality, became abundant again among the subject population. The northern part of the palace at Knossos was re-occupied by chieftains who have left numerous rich graves, and general commercial activity must have been resumed because the uniformity of the decadent Aegean products and their wide distribution become more marked than ever.
About [[1000 BC]] a final catastrophe took place. The palace at [[Knossos]] was once more destroyed, never to be rebuilt or re-inhabited. Iron took the place of bronze, and Aegean art ceased on the Greek mainland and in the Aegean isles, including Crete, toget
|
[ja:双曲線]]
[[pl:Hiperbola (matematyka)]]
[[ru:Гипербола (математика)]]
[[sk:Hyperbola]]
[[fi:Hyperbeli]]
[[zh:双曲线]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Humayun</title>
<id>14055</id>
<revision>
<id>41356135</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T20:46:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
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<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">{| cellpadding=3px cellspacing=0px class="toccolours" style="float:right; border:1px #CCCCCC solid; margin:5px"
|+ <big>'''Humayun'''</big>
|colspan=2 align=center style="border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid"|[[Image:Humayun.jpg|center]]
|-
|align=left style="border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid"|'''Birth name:'''||style="border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid"|Nasiruddin Humayun
|-
|align=left style="border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid"|'''Title:'''||style="border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid"|[[Emperor]] of [[Mughal Empire]]<br />
|-
|align=left style="border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid"|'''Birth:'''||style="border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid"|[[March 6]], [[1508]]
|-
|align=left style="border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid"|'''Place of birth:'''||style="border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid"|[[Kabul]], [[Afghanistan]]
|-
|align=left style="border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid"|'''Death:'''||style="border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid"|[[February 22]], [[1556]]
|-
|align=left style="border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid"|'''Succeeded by:'''||style="border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid"|[[Akbar]]
|-
|align=left style="border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid"|'''Marriage:'''||style="border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid"| [[Hamida Banu Begum]]
|-
|align=left style="border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid"|'''Children:'''||style="border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid"|
[[Akbar]], son<br>
[[Muhammad Hakim]], son<br>
|}'''Nasiruddin Humayun''' ([[Persian language|Persian]]: '''نسيرالدين همايون''') ([[March 6]], [[1508]] &ndash; [[February 22]], [[1556]]), second [[Mughal Empire|Mughal Emperor]], ruled in [[India]] from [[1530]]&ndash;[[1540]] and [[1555]]&ndash;[[1556]]. He was 22 and inexperienced when he came to power. Humayun succeeded his father [[Babur]] in India in 1530, while his brother [[Kamran Mirza]] obtained the sovereignty of [[Kabul]] and [[Lahore]]. Humayun was thus left in possession of his father's recent conquests, which were in dispute with the Indian [[Afghan people|Afghans]] under [[Sher Shah]], governor of [[Bengal]] and an ethnic Afghan from Eastern India, and his ally, the [[Lodi dynasty]]. Sher Shah defeated Humayun at [[Battle of Chausa]] on [[June 26]], [[1539]]. After ten years of fighting, Humayun was driven out of India and fled to [[Iran]] (Persia).
[[Rohtas]] fort was built in 1541-43 by [[Sher Shah Suri]] to crush the [[Gakhars]], who were loyal to [[Humayun]], to whom the fort was finally surrendered by a treacherous commander 10 years after Sher Khan's death. The walls of the [[Rohtas]] Fort measure up to 12,5 meters in thickness and up to 18,28 meters in height. They extend for 4 km and feature 68 semi-circular bastions. Its sandstone gates, both massive and ornate, are thought to have exerted a profound influence on the [[Mughal]] military architecture. Humayun fled to the refuge of the [[Safavid Empire]] and reluctantly converted to [[Shi'a Islam]] to secure the protection of [[Tahmasp I]]. Sher Shah died in [[1546]], and, although he was one of the greatest rulers of India, his son was not so able a leader. In [[1555]], Humayan, enlisting the aid of the armies of Tahmasp I, re-occupied Delhi and returned to his throne in India.
[[Image:Image of the Tomb of Emperor Humayun at Delhi.jpg|thumb|250px|right|''[[Humayun's Tomb]]'' as depicted in a painting at [[Smithsonian Institute]]]]
During his period in exile, Humayun's wife, Hamida Banu Begum, gave birth to [[Akbar the Great]]. Humayun died in 1556 from injuries sustained after falling down a flight of stairs while descending from the second floor of his library to answer the [[muezzin]] call to prayer.
Although an accomplished soldier, his greatest accomplishment was his support for the arts. His exposure to Safavid art in Iran inspired him to recruit painters to his court who developed the celebrated Mughal style of painting. Humayun's greatest architectural feat was his [[Din-Panah]] (Refuge of Religion) [[citadel]] at [[Delhi]] which was destroyed by Sher Shah. ''[[Humayun's Tomb]]'', built by his widow after his death in the south of Delhi, is a precursor to the Taj Mahal in style and one of the finest of all the Mughal monuments in India.
==References==
*{{1911}}
==External links==
* [http://www.islamicart.com/library/empires/india/humayun.html The Reign of Humayun]
* [http://www.orientalarchitecture.com/delhi/humayunindex.htm Humayun's Tomb]
{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[List of Mughal emperors|Mughal Emperor]]|before=[[Babur]]|after=[[Sher Shah]]<br>(Sultan of Delhi)|years=1530&ndash;1539}}
{{succession box|title=Exile|before=[[Sher Shah]]|after=[[Ibrahim Suri]]|years=1540&ndash;1555}}
{{succession box|title=[[List of Mughal emperors|Return as Emperor]]|before=[[Ibrahim Suri]]<br>(Sultan of Delhi)|after=[[Akbar]]|years=1555&ndash;1556}}
{{end box}}
{{noble-stub}}
[[Category:1508 births]]
[[Category:1556 deaths]]
[[Category:Mughal empire]]
[[Category:Timurid Monarchs]]
[[Category:Mughal Emperors]]
[[da:Humayun]]
[[de:Humayun]]
[[es:Humayun]]
[[fr:Humâyûn]]
[[nl:Humayun]]
[[ja:フマーユーン]]
[[sv:Humajun]]
[[zh:胡马雍]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Prince-elector</title>
<id>14056</id>
<revision>
<id>42037257</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T10:39:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>141.2.247.138</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>farsi-version</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''prince-electors''' or '''electoral princes''' of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] &mdash; [[German language|German]]: '''''Kurfürst''''' ({{Audio|De-Kurfürst-pronunciation.ogg|<small>listen}}</small> - singular), '''''Kurfürsten''''' (plural) &mdash; were the members of the [[electoral college]] of the Holy Roman Empire, having the function of [[election|electing]] the [[Holy Roman Emperor|Emperors of Germany]]. During and after the [[15th century]] they often merely formalised the [[elective monarchy]] into what was in fact a [[dynasty|dynastic]] [[order of succession|succession]]. Formally, they elected a [[King of the Romans]], who became Holy Roman Emperor only when [[coronation|crowned]] by the [[pope]]. [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] was the last to be actually crowned; all of his successors were merely "Emperors-Elect". Electors were among the [[prince]]s of the Empire, but they had several privileges (in addition to electoral ones) which were disallowed to their non-electoral brethren.
For a great part of the Holy Roman Empire's history (at least from the [[13th century]]) there were seven electors, including three spiritual ones &mdash; the [[Archbishopric of Mainz|Archbishop of Mainz]], the [[Archbishopric of Trier|Archbishop of Trier]], and the [[Archbishopric of Cologne|Archbishop of Cologne]] &mdash; and four lay ones &mdash; the [[List of rulers of Bohemia|King of Bohemia]], the [[Palatinate|Count Palatine of the Rhine]], the [[Rulers of Saxony|Duke of Saxony]], and the [[Margrave of Brandenburg]]. (The last three aforementioned are also known as the Elector Palatine, the Elector of Saxony, and the Elector of Brandenburg, respectively.) Other electors, added in the [[17th century]], include the [[List of rulers of Bavaria|Dukes of Bavaria]] (referred to as Electors of Bavaria - replacing the Count Palatine of the Rhine, who was of the same family but had lost his title temporarily during the [[Thirty Year War]]) and the [[Hanover (state)|Dukes of Brunswick-Lüneburg]] (the Electors of Hanover). In [[1803]], several new electors were created, but they never participated in an election, for the Holy Roman Empire was abolished under pressure from [[Napoléon Bonaparte]] on [[August 6]], [[1806]].
