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a less dedicated lifestyle and the need to be recommitted to the group's general mission of fervently preaching the Gospel. In the second half of 2004 they held a six-month renewal period to help members refocus their priorities. Membership was reorganized and new levels of membership were introduced. Members now fall into the following categories, Family Disciples, Missionary Members, Fellow Members, Active Members, and General Members. The [[Family Discipleship Charter]], also known as the Family’s Charter, governs Family disciples, but the [[Missionary Member Statutes]] and the [[Fellow Member Statutes]] were written for the governance of the Family’s Missionary member and Fellow member circles, respectively. Homes of Family Disciples now work to newly annunciated set of criteria on which they are reviewed every six months. At the beginning of 2005 there were 1,238 Family Homes and 10,202 members worldwide. Of those, 266 Homes and 4884 members were FD, 255 Homes and 1,769 members were MM, and 717 Homes and 3,549 members were FM. Statistics on AM and GM categories are currently unavailable. ===Issues=== ====Child Abduction==== : ''Main article: [[Child Abduction in the Children of God]]'' Since the late 1970s, there have been increasing reports of children of former members being abducted and moved to other countries to prevent their parents, law enforcement authorities and child welfare agencies from finding them. An investigation into the whereabouts of four missing children, whose mother, Ruth Frouman [http://www.xfamily.org/index.php/Ruth_Frouman], was expelled from the group in July 1987, eight months after being diganosed with breast cancer, and not allowed to leave with her children, resulted in police raids [http://www.xfamily.org/index.php/Legal_Case_Argentina%2C_1993] on 10 Family Homes in Buenos Aires, Argentina in September 1993.[http://www.xfamily.org/index.php/Tribunal_de_Menores_de_Mercedes_-_Case_number_32.202]. Two of her children were returned to their father in May 1993. The other two abducted children were not reunited with their father and their other relatives until mid-1997. However, there have also been reports of parents taking their children out of the Family without the other parent's consent and instead resolving the custody dispute in the judicial system. For example, in 1992 the spouse of Grant Borowick, brother of Family International spokesperson Susan Claire Borowik, left the Family and in 1993 returned with three male relatives to take her children back to her hometown of Salta, Argentina. According to news reports, Grant Borowick spent six months trying to obtain visitation rights through Argentine courts. [http://www.xfamily.org/index.php/Hamilton_Spectator:_Cult_includes_brother_of_suspect_woman] It is unknown whether he was successful. Although official Family spokespersons have rarely made any public statements about specific [[child abduction]] cases involving its members, members of the Family claim that there is some evidence that the Family's policies and practices regarding child abduction and child custody began to change in the mid-1990s. In February 1995, several months after the death of its founder, the Family introduced to its members a rule book known as the ''Love Charter'' or the ''Charter of Rights and Responsibilities''. Section 60, ''Permanent Marital Separation Rules'', states that couples with children must come to a mutual written agreement regarding the separation and the custody of the children and that obtaining a legal divorce and child custody order is optional.[http://www.xfamily.org/images/2/2d/Charter.pdf] This policy stated that it only applied to marital separations after February 1995. The June 2003 amendments state that if the parties involved cannot reach a mutual agreement and "opt to use the court system to settle the matter," they must "relinquish Charter membership until the matter is settled."<ref name="Charter Amendments"/> At least one Family member, Peter Bevan Riddell, is known to have been convicted of child abduction. In 1984, he was convicted of child kidnapping and forgery in Japan and deported to Australia. After his release from prison, he returned to the Family to work for David Berg and Karen Zerby in World Services.[http://www.xfamily.org/index.php/Peter_Bevan_Riddell] Another Family member, Brian Edward Pickus, has been wanted for decades on an Interpol warrant issued by the United States and the state of Hawaii for kidnapping, burglary and unlawful flight to avoid prosecution.[http://www.xfamily.org/index.php/Brian_Edward_Pickus_-_Argentina_Extradition_Case] ====The second generation==== Second-generation adults, those adults who were born and/or raised in the Family International and are known in the movement as "SGAs," have assumed many if not the majority of the leadership positions in the organization. This includes the chairmanships of many of the international, regional, and national boards. Yet as with other high-commitment religious groups, many second-generation members of the group have left to pursue secular careers, get a tertiary education, and raise their children in a drastically different environment than the one they were raised in. There is a great deal of anti-Family sentiment amongst some of those who have left, including threats to legally pursue alleged physical and sexual abusers, whom, some allege, have been shielded from prosecution by the group's leadership. The Family International has asserted that most former second-generation members have chosen to remain publicly silent about their experiences, and that the public silence of this group indicates that the vast majority of them have cordial relations with those still in it. It claims there is ample firsthand and [[anecdotal evidence]] to support this assertion. Many former second-generation members have publicly complained of negative experiences in the group. As former [[Missionary Kids\|missionary kids]], the second generation of former members have now become adults. Many have returned to the country of their citizenship and have, thus, become [[Third Culture Kids]] (TCKs). Many of the former second-generation members have kept in communication with each other. A notable example of this is their use of the site, MovingOn.org <ref name=MovingOn>[http://www.movingon.org/ MovingOn.org] - Community site for former second generation members of The Family</ref> established by a former second-generation member in 2001. Those who have remained in the group have chosen to continue the missionary work of their parents and have been vocal in their defense of the Family lifestyle at MyConclusion.com<ref name=MyConclusion>[http://www.myconclusion.com MyConclusion.com] - Opinions and responses by current second-generation members with positive viewpoints about The Family</ref>, a site established by second-generation members of the Family International shortly after the January 2005 murder-suicide of [http://www.rickyrodriguez.org Rick Rodriguez] and [http://www.angela-smith.org Angela Smith]. Members of the Family International are encouraged to maintain friendly relations with relatives who have left. However, they are also discouraged from associating with relatives that are considered active enemies of the Family. Some former second generation members have found it difficult to maintain friendly relations with their relatives still in the Family when their parents and siblings have appeared on televion programs around the world to denounce them as mentally unstable liars in the pay of the anti-cult movement. There are many former second generation members that have reported crimes to law enforcement agencies, have testified against the group in court cases involving its members, and publicly express negative opinions about the group's members and practices. The Family uses the sociological/religious term [[apostates]] to describe these ex-members and has argued that their testimony is unreliable and less credible than that of current members. The Family has also argued that second generation members who alleged they were abused in the group are liars, mentally unstable or demon-possessed and that the anti-cult movement paid them large sums of money to tell lies about the Family. Some of the second generation of former members resent the apostate label, as most of them never chose to join this group in the first place (they were born into it) and, thus feel they cannot rightly be called apostates. ====Relationship with government authorities==== Family members are expected to respect the legal and civil authorities of the countries in which they live, in keeping with the biblical admonitions of Romans 13. Members may choose to use their adopted religious name in every day life, rather than their legal name. In sociological terms, the movement exists in high tension with the surrounding environment. Yet, members have consistently shown their peaceful cooperation with the duly appointed authorities, even when provoked by police and social service raids of their communities in the early 1990s. <ref>Bainbridge, William Sims (2002). "The Endtime Family: Children of God". ''State University of New York Press'', Albany, NY.</ref> ====Secrecy==== A consistent trait throughout the history of The Family has been the high value they have placed on their independence and privacy from what they term the "System"—the surrounding political and economic environment. This has led to secrecy surrounding leadership and finances. World Services (WS), the central administrative wing of The Family, continues to operate in seclusion, with very few members of The Family actually knowing their whereabouts. Some members have legally changed their names. There have been allegations that members of the Family, including senior leaders, have u
y had a mere 1.5 million habitants, mostly concentrated in the urban centers of the young Republic. However, in 1822, the province of El Salvador convinced the other Guatemalan provinces to join the [[Mexican Empire]], an idea created by [[Agustin Iturbide]]. This Empire was short-lived, however, and a year later Guatemala separated itself from Mexico after Iturbide was forced to abdicate and his empire collapsed. As a result of this annexation, Guatemala lost the Soconusco region, which is now part of Mexico. After this, the Guatemalan provinces formed the [[United Provinces of Central America]], also referred to as the Central American Federation (Federacion de Estados Centroamericanos). The Capital City remained [[Guatemala City]], which to this day continues to be the biggest and most modern urban center in the entire Central American region. A politically unstable period followed, aggravated by the collapse of the world market for añil (indigo), main export product from the region to Europe. This resulted in each province separating itself from the Federation, beginning with the province of Costa Rica. This confederation fell apart in [[1838]] to [[1840]], and Guatemala became an independent nation. Guatemala has long claimed all or part of the territory of neighboring [[Belize]], formerly part of the Spanish colony. However, [[Great Britain]] occupied this territory, and Belize remains English-speaking to this day. While Guatemala recognized Belize's independence in [[1991]], the territorial dispute between them has not yet been finalized. Negotiations are currently underway under the auspices of the [[Organization of American States]] to conclude the dispute. For details, see: [http://www.asil.org/insights/insigh59.htm], and the OAS page [http://www.oas.org/main/main.asp?sLang=E&sLink=http://www.oas.org/oaspage/searchform.asp]. Guatemalan history has been marked by the scenario of the Cold War between the [[USA]] and the [[USSR]]. The [[Central Intelligence Agency]], supported by a small group of Guatemalan citizens, orchestrated the overthrow of the [[democratic socialist]] freely-elected Guatemalan government in [[1954]]. This was known as [[Operation PBSUCCESS]] and led to over thirty years of unrest in the nation in which over 100,000 Guatemalans were killed, mostly indigenous Mayan Indians, more than 450 Mayan villages were destroyed, and over one million people became refugees. This is alleged to be one of the worst [[ethnic cleansing]]s in modern times. Contributing reasons include US support of every successive, non-democratic government in Guatemala. From the 1950s until the 1990s, the U.S. directly supported Guatemala's army by supplying it with combatant training, weaponry, and money. The U.S. sent the [[Green Berets]] to Guatemala to transform its Army into a "modern counter-insurgency force," making their army the most powerful and sophisticated in Central America. Further involvement of the CIA in Guatemala included the training of 5,000 anti-[[Fidel Castro\|Castro]] [[Cuba\|Cubans]] for what would become the failed [[Bay of Pigs Invasion]]. [[1996]] marked the end of a bloody 36-year war with the guerrilla [[Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity]] (URNG). The signing of the peace treaty was orchestrated by the government of democratically elected President [[Alvaro Arzu]]. Since then, the country has enjoyed successive democractic elections, most recently in [[2003]]. However, corruption is still rampant throughout all levels of government. A huge cache of National Police files discovered in December of 2005 revealed methods of public security officials to quell unrest of citizens during the civil war [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/4499354.stm]. Militarily, the Guatemalan army defeated the URNG. However, due to the brutal methods of the military, the country had become a pariah state internationally. In [[1992]], the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] was awarded to [[Rigoberta Menchu]], an indigenous human rights activist, for her efforts to bring international attention to the government sponsored genocide against the indigenous population. == Politics == ''Main article: [[Politics of Guatemala]]'' Guatemala's [[unicameral]] parliament, the ''[[Congress of Guatemala\|Congreso de la República]]'' (Congress of the Republic) with 158 seats, is elected every four years, concurrently with the presidential elections. The [[President of Guatemala]] acts as the head of state and head of government. In his executive tasks, he is assisted by a cabinet of ministers, which he appoints. ''See also:'' [[Guatemala election, 2003]] == Departments == ''Main article: [[Departments of Guatemala]]'' [[Image:GuatemalaProvs.PNG\|right\|250px\|thumb\|''The departments of Guatemala'']] Guatemala is divided into 22 [[department]]s (''departamentos''): #[[Alta Verapaz]] #[[Baja Verapaz]] #[[Chimaltenango department\|Chimaltenango]] #[[Chiquimula department\|Chiquimula]] #[[El Petén]] #[[El Progreso department\|El Progreso]] #[[El Quiché]] #[[Escuintla department\|Escuintla]] #[[Guatemala department\|Guatemala]] #[[Huehuetenango department\|Huehuetenango]] #[[Izabal Department\|Izabal]] #[[Jalapa department\|Jalapa]] #[[Jutiapa department\|Jutiapa]] #[[Quetzaltenango department\|Quetzaltenango]] #[[Retalhuleu department\|Retalhuleu]] #[[Sacatepéquez]] #[[San Marcos department\|San Marcos]] #[[Santa Rosa department, Guatemala\|Santa Rosa]] #[[Sololá department\|Sololá]] #[[Suchitepequez department\|Suchitepequez]] #[[Totonicapán department\|Totonicapán]] #[[Zacapa department\|Zacapa]] == Geography == [[Image:Gt-map.jpg\|framed\|Map of Guatemala]] ''Main article: [[Geography of Guatemala]]'' Except for the south coastal area, and the vast lowlands of the [[Peten]] in the north, Guatemala is mountainous, with a hot tropical climate &ndash; more temperate in the highlands, and drier in the easternmost departments. All of the major cities are situated in the southern half of the country; the major cities are the capital [[Guatemala City]], [[Quetzaltenango]] and [[Escuintla]]. The largest lake [[Lago de Izabal]] is situated close to the Caribbean coast. Guatemala's location on the Atlantic Ocean has left it a target for [[hurricane]]s, including [[Hurricane Mitch]] in 1998 and [[Hurricane Stan]] in 2005, in which upwards of 1,500 died. == Economy == ''Main article: [[Economy of Guatemala]]'' The [[agricultural sector]] accounts for one quarter of [[Gross Domestic Product\|GDP]], two-thirds of exports, and half of the labor force. [[Coffee]], [[sugar]], and [[banana]]s are the main products. Manufacturing and construction account for one-fifth of GDP. The signing of the peace accords in December [[1996]], which ended 36 years of civil war, removed a major obstacle to foreign investment. In [[1998]], [[Hurricane Mitch]] caused relatively little damage to Guatemala compared to its neighbors. Remaining challenges include beefing up government revenues, negotiating further assistance from international donors, and increasing the efficiency and openness of both government and private financial operations. In 2005, after massive street protests, Guatemala's congress ratified the [[Dominican Republic-Central America Free Trade Agreement\|Dominican Republic - Central American Free Trade Agreement (DR-CAFTA)]] between several Central American nations and the [[United States of America\|U.S.]]. However, owing to the extensive damage and economic impacts caused by [[Hurricane Stan]] in October [[2005]], the government is in period of stand-by analyis and acceptance as it contemplates how it will be possible to implement the mechanisms and stipulations of the DR-CAFTA by the due starting date in February of [[2006]]. == Demographics == ''Main article: [[Demographics of Guatemala]]'' According to the CIA [[World Fact Book]], [[Mestizo]]s (mixed [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas\|Amerindian]]-Spanish; locally called Ladino) and Europeans (primarily of Spanish, German, English, Italian, and Scandinavian descent) comprise 60% of the population and Amerindians comprise approximately 40% of the population ([[K'iche]] (Quiché) 9.1%, [[Kaqchikel]] 8.4%, [[Mam]] 7.9%, [[Q'eqchi]] 6.3%, other Mayan 8.6%, indigenous non-Mayan 0.2%, other 0.1%). CIA World Fact Book - http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/gt.html Though most of Guatemala's population is rural, [[urbanization]] is accelerating. [[Guatemala City]] (approx. 3 million) is expanding at an amazing rate, and [[Quetzaltenango]] (approx. 150 thousand) is growing rapidly as well. Generally impoverished farmers move to the outskirts of the city temporarily or permanently seeking higher wages. These [[barrio]]s are virtually lawless. In addition, since 2001 the US has been deporting at a high rate. Many Guatemalans return from Southern [[California]] with advanced skills in [[organized crime]]. [[Crime]] is epidemic in Guatemala City and is a growing concern in [[Xela]] and other smaller cities. Smaller towns which are blessed with steady [[tourism]], such as the towns around [[Lago Atitlan]], are faring better. There is a measure of increasing prosperity and decreasing interference from the army. It remains to be seen how well these places can adapt to the changing conditions, particularly the influx of foreigners and their vices. The predominant religion is [[Roman Catholicism]], into which many indigenous Guatemalans have incorporated traditional forms of worship. [[Protestantism]] and traditional [[Maya]] religions are practiced by an estimated 33% and 1% of the population, respectively. Although the official language is [[Spanish language\|Spanish]], it is not universally understood among the indigenous population; 23 distinct [[Mayan language]]s are still spoken, especially in rural areas. The Peace Accords signed in December [[1996]] provide for the translation of some official documents and voting materials into severa
Preto\|Medical School of the University of São Paulo at Ribeirão Preto]], Brazil (one of the excellent [[medical research]] centers on Chagas disease), that intracellular amastigotes destroy the intramural neurons of the [[autonomic nervous system]] in the intestine and heart, leading to megaintestine and heart [[aneurysm]]s, respectively. The bloodstream trypomastigotes do not replicate (different from the [[African]] trypanosomes). Replication resumes only when the parasites enter another cell or are ingested by another vector. The “kissing” bug becomes infected by feeding on human or animal blood that contains circulating parasites. Also the bugs might be able to spread the infection to each other through their cannibalistic predatory behaviour. The ingested trypomastigotes transform into [[epimastigote]]s in the vector’s midgut. The parasites multiply and differentiate in the midgut and differentiate into infective metacyclic trypomastigotes in the hindgut. ''Trypanosoma cruzi'' can also be transmitted through [[blood transfusions]], organ [[transplantation]], [[placenta\|transplacentally]], [[breast milk]] [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12751321&query_hl=1] and in laboratory accidents. According to the [[World Health Organization]] infection rate in [[blood bank]]s in Latin America vary between 3% and 53%, a figure higher than of [[HIV]] infection and [[hepatitis]] B and C. [[Image:Chagas_disease_cycle.jpeg\|Life cycle of Trypanosima cruzi. Source: CDC]] ===Alternative infection mechanism=== Researchers suspected since 1991 [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=1844961&dopt=Citation] that the transmission of the trypanosome by the oral route might be possible, due to a number of micro-epidemics restricted to particular times and places (such as a farm or a family dwelling), particularly in non-endemic areas such as the [[Amazonia]] (17 such episodes recorded between 1968 and 1997). In 1991, farm workers in the state of [[Paraíba]], Brazil, were apparently infected by contamination of food with [[opossum]] feces; and in 1997, in [[Macapá]], state of [[Amapá]], 17 members of two families were infected by drinking [[acai\|assai]] palm fruit juice probably contaminated with crushed triatomine vector insects[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=10677763&dopt=Citation]. In the beginning of 2005, a new outbreak with 27 cases was detected in [[Amapá]]. Recently (March 2005) a new startling outbreak was recorded in the state of [[Santa Catarina]], Brazil, that seems to confirm this alternative mechanism of transmission. Several people in Santa Catarina who had ingested [[sugar cane]] juice ("[[garapa]]", in Portuguese) by a roadside kiosk acquired Chagas disease [http://aol.countrywatch.com/aol_wire.asp?vCOUNTRY=183&UID=1442449]. As of March 30th, 2005, 49 cases had been confirmed in Santa Catarina, including 6 deaths. The hypothesized mechanism, so far, is that trypanosome-bearing insects were crushed into the raw preparation. The health authorities of Santa Catarina have estimated that ca. 60,000 people might have had contact with the [[food safety\|contaminated food]] in Santa Catarina and urged everyone in this situation to submit to blood tests. They have prohibited the sale of sugar cane juice in the state until the situation is rectified. The unusual severity of the disease outbreak has been blamed on a hypothetical higher parasite load achieved by the oral route of infection. Brazilian researchers at the [[Instituto Oswaldo Cruz]], [[Rio de Janeiro]], were able to infect [[mouse\|mice]] via a gastrointestinal tube with trypanosome-infected oral preparations. ==Laboratory diagnosis== Demonstration of the causal agent is the diagnostic procedure in acute Chagas disease. It almost always yields positive results, and can be achieved by: * [[microscope\|Microscopic]] examination: a) of fresh anticoagulated [[blood]], or its [[buffy coat]], for motile parasites; and b) of thin and thick blood smears stained with [[Giemsa stain\|Giemsa]], for visualization of [[parasites]]; it can be confused with the 50% longer ''[[Trypanosoma rangeli]]'', which has not shown any pathogenity in humans yet. * Isolation of the agent by: a) inoculation into [[mouse\|mice]]; b) culture in specialized media (e.g. NNN, LIT); and c) [[xenodiagnosis]], where uninfected [[Reduviidae]] bugs are fed on the patient's blood, and their gut contents examined for parasites 4 weeks later. Various [[Immunodiagnostic]] tests; (also trying to distinguish [[strain]]s ([[zymodeme]]s) of ''T.cruzi'' with divergent pathogenities). [[Complement fixation]] indirect [[hemagglutination]] [[Indirect fluoresence assay\|IFA]], [[Indirect fluorescent assay]] [[Radioimmunoassay\|RIA]], Radio-immunoassay [[ELISA]], Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay [[PCR]], Polymerase chain reaction, most promising ==Treatment== Medication for Chagas disease is usually only effective when given during the [[acute]] stage of infection. The drugs of choice are azole or nitroderivatives such as [[benznidazole]] [http://aac.asm.org/cgi/content/abstract/49/4/1521] or [[nifurtimox]] (under an Investigational New Drug protocol from the [[CDC]] Drug Service), but resistance to these drugs has already been reported [http://aac.asm.org/cgi/content/abstract/42/12/3245]. Furthermore, these agents are very toxic and have many [[adverse effect (medicine)\|adverse effects]], and cannot be taken without medical supervision. A 10-year study of chronic administration of drugs in Brazil has revealed that these drugs are not totally effective, too, in removing [[parasitemia]] [http://scholar.google.com/url?sa=U&q=http://www.ajtmh.org/cgi/reprint/63/3/111.pdf]. Thus, the decision about whether to use [[antiparasitic therapy]] should be individualized in consultation with an expert. In the [[chronic]] stage, treatment involves managing the clinical manifestations of the disease, e.g., drugs and [[heart pacemaker]] for [[chronic heart failure]] and [[heart arryhthmia]]s; [[surgery]] for megaintestine, etc., but the disease per se is not curable in this phase. Chronic heart disease caused by Chagas is now a common reason for [[heart transplantation]] surgery. Until recently, however, Chagas disease was considered a [[contraindication]] for the procedure, since the heart damage could recur as the parasite was expected to seize the opportunity provided by the [[immunosuppression]] that follows surgery. The research that changed the indication of the transplant procedure for Chagas disease patients was conducted by Dr. [[Adib Jatene]]'s group at the [[Heart Institute of the University of São Paulo]], in [[São Paulo]], Brazil [http://ats.ctsnetjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/61/6/1727]. The research noted that survival rates in Chagas patients can be significantly improved by using lower dosages of the immunosuppressant drug [[cyclosporine]]. Recently, direct [[stem cell therapy]] of the heart muscle using [[bone marrow]] cell transplantation has been shown to dramatically reduce risks of heart failure in Chagas patients [http://publicacoes.cardiol.br/abc/2004/8202/8202010i.pdf]. Patients have also been shown to benefit from the strict prevention of reinfection, though the reason for this is not yet clearly understood. Some examples for the struggle for advances: Use of [[oxidosqualene cyclase]] inhibitors and [[cysteine protease]] inhibitors has been found to cure experimental infections in animals [http://www.jem.org/cgi/content/abstract/188/4/725]. [[Dermaseptin]]s from frog species ''[[Phyllomedusa]] oreades'' and ''P. distincta''. Anti-''Trypanosoma cruzi ''activity without [[cytotoxicity]] to mammalian cells.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&list_uids=12379643&dopt=Abstract] The sesquiterpene lactone dehydroleucodine (DhL) affects the growth of cultured [[epimastigote]]s of ''Trypanosoma cruzi'' [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=10780563&query_hl=1&itool=pubmed_docsum] * The [[genome]] of the disease has been sequenced [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=16020725&query_hl=3]. Proteins that are produced by the disease but not by humans have been identified as possible drug targets to defeat the disease. (El-Sayed, ''et al.'', 2005) ==Prevention== [[Image:Triatoma_infestans.jpg\|thumb\|Vector insect ''[[Triatoma infestans]]'' (Kissing Bug)]] A reasonably effective [[vaccine]] was developed in Ribeirão Preto in the 1970s, using cellular and subcellular fractions of the parasite, but it was found economically unfeasible. More recently, the potential of DNA vaccines for [[immunotherapy]] of acute and chronic Chagas disease is being tested by several research groups. Prevention is centered on fighting the vector (''Triatoma'') by using sprays and paints containing [[insecticide]]s (synthetic [[pyrethrum\|pyrethroids]]), and improving housing and sanitary conditions in the rural area. For urban dwellers, spending vacations and [[camping]] out in the wilderness or sleeping at hostels or mud houses in endemic areas can be dangerous, a [[mosquito net]] is recommended. If the traveller intends to travel to the area of prevalence, he/she should get information on endemic rural areas for Chagas disease in traveller advisories, such as the [[CDC]]. In most countries where Chagas disease is endemic, [[blood tests\|testing]] for [[blood donation\|blood donors]] is already mandatory, since this can be an important route of transmission. In the past, blood donors where mixed with 0,25 g/L of [[gentian violet]] sucessfully to kill parasites. With all these measures, some landmarks were
[1954]]). In all he kicked 537 goals in only 98 matches; his ratio of 5.48 goals a game is the second best in the history of the league. ===The fall from grace ([[1961]] - [[1980]])=== John Coleman was appointed coach after the retirement of Dick Reynolds from the position, and the club enjoyed continued success, winning premierships in [[1962]] and [[1965]]. Coleman's time as coach turned out to be much like his playing career: highly successful but cut short when he had to stand down due to health problems in [[1967]]. After Coleman's retirement, the club hit tough times both on the field and off. Finals appearances were rare for the side, which was more often in contention for the wooden spoon (last place) than the premiership. During the period from [[1968]] until 1980, five different coaches were tried, with none lasting longer than four years. Off the field the club went through troubled times as well. In [[1970]] five players went on strike before the season even began, demanding higher payments. 1980 proved an even more embarrassing year for the club, with new recruit [[Phil Carman]] making headlines for head butting an umpire. The tribunal suspended him for sixteen weeks, and although most people thought this was a fair (or even lenient) sentence, he took his case to the supreme court, gathering even more unwanted publicity for the club. [[1976]] proved the only real highlight for Essendon supporters during this time, when ruckman [[Graham Moss]] won the Brownlow medal. ===The [[Kevin Sheedy]] years ([[1981]] - present)=== 1981 again saw Essendon switching coaches, this time to Kevin Sheedy, a former [[Richmond Football Club\|Richmond]] player who had only recently retired and had no senior coaching experience. Although he got off to a bad start, with the side on the bottom of the ladder early in the season, the team recorded 15 successive victories up until the end of the season, to make the finals in Sheedy's first year as coach. Making the finals proved to be a habit of Sheedy's, with the side again making the finals in [[1982]], and then taking the next step and reaching the [[1983]] grand final. Although they were beaten by [[Hawthorn Football Club\|Hawthorn]] by a then record margin, the [[1984]] result proved to be different. With Hawthorn leading by four goals at three-quarter time, it appeared certain that Hawthorn would win back-to-back premierships. Sheedy pulled some of his now famous positional moves, and the Essendon side that had appeared to have no hope suddenly looked the better of the two sides, eventually winning by four goals. The [[1985]] side repeated the result, this time soundly beating the Hawthorn side. These results had many media commentators talking about an Essendon dynasty, especially since the side had some of Essendon's greatest ever players in [[Tim Watson]], [[Simon Madden]] and [[Terry Daniher]] in the prime of their careers. This failed to eventuate for a number of reasons, injury and the retirements of some of the supporting players amongst them. Despite this, by [[1990]] Essendon again made the grand final, losing heavily to [[Collingwood Football Club\|Collingwood]]. By this stage most of the more experienced players were nearing retirement, and with few obvious replacements, [[1991]] and [[1992]] were not great years by the standards previously set during Sheedy's time in charge. For that reason it was of great surprise to most in the footballing world when in one of the most even seasons ever, Essendon defeated Carlton in a landslide to win the [[1993]] premiership. The side became known as the "baby bombers", as the core of the side was made up of young, inexperienced players just starting their careers. One of them, [[Gavin Wanganeen]], won the Brownlow medal that year. Around this time period saw a transition of the club off the field. Moving from its traditional home ground, [[Windy Hill]], to the larger and more modern [[Melbourne Cricket Ground\|MCG]] saw the side massively expand the crowds at its home games. This move, combined with shrewd marketing, particularly from coach Kevin Sheedy, and continued on field success has seen Essendon become one of the financial powerhouses of the competition. Although many Victorian clubs struggle, requiring AFL assistance to make ends meet, Essendon has consistently made a sizeable profit year after year. After the success of 1993, many fans were disappointed in the performances in the following years, despite making the finals most years. In [[1996]], the side missed the grand final by a point, but received some compensation when [[James Hird]] won the Brownlow medal. By [[1998]], there were many calling for Kevin Sheedy to be replaced, and eventually this resulted in the coaching panel to be expanded, with Sheedy's assistant coaches taking on a greater role. This appeared to work, with Essendon finishing on top of the ladder in [[1999]], only to again miss out on the grand final by one point. This was the fourth final lost by a point under Sheedy, which some used as evidence to support the view that the side had underachieved under his coaching. The [[2000]] season proved to be the best Essendon, or indeed any side in the league, has ever produced. Essendon lost only one game during the home-and-away season, and went unbeaten through the finals to win a record equalling 16th premiership. The side looked set to repeat this success the following year, but late season injuries took their toll, and an in-form [[Brisbane Lions\|Brisbane]] side defeated them in the grand final. In the three years from [[2002]] to [[2004]], Essendon has finished sixth each year. That many fans view finishing sixth in a sixteen team competition to be a failure exemplifies the expectations the side's continued success under Sheedy has brought. During 2004, Sheedy signed a new three year contract, by the end of which he will be second on the list of most VFL/AFL games coached behind [[Collingwood Football Club\|Collingwood's]] [[Jock McHale]]. Season 2005 saw Essendon produce their worst ever season under Sheedy's coaching reign finishing the 2005 AFL Season in 13th position on the AFL ladder with 8 wins and 14 losses and missed the AFL Finals for the first time since 1997. On September 27, it was announced that [[Matthew Lloyd]] would replace James Hird as Essendon captain for AFL Season 2006, marking the end of Hird's reign since he took over the captaincy in 1998. Even with the failure of 2005, Essendon have played finals in 19 out of 25 seasons under Sheedy, with six top of the ladder finishes, seven grand final appearances and four premierships. ==Major rivalries== * [[Carlton Football Club\|Carlton]] - With the teams sharing the record of 16 premierships, both sides are keen to become outright leader, or if out of the finals race, at least ensure the other doesn't. * [[Collingwood Football Club\|Collingwood]] - The match that has been played on [[Anzac Day]] between these two sides since [[1995]] is described as the second biggest match of the season, behind only the Grand Final. Regardless of the two clubs position of the ladder this game always sells out the 90,000 seat [[MCG]]. * [[Hawthorn Football Club\|Hawthorn]] - The two sides had a number of physical encounters in the mid-[[1980s]] when they were the top two sides of the competition. The rivalry was exacebated when [[Dermott Brereton]] ran through Essendon's three-quarter time huddle during a match in [[1988]] and again by an all in brawl during a match in [[2004]] allegedly instigated by Brereton. This was reminiscent of a similar brawl in the [[1985]] grand final. * [[West Coast Eagles]] - Since Essendon coach [[Kevin Sheedy]] famously waved his jacket over his head following a close victory over the Eagles in [[1993]], it has become a tradition for the winning side's supporters to do the same after a match between the two sides. If one team is winning by a considerable margin, the coat waving has been known to begin well before the match ends. Essendon away games against West Coast always sell out the 45,000 seat [[Subiaco Oval]]. ==Membership Base== Essendon is one of the most supported Victorian clubs, with a membership of 35,398 in 2005. ==[[List of Australian Football League premiers\|VFL/AFL Premierships]]== [[1897]], [[1901]], [[1911]], [[1912]], [[1923]], [[1924]], [[1942]], [[1946]], [[1949]], [[1950]], [[1962]], [[1965]], [[1984]], [[1985]], [[1993]], [[2000]]. ==Individual Awards== ===[[Best and Fairest]]=== : See [[Crichton Medal]] ===[[Brownlow Medal]] winners=== * [[Dick Reynolds]] ([[1934]], [[1937]] & [[1938]]) * [[Bill Hutchison]] ([[1952]] & [[1953]]) * [[Graham Moss]] ([[1976]]) * [[Gavin Wanganeen]] ([[1993]]) * [[James Hird]] ([[1996]]) ===[[Leigh Matthews Trophy]] winners=== * [[Terry Daniher]] ([[1983]]) * [[Tim Watson]] ([[1989]]) ===[[Coleman Medal]] winners=== * [[Ron Evans]] (1959, 1960) * [[Ted Fordham]] (1966) * [[Matthew Lloyd]] (2000, 2001, 2003) ===[[Norm Smith Medal]] winners=== [[Billy Duckworth]] (1984) [[Simon Madden]] (1985) [[Michael Long]] (1993) [[James Hird]] (2000) ===[[Michael Tuck Medal]] winners=== [[Gavin Wanganeen]] (1993) [[Gary O'Donnell]] (1994) [[Mark Mercuri]] (2000) ===[[Mark of the Year]] winners=== [[Gary Moorcroft]] (2001) ==Team of the Century== To celebrate the 125th anniversary of the club, as well as 100 years of the VFL/AFL, Essendon announced its "Team of the Century" in [[1997]]. {{Aussie rules team \| title = Essendon Team of the Century \| backpocket1 = [[Gavin Wanganeen]] \| fullback = [[Fred Baring]] \| backpocket2 = [[Tom Fitzmaurice]] \| halfbackflank1 = [[Barry Davis]] \| centrehalfback = [[Wally Buttsworth]] \| halfbackflank2 = [[Harold Lambert]] \| wing1 = [[Reg Burgess]] \| centre = [[Jack Clarke]] \| wing2 = [[Michael Long]] \| halfforwardflank1 = [[James Hird]] \| centrehalfforward = [[Ken Fraser]] \| halfforwardflank2 = [[Terry Daniher]] \| forwardp
> <revision> <id>15899049</id> <timestamp>2002-05-30T07:56:01Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ap</username> <id>122</id> </contributor> <comment>redirecting to [[Academy Award for Best Actor]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Academy Award for Best Actor]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Academy Awards/Best Actress</title> <id>313</id> <revision> <id>15899050</id> <timestamp>2002-07-13T09:18:33Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username> <id>90</id> </contributor> <comment>REDIRECT to [[Academy Award for Best Actress]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Academy Award for Best Actress]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Academy Awards/Best Supporting Actor</title> <id>314</id> <revision> <id>15899051</id> <timestamp>2002-07-13T10:44:18Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username> <id>90</id> </contributor> <comment>REDIRECT</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Academy Awards/Best Supporting Actress</title> <id>315</id> <revision> <id>15899052</id> <timestamp>2002-07-13T10:50:57Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username> <id>90</id> </contributor> <comment>REDIRECT</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Academy Awards/Art Direction</title> <id>316</id> <revision> <id>15899053</id> <timestamp>2002-07-13T11:13:39Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username> <id>90</id> </contributor> <comment>REDIRECT</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Academy Award for Best Art Direction]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Academy Awards/Directing</title> <id>317</id> <revision> <id>15899054</id> <timestamp>2002-07-14T09:07:06Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username> <id>90</id> </contributor> <comment></comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Academy Award for Directing]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Academy Awards/Foreign Language Film</title> <id>319</id> <revision> <id>15899055</id> <timestamp>2002-07-13T01:06:05Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Eclecticology</username> <id>372</id> </contributor> <comment></comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Academy Awards/Cinematography</title> <id>320</id> <revision> <id>15899056</id> <timestamp>2002-07-13T11:16:52Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username> <id>90</id> </contributor> <comment>REDIRECT</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Academy Award for Best Cinematography]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Academy Awards/Documentary Feature</title> <id>321</id> <revision> <id>15899057</id> <timestamp>2002-07-16T20:06:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username> <id>90</id> </contributor> <comment>REDIRECT</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Academy Award for Documentary Feature]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Academy Awards/Music Original Song</title> <id>322</id> <revision> <id>15899058</id> <timestamp>2002-07-13T11:00:26Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Eclecticology</username> <id>372</id> </contributor> <comment>de sub-paging</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Academy Award for Best Song]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Academy Awards/Short Film Live Action</title> <id>323</id> <revision> <id>15899059</id> <timestamp>2002-07-13T11:14:18Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Eclecticology</username> <id>372</id> </contributor> <comment>de-subpage</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Academy Award for Live Action Short Film]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Academy Awards</title> <id>324</id> <revision> <id>42155468</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:37:49Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Wikipedical</username> <id>729854</id> </contributor> <comment>/* See also /</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Academy Awards''', popularly known as the '''Oscars''', are the most prominent [[film]] awards in the [[United States]] and arguably the world. The Awards are granted by the [[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences]], a professional honorary organization which, [[as of 2003]], had a voting membership of 5,816. Actors (with a membership of 1,311) make up the largest voting bloc. The votes have been tabulated and certified by auditing firm [[PricewaterhouseCoopers]] since close to the awards' inception. [http://www.pwc.com/extweb/newcolth.nsf/docid/540E0FBE1B2997EE85256E55005BE8FB] The [[78th Academy Awards\|next Oscars]] will take place on Sunday, [[March 5th]], [[2006]]. ==Oscar statuette== The official name of the Oscar [[statuette]] is the "Academy Award of Merit." Made of [[gold]]-plated [[britannium]] on a black marble base, it is 13.5 inches (34 cm) tall, weighs 8.5 lbs (3.85 kg) and depicts a [[knight]] holding a [[crusade\|crusader]]'s [[sword]] standing on a [[reel]] of film. The root of the name "Oscar" is contested. Some believe it comes from Academy librarian [[Margaret Herrick]], who saw it on a table and said, "it looks just like my uncle Oscar!" Others claim that [[Bette Davis]] named it after her first husband. However it became, the nickname stuck and is used almost as commonly as ''Academy Award'', even by the Academy itself. In fact, the Academy's domain name is ''oscars.org'' and the official website for the Academy Awards is at ''oscar.com''. ==Awards night== The major awards are given out at a ceremony, most commonly in March following the relevant calendar year. This is an elaborate extravaganza, with the invited guests walking up the red carpet in the creations of the most prominent [[fashion]] designers of the day. The ceremony and extravagant afterparties, including the Academy's Governors Ball, are televised around the world. The ceremony has consecutively aired on [[American Broadcasting Company\|ABC]] since 1976. ==Nominations== Today, according to Rules 2 and 3 of the official Academy Awards Rules, a film has to open in the previous calendar year (from [[midnight]] [[January 1]] to midnight [[December 31]]) in [[Los Angeles County, California]], to qualify. [http://www.oscars.org/78academyawards/rules/index.html] Rule 2 states that a film must be "feature-length" (defined as 40 minutes) to qualify for an award (except for Short Subject awards, of course). It must also exist either on a [[35 mm film\|35mm]] or [[70 mm film\|70mm]] film print OR on a 24fps or 48fps [[progressive scan]] [[digital film]] print with a native resolution no lower than [[SXGA\|1280x1024]]. The members of the various branches nominate those in their respective fields (actors are nominated by the actors' branch, etc.) while all members may submit nominees for Best Picture. The winners are then determined by a second round of voting in which all members are now allowed to vote in all categories. ==Membership== Academy membership may be obtained by one of two ways: a competitive nomination (however, the nominee must be invited to join) or a member may submit a name, seconded by at least two other members, then voted upon by the Board of Governors. The Academy does not publicly disclose its membership, although past press releases have announced the names of those who have been invited to join. If a person not yet a member is nominated in more than one category in a single year, he/she must choose which branch to join when he/she accepts membership. ==Awards== [[Image:BobHopegettingOsca.jpg\|thumb\|Although he never won an Oscar for any of his movie performances, the comedian [[Bob Hope]] received five honorary Oscars for contributions to cinema and humanitarian work.]] ===Academy Award of Merit=== ====Current awards==== [[Academy Award for Best Picture\|Best Picture]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1928]] to present [[Academy Award for Best Actor\|Best Leading Actor]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1928]] to present [[Academy Award for Best Actress\|Best Leading Actress]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1928]] to present [[Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor\|Best Supporting Actor]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1936]] to present [[Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress\|Best Supporting Actress]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1936]] to present [[Academy Award for Best Animated Feature\|Best Animated Feature]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[2001]] to present [[Academy Award for Best Art Direction\|Best Art Direction]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1928]] to present (also called Interior or Set Decoration) [[Academy Award for Best Cinematography\|Best Cinematography]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1928]] to present [[Academy Award for Costume Design\|Best Costume Design]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1948]] to present [[Academy Award for Directing\|Best Director]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1928]] to present [[Academy Award for Documentary Feature\|Best Documentary Feature]] [[Academy Award for Documentary Short Subject\|Best Documentary Short Subject]]