==Composition==
The German practice of electing [[monarch]]s began when ancient Germanic tribes formed ''ad hoc'' coalitions and elected the leaders thereof. Elections were irregularly held by the [[Franks]], whose [[successor state]]s include [[France]] and [[Germany]]. The French monarchy eventually became hereditary, but the German monarchy continued to remain elective. While all men originally exercised the right to vote in such elections, suffrage eventually came to be limited to the leading men of the realm. In the election of [[Lothar II, Holy Roman Emperor|Lothar II]] in [[1125]], a small number of eminent [[nobility|noble]]s chose the monarch and then submitted him to the remaining magnates for their approbation. Soon, the right to choose the monarch was settled on an exclusive group of princes, and the procedure of seeking the approval of the remaining nobles was abandoned. The college of electors was mentioned in [[1152]] and again in [[1198]]. A letter of [[Pope Urban IV]] suggests that by "immemorial custom", seven princes &mdash;
* Three ecclesiastic
**[[Archbishopric of Mainz|Archbishop of Mainz]]
**[[Archbishopric of Trier|Archbishop of Trier]]
**[[Archbishopric of Cologne|Archbishop of Cologne]]
* Four secular
**[[Franconia|Duke of Francony]]
**[[Duke of Swabia]]
**[[Duke of Saxony]]
**[[Duke of Bavaria]]
&mdash; had the right to elect the Emperor. The three Archbishops aforementioned oversaw some of the richest and most powerful [[Episcopal see|see]]s in Europe, while the four Dukes controlled ancient Frankish territory and held important hereditary offices.
By the thirteenth ce
|
camp|POW camp]]. A small base known as Civil War village was established for visitors and Confederate soldiers. This former stockade has since become a small town. After the civil war the Andersonvillle POW camp evolved into a small town with its own hotel, post office and restaurant. Later the [[Andersonville National Historic Site]] was established as a memorial to the POWs who died at the camp. There is also a small museum to display how the town was founded and the involvment with the site of the Andersonville POW camp.
[[Image:Andersonville,ga.JPG|thumb|right|250px|A small village (next door to Andersonville National Historic Site) is known as 'Civil War village' where tourists came to see around the town.]]
==Demographics==
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of [[2000]], there are 331 people, 124 households, and 86 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] is 98.3/km&sup2; (254.1/mi&sup2;). There are 142 housing units at an average density of 42.2/km&sup2; (109.0/mi&sup2;). The racial makeup of the city is 65.26% White and 34.74% [[African American]]. 1.21% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.
There are 124 households out of which 34.7% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.0% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 17.7% have a female householder with no husband present, and 30.6% are non-families. 26.6% of all households are made up of individuals and 10.5% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.67 and the average family size is 3.21.
In the city the population is spread out with 27.8% under the age of 18, 9.4% from 18 to 24, 31.4% from 25 to 44, 19.3% from 45 to 64, and 12.1% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 36 years. For every 100 females there are 105.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 97.5 males.
The median income for a household in the city is $29,107, and the median income for a family is $30,972. Males have a median income of $26,591 versus $20,000 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $15,168. 23.0% of the population and 19.8% of families are below the [[poverty line]]. Out of the total population, 29.3% of those under the age of 18 and 13.5% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.
== External links ==
*[http://www.andersonvillegeorgia.com/ Official website of Andersonville, Georgia]
*[http://andersonvillega.freeservers.com/ Official website of Andersonville]
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|32.197008|-84.141701}}
[[Category:Cities in Georgia (U.S. state)]]
[[Category:Sumter County, Georgia]]
[[io:Andersonville, Georgia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Andersonville</title>
<id>3121</id>
<revision>
<id>40245586</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T05:20:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>69.144.138.239</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Andersonville''' is the name of some places in the [[United States|United States of America]]:
* [[Edgewater, Chicago#Andersonville|Andersonville, Chicago]]
* [[Andersonville, Georgia]], the site of the Civil War POW camp
* [[Andersonville National Historic Site]]
* ''[[Andersonville (novel)|Andersonville]]'' is also the name of a novel by [[MacKinlay Kantor]] that won the [[Pulitzer Prize for Fiction]] in [[1956]].
*''[[Andersonville (film)|Andesonville]]'' film based on the Civil War POW camp
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Agra canal</title>
<id>3122</id>
<revision>
<id>40267833</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T10:29:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Shyamsunder</username>
<id>800815</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Agra canal''' is an important [[India]]n [[irrigation]] work, available
also for navigation, in [[Delhi]], [[Gurgaon]], [[Muttra]] and [[Agra District|Agra]] districts, and [[Bharatpur]] State. It was opened in [[1874]].
The [[canal]] receives its water from the [[Jumna River]] at [[Okia]], about ten miles below Delhi. The weir across the Jumna was the first attempted in [[Upper India]] upon a foundation of fine sand; it is about 800-yard long, and rises seven-feet above the summer level of the river.
From Okla the canal follows the high land between the Khari-nadi and the Jumna, and finally joins the Banganga river about 20 miles below Agra. Navigable branches connect the canal with Muttra and Agra.
[[Category:Geography of India]]
[[Category:Canals]]
[[Category:Dams and canals in Rajasthan]]
{{india-stub}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Amakusa</title>
<id>3123</id>
<revision>
<id>15901487</id>
<timestamp>2005-06-09T22:36:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Melaen</username>
<id>136864</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Amakusa''' (&#22825;&#33609;) is an island belonging to [[Japan]], 26&frac12; miles long and 13&frac12; in extreme width, situated about 32°20'N, 130°E, on the west of [[Kumamoto Prefecture]] (formerly the province of [[Higo province|Higo]] on the island of [[Kyushu]]), from which it is separated by the [[Yatsushiro-kai]].
It has no high mountains, but its surface being very hilly -- four of the peaks rise to a height over 1500 feet -- the natives resort to the terrace system of [[cultivation]] with remarkable success.
A number of the heads of the Christians executed in connection with the [[Shimabara rebellion]] in the first half of the [[17th century]] were buried in this island. Amakusa produces a little [[coal]] and fine [[kaolin]], which was largely used in former times by the potters of [[Hirado]] and [[Satsuma Province|Satsuma]].
Now '''[[Amakusa District, Kumamoto]]''' is a [[district (japan)|district]] and '''[[Amakusa, Kumamoto]]''' is a [[town (japan)|town]] in [[Kumamoto prefecture|Kumamoto]].
[[ja:&#22825;&#33609;]]
[[Category:Islands of Japan]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Afterglow</title>
<id>3124</id>
<revision>
<id>40774609</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T22:58:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pflatau</username>
<id>822782</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>moved to atmospheric optics</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
[[image:dresden.afterglow.700px.jpg|thumb|200px|An afterglow in [[Dresden]], [[Saxony]], [[Germany]].]]
[[image:Afterglow.jpg|thumb|200px|left|An afterglow in [[Slovenia]]n mountains, near [[Triglav Lakes Valley]].]]
The '''afterglow''' is the broad high arch of whitish or rosy light, appearing occasionally in the [[sky]], above the highest [[cloud]]s in the hour of deepening [[twilight]], or [[reflection (optics)|reflected]] from the high [[snow]]fields in [[mountain]] regions long after [[sunset]].
The phenomenon is due to very fine particles of [[dust]] suspended in the high regions of the [[earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] that produce a scattering effect upon the component parts of [[white]] [[light]]. After the eruption of [[Krakatoa]] in [[1883]], a remarkable series of [[red]] sunsets appeared all over the world. These were due to an enormous amount of exceedingly fine dust blown to a great height by that terrific explosion, and then universally diffused by the high [[atmospheric current]]s. This was shown in Edvard Munch's 'The Scream'.
[[Category:Atmospheric optics]]
[[Category:Optical phenomena]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ammonius Grammaticus</title>
<id>3125</id>
<revision>
<id>28106589</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-12T10:59:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bluebot</username>
<id>527862</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Standardising 1911 references.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Ammonius Grammaticus''' is the supposed author of a treatise entitled ''Peri omoion kai dialoron lfxeon'' (On the Differences of Synonymous Expressions), of whom nothing is known.
He was formerly identified with an [[Egypt]]ian priest who, after the destruction of the pagan temple at [[Alexandria, Egypt|Alexandria]] ([[389]]), fled to [[Constantinople]], where he became the tutor of the ecclesiastical historian [[Socrates Scholasticus|Socrates]]. But it seems more probable
that the real author was [[Herennius Philo]] of Byblus, who was born during the reign of [[Nero]] and lived till the reign of [[Hadrian]], and that the treatise in its present form is a revision prepared by a later Byzantine editor, whose name may have been Ammonius.
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:Ancient Romans]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ahriman</title>
<id>3126</id>
<revision>
<id>15901490</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-30T21:34:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>The Anome</username>
<id>76</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redir</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Angra Mainyu]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Algebraic closure</title>
<id>3129</id>
<revision>
<id>30701316</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-09T11:04:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Charles Matthews</username>
<id>12978</id>
</contributor>
<comment>separable closure</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], particularly [[abstract algebra]], an '''algebraic closure''' of a [[field (mathematics)|field]] ''K'' is an [[algebraic extension]] of ''K'' that is [[algebraically closed field|algebraically closed]]. It is one of many [[closure (mathematics)|closures]] in mathematics.
Using [[Zorn's lemma]], it can be shown that every field has an algebraic closure, and that the
|
s kings such as [[Penda]] of [[Mercia]] who clearly held some kind of dominance in his time. Similarly, in his list of Bretwaldas, the West Saxon chronicler ignores Mercian kings such as [[Offa of Mercia|Offa]]. There was no succession, no defined duties and it is doubtful whether the term Bretwalda is anything more than a later simplification of a complex structure of kingship.