[Çetin Alp and Short Wave]] and Spain's "¿Quién maneja mi barca?" by [[Remedios Amaya]]. * In [[Eurovision Song Contest 1987\|1987]], Turkey's "Şarkım Sevgi Üstüne" by [[Seyyal Taner]] and [[Grup Locomotif]]. * In 1988, Austria's "Lisa, Mona Lisa" by [[Wilfried]]. * In [[Eurovision Song Contest 1989\|1989]], Iceland's "Það sem enginn sér" by [[Daníel Ágúst]]. * In [[Eurovision Song Contest 1991\|1991]], Austria's "Venedig im Regen" by [[Thomas Forstner]]. * In 1994, Lithuania's "Lopšinė mylimai" by [[Ovidijus Vyšniauskas]]. * In [[Eurovision Song Contest 1997\|1997]], two entries: Norway's "San Francisco" by [[Tor Endresen]] and Portugal's "Antes do adeus" by [[Célia Lawson]]. * In 1998, Switzerland's "Lass ihn" by [[Gunvor]]. * In [[Eurovision Song Contest 2003\|2003]], UK's "Cry Baby" by [[Jemini]]. * In the [[Eurovision Song Contest 2004\|2004]] semi-final, Switzerland's entry "Celebrate", sung by [[Piero and the Music Stars]]. ===Political and Regional Voting Patterns=== Some viewers claim that politics and international relations dictate a lot of the voting. There is little empirical data to back up these claims, however. Anecdotal evidence does suggest that some regional voting blocks do exist though. Cyprus and Greece have exchanged maximum points (i.e. Greece gives 12 points to Cyprus and Cyprus gives 12 points to Greece in the same Contest) eight times (1987, 1994, 1997, 1998, [[Eurovision Song Contest 2002\|2002]], 2003, 2004, 2005) since they first competed together in 1981. Additionally, until Turkey won the Contest in 2003, Cyprus had never given points to Turkey. (Cyprus awarded 8 points to Turkey that year). The next year, Turkey awarded a single point to Cyprus for the first time. The [[Nordic Countries\|Nordic]] and [[Baltic states\|Baltic countries]] are perceived to vote as a block for each other, although careful scrutiny of the votes doesn't always bear this out. For example, Estonia won the 2001 Contest while earning 12 points each from Latvia and Lithuania and 10 points each from Iceland and Norway. Denmark finished second with 12 points each from Iceland, Norway, and Estonia. However, Norway and Iceland finished tied last with just three points each. Similar patterns have been seen in (among others) the states of the former Soviet Union, former Yugoslav republics, Ireland and Britain, and the western Mediterranean. The counter-argument to these perceived patterns is that it is natural for people of similar cultures within Europe, sharing common borders where the TV and radio stations of a number of countries can be received, and speaking similar languages, to enjoy similar styles of music. This argument is called into question in the most recent Contests, with many competing countries choosing to sing in English - the cultural similarities argument is not viable. ==Hosts== Hosting the Eurovision Song Contest is an honour accorded to the winning country from the previous year. Many people believe that host countries have experienced financial difficulties through having to host. This situation was famously parodied in the ''[[Father Ted]]'' episode "A Song for Europe" (although the Contest was simply referred to as the 'Eurosong Competition'). However, most of the expense of the Contest is covered by event sponsors and contributions from the other participating nations. The 2004 ESC was allocated a budget of some &#8364;15 million and was the most expensive edition ever. The Contest is considered a unique showcase for launching the host country as a tourist destination. For example in the summer of 2005, Ukraine abolished its normal visa requirements for tourists to coincide with its hosting of the ESC. ===Interval Acts=== The entertainment provided by the host nation between the competitors' performances and the scoring is sometimes used as the launch of a successful career. The [[Irish dancing]] show [[Riverdance]] was first seen internationally at the 1994 Contest. The [[Hothouse Flowers]] had a successful career after their interval appearance in 1988. The Danish band [[Aqua]] also performed the interval act when [[Copenhagen]] hosted the competition in the year 2001. ===Winning Streaks=== Occasionally, the host nation wins for a second year in a row. This first happened in [[Eurovision Song Contest 1969\|1969]] when Spain (in its four-way tie with the Netherlands, France, and the United Kingdom) won the Contest in [[Madrid]]. The hosts also won the Contests in 1973 (Luxembourg), 1979 (Israel), 1993 (Ireland), and 1994 (Ireland again). Ireland is the only nation to have won three times in a row; in 1992, 1993 and 1994. It also holds the title of most wins - with seven, in 1970, 1980, 1987, 1992, 1993, 1994 and 1996. Whilst having won the Contest five times, two fewer than Ireland, the United Kingdom have the highest cumulative points total by some distance. This is largely courtesy of the country placing second an incredible fifteen times. Although other countries had opportunities to host the event twice in a row {{ref num\|Israel\|1}}, the first country to do so was Ireland, which actually hosted the Contest three times in a row, as they won the Contest in [[Eurovision Song Contest 1992\|1992]], 1993 and 1994 and hosted the event in 1993, 1994, and [[Eurovision Song Contest 1995\|1995]]. The United Kingdom holds the record for hosting the Contest the most times - eight in total - 1960, [[Eurovision Song Contest 1963\|1963]], [[Eurovision Song Contest 1968\|1968]], 1972, [[Eurovision Song Contest 1974\|1974]], 1977, 1982 and 1998 — having hosted four times after winning the Contest (the Netherlands were given the honour after the 1969 tie) and taken the reins four other times when other broadcasters could not fulful their obligation. Ireland has hosted the competition seven times, following its seven wins. ==Musical Styles== The maximum duration of each song is three minutes, and the musicians and songs selected for the Contest tend towards very commercial [[pop music\|pop]]. Some viewers of the Contest view the event as a combination of [[camp]] entertainment and a musical [[train wreck]] (a fact played upon in the UK broadcast with the sardonic BBC commentary of [[Terry Wogan]]) and a subculture of Eurovision Song Contest [[drinking game]]s has evolved in some countries. It's worth noting that the voting system used for the Contest was originally designed to select a single compromise winner from a large field of candidates. A number of countries use this same system to select their entries, some of them going through several rounds of voting before selecting a winner. After repeated iterations of the system, variations from [[MOR]] pop music tend to be eliminated. ==Winners== {{main\|Eurovision Song Contest Winners}} Often the winner of the Eurovision gets largely forgotten after their win: however there have been notable exceptions like ABBA. Usually the winner becomes a massive star in their home country. The 2004 winner Ruslana, for example, is a success in her home country Ukraine, yet has failed to make a larger splash outside there. Due to the novelty value of the Contest, some peformers find it hard to be taken seriously afterwards. However, some singers like Céline Dion have launched their careers from a Eurovision stage, while other winners can score individual hits from their winners. For example, [[Elena Paparizou]] became more widely known in Europe after her 2005 victory. [[Elena Paparizou]] also just recently signed with an American record label called [[Moda Records]] and is due to release English remixes in the USA in [[2006]]. ==Selection procedures== Participating nations use a number of different methods to select their entries. Many of them mimic the final Contest with big stage productions, telephone or jury voting, and a selection of songs to chose from. Others follow different paths. For the 2002 Contest, the Spanish [[Televisión Española\|TVE]] created a reality show ''[[Operación Triunfo]]'' that showed the selection and training of unknown singers. At the end, one of them would be elected by the public to represent the country in the Contest. The format was initially an enormous success in Spain, ran for two more years there and was swiftly exported to other countries. One example was the Irish ''[[You're A Star]]'', a ''[[Pop Idol]]'' clone run by RTÉ from 2003 to 2005, which carried the ultimate prize of representing Ireland at Eurovision. Ironically, however, the original Spanish show was quietly dropped for the 2005 Contest after the three previous entries had disappeared into mid-table obscurity in the international contests. The Spanish reverted to a conventional national pre-selection competition. The Irish show was not dropped; however the prize of representing Ireland in the Eurovision was. In recent years more and more countries have used this "reality show" method of selecting their singing entrants and choosing the song at a later stage, with mixed results. Twelve of the participating countries in the 2004 Song Contest were winners on a reality show. More successful has been the system where the national broadcaster privately selects one singer and a selection of songs from which the national public votes. This method was used for Turkey, Ukraine, and Greece in the years when these countries won the Contest. For more information on each country's selection procedures, visit the country-specific links at the bottom of the page. ==Spinoffs and imitators== There are a number of other contests and events that are either spun off from the Eurovision Song Contest or resemble it closely. ===The Junior Eurovision Song Contest=== Denmark originally held a song contest for children in 2000: then it organised a Nordic Children's Eurovision. The EBU saw clips of the show and liked it so decided to create an officia
de]] language group). It is an [[Subject Object Verb\|SOV]] language and has two [[tone (tonal language)\|tone]]s. The subject is usually <!-- always? --> followed by an auxilary verb (see [http://fr.wiktionary.org/wiki/Cat%C3%A9gorie:Auxiliaires_bambaras auxilaries in Wiktionary]) possibly followed by the object and finally the verb. In [[mathematical linguistics]] Bambara is regarded with interest, since for only very few languages it was possible to show that they were not [[context-free]]. For [[Swiss German\|Zurich German]] and [[Dutch language\|Dutch]] the proof is based on sentence construction, whereas the proof for Bambara is based on word construction. Bambara has no gender. Gender for a noun can be specified by adding a suffix, ''-ce'' or ''-ke'' for male and ''-muso'' for female. The plural is formed by attaching ''-w'' to words. Sentences usually contain auxilary verbs. Bambara uses postpositions, like "bolo" to indicate directions. Many postpositions are based on nouns, "bolo" also means ''hand''. In urban areas, many Bambara conjunctions have been replaced in everyday use by French borrowings that often mark code-switches. The [[Bamako]] dialect makes use of sentences like: ''N taara Kita mais il n'y a personne là-bas.'' : ''I went to Kita [Bambara] but there was no one there [French].'' The sentence in Bambara alone would be ''N taara Kita nka mògòsi tuntè yen.'' The French proposition "est-ce-que" is also used in Bambara, however it is pronounced more slowly and as three syllables; "ess uh kuh". Bambara uses many French loan words. For example, some people might say: ''I ka kulosi ye jauni ye'': "Your skirt is yellow" (using a derivation of the French word for yellow, jaune.) However, one could also say: ''I ka kulosi ye neremuguman ye'', also meaning "your skirt is yellow." The original Bambara word for yellow comes from "''neremugu''," ''mugu'' being flour made from [[nere]], a seed from a long seed pod. Neremugu is often used in sauces in Southern Mali. Most French loan words are suffixed with the sound 'i'; this is particularly common when using French words which have a meaning not traditionally found in Mali. For example, the Bambara word for [[snow]] is ''niegei'', based on the French word for snow ''neige''. As there has never been snow in Mali, there has not been a traditional meaning for the word and thus no unique word in Bambara to describe it. ===Examples=== ;''N bè bamanankan fo dòòni dòòni'' :I speak a little bit of Bambara (litt: I ''aux positive'' Bambara speak little little) ;''I tè taa dumuni kè wa?'' :Aren't you going to eat? (litt: you ''aux negative'' go eat ''action'' ''question particle'') ==Music== Malian artists such as [[Salif Keita]], [[Habib Koité]], and the blind couple [[Amadou & Mariam]] often sing in Bambara. [[Alpha Blondy]] often sings in Dioula. [[Tiken Jah Fakoly]] (reggae) often sings in Dioula and French. ==Bibliography== Bird, Charles & Kanté, Mamadou (1977) ''Bambara-English, English-Bambara student lexicon''. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Linguistics Club. Kastenholz, Raimund (1998) ''Grundkurs Bambara (Manding) mit Texten'' (second revised edition) (Afrikawissenschaftliche Lehrbücher Vol. 1). Köln: Rüdiger Köppe. Konaré, Demba (1998) ''Je parle bien bamanan''. Bamako: Jamana. Touré, Mohamed & Leucht, Melanie (1996) ''Bambara Lesebuch: Originaltexte mit deutscher und französischer Übersetzung = Chrestomathie Bambara: textes originaux Bambara avec traductions allemandes et françaises'' (with illustrations by Melanie Leucht) (Afrikawissenschaftliche Lehrbücher Vol. 11) . Köln: Rüdiger Köppe. ==External links== {{InterWiki\|code=bm}} {{Wikibookspar\|\|Bambara}} * [http://mali.pwnet.org/history/history_language.htm Mali - History - Language] [http://www.rosettaproject.org/archive/niger-congo/africa/bra/view?searchterm=Bambara The Rosetta Project] [http://wikitravel.org/en/article/Bambara_phrasebook Bambara phrasebook at Wikitravel] [http://fr.wikibooks.org/wiki/Bambara Bambara at French Wikibooks] contains more material [http://fr.wiktionary.org/wiki/Category:bambara Bambara entries (>1000) in the French Wiktionary] *[http://www.vjf.cnrs.fr/clt/php/va/Page_revue.php?ValCodeRev=MDK Mandenkan Journal] <!-- {{Wikibookspar\|\|Bambara}} ugly, since it ruins layout--> [[Category:Mande languages]] [[Category:Languages of Mali]] [[Category:Languages of Burkina Faso]] [[Category:Languages of Côte d'Ivoire]] [[Category:Tonal languages]] [[bg:Диула]] [[bm:Bamanankan]] [[de:Bambara]] [[fr:Bambara]] [[ja:バンバラ語]] [[nl:Bambara]] [[fi:Bambara]] [[zh:班巴拉语]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Baku</title> <id>4566</id> <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions> <revision> <id>41730855</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T09:57:03Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Brandmeister</username> <id>276745</id> </contributor> <comment>+coat of arms, img cap</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses2\|Baku}} [[Image:Bak ca.jpg\|right\|frame\|The city coat of arms]] [[Image:Baku-satellite view.jpg\|thumb\|200px\|Satellite view of Baku]] [[Image:Azerbaijan-Baki.png\|thumb\|150px\|The Baku harbour on the south of Absheron peninsula]] [[Image:Baku_Maiden_Tower.jpg\|thumb\|right\|150 px\|The [[Maiden Tower (Baku)\|Maiden Tower]] in old town Baku]] '''Baku''' ([[Azerbaijani]]: Bakı), sometimes known as '''Baky''' or '''Baki''', is the [[capital]] of the Republic of [[Azerbaijan]]. It is located on the southern shore of the [[Absheron\|Apsheron Peninsula]], at {{coor dm\|40\|23\|N\|49\|52\|E\|}}. Modern Baku consists of three parts: the Old Town (&#304;ç&#601;ri &#350;&#601;h&#601;r), the boomtown and the [[Soviet Union\|Soviet]]-built town. Population ([[2003]] census): 1,900,000. About 3 million people in metropolitan area (due to large numbers of [[refugee]]s and [[internally displaced person]]s). The boomtown, south of the old city, was built after massive [[petroleum]] exploitation began nearly a century ago and has interesting beaux-arts architecture. Fine arts, history and literature museums are located there, all housed in the mansions of pre-[[Russian Revolution of 1917\|Revolutionary]] millionaires. Modern Baku spreads out from the city walls, its streets and buildings rising up hills that rim the Bay of Baku. Greater Baku is divided into 11 districts and 48 townships. Among these are townships on [[island]]s in the bay and one island town built on stilts in the [[Caspian Sea]], 50-100 kilometres from Baku proper (the so-called Oil Rocks). ==History== [[Image:Baku 1.jpg\|thumb\|150 px\|left\|A view of Baku from the top of Maiden's Tower]] Baku's name is thought to orginate from one of two [[Persian language\|Persian]] phrases: ''Bagh-Kuh'' ("Mount of God") and ''bad kube'' ("city of winds"). The history of Baku dates back to [[1st millennium BCE]], with the earliest written evidence from [[6th century\|6th century CE]], however. The city was the location of an important [[Agiary\|fire temple]] of the [[Persian Empire\|Persian]] religion of [[Zoroastrianism]], which was prevalent before the [[Islamic conquest of Iran]]. The first written reference to Baku dates from [[885]], although [[archaeology\|archaeologists]] have found remains of a settlement predating by several centuries the birth of [[Jesus]]. The city became important after an earthquake destroyed [[Shemakha]] and in the [[12th century]], leading [[Shirvanshah]] [[Ahistan I]] to made Baku the new capital. In [[1813]], Russia signed the [[Treaty of Gulistan]] with Persia, which provided for the cession of Baku and most of the [[Caucasus]] from [[Iran]] and their annexation by [[Russia]]. The center of Baku is the old town, which is also a fortress. In December 2000, the "[[walled city\|Walled City]] of Baku with the Shirvanshah's Palace and Maiden Tower" (called the "inner town") became the first location in Azerbaijan classified as a [[World Heritage Site]] by [[UNESCO]]. Most of the walls and towers, strengthened after the Russian conquest in [[1806]], survive. This section is picturesque, with its maze of narrow alleys and ancient buildings. Wander the cobbled streets past the [[Palace of the Shirvanshahs]], two [[caravansaraies]] (ancient inns), the [[11th century]] [[Maiden Tower (Baku)\|Maiden Tower]] (nice view of the harbor), the baths and the [[Djuma Mosque]] (it used to house the Carpet and Applied Arts Museum, but now is a [[mosque]] again; the carpets got moved to the former [[Lenin]] museum). The old town also has dozens of small mosques, often without any particular sign to distinguish them from the next building. During [[World War II]] ten defense zones were built around the city to prevent possible German invasion. The [[Martyrs' Cemetery]], formerly the Kirov park, is dedicated to the memory of those who lost their lives during the [[war]] with [[Armenia]] and also to the 137 people who were killed on [[January 19]] and [[January 20\|20]], [[1990]] when Soviet tanks and troops took to the streets of Baku. Photographs of victims featured on each [[tombstone]] are sobering and poignant. Now [[20 January]] has become a [[national holiday]] of deep emotional meaning. In [[2003]], UNESCO placed the Walled City on the [[List of World Heritage Sites in danger\|List of World Heritage in Danger]], citing damage from a November 2000 earthquake, poor conservation as well as "dubious" restoration efforts.[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/958] ==Climate== The climate is hot and dry in the summer, cool and wet in the winter, when gale-force winds sweep through on occasion, driven by masses of polar air; however, snow is rare at 28 metres below sea level, and temperatures on the coast rarely drop to freezing. Baku is situated on the western shore of the [[Caspian Sea]]
]', 'smilie', or 'smiley'. Mentally rotate these examples 90 degrees clockwise for a more recognizable orientation: {\|- \|- \|<pre> :-) or :) :-( or :( ;-) or ;) :-P or :p >:( :x smile frown wink tongue out mad sour B-) or 8-) :-O or :O :-0 or :0 :-S or :S :D :? sunglasses shouting surprised confused laugh eh? </pre> \|} There is another type of one-line ASCII art that does not require the mental rotation of pictures, which is widely known in Japan as [[Emoticon#East Asian style\|kaomoji]] (literally "face characters".) Traditionally, they are referred to as "ASCII face". Today, some call them "verticons": {\|- \|- \| <pre> (^_^) (-_-) (X_X) happy sad dead \(^o^)/ (o.~) o< d(O.O)b joyous winking conspiracy duck thumbs up (b_d) <(^_^<) (>^_^)> <(^_^<) (>^_^)> (o_O) (O_o) glasses pointing / dancing eye stare ^_^; (v_v) (~_~) ;_; (T_T) embarrassed sleeping/ crying ';' for sweatdrop downcast ',' for tears </pre> \|} More complex examples use several lines of text to draw large symbols or more complex figures. Some common examples: {\|- \|- \| <pre> o o o o o <o <o> o> o .\|. \\|. \\|/ // X \ \| <\| <\|> ASCII Macarena /\ >\ /< >\ /< >\ /< >\ /< (__) (oo) /-------\/ __ O _ ,__o / \| \|\| /o)\ /\|\ >(o)__ _-\_<, * \|\|----\|\| \(o/ / \ (_~_/ ()/'() ~~ ~~ ~~~~~~~ Bull Yin/Yang Person Rubber Duck Cyclist ,-._,-. (\|) \/)"(\/ \| \| (_o_) \| \| \| \| Dog () () Tulip </pre> \|} A more intricate example of this depicts a building: {\|- \|- \|<pre> .-. /___\ \|\|--------------. \|___\| \|\|.___TO_LET___.\| \|]_[\| \|\| asciihomes \| / I \ \|\| 555-1212 \| JL/ \| \JL \|\|______________\| .-. i () \| () i \|\|./ .-. \|_\| .^. /_\ LJ=======LJ /_\ \|\|/ .^. \|_\| ._/___\._./___\_._._._._.L_J_/.-. .-.\_L_J._._\|\|._._/___\._./___\._._._ ., \|-,-\| ., L_J \|_\| [I] \|_\| L_J ., \|-,-\| ., ., JL \|-O-\| JL L_J%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%L_J JL \|-O-\| JL JL IIIIII_HH_'-'-'_HH_IIIIII\|_\|=======H=======\|_\|IIIIII_HH_'-'-'_HH_IIIIII_HH_ -------[]-------[]-------[_]----\.=I=./----[_]-------[]-------[]--------[]- _/\_ \|\|\\_I_//\|\| _/\_ [_] []_/_L_J_\_[] [_] _/\_ \|\|\\_I_//\|\| _/\_ \|\|\ \|__\| \|\|=/_\|_\=\|\| \|__\|_\|_\| _L_L_J_J_ \|_\|_\|__\| \|\|=/_\|_\=\|\| \|__\| \|\|- \|__\| \|\|\|__\|__\|\|\| \|__[___]__--__===__--__[___]__\| \|\|\|__\|__\|\|\| \|__\| \|\|\| IIIIIII[_]IIIII[_]IIIIIL___J__II__\|_\|__II__L___JIIIII[_]IIIII[_]IIIIIIII[_] \_I_/ [_]\_I_/[_] \_I_[_]\II/[]\_\I/_/[]\II/[_]\_I_/ [_]\_I_/[_] \_I_/ [_] ./ \.L_J/ \L_J./ L_JI I[]/ \[]I IL_J \.L_J/ \L_J./ \.L_J \| \|L_J\| \|L_J\| L_J\| \|[]\| \|[]\| \|L_J \|L_J\| \|L_J\| \|L_J \|_____JL_JL___JL_JL____\|-\|\| \|[]\| \|[]\| \|\|-\|_____JL_JL___JL_JL_____JL_J </pre> \|} {\|- \|- \|<pre> AHHHHA AHHHHHHA AllSTOPllA VHHHHHHV VHHHHV </pre> \|} It is popular to put such art in [[signature block]]s to be included in e-mail and Usenet postings. Other ASCII art ignores the particular shape of the characters and instead uses their overall boldness or lightness to create varying gradients. {\|- \|- \| <pre> _a, _yQa. _qTWW( je`?QX: <d+ -3Wm; _qos_s%mWw, a2?????TWW( sd( -?Qm;. .amm; .xmWmc """""` """"""" </pre> \|} </font> One use for ASCII art is to create unique typography, for example: {\|- \|- \| ___ __, ( / ( o _/_ / / __, _ _ `. _ _ , / /_ _/_(_/(_/ /_(/_ (___)/ / /_(_(__/ /_ // (/ \|} The program ''[[Figlet]]'' (and other programs that support its standard) allow for the design and use of ASCII fonts: {\|- \|- \|<pre> _____ ___ ____ _ _ \| ___\|_ _/ ___\| \| ___\| \|_ \| \|_ \| \| \| _\| \|/ _ \ __\| \| _\| \| \| \|_\| \| \| __/ \|_ \|_\| \|___\____\|_\|\___\|\__\| </pre> \|} What follows is an example of "[[Amiga]]-style" (also referred to as "oldschool style") [[computer art scene\|scene]] ASCII art. This kind of ASCII art is handmade in a text editor. Popular editors used to make this kind of ASCII art include CygnusEditor aka CED (Amiga) and EditPlus2 (PC). {\|- \|- \|<pre> ______.----------------------------.______ :_) (_: ....\|: :\|.... : :<> <>: : :···\|: :\|···: .---+- -:- -:- -+---. /\___ \| /\___ /\_____ /\______ /\______ \| /\___ _/ / \| _/ /___ _/ __ / _/ __ / _/ __ / : _/ / \ __//\ :/\\ _// / \ )/ //\ \ )/ //\ \ )/ //\ /\ \_ //\ _/¯¯ \)¯ \/ ¯¯ __¯ \/¯¯ ¯ ¯¯ \/¯¯ ¯_ ¯¯ \/¯¯ ¯_ ¯¯ \/ ¯)/ ¯¯ \_ \ )/¯ (/ (/ ¯ / /¯¯ / / / _ ¯¯\ \_ /\__/ /\_ /\__/ /\__/ /\_(/ _/ =/ /===/ /==/ /===/ /=©d/ /=:=/ /= ¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯\/: :¯¯¯¯¯¯\/ ¯¯¯¯¯¯\/ ¯¯¯¯¯¯¯\/ ¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯\/ \| ¯¯¯¯¯¯\/ ______.---+- :____ /\_____ : : ________: -+---.______ :_)····· :..... _/ /--+--./\_____.---+---./\___ .....: ·····(_: \|: : ..:..\ / : _/ / : _/ / ..:.. : :\| <> :.:.: : \ __//\ /\\ __ //\ /\ \_ //\ : :.:.: <> \|: :..._/¯¯ \)¯ \/ ¯¯ )/ ¯¯ \/ ¯¯)/ ¯¯ \_...: :\| : ____ ____ \ ¯ ¯ / ____ ____ : \_. _\_ \\ //¯¯ _ ¯¯\\ // _/_ ._/ ---· _ \¯ _ \\ \\_ /\_ /\_(/ _// // _ ¯/ _ ·--- /¯· \¯¯¯ ¯\¯¯¯ ¯¯=/ /:=/ /=:=/ /= ¯¯ ¯¯¯/¯ ¯¯¯/ ·¯\ : ¯¯¯¯¯¯ ¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯\/-+--¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯\/--+--¯¯¯¯¯¯\/ ¯¯¯¯¯¯ : \|: : : :\| <> . . <> \|: _ . \| __ .__.__ .\|__ __ . :\| :¯)..... __(__\|-\|(_/_\| (\| ((__\|\|__)(__)(__\|__ .....(¯: ¯¯¯¯¯¯·-----------·-------\|----\|--\|----(/----------(/--·-----------·¯¯¯¯¯¯ </pre> \|} ==Methods for generating ASCII art== While some prefer to use a simple [[Text editor]] to produce ASCII art, [[ASCII Art#ASCII art editors\|specialized programs]] have been developed to allow you to draw text in lines, boxes, and filled areas as you would in a normal paint package. [[ASCII Art#ASCII art generators\|Other programs]] allow you to automatically convert an image to ASCII art, which is a special case of [[vector quantization]]. A method is to sample the image down to [[grayscale]] with less than [[integer (computer science)\|8-bit]] precision, and then assign a character for each value. An example of a converted image, created using [http://ascgen2.sourceforge.net Ascgen dotNet], is given below, next to the original: <div style="float:right;margin:10 10 1em 1em;">[[image:Redwingblackbird1.jpg\|200px\|Photo of redwing blackbird]]</div> <font size="-2" color="black"> <pre> tt%%%%%%tttttttttttttttttt;;;tttttt;;;:::;;;;;ttttttttt;;;;;;;;;tttt%%%C7O7 t,;;;;;;;;;;;;:;;;;::;;;::::::;;:::,... .......,...................,,:,::;t t;ttttt%C7OO7%tttt%%%%%%tttttt%%tt;;,,....,,,,.,,,,,:::::;;;;;:,,:::;;;;;t; t;ttttttCCCCC%%tt%tCO77x27777O77C%tttt;;::::::,,,,,,,,,,,:;;;::,,,,,:;::;;; t:tttttttt;tttttttt%CC7OO77CC%%72OOO7C%ttt;;;;:,,,..,.,,......;xsQsG:...,:: ;,;;;;;:;;:;;;;:,,,,,,,;;tttt;tttt%t%ttt;;;;:,...... tSMMM#Q%;:::,:;: ;,;;;;;:;;;;;:,tD@@@@8Zt,,:;;;;:;;;:;;:,,........... .;DMMMMD;...,;tttttt; ;,;;;;tttt;;.,@MMMMMMMMM#C..,..........:;tZ0SKbE@#MMMMMMMMC. .,;tCC7C%C%%t; ,.,,,,:;;:..,NMMMMMMMMMMMMMSQKE###NNNMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM#C;7GDDD5G2OCCttt; . ,sMMMMMNNN#NNMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMN@NMMbODS99Qs5xx2O77CCt .,. DMMN##MNMMMMMMMMMMMMMMN#MN@NNNN##NN###@EE@MM@ttttt;;ttCC777Ot .,::;:. ;NNNEGOCOZQG. ,MM#@@##@##@#####NNNN#NN@@K8Qx:,::::,:;;;ttt%t ..:;%ZsD0D0Ds57;@ME:,:;tO MN@@@#########NNNMMMM#K5t;,,;tt%ttttttt;;;;;: tOQDDs5DQgEE@@bSMM,.;tx2 MMM#######NNNNN##NMNgx;::;t7O22xZ22xxOC%tt;;,:, sQSsG2C%CxGs00DZ0Mt:t;. .tQMM########NNNN#NMMK. .,,:;:,,,...,,::,,,,,,, sD8S9DsZxxxx22OCtO#MME8QMMMMM#######NN#NNNNMD. ...,,,... ...,:;tt; t;tt%t%%tttt;;;;:,.,7#MMMMMMNNNNNNN#N####NMK...,:::;;;t;;;:,.. ..,:;%7t t,;;;;:,,,,,.,,,... :s@NMN#NMMMMMNNNNMN@Z%xxZxxZZxxO7C%ttt;;:,,,,,,:;;;: t;tttttttttt%%tt%tt;;,. t@NNNO,7S#MMM#sttt7xGZZZZZZxxZxZZx2x227%ttt;;::;, t;tttCO2x
this but may vary between dialects. * [[digraph (orthography)\|digraphs]] French does not introduce extra letters or diacritics to specify its large range of vowel sounds and [[diphthongs]], rather it uses specific combinations of vowels, sometimes with following consonants, to show which sound is intended. (See [[French phonology and orthography]] or [http://www.languageguide.org/francais/grammar/pronunciation/ French Pronunciation Guide] for more details.) * [[gemination]] : Within words, double consonants are not pronounced as geminates in modern French (but you could hear geminates in the cinema or TV news as far as the 70's). For example, "illusion" is pronounced [ilyzjő] and not [illyzjõ]. But gemination occurs in sentences. For example, "il l'a arrêté" ("he stopped it") is pronounced [illaaʁete], whereas "il a arrêté" ("he stopped") is pronounced [ilaaʁete]. * [[Accent (linguistics)\|accent]]s are used sometimes for pronunciation, sometimes to distinguish similar words, and sometimes for etymology alone. '''Accents that affect pronunciation:''' The acute accent (''l'accent aigu''), "é" (e.g.,''école''— school), is pronounced {{IPA\|/e/}} instead of the defaults {{IPA\|/ɛ/}} or{{IPA\|/ə/}}, The grave accent (''l'accent grave''), "è" (e.g., ''élève''— pupil) means that the vowel is pronounced {{IPA\|/ɛ/}} (as usual), The [[dieresis]] (''le tréma'') (e.g. ''naïve''— foolish, ''Noël''— Christmas) as in English, specifies that this vowel is pronounced separately from the preceding one (or following one in some cases), not combined, The cedille (''la cédille'')"ç" (e.g., ''garçon''— boy) means that the letter ''c'' is pronounced {{IPA\|/s/}} in front of A, O, or U. ("c" is otherwise hard {{IPA\|/k/}} before a hard vowel.) The [[circumflex]] (''l'accent circonflexe'') "ê" (e.g., ''forêt''— forest) shows that an ''e'' is pronounced {{IPA\|/ɛ/}} and that an ''o'' is pronounced {{IPA\|/o/}}. In some dialects it also signifies a pronunciation of {{IPA\|/ɑ/}} for the letter ''a'', but this differentiation is disappearing. In the late 19th century, the circumflex was used in place of 's' where that letter was not to be pronounced. Thus, ''forest'' became ''forêt'' and ''hospital'' became'' hôpital''. * '''Accents with no pronunciation effect:''' *The circumflex does not affect the pronunciation of the letters ''i'' or ''u'', and in most dialects, ''a'' as well. All other accents are used only to distinguish similar words or for etymological reasons, as in the case of distinguishing the adverbs ''là'' and ''où'' ("there", "where") from the article ''la'' and the conjunction ''ou'' ("the fem. sing.", "or") respectively. ==Grammar== :''Main article: [[French grammar]]'' French grammar shares several notable features with most other Romance languages, including: the loss of Latin's [[declension]]s * only two [[grammatical gender]]s * the development of grammatical [[article (grammar)\|article]]s from Latin [[demonstrative]]s * new [[tense]]s formed from auxiliaries French word order is [[Subject Verb Object]], except when the object is a pronoun, in which case the word order is [[Subject Object Verb]]. ==Vocabulary== The majority of French words derive from vernacular or "vulgar" Latin or were constructed from Latin or Greek roots. There are often pairs of words, one form being popular (noun) and the other one savant (adjective), both originating from Latin. Example: * brother: ''frère'' (brother) / ''fraternel'' * finger: ''doigt'' / ''digital'' * faith: ''foi'' (faith) / ''fidèle'' * cold: ''froid'' / ''frigide'' * eye: ''œil'' / ''oculaire'' The French words which have developed from Latin are usually less recognisable than [[Italian language\|Italian]] words of Latin origin because as French developed into a separate language from [[Vulgar Latin]], the unstressed final [[syllable]] of many words was dropped or elided into the following word. It is estimated that 12 percent (4,200) of common French words found in a typical [[dictionary]] such as the ''Petit Larousse'' or ''Micro-Robert Plus'' (35,000 words) are of foreign origin. About 25 percent (1,054) of these foreign words come from [[English language\|English]] and are fairly recent borrowings. The others are some 707 words from [[Italian language\|Italian]], 550 from ancient [[Germanic languages]], 481 from ancient [[Gallo-Romance languages]], 215 from [[Arabic language\|Arabic]], 164 from [[German language\|German]], 160 from [[Celtic languages]], 159 from [[Spanish language\|Spanish]], 153 from [[Dutch language\|Dutch]], 112 from [[Persian language\|Persian]] and [[Sanskrit language\|Sanskrit]], 101 from [[Native American languages]], 89 from other [[Asian languages]], 56 from [[Afro-Asiatic languages]], 55 from [[Slavic languages]] and [[Baltic languages]], and 144&mdash;about three percent&mdash;from other languages (Walter & Walter 1998). ===Numerals=== The French counting system is partially [[vigesimal]]: [[20 (number)\|twenty]] (''{{lang\|fr\|vingt}}'') is used as a base number in the names of numbers from 80-99. So for example, ''{{lang\|fr\|quatre-vingts}}'' means 4 times 20, i.e. is the French word for [[80 (number)\|80]], and ''{{lang\|fr\|soixante quinze}}'' (literally "sixty-fifteen") means 75. This is comparable to archaic English use of "score", as in "fourscore and seven" (87), or "threescore and ten" (70). [[Belgian French]] and [[Swiss French]] are different in this respect. ==Writing system== French is written using the [[Latin alphabet]], plus five diacritics (the [[circumflex]] accent, [[acute accent]], [[grave accent]], [[diaeresis]], and [[cedilla]]) and one [[Ligature (typography)\|ligature]] (œ). French spelling, like English spelling, tends to preserve obsolete pronunciation rules. This is mainly due to extreme phonetic changes since the Old French period, without a corresponding change in spelling. However, some conscious changes were also made to restore Latin orthography: * Old French ''doit'' > French ''doigt'' "finger" (Latin ''digitum'') * Old French ''pie'' > French ''pied'' "foot" (Latin ''pedem'') As a result, it is nearly impossible to predict the spelling on the basis of the sound alone. Final consonants are generally silent, except when the following word begins with a vowel. For example, all of these words end in a vowel sound: ''pied'', ''aller'', ''les'', ''finit'', ''beaux''. The same words followed by a vowel, however, may sound the consonants, as they do in these examples: ''beaux-arts'', ''les amis'', ''pied-à-terre''. On the other hand, a given spelling will almost always lead to a predictable sound, and the [[Académie française]] works hard to enforce and update this correspondence. In particular, a given vowel combination or diacritic predictably leads to one phoneme. The diacritics have phonetic, semantic, and etymological significance. * [[grave accent]] (à, è, ù): Over ''a'' or ''u'', used only to distinguish homophones: ''à'' ("to") vs. ''a'' ("has"), ''ou'' ("or") vs. ''où'' ("where"). Over an ''e'', indicates the sound {{IPA\|/ɛ/}}. * [[acute accent]] (é): Over an ''e'', indicates the sound {{IPA\|/e/}}, the ''ai'' sound in such words as English ''hay'' or ''neigh''. It often indicates the historical deletion of a following consonant (usually an ''s''): ''écouter'' < ''escouter''. * [[circumflex]] (â, ê, î, ô, û): Over an ''e'' or ''o'', indicates the sound {{IPA\|/ɛ/}} or {{IPA\|/o/}}, respectively. Most often indicates the historical deletion of an adjacent letter (usually an ''s'' or a vowel): ''château'' < ''castel'', ''fête'' < ''feste'', ''sûr'' < ''seur'', ''dîner'' < ''disner''. By extension, it has also come to be used to distinguish homophones: ''du'' ("of the") vs. ''dû'' (past participle of ''devoir'' "to owe"; note that ''dû'' is in fact written thus because of a dropped ''e'': ''deu''). * [[diaeresis]] or ''tréma'' (ë, ï, ü): Indicates that a vowel is to be pronounced separately from the preceding one: ''naïve'', ''Noël''. Diaeresis on ÿ only occurs in some proper names (such as l'Haÿ-les-Roses) and in modern editions of old French texts. Since the 1990 orthographic rectifications, the diaeresis in words containing ''guë'' (such as ''aiguë'' or ''ciguë'') should be moved onto the ''u'': ''aigüe'', ''cigüe''. Words coming from German retain the old Umlaut if applicable but uses French pronunciation, such as ''kärcher''(trade mark of a pressure washer). * [[cedilla]] (ç): Indicates that an etymological ''c'' is pronounced {{IPA\|/s/}} when it would otherwise be pronounced /k/. Thus ''je lance'' "I throw" (with ''c'' = {{IPA\|[s]}} before ''e''), ''je lan'''ç'''ais'' "I was throwing" (''c'' would be pronounced {{IPA\|[k]}} before ''a'' without the cedilla). The ligature œ is a mandatory contraction of ''oe'' in certain words (''sœur'' "sister" {{IPA\|/sœʁ/}}, ''œuvre'' "work [of art]" {{IPA\|/œvʁ/}}, ''cœur'' "heart" {{IPA\|/kœʁ/}}, ''cœlacanthe'' "coelacanth" {{IPA\|/selakɑ̃t/}}), sometimes in words of Greek origin, spelled with an οι {{IPA\|/oj/}} diphthong which became ''oe'' in Latin, pronounced {{IPA\|/e/}} in French (and other [[Romance languages]]): ''oesophage'' {{IPA\|/ezɔfaʒ/}}, ''œnologie'' {{IPA\|/enɔlɔʒi/}}. It may also appear in ''œu'' [[Digraph (orthography)\|digraph]] (or ''œ'' alone in ''œil'' "eye"), in words that were once written with ''eu'' digraph (which could be read {{IPA\|/y/}} or {{IPA\|/œ/}}, depending on the word): ''bœuf'' "ox" {{IPA\|/bœf/}} (Old French ''buef'' or ''beuf''), ''mœurs'' {{IPA\|/mœʁ/}} "custom", ''œil'' "eye" {{IPA\|/œj/}}, etc. In these ca
or Maritime Mobile service 878 &ndash; [[Universal Personal Telecommunications]] services 879 &ndash; reserved for national <nowiki>mobile/maritime</nowiki> uses 880 &ndash; [[Bangladesh]] - [[Bangladesh Calling SubCodes\|SubCodes]] 881 &ndash; Mobile Satellite System 882 &ndash; International Networks 883 &ndash; unassigned 884 &ndash; unassigned 885 &ndash; unassigned 886 &ndash; [[Republic of China]] ([[Free Area of the Republic of China\|Taiwan area]] only) - ''This code is not officially assigned, listed by ITU as 'reserved'.'' <!--is this code used in practice?--> 887 &ndash; unassigned 888 &ndash; reserved for future, unknown type of global service 889 &ndash; unassigned 89x &ndash; unassigned === Zone 9 &ndash; [[Southwest Asia\|West]], [[South Asia\|South]] and [[Central Asia]], [[Middle East]] === 90 &ndash; [[Turkey]] *90 392 &ndash; [[Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus]] 91 &ndash; [[India]] 92 &ndash; [[Pakistan]] 93 &ndash; [[Afghanistan]] 94 &ndash; [[Sri Lanka]] 95 &ndash; [[Myanmar\|Burma (Myanmar)]] 960 &ndash; [[Maldives]] 961 &ndash; [[Lebanon]] 962 &ndash; [[Jordan]] 963 &ndash; [[Syria]] 964 &ndash; [[Iraq]] 965 &ndash; [[Kuwait]] 966 &ndash; [[Saudi Arabia]] 967 &ndash; [[Yemen]] 968 &ndash; [[Oman]] 969 &ndash; used to be People's Democratic Republic of Yemen - now unified under 967 [[Yemen]] (formerly the Yemen Arab Republic) 970 &ndash; reserved for the [[Palestinian Authority]] 971 &ndash; [[United Arab Emirates]] 972 &ndash; [[Israel]] 973 &ndash; [[Bahrain]] 974 &ndash; [[Qatar]] 975 &ndash; [[Bhutan]] 976 &ndash; [[Mongolia]] 977 &ndash; [[Nepal]] 978 &ndash; unassigned - originally assigned to Dubai, now covered under 971 979 &ndash; International Premium Rate Service - originally assigned to Abu Dhabi, now covered under 971 98 &ndash; [[Iran]] 990 &ndash; unassigned 991 &ndash; International Telecommunications Public Correspondence Service trial (ITPCS) 992 &ndash; [[Tajikistan]] 993 &ndash; [[Turkmenistan]] 994 &ndash; [[Azerbaijan]] 995 &ndash; [[Georgia (country)\|Georgia]] 996 &ndash; [[Kyrgyzstan]] 997 &ndash; unassigned 998 &ndash; [[Uzbekistan]] 999 &ndash; reserved for potential disaster relief service === Zone 0 &ndash; unassigned === ==History== CCITT, the predecessor of the [[ITU Telecommunication Standardization Sector]] (ITU-T), developed the first formal list of telephone country codes. This list was included in the ''[[1964]] CCITT Blue Book'', among other international telecommunication recommendations, which would eventually become [[ITU Telecommunication Standardization Sector\|ITU-T]] recommendation [[E.164]]. An earlier system of country codes for European use was mentioned in the ''[[1960]] CCITT Red Book''. Some of these country codes were retained in the CCITT country code assignments and remain in effect (e.g. France +33, United Kingdom +44). For further details on country code history and development, see [http://www.wtng.info/wtng-hst.html ''History of Country Codes''] ([http://www.wtng.info WTNG]). ==See also== [[E.164]] [[International Telecommunication Union]] [[List of international call prefixes]] ==External Links== * [http://www.itu.int/pub/T-SP-E.164A-2006/en List of ITU-T Recommendation E.164 assigned country codes] * [http://www.wtng.info World Telephone Numbering Guide] * [http://www.howtocall.info Guide to international calling from the U.S., with city codes] [[Category:Country codes\|ITU list]] [[Category:Telephone numbering plans]] [[ar:رمز هاتف دولي]] [[cs:Seznam mezinárodních směrových čísel]] [[cy:Rhestr côdau galw gwledydd]] [[da:International telefonkode]] [[de:Ländervorwahlliste sortiert nach Nummern]] [[el:Κατάλογος κωδικών κλήσεων χωρών]] [[es:Lista de códigos telefónicos]] [[fo:Telefon landakotur]] [[fr:Liste des indicatifs téléphoniques internationaux par indicatif]] [[ga:Liosta glaochód idirnáisiúnta]] [[gl:Lista de códigos telefónicos internacionais]] [[ko:국제전화 나라번호]] [[is:Listi yfir landsnúmer]] [[it:Prefissi telefonici internazionali]] [[he:רשימת קידומות טלפון בחיוג בינלאומי]] [[lt:Šalių telefonų kodai]] [[lv:Starptautisko tālsarunu kodu saraksts]] [[mt:Lista ta' kodiċi telefoniċi]] [[nl:Landnummer]] [[nds:Internatschonale Telefoonvörwahl]] [[ja:国際電話番号の一覧]] [[no:Landsnumre for telefon]] [[os:Бæстæты телефонон префиксты номхыгъд]] [[pl:Kod telefoniczny]] [[pt:Lista de códigos telefónicos]] [[ru:Список телефонных префиксов стран]] [[sl:Nacionalna klicna koda]] [[sr:Листа државних позивних бројева]] [[sv:Landsnummer]] [[th:รหัสโทรศัพท์ระหว่างประเทศ]] [[tl:Tala ng mga kodigong pantelepono ng mga bansa]] [[wa:Djivêye des indicatifs telefonikes eternåcionås]] [[zh:国际电话区号列表]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Christopher Marlowe</title> <id>5771</id> <revision> <id>42056400</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:28:59Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Wayward</username> <id>184087</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/168.216.201.225\|168.216.201.225]] ([[User talk:168.216.201.225\|talk]]) to last version by Vary</comment> <text xml:space="preserve"><!-- A NOTE TO EDITORS OF THIS PAGE: A lot of rubbish is written about Marlowe; before adding anything to this page, please check the evidence first and avoid presenting opinion as fact (e.g. if you want to make any point about his writings, quote relevant passages in support). Bear in mind that an encyclopedia is not the place for speculation or innuendo, and always strive for neutral point of view. --> [[Image:Christopher_Marlowe.jpg\|thumb\|right\|An anonymous portrait, often believed to show Christopher Marlowe]] '''Christopher ("Kit") Marlowe''' (baptised [[26 February]], [[1564]] &ndash; [[30 May]], [[1593]]) was an [[England\|English]] [[dramatist]], [[poet]], and [[translator]] of the [[Elizabethan era]]. Perhaps the foremost Elizabethan tragedian before [[Shakespeare]], he is known for his magnificent [[blank verse]], his overreaching protagonists, and his own untimely death. ==Background== Born in [[Canterbury, Kent\|Canterbury]] the son of a shoemaker, he attended [[The King's School, Canterbury]] and [[Corpus Christi College, Cambridge]] on a scholarship and received his bachelor of arts degree in [[1584]]. In [[1587]] the university hesitated to award him his master's degree because of a rumour that he had converted to [[Catholic]]ism and gone to the English college at Rheims to prepare for the priesthood. However, his degree was awarded on schedule when the [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom\|Privy Council]] intervened on his behalf, commending him for his "faithful dealing" and "good service" to the queen[http://www2.prestel.co.uk/rey/pc_cert.htm]. The nature of Marlowe's service was not specified by the Council, but their letter to the Cambridge authorities has provoked much sensational speculation, notably the theory that Marlowe was operating as a secret agent working for Sir [[Francis Walsingham]]'s intelligence service. No direct evidence supports this theory, although Marlowe obviously did serve the queen in some capacity. ==Literary career== The brief ''[[Dido, Queen of Carthage]]'' seems to be Marlowe's first extant dramatic work, possibly written at Cambridge with [[Thomas Nashe]]. Marlowe's first known play to be performed on the [[London]] stage was 1587's ''[[Tamburlaine (play)\|Tamburlaine]]'', a story of the conqueror [[Timur]]. The first English play to make effective dramatic use of [[blank verse]], it marks the beginning of the mature phase of Elizabethan Theatre. It was a smash success, and ''Tamburlaine Part II'' soon followed. The sequence of his remaining plays is unknown. All were written on controversial themes. ''[[Doctor Faustus]]'', based on the recently published German [[Faustbuch]], was the first dramatic version of the [[Faust]] legend of a scholar's dealing with the devil. ''[[The Jew of Malta]]'', depicting a Maltese Jew's barbarous revenge against the city authorities, featured a prologue delivered by [[Niccolò Machiavelli\|Machiavelli]] himself. ''[[Edward the Second]]'' was an English history play about the dethronement of [[Edward II of England\|Edward II]] by his dissatisfied barons and his French queen (the possibility that [[Elizabeth I of England\|Elizabeth I]] might be dethroned by pro-Catholic forces was very real at the time). ''[[The Massacre at Paris]]'' was a short, sketchy play portraying the events surrounding the [[Saint Bartholomews Day Massacre]] in [[1572]], an event that English Protestants frequently invoked as the blackest example of Catholic treachery. His other works include the first book of the minor epic ''[[Hero and Leander (Marlowe's poem) \| Hero and Leander]]'' (published with a continuation by [[George Chapman]] in [[1598]]), the popular lyric ''[[The Passionate Shepherd to His Love]]'', and translations of [[Ovid]]'s ''[[Amores]]'' and the first book of [[Lucan (poet)\|Lucan]]'s ''[[Pharsalia]]''. The two parts of ''[[Tamburlaine]]'' were published in 1590; all his other works were published posthumously. In [[1599]] his translation of [[Ovid]] was banned and copies publicly burned as part of [[John Whitgift\|Archbishop Whitgift's]] crackdown on offensive material. Marlowe's plays were enormously successful, thanks in part, no doubt, to the imposing stage presence of [[Edward Alleyn]]. He was unusually tall for the time, and the haughty roles of Tamburlaine, Faustus, and Barabas were probably written especially for him. Marlowe's plays were the foundation of the repertoire of Alleyn's company, the [[Admiral's Men]], throughout the 1590s. ==The Mar