Bretwalda is, therefore, a highly problematic term, and one which, if anything, was merely the attempt by a West Saxon chronicler to make some claim of West Saxon [[Monarch|kings]] to the whole of [[Britain]], which shows that the concept of Britain was at least recognised in the period. Problems only arise when historians take the term and infer from it something that was not there.
It is particularly important not to think that the "list" of Bretwaldas served any role in recording proto-Kings of [[England]]. There was no succession from one overlord to another, and although these kings are often prefixed to lists of [[Kings of England]], this gives a simplistic view of kingship in the period which does not recognise its many subtleties and complexities.
==Overlordship==
What did exist was a complex array of dominance and subservience. Examples such as a king granting land with [[charters]] in another [[kingdom]], are a sure sign of such a relationship. When a king held sway over a larger kingdom, such as a Mercian ruler over [[East Anglia]], the relationship would have been more equal than in the case of a larger kingdom exercising overlordship over a smaller one, as in the case of [[Mercia]] and [[Hwicce]].
==List of "Overlords"==
Please note that although the dates on this list run continuously, there was no "succession", and there is nothing to suggest that there was an "office" which had incumbents. This list is certainly not a prefix to the [[Kings of England]].
===Listed by Bede===
*[[Aelle of Sussex]] ([[488]]&ndash;''circa'' [[514]])
*[[Ceawlin of Wessex]] ([[560]]&ndash;[[591]]) (died [[593]])
*[[Ethelbert of Kent]] ([[591]]&ndash;[[616]])
*[[Raedwald of East Anglia]] ([[616]]&ndash;[[627]])
*[[Edwin of Deira]] ([[627]]&ndash;[[632]])
*[[Oswald of Bernicia]] ([[633]]&ndash;[[641]])
*[[Oswiu of Northumbria|Oswy of Northumbria]] ([[641]]&ndash;[[658]]) (died [[670]])
===Mercian "Overlords"===
*[[Wulfhere of Mercia|Wulfhere]] ([[658]]&ndash;[[675]])
*[[Aethelred of Mercia|Ethelred]] ([[675]]&ndash;[[704]]) (died [[716]])
*[[Cenred of Mercia|Cenred]] ([[704]]&ndash;[[709]])
*[[Ceolred of Mercia|Coelred]] ([[709]]&ndash;[[716]])
*[[Ethelbald of Mercia|Ethelbald]] ([[716]]&ndash;[[757]])
*[[Beornrad of Mercia|Beornred]] ([[757]])
*[[Offa of Mercia|Offa]] ([[757]]&ndash;[[796]])
*[[Ecgfrith of Mercia|Ecgfrith]] ([[796]])
*[[Cenwulf of Mercia|Cenwulf]] ([[796]]&ndash;[[821]])
*[[Cenelm of Mercia|Cynehelm]] ([[821]]) (may not have existed)
*[[Ceolwulf I of Mercia|Ceolwulf]] ([[821]]&ndash;[[823]])
*[[Beornwulf of Mercia|Beornwulf]] ([[823]]&ndash;[[825]])
*[[Ludeca of Mercia|Ludeca]] ([[825]]&ndash;[[827]])
*[[Wiglaf of Mercia|Wiglaf]] ([[827]]&ndash;[[829]]) (died [[839]])
===West Saxon "Overlords"===
*[[Egbert of Wessex|Egbert]] ([[829]]&ndash;[[839]])
*[[Ethelwulf of Wessex|Ethelwulf]] ([[839]]&ndash;[[855]])
*[[Ethelbald of Wessex|Ethelbald]] ([[855]]&ndash;[[860]])
*[[Ethelbert of Wessex|Ethelbert]] ([[860]]&ndash;[[866]])
*[[Ethelred of Wessex|Ethelred]] ([[866]]&ndash;[[871]])
*[[Alfred the Great]] ([[871]]&ndash;[[899]])
==Sources and References==
*Simon Keynes, 'Bretwalda', in ''The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Anglo-Saxon England'', ed. Michael Lapidge et al, (Oxford, 1999)
*D.P. Kirby, ''The Making of Early England'', (London, 1967)
*P. Wormald, 'Bede, the ''Bretwaldas'' and the Origins of the ''Gens Anglorum''', ''Ideal and Reality in Frankish and Anglo-Saxon Society'', ed. P. Wormald et al, (Oxford, 1983)
==See also==
*Mythical pre-Saxon [[King of the Britons]]
*[[List of monarchs of England]]
*[[List of monarchs in the British Isles]]
[[Category:Anglo-Saxon England]]
[[Category:Feudalism]]
[[Category:Monarchy]]
[[ang:Brytenwealda]]
[[de:Bretwalda]]
[[fr:Bretwalda]]
[[it:Bretwalda]]
[[nl:Bretwalda]]
[[no:Bretwalda]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Brouwer fixed point theorem</title>
<id>4101</id>
<revision>
<id>42063836</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T15:37:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Experiment123</username>
<id>1019163</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Proof outline */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], the '''Brouwer fixed point theorem''' states that every [[continuous function]] from the closed unit [[Ball (mathematics)|ball]] ''D''<sup>&nbsp;''n''</sup> to itself has a [[fixed point (mathematics)|fixed point]]. In this theorem, ''n'' is any positive [[integer]], and the closed unit ball is the set of all points in [[Euclidean space|Euclidean ''n''-space]] '''R'''<sup>''n''</sup> which are at distance at most 1 from the origin. Because the properties involved (continuity, being a fixed point) are invariant under [[homeomorphism]]s, the theorem equally applies if the domain is not the closed unit ball itself but some set homeomorphic to it (and therefore also closed, connected, without holes, etcetera).
The theorem has several "real world" illustrations. One works as follows: take two equal size sheets of graph paper with coordinate systems on them, lay one flat on the table and crumple up (but don't rip) the other one and place it any way you like on top of the first. Then there will be at least one point of the crumpled sheet that lies exactly on top of the corresponding point (i.e. the point with the same coordinates) of the flat sheet. This is a consequence of the ''n'' = 2 case of Brouwer's theorem applied to the continuous map that assigns to the coordinates of every point of the crumpled sheet the coordinates of the point of the flat sheet right beneath it. Yet another example: an informational display of a map in, for example, an airport terminal. The function that sends points in real space to their image on the map is continuous and therefore has a fixed point, usually indicated by a cross or arrow with the text ''You are here''. A similar display outside the terminal would violate the condition that the function is "to itself" and fail to have a fixed point.
The Brouwer fixed point theorem was one of the early achievements of [[algebraic topology]], and is the basis of more general fixed point theorems which are important in [[functional analysis]]. The case ''n'' = 3 was proved by [[Luitzen Egbertus Jan Brouwer|L. E. J. Brouwer]] in 1909. [[Jacques Hadamard]] proved the general case in 1910, and Brouwer found a different proof in 1912. Since it must have an essentially non-constructive proof, it ran contrary to Brouwer's [[intuitionist]] ideals.
== Proof outline ==
A full proof of the theorem would be too long to reproduce here, but the following paragraph outlines a proof omitting the difficult part. It is hoped that this will at least give some idea why the theorem might be expected to be true. Note that the boundary of ''D''<sup>&nbsp;''n''</sup> is ''S''<sup>&nbsp;''n''<tt>-</tt>1</sup>, the (''n''<tt>-</tt>1)-[[sphere]].
Suppose ''f''&nbsp;:&nbsp;''D''<sup>&nbsp;''n''</sup>&nbsp;&rarr;&nbsp;''D''<sup>&nbsp;''n''</sup> is a continuous function that has no fixed point. The idea is to show that this leads to a contradiction. For each ''x'' in ''D''<sup>&nbsp;''n''</sup>, consider the straight line that passes through ''f''(''x'') and ''x''. There is only one such line, because ''f''(''x'') &ne; ''x''. Following this line from ''f''(''x'') through ''x'' leads to a point on ''S''<sup>&nbsp;''n''<tt>-</tt>1</sup>. Call this point ''g''(''x''). This gives us a continuous function ''g''&nbsp;:&nbsp;''D''<sup>&nbsp;''n''</sup>&nbsp;&rarr;&nbsp;''S''<sup>&nbsp;''n''<tt>-</tt>1</sup>. This is a special type of continuous function known as a retraction: every point of the [[codomain]] (in this case ''S''<sup>&nbsp;''n''<tt>-</tt>1</sup>) is a fixed point of the function.
Intuitively it seems unlikely that there could be a retraction of ''D''<sup>&nbsp;''n''</sup> onto ''S''<sup>&nbsp;''n''<tt>-</tt>1</sup>, and in the case ''n'' = 1 it is obviously impossible because ''S''<sup>&nbsp;0</sup> (i.e., the endpoints of the closed interval ''D''<sup>&nbsp;1</sup>) isn't even connected. The case ''n''=2 takes more thought, but can be proven by using basic arguments involving the [[fundamental group]]s. For ''n'' > 2, however, proving the impossibility of the retraction is considerably more difficult. One way is to make use of [[Homology (mathematics)|homology groups]]: it can be shown that ''H''<sub>''n''<tt>-</tt>1</sub>(''D''<sup>&nbsp;''n''</sup>) is trivial while ''H''<sub>''n''<tt>-</tt>1</sub>(''S''<sup>&nbsp;''n''<tt>-</tt>1</sup>) is infinite [[cyclic group|cyclic]]. This shows that the retraction is impossible, because a retraction cannot increase the size of homology groups.
There is also an almost elementary [[combinatorial proof]]. Its main step consists in establishing [[Sperner's lemma]] in ''n'' dimensions.
For the special case of differentiable functions, there is a very quick proof based on the impossibility of a differentiable retraction. Such
|
ch]], which is in full communion with the Church of England. Its history is complicated and confusing, involving periods of official promotion and persecution; for a time, because of its association with [[Jacobitism]], it had to operate ''sub rosa''.
When [[Episcopal Church in the United States]] became independent of the Church of England after the [[War of American Independence]], the leadership of the Church of England did not believe itself legally able to consecrate new bishops without requiring of them the standard oath of loyalty to the crown. Consequently it was the bishops of the non-established Scottish Episcopal Church who consecrated the first American bishops, until new legislation allowed the Church of England to relax its policy.
The [[Church in Wales]], previously a part of the Church of England, underwent disestablishment in 1920 and at the same time became an independent member of the [[Anglican Communion]].
The Church of England stands in [[full communion]] with the other churches in the [[Anglican Communion]], and separately with the other signatories of the [[Porvoo Communion]]. The Church of England is also a full member of the [[Conference of European Churches]].
== Financial situation ==
The Church of England, although an [[established church]], does not receive any direct government support. Donations comprise its largest source of income, though it also relies heavily on the income from its various historic endowments. [[As of 2005]], the Church of England had estimated total [http://www.cofe.anglican.org/info/funding/ outgoings] of around £900 million.
Historically, individual parishes both raised and spent the vast majority of the Church's funding, meaning that clergy pay depended on the wealth of the parish, and parish [[advowson]]s (the right to appoint clergy to particular parishes) could become extremely valuable gifts. Individual dioceses also held considerable assets: the Diocese of Durham possessed such vast wealth and temporal power that its Bishop became known as the '[[Prince-Bishop]]'. Since the mid-19th century, however, the Church has made various moves to 'equalise' the situation, and clergy within each diocese now receive standard stipends paid from diocesan funds. Meanwhile, the Church moved the majority of its income-generating assets (which in the past included a great deal of land, but today mostly take the form of financial stocks and bonds) out of the hands of individual clergy and bishops to the care of a body called the [[Church Commissioners]], which uses these funds to pay a range of non-parish expenses, including clergy pensions, and the expenses of cathedrals and bishops' houses. These [http://www.cofe.anglican.org/about/churchcommissioners/annualreport/ funds] amount to around £3.9 billion, and generate income of around £164 million each year ([[as of 2003]]), around a fifth of the Church's overall income.
The Church Commissioners give some of this money as 'grants' to local parishes; but the majority of the financial burden of church upkeep and the work of local parishes still rests with individual parish and diocese, which meet their requirements from donations. Direct donations to the church (not including legacies) come to around £460 million per year, while parish and diocese reserve funds generate another £100 million. Funds raised in individual parishes account for almost all of this money, and the majority of it remains in the parish which raises it, meaning that the resources available to parishes still vary enormously, according to the level of donations they can raise.
Most parishes give a portion of their money, however, to the diocese as a 'quota'. While this is not a compulsory payment, dioceses strongly encourage and rely on it being paid; it is usually only withheld by parishes either if are unable to find the funds or as a specific act of protest. As well as paying central diocesan expenses such as the running of diocesan offices, these diocesan funds also provide clergy pay and housing expenses (which total around £260 million per year across all dioceses), meaning that clergy living conditions no longer depend on parish-specific fundraising.
Although asset-rich, the Church of England has to look after and maintain its thousands of churches nationwide &mdash; the lion's share of England's built heritage. As current congregation numbers stand at relatively low levels and as maintenance bills increase as the buildings grow older, many of these churches cannot maintain economic self-sufficiency; but their historical and architectural importance make it difficult to sell them. In recent years, cathedrals and other famous churches have met some of their maintenance costs with grants from organisations such as [[English Heritage]]; but the Church Commissioners and [http://www.churchcare.co.uk/fundraising.html local fundraisers] must foot the bill entirely in the case of most small parish churches. (The government, however, does provide some assistance in the form of tax breaks, for example a 100 % [[VAT]] refund for renovations to religious buildings.)
In addition to consecrated buildings, the Church also controls numerous ancillary buildings attached to or associated with churches, including a good deal of clergy housing. As well as vicarages and rectories, this housing includes residences (called 'palaces') for each of the Church's 114 bishops. In some cases, this name seems entirely apt; buildings such as Archbishop of Canterbury's [[Lambeth Palace]] in London and Old Palace at [[Canterbury]] have truly palatial dimensions, while the Bishop of Durham's [[Auckland Palace]] has 50 rooms, a banqueting hall and 30 acres (120,000 m&sup2;) of parkland. However, many bishops have found the older palaces inappropriate for today's lifestyles, and some bishops' 'palaces' are simply ordinary 4-bedroomed houses. Many dioceses which have retained large palaces now employ part of the space as administrative offices, while the bishops and their families live in a small apartment within the palace; and in recent years some dioceses have managed to put their palaces' excess space and grandeur to profitable use as conference centres. All three of the more grand bishop's palaces mentioned above — Lambeth Palace, Canterbury Old Palace and Auckland Castle — serve as offices for church administration, conference venues, and only in a lesser degree the personal residence of a bishop. The size of the bishops' households has shrunk dramatically and their budgets for entertaining and staff form a tiny fraction of their pre-20th-century levels.
==See also==
* [[History of the Church of England]]
* [[List of Church of England dioceses]]
* [[British monarchy]]
* [[History of England]]
* [[Anglicanism]]
* [[Book of Common Prayer]]
* [[Common Worship]]
* [[Anglican Communion]]
* [[General Synod]]
* [[antidisestablishmentarianism]]
* [[Sydney Anglicans]]
* [[Religion in the United Kingdom]]
* [[UK topics]]
* [[List of Church of England bishops]]
* [[Greater Churches Group]]
* [[United Reformed Church]]
* [[John Wesley]]
* [[Appointment of Church of England bishops]]
* [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America]]
==External links==
*[http://www.cofe.anglican.org/ Church of England website]
{| class="toccolours" style="margin:0 auto; width:63em; clear:both;"
!colspan="3" style="background:#ccf; text-align:center;"|[[Diocese]]s in the [[Province of Canterbury]]
|-
| style="padding:0 5% 0 5%; text-align:center;"|
[[Diocese of Bath and Wells|Bath & Wells]] |
[[Anglican Diocese of Birmingham|Birmingham]] |
[[Diocese of Bristol|Bristol]] |
[[Diocese of Canterbury|Canterbury]] |
[[Diocese of Chelmsford|Chelmsford]] |
[[Diocese of Chichester|Chichester]] |
[[Diocese of Coventry|Coventry]] |
[[Diocese of Derby|Derby]] |
[[Diocese of Ely|Ely]] |
[[Diocese of Exeter|Exeter]] |
[[Diocese of Gibraltar in Europe|Gibraltar in Europe]] |
[[Diocese of Gloucester|Gloucester]] |
[[Diocese of Guildford|Guildford ]] |
[[Diocese of Hereford|Hereford]] |
[[Diocese of Leicester|Leicester]] |
[[Diocese of Lichfield|Lichfield]] |
[[Diocese of Lincoln|Lincoln]] |
[[Diocese of London|London]] |
[[Anglican Diocese of Norwich|Norwich]] |
[[Diocese of Oxford|Oxford]] |
[[Diocese of Peterborough|Peterborough]] |
[[Diocese of Portsmouth|Portsmouth]] |
[[Diocese of Rochester|Rochester]] |
[[Diocese of Saint Albans|Saint Albans]] |
[[Diocese of Saint Edmundsbury and Ipswich|Saint Edmundsbury and Ipswich]] |
[[Diocese of Salisbury|Salisbury]] |
[[Anglican Diocese of Southwark|Southwark]] |
[[Diocese of Truro|Truro]] |
[[Diocese of Winchester|Winchester]] |
[[Anglican Diocese of Worcester|Worcester]]
|-
!colspan="3" style="background:#ccf; text-align:center;"|[[Diocese]]s in the [[Province of York]]
|-
| style="padding:0 5% 0 5%; text-align:center;"|
[[Diocese of Blackburn|Blackburn]] |
[[Diocese of Bradford|Bradford]] |
[[Diocese of Carlisle|Carlisle]] |
[[Diocese of Chester|Chester]] |
[[Diocese of Durham|Durham]] |
[[Anglican Diocese of Liverpool|Liverpool]] |
[[Anglican Diocese of Manchester|Manchester]] |
[[Diocese of Newcastle|Newcastle]] |
[[Diocese of Ripon and Leeds|Ripon&nbsp;and&nbsp;Leeds]] |
[[Diocese of Sheffield|Sheffield]] |
[[Diocese of Sodor and Man|Sodor and Man]] |
[[Diocese of Southwell and Nottingham|Southwell and Nottingham]] |
[[Diocese of Wakefield|Wakefield]] |
[[Diocese of York|York]]
|}
{{Template:Anglican_Churches}}
[[Category:Church of England| ]]
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|
on]], in [[Yorkshire]], [[England]], the third of six children, to [[Patrick Brontë]], an [[Ireland|Irish]] clergyman, and his wife, Maria Branwell. In April [[1820]] the [[Brontë|family]] moved to [[Haworth]], where Patrick had been appointed Perpetual Curate. Maria Branwell Brontë died of cancer on [[15 September]] [[1821]], leaving her five daughters and a son to the care of her sister Elizabeth Branwell. In August [[1824]], Charlotte was sent with three of her sisters to the Clergy Daughters' School at Cowan Bridge in Lancashire, (which she would describe as Lowood School in ''Jane Eyre''). Its poor conditions, Charlotte maintained, permanently affected her health and physical development, and hastened the deaths of her two elder sisters, Maria (born 1814) and Elizabeth (born 1815), who died of [[tuberculosis]] in [[1825]] soon after they were removed from the school.