y in excess of the equivalent rest mass of the two particles (1.02 MeV) appears as the kinetic energy of the pair and the recoil nucleus. The electron of the pair, frequently referred to as the secondary electron, is densely ionizing. The positron has a very short lifetime. It combines within 10<sup>-8</sup> seconds with a free electron. The entire mass of these two particles is then converted into two gamma photons of 0.51 MeV energy each. Gamma rays are often produced alongside other forms of radiation such as alpha or beta. When a nucleus emits an &alpha; or &beta; particle, the [[daughter nucleus]] is sometimes left in an excited state. It can then jump down to a lower level by emitting a gamma ray in much the same way that an atomic electron can jump to a lower level by emitting [[ultraviolet]] radiation. Gamma rays, x-rays, visible [[light]], and UV rays are all forms of [[electromagnetic radiation]]. The only difference is the [[frequency]] and hence the [[energy]] of the [[photons]]. Gamma rays are the most energetic. An example of gamma ray production follows. First [[cobalt]]-60 decays to excited [[nickel]]-60 by [[Beta rays\|beta decay]]: :<math> {}^{60}\hbox{Co}\;\to\;^{60}\hbox{Ni}\;+\;e^-\;+\;\overline{\nu}_e. </math> Then the nickel-60 drops down to the ground state (see nuclear [[shell model]]) by emitting a gamma ray: :<math> {}^{60}\hbox{Ni}\;\to\;^{60}\hbox{Ni}\;+\;\gamma. </math> Gamma rays of 1.17 MeV and 1.33 MeV are produced. Another example is that Am-241 decays by alpha decay to form Np-237, this alpha decay is accompanied by [[gamma]] emission. In some cases the gamma emission spectrum for a nucleus is quite simple (eg Co-60/Ni-60) while in other cases such as (Am-241/Np-237 and Ir-192/Pt-192) the gamma emission spectrum is complex revealing that a series of nuclear energy levels can exist. The fact that an alpha spectrum can have a series of different peaks with different energies reinforces the idea that several nuclear energy levels are possible. Because a beta decay is accompanied by the emission of a [[neutrino]] which also carries away energy, the beta spectrum does not have sharp lines, but instead it is a broad peak. Hence from beta decay alone it is not possible to probe the different energy levels found in the nucleus. In [[optical]] spectroscopy it is well known that an entity which is an emitter of light can also absorb light at the same [[wavelength]] (photon energy), for instance a sodium flame can emit yellow light, but also it can absorb the yellow light from a [[sodium]] vapour lamp. In the case of gamma rays this can be seen in [[Mössbauer]] spectroscopy, here a correction for the energy lost by the recoil of the nucleus is made and the exact conditions for gamma ray absorption through resonance can be attained. This can be thought of as being similar to the [[Frank Condon]] effects seen in optical spectroscopy. == Uses == The powerful nature of gamma rays have made them useful in the sterilizing of medical equipment by killing [[bacterium\|bacteria]]. They are also used to kill bacteria and insects in foodstuffs, particularly meat and vegetables, to maintain freshness. In spite of their cancer-causing properties, gamma rays are also used to treat some types of [[cancer]]. In the procedure called [[gamma knife\|gamma-knife]] surgery, multiple concentrated beams of gamma rays are directed on the growth in order to kill the cancerous cells. The beams are aimed from different angles to focus the radiation on the growth while minimising damage to the surrounding tissues. Gamma rays are also used for diagnostic purposes in [[nuclear medicine]]. Several gamma-emitting [[radioisotope]]s are used, one of which is [[technetium]]-99m. When administered to a patient, a [[gamma camera]] can be used to form an image of the radioisotope's distribution by detecting the gamma radiation emitted. Such a technique can be employed to diagnose a wide range of conditions (e.g. spread of cancer to the bones). Gamma ray detectors are also starting to be used in Singapore and Pakistan as part of the [[Container Security Initiative]] (CSI). These [[United States dollar\|US$]]5 million machines are advertised to scan 30 containers per hour. The objective of this technique is to pre-screen merchant ship containers before they enter U.S. ports. [http://www.inet.tsinghua.edu.cn/english2/academics4.htm] == History == Gamma rays were discovered by the French chemist and physicist, [[Paul Ulrich Villard]] in 1900 while he was studying [[uranium]]. Working in the chemistry department of the [[École Normale Supérieure\|École Normale]] in rue d'Ulm, [[Paris]] with self-constructed equipment, he found that the rays were not bent by a [[magnetic field]]. For a time, it was assumed that gamma rays were particles. The fact that they were rays was demonstrated by the British Physicist, [[William Henry Bragg]] in 1910 when he showed that the rays ionized gas in a similar way to X-rays. In 1914, [[Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron Rutherford of Nelson\|Ernest Rutherford]] and [[Edward Andrade]] showed that gamma rays were a form of electromagnetic radiation by measuring their wavelengths using [[X-ray crystallography\|crystal diffraction]]. The wavelengths are similar to those of X-rays and are very short, in the range 10<sup>-11</sup>m to 10<sup>-14</sup>m. It was [[Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron Rutherford of Nelson\|Rutherford]] who coined the name 'gamma rays', after naming 'alpha' and 'beta' rays; the natures of the different rays were unknown at that time. Gamma-ray astronomy did not develop until it was possible to get our detectors above all or most of the atmosphere, using balloons or spacecraft. The first gamma-ray telescope, carried into orbit on the Explorer XI satellite in 1961, picked up fewer than 100 cosmic gamma-ray photons! Perhaps the most spectacular discovery in gamma-ray astronomy came in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Detectors on board the Vela satellite series, originally military satellites, began to record bursts of gamma-rays, not from Earth, but from deep space. == References == {{unreferenced}} == See also == [[Alpha rays]] [[Beta rays]] [[Delta rays]] [[Epsilon rays]] [[Gamma-ray astronomy]] [[Gamma ray burst]]s [[Radiation therapy]] [[Food irradiation]] {{physics-stub}} {{EMSpectrum}} <!--Interwiki--> <!--Categories--> [[Category:Electromagnetic spectrum]] [[Category:Radioactivity]] [[ca:Radiació gamma]] [[cs:Záření gama]] [[da:Gammastråling]] [[de:Gammastrahlung]] [[et:Gammakiirgus]] [[es:Rayos gamma]] [[fr:Rayon gamma]] [[gl:Radiación gamma]] [[ko:감마선]] [[id:Sinar gamma]] [[it:Raggi gamma]] [[lv:Gamma stari]] [[fa:پرتو گاما]] [[he:קרינת גמא]] [[hu:Gamma-sugárzás]] [[nl:Gammastraling]] [[ja:ガンマ線]] [[no:Gammastråling]] [[pl:Promieniowanie gamma]] [[pt:Radiação gama]] [[ru:Гамма-излучение]] [[sl:Žarek gama]] [[fi:Gammasäteily]] [[sv:Gammastrålning]] [[ta:காம்மா அலைகள்]] [[zh:伽马射线]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gloria Gaynor</title> <id>12509</id> <revision> <id>40761720</id> <timestamp>2006-02-22T21:24:08Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>80.180.186.118</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* External links */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:GloriaGaynor.jpg\|right\|thumb\|Gloria Gaynor]] '''Gloria Gaynor''' (real name '''Gloria Fowles''', born [[September 7]], [[1949]] in [[Newark, New Jersey]]) is a singer best-known for the [[disco]] hits ''[[I Will Survive]]'' ([[Hot 100]] #1, [[1979]]) and ''[[Never Can Say Goodbye]]'' (Hot 100 #9, [[1974]]). Gaynor was a singer with the [[Soul Satisfiers]], a [[jazz]]/pop band, in the 1960s. Her first solo single was "She'll Be Sorry / Let Me Go Baby" ([[1965]]). The lyrics of "I Will Survive" are written from the point of view of a woman, recently dumped, telling her ex-lover that she can cope without him and does not want anything more to do with him. The song has become something of an anthem of female [[emancipation]], and is still a staple of office parties and [[karaoke]] nights. In [[1999]], [[Pixar]] animator [http://www.navone.org/ Victor Navone] used this song to create an [http://amfilms.hash.com/search/entry.php?entry=539 alien music video] which for a time was a minor [[Internet phenomenon]]. An interesting piece of trivia about "I Will Survive" is that it was originally the [[B-side]] when [[Polydor Records]] released it in late [[1978]]. The [[A-side]], a song called ''Substitute'', was considered to be more "radio friendly." Radio [[disc jockey \| DJ]]s flipped the record over and audience response forced the record company to flip the songs and subsequent copies of the single listed the more popular song on the A-side. "Never Can Say Goodbye" was her first song to top [[Billboard magazine]]'s [[Hot Dance Music/Club Play \| dance chart]]. Some of her lesser-known disco songs include ''Honey Bee'' ([[1974]]), ''Casanova Brown'' ([[1975]]), and ''I Am What I Am'' ([[1983]]). During the late 1990's she dabbled in acting for a while, guest starring on ''[[The Wayans Bros]]'', ''[[That 70's Show]]'', and ''[[Ally McBeal]]'' before doing a limited engagement performance in [[Broadway theatre\|Broadway's]] ''[[Smokey Joe's Cafe]]''. She returned to the recording studio in [[2002]], releasing her first album in 20 years entitled, ''I Wish You Love''. The two singles released from the album, ''Just Keep Thinking About You'' and ''I Never Knew'', both top the [[Billboard magazine\|Billboard]]'s [[Dance]] chart. The latter song also charted #30 on [[Billboard magazine\|Billboard]]'s [[Adult Contemporary]] chart. Over 25 years after its release Gloria continues to ride the success of "I Will Survive", touring the country and the world over and performing her signature song on dozens of TV
D computer graphics]] are those which, when determining the light falling on a surface, take into account not only the light which has taken a path directly from a light source (''direct illumination''), but also light which has undergone reflection from other surfaces in the world (''indirect illumination''). Images rendered using global illumination algorithms are more photorealistic than images rendered using local illumination algorithms. However, they are also much slower and more computationally expensive. A common approach is to compute the global illumination of a scene and store that information with the geometry (ie. radiosity). That stored data can then be used to generate images from different viewpoints for generating walkthroughs of a scene without having to go through expensive lighting calculations. [[Radiosity]], [[ray tracing]], [[beam tracing]], [[cone tracing]], [[Path Tracing]], [[metropolis light transport]] and [[photon mapping]] are examples of algorithms used in global illumination, some of which may be used together. These algorithms model [[diffuse inter-reflection]] which is a very important part of global illumination, however most of these (excluding radiosity) also model [[specular inter-reflection]] too which makes them more accurate algorithms to solve the lighting equation and provide a more realistic globally illuminated scene. The algorithms used to calculate the distribution of light energy between surfaces of a scene are closely related to [[heat transfer]] simulations performed using [[Finite element analysis\|finite-element]] methods in engineering design. In real-time 3D graphics, global illumination is sometimes approximated by an "ambient" term in the lighting equation. [[Image:Global_illumination.jpg\|frame\|none\|An example of a global illumination rendering, demonstrating how surface materials are reflected in other surfaces.]] ==See also== [[YafRay]] free rendering software featuring global illumination [[Radiance (software)\|Radiance]] - highly accurate ray-tracing software system for UNIX computers. Free to non-commercial users. == External links == [http://pbrt.org/ PBRT] - Literate programming, has a great accompanying book. [http://www.vrayrender.com/ Vray Render] - Vray Render website, a new fast, and powerful rendering engine. [http://www.vraywiki.com/ Vraywiki] - Vraywiki website. [http://www.splutterfish.com/ SplutterFish] - developers of Brazil, a rendering system based on global illumination. The site has an extensive gallery of contributed images [http://www.hxa7241.org/perceptuum/perceptuum.html Perceptuum] - good source for photon mapping, and other global illumination techniques. [http://www.mentalimages.com/ Mental Images] - Makers of the highly professional renderer MentalRay. The renderer is used in packages such as Softimage XSI, Maya and 3D Studio Max [[Category:3D computer graphics]] [[de:Globale Beleuchtung]] [[pl:Global Illumination]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Geometric series</title> <id>12630</id> <revision> <id>15910302</id> <timestamp>2004-09-26T21:07:41Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>24.19.45.139</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Geometric progression]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gypsies</title> <id>12631</id> <revision> <id>26876052</id> <timestamp>2005-10-30T12:51:50Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Anthony Appleyard</username> <id>119438</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[gypsy]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>GRUB</title> <id>12633</id> <revision> <id>28323053</id> <timestamp>2005-11-14T19:07:50Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Gronky</username> <id>87356</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>update to prevent double redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[GNU GRUB]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>List of islands of Greece</title> <id>12634</id> <revision> <id>42015107</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T05:49:46Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>212.56.128.186</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* The [[Cyclades]] /</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">This is a list of some of the 3000 '''[[island]]s of [[Greece]]''': [[Chrysi]] [[Crete]] [[Dia (island)\|Dia]] [[Euboea]] [[Gavdos]] [[Koufonisi]] ==[[Saronic Islands]]== [[Aegina]] [[Hydra, Saronic Islands\|Hydra]] [[Poros]] [[Spetses]] ==The [[Sporades]]== [[Skiathos]] [[Skopelos]] [http://www.skopelosweb.gr skopelos guide] [[Alonnisos]] [[Skyros]] ==The [[Ionian Islands]]== [[Antikythira]] [[Antipaxi]] [[Corfu]] [[Ithaki]] [[Kefalonia]] [[Kythira]] [[Lefkada]] [[Paxi]] [[Zakynthos]] ==The [[Dodecanese Islands]]== [[Astypalia]] [[Halki]] [[Kalymnos]] [[Karpathos]] [[Kassos]] [[Kastellorizo]] [[Kos]] [[Leros]] [[Nisyros]] [[Patmos]] [[Rhodes]] [[Symi]] [[Tilos]] ==The [[Northern Aegean Islands]]== [[Chios]] [[Ikaria]] [[Limnos]] [[Lesbos Island\|Lesvos]] [[Samos Island\|Samos]] [[Samothraki]] [[Thassos]] [[Lesbos]] ==The [[Cyclades]]== [[Amorgos]] [[Andros]] [[Folegandros]] [[Ios]] [[Kea]] [[Kythnos]] [[Milos]] [[Mykonos]] [[Naxos]] [[Paros]] [[Antiparos]] [[Santorini]] [[Sifnos]] [[Serifos]] [[Sikinos]] [[Syros]] [[Tinos]] [[Mykonos]] {{listdev}} ''See also: [[List of islands in the Mediterranean]], [[List of islands]]'' [[Category:Lists of islands\|Greece]] [[Category:Islands of Greece\| ]] [[ca:Llista d'illes de Grècia]] [[cs:Řecké ostrovy]] [[de:Liste griechischer Inseln]] [[it:Isole greche]] [[nl:Lijst van Griekse eilanden]] [[pt:Lista de ilhas da Grécia]] [[sv:Lista över Greklands öar]] [[tr:Yunan Adaları]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gian Lorenzo Bernini</title> <id>12635</id> <revision> <id>42066742</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T16:08:41Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Mimmo46</username> <id>629123</id> </contributor> <comment>/ Fountains in Rome / added Fontana delle api</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{expert}} {{cleanup-date\|November 2005}} [[Image:Gian lorenzo bernini selfportrait.jpg\|thumb\|250px\|A self portrait: Bernini is said to have used his own features in his ''David''.]] '''Gian Lorenzo Bernini''' (''Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini'') ([[December 7]], [[1598]], [[Naples]] &ndash; [[November 28]], [[1680]], [[Rome]]) was an Italian [[Baroque]] [[artist]] in 17th century. He is known for his often overlapping skills as a [[sculpture\|sculptor]] and [[architect]]. He was also a [[painter]], draftsman, designer of stage sets, [[fireworks]] displays, and [[funeral]] trappings. ==Early life and work== Bernini was born in [[Naples]] to a Florentine family and accompanied his father [[Pietro Bernini]], a capable [[Mannerism\|Mannerist]] sculptor himself, to Rome. Here the young prodigy's capabilities were soon noticed by the painter [[Annibale Carracci]] and by [[Pope Paul V]], and Bernini could therefore begin work as an independent artist. His first works were inspired by [[Ancient Greek art\|Hellenistic]] sculpture of ancient Greece and imperial Rome he could study in the new seat. Among these early works are ''[[The Goat Amalthea with the Infant Zeus and a Faun]]'' and several allegorical busts such as the ''[[Damned Soul (Bernini)\|Damned Soul]]'' and ''[[Blessed Soul (Bernini)\|Blessed Soul]]''. In the 1620 he completed the [[Bust of Pope Paul V (Bernini)\|bust of Pope Paul V]]. Under the patronage of Cardinal [[Scipione Borghese]], a member of the reigning papal family, young Bernini rapidly rose to prominence as a sculptor. Scipione's [[Villa Borghese\|villa]] chronicles his secular sculptures, with a series of masterpieces: :''[[Aeneas, Anchises, and Ascanius]]'' depicting three ages of man from various viewpoints, borrowing from a figure in a [[Raphael]] fresco, and perhaps an [[allegory]] reflecting the moment when son attains the skill of his father. :''[[Abduction of Proserpine]]'', where the young artist creates a monument recalling [[Giambologna]]'s Mannerist ''[[Rape of the Sabine Women (Giambologna)\|Rape of the Sabine Women]]'', and masterfully dimpling the woman's marble skin. :''[[Apollo and Daphne (Bernini)\|Apollo and Daphne]]'' shows the most dramatic moment in one of [[Ovid]]'s metamorphosis tales. In the story, Apollo, the god of light, scolds Eros, the god of love, for playing with adult weapons. Eros is angered and wounds Apollo with a golden arrow induces Apollo, upon sight of Daphne, a water nymph who had declared her perpetual [[virginity]], to fall in love. Eros also wounded Daphne with a lead arrow that induces her to reject Apollo's advances. Apollo pursues Daphne. Just when he captures her she cries out to her father, the river god, to destroy her [[beauty]] in order to quell Apollo's advances. Her father responds by mutating her into a laurel tree. If representative sculpture of human figures metamophoses a person into a depiction in lifeless stone, this statue doubles the conceit, depicting in stone a life changing to inanimate tree. :* Finally, Bernini's ''[[David (Bernini)\|David]]'' was a revolutionary statement. Bernini's David is poised to release his rock, in contrast to poses of the Florentine Davids of prior generations, such as the triumphant repose of the famous [[David (Michelangelo)\|Michelangelo's David]] or the haughty effeteness of [[David (Donatello)\|Donatello]]'s or [[Andrea del Verrocchio\|Verrocchio's]] Davids. The twisted torso, furrowed forehead, and granite grimace of Bernini's ''David'' is characteristic of the [[Baroque]] interest in dynamic movement and emotion over High [[Renaissance]] stasis and classic severity. Michelangelo expresses David's her
nce in China and will pose a competitive challenge to U.S. business, particularly in [[aerospace]], high-tech, and luxury markets. In Southeast Asia, France was an architect of the [[Paris Accords]], which ended the conflict in [[Cambodia]]. France does not have formal diplomatic relationships with [[North Korea]]. North Korea however maintains a ''delegation'' (not an embassy nor a consulate) near Paris. As most countries, France does not recognize, nor have formal diplomatic relationships with the [[Republic of China]] ([[Taiwan]], capital [[Taipei]]), for it is impossible to recognize and have relationships with both the RoC and the [[People's Republic of China]]; however, Taiwan maintains a representation office in Paris, similar to an embassy but in name. Likewise, the French Institute in Taipei has an administrative consular section that delivers visas and fulfills other missions normally dealt with by diplomatic outposts. ====Japan==== ''Main article: [[Franco-Japanese relations]]'' Recently France has been very involved in trade and cultural exchange initiatives with Japan. Some people see this as being a result of French leader [[Jacques Chirac]] being a [[Japanophile]]. Chirac has visited Japan over 40 times, probably more than any other world leader outside of Japan, and is an expert on the country. France has started the export promotion campaign "[[Le Japon, c'est possible]]" and the international liaison personnel exchange program [[JET]]. Together they built the [[Maison de la Culture du Japon à Paris]]. France and Japan have also worked together to improve dire health situations from AIDS and underdevelopment in Djibouti, Madagascar, Uganda, and other countries. Japan and France are also known to share ideas with each other in the realms of [[art]] and [[cooking]]. Japan has been heavily influenced by French cuisine within the past few decades, as seen on the television show [[Iron Chef]]. [[Anime]] is popular in France, and French historical figures and settings from [[medieval]], [[Renaissance]], [[Napoleon I of France\|Napoleonic]], and [[World War]] eras have served as models for certain popular stories in Japanese entertainment. The purity of Japanese painting and illustration, and likewise the modernity and elegance of French visual arts has resulted in hybrid styles in those creative fields. For more on Franco-Japanese relations visit [http://www.mofa.go.jp/region/europe/france/ Japan-France Relations]. (English) ===North America=== ''Main articles: [[Canada-France relations]], [[Franco-U.S. relations]]'' Relations between Canada and France are friendly and stable, with the possible exception over [[Quebec]]'s status in Canada. Relations between the United States and France are active and cordial. Mutual visits by high-level officials are conducted on a regular basis. Bilateral contact at the cabinet level has traditionally been active. France and the United States share common values and have parallel policies on most political, economic, and security issues. Differences are discussed frankly and have not been allowed to impair the pattern of close cooperation that characterizes relations between the two countries. The largest Current fallout between the [[United States]] and France involve U.S.-led [[Operation Iraqi Freedom]], a major part of the Post [[September 11]] [[War on Terror]]. When the United States went to war with [[Saddam Hussein]], they were not supported by France, who was later found to have ben involved in the [[Oil for Food Scandal]]. ===United Kingdom=== ''Main articles: [[Anglo-French relations]]'' Starting with the [[Hundred Years War]], France and England (later Great Britain and later still, the UK) were often enemies, and occasionally allies. As of today, the [[United Kingdom]] still celebrates its victories over the French emperor [[Napoleon I of France\|Napoleon]] in much the same way that any nation that has historically won wars commemerates these events. However, in the beginning of the 20th century a policy of ''[[entente cordiale]]'' (cordial agreement) was started. France and the United Kingdom have been allies ever since, despite occasional tensions (such as: the French perception that the British abandoned France in [[1940]], see [[Battle of France]] and [[Mers-el-Kébir]]; the British perception that the French wrongly opposed the [[2003 Invasion of Iraq]]). A chronic point of contention is the future of the [[European Economic Community]], then the [[European Union]]. Under French president [[Charles de Gaulle]], France refused on several occasions that the UK joins the EEC because, De Gaulle argued, the UK had extensive alliances outside Europe and was famously suspicious of its European neighbours. After the UK joined the EEC at last, tensions started again when British prime minister [[Margaret Thatcher]] demanded that her country paid less to the EEC budget, as well as other demands. Finally, as [[Tony Blair]] is prime minister, the United Kingdom has clearly expressed scepticism at the economic policies conducted in France. At the level of the populations, there seems to exist some deep-seated reciprocal distrust between the two countries. The British tabloid press frequently uses demeaning terms such as "the [[Frogs]]" to call the French. ===New Zealand=== New Zealand has always had excellent relations with France, which recently thanked New Zealand for helping it during German occupations of [[World War I]] and [[World War II\|II]]. The relations were strained for a short period in the late 20th Century, however, over the [[French nuclear tests]] at [[Mururoa Atoll]] and the bombing of the [[Rainbow Warrior]]. ==International organization participation:== [[ACCT]], [[AfDB]], [[AsDB]], [[Australia Group]], [[BDEAC]], [[Bank for International Settlements\|BIS]], [[Customs Cooperation Council\|CCC]], [[CDB]] (non-regional), [[Council of Europe\|CE]], [[CERN]], [[Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council\|EAPC]], [[EBRD]], [[United Nations Economic Commission for Africa\|ECA]] (associate), [[United Nations Economic Commission for Europe\|ECE]], [[ECLAC]], [[European Investment Bank\|EIB]], [[Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union\|EMU]], [[European Space Agency\|ESA]], [[Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific\|ESCAP]], [[European Union\|EU]], [[FAO]], [[FZ]], [[G-5]], [[G-7]], [[G-10]], [[Inter-American Development Bank\|IADB]], [[IAEA]], [[IBRD]], [[ICAO]], [[International Criminal Court\|ICC]], [[International Chamber of Commerce\|ICC]], [[ICFTU]], [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement\|ICRM]], [[International Development Association\|IDA]], [[International Energy Agency\|IEA]], [[IFAD]], [[IFC]], [[IFRCS]], [[IHO]], [[International Labour Organization\|ILO]], [[IMF]], [[International Maritime Organization]], [[Inmarsat]], [[InOC]], [[Intelsat]], [[Interpol]], [[IOC]], [[International Organization for Migration\|IOM]], [[International Organization for Standardization\|ISO]], [[International Telecommunication Union\|ITU]], [[MINURSO]], [[MIPONUH]], [[MONUC]], [[Non-Aligned Movement\|NAM]] (guest), [[NATO]], [[Nuclear Energy Agency\|NEA]], [[Nuclear Suppliers Group\|NSG]], [[Organization of American States\|OAS]] (observer), [[OECD]], [[OPCW]], [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe\|OSCE]], [[Permanent Court of Arbitration\|PCA]], [[Secretariat of the Pacific Community\|SPC]], [[United Nations\|UN]], [[United Nations Security Council\|UN Security Council]], [[UNCTAD]], [[UNESCO]], [[UNHCR]], [[UNIDO]], [[UNIFIL]], [[UNIKOM]], [[UNITAR]], [[UNMIBH]], [[UNMIK]], [[UNOMIG]], [[UNRWA]], [[UNTSO]], [[UNU]], [[UPU]], [[WADB]] (nonregional), [[WCL]], [[WEU]], [[WFTU]], [[World Health Organization\|WHO]], [[WIPO]], [[WMO]], [[WToO]], [[WTrO]], [[Zangger Committee]] ==International disputes== * [[Madagascar]] claims [[Bassas da India]], [[Europa Island]], [[Glorioso Islands]] and [[Juan de Nova Island]] * [[Comoros]] claims [[Mayotte]] * [[Mauritius]] claims [[Tromelin Island]] * [[Seychelles]] claims the [[Glorioso Islands]] * territorial dispute between [[Suriname]] and [[French Guiana]] * territorial claim in [[Antarctica]] ([[Adelie Land]]) * [[Matthew and Hunter Islands]] east of [[New Caledonia]] claimed by [[France]] and [[Vanuatu]] ==Other issues== ===Illicit drugs=== France is a transshipment point for and consumer of South American [[cocaine]] and Southwest Asian [[heroin]]. [[category:Foreign relations of France\| ]] [[Category:Foreign relations by country\|France, Foreign affairs of]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>French Guinea</title> <id>10727</id> <revision> <id>41072945</id> <timestamp>2006-02-24T21:54:03Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Astrokey44</username> <id>413045</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Distinguish\|French Guiana}} '''French Guinea''' (French: ''Guinée française'') in [[West Africa]], became independent from [[France]] in [[1958]], becoming the country of [[Guinea]]. ==See also== * [[Guinea]] * [[History of Guinea]] * [[French West Africa]] [[Category:Former French colonies\|Guinea]] {{Guinea-geo-stub}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>French Guinea/History</title> <id>10728</id> <revision> <id>15908525</id> <timestamp>2002-10-10T19:07:28Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Camembert</username> <id>3113</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fix redir</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of French Guiana]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>French Guinea/Geography</title> <id>10729</id> <revision> <id>15908526</id> <timestamp>2002-10-11T11:00:32Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>The Anome</username> <id>76</id> </contributor> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Geography_of_French_Guiana]]</comment>
gathering and strong emphasis is placed on the BBC logo itself. Satellites are shown transmitting and receiving a red "data stream". Footage shows reporters and cameramen operating in the [[United Kingdom]], [[United States]], [[China]], [[Africa]], [[Iraq]] and the areas affected by the Asian Tsunami. Some people have also noted that the red "data streams" represented on the BBC News 24 countdown appear to defy the laws of physics [http://bnb.bpweb.net/N24/news24.htm]. As of 5 September 2005, an almost identical countdown replaced the 'ribbon-around-the-world' countdown [[BBC World]] had thus far offered its viewers, with slight changes in music and footage. ==Changes Announced== It was announced on [[8 November]] [[2005]] that a controller of News 24 would be appointed whilst in the area of news on terrestrial television, a single editor would work on the [[BBC One O'Clock News\|One O'Clock]] and [[BBC Six O'Clock News\|Six O'Clock News]] daily main news programmes rather than three individuals. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/tv_and_radio/4417472.stm] ==Awards== On [[22 February]] [[2006]], BBC News 24 won the News Channel of the Year at the [[Royal Television Society\|RTS]] Television Journalism Awards for the first time in its history. The judges remarked that this was the year that BBC News 24 really came of age. {{BBC}} ==External links== [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/bbc_news_24/default.stm BBC News 24] website [http://www.culture.gov.uk/global/publications/archive_2002/review_bbcnews24.htm The Lambert Report] on the DCMS website [http://www.tvhome.co.uk/bbcnews24/sounds.phtml MP3 tracks of News 24 music: 1997, 1999 and 2003] [http://www.tvnewsroom.co.uk TV Newsroom] [[Category:24-hour television news channels]] [[Category:BBC television channels in the United Kingdom]] [[pl:BBC News 24]] [[sv:BBC News 24]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bill Oddie</title> <id>4622</id> <revision> <id>42100937</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:04:05Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>88.109.194.228</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Billoddie.jpg\|thumb\|200px\|Bill Oddie]] '''William Edgar (Bill) Oddie''', [[Order of the British Empire\|OBE]], [[Bachelor's degree\|BA]], [[Master's degree#MAs in Oxford, Cambridge and Dublin\|MA (Cantab.)]], born [[July 7]] [[1941]] in [[Rochdale]] (at the time, part of [[Lancashire]]), is a [[British comedy\|comedy writer and performer]], [[author]], composer and musician. A [[birdwatching\|birdwatcher]] since his childhood in [[Birmingham]], Oddie has now established a reputation for himself as an [[Ornithology\|ornithologist]], [[conservationist]] and [[television presenter]] on [[wildlife]] issues. Some of his books are illustrated with his own paintings and drawings. His programmes include Springwatch, How to watch Wildlifee, and Briatin Goes Wild ==Early life== On a [[2004]] episode of the BBC [[television series]] ''[[Who Do You Think You Are?]]'', Oddie was invited to investigate his family history. The programme revealed that Oddie was raised primarily by his father after his mother was placed into long term [[psychiatric hospital\|psychiatric care]] suffering with [[bipolar disorder]]; and that his mother had had one [[miscarriage]] and then lost another child, a girl, after five days. It was suggested that Oddie's grandmother had prevented his mother from attending to the girl, who was crying. His mother subsequently found the child dead. Oddie speculated that his mother would have felt that his grandmother (whom she lived with) was to blame for the death of her daughter and that this psychological trauma may well have contributed to her mental ill health. For Oddie, who had previously believed that his mother had abandoned him in childhood, "it undemonised her". (Interviewed in [[The Idler (1993)\|The Idler]] magazine, Oddie revealed that he suffers from bouts of [[depression]].) ==Comedy and music== After attending [[King Edward's School, Birmingham]], Oddie studied [[English Literature]] at [[Pembroke College, Cambridge\|Pembroke College]] at the [[University of Cambridge]], where he appeared in several [[Footlights\|Cambridge University Footlights Club]] productions, one of which, ''A Clump of Plinths'', was so successful during its run at the [[Edinburgh Fringe Festival]] that the revue was renamed as ''[[Cambridge Circus (comedy)\|Cambridge Circus]]'', and transferred the revue to the [[West End theatre\|West End]] in [[London]], and then later took the revue to [[New Zealand]] and [[Broadway theatre\|Broadway]]. While still at Cambridge Oddie wrote scripts for TV's ''[[That Was The Week That Was]]''. His first television appearance was in [[Bernard Braden]]'s [[Braden Beat]] in [[1964]]. Subsequently, he was a key member of the performers in the cult [[BBC]] radio series ''[[I'm Sorry, I'll Read That Again]]'' (ISIRTA; 1965), where many of his compositions were featured. Some were released on the album ''Distinctly Oddie'' (Polydor, 1967). He was possibly one of the first performers to [[parody]] a rock song, arranging the traditional [[Yorkshire]] folk song "[[On Ilkla Moor Baht'at]]" in the style of [[Joe Cocker]]'s hit rendition of [[the Beatles]]' "[[With a Little Help from My Friends]]" (released on [[John Peel]]'s [[Dandelion Records]] in [[1970]] and featured in Peel's special box of most-treasured singles), and singing "[[Andy Pandy]]" in the style of a brassy soul number such as [[Wilson Pickett]] or [[Geno Washington]] might perform. In many shows he would do short impressions of [[Hughie Green]]. In one song on ''[[I'm Sorry, I'll Read That Again]]'', Oddie performed "[[What a Wonderful World]]" with a voice fully reminiscent of [[Louis Armstrong]]. During the course of the song, the rest of the cast attributed the gravelly quality of his voice to a bad cold. In the background, during the rest of the song, it is possible to hear the cast call for a doctor, the arrival of the doctor and his decision that Oddie should go into hospital, the trip to hospital in an ambulance, and the operation extracting his tonsils. After this, the sound of his voice changed to a sound closer to that of Harry Secombe. He thanked the cast for curing him. On [[television]] Oddie was co-writer and performer in the comedy series ''[[Twice a Fortnight]]'' with [[Graeme Garden]], [[Terry Jones]], [[Michael Palin]] and [[Jonathan Lynn]]. Later, he was co-writer and performer in the comedy series ''[[Broaden Your Mind]]'' with [[Tim Brooke-Taylor]] and [[Graeme Garden]], for which Oddie became a cast member for the second series). Bill, Tim and Graeme then co-wrote and appeared in their television comedy series ''[[The Goodies]]'' Oddie was a member of [[1970s]] BBC TV trio ''[[The Goodies]]'', in which he starred with ISIRTA colleagues [[Graeme Garden]] and [[Tim Brooke-Taylor]] (also veterans of Cambridge Footlights). He portrayed the rebel, to Brooke-Taylor's conservative and Garden's boffin, with long hair and a poster of [[Che Guevara]] in his corner. The Goodies also released records, including "Father Christmas Do Not Touch Me"/"The In-Betweenies", "Do The Funky Gibbon", and "Black Pudding Bertha", which were hit singles in 1974-5. They reformed, briefly, in [[2005]], for a successful 13-date tour of [[Australia]]. Tim, Bill and Graeme also voiced characters on the [[1983]] animated children's programme ''[[Bananaman]]'' [[1983]], in which Oddie voiced the characters of "''Crow''", "''Chief O'Reilly''", "''Doctor Gloom''", "''Eric''" and "''the Weatherman''". Oddie co-wrote many of the episodes of the television comedy series ''[[Doctor in the House (TV series)\|Doctor in the House]]'' with [[Graeme Garden]] (who is a qualified doctor). Bill and Graeme wrote most of the episodes for the first season of the "''Doctor in the House''". Also, Bill and Graeme wrote all of the episodes for the second season of .the "''Doctor in the House''" television series. Bill Oddie has occasionally appeared on the BBC Radio 4 panel game ''[[I'm Sorry I Haven't a Clue]]'', on which Garden and Brooke-Taylor are regular panelists. In 1982 Garden and Oddie wrote, but did not perform in, a 6-part [[science fiction]] [[Situation comedy\|sitcom]] called ''[[Astronauts (television)\|Astronauts]]'' for [[Central Independent Television\|Central]] and [[ITV]]. The show was set in an international [[space station]] in the near future. Bill Oddie was the compere of a daytime BBC [[gameshow]], "[[History Hunt]]" ([[2003]]); and has featured in a ''[[Doctor Who]]'' audio drama, and he also appeared as the hapless window cleaner in one of the two films made of [[Eric Sykes]]' comedy story [[The Plank]], and also appeared in a 2-part episode of the comedy television series ''[[Married with Children]]''. In the fictional world of comedy character [[Alan Partridge]], Oddie is an unseen presence in Alan's life, bothering him with prank phone calls, and buying him gifts like dressing gowns. He plays the [[drum]]s and [[saxophone]] and appeared as Cousin Kevin in a production of [[The Who]]'s rock opera [[Tommy]] at the [[Rainbow Theatre]], [[Finsbury Park]], [[London]] on [[9 December]] [[1972]]. He has also contributed vocals to a [[Rick Wakeman]] album, "Criminal Record". Bill Oddie took part in the [[English National Opera]] production of the [[Gilbert and Sullivan]] [[comic opera]] ''[[The Mikado]]'', in which he appeared in the role of the "Lord High Executioner", taking over the role from [[Eric Idle]]. ==Conservation and birdwatching== Oddie's first published work was an article about Birmingham's [[Bartley Reservoir]] in the [[West Midland Bird Club]]'s [[1962]] Annual Report. He has sinc
t of publications in chemistry]] ==External links == * [http://www.purchon.com/chemistry/rates.htm#surface Rate of reaction] * [http://www.safetec.net Chemical Management] == References == <references/> [[Category:Chemical reactions\|]] [[Category:Chemistry]] [[ar:تفاعل كيميائي]] [[ca:Reacció química]] [[da:Kemisk reaktion]] [[de:Chemische Reaktion]] [[et:Keemiline reaktsioon]] [[el:Χημική αντίδραση]] [[es:Reacción química]] [[fr:Réaction chimique]] [[ko:화학 반응]] [[io:Kemiala reakto]] [[id:Reaksi kimia]] [[it:Reazione chimica]] [[he:תגובה כימית]] [[lv:Ķīmiskās reakcijas]] [[lt:Cheminė reakcija]] [[hu:Kémiai reakció]] [[mk:Хемиска реакција]] [[nl:Chemische reactie]] [[nds:Chemische Reaktschoon]] [[ja:化学反応]] [[no:Kjemisk reaksjon]] [[nn:Kjemisk reaksjon]] [[pl:Reakcja chemiczna]] [[pt:Reacção química]] [[ru:Химическая реакция]] [[simple:Chemical reaction]] [[sk:Chemická reakcia]] [[sr:Хемијска реакција]] [[su:Réaksi kimiawi]] [[fi:Kemiallinen reaktio]] [[sv:Kemisk reaktion]] [[tr:Tepkime]] [[uk:Хімічна реакція]] [[zh:化学反应]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Charleston</title> <id>6272</id> <revision> <id>40543960</id> <timestamp>2006-02-21T08:59:39Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Chobot</username> <id>259798</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Adding: nl</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Charleston''' may refer to: [[Charleston (dance)]] * [[USS Charleston\|USS ''Charleston'']], the name of several ships of the United States Navy == Places == In '''New Zealand''': * [[Charleston, New Zealand]] In '''Scotland''': * [[Charleston, Angus]], near [[Dundee]]. * [[Charleston, Renfrewshire]], near [[Paisley]] In the '''United Kingdom''': * [[Charleston, Sussex]], the name of a house in Sussex, United Kingdom, where the Bloomsbury painters Duncan Grant and Vanessa Bell lived and worked In the '''United States''': * [[Charleston, Arkansas]] * [[Charleston, Illinois]] * [[Charleston, Kentucky]] * [[Charleston, Mississippi]] * [[Charleston, Missouri]] * [[Charleston, New York]], located in central New York state * [[Charleston, Staten Island]], a neighborhood of Staten Island, New York City * [[South Charleston, Ohio]] * [[Charleston, Oregon]] * [[Charleston, South Carolina]], a major U.S. city * [[Charleston County, South Carolina]] * [[North Charleston, South Carolina]] * [[Charleston, Tennessee]] * [[Charleston, West Virginia]], the state capital {{disambig}} [[de:Charleston]] [[fr:Charleston]] [[ko:찰스턴]] [[nl:Charleston]] [[ja:チャールストン]] [[pl:Charleston]] [[pt:Charleston]] [[sv:Charleston]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Chivalry and Sorcerery</title> <id>6275</id> <revision> <id>15904429</id> <timestamp>2003-01-03T15:42:45Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Magnus Manske</username> <id>4</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Chivalry and Sorcery]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Chivalry and Sorcery]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Casiquiare canal</title> <id>6276</id> <revision> <id>40361335</id> <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:33:41Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rich Farmbrough</username> <id>82835</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>External links per MoS.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Casiquiare''' is a [[distributary]] of the upper [[Orinoco River\|Orinoco]], which flows southward into the [[Rio Negro]]. As such, it forms a unique natural canal between the Orinoco and [[Amazon River\|Amazon]] river systems; it is the largest river on the planet that links two major river systems, a so called [[bifurcation (river)\|bifurcation]]. ==Discovery== In [[1744]] the [[Jesuits\|Jesuit]] [[Father Roman]], while ascending the [[Orinoco River\|Orinoco]] river, met some [[Portugal\|Portuguese]] slave-traders from the settlements on the [[Rio Negro]]. He accompanied them on their return, by way of the Casiquiare canal, and afterwards retraced his route to the Orinoco. [[Charles Marie de La Condamine\|La Condamine]], seven months later, was able to give to the [[Académie française]] an account of Father Roman's extraordinary voyage, and thus confirm the existence of this wonderful waterway first reported by [[Christoval de Acuna\|Father Acuna]] in [[1639]]. But little credence was given to Father Roman's statement until it was verified, in [[1756]], by the [[Spain\|Spanish]] Boundary-line Commission of [[Yturriaga]] and [[Solano]]. In [[1800]] German scientist [[Alexander von Humboldt]] and French botanist [[Aimé Bonpland]] explored the river. ==Geography== The actual elevation of the canal above sea-level is not known, but is of primary importance to the study of the [[hydrography]] of [[South America]]. Travellers in general give it at from 400 to 900 feet, but, after much study of the question of altitudes throughout South America, the writer believes that it does not exceed 300 feet. The canal connects the upper Orinoco, 9 miles below the mission of Esmeraldas, with the Rio Negro affluent of the [[Amazon River]] near the town of [[San Carlos, Ecuador\|San Carlos]]. The general course is south-west, and its length, including windings, is about 200 miles. Its width, at its [[bifurcation]] with the Orinoco, is approximately 300 feet, with a current towards the Negro of three-quarters of a mile an hour; but as it gains in volume from the very numerous [[tributary]] streams, large and small, which it receives en route, its velocity increases, and in the wet season reaches 5 and even 8 miles an hour in certain stretches. It broadens considerably as it approaches its mouth, where it is about 1750 feet in width. It will thus be seen that the volume of water it captures from the Orinoco is small in comparison to what it accumulates in its course. In [[flood]]-time it is said to have a second connection with the Rio Negro by a branch which it throws off to the westward called the [[Itinivini]], which leaves it at a point about 50 miles above its mouth. In the dry season it has shallows, and is obstructed by sandbanks, a few rapids and granite rocks. Its shores are densely wooded, and the soil more fertile than that along the Rio Negro. The general slope of the plains through which the canal runs is south-west, but those of the Rio Negro slope south-east. The whole line of the Casiquiare is infested with myriads of tormenting insects. It is thus seen that this marvellous freak of nature is not, as is generally supposed, a sluggish canal on a flat tableland, but a great, rapid river which, if its upper waters had not found contact with the Orinoco, perhaps by cutting back, would belong entirely to the Negro branch of the Amazon. To the west of the Casiquiare there is a much shorter and more facile connexion between the Orinoco and Amazon basins, called the isthmus of [[Pimichin]], which is reached by ascending the [[Terni]] branch of the [[Atabapo]] affluent of the Orinoco. Although the Terni is somewhat obstructed, it is believed that it could easily be made navigable for small craft. The isthmus is 10 miles across, with undulating ground, nowhere over 50 feet high, with swamps and marshes. It is much used for the transit of large canoes, which are hauled across it from the Terni river, and which reach the Negro by the little stream called the Pimichin. ==References== {{1911}} ==External links== [http://members.aol.com/ChrisChrz/humboldt.html Alexander von Humboldt and the Casiquiare River] [[Category:Amazon river tributaries]] [[de:Brazo Casiquiare]] [[et:Casiquiare jõgi]] [[eo:Kasikiaro]] [[fr:Canal de Casiquiare]] [[lt:Kasikjarės kanalas]] [[pl:Casiquiare]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Complete normed vector space</title> <id>6278</id> <revision> <id>15904432</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Banach space]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Capetian</title> <id>6279</id> <revision> <id>40047829</id> <timestamp>2006-02-17T19:26:04Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>KuatofKDY</username> <id>24024</id> </contributor> <comment>added capet headline</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{History of France}} ''For full history of Capetian family, see '''[[Capet]]'''''. The '''direct Capetian Dynasty''' followed the [[Carolingian]] rulers of [[France]] from [[987]] to [[1328]]. From [[1328]] to [[1830]], with the interruption of the [[French Revolution\|revolution]], France was ruled by kings from the [[Valois Dynasty\|Valois]] and [[House of Bourbon\|Bourbon]], [[Cadet]] branches of the dynasty. ==List of Capetian kings of France== * [[987]]&ndash;[[996]], [[Hugh Capet]], Count of Paris, crowned King of France * [[996]]&ndash;[[1031]], [[Robert II of France\|Robert II]], the Pious * [[1031]]&ndash;[[1060]], [[Henry I of France\|Henri I]] * [[1060]]&ndash;[[1108]], [[Philip I of France\|Philippe I]] * [[1108]]&ndash;[[1137]], [[Louis VI of France\|Louis VI]], the Fat * [[1137]]&ndash;[[1180]], [[Louis VII of France\|Louis VII]] * [[1180]]&ndash;[[1223]], [[Philip II of France\|Philippe II Auguste]] * [[1223]]&ndash;[[1226]], [[Louis VIII of France\|Louis VIII]] * [[1226]]&ndash;[[1270]], [[Louis IX of France\|Louis IX]] (Saint Louis) * [[1270]]&ndash;[[1285]], [[Philip III of France\|Philippe III]] the Bold * [[1285]]&ndash;[[1314]], [[Philip IV of France\|Philippe IV]] the Fair * [[1314]]&ndash;[[1316]], [[Louis X of France\|Louis X]] * [[1316]]&ndash;[[1316]], [[John I of France\|Jean I]] * [[1316]]&ndash;[[1322]], [[