At home in Haworth Parsonage the surviving children, [[Branwell Brontë|Branwell]], [[Emily Brontë|Emily]], and [[Anne Brontë|Anne]], influenced by their father's library of [[Walter Scott]], [[George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron|Byron]], ''Tales of the Genii'' and ''[[The Arabian Nights]]'' began chronicling the lives and struggles of the inhabitants of their imaginary kingdoms. Charlotte and Branwell wrote stories about their country, Angria, and Emily and Anne wrote articles and poems about theirs, Gondal. The sagas were elaborate and convoluted (and still exist in part manuscripts) and provided them with an obsessive interest in childhood and early adolescence, which prepared them for their literary vocations in adulthood.
Charlotte continued her education at Roe Head school in [[Mirfield]] from [[1831]] to [[1832]], where she returned as a teacher from [[1835]] to [[1838]]. In [[1839]] she took up the first of many positions as governess to various families in Yorkshire, a career she pursued until [[1841]]. In [[1842]] she and Emily travelled to [[Brussels]] to enroll in a pensionnat run by Constantin Heger (1809 - 1896) and his wife Claire Zoë Parent Heger (1804 - 1890). In return for board and tuition, Charlotte taught English and Emily taught music. Their time at the pensionnat was cut short when Elizabeth Branwell, their aunt who joined the family after the death of their mother to look after the children, died of internal obstruction in October [[1842]]. Charlotte returned alone to Brussels in January [[1843]] to take up a teaching post at the pensionnat. Her second stay at the pensionnat was not a happy one; she became lonely, homesick, and deeply attached to Constantin Heger. She finally returned to Haworth in January [[1844]] and later used her time at the pensionnat as the inspiration for some of ''[[The Professor (novel)|The Professor]]'' and ''[[Villette (novel)|Villette]]''.
In May [[1846]], Charlotte, Emily, and Anne published a joint collection of poetry under the assumed names of Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell. Although the book failed to attract interest (only two copies were sold) the sisters decided to continue writing for publication and began work on their first novels. Charlotte continued to use the name 'Currer Bell' when she published her first two novels.
[[Image:Janeeyrepenguin.jpg|right|150px]]
Her [[novel]]s are:
*''[[Jane Eyre]]'', published [[1847]]
*''[[Shirley (novel)|Shirley]]'', published [[1849]]
*''[[Villette (novel)|Villette]]'', published [[1853]]
*''[[The Professor (novel)|The Professor]]'', written before ''Jane Eyre'' and rejected by many publishing houses, was published posthumously in [[1857]]
Her novels were deemed coarse by the critics. Much speculation took place as to who Currer Bell really was, and whether Bell was a man or a woman.
Charlotte's brother, Branwell, the only son of the family, died of chronic [[bronchitis]] and [[marasmus]] exacerbated by heavy drinking, in September [[1848]], although Charlotte believed his death was due to tuberculosis. Emily and Anne both died of pulmonary tuberculosis in December [[1848]] and May [[1849]], respectively.
Charlotte and her father were now left alone. In view of the enormous success of ''Jane Eyre,'' she was persuaded by her publisher to occasionally visit [[London]], where she revealed her true identity and began to move in a more exalted social circle, becoming friends with [[Harriet Martineau]], [[Elizabeth Gaskell]], [[William Makepeace Thackeray]] and [[G. H. Lewes]]; however, she never left Haworth for more than a few weeks at a time as she did not like to leave her aging father's side.
In June [[1854]], Charlotte married Arthur Bell Nicholls, her father's [[curate]] but died nine months later during her first [[human pregnancy|pregnancy]]. Her death certificate gives the cause of death as [[phthisis]] (tuberculosis), but there is a school of thought that suggests she may have died from her excessive vomiting caused by severe [[morning sickness]] in the early stages of pregnancy. There is also evidence that Charlotte died from [[typhus]] she may have caught from Tabitha Ackroyd, the Bronte household's oldest servant, who died shortly before her. Charlotte was interred in the family vault in The Church of St. Michael and All Angels, [[Haworth]], [[West Yorkshire]], [[England]].
==References==
* {{A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature}}
==Further Reading==
* ''The Letters of Charlotte Brontë'', 3 volumes edited by Margaret Smith
* ''The Life of Charlotte Brontë'', Elizabeth Gaskell
* ''Charlotte Brontë'', Winifred Gerin
* ''Charlotte Brontë: a passionate life'', Lyndal Gordon
* ''Charlotte Brontë: Unquiet Soul'', Margot Peters
* ''In the Footsteps of the Brontës'', Ellis Chadwick
* ''Charlotte Brontë'', Rebecca Fraser
* ''The Brontës'', Juliet Barker
* ''Charlotte Brontë and her Dearest Nell'', Barbara Whitehead
* ''The Brontë Myth'', Lucasta Miller
* ''A Life in Letters'', selected by Juliet Barker
* ''Charlotte Brontë and her Family'', Rebecca Fraser
* ''The Oxford Reader's Companion to the Brontës'', Christine Alexander & Margaret Smith
* ''A Brontë Family Chronology'', Edward Chitham
==External links==
{{Wikisource author}}
* [http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/aut/bronte_charlotte.html Online editions of Charlotte Brontë's works]
*{{gutenberg author | id=Charlotte_Brontë | name=Charlotte Brontë}}
*[http://bronteblog.blogspot.com News and information about the Brontës using a blog format.]
*[http://www.npg.org.uk/live/search/portrait.asp?LinkID=mp03781&rNo=20&role=art Charlotte Brontë - Drawing by George Richmond (National Portrait Gallery)]
*[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/BronteSistersLinks/ Bronte Sisters Links: the biggest collection of links regarding the Bronte Sisters]
*[http://bronteana.blogspot.com Brontëana: Brontë Studies Weblog]
[[Category:1816 births|Bronte, Charlotte]]
[[Category:1855 deaths|Bronte, Charlotte]]
[[Category:English poets|Bronte, Charlotte]]
[[Category:English novelists|Brontë, Charlotte]]
[[Category:Brontë family]]
[[Category:Natives of Yorkshire|Brontë, Charlotte]]
[[Category:Women of the Victorian era|Brontë, Charlotte]]
[[Category:Women poets|Brontë, Charlotte]]
[[Category:Women writers|Brontë, Charlotte]]
[[cy:Charlotte Brontë]]
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[[he:שרלוט ברונטה]]
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[[zh:夏洛特·勃朗特]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Charles Williams</title>
<id>6533</id>
<revision>
<id>41747582</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T13:24:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>140.106.192.35</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">:{{otheruses}}
----
[[Image:Charleswalterstansbywilliams.gif|right|frame|]]
'''Charles Walter Stansby Williams''' ([[September 20]], [[1886]] &ndash; [[May 15]], [[1945]]), educated at [[St Albans School]], [[Hertfordshire]] and [[University College, London]]. Williams had one sister, Edith, born in 1889. Although he was awarded a scholarship, Williams was forced to leave University College in 1904 without taking a degree because his family lacked the financial resources to support him. In the same year he began work in a [[Methodist]] Bookroom. Williams was hired by [[Oxford University Press]] as a proofreading assistant in [[1908]] and continued to work there in various positions of increasing responsibility until his death in 1945. One of his greatest editorial achievements was the publication of the first major English-language edition of the works of [[Søren Kierkegaard]].
Although chiefly remembered as a novelist, Williams also published works of literary criticism, theology, drama, history, biography, and a voluminous number of book reviews. Some of his best known novels are ''War in Heaven'' (1930), ''Descent into Hell'' (1937), and ''All Hallows' Eve'' (1945). [[T.S. Eliot]], who wrote an introduction for the last of these, described Williams's novels as "supernatural thrillers" because they explore the sacramental intersection of the physical with the spiritual while also examining the ways in which power, even spiritual power, can corrupt as well as sanctify. All of Williams's fantasies, unlike those of his fellow Inklings [[C.S. Lewis]] and [[J.R.R. Tolkien]], are set in the contemporary world. More recent writers of fantasy novels with contemporary settings, notably [[Tim Powers]], cite Williams as a model and inspiration. [[W.H. Auden]], one of Williams's greatest admirers, reportedly re-read Williams's extraordinary and highly unconventional history of the church, ''Descent of the Dove,'' (1939) every year. Williams's study of Dante entitled ''The Figure of Beatrice'' (1944) was very highly regarded at its time of publication and continues t
|
earliest consoles entirely through software, and the first unauthorized, non-commercial console emulators began to appear. These early programs were often incomplete, only partially emulating a given system, and often riddled with [[computer bug|computer bugs]]. Because few manufacturers had ever published technical specifications for their hardware, it was left to amateur programmers and developers to deduce the exact workings of a console through [[reverse engineering]]. [[Nintendo]]'s consoles tended to be the most commonly studied, and the most advanced early emulators tended to reproduce the workings of the [[Nintendo Entertainment System]] (NES), the [[Super Nintendo Entertainment System]] (SNES), and the [[Game Boy]] (GB). Programs like Marat Fayzullin's iNES (which emulated the NES) and VirtualGameBoy (GB), the Pasofami (NES) and Super Pasofami (SNES), and VSMC (SNES) were the most popular console emulators of this era.