stable than oil paints. Whereas oil paints normally turn yellow as they age/dry(oxidize), acrylic paints, at least in the 50 years since invention, do not yellow, crack, or change. [[Category:Painting materials]] [[de:Acrylfarbe]] [[es:Pintura acrílica]] [[fr:Peinture acrylique]] [[nl:Acrylverf]] [[pt:Acrílico]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Angular momentum</title> <id>2839</id> <revision> <id>41091320</id> <timestamp>2006-02-25T00:09:17Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Joanjoc</username> <id>93075</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>+ca</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[physics]] the '''angular momentum''' of an object with respect to a reference point is a measure for the extent to which, and the direction in which, the object rotates about the reference point. In particular, if the body rotates about an axis, then the angular momentum with respect to a point on the axis is related to the [[mass]] of the object, the [[angular velocity]] and the distance of the mass to the axis. Without applying [[torque]] to the object, with respect to the reference point, the angular momentum is constant. The angular momentum is a measure for the amount of torque that has been applied over time to the object. The object has [[Inertia#Rotational_inertia\|rotational inertia]] that resists changes in rotational [[motion]], quantified by the [[moment of inertia]]. Angular momentum is an important concept in both physics and engineering with numerous applications. For example, the [[kinetic energy]] stored in a massive rotating object such as a [[flywheel]] is proportional to the angular momentum. == Angular momentum in classical mechanics == ===Definition=== The traditional mathematical definition of the angular momentum of a particle about some origin is: ::<math>\mathbf{L} = \mathbf{r} \times \mathbf{p}</math> :where ::'''L''' is the angular momentum of the particle, ::'''r''' is the position of the particle expressed as a displacement vector from the origin, ::'''p''' is the [[Momentum\|linear momentum]] of the particle, and ::<math>\times \,</math> is the vector [[cross product]]. Because of the cross product, '''L''' is a [[pseudovector]] perpendicular to both the radial vector '''r''' and the momentum vector '''p'''. If a system consists of several particles, the total angular momentum about an origin can be obtained by adding (or integrating) all the angular momenta of the constituent particles. Angular momentum can also be calculated by multiplying the square of the displacement ''r'', the [[mass]] of the particle and the [[angular velocity]]. For many applications where one is only concerned about rotation around one axis, it is sufficient to discard the pseudovector nature of angular momentum, and treat it like a scalar where it is positive when it corresponds to a counter-clockwise rotations, and negative clockwise. To do this, just take the definition of the cross product and discard the unit vector, so that angular momentum becomes: :<math>L = \|\mathbf{r}\|\|\mathbf{p}\|\sin\theta_{r,p}</math> where '''&theta;<sub>r,p</sub>''' is the angle between '''r''' and '''p''' measured from '''r''' to '''p'''; an important distinction because without it, the sign of the cross product would be meaningless. From the above, it is possible to reformulate the definition to either of the following: :<math>L = \pm\|\mathbf{p}\|\|\mathbf{r}_{\mathrm{perpendicular}}\|</math> where '''r'''<sub>perpendicular</sub> is called the ''[[lever]] arm distance'' to '''p'''. The easiest way to conceptualize this is to consider the lever arm distance to be the distance from the origin to the line that '''p''' travels along. With this definition, it is necessary to consider the direction of '''p''' (pointed clockwise or counter-clockwise) to figure out the sign of L. Equivalently: :<math>L = \pm\|\mathbf{r}\|\|\mathbf{p}_{\mathrm{perpendicular}}\|</math> where '''p'''<sub>perpendicular</sub> is the component of '''p''' that is perpendicular to '''r'''. As above, the sign is decided base on the sense of rotation. For an object with a fixed mass that is rotating about a fixed symmetry axis, the angular momentum is expressed as the product of the [[moment of inertia]] of the object and its angular velocity vector: :<math>\mathbf{L}= I \mathbf{\omega} </math> where ''I'' is the [[moment of inertia]] of the object '''&omega;''' is the [[angular velocity]]. ===Conservation of angular momentum=== In analogy to [[Newton's laws of motion\|Newton's second law]] for linear momentum, we have the following [[Proof of angular momentum\|law about angular momentum]]: :<math>\frac{d\mathbf{L}}{dt} = \boldsymbol{\tau} </math> where '''&tau;''' is the net [[torque]] about the origin. This implies that angular momentum is a [[Conservation law\|conserved quantity]] as long as there is no net torque applied to the particle. What's more, this conservation can be generalized to a system of particles under most conditions so that: :<math>\mathbf{L}_{\mathrm{system}} = \mathrm{constant} \Leftrightarrow \sum \tau_{\mathrm{external}} = 0 </math> where '''&tau;'''<sub>external</sub> is any torque applied to the system of particles. In orbits, the angular momentum is distributed within the spin of the planet itself, and the angular momentum of its orbit: :<math>\mathbf{L}_{\mathrm{total}} = \mathbf{L}_{\mathrm{spin}} + \mathbf{L}_{\mathrm{orbit}} </math> If a planet is found to rotate slower than expected, then astronomers suspect that the planet is accompanied by a satellite, because the total angular momentum is shared amongst the planet and its satellite in order to be conserved. The conservation of angular momentum is used extensively in analyzing what is called ''central force motion''. In central force motion, two bodies form an isolated system not influenced by outside forces, and the origin is placed somewhere on the line between the two bodies. Since any force the bodies exert on each other must be directed along this line, there can be no net torque, with respect to the aforementioned origin, on either body. Thus, angular momentum is conserved. Constant angular momentum is extremely useful when dealing with the [[orbit]]s of [[planet]]s and [[satellite]]s, and also when analyzing the [[Bohr model]] of the [[atom]]! == Angular momentum in relativistic mechanics == In modern (late [[20th century]]) theoretical physics, angular momentum is described using a different formalism. Under this formalism, angular momentum is the [[2-form]] [[Noether charge]] associated with rotational invariance (As a result, angular momentum isn't conserved for general curved spacetimes, unless it happens to be asymptotically rotationally invariant). For a system of point particles without any intrinsic angular momentum, it turns out to be :<math>\sum_i \bold{r}_i\wedge \bold{p}_i</math> (Here, the [[wedge product]] is used.). == Angular momentum in quantum mechanics == In [[quantum mechanics]], angular momentum is defined like [[momentum# Momentum in quantum mechanics \|momentum]] - not as a quantity but as an [[operator]] on the [[wave function]]: :<math>\mathbf{L}=\mathbf{r}\times\mathbf{p}</math> where '''r''' and '''p''' are the position and momentum operators respectively. In particular, for a single particle with no [[electric charge]] and no [[spin (physics)\|spin]], the angular momentum operator can be written in the position basis as :<math>\mathbf{L}=-i\hbar(\mathbf{r}\times\nabla)</math> where &nabla; is the [[gradient]] operator. This symbol is also called the [[Laplacian operator]], read as "del". This is a commonly encountered form of the angular momentum operator, though not the most general one. It has the following properties :<math>[L_i, L_j ] = i \hbar \epsilon_{ijk} L_k</math>, <math>\left[L_i, L^2 \right] = 0</math> and even more importantly [[commutator\|commutes]] with the [[hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)\|hamiltonian]] of such a chargeless and spinless particle :<math>\left[L_i, H \right] = 0</math>. Angular Momentum operators usually occur when solving a problem with [[spherical symmetry]] in [[spherical coordinates]]. Then, the angular momentum in space representation is: :: <math>\ L^2 = \frac{1}{\sin\theta}\frac{\partial}{\partial \theta}\left( \sin\theta \frac{\partial}{\partial \theta}\right) + \frac{1}{\sin^2\theta}\frac{\partial^2}{\partial \phi^2} </math> When solving to find [[eigenstate]]s of this operator, we obtain the following :: <math> L^2 \| l, m \rang = {\hbar}^2 l(l+1) \| l, m \rang </math> :: <math> L_z \| l, m \rang = \hbar m \| l, m \rang </math> where ::<math> \lang \theta , \phi \| l, m \rang = Y_{l,m}(\theta,\phi)</math> are the [[spherical harmonic]]s. == See also == * [[Angular momentum coupling]] * [[Angular velocity]] * [[Areal velocity]] * [[Momentum]] * [[Rotational energy]] * [[Torque]] ==References== * E. U. Condon and G. H. Shortley, ''The Theory of Atomic Spectra'', (1970) Cambridge at the University Press, ISBN 521-09209-4 ''See chapter 3''. * Edmonds, A.R., ''Angular Momentum in Quantum Mechanics'', (1957) Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-07912-9. {{cite book \| author=Serway, Raymond A.; Jewett, John W. \| title=Physics for Scientists and Engineers (6th ed.) \| publisher=Brooks/Cole \| year=2004 \| id=ISBN 0534408427}} {{cite book \| author=Tipler, Paul \| title=Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Mechanics, Oscillations and Waves, Thermodynamics (5th ed.) \| publisher=W. H. Freeman \| year=2004 \| id=ISBN 0716708094}} <!--Categories--> [[Category:Physical quantity]] [[Category
lated legal papers. ==Abstraction of Title== The Abstraction of Title, used in [[real estate]] transactions, is the more common form of abstract. An abstract of title lists all the owners of a piece of land, a house, or a building before it came into possession of the present owner. The abstract also records all [[deed]]s, [[will (law)\|wills]], [[mortgage]]s, and other documents that affect [[ownership]] of the property. An abstract describes a chain of transfers from owner to owner and any agreements by former owners that are binding on later owners. ==Clear Title== A Clear Title to property is one that clearly states any obligation in the deed to the property. It reveals no breaks in the chain of legal ownership. After the records of the property have been traced and the title has been found clear, it is sometimes guaranteed, or insured. In a few states, a more efficient system of insuring title real properties provides for registration of a clear title with public authorities. After this is accomplished, no abstract of title is necessary. == Patent law == In the context of [[patent]] law and specifically in [[prior art]] searches, searching through abstracts is a common way to find relevant prior art document to question to [[novelty (patent)\|novelty]] or [[Inventive step and non-obviousness\|inventive step]] (or [[Inventive step and non-obviousness\|non-obviousness]] in [[United States]] patent law) of an invention. ==References== * [[World Book]] encyclopedia 1988 ==See also== [[Academic conference]] == External links == [http://www.wipo.int/pct/en/texts/rules/r8.htm Rule 8 PCT], defining the requirements regarding the abstract in an international application filed under [[Patent Cooperation Treaty]] (PCT) * [http://www.european-patent-office.org/legal/epc/e/ar85.html Article 85] and [http://www.european-patent-office.org/legal/epc/e/r33.html Rule 33 EPC], defining the abstract-related requirements in a [[European Patent Convention\|European patent application]] {{law-stub}} [[Category:Legal research]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>A.E. van Vogt</title> <id>767</id> <revision> <id>15899284</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[A. E. van Vogt]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>AOLamer</title> <id>768</id> <revision> <id>36881334</id> <timestamp>2006-01-27T01:59:20Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Bobblewik</username> <id>51235</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>reduce linking to date elements</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''See also:'' [[Internet troll]] An '''AOLamer''' or AOL Lamer is a person using [[AOL]] that posts [[flamebait]] or other [[off-topic]] [[message]]s in a [[newsgroup]] in order to disrupt the newsgroup. During the early 1990s, many regular non-AOL internet newsgroup users routinely killed all messages coming from AOL as many of the messages coming from AOL were non-informative. In addition, the term '''AOLamer''' is often used as a derogatory term for AOL subscribers by users of other internet service providers, who view AOL as a provider associated with people who know little about computers. [[Category:America Online]] [[Category:Internet trolling]] [[fr:AOLamer]] {{compu-stub}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Alan Alda</title> <id>769</id> <revision> <id>41784133</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T18:55:12Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>140.247.179.110</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* After ''MASH'' /</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Hawkeyepierce.gif\|thumb\|200px\|right\|Alan Alda as Benjamin Franklin "Hawkeye" Pierce]] '''Alan Alda''' (born [[January 28]], [[1936]] as '''Alphonso Joseph D'Abruzzo''') is an [[United States\|American]] [[actor]], [[writer]], [[film director\|director]] and sometimes [[politics\|political]] activist. He is most famous for his role as [[Hawkeye Pierce]] in the [[television]] series ''[[MASH (TV series)\|MASH]]''. In the [[1970s]] and [[1980s]] he was viewed as the archetypal "sensitive male", though in recent years he has appeared in roles which counter that image. ==Family and early life== Alda was born in [[New York City]]. His [[Italian American\|Italian-American]] father, [[Robert Alda]] (born Alphonso Giuseppe Giovanni Roberto D'Abruzzo), was a successful actor, and his mother [[Joan Brown]] was crowned "Miss New York" in a [[beauty pageant]]. The adopted surname "Alda" is a contraction of "'''AL'''phonso" and "'''D'A'''bruzzo". When Alan Alda was growing up, his parents divorced. Alan Alda contracted [[polio]] when he was seven years old, which kept him bedridden for two years as he received treatments. Alan Alda's half-brother, [[Anthony Alda]] was christened '''Antonio D'Abruzzo''' on the 9th of [[December]] [[1956]]. He received his [[bachelor's degree]] from [[Fordham University]] in [[1956]]. During his junior year, he studied in [[Europe]] where he acted in a play in [[Rome]] and performed with his father on television in [[Amsterdam]]. After graduation, he joined the [[United States Army\|U.S. Army Reserve]] and served a six-month tour of duty as a gunnery officer in Korea following the [[Korean War]]. A year after graduation, he married Arlene Weiss, with whom he has three daughters: Eve, Elizabeth and Beatrice. [[Arlene Alda]] is a well known photographer, author and clarinettist. Raised as a devout [[Roman Catholic Church\|Catholic]], he has since left the church but continues to celebrate religious holidays and events. His specific religious beliefs are difficult to define. He is also an activist for [[feminism\|feminist]] causes, and has been for many years. ==Acting career, fame, and ''MASH''== Alda began his career in the [[1950s]] as a member of the [[Compass Players]] comedy revue. In the eleven years (72-83) he starred in ''[[MASH (TV series)\|MASH]]'', he was nominated for 21 [[Emmy Awards]] winning five. He wrote (or co-wrote) twenty episodes, and directed thirty episodes. When he won his first Emmy Award for writing, he was so happy that he performed a [[cartwheel]] before running up to the stage to accept the award. He also was the first person to win Emmy Awards for acting, writing, and directing for the same series. Interestingly enough, the late [[H. Richard Hornberger\|Richard Hooker]], who wrote the novel on which ''MASH'' was based, did not like Alan Alda's portrayal of Hawkeye Pierce (Hooker had based Hawkeye on himself), though Hooker didn't care for the show in general. ==After ''MASH''== Alda's prominence in the enormously successful ''MASH'' gave him a platform to speak out on political topics, and he has been a strong and vocal supporter of [[women's rights]]. As such, he has been something of a [[boogeyman]] for some political [[social conservative]]s who disagree with his views. He has also appeared in at least two TV commercials. Both of these were in the small-computer industry, first for [[Atari]] and later, with the rest of the ''MASH'' cast, for [[International Business Machines\|IBM]]'s [[PS/2]] product line with [[Micro Channel architecture\|MicroChannel architecture]]. [[Image:Alan_Alda.jpg\|thumb\|left\|Alan Alda as Senator Vinick.]] Alan Alda has also played [[Nobel Prize]]-winning physicist [[Richard Feynman]] in the play [[QED (play)\|''QED'']], which has only one other character. Although [[Peter Parnell]] wrote the play, Alda both produced and inspired it. Alda has also appeared frequently in the films of [[Woody Allen]], and he has been a guest star five times on ''[[ER (TV series)\|ER]]'', playing Dr. Gabriel Lawrence. As of [[2004 in television\|2004]], Alda is a regular cast member on the [[National Broadcasting Company\|NBC]] program ''[[The West Wing (television)\|The West Wing]]'', portraying [[Republican Party (United States)\|Republican]] [[United States Senate\|U.S. Senator]] and presidential hopeful [[Arnold Vinick]]. He made his premiere in the sixth season's tenth episode, "In The Room", and was added to the opening credits with the thirteenth episode, "King Corn." Throughout his career, he has been nominated for the Emmy Award 31 times and the [[Tony Award]] twice, and has won seven [[People's Choice Award]]s, six [[Golden Globe]] awards, and three [[Director's Guild of America]] awards. However, it was not until [[2004]], after a long acting career, that Alda received his first nomination for an Academy Award. This was the [[Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor\|Best Supporting Actor]] nomination for his role as Senator [[Ralph Owen Brewster]] in [[Martin Scorsese]]'s film ''[[The Aviator]]''. In the spring of 2005, Alda starred as Shelly Levene in the Tony Award-winning Broadway revival of [[David Mamet]]'s ''[[Glengarry Glen Ross]],'' for which he received a Tony Award nomination for Best Featured Actor in a Play. It has become quite normal for Alda in his later roles to have some reference to his early work in ''MASH''. For instance, both the senator he played in ''The Aviator'' and Hawkeye Pierce came from [[Maine]]. In a line on ''ER'', his character mentions that he uses a surgical technique he picked up in a "military hospital". The same character also undergoes a mental acuity test where he has to identify pictures of objects. He sees a funnel and identifies it as a martini glass without the base (Hawkeye Pierce was very fond of martinis). Alda's ''West Wing'' character has also made at least one reference to [[Korea]] when he said, "I could take these people to the [[Korean Demilitarized Zone\|DMZ]] and it still wouldn't ta
39061</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T11:03:32Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Wayward</username> <id>184087</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/193.39.158.195\|193.39.158.195]] ([[User talk:193.39.158.195\|talk]]) to last version by Jbattersby</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:HMSBeagle.jpg\|thumb\|300px\|right\|HMS ''Beagle'' (centre) from an 1841 watercolour by Owen Stanley, painted during the third voyage while surveying [[Australia]].]] {{otheruses2\|HMS Beagle}} '''HMS ''Beagle''''' was a [[Cherokee class brig-sloop\|''Cherokee'' class]] 10-gun [[brig]] of the [[Royal Navy]], named after the [[beagle]], a breed of dog. She was [[ship naming and launching\|launched]] on [[11 May]] [[1820]] from the [[Woolwich Dockyard]] on the [[River Thames]], at a cost of £7,803. In July of that year she took part in a naval review celebrating the coronation of King [[George IV of the United Kingdom]] in which she was the first ship to sail under the new [[London Bridge]]. After that there was no immediate need for ''Beagle'' so she was kept in reserve for five years and "lay in ordinary", moored afloat but unmanned. She was then adapted as a survey [[barque]] and took part in three expeditions. On the second survey voyage the young naturalist [[Charles Darwin]] was on board, and his work would eventually make the ''Beagle'' one of the most famous ships in history. ==First Voyage== {\| border="1" align="right" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="300" \|colspan="2"\| \|- !align ="center" style="color: white; height: 30px; background: navy no-repeat scroll top left;"\|Career !style="color: white; height: 30px; background: navy no-repeat scroll top left;"\|[[image:RN-White-Ensign.svg\|60px\|Royal Navy Ensign]] \|- \|Ordered: \| \|- \|Laid down: \| \|- \|Launched: \|[[11 May]] [[1820]] \|- \|Commissioned: \| \|- \|Decommissioned: \|[[1845]] transferred to Coastguard \|- \|Fate: \|Sold and broken up [[1870]] \|- \|Struck: \| \|- !colspan="2" align="center" style="color: white; height: 30px; background: navy no-repeat scroll top left;"\|General Characteristics \|- \|Displacement: \|235 tons (242 tons for second voyage) \|- \|Length: \|90.3 ft (27.5 m) \|- \|Beam: \|24.5 ft (7.5 m) \|- \|Draught: \|12.5 ft (3.8 m) \|- \|Propulsion: \|Sail \|- \|Speed: \| \|- \|Range: \| \|- \|Complement: \|120 as a ship-of-war, 65 plus 9 supernumeraries on second voyage \|- \|Armament: \|10 guns, reduced to 6 guns for survey voyages \|- \|Aircraft: \|none \|- \|Motto: \| \|} On [[27 September]] [[1825]] ''Beagle'' docked at Woolwich for repairs and fitted out for her new duties at a total cost of £5,913. Her guns were reduced from ten cannons to six and a mizzenmast was added to improve her manoeuvrability, thereby changing her from a [[brig]] to a [[barque\|bark]] (or barque). ''Beagle'' set sail on [[22 May]] [[1826]] for her first voyage, under the command of Captain Pringle Stokes. The mission was to accompany the larger ship [[HMS Adventure (1809)\|HMS ''Adventure'']] (380 tons) on a [[hydrographic]] survey of [[Patagonia]] and [[Tierra del Fuego]], under the overall command of the Australian Captain [[Philip Parker King]]. Faced with the more difficult part of the survey in the desolate waters of [[Tierra del Fuego]], Captain Pringle Stokes fell into a deep depression. At [[Puerto Hambre\|Port Famine]] on the [[Strait of Magellan]] he locked himself in his cabin for 14 days, then (in August [[1828]]) shot himself and died in delirium 11 days later. Captain Parker King then replaced Stokes with the Executive Officer of the ''Beagle'', Lieutenant W.G. Skyring. They sailed to [[Rio de Janeiro]] where on [[15 December]] [[1828]] Rear Admiral Sir [[Robert Otway]], commander in chief of the South American station aboard [[HMS Ganges (1821)\|HMS ''Ganges'']], named as (temporary) Captain of the ''Beagle'' his aide, Flag Lieutenant [[Robert FitzRoy]]. The 23 year old aristocrat FitzRoy proved an able commander and meticulous surveyor. In one incident a group of Fuegians stole a ships boat, and FitzRoy took their families on board as hostages. Eventually he held two men, a girl and a boy who was given the name of [[Jemmy Button]], and these four native Fuegians were taken back with them when the ''Beagle'' returned to [[Plymouth]], England on [[14 October]] [[1830]]. ==Second voyage== ''For more detail see [[The Voyage of the Beagle]].'' It was originally intended that [[HMS Chanticleer\|''Chanticleer'']] would make the second South American Survey, but due to her poor condition ''Beagle'' was substituted for the voyage. FitzRoy had been considering how to return the Fuegians who had trained as missionaries, and on [[25 June]] [[1831]] he was re-appointed as commander. The ''Beagle'' was [[ship commissioning\|commissioned]] on [[4 July]] [[1831]] under the command of Captain Robert FitzRoy. She was immediately taken into dock for extensive rebuilding and refitting. As she required a new deck, FitzRoy had the upper-deck raised considerably, by 8 inches (200 mm) aft and 12 inches (300 mm) forward. The Cherokee class ships had the reputation of being "coffin brigs", which handled badly and were prone to sinking. By helping the decks to drain more quickly with less water collecting in the [[Gunwale\|gunnel]]s, the raised deck gave the Beagle better handling and made her less liable to become top-heavy and capsize. Additional sheathing added to the hull added about 7 tons to her displacement. FitzRoy spared no expense in her fitting out, which included 22 chronometers and 5 of a kind of barometer he had invented. Particularly in the light of the fate of Stokes and the suicide of his own uncle, FitzRoy was concerned about the lonely position of a captain at that time. His attempts to get a friend to accompany him fell through, and he asked his friend and superior, Captain [[Francis Beaufort]], to seek a gentleman passenger who would act as a companion as well as having opportunities as a [[Natural history\|naturalist]]. This led to [[Charles Darwin]] joining the voyage. ''Beagle'' was originally scheduled to leave on [[October 24]], [[1831]] but because of delays in her preparations the departure was delayed until December. She attempted to depart on [[10 December]] but ran into bad weather. Finally, on [[December 27]] at 2:00 pm, the ''Beagle'' left Plymouth harbour on what was to become a groundbreaking scientific expedition. After completing extensive surveys in [[South America]] she returned via [[New Zealand]] to [[Falmouth, Cornwall]], [[England]] on [[2 October]] [[1836]]. ==Third voyage== [[Image:HMS_Beagle_by_Conrad_Martens.jpg\|thumb\|300px\|right\|The ''Beagle'' being hailed by native Fuegians during the survey of [[Tierra del Fuego]], painted by [[Conrad Martens]] who became ship's artist in 1833.]] Six months later, ''Beagle'' set off in [[1837]] to survey large parts of the coast of [[Australia]] under the command of Commander [[John Clements Wickham]], with assistant surveyor Lieutenant [[John Lort Stokes]] who had been a Midshipman on the first voyage of the ''Beagle'', then mate and assistant surveyor on the second voyage (no relation to Pringle Stokes). They started with the western coast between the [[Swan River, Western Australia\|Swan River]] (modern [[Perth, Western Australia\|Perth]], [[Australia]]) and the [[Fitzroy River, Western Australia]], then surveyed both shores of the [[Bass Strait]] at the southeast corner of the continent. In May [[1839]] they sailed north to survey the shores of the [[Timor Sea\|Arafura Sea]] opposite [[Timor]]. Wickham named the [[Beagle Gulf]] and Port Darwin, which was first sighted by Stokes and which later gave its name to the city of [[Darwin, Northern Territory\|Darwin]], [[Australia]]. When Wickham fell ill and resigned, the command was taken over in March [[1841]] by Lieutenant John Lort Stokes who continued the survey. The third voyage was completed in [[1843]]. ==Final years== In [[1845]] the ''Beagle'' was refitted as a static [[coastguard]] watch vessel and transferred to [[Customs and Excise]] to control smuggling on the [[Essex]] coast to the north bank of the [[Thames estuary]]. She was moored mid-river on the [[River Roach]] which forms part of a maze of waterways in the marshes south of [[Burnham-on-Crouch]]. In [[1851]] [[oyster]] companies and traders petitioned for her to be removed as she was obstructing the river, and the [[1851]] [[Navy List]] dated [[25 May]] showed her renamed as ''Southend "W.V. No. 7" at Paglesham''. In [[1870]], she was sold to local scrap merchants "Murray and Trainer" for breaking up. Investigations started in [[2000]] by a team led by Dr Robert Prescott of the [[University of St Andrews]] found documents confirming that ''"W.V. 7"'' was the ''Beagle'', and noted a vessel matching her size shown midstream on the [[1847]] hydrographic survey chart. A later chart showed a nearby indentation to the north bank which could have been a dock for the ''Beagle''. Site investigations found an area of [[marsh]]y ground some 15 ft (5 m) deep matching this chart position, with many fragments of [[pottery]] of the correct period. An [[atomic dielectric resonance]] survey carried out in November [[2003]] found traces of timbers forming the size and shape of the lower hull, indicating a substantial amount of timbers from below the waterline still in place. An old [[anchor]] of [[1841]] pattern was excavated. It was also found that the [[1871]] [[census]] recorded a new [[farmhouse]] in the name of William Murray and Thomas Rainer, leading to speculation that the merchant's name was a misprint for T. Rainer. The farmhouse was demolished in the [[1940s]], but a nearby boathouse incorporated timbers matching [[knee timber]]s used in the ''Beagle''. Further investigat
er-kingdom of [[Kent]]. This tale is likely apocryphal, though in [[854]]&ndash;[[855]] Alfred almost certainly did go with his father on a pilgrimage to [[Rome]], spending some time at the court of [[Charles the Bald]], King of the [[Franks]]. In [[858]], Ethelwulf died. == Public life == During the short reigns of his two eldest brothers, [[Ethelbald of Wessex\|Ethelbald]] and [[Ethelbert of Wessex\|Ethelbert]], nothing is heard of Alfred. But with the accession of the third brother, Ethelred, in [[866]] the public life of Alfred began, and he began his great work of delivering England from the [[Denmark\|Danes]]. It is in this reign that Asser applies to Alfred the unique title of ''secundarius,'' which seems to show a position akin to that of the [[Celt]]ic ''tanist,'' a recognized successor, closely associated with the reigning prince. It is likely that this arrangement was sanctioned by the [[Witenagemot]], to guard against the danger of a disputed succession should Aethelred fall in battle. The arrangement of crowning a successor as co-king, however, is well-known among [[Germanic tribes]], such as the [[Swedes]], and the Franks, with whom the Anglo-Saxons had close ties (see [[diarchy]] and [[Germanic king]]). [[Image:Statue d'Alfred le Grand à Winchester.jpg\|right\|thumb\|250px\|Statue of Alfred the Great at Winchester]] In [[868]] Alfred married [[Ealhswith]], daughter of [[Aethelred Mucill]], who is called [[ealdorman]] of the [[Gaini]], a folk who dwelt in [[Lincolnshire]] about [[Gainsborough, England\|Gainsborough]]. She was the granddaughter of a former King of Mercia, and they had five or six children, one a daughter, [[Ethelfleda]], who would become queen of Mercia in her own right. The same year Alfred, fighting beside his brother Ethelred, made an unsuccessful attempt to relieve Mercia from the pressure of the Danes. For nearly two years Wessex had a respite. But at the end of [[870]] the storm burst; and the year which followed has been rightly called "Alfred's year of battles." Nine general engagements were fought with varying fortune, though the place and date of two of them have not been recorded. A successful skirmish at [[Battle of Englefield]], [[Berkshire]] ([[31 December]] [[870]]), was followed by a severe defeat at the [[Battle of Reading (871)\|Battle of Reading]] ([[4 January]] [[871]]), and this, four days later, by the brilliant victory of [[Battle of Ashdown]], near [[Compton Beauchamp]] in [[Shrivenham Hundred]]. On [[22 January]] [[871]] the English were again defeated at [[Basing]], and on [[22 March]] [[871]] at [[Marton, Wiltshire\|Marton]], [[Wiltshire]], the two unidentified battles having perhaps occurred in the interval. === Accession === In April 871 Ethelred died, and Alfred succeeded to the whole burden of the contest. While he was busied with the burial and associated ceremonies for his brother, the Danes defeated the English in his absence at an unnamed spot, and once more in his presence at [[Wilton, Wiltshire\|Wilton]] in May. After this peace was made, and for the next five years the Danes were occupied in other parts of England, Alfred merely keeping a force of observation on the border. But in [[876]], the Danes, under a new leader, [[Guthrum the Old\| Guthrum]], slipped past him and attacked [[Wareham]]. From there, early in [[877]] and under the pretext of talks, they made a dash westwards and took [[Exeter, England\|Exeter]]. Here Alfred blockaded them, and a relieving fleet having been scattered by a storm, the Danes had to submit and withdraw to Mercia. But in January [[878]] they made a sudden swoop on [[Chippenham, Wiltshire\|Chippenham]], a royal stronghold in which Alfred had been keeping his Christmas, "and most of the people they reduced, except the King Alfred, and he with a little band made his way… by wood and swamp, and after Easter he… made a fort at [[Athelney]], and from that fort kept fighting against the foe" (Chronicle). [[Image:KingAlfredStatueWantage.jpg\|thumb\|200px\|left\|Alfred the Great's birthplace [[Wantage]] boasts a statue of its greatest son.]] A legend tells how, while a fugitive in the marshes of [[Athelney]] near [[North Petherton]] in [[Somerset]], after the first Danish invasion, he was given shelter by a peasant woman who, ignorant of his identity, left him to watch some cakes she had left cooking on the fire. Preoccupied with the problems of the kingdom, Alfred let the cakes burn, and was taken to task by the woman on her return. Upon realizing the king's identity, the woman apologized profusely, but Alfred insisted that he was the one who needed to apologize. The thought that Alfred, during his retreat at Athelney, was a helpless fugitive rests upon the legend of the cakes. In truth he was organizing victory. At about the same time, he is supposed to have disguised himself as a harpist to gain entry to Guthrum's camp and discover his plans. By the middle of May, his preparations were complete and he moved out of Athelney, being joined on the way by the levies of [[Somerset]], [[Wiltshire]] and [[Hampshire]]. The Danes on their side moved out of Chippenham, and the two armies met at the [[Battle of Edington]] in Wiltshire. The result was a decisive victory for Alfred. The Danes submitted. Guthrum, the Danish king, and twenty-nine of his chief men took baptism, recorded by Asser as occuring at [[Treaty of Wedmore\|Wedmore]]. As a result, [[England]] became split into two, the south-western half kept by the [[Saxons]] and the north-eastern half becoming known as the [[Danelaw]]. By the next year ([[879]]) not only Wessex, but Mercia, west of [[Watling Street]], was cleared of the invader. Though for the time being the north-eastern half of England, including [[London]], was in the hands of the Danes, in truth the tide had turned. For the next few years there was peace, the Danes being kept busy in Europe. A landing in Kent in [[880s\|884 or 885]], though successfully repelled, encouraged the East Anglian Danes to rise up. The measures taken by Alfred to repress this uprising culminated in the taking of London in [[885]] or [[886]], following which an agreement was reached between Alfred and Guthrum, the [[Treaty of Alfred and Guthrum]]. Once more for a time there was a lull; but in the fall of [[890s\|892 or 893]] the last storm burst. The Danes, finding their position in Europe becoming more and more precarious, crossed to England in two divisions, amounting in the aggregate to 330 sail, and entrenched themselves, the larger body at [[Appledore, Kent]], and the lesser under [[Haesten]] at [[Milton, Kent\|Milton]] also in Kent. The fact that the new invaders brought their wives and children with them shows that this was no mere raid, but a meaningful attempt, in concert with the Northumbrian and East Anglian Danes, to conquer England. Alfred, in 893 or 894, took up a position whence he could observe both forces. While he was in talks with Haesten the Danes at Appledore broke out and struck north-westwards, but were overtaken by Alfred's eldest son, [[Edward the Elder\|Edward]], and defeated in a general engagement at [[Farnham]], and driven to take refuge on an island in the [[River Colne, Hertfordshire\|Hertfordshire Colne]], where they were blockaded and ultimately compelled to submit. They then fell back on Essex, and after suffering another defeat at [[Benfleet]] coalesced with Haesten's force at [[Shoebury]]. Alfred had been on his way to relieve his son at Thorney when he heard that the Northumbrian and East Anglian Danes were besieging Exeter and an unnamed stronghold on the North [[Devon]] shore. Alfred at once hurried westward and raised the siege of Exeter; the fate of the other place is not recorded. Meanwhile the force under Haesten set out to march up the [[Thames Valley]], possibly with the idea of assisting their friends in the west. But they were met by a large force under the three great ealdormen of Mercia, Wiltshire and Somerset, and made to head off to the northwest, being finally overtaken and blockaded at [[Buttington]], which some identify with [[Buttington Tump]] at the mouth of the [[River Wye\|Wye River]], others with Buttington near [[Welshpool]]. An attempt to break through the English lines was defeated with loss; those who escaped retreated to Shoebury. Then after collecting reinforcements they made a sudden dash across England and occupied the ruined Roman walls of [[Chester, England\|Chester]]. The English did not attempt a winter blockade, but contented themselves with destroying all the supplies in the neighbourhood. And early in [[894]] (or [[895]]) want of food obliged the Danes to retire once more to Essex. At the end of this year and early in 895 (or [[896]]) the Danes drew their ships up the Thames and [[River Lee\|Lea]] and fortified themselves twenty miles above London. A direct attack on the Danish lines failed, but later in the year Alfred saw a means of obstructing the river so as to prevent the egress of the Danish ships. The Danes realized that they were out-maneuvred. They struck off northwestwards and wintered at [[Bridgenorth]]. The next year, 896 (or [[897]]), they gave up the struggle. Some retired to Northumbria, some to East Anglia; those who had no connections in England withdrew to the continent. The long campaign was over. The result testifies to the confidence inspired by Alfred's character and generalship, and to the efficacy of the military reforms initiated by him. These were: #the division of the ''[[fyrd]]'' or national militia into two, relieving each other at set intervals, so as to ensure continuity in military operations; #the building of strongholds (burgs) and garrisons at certain points; #the enforcement of the obligations of thanehood on all owners of five hides of land, thus giving the king a nucleus of highly equipped troops. ==== Reference ==== * Sir [[Francis Palgrave]], ''History of the Anglo-Saxons'' (1876), pg. 102 === Reorgani
nd was practiced in [[China]] by the 14th century. However, recent archeological evidence has supported the idea that China has had wines and distilled beverages dating back to [[5000 BC]]. [[Paracelsus]] gave alcohol its modern name, taking it from the Arabic word which means "finely divided", a reference to distillation. ==Uses== In many countries, alcoholic beverages are commonly consumed at the major daily meals (lunch and dinner). Most early beers were in fact highly nutritional and served as a means of calorie distribution. Beer can be stored longer than grain or bread without fear of pest infestation or rotting, and drinking beer avoided the tooth-destroying grit that was present in hand-ground or early mill-ground flours. In places and eras with poor public sanitation, such as [[Middle Ages\|Medieval]] [[Europe]], consumption of alcoholic beverages (particularly weak or "small" [[beer]]) was one method of avoiding water-borne diseases such as the [[cholera]]. Though strong alcohol kills bacteria, the low concentration in beer or even wine will have only a limited effect. Probably the [[boiling]] of water, which is required for the brewing of beer, and the growth of yeast, which would tend to crowd out other micro-organisms, were more important than the alcohol itself. In any case, the ethanol (and possibly other ingredients) of alcoholic beverages allows them to be stored for months or years in simple wood or clay containers without spoiling, which was certainly a major factor in their popularity. A recent study indicated that ethanol has been found to stimulate the virulence of ''[[Acinetobacter\|Acinetobacter baumannii]]''. Tests on infected [[nematode worm]]s that were dosed with ethanol found that the worms laid fewer eggs and their life spans were only 80% of worms infected with a version of ''A. baumannii'' that didn't respond to ethanol. This study suggests that the common misconception that drinking alcohol kills infections is false and drinking alcohol may actually help the infection to grow.{{note\|abacter}} In colder climates, strong alcoholic beverages such as [[vodka]] are popularly seen as a way to "warm up" the body, possibly because ethanol is a quickly absorbed source of [[food energy]] and dilates peripheral blood vessels (Peripherovascular dilation). This however is a dangerous myth, and people experiencing [[hypothermia]] should avoid alcohol. Although a drunk may feel warmer, the body loses heat and body temperature decreases, which may cause hypothermia, and eventually death. This is because of the dilation of blood vessels '''not''' in the core of the body; because of this increased bloodflow, the body loses its heat out of its less protected outer extremities. In many cultures, both contemporary and historical, alcoholic beverages &mdash; mostly because of their neurological effects &mdash; have also played an important role in various kinds of social interaction, providing a form of "liquid courage" (those who consume it "gain" confidence and lose discretion) While other psychoactive drugs (such as [[opium]], [[coca]], [[khat]], [[cannabis (drug)\|cannabis]], [[kava-kava]], etc.) also have millennial traditions of social use, only [[coffee]], [[tea]] and [[tobacco]] have been as universally used and accepted as ethanol is today. ==Alcohol consumption and health== {{main\|Alcohol consumption and health}} ===Moderate comsumption=== Moderate consumption of alcohol, defined by the U.S. Department of Agriculture and the Dietary Guidelines for Americans as no more than two drinks for men and one drink for women per day, is consistently shown as being beneficial for the heart and circulatory system (the [[United Kingdom\|UK]] equivalent is 3-4 units per day for men and 2-3 units for women). Moderate consumers statistically have fewer [[heart attack]]s and [[stroke]]s, live longer, have lower [[blood pressure]], and generally report better overall health. ===Excess comsumption=== However, some people are prone to developing a [[chemical dependency]] to alcohol, [[alcoholism]]. The results of alcoholism are considered a major health problem in many nations. Frequent excessive consumption can harmfully interfere with the user's well-being. The neurological effects of alcohol use are often a factor in deadly motor vehicle accidents and fights. People under the influence of alcohol sometimes find themselves in dangerous or compromising situations where they would not be had they remained sober. Operating a motor vehicle or heavy machinery under the influence of alcohol is a serious crime in almost all developed nations. ==Legal considerations== [[Image:AlcoholConsumptionSign.jpg\|thumb\|right\|Alcohol restriction in [[Victoria (Australia)\|Victoria]], [[Australia]].]] Most countries have rules forbidding the sale of alcoholic beverages to [[child]]ren. For example, in the [[Netherlands]] and [[Germany]], one has to be 16 to buy beer or wine and 18 to buy distilled alcoholic beverages. However, possession of alcoholic beverages is not illegal for minors in Germany. Law there is directed at the potential sellers of alcoholic beverages and not at the minors. German law puts control concerning the consumption of alcoholic beverage into the hands of custodial persons and persons with parental power. See [http://www.bmfsfj.de/RedaktionBMFSFJ/Abteilung5/Pdf-Anlagen/juSchGenglisch,property=pdf.pdf]. In most European countries, eg. [[Poland]], one has be 18 to legally buy, drink or possess alcoholic beverages. In most countries of central, eastern, and southern Europe it is also forbidden to drink alcoholic beverages in public places, such as streets and parks. In law, sometimes the term "[[Intoxication\|intoxicating]] agent" is used for a category of substances, which includes alcoholic beverages and some [[recreational drug use\|drugs]]. Giving any of these substances to a person to create an abnormal condition of the mind (such as [[drunkenness]]), in order to facilitate committing a crime, may be an additional crime. Some countries may forbid the commerce, consumption or [[alcohol advertising\|advertising of alcoholic beverages]], or restrict them in various ways. During the period known as [[Prohibition]], from [[1919]] to [[1933]], it was illegal to manufacture, transport, import, export, or sell alcoholic beverages in the [[United States]]. Many [[Muslim]] countries, such as [[Saudi Arabia]], continue to prohibit alcohol for religious reasons. In the United States there are still communities with a ban on alcohol sales. Most countries have laws against [[drunk driving]], driving with a certain concentration of ethanol in the [[blood]]. The legal threshold of [[blood alcohol content]] ranges from 0.0% to 0.05% or 0.08%, according to local law. Most countries also specify a legal drinking age, below which the consumption of alcohol is prohibited. In the U.S., the legal age for purchase or possession (but not necessarily consumption) in every state has been [[twenty-one\|21]] since the passage of the [[National Minimum Drinking Age Act]] in [[1984]], which tied federal highway funds to states' raising their minimum drinking age to 21. Many states specifically permit consumption under the age of 21 for religious or health reasons or with parental approval. Most European countries however, have a legal drinking age of [[eighteen\|18]] In many countries, production of alcoholic beverages requires a license, and alcohol production is taxed. In the U.S., the [[Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives]] and the [[Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau]] (formerly one organization known as the [[Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms]]) enforce federal laws and regulations related to alcohol, though most regulations regarding serving and selling alcoholic beverages are made by the individual states. There also exist intrastate regulatory differences, as between [[Montgomery County, Maryland]] and the rest of the [[Maryland\|state]]. In the [[United Kingdom\|UK]] the [[Customs and Excise department]] issues distilling licences. In many countries bars fall under [[Smoking ban\|Smoking bans]], see [[List of smoking bans]] for a full listing. Common state regulations in the United States are: * Many U.S. states require that distilled liquor be sold only in dedicated ''liquor stores''. For example: In [[Washington]], liquor stores are run by the state. In [[Oklahoma]], liquor stores may not refrigerate any beverages. Often, liquor sales are prohibited on Sunday by a [[Blue law]]. Other laws, governing a variety of issues, vary regionally. * Most U.S. states do not allow ''open containers'' of alcohol inside of moving vehicles. * Some U.S. states offer relaxed rules for beer at or below 3.2% alcohol. * Many cities and counties ban drinking alcoholic beverages in public; that is, on the street or sidewalk. * Often bars serving distilled liquor are exempted from [[Smoking ban\|Smoking bans]]. In [[New Zealand]] it is legal to produce alcohol for personal use. This has made the sale and use of home distillation equipment popular. Some religions&mdash;most notably [[Islam]], [[Latter-day Saint]]s, the [[Nikaya Buddhism\|Nikaya]] and most [[Mahayana]] schools of [[Buddhism]] and some [[Protestant]] sects of [[Fundamentalist Christianity]]&mdash;forbid or discourage the consumption of alcoholic beverages for these and other reasons. See also:[[Teetotalism]], [[Temperance movement]]. ==Types of alcoholic beverages== {{main\|List of alcoholic beverages}} Alcoholic beverages include low-alcohol-content beverages produced by [[fermentation]] of [[sugar]]- or [[starch]]-containing products, and high-alcohol-content beverages produced by [[distillation]] of the low-alcohol-content beverages. Sometimes, the alcohol content of low-alcohol-content beverages is increased by adding distilled products, particularl
author=[[International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses]] \| publisher= \| publishyear=2002 \| url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ICTVdb/ICTVdB/61000000.htm \| title=61. Retroviridae \| accessdate=2006-02-28 }}</ref>. Lentiviruses have many common morphologies and biological properties. Many species are infected by lentiviruses, which are characteristically responsible for long duration illnesses associated with a long period of incubation <ref name=Levy> {{cite journal \| author=Lévy, J. A. \| title=HIV pathogenesis and long-term survival \| journal=AIDS \| year=1993 \| pages=1401-1410 \| volume=7 \| issue=11 \| id={{PMID\|8280406}} }}</ref>. Lentiviruses are transmitted as single-stranded, positive-sense, enveloped [[RNA virus]]es. Upon infection of the target-cell, the viral RNA [[genome]] is converted to double-stranded [[DNA]] by a virally encoded [[reverse transcriptase]] which is present in the virus particle. This viral DNA is then integrated into the cellular DNA for replication using cellular machinery. Once the virus enters the cell, two pathways are possible: either the virus becomes [[latent]] and the infected cell continues to function or the virus becomes active, replicates and a large number of virus particles are liberated which can infect other cells. Two species of HIV infect humans: HIV-1 and HIV-2. HIV-1 is the more virulent and easily transmitted, and is the source of the majority of HIV infections throughout the world; HIV-2 is largely confined to west Africa <ref name=Reeves> {{cite journal \| author=Reeves, J. D. and Doms, R. W \| title=Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 2 \| journal=J. Gen. Virol. \| year=2002 \| pages=1253-1265 \| volume=83 \| issue=Pt 6 \| id={{PMID\|12029140}} }}</ref>. Both species originated in west and central Africa, jumping from primates to humans in a process known as [[zoonosis]]. HIV-1 has evolved from a [[simian immunodeficiency virus]] (SIVcpz) found in the [[chimpanzee]] subspecies, ''Pan troglodytes troglodytes'' <ref name=Gao> {{cite journal \| author=Gao, F., Bailes, E., Robertson, D. L., Chen, Y., Rodenburg, C. M., Michael, S. F., Cummins, L. B., Arthur, L. O., Peeters, M., Shaw, G. M., Sharp, P. M. and Hahn, B. H. \| title=Origin of HIV-1 in the Chimpanzee Pan troglodytes troglodytes \| journal=Nature \| year=1999 \| pages=436-441 \| volume=397 \| issue=6718 \| id={{PMID \|9989410}} }}</ref>. HIV-2 crossed species from a different strain of SIV, found in [[sooty mangabey]] monkeys in [[Guinea-Bissau]] <ref name=Reeves> {{cite journal \| author=Reeves, J. D. and Doms, R. W \| title=Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 2 \| journal=J. Gen. Virol. \| year=2002 \| pages=1253-1265 \| volume=83 \| issue=Pt 6 \| id={{PMID\|12029140}} }}</ref>. It is possible that HIV-1 entered the human populations in the 1930's. Another controversial possibility for the origin of HIV/AIDS was discussed in a [[1992]] Rolling Stone magazine article by freelance journalist Tom Curtis. He put forward the theory that AIDS was inadvertantly caused in the late 1950's in the [[Belgian Congo]] by [[Hilary Koprowski]]'s research into a [[polio]] [[vaccine]] <ref name=Curtis>{{ cite journal \| author=Curtis, T. \| title=The origin of AIDS\| journal=Rolling Stone \| year=1992 \| pages=54-59, 61, 106, 108 \| volume= \| issue=626 \| url=http://www.uow.edu.au/arts/sts/bmartin/dissent/documents/AIDS/Curtis92.html }}</ref>. Although subsequently retracted due to [[libel]] issues surrounding its claims, the Rolling Stone article encouraged another freelance journalist, [[Edward Hooper]], to travel to Africa for 7 years of research into this subject. Hooper's research resulted in his publishing a 1999 book, [[The River]], in which he alleged that an experimental oral [[polio]] [[vaccine]] prepared using [[chimpanzee]] kidney tissue was the route through which [[SIV]] mutated into HIV and started the human AIDS epidemic, some time between [[1957]] to [[1959]] <ref name=Hooper>{{ cite book \| author = Hooper, E. \| year = 1999 \| title = The River : A Journey to the Source of HIV and AIDS \| edition = 1st \| pages = 1-1070 \| publisher = Little Brown & Co \| location = Boston, MA \| id = ISBN 0316372617 }}</ref>. ==Transmission== Since the beginning of the [[pandemic]], three main transmission routes of HIV have been identified: * '''Sexual route.''' The majority of HIV infections are acquired through unprotected sexual relations. Sexual transmission occurs when there is contact between sexual secretions of one partner with the rectal, genital or oral [[mucous membranes]] of another. According to the French ministry for health, the probability of transmission per act varies from 0.03% to 0.07% for the case of receptive vaginal sex, from 0.02 to 0.05% in the case of penetrative vaginal sex, from 0.01% to 0.185% in the case of penetrative anal sex, and 0.5% to 3% in the case of receptive anal sex <ref name=FrenchHealth> {{cite web \| author=French Ministry in charge of Health \| publisher= \| publishyear= \| url=http://www.sante.gouv.fr/pdf/dossiers/sidahop/ch16.pdf \| title=Accidents d'exposition au risque de transmission du VIH \| accessdate=2006-02-28 }}</ref>. * '''Blood or blood product route.''' This transmission route is particularly important for intravenous drug users, [[hemophiliac]]s and recipients of [[blood transfusion]]s and blood products. It is also of concern for persons receiving medical care in regions where there is prevalent substandard hygiene in the use of injection equipment (e.g. reused needles in Third World settings). Health care workers (nurses, laboratory workers, doctors, etc) are also directly concerned, although more rarely. Also concerned by this route are people who give and receive tattoos, piercings and scarification procedures. * '''Mother-to-child route.''' The transmission of the virus from the mother to the child can occur ''in utero'' during the last weeks of pregnancy and at childbirth. Breast feeding also presents a risk of infection for the baby. In the absence of treatment, the transmission rate between the mother and child was 20%. However, where treatment is available, combined with the availability of [[Cesarian section]], this has been reduced to 1%. HIV has been found at low concentrations in the [[saliva]], [[tears]] and [[urine]] of infected individuals, but the risk of transmission by these secretions is considered to be negligible. The use of physical barriers such as the [[latex]] [[condom]] is widely advocated to reduce the sexual transmission of HIV. Recently, it has been proposed that male [[circumcision]] may reduce the risk of HIV transmission <ref name=Siegfred> {{cite journal \| author=Siegfried, N., Muller, M., Deeks, J., Volmink, J., Egger, M., Low, N., Walker, S. and Williamson, P. \| title=HIV and male circumcision--a systematic review with assessment of the quality of studies \| journal=Lancet Infect. Dis. \| year=2005 \| pages=165-173 \| volume=5 \| issue=3 \| id={{PMID\|15766651}} }}</ref>, but many experts believe that it is premature to recommend male circumcision as part of HIV prevention programs <ref name=WHOcircumcision> {{cite web \| author=[[WHO]] \| publisher= \| publishyear=2005 \| url=http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2005/pr32/en/ \| title=UNAIDS statement on South African trial findings regarding male circumcision and HIV \| date=2006-02-28 }}</ref>. ''For more details on this topic, see [[AIDS#Prevention\|AIDS prevention]] ==The clinical course of HIV-1 infection== [[Image:hiv-timecourse.png\|right\|thumbnail\|250px\|Figure 1. Graph showing HIV virus and CD4+ levels over the course of an untreated infection]] Infection with HIV-1 is associated with a progressive loss of CD4+ T-cells. This rate of loss can be measured and is used to determine the stage of infection. The loss of CD4+ T-cells is linked with an increase in viral load. The clinical course of HIV-infection generally includes three stages: primary infection, clinical latency and AIDS (Figure 1). HIV plasma levels during all stages of infection range from just 50 to 11 million virions per ml <ref name=Piatak> {{cite journal \| author=Piatak, M., Jr, Saag, M. S., Yang, L. C., Clark, S. J., Kappes, J. C., Luk, K. C., Hahn, B. H., Shaw, G. M. and Lifson, J.D. \| title=High levels of HIV-1 in plasma during all stages of infection determined by competitive PCR \| journal=Science \| year=1993 \| pages=1749-1754 \| volume=259 \| issue=5102 \| id={{PMID\|8096089}} }}</ref>. ===Primary Infection=== Primary, or acute infection is a period of rapid viral replication that immediately follows the individual's exposure to HIV. During primary HIV infection, most individuals (80 to 90%) develop an acute syndrome characterised by flu-like symptoms of [[fever]], [[malaise]], [[lymphadenopathy]], [[pharyngitis]], [[headache]], [[myalgia]], and sometimes a rash <ref name=Kahn> {{cite journal \| author=Kahn, J. O. and Walker, B. D. \| title=Acute Human Immunodeficiency Virus type 1 infection \| journal=N. Engl. J. Med. \| year=1998 \| pages=33-39 \| volume=331 \| issue=1 \| id={{PMID\|9647878}} }}</ref>. Within an average of three weeks after transmission of HIV-1, a broad HIV-1 specific immune response occurs that includes [[seroconversion]]. Because of the nonspecific nature of these illnesses, it is often not recognized as a sign of HIV infection. Even if patients go to their doctors or a hospital, they will often be misdiagnosed as having one of the more common infectious diseases with the same symptoms. Since not all patients develop it, and since the same symptoms can be caused by many other common diseases, it cannot be used as an indicator of HIV infection. However, recognizing the syndrome is important because the patient is much more infectious during this period. ===Clinical Latency=== A strong immune defense reduces the number o
e redundant IPA</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Irish_Political_Party \| party_name = Fianna Fáil\| party_articletitle = Fianna Fáil\| party_logo = [[Image:Fiannafaillogo.png]] \| leader = [[Bertie Ahern]] \| foundation = [[March 23]], [[1926]] \| ideology = [[Populism]], [[Nationalism]] \| international = ''none'' \| european = ''none'' \| europarl = [[Union for Europe of the Nations\|UEN]] \| colours = [[Green]]\| headquarters = 65-66 Lower Mount Street<br> [[Dublin]] 2 \| website = [http://www.fiannafail.ie http://www.fiannafail.ie] }} '''Fianna Fáil - The Republican Party''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet for English\|IPA]] {{IPA\|[ˌf<sup>j</sup>iənə; ˈfɔːl<sup>j</sup>]}}; [[English language\|English]] translation: ''Soldiers of Ireland'', but traditionally translated as ''Soldiers of Destiny'') is the largest [[political party]] in [[Ireland]]. From its establishment in the early twentieth century, the party moved from being a [[radical]], slightly left of centre party, to become the establishment, its influence dominating government and Irish political life from the 1930's onwards. It has been the largest party in [[Dail Eireann]] since [[1932]], and formed the government from 1932-[[1948\|48]], [[1951]]-[[1954\|54]], [[1957]]-[[1973\|73]], [[1977]]-[[1981\|81]], [[1982]], [[1987]]-[[1994\|94]], and since [[1997]]. Electorally Fianna Fáil is second only to the Social Democrats in Sweden in its length of tenure in office. In the [[European Parliament]], Fianna Fáil is a leading member of [[Union for Europe of the Nations]], a small right-of-centre nationalist grouping. European political commentators have often noted this to be a particularly odd arrangement owing to the substantive ideological differences between the paty and its groupmates, whose strongly conservative stances have at times prompted domestic criticism of Fianna Fáil. Party headquarters, over the objections of some MEPs, has made several attempts to sever the party's links to the European right, most recently an aborted 2004 agreement to join the [[Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe]], with whom it already sits at the [[Council of Europe]]. ==Leader & President of Fianna Fáil== * [[Eamon de Valera]] ([[1926]]-[[1959]]) * [[Seán Lemass]] ([[1959]]-[[1966]]) * [[Jack Lynch]] ([[1966]]-[[1979]]) * [[Charles Haughey]] ([[1979]]-[[1992]]) * [[Albert Reynolds]] ([[1992]]-[[1994]]) * [[Bertie Ahern]] ([[1994]]-''present'') ''<small>Note: Though the posts of leader and party president are separate, with the former elected by the Parliamentary Party and the latter elected by the [[Ard Fhéis]], and in theory the posts could be held by different people, they have always been held by the one person. However as that year's Ard Fheis may already have taken place before a new leader was elected, the selection of the new party president might not take place until a year after the leader. The years above are for the election of the leader. </small> ==History== [[Image:Eamondv.jpg\|thumb\|left\|Éamon de Valera, founder and first leader of Fianna Fáil (1926-1959). He served as [[Taoiseach]] on three occasions.]] Fianna Fáil was founded on [[March 23]], [[1926]], and adopted its name on [[April 2]] of the same year. It was founded by [[Éamon de Valera]], former [[President of Dáil Éireann\|Príomh-Aire]] (prime minister & president of Dáil Éireann (April 1919-August 1921)) and [[President of the Irish Republic\|President of the Republic]] (August 1921-January 1922). De Valera resigned from the presidency in January 1922 over the [[Anglo-Irish Treaty]] which created the [[Irish Free State]]. He led anti-Treaty [[Sinn Féin]] during the [[Irish Civil War]] (1922-23) before resigning from the party in 1926, in protest at the party's hard-line policy of abstentionism, the refusal to accept the legitimacy of the Free State or [[Dáil Éireann]]. Though his new party, Fianna Fáil, was also opposed to the Treaty settlement, it adopted a different approach of aiming to [[republic]]anise the [[Irish Free State]] rather than claiming all that had happened between 1922 and 1926 was invalid and that one could simply turn the clock back to the days of the direct British rule and start the Independence process again. Fianna Fáil initially refused to enter the [[Irish Free State]]'s [[Dáil Éireann]] in protest at the [[Oath of Allegiance (Ireland)\|Oath of Allegiance]] which all members of the Dáil were obliged to take. (The Oath, which was contained in the Anglo-Irish Treaty of [[1921]], was drafted by [[Michael Collins (Irish leader)\|Michael Collins]], using phraseology taken the [[Irish Republican Brotherhood]]'s Oath and suggestions from de Valera, then President of the Republic. In its final form, it promised "allegiance" to "The Irish Free State" and "that I will be faithful" to [[George V of the United Kingdom\|King George V]] in his role as King of Ireland.) The party initially took a court case on the issue of the oath. However the assassination of the [[Cumann na nGaedhael]] (pronounced "cum-on na ngale") Minister for Justice, [[Kevin O'Higgins]], led the then government to introduce a new Bill, requiring all candidates to swear that they would take the oath if elected. (If they declined to give that guarantee, they would be ineligible to be candidates in any election.) Fianna Fáil abandoned its previous refusal to take the Oath, dismissed it as an "empty formula", and entered the Dáil. The first party leader was [[Eamon de Valera]]. Other founding members included [[Seán Lemass]] (who became its second leader), [[Sean T. O'Kelly]], [[P.J. Ruttledge]] and others. Its initial appeal was to anti-treaty supporters and working class people. ===De Valera, 1926-1959=== On [[March 9]] [[1932]] Eamon de Valera was elected [[President of the Executive Council]] of the [[Irish Free State]]. It was a position he was to hold for twenty one years, sixteen of which were uninterrupted. During his first term de Valera weakened the links between the Free State and Britain. The ban on the [[Irish Republican Army\|IRA]] was lifted, the Oath of Allegiance to the British Crown was abolished and the office of Governor-General was greatly demoted. De Valera also started an [[Anglo-Irish Trade War\|economic war]] with Britain by withholding land [[annuity]] payments and by placing high tariffs on British imports such as coal. The British responded by placing tariffs on Irish goods such as agricultural produce. This "tit for tat" policy, which was disastrous for the Irish economy, would last until [[1938]] when the [[Anglo-Irish Free Trade Agreement]] was signed. In May [[1936]] de Valera abolished the Irish Senate. At that time he also announced his intention to draw up a new constitution. On [[1 July]] [[1937]] the Irish people adopted the new [[Bunreacht na hÉireann]]. This new constitution was [[Republicanism\|republican]] in all but name. The constitution claimed that the state consisted of the entire island of Ireland and the office of Governor-General was replaced by the [[President of Ireland]]. De Valera was able to succeed with this tactic as the 1930's had seen a change in Britain's relationship with her colonies. The Statute of Westminister declared a national law to be as valid as one from Westminister, and so the Houses of Commons/Lords no longer had a role in turning National bills into Law. It was a delicate political move but one which de Valera managed to execute without major disruption. In [[1939]] at the outbreak of [[World War II]] de Valera announced that Ireland would remain neutral. This policy infuriated the British; however, [[Irish neutrality\|Ireland's neutrality]] strongly favoured the Allies. Following the [[Irish General Election, 1948]] Fianna Fáil lost power. They returned in [[1951]] but no new ideas emerged from the Cabinet. [[Seán Lemass]] was eager to launch a new economic policy but the conservative elements in the government prevailed. Fianna Fáil lost power again in [[1954]]. In [[1957]] de Valera returned for the final time as [[Taoiseach]]. At this stage he was 75 years old and almost blind. However, he allowed Lemass to proceed with his economic expansion plan. This culminated in the 'Programme for Economic Expansion' of [[1958]]. In [[1959]] Dev (as he was popularly called) was elected the third [[President of Ireland]]. His successor was his [[Tánaiste]], Seán Lemass. ===Lemass 1959-1966=== [[Seán Lemass]] became the new leader of the Party and [[Taoiseach]] on [[23 June]] [[1959]] (the same day de Valera became President). Lemass as Taoiseach concentrated his energy on mainly economic matters. He had the task of implementing the 'First Programme for Economic Development' which began in [[1958]]. The policy of Protectionism was abandoned and free trade was introduced. Grants and tax concessions were given to companies who set up in Ireland. As a result of the 'Programme' the Irish economy grew at a rate of 4% per annum. A second, even more ambitious, 'Programme for Economic Expansion' was started in [[1963]]. Lemass' success in managing the economy led to his victory in the [[Irish General Election, 1961]]. Lemass now felt that he had a greater mandate and began making more changes. He introduced a new wave of fresh and more modern thinkers to the Cabinet, including, [[Brian Lenihan]], [[Charles Haughey]], [[George Colley]] and [[Patrick Hillery]]. Even though this was a minority government it is considered by many the best and most productive government in the history of the state. The sixties were a time of great change in Ireland. In [[1961]] [[RTÉ]] began broadcasting; opening up a new world to the Irish people. The following year the [[Second Vatican Council]] led to - according to it's supporters - greater openness in the [[Catholic Church]], which was still
ing, and was frequently associated with other celebrated composers like [[Joseph Haydn]] or [[Louis Spohr]]. He had important roles in [[1800s\|19th century]] [[European classical music\|classical music]]: he taught famous composers like [[Ludwig van Beethoven]], [[Carl Czerny]], [[Johann Nepomuk Hummel]], [[Franz Liszt]], [[Giacomo Meyerbeer]], [[Ignaz Moscheles]], [[Franz Schubert]] and [[Franz Xaver Süssmayr]]. He also taught Mozart's younger son, [[Franz Xaver Wolfgang Mozart\|Franz Xaver]]. Salieri was buried in the Matzleinsdorfer Friedhof (his remains were later transferred to the [[Zentralfriedhof]]) in [[Vienna, Austria]]. At his funeral service his own Requiem in C minor - composed in 1804 - was performed for the first time. His monument is adorned by a poem written by [[Joseph Weigl]], one of his pupils: <blockquote> ''Rest in peace! Uncovered by dust'' <br /> ''eternity shall bloom for you.'' <br /> ''Rest in peace! In eternal harmonies'' <br /> ''your spirit now is dissolved.'' <br /> ''He expressed himself in enchanting notes,'' <br /> ''now he is floating to everlasting beauty.''</blockquote> == Works == {{main\|List of compositions by Antonio Salieri}} During his time in Vienna, Salieri acquired great prestige as a composer and conductor, particularly of [[opera]], but also of [[chamber music\|chamber]] and [[sacred music]]. The most successful of his more than 40 operas included ''Armida'' (1771), ''La scuola de' gelosi'' (1778), ''Der Rauchfangkehrer'' (1781), ''Les Danaïdes'' (1784), which was first presented as a work of [[Christoph Willibald Gluck\|Gluck]]'s, ''[[Tarare]]'' (1787), ''Axur, Re d'Ormus'' (1788), ''Palmira, Regina di Persia'' (1795), and ''Falstaff o sia Le tre burle'' (1799). He wrote comparatively little instrumental music, including two [[piano concerto]]s and a concerto for [[organ (music)\|organ]] written in 1773, a concerto for [[flute]], [[oboe]] and orchestra (1774), and a set of 26 variations on ''La Follia di Spagna'' (1815). == Salieri and Mozart == In Vienna in the 1790s, [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart\|Mozart]] mentioned several "cabals" of Salieri concerning his new opera ''[[Così fan tutte]]''. As Mozart's music became more popular over the decades, Salieri's music was forgotten, and Mozart's allegations gained credence and tarnished Salieri's reputation. At the beginning of the 19th century, increasing [[nationalism]] led to a tendency to transfigure the [[Austria\|Austrian]] Mozart's [[genius]], while the [[Italy\|Italian]] Salieri was given the role of his evil [[antagonist]]. [[Albert Lortzing]]'s ''Singspiel'' ''Szenen aus Mozarts Leben'' LoWV28 (1832) uses the cliché of the jealous Salieri trying to hinder Mozart's career. While Italian by birth, Salieri had lived in imperial Vienna since he was 16 years old and was regarded as a German composer. In 1772, Empress [[Maria Theresia]] made a comment on her preference to Italian composers over Germans like Gassmann, Salieri or [[Gluck]]. Salieri saw himself as a German composer, which some of his German letters, operas, cantatas, and songs seem to prove. The biographer Alexander Wheelock Thayer believes that Mozart's suspicions of Salieri could have originated with an incident in 1781 when Mozart applied to be the music teacher of the Princess of Württemberg, and Salieri was selected instead because of his good reputation as a singing teacher. In the following year Mozart once again failed to be selected as the Princess's piano teacher. Later on, when Mozart's ''[[The Marriage of Figaro\|Le Nozze di Figaro]]'' was not well received by either the Emperor Joseph II or by the public, Mozart blamed Salieri for the failure. ''"Salieri and his tribe will move heaven and earth to put it down"'', [[Leopold Mozart]] wrote to his daughter Nannerl. But at the time of the premiere of ''Figaro'', Salieri was busy with his new [[French language\|French]] opera ''Les Horaces''. Thayer believes that the intrigues surrounding the failure of ''Figaro'' were instigated by the poet Giovanni Battista Casti against the Court Poet, [[Lorenzo da Ponte]], who wrote the ''Figaro'' [[libretto]]. Later, when da Ponte was in [[Prague]] preparing the production of Mozart's setting of his ''[[Don Giovanni]]'', the poet was ordered back to Vienna for a royal wedding for which Salieri's ''Axur, Re d'Ormus'' would be performed. Obviously, Mozart was not pleased by this. There is far more evidence of a cooperative atmosphere between the two composers than for a real enmity. For example, Mozart appointed Salieri to teach his son Franz Xavier, and when Salieri was appointed Kapellmeister in [[1788 in music\|1788]], he revived ''Figaro'' instead of bringing out a new opera of his own, and when he went to the coronation festivities for Leopold II in 1790 he had no less than three Mozart masses in his luggage. Salieri and Mozart even composed a song for voice and piano together, called ''Per la ricuperata salute di Ophelia'', which was celebrating the happy return to stage of the famous singer Nancy Storace. This song has been lost, although it had been printed by Artaria in 1785. Mozart's ''Davidde penitente'' K.469 (1785), his piano concerto in E flat major K.482 (1785), the clarinet quintet K.581 (1789) and the great symphony in G minor K.550 had been premiered on the suggestion of Salieri, who even conducted a performance of it in 1791. In his last surviving letter from October 14th 1791, Mozart tells his wife about Salieri's attendance at his opera ''[[Die Zauberflöte]]'' K 620, speaking enthusiastically: ''"He heard and saw with all his attention, and from the ouverture to the last choir there was no piece that didn't elicit a bravo or bello out of him [...]"'' Salieri's health declined in his later years, and he was hospitalized shortly before his death. It was shortly after he died that rumors first spread that he had confessed to Mozart's murder on his deathbed. Salieri's two nurses, Gottlieb Parsko and Georg Rosenberg, as well as his family doctor Joseph Röhrig, attested that he never said any such thing. At least one of these three people were with him throughout his hospitalization. After Salieri's death in 1825, [[Aleksandr Pushkin]]'s drama ''Mozart i Salieri'' (1831) and the opera setting of this work by [[Nicolai Rimsky-Korsakov]] ([[1898]]) started a tradition of poetic license based on Mozart's allegations, continued and popularized by [[Peter Shaffer]]'s heavily fictionalized play ''[[Amadeus]]'' (1979) and the [[Academy Award\|Oscar]]-winning 1984 film by [[Milos Forman]] based on it, in which [[F. Murray Abraham]] played Salieri and [[Tom Hulce]] played the title character. Both Schaffer and Foreman expressly maintained the fictional nature of their respective works, and while it is never explicitly stated in the play that Salieri killed Mozart, he is portrayed as bitterly hating his rival, going so far as to renounce God for blessing Mozart (portrayed in the play as an immature dandy) with fantastic talent while refusing to let ''him'' be anything but "a mediocrity." Due largely to Schaffer's play and its movie adaptation, the word "Salieri" has entered the public consciousness to mean a merely competent artist standing in the shadow of a genius. == Recent Popularity == In 2003, [[mezzo-soprano]] [[Cecilia Bartoli]] released ''The Salieri Album'', a CD with 13 arias from Salieri's operas, most of which had never been recorded before. Since 2000 there have also been complete recordings issued of the operas [[Falstaff (opera)\|Falstaff]], [[Les Danaides]], and [[La Grotta di Trofonio]]. Although he has yet to fully re-enter the standard repertory, performances of Salieri's works are becoming more and more common. ==External links== [http://classyclassical.blogspot.com/2005/08/antonio-salieri-truth-or-fiction.html Salieri: Truth or Fiction] [http://reverent.org/mozart_or_salieri.html Mozart or Salieri?] A quiz with samples of both their music. == References == * Rudolph Angermüller, ''Antonio Salieri'' 3 Vol. (München 1971-74) * Rudolph Angermüller, ''Antonio Salieri. Fatti e Documenti'' (Legnago 1985) * Volkmar Braunbehrens, ''Salieri, ein Musiker im Schatten Mozarts'' (München 1989), English translation entitled ''Maligned Master - the Real Story of Antonio Salieri'' (München 1992) * A. Della Corte, ''Un italiano all'estero: Antonio Salieri'' (Torino 1936) * V. Della Croce/F. Blanchetti, ''Il caso Salieri'' (Torino 1994) * I. F. Edler v. Mosel, ''Über das Leben und die Werke des Anton Salieri'' (Vienna 1827) * John A. Rice, ''Antonio Salieri and Viennese Opera'' (Chicago 1998) * Alexander Wheelock Thayer, ''Salieri: Rival of Mozart'' (Kansas City 1989) [[Category:1750 births\|Salieri, Antonio]] [[Category:1825 deaths\|Salieri, Antonio]] [[Category:Italian composers\|Salieri, Antonio]] [[Category:Classical era composers\|Salieri, Antonio]] [[Category:Opera composers\|Salieri, Antonio]] [[Category:Natives of the Veneto\|Salieri, Antonio]] [[ca:Antonio Salieri]] [[da:Antonio Salieri]] [[de:Antonio Salieri]] [[es:Antonio Salieri]] [[fr:Antonio Salieri]] [[ko:안토니오 살리에리]] [[he:אנטוניו סליירי]] [[it:Antonio Salieri]] [[nl:Antonio Salieri]] [[ja:アントニオ・サリエリ]] [[pl:Antonio Salieri]] [[pt:António Salieri]] [[ro:Antonio Salieri]] [[ru:Сальери, Антонио]] [[sk:Antonio Salieri]] [[fi:Antonio Salieri]] [[sl:Antonio Salieri]] [[sv:Antonio Salieri]] [[th:อานโตนิโอ ซาลิเอรี]] [[zh:安东尼奥·萨列里]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Activism</title> <id>2242</id> <revision> <id>41952470</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T21:16:59Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Bota47</username> <id>341052</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Modifying: nl</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Activism''', in a general sense, can be described as intentional action to bring about [[so
sociation Croquet World Champion is [[Reginald Bamford]] (RSA). The UK recently won the MacRobertson Shield, the major international trophy in Croquet. The current (August 04) Golf Croquet World Champion is [[Ahmed Nasr (croquet player) \|Ahmed Nasr]] (Egypt). In the UK, the sport is run by the Croquet Association - http://www.croquet.org.uk Some people consider croquet to be viciously competitive. However, the ability in versions other than Golf Croquet to gain extra strokes favour players who position balls with more care, rather than simply as far away from everything else as possible. At championship standard association croquet, players can often make all 26 points (13 for each ball) in two turns. ==American Six-Wicket Croquet== "Association" croquet -- more properly called "international-rules" croquet -- is probably the most widely played version of croquet in the world. Close on its heels is the extremely simple, yet highly competitive "golf" croquet -- the fastest-growing croquet game. The "American-rules" version of croquet -- another six-wicket-layout game -- is the dominant game in the United States and, to its fans, by far the best version of the game, because of its emphasis on strategy. Its genesis is mostly in the international game, but it differs in a number of important ways, most notably in that a ball's "deadness" on other balls is carried over from turn to turn, until the ball has been "cleared" by scoring a wicket. This leads to strategic and tactical dilemmas far too complicated to be outlined here. Shot-making ability is relatively less important in the American game than in the international game, and top-level international-rules players are, almost invariably, vastly superior shot makers. American-rules enthusiasts enjoy the greater mental challenge of their game, along with the somewhat leveling effect brought about by the reduction in importance of shot-making skill. It is a maxim of the game that good strategy will beat pure physical skill more often than not, and this allows players with fewer physical gifts to be competitive in the sport. American-rules croquet owes few of its rules but a great deal of its spirit, strategy, and tactics to Kentucky croquet, a variant of croquet played with nine wickets on clay courts. The best-known star of Kentucky croquet was Archie Burchfield, who discovered American six-wicket croquet in the early 1980s, quickly became one of its best players, and introduced new strategies and tactics that enlivened the game. Burchfield died in February, 2005. The governing body of the American-rules game is the United States Croquet Association [http://www.croquetamerica.com/home.asp]. Top American-rules players as of early 2005 include: Doug Grimsley, Mike Jenner, Kenster Rosenberry, Brian Cumming, Jackie Jones, Leo McBride, Mik Mehas, Jeff Soo, and perhaps the American game's most notable player, John C. Osborn, the son of USCA founder Jack Osborn. Two important American croquet publications are Croquet World Online [http://www.croquetworld.com/home.asp] and the National Croquet Calendar. ==Backyard Croquet== Croquet has become a popular backyard game in America, where croquet sets are commonplace in most department stores and sports shops. Such sets typically consist of 6 wooden mallets with plastic bumpers on both striking surfaces. The mallet head and handle usually come unassembled and are joined by screwing the handle into the head. The 6 balls are either of wood or, more commonly, plastic. They are coloured blue, red, black, yellow, green and orange. Also included are 9 wire wickets and two wooden stakes. There is often a carrying case or stand with the set. Setup is just as in standard 9-wicket rules. It is a double-diamond pattern formed by 7 wickets, with the middle wicket serving as a shared point for both diamonds. Beyond the wickets at either end are one additional wicket and one stake. The diagram included with the set indicates that there is to be a 6 foot distance separating the wickets at the outer end of each diamond, and 6 more feet between the outermost wickets and the starting and turning stakes. In practice, however, this part of the diagram is typically disregarded, and a mere "mallets-head-length" (about 10 inches) separates one wicket from the other, and the outermost wicket from the stake. This allows the ball to more easily be hit through both wickets in one stroke. The standard game is "cut-throat," with each player trying to beat all the others through the course to the final stake. A player's score is disregarded. Instead, the game is considered a race. The game is sometimes considered over as soon as the first player strikes the final stake. Alternatively, players continue playing for second place, third place, etc., until only one player's ball remains. Play order is determined by the order of the stripes painted from top to bottom on the stakes. The mallets are sometimes also painted in multicolored stripes to remind players of the playing order. The usual order is blue, red, black, yellow, green, and finally orange. After orange is done, play continues with blue again. This order sometimes varies, depending on the set being used. The first player begins by setting his or her ball beside or in front of the first stake. The player then attempts to strike the ball through the first two wickets. Though disallowed in some yards, players might sometimes use the technique of striking the ball not with the end of the mallet, but with the side, or even shoving it with the side, rather than striking it. Another technique disallowed in some yards, but tolerated in others, is to set the ball in direct contact with the stake, and to propel it by striking the stake, rather than the ball itself. A bonus stroke is granted for each wicket the ball goes through. At the starting and turning stakes, two bonus strokes would be granted for getting the ball through both wickets in one stroke. Two bonus strokes are also granted for hitting another ball. Hitting a ball cancels out all bonus strokes accumulated from wickets, and going through a wicket cancels all bonus strokes accumulated from hitting a ball. A player can therefore acquire no more than 2 bonus strokes at a time. If a player hits another ball, that player is considered "dead on" that ball, and can acquire no more bonus strokes from hitting that ball until he or she has gone through the next wicket (or struck the next stake) in the course. After hitting another ball and gaining bonus strokes from it, a player has three choices as to ball placement. The player may play the ball where it lies, pick up the ball and place it right next to the struck ball, or pick up the ball and place it one mallets-head-length away from the struck ball. If the ball is placed right next to the struck ball, the player may "send" the other ball by placing a foot on his or her own ball and then striking it so as to send the other ball away. Care must be taken not to unintentionally send one's own ball during this manoeuvre, and not to injure one's own foot with an overzealous and poorly aimed swing. Holding the ball in place with a hand, rather than a foot, is also acceptable in some yards. A "send" counts as one stroke, and the player has one more stroke after performing it. Players must play their balls through the wickets in a certain order. From the starting stake and the first two wickets, they proceed forward and right to the third wicket, then forward and left to the fourth, middle wicket, then forward and right to the fifth wicket, then forward and left to the sixth and seventh wickets, and then to the turning stake. After striking the turning stake, the player may pick up the ball and place it again in the same manner as with the starting stake, or else play it where it lies. The player then proceeds back through wickets 7 and 6, in that order, then forward and right to the eighth wicket, then forward and left to the fourth, middle wicket (going through the other direction, this time), then forward and right through the ninth wicket, then forward and left through wickets 2 and 1 in that order, and finally striking the starting stake to win the game. Players do not get bonus strokes for going through a wicket backwards, or out of the proper order. There are as many variations on these rules as there are yards in which the game is played, and care must be taken to make the "house rules" clear before the start of the game. One popular variation is "Poison" or "Snake" rules. In this game, a ball that goes through the final wicket is considered a Snake, or Poison. This ball "kills" or eliminates other non-poisonous balls from play if it strikes them, or is struck by them. If a Snake hits another Snake, the struck Snake is killed. If a Snake hits a stake or goes through a wicket in any direction, it is killed. The last player on the course wins the game. Just as with regular balls, a Snake gains 2 bonus strokes for hitting another ball. Another variation is team play, where pairs or trios of players compete against other teams to be the first with all members completing the course. Teams are typically blue, black and green versus red, yellow and orange. In couples play, it is blue and black versus red and yellow, or blue and yellow versus red and green versus black and orange. Yet another variation is "Obstacle" or "Golf" rules, in which players must go through a unique course of wickets that has been designed to be long and difficult. Wickets are often placed in inconvenient spots, such as under bushes or on the sides of hills. The idea here is to maximize originality and absurdity, and there are often numerous additional rules toward this aim, such as the rule that you may not take a stroke without a drink (p
Geminorum\|9 Gem]] 6.24; [[10 Geminorum\|10 Gem]] 6.58; [[11 Geminorum\|11 Gem]] 6.91; [[12 Geminorum\|12 Gem]] 6.95; [[15 Geminorum\|15 Gem]] 6.54; [[15 Geminorum\|15 Gem]] 9.21; [[16 Geminorum\|16 Gem]] 6.22; [[19 Geminorum\|19 Gem]] 6.38; [[20 Geminorum\|20 Gem]] 6.26; [[23 Geminorum\|23 Gem]] 6.73; [[25 Geminorum\|25 Gem]] 6.45; [[26 Geminorum\|26 Gem]] 5.20; [[28 Geminorum\|28 Gem]] 5.42; [[30 Geminorum\|30 Gem]] 4.49; [[32 Geminorum\|32 Gem]] 6.47; [[33 Geminorum\|33 Gem]] 5.87; [[35 Geminorum\|35 Gem]] 5.68; [[37 Geminorum\|37 Gem]] 5.74 &ndash; nearby; [[39 Geminorum\|39 Gem]] 6.20; [[40 Geminorum\|40 Gem]] 6.40; [[41 Geminorum\|41 Gem]] 5.73; [[44 Geminorum\|44 Gem]] 6.00; [[45 Geminorum\|45 Gem]] 5.47; [[47 Geminorum\|47 Gem]] 5.75; [[48 Geminorum\|48 Gem]] 5.85; [[49 Geminorum\|49 Gem]] 7.06; [[51 Geminorum\|51 Gem]] 5.07; [[52 Geminorum\|52 Gem]] 5.84; [[53 Geminorum\|53 Gem]] 5.75; [[56 Geminorum\|56 Gem]] 5.09; [[58 Geminorum\|58 Gem]] 6.17; [[59 Geminorum\|59 Gem]] 5.77; [[61 Geminorum\|61 Gem]] 5.94; [[63 Geminorum\|63 Gem]] 5.20; [[64 Geminorum\|64 Gem]] 5.07; [[68 Geminorum\|68 Gem]] 5.27; [[70 Geminorum\|70 Gem]] 5.58; [[79 Geminorum\|79 Gem]] 6.53; [[82 Geminorum\|82 Gem]] 6.18; [[85 Geminorum\|85 Gem]] 5.38 {{Zodiac}} {{ConstellationsListedByPtolemy}} {{ConstellationList}} == External links == {{Commons\|Gemini}} * [http://www.allthesky.com/constellations/gemini/ The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Gemini] * [http://160.114.99.91/astrojan/gemini.htm The clickable Gemini] [[Category:Astrological signs]] [[Category:Gemini constellation\| ]] [[an:Cheminucos]] [[ast:Xéminis]] [[ca:Bessons]] [[cs:Blíženci (souhvězdí)]] [[da:Tvillingerne]] [[de:Zwillinge (Sternbild)]] [[eo:Ĝemeloj]] [[es:Géminis]] [[fa:دوپیکر]] [[fi:Kaksoset (tähdistö)]] [[fr:Gémeaux]] [[id:Gemini]] [[it:Gemelli (astronomia)]] [[ja:ふたご座]] [[ka:მარჩბივი]] [[ko:쌍둥이자리]] [[ku:Cêwî (birç)]] [[la:Gemini (sidus)]] [[lt:Dvyniai (astronomija)]] [[hu:Ikrek (csillagkép)]] [[nl:Tweelingen]] [[pl:Bliźnięta (gwiazdozbiór)]] [[pt:Gemini (constelação)]] [[ru:Близнецы (созвездие)]] [[sk:Súhvezdie Blíženci]] [[sv:Tvillingarna]] [[th:กลุ่มดาวคนคู่]] [[tr:İkizler burcu]] [[zh:双子座]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Go Down Moses</title> <id>12021</id> <revision> <id>35073766</id> <timestamp>2006-01-13T22:41:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Bluemoose</username> <id>178836</id> </contributor> <comment>[[WP:AWB\|AWB assisted]] clean up</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article discusses the song "Go Down Moses"; for the book by [[William Faulkner]], see [[Go Down, Moses]]'' '''"Go Down Moses"''' is an [[African-American]] [[spiritual (music)\|spiritual]], that is a retelling of events in the [[Old Testament]] of the [[Bible]] ([[Exodus]], chapters 3-12), in which [[God]] commands [[Moses]] to demand the release of the [[Israelites]] from bondage in [[Egypt]]. The song was made famous by [[Paul Robeson]] whose voice, deep and resonant as it was, was said by some to have attained the status of the voice of [[God]]. [[William Faulkner]] titled his book, [[Go Down, Moses]], after the song. ==Usual lyrics== When Israel was in Egypt's land<br> Let my people go<br> Oppressed so hard they could not stand<br> Let my people go Go down, Moses, way down in Egypt's land<br> Tell old Pharaoh, Let my people go So Moses went to Egypt's land<br> Let my people go<br> To make old Pharaoh understand<br> Let my people go<br> Thus spake the Lord, bold Moses said,<br> "Let my people go,<br> If not, I'll strike your first born dead<br> Let my people go" (Public Domain) == External links == [http://ctl.du.edu/spirituals/ Sweet Chariot: The Story of the Spirituals], particularly their [http://ctl.du.edu/spirituals/Freedom/source.cfm section on "Freedom"] (Web site maintained by [http://spiritualsproject.org/ The Spirituals Project] at the University of Denver) [[Category:Traditional songs]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Guadalajara (disambiguation)</title> <id>12023</id> <revision> <id>32286242</id> <timestamp>2005-12-21T22:08:07Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>SalvadorRodriguez</username> <id>414846</id> </contributor> <comment>Clarity</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Guadalajara''' may refer to: '''Mexico''' [[Guadalajara, Jalisco]], the capital of the state of Jalisco [[Club Deportivo Guadalajara]], aka "Chivas", a Mexican association football team '''Spain''' [[Guadalajara (province)]], a province in Castile&ndash;La Mancha [[Guadalajara, Spain]], the capital of the above province {{disambig}} [[cs:Guadalajara]] [[de:Guadalajara]] [[es:Guadalajara]] [[eo:Guadalajara]] [[fr:Guadalajara]] [[ko:과달라하라]] [[it:Guadalajara]] [[nl:Guadalajara]] [[pl:Guadalajara]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>General relativity</title> <id>12024</id> <revision> <id>42109122</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:00:50Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Tailpig</username> <id>312490</id> </contributor> <comment>Revert to revision 41961135 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups\|popups]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''General relativity''' (GR) is the [[Geometry\|geometrical]] [[theory]] of [[gravitation]] published by [[Albert Einstein]] in [[1915]]. It unifies [[special relativity]] and [[Isaac Newton]]'s [[law of universal gravitation]] with the insight that gravitation is not viewed as being due to a [[force]] (in the traditional sense) but rather a manifestation of [[curvature\|curved]] space and time, this curvature being produced by the [[mass]]-[[energy]] content of the [[spacetime]]. <div class="noprint" style="clear: right"> {{General relativity}} __TOC__ </div> == Overview == [[image:spacetime_curvature.png\|thumb\|right\|400px\|Two-dimensional visualization of space-time distortion. The presence of matter changes the geometry of spacetime, this (curved) geometry being interpreted as gravity.]] In this theory, [[spacetime]] is [[#Spacetime as a curved Lorentzian manifold\|treated as a 4-dimensional Lorentzian manifold]] which is curved by the presence of [[mass]], [[energy]], and [[momentum]] (or [[stress-energy tensor\|stress-energy]]) within it. The relationship between stress-energy and the curvature of spacetime is governed by the [[Einstein field equations]]. The motion of objects being influenced solely by the geometry of spacetime ([[Inertia\|inertial motion]]) occurs along special paths called [[timelike]] and [[null]] [[geodesic (general relativity)\|geodesics]] of spacetime. <div id=ref_1>One of the defining features of general relativity is the idea that gravitational 'force' is replaced by geometry. In general relativity, phenomena that in [[classical mechanics]] are ascribed to the action of the force of [[gravity]] (such as [[free-fall]], [[orbit]]al motion, and [[spacecraft]] [[trajectories]]) are taken in general relativity to represent inertial motion in a curved spacetime. So what people standing on the surface of the Earth perceive as the 'force of gravity' is a result of their undergoing a [[#Coordinate vs. physical acceleration\|continuous physical acceleration]] caused by the mechanical resistance of the surface on which they are standing. </div> === Justification === The justification for creating general relativity comes from the [[equivalence principle]], which dictates that [[freefall]]ing observers are the ones in [[inertia]]l motion. A consequence of this insight is that inertial observers can accelerate with respect to each other. (Think of two balls falling on opposite sides of the Earth, for example.) This redefinition is incompatible with [[Newton's first law of motion]], and cannot be accounted for in the [[Euclidean geometry]] of [[special relativity]]. To quote Einstein himself: : ''If all accelerated systems are equivalent, then Euclidean geometry cannot hold in all of them.'' [http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/General_relativity.html] Thus the equivalence principle led Einstein to search for a gravitational theory which involves curved spacetimes. Another motivating factor was the realization that relativity calls for gravitation to be expressed as a rank-two [[tensor]], and not just a [[vector (spatial)\|vector]] as was the case in Newtonian physics [http://www.bun.kyoto-u.ac.jp/~suchii/gen.GR3.html]. (An analogy is the [[electromagnetic field tensor]] of special relativity). Thus Einstein sought a rank-two tensor means of describing curved spacetimes surrounding massive objects. This effort came to fruition with the discovery of the [[Einstein field equations]] in 1915. === Fundamental principles === General relativity is based on a set of fundamental principles which guided its development. These are: The [[general principle of relativity]]: The laws of physics must be the same for all observers (accelerated or not). * The [[principle of general covariance]]: The laws of physics must take the same form in all coordinate systems. * The principle that [[inertia\|inertial motion]] is [[geodesic (general relativity)\|geodesic motion]]: The world lines of particles unaffected by physical forces are timelike or null geodesics of spacetime. * The principle of [[Lorentz covariance\|local Lorentz invariance]]: The laws of [[special relativity]] apply locally for all inertial observers. * Spacetime is curved: This permits gravitational effects such as freefall to be described as a form of inertial motion. (See the discussion below of a person standing on Earth, under [[General relativity#Coordinate vs. physical acceleration\|"Coordinate vs. physical acceleration."]]) * Spacet