[[Image:Nesticle.jpg|thumb|250px|Bloodlust Software's [[NESticle]], version ''x.xx'']]
In April [[1997]], [[Bloodlust Software]] released version 0.2 of [[NESticle]]. An unheralded and unexpected release, NESticle shocked the nascent console emulation community with its ease of use and unrivaled compatibility with NES ROM images. NESticle arguably provided the catalyst with which console emulation took off: More and more users started experimenting with console emulation, and a new generation of emulators appeared following NESticle's lead. Bloodlust Software soon returned with [[Genecyst]] (emulating the [[Sega]] [[Sega Genesis|Genesis]]), and others released emulators like [[Snes9x]] and [[ZSNES]] (SNES). This rapid growth in the development of emulators in turn fed the growth of the [[ROM hacking]] and fan-translation community. The release of projects such as [[RPGe]]'s [[English language]] translation of ''[[Final Fantasy V]]'' drew even more users into the emulation scene.
As computers continued to advance and emulator developers grew more skilled in their work, the length of time between the commercial release of a console and its successful emulation began to shrink. Many recent consoles such as the [[Nintendo 64]], the [[Sony]] [[PlayStation]], and the [[Game Boy Advance]] saw significant work done toward emulation while still very much in production. This has led to a more concerted effort to crack down on unofficial emulation. Because the process of reverse engineering is protected in [[United States|U.S.]] law, the brunt of this attack has been borne by [[website]]s who host ROMs and [[ISO image]]s. Many such sites have been forced to shut down under threat of legal action.
On the other hand, commercial developers have once again begun to turn to emulation as a means to repackage and reissue their older games on new consoles. Notable examples of this behavior include [[Square Co., Ltd.]]'s rerelease of several older ''[[Final Fantasy]]'' titles on the PlayStation, Sega's collections of ''[[Sonic the Hedgehog]]'' games, and [[Capcom]]'s collection of ''[[Mega Man]]'' games for the [[Nintendo GameCube]], [[PlayStation 2]] and [[Xbox]].
==Arguments for/against emulation==
[[Image:Mario_Kart_64_-_Player_Select_screen.jpg|200px|thumb|left|''[[Mario Kart 64]]'' running on a [[Nintendo 64]] emulator. ]]Console games for emulators are generally distributed as [[ROM image]]s (or simply "ROMs") on the [[Internet]]. Without the permission of the [[copyright]] holder or the [[Entertainment Software Association]], this practice is appearently illegal&mdash;although few copyright holders appear to care about older games (see [[abandonware]]); many copyright holders are defunct; and a few copyright holders have even released their games and demos [[gratis]] or even as [[free software]]. This illegality is also controversial for long-time gamers and so called [[Video game player#Types of video gamers|old-school gamers]]. One reason for the popularity of console emulation among fans is due to the belief that many older video games that are no longer on the market are more enjoyable than games currently on the market. Many such gamers argue that the graphical, [[Computer storage|memory]], and [[Computer hardware|hardware]] limitations of the [[8-bit era|8-bit]] and [[16-bit era|16-bit eras]] forced developers to spend more time on gameplay mechanics. Others have argued that modern [[3D graphics]] have not yet fully matured and that the two-dimensional, [[sprite (computer graphics)|sprite]]-based graphics of older systems remain more aesthetically pleasing.
Another common belief amongst console emulation enthusiasts is that companies can no longer derive income from older titles, thus excusing the distribution of ROM images. This is not always the case with published archived collections, [[Porting|ports]] of classic games to modern systems, and [[enhanced remake]]s provided by the original publisher or copyright holder. Many popular emulation websites have promulgated a myth that a user may keep a ROM image on his or her computer for a period of 24 hours. This idea stems from an obscure provision in copyright law intended to apply to [[library|libraries]]. Many ROM sites similarly claim that it is legal to download the ROMs for [[backup]] purposes if one owns a physical copy of the software. It appears that Title 17 USC Section 117
[http://www4.law.cornell.edu/uscode/17/117.html] permits making a backup copy within the United States, but this has never been tested in a court of law. In an editorial from [http://www.rpgamer.com/ RPGamer.com], one writer argues that console developers (especially Nintendo and Sony) and game publishers may have [http://www.rpgamer.com/editor/2003/q3/071403jf.html/ brought console emulation onto themselves] by implementing [[regional lockout|territorial lockout]]s or [[censorship]] of game content. The legal term for such behavior is '''[[copyright misuse]]'''.
For more recent systems (e.g., Nintendo's Game Boy Advance and N64, Sega's [[Dreamcast]], and Sony's PlayStation), copyright holders have generally been more proactive about protecting their copyrights, and a number of [[website]]s offering ROMs and [[ISO image]]s have been shut down under threat of legal action.
While most popular ROMs are copies of commercial games, many are created by individuals and small groups for the sole purpose of being [[public domain]] freeware. These ROMs, often given a "PD" tag in their filenames, are unquestionably legal provided the creators did not infringe on other material in their creation. Even though companies are concerned about games' copyright statuses, some fans argue that they use the ROM images under [[fair use]] since some gaming enthusiasts have no intent to sell disks that contain those ROM images.
==Other uses==
One advantage to ROM images is the potential for ROM hacking: amateur [[programmer]]s and gaming enthusiasts have produced translations of foreign games, rewritten dialogue within a game, and applied fixes to [[computer bug|bugs]] that were present in the original game. Software that emulates a console may be improved with additional capabilities that the original system did not have, such as [[anti-aliasing]], audio interpolation, [[save state]]s, online [[multiplayer]] options, or the incorporation of [[cheat cartridge]] functionality.
Some popular console emulators include [[gnuboy]], [[VisualBoyAdvance]], [[FCE Ultra]], [[nester emulator|nester]], [[Snes9x]], [[ZSNES]], [http://nessie.321.cn/ Nessie], [[Power Player Super Joy III]], and [[TuxNES]].
==See also==
*[[List of emulators]]
==External links==
* [http://www.emulinks.de/ emulinks.de] - Emulation web directory
* [http://www.zophar.net/ Zophar's Domain]
* [http://web.archive.org/web/20021007075128/www.eidolons-inn.de/emufaq2000/ The EmuFAQ]
* [http://www.edgeemu.com/ Edge Emulation]
* [http://www.vbalink.info/ VBALink GBA emu]
* [http://www.gbadev.org/ GBADev]
* [http://nesdev.parodius.com/ NESDev]
* [http://www.zophar.net/SuperNintendoDev/ SNESDev]
* [http://www.ngemu.com NGEMU]
* [http://www.smspower.org SMSPower.org]
* [http://www.consoleclassix.com/ ConsoleClassix]
* [http://emu-russia.km.ru/?l=en Emu-Russia]
[[category: Computer and video game platform emulators| ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cowboy Bebop</title>
<id>7341</id>
<revision>
<id>42118741</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:11:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>EmperorBrandon</username>
<id>559197</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Correcting George C. Cole</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox animanga/Header|
title_name=Cowboy Bebop
|image=Cowboybeboptitle.jpg
|caption=Cowboy Bebop Logo
|ja_name=カウボーイビバップ
|ja_name_trans=Kaubōi Bibappu
|genre=[[Adventure novel|Adventure]], [[Drama]], [[Comedy]], [[Science Fiction]], [[Shōnen]]
|creator=[[Hajime Yatate]]
}}
{{Infobox animanga/Anime|
title=
|director=[[Shinichiro Watanabe]]
|studio=[[Sunrise (company)|Sunrise]]
|network=[[Image:Flag of Japan.svg|25px|Japan]][[TV Tokyo]] (1998-04-03 to 1998-06-19, 12 episodes only)
[[Image:Flag of Japan.svg|25px|Japan]] [[WOWOW]] (1998-10-23 to 1999-04-23, Full Series)
<br>[[Image:Flag of the United States.svg|25px|United States]] [[Cartoon Network]]
<br>[[Image:Flag of the Philippines.svg|25px|Philippines]] [[GMA Network]]
<br>[[Image:Flag of Argentina.svg|25px|Argentina]] [[Image:Flag of Brazil.svg|25px|Brazil]] [[Image:Flag of Mexico.svg|25px|Mexico]] [[Locomotion (TV channel)|Locomotion]]
<br> [[Image:Flag of the United Kingdom.svg|25px|United Kingdom]] [[CNX]] <br>
[[Image:Flag of the Netherlands.svg|25px|Netherlands]] [[The Music Factory|TMF]]
|first_aired=[[April 3]] [[1998]]
|last_aired=[[April 23]] [[1999]]
|num_episodes=26
}}
{{Infobox animanga/Movie|
title=Knockin' on Heaven's Door
|director=[[Shinichiro Watanabe]]
|studio=[[BONES (studio)|BONES]]
|rele
|
butor>
<username>Itomi Bhaa</username>
<id>745300</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:1996 books]]
[[Category:Alice derived works]]
'''Automated Alice''' is a novel by [[Jeff Noon]], written 1996.