e fact that weapons firing the same round (for instance, the [[MP5]] and [[Glock 18]] both fire a 9mm round) do vastly different damages. Also, the [[M4A1]] weapon model's animation features the player charging the weapon by pulling backwards on the [[forward assist]], a feat impossible in real life. The [[Glock 18\|GLOCK 18C]] fires in a fully automatic mode; in the mod it only fires a three round burst. However, these objects of criticism of realism are, for the most part, accepted in the community as necessary sacrifices that promote balance in the game. ==See also== * [[Counter-Strike equipment\|''Counter-Strike'' equipment]] * [[Counter-Strike maps\|''Counter-Strike'' maps]] * [[List of Counter-Strike Maps]] * [[Counter-Strike culture\|''Counter-Strike'' culture]] * [[Broken Arms Gordon]] - a graphical glitch that occurs during recorded playback * [[Cheating in Counter-Strike\|Cheating in ''Counter-Strike'']] * ''[[Half-Life]]'' * [[Steam (content delivery)\|Steam]] * [[List of Half-Life mods\|List of ''Half-Life'' mods]] * ''[[Counter-Strike: Condition Zero]]'' * ''[[Counter-Strike: Source]]'' * ''[[Counter-Strike Neo]]'' * [[First-person shooter]] == External links == ; Official websites * [http://www.counter-strike.net/ ''Counter-Strike''] * [http://www.cs-conditionzero.com/ ''Counter-Strike: Condition Zero''] * [http://www.counterstrikesource.com/ ''Counter-Strike: Source''] * [http://www.steampowered.com/ Steam] ; Community Sites * [http://www.csnation.net/ CS-Nation] &mdash; Longest running ''Counter-Strike'' News site * [http://fpsbanana.com ''FPSBANANA''] &mdash; Custom content for ''Counter-Strike''. ; Competitive Counter-Strike * [http://www.caleague.com/ The Cyberathlete Ameteur League] * [http://www.thecpl.com/ The Cyberathlete Professional League] * [http://www.gotfrag.com/cs/ GotFrag?] &mdash; Coverage of Counter-Strike related events in the world of [[electronic sports]] {{Half-Life}} [[Category:Counter-Strike\| ]] [[Category:Electronic sports]] [[da:Counter-Strike]] [[de:Counter-Strike]] [[es:Counter-Strike]] [[fr:Counter-Strike]] [[it:Counter-Strike]] [[he:Counter Strike]] [[lt:Counter strike]] [[jbo:Counter-Strike]] [[nl:Counter-Strike]] [[ja:カウンターストライク]] [[no:Counter-Strike]] [[nn:Counter-Strike]] [[pl:Counter-Strike]] [[pt:Counter-Strike]] [[ru:Counter-Strike]] [[sr:Каунтер Страјк]] [[fi:Counter-Strike]] [[sv:Counter-Strike]] [[tr:Counter-Strike]] [[zh:反恐精英]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Camille Pissarro</title> <id>7434</id> <revision> <id>41038443</id> <timestamp>2006-02-24T17:32:34Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>24.8.178.36</ip> </contributor> <comment>switched word order in "portuguese sephardic jew".</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Pissarro.gardenatpont.750pix.jpg\|thumb\|250px\|'''The garden at Pontoise''', painted 1877.]] '''Camille Pissarro''' ([[July 10]] [[1830]] &ndash; [[November 13]] [[1903]]) was a French [[impressionist]] [[painter]]. Camille Jacob Pissarro was born in [[Charlotte Amalie]], [[Saint Thomas, United States Virgin Islands\|St. Thomas]] to Abraham Gabriel Pissarro, a [[Portuguese people\|Portuguese]] [[Sephardi\|Sephardic Jew]], and Rachel Manzano-Pomié, from the [[Dominican Republic]]. Pissarro lived in St. Thomas until age 12, when he went to a boarding school in [[Paris]]. He returned to St. Thomas where he drew in his free time. In 1852, he travelled to [[Venezuela]] with the Danish artist [[Fritz Melbye]]. In 1855, he moved to Paris, where he studied with the French landscape artist [[Jean-Baptiste Camille Corot]]. Known as the ''Father of Impressionism,'' he painted rural French life, particularly landscapes and workers in the fields as well as scenes from [[Montmartre]]. He then went to Paris to teach, where some of his students were Californian Impressionist [[Lucy Bacon]] , [[Paul Cezanne]] and [[Paul Gauguin]]. His influence on the Impressionists is probably still underrated; not only were many of the ideas his own, but he also managed to remain on friendly, mutually respectful terms with such difficult personalities as [[Edgar Degas]], Cézanne and Gauguin. Although generally seen as a minor Impressionist, Pissarro exhibited at all eight of the Impressionist exhibitions. Moreover, whereas [[Monet]] was the main practitioner of the Impressionist style, Pissarro may have been the main thinker in the development of Impressionist theory. Probably the strength of Pissarro's mind got rather in the way of his painting as he felt the need to try out all new forms of painting as they came along, thus he painted in the [[Neo-impressionism \|Neo-Impressionist]] form between 1885 and 1890, before returning to a more pure Impressionism before the end of his life. [[Image:Camille.jpg\|thumb\|left\|Pisarro's ''Pallette with a Landscape'', c. 1878.]] In March [[1893]], Paris Gallery Durand-Ruel organized a major exhibition of 46 of Pissarro's works along with 55 others by [[Antonio de La Gandara]]. But while the critics acclaimed Gandara, their appraisal of Pissarro's art was less enthusiastic. He died in [[Éragny-sur-Epte]] on either [[November 12]] or [[November 13]], [[1903]] and was buried in [[Père Lachaise Cemetery]] in Paris. During his lifetime, Camille Pissarro sold few of his paintings. By 2005, however, some Pissarro paintings sold for around [[United States dollar\|$]]4 million. ==See also== * ''[[Hay Harvest at Éragny]]'' ==External links== {{Commonscat\|Camille Pissarro}} [http://www.abcgallery.com/P/pissaro/pissaro.html Camille Pissarro at Olga's Gallery] [http://libcom.org/history/articles/1830-1903-camille-pissarro/index.php Libcom.org/history: Camille Pissarro political biography] [[Category:1830 births\|Pissaro, Camille]] [[Category:1903 deaths\|Pissaro, Camille]] [[Category:French painters\|Pissarro, Camille]] [[Category:Impressionist painters\|Pissarro, Camille]] [[Category:Jewish painters\|Pissarro, Camille]] <!--Interlanguage links--> [[de:Camille Pissarro]] [[es:Camille Pissarro]] [[eo:Camille PISSARRO]] [[fr:Camille Pissarro]] [[ko:카미유 피사로]] [[it:Camille Pissarro]] [[he:קאמי פיסארו]] [[nl:Camille Pissarro]] [[ja:カミーユ・ピサロ]] [[no:Camille Pissarro]] [[nn:Camille Pissarro]] [[pl:Camille Pissarro]] [[pt:Camille Pissarro]] [[ro:Camille Pissarro]] [[ru:Писсарро, Камиль]] [[sv:Camille Pissarro]] [[zh:卡米耶·畢沙羅]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cardiology diagnostic tests and procedures</title> <id>7435</id> <revision> <id>41026319</id> <timestamp>2006-02-24T15:58:30Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>DabMachine</username> <id>922466</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>disambiguation from [[Hypoxia]] to [[Hypoxia (medical)]] - ([[WP:DPL\|You can help!]])</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''diagnostic tests in cardiology''' are methods of identifying [[heart]] conditions associated with healthy vs. unhealthy, [[pathology\|pathologic]], [[heart]] function. ==Bedside== ===History=== Obtaining a [[medical history]] is always the first "test", part of understanding the likelihood of significant disease, as detectable within the current limitations of clinical medicine. Yet heart problems often produce no symptoms until very advanced, and many symptoms, such as palpitations and sensations of extra or missing heart beats correlate poorly with realtive heart health ''vs'' disease. Hence, a history alone is rarely sufficient to diagnose a heart condition. ===Auscultation=== ''[[Auscultation]]'' employs a [[stethoscope]] to more easily hear various normal and abnormal sounds, such as normal heart beat sounds and the usual heart beat sound changes associated with breathing versus [[heart murmur]]s. ==Laboratory== ===Blood tests=== A variety of ''[[blood test]]s'' are available for analyzing [[cholesterol]] transport behavior, [[High density lipoprotein\|HDL]], [[Low density lipoprotein\|LDL]], [[triglyceride]]s, [[lipoprotein little a]], [[homocysteine]], [[C-reactive protein]], blood sugar control: fasting, after eating or averages using glycosylated albumen or hemoglobin, [[myoglobin]], [[creatine kinase]], [[troponin]], [[brain-type natriuretic peptide]], etc. to assess the evolution of [[coronary artery disease]] and evidence of existing damage. A great many more [[physiology\|physiologic]] markers related to [[atherosclerosis]] and [[heart]] function are used and being developed and evaluated in [[research]]. ==Electrophysiology== ===Electrocardiogram=== ''[[Electrocardiography]]'' (ECG/EKG) monitors [[electricity\|electrical]] activity of the [[heart]], primarily as recorded from the skin surface. A 12 lead recording, 6 for the front plane and 6 for the lower chest crossectional plane, is the most commonly used form. ===Holter monitor=== A ''[[Holter monitor]]'' records a continuous EKG rhythm pattern (rarely a full EKG) for 24 hours or more. These monitors are used for suspected frequent rhythm abnormalities, especially ones the wearer may not recognize by symptoms. They are more expensive than event monitors. ===Event monitor=== An ''[[Event monitor]]'' records short term EKG rhythm patterns, generally storing the last 2 to 5 minutes, adding in new & discarding old data, for 1 to 2 weeks or more. There are several different types with different capabilities. When the wearer presses a button on the monitor, it quits discarding old and continues recording for a short additional period. The wearer then plays the recording, via a standard phone connection, to a center with compatible receiving and rhythm printing equipment, after which the monitor is ready to record again. These monitors are used for suspected infrequent rhythm abnormalities, especially ones the wearer does recognize by symptoms. They are less expensive than Holter monitors. ===Cardiac stress testing=== ''[[Cardiac stress testing]]'' is used to determine t
seal of the Central Intelligence Agency, or any colorable imitation of such words, initials, or seal in connection with any merchandise, impersonation, solicitation, or commercial activity in a manner reasonably calculated to convey the impression that such use is approved, endorsed, or authorized by the Central Intelligence Agency.'' [http://www.cia.gov/cia/notices.html#seal Use of the Central Intelligence Agency Seal] Many Internet sites have used information and images from the CIA World Factbook, because of its public domain status. Besides the World Factbook, the CIA puts out a directory of ''[[Chiefs of State and Cabinet Members of Foreign Governments]]'' each week. ==Oddities and controversies== ===Political=== The factbook contains many peculiarities resulting from the diplomatic policies of the United States and does not always take a neutral point of view. As an official publication of the United States government, the factbook lists the official policy of the United States government as fact often with little more than a footnote to indicate that the fact is disputed or that a contrary position exists. The factbook often highlights diplomatic disputes that are recognized by the United States, but ignores or downplays disputes that are not favored by the government's foreign policies. For example: Specific regions within a country or areas in dispute among countries, such as [[Kurdistan]], [[Kashmir]] and [[Kosovo]], are not covered, but other areas of the world whose status is disputed, such as the [[Spratly Islands]], have entries. Maps depicting Kashmir have the [[India]]&ndash;[[Pakistan]] border drawn at the [[Line of Control]], but the region of Kashmir occupied by China drawn in hash marks. [[Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus\|Northern Cyprus]] is not given a separate entry or listed as part of Turkey because "territorial occupations/annexations not recognized by the United States Government are not shown on U.S. Government maps." [[Taiwan]] has a separate entry not listed under "T", but at the bottom of the list. [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/countrylisting.html#z Country Listing] The name "''[[Republic of China]]''" is not listed as Taiwan's "official name" under the "Government" section, perhaps due to U.S. recognition of Beijing's [[One-China Policy]] according to which the Republic of China is a defunct entity having been replaced by the [[People's Republic of China]]. The name "Republic of China" was briefly added on [[January 27]], [[2005]] [http://web.archive.org/web/20050203025143/http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/tw.html#Govt] but changed back to "none" on [[February 10]], [[2005]]. [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/tw.html#Govt]. (See also: [[Political status of Taiwan]], [[Legal status of Taiwan]]) The U.S. does not recognize the renaming of Burma by its ruling military junta to [[Myanmar]] and thus keeps its entry for the country under "Burma". : Note: since 1989 the military authorities in Burma have promoted the name Myanmar as a conventional name for their state; this decision was not approved by any sitting legislature in Burma, and the US Government did not adopt the name, which is a derivative of the Burmese short-form name Myanma Naingngandaw [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/bm.html#Govt] The [[Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia]] is entered under "Macedonia,"[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/mk.html] despite the fact that no international organisations such as the [[United Nations]], the [[European Union]], [[NATO]], the [[European Broadcasting Union]], and the [[International Olympic Committee]] use this short form, which can cause confusion with the wider [[Macedonia (region)\|geographical region of Macedonia]] (see also:[[Naming dispute (Macedonia)]]) On [[December 16]], [[2004]], the CIA added an entry for the [[European Union]]. [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ee.html] According to the CIA, the European Union was added because the EU "continues to accrue more nation-like characteristics for itself". Their reasoning was explained in this small statement in the introduction: :''The evolution of the European Union (EU) from a regional economic agreement among six neighboring states in 1951 to today's supranational organization of 25 countries across the European continent stands as an unprecedented phenomenon in the annals of history. Dynastic unions for territorial consolidation were long the norm in Europe. On a few occasions even country-level unions were arranged - the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Austro-Hungarian Empire were examples - but for such a large number of nation-states to cede some of their sovereignty to an overarching entity is truly unique. Although the EU is not a federation in the strict sense, it is far more than a free-trade association such as ASEAN, NAFTA, or Mercosur, and it has many of the attributes associated with independent nations: its own flag, anthem, founding date, and currency, as well as an incipient common foreign and security policy in its dealings with other nations. In the future, many of these nation-like characteristics are likely to be expanded. Thus, inclusion of basic intelligence on the EU has been deemed appropriate as a new, separate entity in The World Factbook. However, because of the EU's special status, this description is placed after the regular country entries.'' On [[January 10]], [[2006]], the CIA changed the name of the entry for the [[Isle of Man]] to the former [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/im.html]. Before then, the area had been listed as "Man, Isle of" (this difference in the name of the entry can be seen in the [http://www.umsl.edu/services/govdocs/wofact2002/geos/im.html 2002 edition of the Factbook]). footnote: The Factbook indicates the status of a given country as recognized by U.S. Government foreign policy. As such it is neither required nor encouraged to provide "alternative viewpoints." ===Factual=== Controversy about the Factbook arose in [[1998]] when [[United Kingdom\|British]] journalists noticed it contained some oddities - most notably the line "''Independence: 1 January 1801 (United Kingdom established)''". [http://www.umsl.edu/services/govdocs/wofact96/258.htm] By [[2005]] this terse, confusing description had been greatly expanded. [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/uk.html#Govt] === Focal points === The maps of countries in the Factbook also appear to have strange anomalies. For example, the overall map of the United Kingdom lists the town of [[Grangemouth]] in [[Scotland]], although it is only a small town and in no way a major city (this is perhaps due to its status as a major center of the oil industry in Scotland). The map of Sweden includes [[Tärnaby]] with 500 inhabitants, a town basically unknown except for a few notable natives. ([http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/maps/sw-map.gif map]) The map of the United States contains [[Prudhoe Bay]], [[Alaska]], the only city noted in the state other than [[Anchorage]]. Despite being an oil field town with several thousand temporary workers at any given time, the town has a permanent population of only five people according to the [[2000]] [[census]]. Despite the aforementioned quirks and anomalies in the factbook, it remains a quite accurate source of geographical and political information used by a variety of sources outside the CIA. ==See also== * [[Abbreviations used in CIA World Factbook]] ==External links== * [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/ World Factbook Website] * [http://www.memoware.com/?screen=doc_detail&doc_id=15510&back=main 2004 CIA World Factbook] for [[Pocket PC]] and [[Palm OS]] devices * [http://www.geoplace.com/hottopics/CIAwfb/factbook/index.html 2004 CIA World Factbook] * [http://www.nationmaster.com Nationmaster.com]: statistics with bars * [http://www.authorama.com Authorama CIA World Factbook]: The complete Factbook as XHTML1.0 (easily readable, no images, device-independent) * [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Status_of_the_porting_of_the_CIA_World_Factbook Wikipedia:Status of the porting of the CIA World Factbook], use of The World Factbook on [[Wikipedia]] [[Category:Almanacs\|World Factbook, The]] [[Category:Central Intelligence Agency\|World Factbook, The]] [[de:CIA World Factbook]] [[el:World Factbook]] [[es:The World Factbook]] [[eo:CIA World Factbook]] [[fr:CIA World Factbook]] [[it:CIA World Factbook]] [[nl:CIA World Factbook]] [[no:The World Factbook]] [[pt:CIA World Factbook]] [[ru:Всемирная книга фактов]] [[sv:CIA World Factbook]] [[zh:世界概况]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Country</title> <id>5165</id> <revision> <id>41978722</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T00:33:02Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Adrian</username> <id>103917</id> </contributor> <comment>Reverted edits by [[User:24.164.72.178\|24.164.72.178]] ([[User talk:24.164.72.178\|t]]) ([[Special:Contributions/24.164.72.178\|c]]) to last version by Robdurbar</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">: ''This article describes ''country'' as a type of geographical or political entity. '''Country''' is also a short form for the [[countryside]] or the [[country music]] genre.'' {{wiktionarypar\|country}} In [[political geography]] and [[international politics]] a '''country''' is a geographical territory. It is used casually in the sense of both the concept of ''[[nation]]'' (a cultural entity; see [[#Nation\|below]]) and ''[[state]]'' (a political entity). Strict definitions tend to place it as meaning only the state [http://geography.about.com/cs/politicalgeog/a/statenation.htm], though general use is wider than this [
ve been awarded black belts outside of this association. Examples include, Hori Akioya from Bogoto, Colombia, who was awarded a black belt after his death in a Judo match, and student prodigy Joseph Picthall from the United States who was awarded a black belt after defeating a renowned Grand Master in a tournament held in Seattle, Washington in 2000. ==Styles== Jigoro Kano's [[Kodokan Judo]] (講道館) is not the only style of judo. Kano took the name Judo from Jikishin Ryu Judo, which is an older school but not really seen outside of Japan. A sub-style of Kodokan Judo that developed in Japanese inter-scholastic competition is known as [[Kosen judo]] (高專柔道) with the same range of techniques but greater latitude permitted for ''[[grappling#Ground grappling\|Ne-waza]]'' (ground technique). Teaching in France, Mikonosuke Kawaishi developed an alternative approach to instruction that continued to teach many techniques banned in modern competition. In Austria, Julius Fleck and others developed a system of throwing intended to extend Judo that they called [[Judo-do]]. Mitsuo 'Count' Maeda introduced Judo to Brazil in the early 20th Century. At this time, groundfighting ([[newaza]]) was very popular and not yet limited by the rules. He taught Judo to Carlos Gracie (1902-94) and others in Brazil. The terms Judo and Jiu-jitsu were at that time interchangeable. [[Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu]] remained rather aloof to later changes in international Judo rules which added emphasis to the standing phase of the fight, and thus remains a distinctive form of Judo to this day. ==Sport== [[Image:Vladimir Putin martial arts.jpg\|thumb\|200px\|Russian President [[Vladimir Putin]] throwing a sparring partner at a training session in [[Novo-Ogaryovo]], [[16 June]] [[2002]]]] Although a fully featured martial art, judo has also developed as a sport. Judo became an [[Olympic Games\|Olympic]] sport for men in [[1964]] and, with the persistence of an American woman by the name of [[Rusty Kanokogi]] and many others, a sport for women as well in [[1988]] (both years given were the years that Judo was a demonstration event followed by an official medal event 4 years later). Men and women compete separately (although they often train together), and there are several [[human weight\|weight]] divisions. The seven divisions are: {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! colspan="7" \| Men \|- \| Up to and including 60 kg \| Over 60 kg up to and including 66 kg \| Over 66 kg up to and including 73 kg \| Over 73 kg up to and including 81 kg \| Over 81 kg up to and including 90 kg \| Over 90 kg up to and including 100 kg \| Over 100 kg \|- ! colspan="7" \| Women \|- \| Up to and including 48 kg \| Over 48 kg up to and including 52 kg \| Over 52 kg up to and including 57 kg \| Over 57 kg up to and including 63 kg \| Over 63 kg up to and including 70 kg \| Over 70 kg up to and including 78 kg \| Over 78 kg \|} [[Collegiate]] competition in the [[United States]], especially between [[University of California, Berkeley\|UC Berkeley]] and [[San Jose State]], contributed towards refining judo into the sport seen at the [[Olympic Games]] and World Championships. In the [[1940s]] [[Henry Stone]] and [[Yosh Uchida]], the head coaches at Cal and SJSC, developed a [[weight class]] system for use in the frequent competitions between the schools. In [[1953]], Stone and Uchida successfully petitioned the [[Amateur Athletic Union]] to accept judo as a sport, with their weight class system as an official component. In [[1961]], Uchida represented the United States at the [[International Judo Federation]] meetings in [[Paris]], where the IJF adopted weight classes for all future championships. Of course the IJF was created largely based on the earlier European Judo Union where weight classes had also been used for many years. The object in a judo match is to throw your opponent to the ground. This will score an ''ippon'' (一本), a full point that wins the match. Anything else, such as landing your opponent on the hip or shoulder, will be ''waza-ari'' (技有), ''yuko'' (有効) or ''koka'' (効果) (''waza-ari'' being the highest of the 3, ''koka'' the lowest) or even no score. Technically speaking, a ''waza-ari'' is a half-point, two of which will earn the match. ''Yuko''s and ''koka''s are not fractional points in that they do not accumulate to equal a ''waza-ari'' or ''ippon''-- in fact a ''waza-ari'' beats any number of ''yukos'' and a ''yuko'' beats any number of ''kokas''. Rather, they are used as tiebreakers if the match ends before an ''ippon'' is scored. At match end, if one player has scored a ''waza-ari'' and the other has not, the player with the ''waza-ari'' wins, but if they are equal in that regard (both with zero or one) ''yuko''s are used to break the tie. If they are also equal in ''yuko''s, ''koka''s break the tie. Finally, if both players have identical scores, the match is resolved by having the contestants continue fighting in a sudden death overtime called the Golden Score period where the first contestant to get any score wins. If there is no score during this period, then the decision (majority vote) of the referee and two corner judges is used. After the throw occurs and is scored, combat may continue on the ground. Pinning an opponent, with both shoulders on the mat, for 25 seconds (20 if you previously scored a ''waza-ari'', since two half-points will complete your ippon) results in an ''ippon''. An automatic ''ippon'' is also granted when one's opponent submits (which frequently occurs when strangle holds / arm locks are used). If there is no ''ippon'' or submission, the one with the highest score wins. Penalties may be given for being inactive during the match or using illegal techniques and fighting must be stopped if a participant is outside the designated area on the mat (''[[tatami]]''). All scores and penalties are given by the referee. The judges can make a decision to change the score or penalty given by the referee. ==Sport and beyond== Despite the literal meaning of ''judo'' being "the gentle way", competition judo is one the roughest and most demanding of sports. A World Championship or [[Olympic Games\|Olympic]] match lasts only 5 minutes, but will leave participants exhausted. Without the kicking and punching so common to other martial arts, except in atemi-waza, which is taught to black belts, judo is often portrayed as friendlier than, for instance, [[karate]]. Proponents believe this contributes to judo being underrated as a method of self-defense. However, while throws executed with proper break falls on soft mats can seem light and graceful, their more practical application on a hard surface (and potentially with greater intent to harm) could be very dangerous. Even in the controlled environments of a match or dojo training session, injuries can easily occur due to a lapse in focus or overzealous application of a technique. Due to their knowledge in [[ne-waza]]/[[grappling]] and [[tachi-waza]]/standing-grappling, various accomplished judo practitioners have also competed in [[mixed martial arts]] matches. [[Hidehiko Yoshida]], an [[Olympic Games\|Olympic]] gold medalist in 1992 and World Judo Champion in 1999, is well-known in [[PRIDE\|PRIDE Fighting Championships]], as is [[Fedor Emelianenko]], PRIDE's current heavy weight champion. [[Karo Parisyan]], an Armenian-born judoka now fighting in the [[Ultimate Fighting Championship]], has demonstrated the application of judo techniques to mixed martial arts in the United States. It should be noted that the ability to throw an opponent to his back and apply a pinning technique is of enormous importance in these kinds of competitions, as is the ability to finish off a downed opponent with strikes or a submission-move. Judo, uniquely among combat sports, puts equal emphasis on the initial throwing and the final pinning and submitting phases of combat, ideally enabling practitioners to dominate grappling-fights from the get-go. ==Organization== The international organization of judo is the IJF, or the International Judo Federation. In the US, there are several different national organizations. One is USA Judo, which also has state organizations which host state tournaments and other judo related activities. The other national organizations are USJF, United States Judo Federation, and USJA, United States Judo Association. Each national organization in the US has its own promotion requirements, but they still have the same belt rank system. In Great Britain, the British Judo Association (BJA) is the largest Judo Association and the only one affiliated to the IJF. Judo clubs can also be administered by the British Judo Council (BJC), which is popular in the north of England. Some minor judo administrations exist, such as the BJC-MAC (British Judo Council - Martial Arts Circle). ==See also== [[Kodokan]] [[Neil Adams]] [[Masahiko Kimura]] [[Anton Geesink]] [[Doug Rogers]] [[Judo at the 2004 Summer Olympics]] (and similar articles for other Olympic years) [[Sambo (martial art)\|Sambo wrestling]], a Russian martial art partially based on Judo [[Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu]] (BJJ), a Brazilian variant of Judo where [[grappling#Ground grappling\|newaza]] is emphasized [[Throw (grappling)]], More on throws ==External links== {{wiktionary\|judo}} [http://www.ijf.org/ IJF International Judo Federation] [http://www.usjf.com/ United States Judo Federation] [http://www.jwc2006.com/ XIII Junior World Judo Championships 2006] [http://www.judoinfo.com/ JudoInfo Online Dojo] [http://www.kodokan.org/ Kodokan Judo Institute] [http://www.ippon.org/ International Competition Results] [http://judoinfo.com/techjudo.htm Judo Techniques] [http://www.twoj.org/ The World of Judo Magazine] [http://www.karatedepot.com/judo-gi-guide.html About the Judo Gi] [http://www.judoinside.com/ JudoInside.com] [http://www.judocoach.com Judo Coaching Website] *[http://www.judoplace.com/ Contains a brief histo
ore generally, the details of its [[equation of state]] and relationship with the [[standard model]] of particle physics continue to be investigated both observationally and theoretically. All these observations are encapsulated in the [[Lambda-CDM model\|ΛCDM model]] of cosmology, which is a [[mathematical model]] of the Big Bang with six free parameters. Mysteries appear as one looks closer to the beginning, when particle energies were higher than can yet be studied by experiment. There is no compelling physical model for the first 10<sup>-33</sup> seconds of the universe, before the phase transition called for by [[grand unification theory]]. At the "first instant", Einstein's theory of gravitation predicts a [[gravitational singularity]] where densities become infinite. To resolve this [[physical paradox\|paradox]], a theory of [[quantum gravity\|quantum gravitation]] is needed. Understanding this period of the history of the universe is one of the greatest [[unsolved problems in physics]]. See also: '''[[Timeline of the Big Bang]]''' == Theoretical underpinnings == As it stands today, the Big Bang is dependent on three assumptions: # The universality of [[physical law]]s # The [[cosmological principle]] # The [[Copernican principle]] When first developed, these ideas were simply taken as postulates, but today there are efforts underway to test each of them. Tests of the universality of physical laws have found that the largest possible deviation of the [[fine structure constant]] over the age of the universe is of order 10<sup>-5</sup>{{ref\|finestructure}}. The [[isotropy]] of the universe that defines the Cosmological Principle has been tested to a level of 10<sup>-5</sup> and the universe has been measured to be homogeneous on the largest scales to the 10% level{{ref\|homogeneity}}. There are efforts underway to test the Copernican Principle by means of looking at the interaction of [[galaxy groups and clusters]] with the CMB through the [[Sunyaev-Zeldovich effect\|Sunyaev-Zel'dovich effect]] to a level of 1% accuracy{{ref\|SZ}}. The Big Bang theory uses [[Weyl's postulate]] to unambiguously measure [[time]] at any point as the "time since the [[Planck epoch]]". Measurements in this system rely on [[conformal]] coordinates in which so-called [[comoving distance]]s and conformal times remove the expansion of the universe, parameterized by the cosmological [[scale factor (universe)\|scale factor]], from consideration of [[spacetime]] measurements. The comoving distances and conformal times are defined so that objects moving with the cosmological flow are always the same comoving distance apart and the [[particle horizon]] or observational limit of the local universe is set by the conformal time. As the universe can be described by such coordinates, the Big Bang is not an explosion of matter moving outward to fill an empty universe; what is expanding is spacetime itself. It is this expansion that causes the physical distance between any two fixed points in our universe to increase. Objects that are bound together (for example, by [[gravity]]) do not expand with spacetime's expansion because the physical laws that govern them are assumed to be uniform and independent of the [[Metric space\|metric expansion]]. Moreover, the expansion of the universe on today's local scales is so small that any dependence of physical laws on the expansion is unmeasurable by current techniques. ==Observational evidence== It is generally stated that there are three observational pillars that support the Big Bang theory of cosmology. These are the [[Hubble Law\|Hubble-type expansion]] seen in the [[redshift]]s of galaxies, the detailed measurements of the cosmic microwave background, and the abundance of light elements. (See [[Big Bang nucleosynthesis]].) Additionally, the observed [[correlation function (astronomy)\|correlation function]] of [[large-scale structure of the cosmos]] fits well with standard Big Bang theory. ===Hubble's law expansion=== {{main\|Hubble's law}} Observations of distant galaxies and [[quasar]]s show that these objects are [[redshift]]ed, meaning that the [[light]] emitted from them has been shifted to longer wavelengths. This is seen by taking a [[frequency spectrum]] of the objects and then matching the [[spectroscopy\|spectroscopic]] pattern of [[emission line]]s or [[absorption line]]s corresponding to [[atom]]s of the [[chemical element]]s interacting with the light. From this analysis, a [[redshift]] corresponding to a [[Doppler shift]] for the radiation can be measured which is explained by a recessional [[velocity]]. When the recessional velocities are plotted against the distances to the objects, a linear relationship, known as [[Hubble's law]], is observed: ::<math>v = H_0 D \,</math> where :<math>v</math> is the recessional [[velocity]] of the [[galaxy]] or other distant object :<math>D</math> is the distance to the object and :<math>H_0</math> is Hubble's constant, measured to be (71 ± 4) [[kilometers\|km]]/[[second\|s]]/[[Megaparsec\|Mpc]] by the [[WMAP]] probe {{ref\|WMAPH}}. The [[Hubble's law]] observation has two possible explanations. One is that we are at the center of an explosion of galaxies, a position which is untenable given the [[Copernican principle]]. The second explanation is that the universe is [[scale factor (universe)\|uniformly expanding]] everywhere as a unique property of [[spacetime]]. This type of universal expansion was developed mathematically in the context of [[general relativity]] well before Hubble made his analysis and observations, and it remains the cornerstone of the Big Bang theory as developed by [[Robertson-Walker coordinates\|Friedmann-Lemaître-Robertson-Walker]]. ===Cosmic microwave background radiation === {{main\|Cosmic microwave background radiation}} [[Image:WMAP.jpg\|thumb\|240px\|[[WMAP]] image of the cosmic microwave background radiation]] The Big Bang theory predicted the existence of the [[cosmic microwave background radiation]] or CMB which is composed of [[photons]] emitted during [[baryogenesis]]. Because the early universe was in [[thermal equilibrium]], the [[temperature]] of the radiation and the [[Plasma (physics)\|plasma]] were equal until the plasma [[recombination\|recombined]]. Before atoms formed, radiation was constantly absorbed and reemitted in a process called [[Compton scattering]]: the early universe was opaque to light. However, cooling due to the expansion of the universe allowed the temperature to eventually fall below 3,000&nbsp;[[Kelvin\|K]] at which point electrons and nuclei combined to form atoms and the primordial plasma turned into a neutral gas. This is known as photon [[decoupling]]. A universe with only neutral atoms allows radiation to travel largely unimpeded. Because the early universe was in thermal equilibrium, the radiation from this time had a [[blackbody]] spectrum and freely streamed through space until today, becoming redshifted because of the Hubble expansion. This reduces the high temperature of the blackbody spectrum. The radiation should be observable at every point in the universe to come from all directions of space. In 1964, [[Arno Penzias]] and [[Robert Woodrow Wilson\|Robert Wilson]], while conducting a series of diagnostic observations using a new [[microwave]] receiver owned by [[Bell Laboratories]], discovered the cosmic background radiation. Their discovery provided substantial confirmation of the general CMB predictions&mdash;the radiation was found to be isotropic and consistent with a blackbody spectrum of about 3&nbsp;K &mdash;and it pitched the balance of opinion in favor of the Big Bang hypothesis. Penzias and Wilson were awarded the [[Nobel Prize]] for their discovery. In 1989, [[National Aeronautics and Space Administration\|NASA]] launched the [[Cosmic Background Explorer satellite]] (COBE), and the initial findings, released in 1990, were consistent with the Big Bang's predictions regarding the CMB. COBE found a residual temperature of 2.726&nbsp;K and determined that the CMB was isotropic to about one part in 10<sup>5</sup>{{ref\|COBE}}. During the 1990s, CMB anisotropies were further investigated by a large number of ground-based experiments and the universe was shown to be almost geometrically flat by measuring the typical angular size (the size on the sky) of the anisotropies. (See [[Shape of the universe\|shape of the universe]].) In early 2003 the results of the [[WMAP\|Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy satellite]] (WMAP) were released, yielding what were at the time the most accurate values for some of the cosmological parameters. (see [[Cosmic microwave background radiation#Experiments\|cosmic microwave background radiation experiments]]). This satellite also disproved several specific [[cosmic inflation]] models, but the results were consistent with the inflation theory in general. ===Abundance of primordial elements=== {{main\|Big Bang nucleosynthesis}} Using the Big Bang model it is possible to calculate the concentration of [[helium]]-4, helium-3, [[deuterium]] and [[lithium]]-7 in the universe as ratios to the amount of ordinary hydrogen, H. All the abundances depend on a single parameter, the ratio of [[photon]]s to [[baryon]]s. The ratios predicted (by mass, not by number) are about 0.25 for <sup>4</sup>He/H, about 10<sup>-3</sup> for <sup>2</sup>H/H, about 10<sup>-4</sup> for <sup>3</sup>He/H and about 10<sup>-9</sup> for <sup>7</sup>Li/H. The measured abundances all agree with those predicted from a single value of the baryon-to-photon ratio. The agreement is relatively poor for <sup>7</sup>Li and <sup>4</sup>He, the two elements for which the [[systematic error\|systematic uncertainties]] are least understood. This is considered strong
oy and his unit on patrol near the city of [[Hué]]. A vicious battle breaks out and the city, already crumbling from previous battles, is practically leveled. One of the film's standout sequences shows the unit being interviewed individually by a news crew and expressing their thoughts on the war. They also stand over the dead bodies of two of their unit and comment on what freedom means to the Vietnamese. Cowboy's platoon is called up for patrol again, this time north of the Perfume River (which divides the city of Hué), where Viet Cong forces are believed to be hiding. The platoon becomes lost and a sniper, hiding among some abandoned buildings, draws in two of their comrades with the intention of sucking more of them into the trap. As the platoon moves up to take defensive positions, the sniper shoots Cowboy. After evading more shots, the unit moves in. Joker finds the sniper hiding in a room. At the critical moment his rifle jams and the sniper, a young Vietnamese girl, opens fire, pinning Joker behind a column, making it impossible for him to escape or shoot back. Suddenly, the girl is rippled by shots and falls; Joker's savior turns out to be Rafterman. As Joker, Rafterman, and, Animal Mother gather around the girl she begins to pray then begs the Marines to kill her. Joker does so after being egged on by his comrades. The film concludes with the Marines' ironic rendition of the theme song to the [[Mickey Mouse Club]] as they march back to their base. The film's end credits are accompanied by [[The Rolling Stones]]' ''[[Paint It Black]].'' == Characters == '''Private/Sergeant "Joker" T.J. Davis'''- The main character of the film as well as its narrator. He is a conscientious marine that initally joined the marines to see action and to kill. He witnesses Pyle's insanity growing during boot camp. He later becomes a combat correspondent and links up with the Lusthog Squad to report combat incidents in depth. During his time with the squad, he witnesses the horrors of war. Frequently uses a [[John Wayne]] impression to diffuse tense situations. '''Private/Sergeant "Cowboy" Evans'''- Cowboy is a marine from Texas. He met Joker at boot camp and befriended him. He becomes an infantry grunt and meets Joker in Hue City. He is killed in action when an enemy sniper shoots him from behind. '''Private Rafterman'''- Rafterman is a member of Joker's journalism staff and serves as a photographer. He was eager to get into battle to see action and follows Joker into Hue City. He seems somewhat naive and also seems to believe anything. '''Animal Mother'''- A wild and headstrong marine in the Lusthog Squad. He is armed with a M-60 light machine gun. At first, he seems to be contemptuous of Joker and remains a little scornful of him. He feels America should win the war. One of the most significant characters. '''Eightball'''- An African American marine in the Lusthog squad. He seems to be sensitive about his ethnicity. He is a friend of Animal Mother and also one of the more lively members of the squad. He is also angry at the Vietnamese for not wanting to fight for freedom. He dies when an enemy sniper hits him multiple times. '''Doc Jay'''- Doc Jay is a marine in the Lusthog squad. He also serves as a corpsman. He is headstrong like Animal Mother and is willing to disobey orders under extreme circumstances. He is killed by an enemy sniper when he tries to save Eightball. '''Hand Job'''- A marine in the squad known for his excessive masturbation. He is killed during a encounter in Hue City. He used his habit of masturbation to receive a section eight order to go home but was killed one week before being shipped out. '''Donlon'''- Another African American marine in the squad. He serves as the RTO (radio/telephone operator). Along with Eightball, he feels the Vietnamese are ungrateful to the Americans. '''Crazy Earl '''- Crazy Earl is the senior N.C.O. of the squad. He takeover leadership when the platoon leader is killed. He is a gung-ho marine and feels that he belongs in Vietnam. He is killed by a booby trap bomb. '''T.H.E. Rock'''- A Latino Marine in the squad. He is generally quiet and follows the squad well. He serves as the M-79 Grenade Launcher gunner. '''Murphy'''- A marine in the squad who seems to be associated with tank coordination and support. During the final scene, he is unable to provide the Lusthog Squad with the much needed tank support. (Murphy's radio voice is provided by Stanley Kubrick.) '''Lieutenant Walter J. Schinoski "Touchdown"'''- He is the platoon leader of the Lusthog squad. He played college footbal at Notre Dame, hence his nickname was named after that. He is killed during an advance into Hue City when several bombs go off and he is shot. '''No-Doze and Stutten'''- Two marines in the Lusthog squad that go with Cowboy and his group to find the sniper that had killed Eightball and Doc Jay. '''Gunnery Sergeant Hartman'''- The stereotypical, traciturn drill instructor from Parris Island. He is insensitive and abuses his recruits to turn them into ruthless killing machines. He is killed by a mentally-unbalanced Pyle in the latrine. '''Leonard Lawrence "Gomer Pyle"'''- A large, heavy recruit that joined marines about the same time as Joker. He was heavily abused by Hartman for his incompetence and weight. After failing almost everything in boot camp, he begins to become the most disciplined recruit. Unfortunately, he goes mad and kills Hartman and almost shoots Joker before committing suicide by pointing his M-14 up into his mouth and firing. '''Private Brown "Snowball"'''- One of the recruits at Parris Island when Joker was also training there. He was ridiculed for being African American and was given the nickname "Snowball" by Hartman. '''Payback'''- One of the marines in Joker's journalism staff. He has been out in the "shit" (combat zone). He tells Joker and Rafterman about the "Thousand Yard Stare." '''Chili''' and '''Stork'''- Chili and Stork are also marines in Joker's journalism staff. '''Lieutenant Lockhart'''- The senior editor and leader of Joker's writing staff. He has some experience reporting on combat but refuses to go back because of the danger and bugs. He is often taunted by Joker and his wise-crack statements. '''Pouge Colonel'''- A marine colonel that encounters Joker near the grave of executed civilians. He reprimands Joker about his peace symbol button and suggests that Joker be more enthusiasitic about winning the war. ==Theme== The movie includes a great deal of [[satire]] on the [[Vietnam war]] and the Marines involved in the war, though few would deem the movie a [[comedy]]. The main themes of the movie include the [[irony]] of war, and the comparable power of words and ideas in a war. This theme is crystalized first by the Drill Instructor, whose words hit as hard as his fists, and later in the scenes with Sgt. Joker's editor for "Stars and Stripes" (who insists that "search and destroy" missions against the VC be termed "sweep and clear", as this doesn't sound as violent), and in the scene with the colonel where the Colonel asks if Sgt. Joker is on "our side" and is waiting for "this peace craze to blow over." Although often said to contain two distinct parts, the film can be categorized into three. The first part is the training of new [[United States Marine Corps\| US Marine Corps]] recruits, culminating with the deaths of the Senior [[Drill Instructor]] and Pvt. "Pyle". The second part of the movie establishes Joker's role as a war reporter, working behind the lines during the Tet Offensive of 1968. In the third section, the focus shifts to a patrol searching through the bombed out city of [[Huế]] to root out a [[sniper]]. The sections are bookended by scenes of bargaining with [[prostitutes]], and each section ends with shocking violence. Irony runs rampant throughout the film. In the first section of the movie, the [[recruit training]] is supposed to train [[Marines]] who protect the interests of the country and the military, but eventually it results in the death of the Senior [[Drill Instructor]]. The initially innocent and naive Pvt. Leonard Lawrence (nicknamed Gomer Pyle) ended up as a killer, exactly as the Drill Instructor wanted. The murder of the Senior Drill Instructor is ironic because his success in converting Pvt. Gomer Pyle into a killer results in his own death. The Drill Instructor's speech about famous [[assassins]], provides more irony. Although each of his examples was a motivated Marine, each ultimately ended up insane and killing innocent people. Near the beginning of the second part of the movie, Sgt. Joker is told an irony laced joke about "how to kill women and children." The final irony is that the product of the US Marine recruit training, the professional killers, are wiped out one by one by a small school girl who snipes them from a damaged building. To which Marines when they capture the sniper, mercy kills her with a point blank shot. The movie also examines the irony of providing freedom for the [[Vietnamese people]] by taking away the freedom of the American people, and the allegation made by some of the Marines that the Vietnamese don't seem to want their freedom. There are several references to [[religion]]. In one of the scenes the Senior Drill Instructor asks Pvt. Joker whether he believes in the [[Blessed Virgin Mary\| Virgin Mary]]. Pvt. Joker replies that he does not, and the Senior Drill Instructor, offended, strikes the Private, and asks him again, getting the same reply. After repeated blows, the Drill Instructor asks Pvt. Joker if he is deliberately trying to anger the instructor by reiterating his answer, and Joker replies that he believes the Drill Instructor will beat him harder if he reverses his