Noon presents it as a ''trequel'' to the [[Lewis Carroll]] books, ''[[Alice's Adventures in Wonderland]]'' and ''[[Through the Looking-Glass]]''. This illustrated novella follows Alice's journey to a future Manchester populated by Newmonians, Civil Serpents and a vanishing cat named Quark.</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Antigua and Barbuda</title>
<id>951</id>
<revision>
<id>41463576</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T14:45:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sanmartin</username>
<id>114509</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rvv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Antigua and Barbuda infobox}}
'''Antigua and Barbuda''' is an [[island nation]] located in the eastern [[Caribbean Sea]] on the boundary with the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. [[Antigua]] ({{IPA2|ænˈtiːgə}}) and [[Barbuda]] ({{IPA2|bɑrˈbjuːdə}})are located in the middle of the [[Leeward Islands]] in the Eastern [[Caribbean]], roughly 17 degrees north of the equator. Antigua and Barbuda are part of the [[Lesser Antilles]] [[archipelago]] with the archipelago of [[Guadeloupe]] to the south, [[Montserrat]] to the southwest, [[Saint Kitts and Nevis]] to the west and [[Saint Barthélemy]] and [[Saint Martin]] to the northwest.
== History ==
''Main article: [[History of Antigua and Barbuda]]''
Pre-ceramic [[Amerindian]]s were the first to inhabit the islands of Antigua and [[Barbuda]] in [[2400 BC]]. Later [[Arawak]] and [[Carib]] [[Amerindian]] tribes populated the islands. The island of Antigua was originally named Wadadli by the natives. [[Christopher Columbus]] landed on his second voyage in 1493 and gave the island the name Antigua. Early settlements by the [[Spain|Spanish]] and [[France|French]] were succeeded by the [[United Kingdom|English]] who formed a [[colony]] in 1667 by transporting [[Irish Catholic]] slaves to Antigua. [[Slavery]], established to run the [[sugar]] plantations on Antigua, was abolished in 1834.
The islands became an independent state within the [[Commonwealth of Nations]] on [[1 November]] [[1981]], and [[Vere Bird]] became the first [[prime minister]].
== Politics ==
''Main article:'' [[Politics of Antigua and Barbuda]]
Antigua and Barbuda is a [[Commonwealth Realm]] and the [[head of state]] is [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]], who is represented in Antigua and Barbuda by a [[governor general]]. [[executive branch|Executive power]] is in the hands of the [[prime minister]], who is also the [[head of government]]. The prime minister is usually the leader of the winning party of the elections for the [[House of Representatives of Antigua and Barbuda|House of Representatives]] (17 members), held every five years. The other chamber of the [[Parliament of Antigua and Barbuda|parliament]], the [[Senate of Antigua and Barbuda|Senate]], has 17 members which are appointed by the governor general. Its current prime minister is [[Baldwin Spencer]] ([[24 March]] [[2004]]-).
== Administrative Divisions ==
''Main article: [[Parishes and dependencies of Antigua and Barbuda]]''
The island of Antigua is divided into six [[parish]]es:-
{|
|
*<small>1</small> [[Saint George Parish, Antigua and Barbuda|Saint George]]
*<small>2</small> [[Saint John Parish, Antigua and Barbuda|Saint John]]
*<small>3</small> [[Saint Mary Parish, Antigua and Barbuda|Saint Mary]]
|
*<small>4</small> [[Saint Paul Parish, Antigua and Barbuda|Saint Paul]]
*<small>5</small> [[Saint Peter Parish, Antigua and Barbuda|Saint Peter]]
*<small>6</small> [[Saint Philip Parish, Antigua and Barbuda|Saint Philip]]
|
[[Image:Antigua_parishes_numbered.png|right|px150|The Parishes of Antigua]]
|}
The island of [[Barbuda]] and the uninhabited island of [[Redonda]] each enjoy dependency status.
== Geography ==
[[Image:Antigua and Barbuda map.png|250px|thumb|right| ]]
:''Main article: [[Geography of Antigua and Barbuda]]''
The country consists of a number of islands, of which Antigua is the largest one, and the most populated. [[Barbuda]], just north of Antigua is the other main island. The islands have a warm, tropical [[climate]], with fairly constant temperatures year round. The un-inhabited island of [[Redonda]] also belongs to the nation of Antigua and Barbuda.
The islands are mostly low-lying, with the highest point being [[Boggy Peak]], at 402 [[metre]]s (1,319 [[foot (unit of length)|ft]]). The small country's main town is the capital [[St. John's, Antigua and Barbuda|Saint John's]] on Antigua; Barbuda's largest town is [[Codrington]].
== Economy ==
''Main article: [[Economy of Antigua and Barbuda]]''
[[Tourism]] dominates its economy, accounting for more than half of its [[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]]. Weak tourist arrival numbers since early 2000 have slowed the economy, however, and pressed the government into a tight fiscal corner. The dual-island nation's [[agriculture|agricultural]] production is focused on the domestic market and constrained by a limited [[water supply]] and a [[labour (economics)|labour]] shortage stemming from the lure of higher wages in tourism and construction work.
[[Manufacturing]] comprises enclave-type assembly for export with major products being bedding, handicrafts, and electronic components. Prospects for [[economic growth]] in the medium term will continue to depend on income growth in the industrialised world, especially in the [[United States]], which accounts for about one-third of all tourist arrivals.
== Demographics ==
''Main article: [[Demographics of Antigua and Barbuda]]''
Most of the population are descendants of the slaves that used to work in the sugar plantations, but there are also groups of Europeans, notably [[Irish ethnicity|Irish]], British and [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]]. While the official language is [[English language|English]], most of the locals speak [[patois]], a form of [[Creole language#English Creole|Creole English]].
Almost all Antiguans are [[Christianity|Christians]], with the [[Anglican Church]] (about 44%) being the largest denomination.
==Foreign relations==
''Main article: [[Foreign relations of Antigua and Barbuda]]''
Antigua and Barbuda is a member of the [[Caribbean Community]], [[United Nations]], [[World Trade Organization]], [[Commonwealth of Nations]], [[Organization of American States]], [[Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States]], and the Eastern Caribbean's [[Regional Security System]].
== Miscellaneous topics ==
* [[Communications in Antigua and Barbuda]]
* [[Culture of Antigua and Barbuda]]
** [[Music of Antigua and Barbuda]]
* [[Military of Antigua and Barbuda]]
* [[Transportation in Antigua and Barbuda]]
==See also==
* [[Caribbean Community]]
* [[Lesser Antilles]]
* [[List of sovereign states]]
==References==
*"[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ac.html Antigua and Barbuda]"</cite>. [[CIA World Factbook]], accessed [[28 February]] [[2005]].
== External links ==
{{wiktionary}}
*[http://www.ab.gov.ag The Official Website of the Government of Antigua and Barbuda]
*[http://www.antigua-barbuda.org/index.html Antigua & Barbuda], its Department of Tourism website
*[http://www.loc.gov/rr/international/hispanic/antigua/antigua.html Antigua and Barbuda], United States Library of Congress Portals on the World
*[http://www.gksoft.com/govt/en/ag.html Governments on the WWW: Antigua and Barbuda]
*[http://www.insideantigua.com Inside Antigua], Antigua news & weather
*[http://www.antigua-barbuda.com The High Commission of Antigua and Barbuda]. Tourism, business, history and culture, politics - an up to date website.
*[http://www.antiguacarnival.com Antigua Carnival] - with great photo galleries.
*[http://antigua-guide.info/ Antigua & Barbuda Vacation Guide] - includes articles on accommodations, transportation, dining, and weather.
{{West_Indies}}
{{Caricom}}
<br>
{{Commonwealth Realms}}
[[Category:Antigua_and_Barbuda|*]]
[[Category:Island nations]]
[[Category:CARICOM_member_states]]
[[Category:Members of the Commonwealth of Nations]]
[[Category:Former British colonies]]
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[[gl:Antiga e Barbuda - Antigua and Barbuda]]
[[ko:앤티가 바부다]]
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[[is:Antígva og Barbúda]]
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[[lv:Antigva un Barbuda]]
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[[ku:Antigûa û Berbûda]]
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[[nl:Antigua en Barbuda]]
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[[ja:アンティグア・バーブーダ]]
[[no:Antigua og Barbuda]]
[[nn:Antigua og Barbuda]]
[[pl:Antigua i Barbuda]]
[[pt:Antígua e Barbuda]]
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[[sr:Антигва и Барбуда]]
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[[tr:Antigua ve Barbuda]]
[[uk:Антигуа і Барбуда]]
[[zh:安提瓜和巴布达]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>A Man for All Seasons</title>
<id>952</id>
<revision>
<id>42063055</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T15:30:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.15.135.55</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Quotation */</comment>
|
The movie, along with Spears' performance in it, were poorly received by critics, and she netted herself a [[Razzie Award]] for Worst Actress, tied with [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]]. The film also won, among other nominations, the Worst Original Song Razzie for Spears' "[[I'm Not a Girl, Not Yet a Woman]]".