[[Megadeth]], [[Metallica]] and [[Slayer]], with San Francisco quintet [[Testament (band)\|Testament]] sometimes being included in this group). Following the emergence of these bands, metal continued to push the limits of aggressive loudness in other sub-genres such as [[power metal]], [[black metal]], [[death metal]], [[doom metal]], [[goth metal]], and [[stoner metal]]. (See article: ''[[List of heavy metal genres]]'') These sub-genres, still active today, generally have little or no appeal to mainstream audiences, although Metallica did go on to win over legions of new fans with a more mainstream sound, a move that greatly upset some of their original fan base. ===Alternative Metal (1990s and 2000s)=== The era of mainstream metal, or "Hair Metal," came to an end with the emergence of [[Nirvana (band)\|Nirvana]] and other [[Grunge music\|grunge]] bands. These later styles of heavy rock music in the 1990s show influences of heavy metal but are typically not labelled sub-genres of heavy metal. The general absence of virtuosic guitar solos is perhaps one reason grunge bands have not been considered heavy metal bands. <p> As the 1990s progressed, however, metal began to make a comeback. This time around, the music had a much more aggressive feel than most of the mainstream metal of the 1980s. In some cases, bands also fused traditional elements with electronic beats and samples. These newer bands are sometimes labeled [[alternative metal]]. Still more subgenres began to appear, such as [[funeral doom]] and [[brutal death metal]], drawing on existing heavy metal subgenres. <p> Heavy metal's comeback was soldified with the arrival of [[Ozzfest]] in 1996, a multi-band touring festival hosted by none other than Ozzy Osbourne, the former lead singer of Black Sabbath himself. Later, Osbourne grew even more famous when he and his family starred in a reality TV show called [[The Osbournes]]. <p> Most of the more popular recent metal bands eventually wound up playing at Ozzfest sooner or later, including [[Pantera]], [[Marilyn Manson]], [[Rob Zombie]], [[Deftones]], [[Godsmack]], [[Tool (band)\|Tool]], [[System of a Down]], [[Queens of the Stone Age]], [[Slipknot (band)\|Slipknot]], [[Korn]], and many more. In recent years, Ozzfest has had many [[metalcore]] bands playing at the festival and has helped gain the genre much popularity. Some see this style as Nu Metal's succesor while others see it as that will become a victim like Nu Metal did. ==Cultural impact== The loud, confrontational aspects of heavy metal have led to friction between fans and mainstream society in many countries. Due to the hedonistic nature promoted by the music and its occasional anti-religious sentiments heavy metal as a sub-culture has come under attack in many Islamic countries where even wearing a black T-shirt can be an arrestable offence. In [[Jordan]], for example, all [[Metallica]] albums, past, present and future were banned in 2001[http://www.encycmet.com/news/2001-07-29.shtml]. In Europe and America, the fan base for heavy metal consists primarily of white males in their teens and 20's, many of whom are attracted to heavy metal's overtly anti-social yet fantastical lyrics and extreme volume and tempos. Hence, the stereotype of the spotty-faced, adolescent headbanger venting his rebellious urges by listening to presposterously loud, morbid music. This image has been highlighted in popular culture with such television shows and movies as "[[Beavis and Butt-head]]"" and "[[Airheads]]". Heavy metal's bombastic excesses, exemplified by hair metal, have often been parodied, most famously in the film ''[[This Is Spinal Tap]]'' (see also the phenomenon of the [[heavy metal umlaut]]). [[Douglas Adams]] neatly satirised the propensity for excessive volume in ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]'' with the fictional rock band ''Disaster Area'' &mdash; creators of the loudest sound in the known universe. It should be noted, however, that Adams was satirising [[Pink Floyd]] stage shows specifically, rather than heavy metal in general. Many heavy metal stylings have made their way into everyday (albeit ironic) use; for instance, the "[[devil horns]]" hand sign first popularised by [[Ronnie James Dio]] has become a common sight at many rock concerts. During the 1970s and 1980s, flirtation with occult themes by artists such as [[Ozzy Osbourne]], [[W.A.S.P.]] and [[Iron Maiden]] led to accusations of "[[Satanism\|Satanic]]" influences in heavy metal by [[fundamentalist]] [[Christianity\|Christians]]. One popular contention during that period was that heavy metal albums featured hidden messages urging listeners to worship the [[Devil]] or to commit suicide (see [[Judas Priest]] and [[backward message]] and [[Allegations of Satanism in popular culture]]). ==Related styles== Heavy metal has proven somewhat difficult to categorize. Some fans and musicians have a firm concept of genre and subgenre, but others reject such categorization as limiting or useless. Here are some musical styles that sometimes overlap with heavy metal: [[Hard rock]], mentioned earlier, is also closely related to heavy metal (and at times the terms overlap in usage), but it does not consistently match the description of what purists consider the definition heavy metal. While still guitar-driven in nature and sometimes deriving off of riffs, its themes and execution differ from that of the major heavy metal bands listed earlier in the article. This is perhaps best examplified by [[The Who]] in the late-1960s and early-1970s, as well as other 1970s and 1980s bands like [[KISS (band)\|KISS]], [[Queen (band)\|Queen]], [[Aerosmith]], [[Thin Lizzy]], [[AC/DC]] and [[Scorpions (band)\|Scorpions]]. [[Glam rock]], a short-lived era in the mid-1970s, is the extreme exploration of the fantasy-side of the reality-fantasy parents of heavy metal. [[T. Rex (band)\|T. Rex]], [[David Bowie]] and [[Alice Cooper]] are among the more popular standard examples of this sub-genre. A good deal of cross-influence has occured between [[punk rock]] and [[heavy metal music\|heavy metal]]. [[Motörhead]], for example, was an influence on many punk bands. Some [[hardcore punk]] bands such as [[Dirty Rotten Imbeciles\|DRI]] and [[Suicidal Tendencies]] began playing more metal-like music as they progressed. Punk has also had a large influence on metal, particularly with relation to [[grindcore]]. [[Thrashcore]], [[crust punk]] and [[grindcore]] all have notable influence from both punk and metal. Also, [[Grunge]] is frequently described as Heavy Metal fused with punk's [[DIY ethic]]. As for metal's relationship with [[art rock]], heavy metal and [[progressive rock]] developed in and around the same scenes, particularly in [[Great Britain]], and as a result many metal bands worked progressive elements into their sound throughout the genre. Albums such as ''Master of Puppets'' by Metallica and ''Seventh Son of a Seventh Son'' by Iron Maiden draw heavy prog elements, and bands such as [[Queensryche]] and [[Dream Theatre]] pioneered a fusion of the two genres. Heavy metal (along with [[progressive rock]]) has also been cited as (ironically) an influence on the "easy-listening" [[AOR\|Adult Oriented Rock]] genre of the [[1980s]]. [[Toto (band)\|Toto]] guitarist [[Steve Lukather]] has cited early hard rock and heavy metal music as a profound influence on his playing, and is notably evident on the track "Hold The Line" which shares some common traits with traditional metal. Other AOR bands such as [[Journey (band)\|Journey]] and [[supergroup (bands)\|supergroup]] [[Asia (band)\|Asia]] often incorporated [[power chord]] riffs into their music. Ironically, some metal bands such as [[Def Leppard]], [[Scorpions (band)\|Scorpions]], [[Europe (band)\|Europe]] and [[Van Halen]] started moving into a "softer" and more commercial musical direction in the late [[1980s]], which resulted in the term "Soft Metal" being used during that period. Metal's profound influence on contemporary popular music is again seen in its effect on several bands in the [[garage rock revival]] set of the early 21st century. [[The White Stripes]], [[Death From Above 1979]] and [[The Yeah Yeah Yeahs]], some of the most popular of these bands, often draw on the nascent metal of [[Cream (band)\|Cream]], [[Led Zeppelin]], and [[Black Sabbath]]. ==Controversy from ''within'' the genre== Recent years have seen an appropriation of the heavy metal genre by mass culture, most notably (as would be expected) by music and clothing industries. The rise of [[nu metal]] and [[alternative metal]] in the 1990s attracted heavy criticism from metal fans due to its dilution of heavy metal with influences from Hip hop, alternative rock, industrial rock, and funk, so much so that many metalheads do not see it as being a genre of metal at all. The dress taken up by alt-metal fans and marketed by certain retailers borrows more from Goth, rap, punk, and grunge fashion than traditional metal attire, with hooded sweatshirts, baggy jeans, and piercings being common, and some refer to such individuals as "mini-moshers". ==Heavy metal dance== Although most heavy metal fans would disagree with the term "dance," there are certain body movements that are nearly universal in the metal world, including [[headbanging]], [[mosh]]ing, and various hand gestures such as [[devil horns]]. [[Stage diving]], [[air guitar]] and [[crowd surfing]] are also practiced. ==Sources== [[Ian Christe\|Christe, Ian]] (2003). ''Sound of the Beast: The Complete Headbanging History of Heavy Metal''. HarperCollins. ISBN 0380811278. [[Robert Walser (musicologist)\|Walser, Robert]] (1993). ''Running with the Devil: Power, Gender, and Madness in Heavy Metal Music''. Wesleyan University Press. ISBN 0819562602. *[[Deena Weinstein\|Weinstein, Deena]] (1991). ''Heavy Metal: A C
generic in scope. The term "software" was first used in this sense by [[John W. Tukey]] in [[1957]]. In [[computer science]] and [[software engineering]], '''computer software''' is all [[information]] processed by [[computer system]]s, [[Computer program\|program]]s and [[data]]. The concept of software was first proposed by [[Alan Turing]] in an essay. ==Relationship to hardware== [[Computer]] software is so called in contrast to [[computer hardware]], which is the physical substrate required to store and execute (or run) the software. In computers, software is loaded into [[RAM]] and executed in the [[central processing unit]]. At the lowest level, software consists of a [[machine language ]] specific to an individual processor. A machine language consists of groups of binary values signifying processor instructions and data, which change the state of the computer from its preceding state. Software is an ordered sequence of instructions for changing the state of the computer hardware in a particular sequence. It is generally written in 'high-level languages' that are easier and more efficient for humans to use (closer to [[natural language]]) than machine language. High-level languages are [[compiler \| compiled]] or [[Interpreter (computing)\|interpreted]] into machine language. ==Relationship to data== [[Software]] has historically been considered an intermediary between electronic hardware and ''data,'' which latter the ''hardware'' processes according to the sequence of instructions defined by the software. As computational science becomes increasingly complex, the distinction between software and data becomes less precise. Data has generally been considered as either the output or input of executed software. However, data is not the only possible output or input. For example, (system) configuration information may also be considered input, although not ''necessarily'' considered data (and certainly not applications data). The output of a particular piece of executed software may be the input for another executed piece of software. Therefore, software may be considered an interface between hardware, data, and/or (other) software. ==System, programming and application software== Practical computer systems divide software into three major classes: [[system software]], [[application software]] and [[programming software]], although the distinction is somewhat arbitrary, and often blurred. :'''[[System software]]''' helps run the [[computer hardware]] and [[computer system]]. It includes [[operating system]]s, [[device driver]]s, [[diagnostic tool]]s, [[server]]s, [[windowing system]]s, [[software utility\|utilities]] and more. :'''[[Programming software]]''' usually provides some useful tools to help a [[programmer]] to write [[computer program]]s and software using different [[programming language]]s in a more convenient way. The tools include [[text editors]], [[compilers]], [[interpreter (computing)\|interpreters]], [[linkers]], [[debuggers]], and so on. An [[Integrated development environment]] (IDE) merges those tools into a software [[bundle]], and a programmer may not need to type multiple [[command]]s for compiling, interpreter, debugging, tracing, and etc., because the IDE usually has an advanced ''graphical user interface,'' or GUI. :'''[[Application software]]''' allows humans to accomplish one or more specific [[task]]s. Typical applications include [[industrial]] [[automation]], [[office suite]]s, [[business software]], [[educational software]], [[database]]s and [[computer games]]. Businesses are probably the biggest users of application software and they use it to automate all sorts of functions. Plenty of examples can be found at the [http://www.capterra.com Business Software Directory]. ==Software program and library== [[Software program]] is usually the directly [[Execution (computers)\|executable]] part of a software. [[software library\|Software libraries]] can include software components used by stand-alone programs, but which cannot be executed on their own. Thus, programs can include standard routines that are common to many programs, extracted from the libraries, but libraries can also include stand-alone programs. Depending on [[operating system]], a program can be called by another program, by a human being, and can call another program. ==Three layers of software== [[Image:Packagedsoftwareatretail.jpg\|thumb\|right\|250px\|Starting in the 1980s, application software has been sold in mass-produced packages through retailers]] Users often see things differently than programmers. People who use modern general purpose computers (as opposed to [[embedded system]]s, [[analog computer]]s, [[supercomputer]]s, etc.) usually see three layers of software performing a variety of tasks: platform, application, and user software. ; Platform software : Platform includes the [[BIOS\|basic input-output system]] (often described as ''[[firmware]]'' rather than ''software''), [[device driver]]s, an [[operating system]], and typically a graphical user interface which, in total, allow a user to interact with the computer and its [[peripheral]]s (associated equipment). Platform software often comes bundled with the computer, and users may not realize that it exists or that they have a choice to use different platform software. ; Application software : [[Application software]] or Applications are what most people think of when they think of software. Typical examples include office suites and video games. Application software is often purchased separately from computer hardware. Sometimes applications are bundled with the computer, but that does not change the fact that they run as independent applications. Applications are almost always independent programs from the operating system, though they are often tailored for specific platforms. Most users think of compilers, databases, and other "system software" as applications. ; User-written software : [[User software]] tailors systems to meet the users specific needs. User software include spreadsheet templates, word processor macros, scientific simulations, graphics and animation scripts. Even email filters are a kind of user software. Users create this software themselves and often overlook how important it is. Depending on how competently the user-written software has been integrated into purchased application packages, many users may not be aware of the distinction between the purchased packages, and what has been added by fellow co-workers. See also: [[Software architecture]]. ==Software creation== Look back to [[#System, application and programming software \| Computer software ]] ==Software operation== Computer software has to be "loaded" into the [[computer storage\|computer's storage]] (also known as ''memory'' and ''[[RAM]]''). Once the software is loaded, the computer is able to operate the software. Computers operate by ''executing'' the [[computer program]]. This involves passing [[instruction (computer science)\|instruction]]s from the application software, through the system software, to the [[hardware]] which ultimately receives the instruction as [[machine language\|machine code]]. Each instruction causes the computer to carry out an operation -- moving [[data]], carrying out a [[computation]], or altering the flow of instructions. Kinds of software by operation: [[computer program]] as [[executable]], [[source code]] or [[script (computer programming)\|script]], [[computer configuration\|configuration]]. ==Software quality and reliability== [[Software reliability]] considers the errors, faults, and failures related to the creation and operation of software. See [[Computer security audit\|Software auditing]], [[Software quality]], [[Software testing]], and [[Software reliability]]. ==Software patents== The issue of [[software patents]] is very controversial, since while [[patent\|patents]] protect the ideas of "[[inventor\|inventors]]", they are widely believed to hinder [[software development]]. See [[Hacker ethic]] ==See also== * Shared meanings: [[System software]], [[Application software]], [[Computer program]]s, * [[Computing]] * [[Computer programming]] [[Programming language]]s [[Text editor]]s [[Compiler]]s [[Algorithm]]s [[Software development process]] [[Software development tools]] [[Software maintenance]] [[Software optimization]] [[Application programming interface\|Application Programming Interface (API)]] [[Software brittleness]] * [[Software engineering]] [[Software license]]s [[Free software]] [[Open source software]] [[Software piracy]] [[Freeware]] [[Shareware]] [[Postcardware]] [[Shovelware]] [[Software as a Service]] [[List of computer term etymologies\|Origins of computer terms]] [[Uninstaller]] [[Virtual instrumentation]] [[List of open source software packages]] <!-- == External links == --> [[Category:Software\| ]] [[af:Sagteware]] [[bg:Софтуер]] [[bs:Softver]] [[ca:Programari]] [[cs:Software]] [[da:Computerprogram]] [[de:Software]] [[et:Tarkvara]] [[es:Programa informático]] [[eo:Programaro]] [[fa:نرم‌افزار]] [[fr:Logiciel]] [[gl:Programa informático]] [[ko:컴퓨터 소프트웨어]] [[hi:सोफ्टवेर]] [[hr:Softver]] [[id:Perangkat lunak]] [[it:Software]] [[he:תוכנה]] [[ku:Nivîsbarî]] [[lv:Programmatūra]] [[lt:Programinė įranga]] [[hu:Szoftver]] [[nl:Software]] [[nds:Software]] [[ja:ソフトウェア]] [[no:Dataprogram]] [[pl:Oprogramowanie]] [[pt:Software]] [[ro:Software]] [[ru:Программное обеспечение]] [[sk:Softvér]] [[sq:Software]] [[simple:Software]] [[sl:Programska oprema]] [[sv:Programvara]] [[tl:Software]] [[tt:Sanaq programı]] [[th:ซอฟต์แวร์]] [[vi:Phần mềm]] [[uk:Програмне забезпечення]] [[zh:软件]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Computer hardware</title> <id>5310</id> <revision> <id>41735495</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T10:56:49Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>
created as adults rather than [[childbirth\|born]], they can be assumed to have never possessed an [[umbilical cord]]). Gosse postulated that Adam ''did'' have a navel because it is how humans are formed. So the appearance of history (the belly button) is there, even though he was just created. He likewise postulated that for the earth to work, it must have been established with the ''appearance'' of age to function correctly. While many creationists hold this view for some smaller aspects of creation, for example the existence of the fossil record, the argument has been largely superseded. :;[[Flood geology]] ::The view that God created the Earth only recently, and the fossil record is the record of the destruction of the global flood recorded in Genesis. The present [[biodiversity\|diverse]] land [[animal]]s are all descendants of the animals on [[Noah's Ark]], having heavily diversified after the flood. A variety of mechanisms is suggested to be involved, including genomic modularity -- the ability for animals to reorganize their [[genome]] in response to stress or other outside influence, heterozygous fractionation (heterozygous genes in parents can lead to speciation by having multiple homozygous genes in children), and standard evolution. ;[[Old Earth Creationist\|Old-Earth Creationism]] :The view that the [[universe\|physical universe]] was created by God, but that the creation event of Genesis is not to be taken strictly literally. This group generally believes that the [[age of the Universe]] and the [[age of the Earth]] are as described by [[astronomers]] and [[geologists]], but that details of the [[evolutionary theory]] are questionable. :Old-Earth creationism itself comes in at least three types: :;[[Gap creationism]], also called "Restitution creationism" ::The view that life was immediately created on a pre-existing old Earth. This group generally translates Genesis 1:2 as "The earth ''became'' without form and void," indicating a destruction of the original creation by some unspecified cataclysm. This was popularized in the ''[[Scofield Reference Bible]]'', but has little support from Hebrew scholars. :;[[Day-age creationism\|Day–age creationism]] ::The view that the "six days" of [[Genesis]] are not ordinary twenty-four-hour days, but rather much longer periods (for instance, each "day" could be the equivalent of millions of years of modern time). This theory often states that the [[Hebrew language\|Hebrew]] word "y&ocirc;m", in the context of Genesis 1, can be properly interpreted as "age." Some adherents claim we are still living in the seventh age ("seventh day"). :;[[Progressive creationism]] ::The view that species have changed or evolved in a process continuously guided by God, with various ideas as to how the process operates (often leaving room for God's direct intervention at key moments in Earth/life's history). This view accepts most of modern physical science including the age of the earth, but rejects much of modern evolutionary biology or looks to it for evidence that [[evolution]] by [[natural selection]] alone is incorrect. This view can be, and often is, held in conjunction with other Old-earth views such as Day-age creationism or framework/metaphoric/poetic views. ;[[Theistic evolutionism]], also known as "evolutionary creationism" :It isn't a view proclaiming opposition to biological evolution, but the general view that some or all classical religious teachings about [[God]] and [[creation (theology)\|creation]] are compatible with some or all of the [[scientific]] [[scientific theory\|theory]] of [[evolution]]. It views evolution as a tool used by God and can synthesize with gap or day-age creationism, although most adherents deny that Genesis was meant to be interpreted as history at all. It can still be described as "creationism" in holding that divine intervention brought about the [[origin of life]] or that divine Laws govern formation of species, but in the [[creation-evolution controversy]] its proponents generally take the "evolutionist" side while disputing that some scientists' [[methodological materialism\|''methodological'' assumption]] of [[materialism]] can be taken as ''[[Ontology\|ontological]]'' as well. Many creationists would deny that this is creationism at all, and should rather be called "theistic evolution", just as many scientists allow voice to their spiritual side. In particular, this view rejects the doctrine of special creation and other doctrines. For example, evolutionary theory assumes death is a natural part of life and it had an integral part in the formation of life, but the Bible teaches that only Life begets life and that death is a result of sin. ;[[Neo-Creationism]] :Neo-Creationists intentionally distance themselves from other forms of creationism, preferring to be known as wholly separate from creationism as a philosophy. Its goal is to restate creationism in terms more likely to be well received by the public, education policy makers and the [[scientific community]]. It aims to re-frame the debate over the [[Origin belief\|origins of life]] in non-religious terms and without appeals to scripture, and to bring the scientific debate before the public. One of its principal claims is that ostensibly [[objective]] orthodox science is actually a dogmatically [[atheism\|atheistic]] [[religion]]. Its proponents argue that the [[scientific method]] excludes certain explanations of phenomena, particularly where they point towards supernatural elements. This effectively excludes religious insight from contributing to understanding the [[universe]]. Neo-Creationists also argue that science, as an "atheistic enterprise", is at the root of many of contemporary society's ills (social unrest, family breakdown). The most recognized form of Neo-Creationism in the [[United States]] is the [[Intelligent Design movement]]. Unlike their philosophical forebears, Neo-Creationists largely do not believe in many of the traditional cornerstones of creationism such a [[Young Earth creationism\|young Earth]], or in a dogmatically [[Biblical inerrancy\|literal interpretation of the Bible]]. Common to all forms of Neo-Creationism is a rejection of [[Naturalism (philosophy)\|naturalism]], usually made together with a tacit admission of [[supernaturalism]], and an open and often hostile opposition to what they term "[[Darwinism]]", which generally is meant to refer to [[evolution]]. ==Jewish creationism== See main article [[Judaism and evolution]]. Judaism has a continuum of views about creation, the origin of life and the role of evolution in the formation of species. The major [[Jewish denominations]], including many Orthodox Jewish groups, accept evolutionary creationism or theistic evolution. The contemporary general approach of Judaism, excepting Orthodox traditions, is to not take the [[Torah]] as a literal text, but rather as a symbolic or open-ended work. As far as Orthodox Jews, who seek to reconcile discrepancies between science and the Bible, go, the notion that science and the Bible should even be reconciled through traditional scientific means is questioned. To these groups, science is as true as the Torah and if there seems to be a problem, our own epistemological limits are to blame for any apparent irreconcilable point. They point to various discrepancies between what is expected and what actually is to demonstrate that things are not always as they appear. They point out to the fact that the even root word for "world" in the [[Hebrew language]] &mdash; עולם (oh•luhm) &mdash; means hidden. Just as they believe God created man and trees and the light on its way from the stars in their adult state, so too can they believe that the world was created in its "adult" state, with the understanding that there are, and can be, no physical ways to verify this. This belief has been advanced by Rabbi Dr. Dovid Gottlieb, former philosophy professor at Johns Hopkins University. Also, relatively old Kabbalistic sources from well before the scientifically apparent age of the universe was first determined are in close concord with modern scientific estimates of the age of the universe, according to Rabbi [[Aryeh Kaplan]]. Other interesting parallels are brought down from, among other sources, [[Nachmanides]], who expounds exegetically that there was a [[Neanderthal]]-like species with which [[Adam and Eve\|Adam]] mated (he did this long before Neanderthals had even been discovered scientifically). ==Christian God as absolute origin== Nearly all denominations of Christianity assert that God is the origin, the [[Cosmological argument\|first cause]]. The [[Roman Catholic Church]] holds as an unchangeable tenet of Christian faith, that "In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth". Here, clearly, creation is described as an absolute beginning, which includes the assertion that the very existence of the universe is contingent upon a necessary higher being, a [[God]] who is not himself created. Therefore the doctrine of biblical creation places the knowledge of God central in the pursuit of the knowledge of anything, for everything comes from God. Nevertheless, this view does not mandate the concept of special creation; it says nothing about the mechanism by which any thing was created. Although phrased differently, this [[doctrine]] of creation is common in many branches of other [[religion]]s. The strictness to which adherents are required to accept these views, and the sense in which these definitions are official, vary widely. ==Prevalence of creationism== ===United States=== According to a [[2001]] [[Gallup]] poll on the origins of humans, they estimate that 72% of Americans believe in some form of creationism (as defined above). They also estimate that about 45% of Americans c
troys the world, the few remaining humans continue to live in the ruins of their former homes, though without any quality of life, perhaps as humankind's punishment for its greed. Robo joins the party here. The guru Belthasar also exists in this time period. '''[[End of Time (Chrono Trigger)\|End of Time]]''': This time period is without an exact number date (represented by an infinity symbol); is where all time has finished, but is continuously flowing. Inside the nothingness, there is only one small area where there are certain "pillars of light" that serve as portals to different eras, with only two inhabitants: Spekkio, the God of War (who, taking increasingly powerful forms, challenges the party on several occasions to test their mettle and also grants the party the gift of 'Magic'), and an Old Man who is actually Gaspar, the Guru of Time. Later in the game, it is possible to dock the Epoch at the steps to the right of the room where Gaspar stands. ==Soundtrack== ''Main article: [[Chrono Trigger soundtrack\|Chrono Trigger (soundtrack)]]'' The [[soundtrack]] to ''Chrono Trigger'' is very popular with the ''[[Chrono Trigger (soundtrack)\|Chrono Trigger Original Sound Track]]'' available as well as many symphonic versions. It was primarily composed and arranged by [[Yasunori Mitsuda]], his first real project after his tenure as a sound engineer. Ironically, [[Nobuo Uematsu]] signed on to the project to help Yasunori Mitsuda out after the latter contracted stomach ulcers [http://www.chronocompendium.com/wiki/index.php?title=Power_Up_Excerpt]. Uematsu, who became a part of the Dream Team for his popularity from other games, went on to compose ten songs, one with the help of [[Noriko Matsueda]], while Mitsuda's work totaled in at fifty-four. He would later compose four additional pieces for the Extras menu of the [[Final Fantasy Chronicles\|Playstation release]]; two of them - ''One Sunny Day When We Met'' and ''A Meeting with Destiny'' - have been noted by famed ''[[Doom]]'' creator [[John Romero]] as being among his favorite video game music [http://www.johnromero.com/vgm.php]. The soundtrack is one of the most heavily-remixed collection of music by fans on both sides of the Pacific, whose tributes number over 300. While North American and European fans of the game create and submit most their work to remixing sites such as [[OverClocked ReMix]] and [[VGMix]], Japanese fans often sell their work in remix compilation albums popularly called 'doujins' by Western fans. In fact, [[OverClocked ReMix]] released a ''Chrono Trigger'' remix compilation album titled ''[[Chrono Symphonic]]'' on [[January 3]], [[2006]]. There is also another remix made by a hip hop production team called Compromised. They have used original songs from ''Chrono Trigger'' and created rap instrumentals out of them. [http://www.chronotriggermixtape.com] ==Versions== ===Super Famicom/Super Nintendo version=== The original version of ''Chrono Trigger'' is a 32 [[Mbit]] (4 [[Megabyte\|MB]], which is quite large for a SNES game) [[cartridge]] with battery-backed [[RAM]] for [[save game]]s. It does not use any special on-cartridge coprocessors. A popular misconception about the Super NES version of ''Chrono Trigger'' is that it is rare. [[eBay]] auctions frequently describe the game as rare, and the prices have gone as high as $50 for the cartridge alone with a complete version going for well over $100 in some cases. The game is not as rare as some believe, and one rarity guide actually lists the game as not very rare at all. This rarity guide was compiled using auction data from sites such as eBay to determine the scarcity of these games. On a regular basis there can be 40 or more cartridges being sold on eBay at one time, which is as high as some of the most high profile and lower priced games for the Super Nintendo system. When the original Super Famicom version was slated for release in Japan, individuals who preordered the game received one of several limited edition holographic foil collector's cards. Each card had a piece of game artwork on the front: either the American box cover (commonly referred to as the "snow battle"), the battle with Magus found on the inside of the American manual, a flight in the Epoch, or a character portrait. Also a contributer to the 'rare' nature of Chrono trigger is its never having been released in Europe despite there being a strong RPG following there (especially since the release of [[Final Fantasy 7]]) and as such in Europe it is rare. ===The beta version and ROM hacks=== Many rumors and legends have surrounded the game since its development due to its plot depth and unresolved ends. While some of these claims, such as a mountain area in [[65,000,000 B.C. (Chrono Trigger)\|65,000,000 B.C.]], were true concerning a beta of the game, many are fabrications. For instance, it has long been held that the traveler Toma and the princess Schala were at one time intended to be playable characters; the supposed proof lies in manipulation of the player character selection screen via Game Genie or [[Action Replay\|Pro Action Replay]] codes. However, closer inspection and the aid of ROM hackers have revealed that while very few faculties in the code for an eighth character do exist, lacking graphics, the game is hardwired and designed specifically for the featured seven. There is also no corroborating evidence from the beta version of the game released to stores itself or preview shots in magazines; examination of the beta also establishes that no extra animations for Toma or Schala existed. [[Image:Zeal Dungeon CTP.png\|thumb\|256px\|left\|Lower left Zeal Dungeon]] The beta version mentioned above is commonly called the ''Chrono Trigger'' Prerelease; it was given to game retailers to secure sales before the final version debuted, and was leaked to the internet in 1999. Within the beta, many areas have no event code (rendering them unplayable), the music is slightly different in certain areas, [[Ayla_(Chrono_Trigger)\|Ayla]] is missing as a playable character (though her sprites are in the ROM), and two sprites for an eighth character's Overworld walking animations exist (most likely, this was an NPC guard blocking off an area). Additionally, some areas not found in the final game are present, along with palette swapped and alternate monsters. Of note are the "Zeal Dungeon" and the famous "Singing Mountain" area, which originally bore the unused music track "Singing Mountain" in the final version's ROM data. The differences and abandoned features were documented in StarNeptune's ''Chrono Trigger'' FAQ at [[GameFAQs]], but the formative topics used in the FAQ's creation contained erroneous information added by discussors. In 2004, the Chrono Compendium undertook an exhaustive examination of the Prerelease, including images, maps, and research regarding the eighth character[http://www.chronocompendium.com/Term/Chrono_Trigger_Prerelease]. Additionally, the ROM hacker JLukas has developed codes that enable exploration of the areas that previously caused the games to crash, such as Death Peak and the Ocean Palace[http://www.chronocompendium.com/Term/Codes_(CTP)]. Lastly, Geiger, a longtime ROM hacker and modifier, has released an editor for ''Chrono Trigger'' called "Temporal Flux" that allows the free drawing and editing of any Location or Overworld in the ROM, the changing of any text string in the game, and the altering of event code. Though this allows most aspects of ''Chrono Trigger'' to be changed and restructured, editing event code is still very difficult, and support has not yet been added for sprite editing and other features. Currently, Geiger plans to update the program to support editing Overworld features and ROM expansion, and then move on to other projects. On ''Chrono Trigger'''s tenth birthday, August 22nd, 2005, the first serious ROM hack created with the program debuted -- a demo for a new adventure featuring the original team. It was released as an .ips patch zipped with a readme containing instructions[http://www.chronocompendium.com/files/CEDemo.zip]. ===PlayStation version=== [[Image:Chrono Trigger Cutscene.jpg\|256px\|thumb\|An example of one of the anime cutscenes: Ayla battles the Reptites.]] An enhanced [[port (computing)\|port]] of ''Chrono Trigger'' for the Sony [[PlayStation]] was released [[1999]] in Japan. This port with the original translation by [[Ted Woolsey]] was released in the US together with a "remastered" version of ''[[Final Fantasy IV]]'' as ''[[Final Fantasy Chronicles]]'' in [[2001]]. It features [[anime]] cutscenes done by original character designer Akira Toriyama's [[Bird Studio]] spread throughout the game at key sequences and an "extras mode." Each ending reached unlocks more of the following: All 10 of the added anime movies * 69 songs from the game, including the extras menu songs * Statistics on all the monsters * A list of all of the endings with a screenshot from each * An art gallery with 16 anime-style drawings of characters * A list of all characters' techs * Descriptions of the bosses with strategies * A "treasure map" which shows the locations of hidden items Poor conversion of the cartridge to the PlayStation's [[compact disc]] medium caused many common actions, like opening a menu screen or beginning a battle, to take several seconds due to load time, much to the unpleasant surprise of many gamers. Baffling fans, [[Square Enix]] did not correct this problem with the Greatest Hits re-release of ''Final Fantasy Chronicles''. It should be noted, however, that the Japanese port of the game had no loading times. Chrono Trigger is yet to be released in Europe in any form. ===Unofficial remakes=== There have been a few notable attempts by groups of ''Chrono Trigger'' fans to unofficially remake the game for the PC and with a 3D graphics engine. The most prominent
cluding [[Canned Heat]], [[Janis Joplin]], [[Johnny Winter]], [[The J. Geils Band]], [[Ry Cooder]], and others, who at first discovered the form by listening to British performers, but in turn went on to explore the blues tradition on their own. Many of Led Zeppelin's earlier hits were renditions of traditional blues songs. One blues-rock performer, [[Jimi Hendrix]], was a rarity in his field at the time: a black man who played [[psychedelic music\|psychedelic]] blues-rock. Hendrix was a virtuoso guitarist, and a pioneer in the innovative use of [[distortion]] and [[feedback]] in his music.{{ref\|Hendrix}} Through these artists and others, both earlier and later, blues music has been strongly influential in the development of [[rock (music)\|rock music]]. ===Blues from the 1980s to the present=== [[Image:StevieRayVaughan.jpg\|thumb\|left\|175px\|[[Stevie Ray Vaughan]].]] Since 1980, blues has continued to thrive in both traditional and new forms through the continuing work of [[Taj Mahal (musician)\|Taj Mahal]], [[Ry Cooder]] and the music of [[Robert Cray]], [[Albert Collins]], [[Keb' Mo']] and others such as [[Jessie Mae Hemphill]] or [[Kim Wilson]]. The [[Texas blues \|Texas rock-blues style]] emerged based on an original use of guitars for both solo and rhythms. In contrast with the West Side blues, the Texas style is strongly influenced by the British rock-blues movement. Major artists of this style are [[Stevie Ray Vaughan]], [[The Fabulous Thunderbirds]] and [[ZZ Top]]. The '80s also saw a revival of John Lee Hooker's popularity. He collaborated with a diverse array of musicians such as [[Carlos Santana]], [[Miles Davis]], Robert Cray and [[Bonnie Raitt]]. [[Eric Clapton]], who was known for his virtuoso electric guitar within the Blues Breakers and Cream, made a notable comeback in the '90s with his ''[[MTV Unplugged]]'' album, in which he played some standard blues numbers on acoustic guitar. Around this time blues publications such as ''Living Blues'' and ''Blues Revue'' began appearing at newsstands, major cities began forming blues societies and outdoor blues festivals became more common.{{ref\|festivals}} More [[nightclub]]s and venues emerged.{{ref\|venues}} In the 1990s and today blues performers are found touching elements from almost every musical genre, as can be seen, for example, from the broad array of nominees of the yearly Blues Music Awards, previously named [[W. C. Handy Awards]]{{ref\|awards}} Contemporary blues music is nurtured by several well-known blues labels such as [[Alligator Records]], [[Blind Pig Records]], [[Chess Records]] ([[MCA]]), [[Delmark Records]], and [[Vanguard Records]] ([[Artemis Records]]). Some labels are famous for their rediscovering and remastering of blues rarities such as [[Arhoolie Records]], [[Smithsonian Folkways Recordings]] (heir of [[Folkways Records]]), and [[Yazoo Records]] ([[Shanachie Records]]).{{ref\|label}} ==Musical impact== As the origin of the blues scale, the blues has exerted a profound influence on many styles of music. Many jazz, folk or rock performers, such as [[Louis Armstrong]], [[Duke Ellington]], [[Miles Davis]], [[Bob Dylan]] and [[The Red Hot Chili Peppers]], have performed significant blues recordings. The blues scale frequently is found in non-blues musical forms, such as [[popular song]]s like [[Harold Arlen]]'s "Blues in the Night", [[blues ballad]]s like "Since I Fell for You" and "Please Send Me Someone to Love", and even orchestral works like [[George Gershwin]]'s "[[Rhapsody in Blue]]" and "Concerto in F". Indeed, the blues scale is ubiquitous in modern popular music and informs many [[modal frame (music)\|modal frames]], especially the [[ladder of thirds]] as in "[[A Hard Day's Night (song)\|A Hard Day's Night]]". Blues forms turn up in some surprising places. The theme to the televised ''[[Batman (TV series)\|Batman]]'' had a blues structure, as did [[teen idol]] [[Fabian (entertainer)\|Fabian]]'s first hit, "Turn Me Loose". The first great [[country music]] star [[Jimmie Rodgers (country singer)\|Jimmie Rodgers]] was a blues performer. Guitarist/vocalist [[Tracy Chapman]]'s hit "Give Me One Reason" was a 12-bar blues and has, as a result, become a contemporary blues club standard in Chicago. Blues is sometimes danced as an informal type of [[swing dancing\|swing dance]], with no fixed patterns and a heavy focus on [[connection (dance)\|connection]], sensuality and [[improvisation]], often with [[body contact (dance)\|body contact]]. However, most [[blues (dance move)\|blues dance]] moves are inspired by traditional blues dancing. Although usually done to blues music, it can be done to any slow tempo 4/4 music, including "club" music. [[R&B]] music can be traced back to [[Spiritual (music) \|spiritual]]s and blues. Spirituals are often cited as the origin of the blues. Musically, spirituals were a descendent of [[New England]] choral traditions, and in particular of [[Isaac Watts]]'s [[hymn]]s, mixed with African rhythms and call-and-response forms. Spirituals or religious chants in the Afro-American community are much better documented than the "low-down" blues. They developed mostly because the communities could gather more easily during mass or worship gatherings, the so-called [[camp meeting]]s. Their popularity was also due to their—at first glance—politically correct contents. Most early country bluesmen such as [[Skip James]] or [[Charley Patton]] were able to play as well both genres, which usually basically only differ in the lyrics. [[Georgia Tom Dorsey]] is the perfect example of blues musician and composer straddling the border between country and urban blues, and spirituals. He is often cited as the father of [[Gospel music]]. However, the beginning of Gospel music can be better dated to 1930 and the first successes of the [[Golden Gate Quartet]]. In the fifties, [[soul music]], best represented by [[Sam Cooke]], [[Ray Charles]] and [[James Brown]], overtook many elements of both Gospel and blues music. In the sixties and seventies these genres merged in what is called [[soul blues]] music. Direct heir of soul, [[funk]] music of the seventies can be seen as an antecedent of hip-hop and contemporary R&B and shows the filiation of the blues with most modern R&B music. [[Image:Duke_Ellington_at_the_Hurricane_Club_1943.jpg\|thumb\|[[Duke Ellington]] straddled the [[big band]] and [[bebop]] genres. Though clearly a jazz artist, he used the blues form extensively.]] Before [[World War II]], the difference between blues and [[jazz]] was sometimes vague. Usually jazz was more impregnated by harmonic structures stemming from [[brass band]]s. However, the jump blues is a clear example of mix between both styles. After the war, the influence of blues on jazz was tremendous, and most of the [[bebop]] classics, such as [[Charlie Parker]]'s "Now's the Time", are based on the extensive use of the pentatonic scale and blue notes. However, this influence was purely formal. Bebop marked a major shift of jazz from pop music for dancing to a high-art, less-accessible, cerebral "musician's music". The audience for both blues and jazz definitively split, and it was at this time that the border between blues and jazz became the most defined. Artists straddling the border between jazz and blues are categorized into the [[jazz blues\|jazz-blues]] sub-genre. The influence of both the twelve-bar structure and the blues scale on [[rock-and-roll]] music was so profound that rock and roll can properly be classified as an outgrowth of blues, or even "blues with a [[back beat]]". Elvis Presley's "Hound Dog", with its unmodified twelve-bar structure (in both harmony and lyrics) and a melody centered on flatted third of the tonic (and flatted seventh of the subdominant), is a blues song transformed to a new genre by rhythm and sheer energy. One can hardly find a major song from rock-and-roll's revolutionary period that is not, at its roots, a blues composition transformed by rhythm: "Johnny B. Goode", "Blue Suede Shoes", "Whole Lotta' Shakin' Going On", "Tutti-Frutti", "Shake, Rattle, and Roll", "What'd I Say", and "Long Tall Sally". The early African American rock musicians retained the frank sexual themes of blues. "Got a gal named Sue, knows just what to do" or "See the girl with the red dress on, she knows how to do it all night long" are hard to mistake. Even the subject matter of "Hound Dog" contains well-hidden sexual double entendre. More sanitized early "white" rock borrowed both the structure and harmonics of blues, although minimizing harmonic creativity and sexual nuance, such as Bill Haley's "Rock Around the Clock". Many white musicians who covered black rock songs would go so far as to change the words; possibly the most famous example was [[Pat Boone]]'s cover of "Tutti Frutti", which originally started "Tutti frutti, loose booty . . . a wop bop a lu bop, a good Goddamn." ==Social impact== [[Image:BluesBrothers.jpg\|thumb\|right\|[[The Blues Brothers]]: [[Dan Aykroyd]] (left) and [[John Belushi]].]] Like [[jazz]], [[rock and roll]] and [[hip hop music]], blues has been accused of being the "devil's music" and of inciting violence and other poor behavior.{{ref\|criticism}} In the early 20th century, the blues was considered disreputable, especially as white audiences began listening to the blues during the 1920s.{{ref\|1920spop}} In the early twentieth century, [[W. C. Handy\|W.C. Handy]] was the first to make the blues more respectable to non-black Americans. Now blues is a major component of the [[African American culture \|African American]] and [[American culture \|American cultural heritage]] in general. This s