Spears' four-year relationship with [[Justin Timberlake]] ended in March 2002. The break-up was highly publicized, with rumors swirling that Spears had been unfaithful. Timberlake himself left the impression that she had cheated on him. In response to this, Spears later said, "I'm not technically saying he's wrong, but I'm not technically saying he's right, either".
In June 2002, Spears branched out as a restaurateur with the opening of a [[New York City]] eatery, NYLA, which was named for its mix of New York and Louisiana [[cuisine]]. It was not a success and closed the following year. Soon after these failures, Spears took a break from the spotlight, and in 2003 many music industry critics speculated her career was in decline. That same year, ''[[Forbes magazine|Forbes]]'' named Spears the most powerful celebrity in the world. She was also nominated for two Grammys yet again, including Best Pop Vocal Album.
Spears returned to the forefront of the pop music scene in August 2003. That month, she appeared at the MTV Video Music Awards with her idol [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]], pop singer [[Christina Aguilera]] and rapper [[Missy Elliott]]. Spears and Aguilera performed Madonna's song "[[Like a Virgin (song)|Like a Virgin]]", danced suggestively and each locked lips with Madonna (see [[Madonna on the 2003 MTV Video Music Awards]]). Spears' kiss with Madonna attracted huge publicity that would last for several months.
[[Image:Inthezone.JPG|left|thumb|200px|''[[In the Zone]]'' (2003) is generally considered Spears' most overtly-sexual album to date.]]
November 2003 saw the release of Spears' fourth album, ''[[In the Zone]]''. Jettisoning the [[Max Martin]]-produced [[synthpop]] of her earlier releases, the album took in lesser-known producers such as [[Christopher Stewart (music producer)|RedZone]] and big names including [[Moby]] and [[R. Kelly]]. Spears co-wrote nine of the album's thirteen songs and co-produced some of her material for the first time. ''In the Zone'' went to the top of the U.S. charts in its debut week, selling over 600,000 copies. This made Spears the only female in music history to have her first four albums debut at number one. The ablum sold nearly three million copies in the U.S alone{{ref|AlbumsSales3}} and also spawned the international number one and U.S. top ten hit, "[[Toxic (song)|Toxic]]", which won Spears her first Grammy in the category of [[Grammy Award for Best Dance Recording|Best Dance Recording]].
On [[January 3]], [[2004]], Spears [[marriage|married]] her childhood friend [[Jason Allen Alexander]] at [[The Little White Wedding Chapel]] on the [[Las Vegas Strip]] in [[Las Vegas, Nevada]]. An [[annulment]] was promptly arranged and was granted on [[January 5]], ending their fifty-five hour marriage. Spears later said about the spur-of-the-moment marriage, "Honestly, I really wanted to see what it was like to be married". Spears embarked on her fourth world tour, ''[[The Onyx Hotel Tour]]'', the following March. The tour grossed over $34 million USD and was seen by over 600,000 fans in [[North America]] and [[Europe]], but the remaining dates were cancelled in June, after Spears reportedly injured her knee during the filming of the video for the single "[[Outrageous]]".
That same month, Spears announced her engagement to dancer [[Kevin Federline]]. Federline was formerly in a relationship with actress [[Shar Jackson]], with whom he has two children. On the night of [[September 18]], [[2004]], Spears married Federline before twenty-seven guests in a surprise, non-denominational ceremony at a residence in [[Studio City, California]]. The legitimacy of the marriage was initially questioned, but on [[November 18]], [[2004]], a representative of the Los Angeles County registrar's office confirmed Spears and Federline had successfully filed their marriage license with the county within ten days of their ceremony, and were therefore legally married.
===2004&ndash;2005: Career hiatus and family===
[[Image:Curiosityperfume.jpg|thumb|right|200px|"[[Curious (fragrance)|Curious]]" perfume promotion, at the [[Toronto Eaton Centre]] (2004)]]
During the latter half of 2004, Spears announced she would be taking another career break in order to start a family. Immediately after her marriage to Federline, she had told ''[[People (magazine)|People]]'', "I want to be a young mom. Next year, at 23, I'm so there". Although she made few public appearances, the 'Britney Spears industry' continued to run itself. In September 2004, she released her first [[fragrance]], "[[Curious (fragrance)|Curious]]" (a floral scent with vanilla and musk), for which she earned a reported $12 million USD. The fragrance had the biggest debut in sales in history from [[Elizabeth Arden]], breaking the record for first-week gross for a perfume; after one year of sales, the product has netted more than $100 million USD.{{ref|Curious}} It ended up as the number one fragrance of 2004 in department stores, and in 2005 it was honored by the Fragrance Foundation as "Best Women's Fragrance". Following the success of "Curious", Spears released her next Elizabeth Arden fragrance, "Fantasy" (a fruity scent with flowers and cupcake), in September 2005. "Fantasy" became a top-selling perfume {{ref|Fantasy}} during the holiday season of 2005.
[[Image:Britney Spears - Greatest Hits.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Spears on the cover of ''[[Greatest Hits: My Prerogative]]'' (2004)]]
Spears' first hits collection, ''[[Greatest Hits: My Prerogative]]'', was released in late 2004. The album debuted at number four on the U.S. charts (becoming Spears' first album to not debut at number one domestically), selling over 255,000 copies in its first week of release. In addition to her biggest hits, it featured three new songs, including "[[My Prerogative]]" (a cover of the [[Bobby Brown]] song) and "[[Do Somethin']]" which were released as singles. Since hitting shelves, the album has sold more than a million copies in the States.
During the spring of 2005, Spears' [[reality show]] with husband Kevin Federline, ''[[Britney and Kevin: Chaotic]]'', premiered on [[UPN]] in the U.S. The series included five episodes, and both Spears and Federline were credited as [[executive producer]]s. ''Chaotic'' was panned by most critics, and ratings were not as high as expected. Spears announced her pregnancy via her official website in April 2005. Despite her eagerness to have a baby, she admitted to ''[[ELLE]]'' magazine that, "I have a feeling I'm going to have an operation. I don't know why. But I hope so. I don't want to go through the pain." On [[September 14]], [[2005]], 6lb. 11oz. baby boy Sean Preston Federline was born in the Santa Monica UCLA Medical Center in [[Santa Monica, California]], using an elective [[caesarean section]].
[[Jive Records|Jive]] released a [[remix]] album entitled ''[[B in the Mix: The Remixes]]'' in late 2005. It lacked promotion of any kind in the U.S. and debuted outside the top one hundred, with less than 15,000 copies sold in its first week of release. "''[[And Then We Kiss]]''" was released in Asia. It peaked at #1 in Israel.{{ref|Israel}} The single charted in several Asian countries and it also managed to peak at #21 in the ''U.S. Billboard Hot Dance Airplay''.{{ref|USDance}}
===2006: Return to recording career===
Spears participated in the [[New Orleans Mardi Gras|Mardi Gras]] festivities in [[New Orleans]] on February 28, where she corresponded with ''[[Good Morning America]]''. She will guest star on an episode of ''[[Will & Grace]]'' (currently scheduled to air on [[March 30]]th)[http://www.timesleader.com/mld/timesleader/entertainment/13991403.htm], playing a [[conservative Christian]] character, and release a limited edition fragrance in April 2006 called "In Control: Curious," which is a spin-off of her first perfume.
In interviews with ''[[People magazine|People]]'' and with ''[[Entertainment Tonight]]'', Spears confirmed that she is currently in the early stages of recording her fifth studio album, to be released sometime in 2006. She commented that she couldn't wait to return because the current pop scene has been "a huge lull" and "boring." She also revealed that Jive, her record label, didn't let her "show off" her voice during her earlier years and she is determined to come back proving she can sing, saying "I found out after the baby that I can sing!"
==Controversy==
[[Image:britney1.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Spears on the cover of ''[[ELLE]]'' magazine (2003)]]
* Spears' success has rested on a mixed [[fandom|fanbase]]. Some parents of young girls disapprove of or are disgusted by Spears. To many critics, the singer has combined a very raunchy public image with a major marketing "play" for the hearts, minds and pockets of prepubescent girls, often as young as seven or eight. Some parents worry that Spears provides an unsuitable role model for their daughters' lives and career plans. In October 2003, [[Maryland]] First Lady Kendel Ehrlich, the wife of [[Governor]] [[Robert Ehrlich]], was criticized for saying that she would like to "shoot Britney Spears", in an address to a [[domestic violence]] conference. After her comments made national headlines, she was compelled to apologize.
* The sexualized public image of Spears once again became a topic of debate as a result of her 2003 semi-[[nude]] photo spread for the men's magazine, ''[[Esquire Mag
|
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