requent essays, was to capture "film truth"&mdash;that is, fragments of actuality which, when organized together, have a deeper truth that cannot be seen with the naked eye. In the "Kino-Pravda" series, Vertov focused on everyday experiences, eschewing bourgeois concerns and filming marketplaces, bars, and schools instead, sometimes with a hidden camera, without asking permission first. The episodes of "Kino-Pravda" usually did not include reenactments or stagings (one exception is the segment about the trial of the Social Revolutionaries: the scenes of the selling of the newspapers on the streets and the people reading the papers in the trolley were both staged for the camera). The cinematography is simple, functional, unelaborate&mdash;perhaps a result of Vertov's disinterest in both "beauty" and "art." Twenty-three issues of the series were produced over a period of three years; each issue lasted about twenty minutes and usually covered three topics. The stories were typically descriptive, not narrative, and included vignettes and exposés, showing for instance the renovation of a trolley system, the organization of farmers into communes, and the trial of Social Revolutionaries; one story shows starvation in the nascent [[Marxism\|Marxist]] state. Propagandistic tendencies are also present, but with more subtlety, in the episode featuring the construction of an airport: one shot shows the former [[Tsar]]'s tanks helping prepare a foundation, with an intertitle reading "Tanks on the labor front." Vertov clearly intended an active relationship with his audience in the series&mdash;in the final segment he includes contact information&mdash;but by the 14th episode the series had become so experimental that some critics dismissed Vertov's efforts as "insane." Vertov responds to their criticisms with the assertion that the critics were hacks nipping "revolutionary effort" in the bud, and concludes the essay with his promise to "explode art's [[tower of Babel]]." In Vertov's view, "art's tower of Babel" was the subservience of cinematic technique to narrative, commonly known as the [[Institutional Mode of Representation]]. By this point in his career, Vertov was clearly and emphatically dissatisfied with narrative tradition, and expresses his hostility towards dramatic fiction of any kind both openly and repeatedly; he regarded drama as another "opiate of the masses." Vertov freely admits one criticism leveled at his efforts on the "Kino-Pravda" series--that the series, while influential, had a limited release. By the end of the "Kino-Pravda" series, Vertov made liberal use of [[stop motion]], [[freeze frame]]s, and other cinematic "artificialities," giving rise to criticisms not just of his trenchant dogmatism, but also of his cinematic technique. Vertov explains himself in "On 'Kinopravda'": in editing "chance film clippings" together for the Kino-Nedelia series, he "began to doubt the necessity of a literary connection between individual visual elements spliced together.... This work served as the point of departure for 'Kinopravda.'" Towards the end of the same essay, Vertov mentions an upcoming project which seems likely to be ''[[Man with the Movie Camera]]'', calling it an "experimental film" made without a scenario; just three paragraphs above, Vertov mentions a scene from "Kino Pravda" which should be quite familiar to viewers of ''Man with the Movie Camera:'' "The peasant works, and so does the urban woman, and so too, the woman film editor selecting the negative...." With Lenin's admission of limited private enterprise through his [[New Economic Policy]], Russia began receiving fiction films from afar, an occurrence that Vertov regarded with undeniable suspicion, calling drama a "corrupting influence" on the proletarian sensibility ("On 'Kinopravda,'" 1924). By this time Vertov had been using his newsreel series as a pedestal to vilify dramatic fiction for several years; he continued his criticisms even after the warm reception of [[Sergei Eisenstein]]'s ''[[Battleship Potemkin]]'' in [[1925]]. ''Potemkin'' was a heavily fictionalized film telling the story of a mutiny on a battleship which came about as a result of the sailors' mistreatment; the film was an obvious but skillful propaganda piece glorifying the proletariat. Vertov lost his job at [[Sovkino]] in January [[1927]], possibly as a result of criticizing a film which effectively preaches the [[Communist]] party line, while at the same time producing films which effectively challenge or subvert it. Vertov says in his essay "The Man with a Movie Camera" that he was fighting "for a decisive cleaning up of film-language, for its complete separation from the language of theater and literature." By the later segments of "Kino-Pravda," Vertov was experimenting heavily, looking to abandon what he considered film clichés (and receiving criticism for it); his experimentation was even more pronounced and dramatic by the time of ''Man with the Movie Camera''. Some have criticized the obvious stagings in ''Man With the Movie Camera'' as being at odds with Vertov's credos "life as it is" and "life caught unawares": the scene of the woman getting out of bed and getting dressed is obviously staged, as is the reversed shot of the chess pieces being pushed off a chess board and the tracking shot which films Mikhail Kaufman riding in a car filming a third car. However, Vertov's two credos, often used interchangeably, are in fact distinct, as [[Yuri Tsivian]] points out in the [[audio commentary (DVD)\|commentary track]] on the DVD for ''Man with the Movie Camera:'' for Vertov, "life as it is" means to record life as it would be without the camera present. "Life caught unawares" means to record life when surprised, and perhaps provoked, by the presence of a camera. (16:04 on the commentary track). This explanation contradicts the common assumption that for Vertov "life caught unawares" meant "life caught unaware of the camera." All of these shots might conform to Vertov's credo "caught unawares." Vertov's cinema success continued into the [[1930s]]. In [[1931]], he released ''Enthusiasm: Symphony of the [[Donbass]]'', an examination into Soviet miners. ''Enthusiasm'' has been called a 'sound film', with sound recorded on location, and these mechanical sounds woven together, producing a symphony-like effect. Three years later, ''Three Songs about Lenin'' looked at the revolutionary through the eyes of the Russian peasantry. For his film, however, Vertov had been hired by [[Mezhrabpomfilm]], a Soviet studio that produced mainly propaganda efforts. To conform to the studio's, and the Soviet government's expectations, the film was edited to include Stalin and provide a more acceptable, 'Stalinesque', ending. With the rise and official sanction of [[socialist realism]] in 1934, Vertov was forced to cut his personal artistic output significantly, eventually becoming little more than an editor for Soviet newsreels. ''Lullaby'', perhaps the last film in which Vertov was able to maintain his artistic vision, was released in 1937. Dziga Vertov died of cancer in 1954, after surviving, unscathed, Stalin's purges. His legacy, however, still lives on today. Vertov's independent, explorative air in filmmaking is carried on as a strong inspiration in aspiring filmmakers and directors. Film companies like "Vertov Industries" have emerged, attributing Dziga Vertov as a source of inspiration. It is this inspiration that will live on; it is his gift to the world. == Filmography == * [[1919]] Кинонеделя (''Kino Nedelya'', Cinema Week) * [[1919]] Годовщина революции (Anniversary of the Revolution) * [[1922]] История гражданской войны (History of the Civil War) * [[1924]] Советские игрушки (Soviet Toys) * [[1924]] Кино-глаз (''Kino Glaz'', Cinema Eye) * [[1925]] Киноправда (Kino Pravda) * [[1926]] Шестая часть мира (One-Sixth Part of the World) * [[1928]] Одиннадцатый (The Eleventh) * [[1929]] Человек с киноаппаратом ([[Man with the Movie Camera]]) * [[1931]] Энтузиазм (Enthusiasm) * [[1934]] Три песни о Ленине (Three Songs about Lenin) * [[1937]] Памяти Серго Орджоникидзе (In Memoriam [[Sergo Ordzhonikidze]]) * [[1937]] Колыбельная (Lullaby) * [[1938]] Три героини (Three Heroines) * [[1942]] Казахстан — фронту! (Kazakhstan for the Front!) * [[1944]] В горах Ала-Тау (In the Mountains of Ala-Tau) * [[1954]] Новости дня (News of the Day) == References == ''Abstract Film and Beyond.'' Le Grice, Malcolm. Studio Vista, 1977. ''Beyond Document: Essays on Nonfiction Film.'' Warren, Charles, ed. Wesleyan University Press, 1996. ''Cinema's Second Avant-Garde'' by Christian M. Keathley (Master's Thesis, UF 1993). ''Documentary: a History of the Non-fiction Film.'' Barnouw, Erik. Oxford University Press. Original copyright 1974. ''The Documentary Idea: A Critical History of English-Language Documentary Film and Video.'' Ellis, Jack C. Prentice Hall, 1989. ''Documenting the Documentary: Close Readings of Documentary Film and Video.'' Grant, Barry Keith, and Jeannette Sloniowski, eds. "'Peace between Man and Machine': Dziga Vertov's ''The Man with a Movie Camera''," by Seth Feldman, pp. 40-53. ''Kino-Eye : The Writings of Dziga Vertov,'' by Dziga Vertov. Michelson, Annette, editor; translated by Kevin O'Brien. (Paperback - August 1995), University of California Press ''Dziga Vertov's Man with the Movie Camera'' DVD, audio commentary track by Yuri Tsivian. {{commons\|Dziga Vertov}} ==External links== * {{senses\|id=directors/03/vertov\|name=Dziga Vertov}} [[Category:1896 births\|Vertov, Dziga]] [[C
in the early [[1990s]], but have since made efforts to diversify the economy. Support for independence has grown and is the objective of the government. == Politics == [[Image:Tinganes.jpg\|thumb\|left\|[[Tinganes]] in [[Tórshavn]], seat of the government]] ''Main article: [[Politics of the Faroe Islands]]'' The islands are administratively divided in [[Municipalities of the Faroe Islands\|34 municipalities]] with about [[Cities and villages of the Faroe Islands\|120 cities and villages]]. Traditionally, there are also the [[List of regions in the Faroe Islands\|6 sýslur]] ([[Norðoyar]], [[Eysturoy]], [[Streymoy]], [[Vágar]], [[Sandoy]] and [[Suðuroy]]). ''Sýsla'' means district and although it is only a police district today, it is still commonly understood as a geographical region. In earlier times, each sýsla had an own [[Thing (assembly)\|ting]], the so called ''várting'' (spring ting). Today, elections are held in the municipalities, on national level for the [[Løgting]], and inside the Kingdom of Denmark for the [[Folketing]]. For the Løgting elections there are 7 electoral districts, each one comprehending a''sýslur'', while Streymoy is divided in a northern and southern part (Tórshavn region). The '''Government of the Faroes''' holds the executive power in locally government affairs. The Head of the government is called the [[Løgmaður]] or ''Prime Minister'' in English. Any other member of the cabinet is called a [[landsstýrismaður]]. ===The Faroes and Denmark=== The [[Treaty of Kiel]] in [[1814]] terminated the [[Denmark-Norway\|Danish-Norwegian]] union. [[Norway]] came under the rule of the [[King of Sweden]], but the Faroe Islands, [[Iceland]] and [[Greenland]] remained as possessions of [[Denmark]]. In continuation of this the [[Løgting]] was abolished ([[1816]]), and the Faroe Islands were to be governed as a regular [[Counties of Denmark\|Danish amt]], with the [[Prefect\|Amtmand]] as its head of government. In [[1851]] the [[Løgting]] was resurrected, but served mainly as an advisory power until [[1948]]. At the end of the [[Second World War]] a portion of the population favoured independence from [[Denmark]], and on [[September 14]] [[1946]] a public election was held on the question of [[secession]]. It is not considered a referendum, as the parliament was not bound to follow the decision of the vote. This was the first time that the Faroese people were asked if they favoured independence or if they wanted to continue as a part of the [[Danish Kingdom]]. The outcome of the vote produced a small majority in favour of [[secession]], but before the decision could be implemented the coalition in parliament fell apart and in the parliament election just a few months later, the political parties who favored staying in the Danish Kingdom went up in votes and formed a coalition. Based on their growth in votes they chose not to pass the secession. Instead there was made a compromise, and the [[Folketing]] passed a home-rule law which came into effect in [[1948]]. The Faroe Islands status as an [[Counties of Denmark\|Danish amt]] was brought to an end with the home-rule law, instead the Faroe Islands were given a high degree of self-government, supported by a substantial annual subsidy from [[Denmark]]. The islanders are about evenly split between those favouring independence and those who prefer to continue as a part of the [[Kingdom of Denmark]]. Within both camps there is, however, a wide range of opinions. Of those who favour independence some are in favour of an immediate unilateral declaration. Others see it as something to be attained gradually and in full consent with the Danish government and the [[Danish nation]]. In the unionist camp there are also many who foresee and welcome a gradual increase in autonomy even as strong ties to [[Denmark]] are maintained. ===The Faroes and the EU=== The Faroe Islands are not part of the [[European Union\|EU]], as explicitly asserted by both [[Treaty of Rome\|Rome treaties]]. Moreover, a [[Special member state territories and their relations with the EU#Faroe Islands\|protocol]] to the treaty of accession of Denmark to the European Communities stipulates that Danish nationals residing in the Faroe Islands are not to be considered as Danish nationals within the meaning of the treaties. Hence, Danish people living in the Faroes are not citizens of the European Union (However, other EU nationals living there remain EU citizens). The Faroes are however covered by the [[Schengen treaty\|Schengen]] free movement agreement. ==Geography== ''Main article: [[Geography of the Faroe Islands]]'' [[Image:Faroe Islands.png\|thumb\|Faroe Islands]] [[Image:Litla-dimun-photo.jpg\|thumb\|left\|The uninhabited island [[Lítla Dímun]]]] The Faroe Islands are an [[island]] group consisting of 18 islands, off the coast of Northern [[Europe]], between the [[Norwegian Sea]] and the north [[Atlantic Ocean]], about one-half of the way from [[Iceland]] to [[Norway]]. Its coordinates are {{coor dm\|62\|00\|N\|06\|47\|W\|}}, and has 1,399 km² in area, and includes no major lakes or rivers. There are 1,117 km of coastline, and no land boundaries with any other country. The only island that is uninhabited is [[Lítla Dímun]]. [[Image:Faroes030417-nasa(2).jpg\|thumb\|Faroe Islands NASA satellite image]] The Faroe Islands generally have cool summers and mild winters, with a usually overcast sky and frequent [[fog]] and heavy [[wind]]s. The fog often causes delays of airplanes. The islands are rugged and rocky with some low peaks; the coasts are mostly bordered by cliffs. The highest point is [[Slættaratindur]], 882 metres above sea level. See also: * [[List of regions in the Faroe Islands]] * [[Various maps of the Faroe Islands]] ==Economy== ''Main article: [[Economy of the Faroe Islands]]'' After the severe economic troubles of the early [[1990s]], brought on by a drop in the vital [[fish]] catch, the Faroe Islands have come back in the last few years, with unemployment down to 5% in mid-[[1998]]. In 2006 it was even lower at 3%, that means it is one of the lowest in Europe. Nevertheless, the almost total dependence on fishing means the economy remains extremely vulnerable. The Faroese hope to broaden their economical base by building new fish-processing plants. [[Petroleum]] found close to the Faroese area give hope for deposits in the immediate area, which may lay the basis to sustained economic prosperity. Since [[2000]], new [[information technology]] and business projects have been fostered in the Faroe Islands to attract new investment. The result from these projects is not yet known but is hoped to bring a better market economy to the Faroe Islands. The Faroes have a low unemployment rate, but this is not necessarily a sign of a recovering economy, as many young students move to Denmark and other countries once they are finished with high school. This leaves a largely middle-aged and elderly population that may lack the skills and knowledge to take IT positions on the Faroes. ==Transportation== ''Main article: [[Transportation in the Faroe Islands]]'' Due to the rock terrain and relatively smallness of the Faroe Islands, its transportation system was not as extensive as other places of the world. This situation has changed, and today the infrastructure has been developed extensively. Some 80 % of the population in the islands is connected by underocean tunnels, bridges and embankments which binds the 3 largest islands and 3 comparatively large islands to the northeast together, while the other two large islands to the south of the main area are connected to the main area with brand new modern, fast ferries. There are good roads that lead to every village in the islands except 7 of the smaller islands with only one village each. == Demographics == ''Main article: [[Demographics of the Faroe Islands]]'' The majority of the population is of Scandinavian descent. [[Faroese language\|Faroese]] is spoken in the entire country and the majority also speaks [[Danish language\|Danish]]. Many Faroese people are fluent in [[English language\|English]] as well, particularly those in larger cities and the youth, who are taught English in school. According to official statistics from [[2002]] 84.1% of Faroese people are members of the state church, the Faroese People's Church (Fólkakirkjan), a form of [[Lutheranism]]. The Faroese population is spread across most of the country, and it is not until the later decades that there has been a significant urbanisation. The industrialization of the country has been remarkably decentralized and has therefore maintained a quite living rural culture. Nevertheless, those villages with bad harbour facilities have been the losers of the development from agriculture to fisheries, and in the most peripheral agricultural areas there are scarcely any young people left. Such areas are e.g. [[Fugloy]], [[Svínoy]], [[Mykines]], [[Skúvoy]] and [[Dímun]], which have extremely bad connections to the rest of the country, and can often not be reached every day due to bad weather. In the past decades, the village-based social-structure has nevertheless been placed under pressure, and instead there has been a rise in "centres" that are able to provide goods that are in demand in the periphery. This has meant that shops and services are now heavily being relocated from the villages and into the centres. == Culture == ''Main article: [[Culture of the Faroe Islands]]'' Technically, the phrase "Faroe Islands" is a [[pleonasm]], since the suffixes ''øerne'' and ''oyar'' mean "islands" in Danish and Faroese, respectively. The Faroes have a culture very much their own, but it holds elements in common with [[Norway]], [[Iceland]], and [[Denmark]]. The [[Faroese language]], spoken by [[Faroese people]], is most similar to [[Icelandic language\|Icelandic]] and [[Old Norse]]. === Faroese Scientific Society === ''Føroya Fróðskaparfelag'', the Faroese sci
nd]], and made his home partly there and partly in New York and then devoted his life to the work of providing the capital for purposes of public interest and social and educational advancement. In all his ideas, he was dominated by an intense belief in the future and influence of the English-speaking people, in their democratic government and alliance for the purpose of peace and the abolition of war, and in the progress of education on nonsectarian lines. He was a powerful supporter of the movement for [[spelling reform]] as a means of promoting the spread of the [[English language]]. [[Image:Carnegie-library-flint-mi.png\|left\|thumb\|220px\|Carnegie established over 1600 libraries in the U.S. alone.]] Among all of his many philanthropic efforts, the establishment of [[public library\|public libraries]] in the United States, the [[United Kingdom]], and in other English-speaking countries was especially prominent. [[Carnegie library\|Carnegie libraries]], as they were commonly called, sprang up on all sides. The first of which was opened in 1883 in Dunfermline, Scotland. His method was to build and equip, but only on condition that the local authority provided site and maintenance. To secure local interest, in 1885, he gave $500,000 to Pittsburgh for a public library, and in 1886, he gave $250,000 to Allegheny City for a music hall and library, and $250,000 to Edinburgh, Scotland, for a free library. In total Carnegie funded some 3,000 libraries, located in every [[U.S. state]] except [[Alaska]], and [[Delaware]]. Carnegie also built libraries in [[Canada]] and overseas in [[United Kingdom\|Britain]], [[Ireland]], [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], the [[West Indies]], and [[Fiji]]. He gave $2 million in 1901 to start the [[Carnegie Institute of Technology]] (CIT) at [[Pittsburgh]] and the same amount in 1902 to found the [[Carnegie Institution]] at [[Washington, D.C.]]. He would later contribute more to these and other schools. CIT is now part of [[Carnegie Mellon University]]. In Scotland, he gave $2 million in 1901 to establish a trust for providing funds for assisting education at the Scottish universities, a benefaction which resulted in his being elected [[Lord Rector]] of [[University of St. Andrews]]. He was a large benefactor of the [[Tuskegee Institute]] under [[Booker Washington]] for [[African American]] education. He also established large pension funds in 1901 for his former employees at Homestead and, in 1905, for American college professors. He also funded the construction of 7,000 church organs. [[Image:Carnaigiebirthplace.jpg\|thumb\|Carnegie's birthplace in Scotland is now a museum.]] Also, long before he sold out, in 1879, he erected commodious swimming-baths for the use of the people of his hometown of Dunfermline, Scotland. In the following year, Carnegie gave $40,000 for the establishment of a free library in the same city. In 1884, he gave $50,000 to [[Bellevue Hospital Medical College]] to found a [[histology\|histological]] laboratory, now called the [[Carnegie Laboratory]]. He owned [[Carnegie Hall]] in [[New York City]] from its construction in 1890 until his widow sold it in 1924. He also founded the [[Carnegie Hero Fund]] commissions in America (1904) and in the United Kingdom (1908) for the recognition of deeds of heroism, contributed $500,000 in 1903 for the erection of a [[Peace Palace]] at [[The Hague]], and donated $150,000 for a [[Pan-American Palace]] in Washington as a home for the [[International Bureau of American Republics]]. By the rough and ready standards of 19th century tycoons, Carnegie was not a particularly ruthless man, but the contrast between his life and the lives of many of his own workers and of the poor, in general, was stark. "Maybe with the giving away of his money," commented biographer Joseph Wall, "he would justify what he had done to get that money." [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/carnegie/filmmore/description.html] By the time he died in [[Lenox, Massachusetts]], Carnegie had given away $350,695,653. At his death, the last $30,000,000 was likewise given away to foundations, charities, and to pensioners. He is interred in [[Sleepy Hollow Cemetery]] in [[Sleepy Hollow, New York]]. ==Later personal life== In an era in which financial capital was consolidated in [[New York City]], Carnegie famously stayed aloof from the city, preferring to live near his factories in western [[Pennsylvania]] and at [[Skibo Castle]], [[Scotland]], which he bought and refurbished. However, he also built (in 1901) and resided in a townhouse on [[New York City]]'s [[Fifth Avenue]] that later came to house [[Cooper-Hewitt]]'s [[National Design Museum]]. Carnegie married [[Louise Whitfield]] in 1887 and had one daughter, Margaret, who was born in 1897. His brother, [[Thomas M. Carnegie]], also born in Dunfermline, Scotland, was born on [[October 2]], [[1843]]. He was associated with Andrew in his business enterprises, but died in [[Homewood, Pennsylvania]], on [[October 19]], [[1886]]. ==Controversial aspects of Carnegie's life== ===1892: The Homestead strike=== [[Image:Homesteadstrike.jpg\|thumb\|right\|The Homestead Strike]] The [[Homestead Strike]] was a bloody labor confrontation lasting one-hundred and forty-three days in 1892 and was one of the most serious in the history of the United States. The conflict was situated around Carnegie Steel's main [[Homestead]], [[Pennsylvania]] plant and grew out of disputation between the National Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers of the United States and the Carnegie Steel Company. Carnegie, who had cultivated a pro-labor image in his dealings with company mill workers, departed the country for a trip to his Scottish homeland before the unrest peaked. In doing so, Carnegie left mediation of the dispute in the hands of his associate and partner [[Henry Clay Frick]]. Frick was well known in industrialist circles as maintaining staunch anti-union sensibilities. The company had attempted to cut the wages of the skilled steel workers, and, when the workers refused the pay cut, management locked the union out (workers considered the stoppage a "[[lockout (industry)\|lockout]]" by management and not a "[[Strike action\|strike]]" by workers). Frick brought in thousands of strikebreakers to work the steel mills and [[Pinkerton National Detective Agency\|Pinkerton]] agents to safeguard them. The arrival, on the [[July_6\|6th of July]], of a force of three hundred [[Pinkerton National Detective Agency\|Pinkerton]] agents from [[New York City]] and [[Chicago, Illinois\|Chicago]] resulted in a fight in which ten men - seven strikers and three Pinkertons - were killed and hundreds were injured. Pennsylvania Governor [[Robert Pattison]] discharged two brigades of the state militia to the strike site. Then, allegedly in response to the fight between the striking workers and the Pinkertons, [[Anarchism\|anarchist]] [[Alexander Berkman]] tried to kill Henry Clay Frick with a gun provided by [[Emma Goldman]]. However, [[Henry_Clay_Frick#Assassination_Attempt\|Frick was only wounded]], and the attempt turned public opinion away from the striking workers. Afterwards, the company successfully resumed operations with non-unionized immigrant employees in place of the Homestead plant workers, and Carnegie returned stateside. Carnegie was one of over 50 wealthy members of the [[South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club]], which was blamed for the [[Johnstown Flood]] that killed over 2,200 people in 1887. ==Philosophy== Carnegie wrote ''[[The Gospel of Wealth]]'', in which he stated his belief that the rich should use their wealth to help enrich society. The following is taken from one of Carnegie's memos to himself: {{cquote\|Man does not live by bread alone. I have known millionaires starving for lack of the nutriment which alone can sustain all that is human in man, and I know workmen, and many so-called poor men, who revel in luxuries beyond the power of those millionaires to reach. It is the mind that makes the body rich. There is no class so pitiably wretched as that which possesses money and nothing else. Money can only be the useful drudge of things immeasurably higher than itself. Exalted beyond this, as it sometimes is, it remains Caliban still and still plays the beast. My aspirations take a higher flight. Mine be it to have contributed to the enlightenment and the joys of the mind, to the things of the spirit, to all that tends to bring into the lives of the toilers of Pittsburgh sweetness and light. I hold this the noblest possible use of wealth.}} Carnegie also believed that achievement of financial success could be reduced to a simple formula, which could be duplicated by the average person. In 1908, he commissioned [[Napoleon Hill]], then a newspaper reporter, to interview over 500 millionaires to find out the common threads of their success. Hill eventually became his adviser, and their work was published in 1928, after Carnegie's death, in Hill's book ''[[The Law of Success]]''. ==Writings== Carnegie was a frequent contributor to periodicals on labour issues. In addition to ''[[Triumphant Democracy]]'' (1886), ''[[Gospel of Wealth]]'' (1900) and ''[[The Law of Success]]'' (1928), other publications by him were ''An American Four-in-hand in Britain'' (1883), ''[[Round the World]]'' (1884), ''[[The Empire of Business]]'' (1902), a ''[[Life of James Watt]]'' (1905) and ''[[Problems of To-day]]'' (1908). ==Trivia== * Various sources quote Carnegie's height at 5 feet (1.524 metre) 5 feet 1" (1.549 metre) 5 feet 2" (1.578 metre) or 5 feet 3" (1.6 metre) - there is even one at 5 feet 6" (1.676 metres) - but this must be considered as being incorrect - in other words; he was short. * Two municipalities in the United States are named after Andrew Carnegie, the most famous being [[Carnegie, PA]]. The other is [[Carnegie, OK]]. * The dinosaur ''[[Diplodocus]]
right\|thumb\|Partial hand amputation]] '''Amputation''' is the removal of a body extremity by [[Physical trauma\|trauma]] or [[surgery]]. As a surgical measure, it is used to control pain or a disease process in the affected limb, such as [[cancer\|malignancy]] or [[gangrene]]. In some cases, it is carried out on individuals as a preventative surgery for such problems. In [[Islam\|Islamic]] countries, amputation of the hands or feet is sometimes used as a form of [[punishment]] for criminals. ==Types== [[Image:Three-legged-dog 7th day past amputation.jpg\|thumb\|right\|100px\|dog on seventh day past amputation]] [[Image:Three-legged-dog_sheila_32nd_day2.jpg\|thumb\|right\|100px\|dog on 32nd day past amputation]] [[Image:Three-legged-dog_sheila1.jpg\|thumb\|right\|100px\|dog three months past amputation]] Types of amputation include: * [[leg]] amputation of digits partial foot amputation (Chopart, Lisfranc) ankle disarticulation (Syme, Pyrogoff) below-knee amputation (transtibial) knee-bearing amputation (knee disarticulation) above knee amputation (transfemoral) Van-ness rotation (Foot being turned around and reattached to allow the ankle joint to be used as a knee.) hip disarticulation ** [[hemipelvectomy]] * [[arm]] amputation of digits metacarpal amputation wrist disarticulation forearm amputation (transradial) elbow disarticulation above-elbow amputation (transhumeral) ** shoulder disarticulation and forequarter amputation [[Hemicorporectomy]], or amputation at the waist, is the most radical amputation. [[Genital modification and mutilation]] may involve amputating tissue, although not necessarily as a result of injury or disease. As a rule, partial amputations are preferred to preserve joint function, but in oncological surgery, disarticulation is favored. ==Method== [[Image:Curvy amputation knife DSC09451.jpg\|thumb\|200px\|Curved knives such as this one were used, in the past, for some kinds of amputations.]] The first step is ligating the supplying [[artery]] and [[vein]], to prevent [[hemorrhage]]. The muscles are transsected, and finally the [[bone]] is sawed through with an oscillating saw. Skin and muscle flaps are then transposed over the [[stump]], occasionally with the insertion of elements to attach a [[prosthesis]]. In a disarticulation amputation, the bone is removed at the joint. ==Complications== Some amputees experience the phenomenon of [[phantom limb]]s; they feel body parts that are no longer there. These limbs can itch, ache, and feel as if they are moving. Some scientists believe it has to do with a kind of neural map that the brain has of the body, which sends information to the rest of the brain about limbs regardless of their existence. In many cases, the phantom limb aids in adaptation to a prosthesis, as it permits the person to experience [[proprioception]] of the prosthetic limb. ==Self-amputation== In some rare cases when a person has become trapped (on account of getting a limb stuck) in a deserted place, with no means of communication or hope of rescue, the victim has amputated his own limb: * In 2003, 27-year old [[Aron Ralston]] amputated his [[forearm]] using his [[pocketknife]] and breaking and tearing the two [[bone]]s, after the arm got stuck under a boulder when hiking in [[Utah]]. * Also in 2003, an Australian coal miner amputated his own arm with a [[Stanley knife]] after it became trapped when the [[front-end loader]] he was driving overturned three kilometers underground. [http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2003/06/29/1056825279321.html] ==See also== * [[Tourniquet]] * [[Apotemnophilia]] - condition where a person desires amputation of a healthy limb * [[Amputee fetishism]] * [[List of amputees]] * [[Autotomy]] ==External links== [http://www.nationalamputation.org/ National Amputation Foundation] [http://aait.fscope.com/index.html Amputee Association of India Trust] *[http://www.sonofthesouth.net/leefoundation/amputation.htm Amputation] from Cooper's 1835 "Practice of Surgery" [[Category:Types of surgery]] [[Category:Surgical removal procedures\| ]] [[de:Amputation]] [[fr:Amputation]] [[nl:Amputatie]] [[pt:Amputação]] [[fi:Amputaatio]] [[sv:Amputation]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Amputees</title> <id>2993</id> <revision> <id>15901369</id> <timestamp>2002-04-19T01:32:38Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Bryan Derksen</username> <id>66</id> </contributor> <comment>changing an orphan stub into a redirect; I don't see the need for two separate articles here.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[amputation]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Anemometer</title> <id>2994</id> <revision> <id>40765888</id> <timestamp>2006-02-22T21:55:38Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Pflatau</username> <id>822782</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>removed main category kept subcat</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Deconism-anemometer.jpg\|thumb\|300px\|right\|Anemometer installation on roof of Deconism Gallery, using three size 6, schedule 40 pipes in their original uncut 20 foot (6 m) lengths. The wire (4 conductors running inside a shield) runs along the rightmost leg of the 3 legged "tripod" mount that's attached to the rigging that runs around the perimeter of the roof.]] An '''anemometer''' is a device for measuring the [[wind speed\|velocity]] or the [[pressure]] of the [[wind]], and is one instrument used in a [[weather station]]. The term is derived from the Greek word "anemos" meaning wind. Anemometers may be divided into two classes, (1) those that measure the [[velocity]], (2) those that measure the [[pressure]] of the wind, but inasmuch as there is a close connection between the pressure and the velocity, a suitable anemometer of either class will give information about both these quantities. The First anemometer was invented by Leon Battista Alberti in the 1400's. ==Velocity anemometers== Velocity anemometers may again be subdivided into two classes, (1) those which do not require a [[wind vane]] or [[weathercock]], (2) those which do. ===Cup anemometers=== The familiar cup-anemometer, invented ([[1846]]) by Dr. [[John Thomas Romney Robinson]], of [[Armagh Observatory]], is the best-known and most generally used instrument, and belongs to the first of these. It consists of four hemispherical cups, mounted one on each end of a pair of horizontal arms, which lie at right angles to each other and form a cross. A vertical axis round which the cups turn passes through the centre of the cross; a train of wheel-work counts up the number of turns which this axis makes, and from the number of turns made in any given time the velocity of the wind during that time is calculated. The cups are placed symmetrically on the end of the arms, so it is easy to see that the wind always has the hollow of one cup presented to it; the back of the cup on the opposite end of the cross also faces the wind, but the pressure on it is naturally less, and hence a continual rotation is produced; each cup in turn as it comes round providing the necessary force. The two great merits of this anemometer are its simplicity and the absence of a wind vane; on the other hand it is not well adapted to leaving a record on paper of the actual velocity at any definite instant, and hence it leaves a short but violent gust unrecorded. Unfortunately, when Dr. Robinson first designed his anemometer, he stated that no matter what the size of the cups or the length of the arms, the cups always moved with one-third of the velocity of the wind. This result was apparently confirmed by some independent experiments, but it is very far from the truth, for it is now known that the actual ratio, or factor as it is commonly called, of the velocity of the wind to that of the cups depends very largely on the dimensions of the cups and arms, and may have almost any value between two and a little over three. The result has been that wind velocities published in many official publications have often been in error by nearly 50%. === Windmill anemometers === [[Image:Wind speed and direction instrument - NOAA.jpg\|right\|200px\|thumb\|An aerovane]] The other forms of velocity anemometer may be described as belonging to the [[windmill]] type. In the Robinson anemometer the axis of rotation is vertical, but with this subdivision the axis of rotation must be parallel to the direction of the wind and therefore horizontal. Furthermore, since the wind varies in direction and the axis has to follow its changes, a [[weather vane\|wind vane]] or some other contrivance to fulfill the same purpose must be employed. An [[aerovane]] combines a propeller and a tail on the same axis to obtain accurate and precise wind speed and direction measurements from the same instrument. In cases where the direction of the air motion is always the same, as in the ventilating shafts of mines and buildings for instance, wind vanes, known as air meters are employed, and give most satisfactory results. ==Pressure anemometers== Anemometers which measure the pressure may be divided into the plate and tube classes, but the former term must be taken as including a good many miscellaneous forms. ===Plate anemometers=== The simplest type of this form consists of a flat plate, which is usually square or circular, while a wind vane keeps this exposed normally to the wind, and the pressure of the wind on its face is balanced by a spring. The distortion of the spring determines the actual force which the wind is exerting on the plate, and this is either read off on a suitable gauge, or leaves a record in the ordinary way by means of a pen writing on a sheet of paper moved by clockwork. Instruments of this kind have been in use for a long series of years, and have recorded pressures up to and even exceeding 60
ission (D Mission) would have a manned CSM launched on a Saturn 1B, and a few days later the Lunar Module launched on a second Saturn 1B to practise the first orbit rendezvous. McDivitt, Scott and Schweickart were given this mission, with [[Frank Borman]], [[Jim Lovell]] and [[William Anders]] being assigned to a later, similar Earth-orbit test (E Mission), this time using the [[Saturn V]] to carry both the CSM and LM. However, production problems with the LM meant that the D Mission would not be able to fly until the spring of [[1969]], so NASA officials created another "C-Prime" mission to go inbetween the C and D missions, involving the CSM (with no LM) making the first manned flight to the Moon. This flight became [[Apollo 8]], and was given to Borman, Lovell and Anders. Although he was in the rotation for it, McDivitt claims he was never offered the "C-Prime" mission as he was already experienced with the LM - but if he had been offered it, he probably would have declined, as he wanted to fly the LM. The original E Mission was subsequently scrubbed - Apollo 9 was the only Earth-orbit test of the full Apollo spacecraft, and was launched on a Saturn V instead of two Saturn 1Bs. This had long lasting consequence - when the crew rotation for Apollos 8 and 9 were swapped, their backup crews were also swapped, putting [[Neil Armstrong]] and his crew (who were Borman, Lovell and Anders' backups) in line for the first manned landing mission instead of [[Pete Conrad]] and his crew. ==Mission highlights== Apollo 9 was the first space test of the complete Apollo spacecraft, including the third critical piece of Apollo hardware - the [[lunar module]]. For ten days, the astronauts put all three Apollo vehicles through their paces in Earth orbit, undocking and then redocking the lunar lander with the command module, just as they would in lunar orbit. Apollo 9 gave proof that the Apollo machines were up to the task of orbital rendezvous and docking. For this and all subsequent Apollo flights, the crews were allowed to name their own spacecraft. The gangly lunar module was named "Spider," and the command module was labelled "Gumdrop" on account of the blue cellophane wrapping in which the craft arrived at KSC. Schweickart and Scott performed an EVA - Schweickart checked out the new Apollo spacesuit, the first to have its own life support system rather than being dependent on an umbilical connection to the spacecraft, while Scott filmed him from the command module hatch. Schweickart was due to carry out a more extensive set of activity to test the suit, and demonstrate that it was possible for astronauts to perform an EVA from the lunar module to the command module in an emergency, but as he had been suffering from [[space sickness]], this was restricted to the stand up test in the Lunar Module hatch. McDivitt and Schweickart later testflew the LM, and practiced separation and docking maneuvers in earth orbit. They flew the LM up to 111 miles from "Gumdrop", using the engine on the descent stage to propel them originally, before jettisoning it and using the ascent stage to return. The splashdown point was 23 deg 15 min N, 67 deg 56 min W, 180 miles (290 km) east of Bahamas and within sight of the recovery ship [[USS Guadalcanal (LPH-7)\|USS ''Guadalcanal'']]. The command module was displayed at the [[Michigan Space and Science Center]], [[Jackson, Michigan]] until April 2004 when the center closed. In May, 2004, the command module '''Gumdrop''' was moved to San Diego Aerospace Museum in southern California. The LM ascent stage orbit decayed on [[23 October]] [[1981]], the LM descent stage (1969-018D) orbit decayed [[22 March]] [[1969]]. The S-IVB stage J-2 engine was restarted after Lunar Module extraction and propelled the stage into solar orbit by burning to depletion. ==Apollo 9 maneuver summary== {\| border="1" cellspacing="0" align="Left" width="750" ! T + Time ! Event ! Burn Time ! Delta-Velocity ! Orbit \|- \| T + 00:00:00 \|\| Lift-off \|\|. \|\|. \|\|. \|- \| T + 00:02:14 \|\| S-IC center engine cut-off \|\| 141 s \|\|. \|\|. \|- \| T + 00:02:43 \|\| S-IC engine cut-off \|\| 169 s \|\|. \|\|. \|- \| T + 00:02:44 \|\| S-II ignition \|\|. \|\|. \|\|. \|- \| T + 00:03:14 \|\| S-II skirt separation \|\|. \|\|. \|\|. \|- \| T + 00:03:19 \|\| LES jettison \|\|. \|\|. \|\|. \|- \| T + 00:08:56 \|\| S-II cut-off \|\|. \|\|. \|\|. \|- \| T + 00:08:57 \|\| S-II cutoff + separation, S-IVB ignition \|\|. \|\|. \|\|. \|- \| T + 00:11:05 \|\| S-IVB cutoff + orbital insertion \|\| 127.4 s \|\|. \|\|191.3 x 189.5 km \|- \| T + 02:45:00 \|\| CSM/S-IVB separation \|\|. \|\|. \|\|. \|- \| T + 03:02:08 \|\| CSM/LM docking \|\|. \|\|. \|\|. \|- \| T + 04:18:00 \|\| Spacecraft/S-IVB separation \|\|. \|\|. \|\|. \|- \| T + 05:59:00 \|\| First SPS test \|\| 5.1 s \|\| +10.4 m/s \|\| 234.1 x 200.7 km \|- \| T + 22:12:03 \|\| Second SPS test \|\| 110 s \|\| +259.2 m/s \|\| 351.5 x 199.5 km \|- \| T + 25:17:38 \|\| Third SPS test \|\| 281.6 s \|\| +782.6 m/s \|\| 503.4 x 202.6 km \|- \| T + 28:24:40 \|\| Fourth SPS test \|\| 28.2 s \|\| -914.5 m/s \|\| 502.8 x 202.4 km \|- \| T + 49:41:33 \|\| First DPS test \|\| 369.7 s \|\| -530.1 m/s \|\| 499.3 x 202.2 km \|- \| T + 54:26:11 \|\| Fifth SPS test \|\| 43.3 s \|\| -175.6 m/s \|\| 239.3 x 229.3 km \|- \| T + 92:39:30 \|\| CSM/LM undocking \|\|. \|\|. \|\|. \|- \| T + 93:02:53 \|\| CSM separation maneuver \|\| 10.9 s \|\| -1.5 m/s \|\|. \|- \| T + 93:47:34 \|\| LM DPS phasing maneuver \|\| 18.6 s \|\| +27.6 m/s \|\| 253.5 x 207 km \|- \| T + 95:39:07 \|\| LM DPS insertion maneuver \|\| 22.2 s \|\| +13.1 m/s \|\| 257.2 x 248.2 km \|- \| T + 96:16:04 \|\| LM concentric sequence initiation maneuver \|\| 30.3 s \|\| -12.2 m/s \|\| 255.2 x 208.9 km \|- \| T + 96:58:14 \|\| LM APS constant delta height maneuver \|\| 2.9 s \|\| -12.6 m/s \|\| 215.6 x 207.2 km \|- \| T + 97:57:59 \|\| LM terminal phase finalization maneuver \|\| 34.7 s \|\| +6.8 m/s \|\| 232.8 x 208.5 km \|- \| T + 98:59:00 \|\| CSM/LM docking \|\|. \|\|. \|\|. \|- \| T + 101:32:44 \|\| Post-jettison CSM separation maneuver \|\| 7.2 s \|\| +0.9 m/s \|\| 235.7 x 224.6 km \|- \| T + 101:53:20 \|\| LM APS burn to depletion \|\| 350 s \|\| +1,643.2 m/s \|\| 6,934.4 x 230.6 km \|- \| T + 123:25:06 \|\| Sixth SPS test \|\| 1.29 s \|\| -11.5 m/s \|\| 222.6 x 195.2 km \|- \| T + 169:38:59 \|\| Seventh SPS test \|\| 25 s \|\| +199.6 m/s \|\| 463.4 x 181.1 km \|- \| T + 240:31:14 \|\| Eighth SPS test \|\| 11.6 s \|\| -99.1 m/s \|\| 442.2 x -7.8 km \|- \| T + 241:00:54 \|\| Splashdown \|\|. \|\|. \|\|. \|} <br style="clear: left"/> [[Image:GPN-2000-001100.jpg\|center\|thumb\|left\|225px\|Dave Scott spacewalk. (NASA)]] [[Image:GPN-2000-001106.jpg\|center\|thumb\|left\|225px\|Apollo 9 LM "Spider". (NASA)]] [[Image:GPN-2000-001109.jpg\|center\|thumb\|left\|225px\|LM "Spider" over ocean. (NASA)]] <br style="clear: left"/> ===References=== [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/sc-query.html NASA NSSDC Master Catalog] [http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_00a_Cover.htm APOLLO BY THE NUMBERS: A Statistical Reference by Richard W. Orloff (NASA)] [http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4012/vol3/table2.37.htm Apollo 9 Characteristics - SP-4012 NASA HISTORICAL DATA BOOK] Baker, David. ''The History of Manned Space Flight''. Crown Publishers, Inc. First Edition. ISBN 051754377X {{Project Apollo \| before=[[Apollo 8]] \| after=[[Apollo 10]]}} ==External links== * [http://www.astronautix.com/flights/apollo9.htm Apollo 9 entry in Encyclopedia Astronautica] [http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4009/cover.htm The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology] [http://history.nasa.gov/apsr/apsr.htm Apollo Program Summary Report] [[Category:Human spaceflights\|Apollo 09]] [[Category:Apollo program\|Apollo 09]] [[Category:1969]] [[cs:Apollo 9]] [[de:Apollo 9]] [[fr:Apollo 9]] [[it:Apollo 9]] [[he:%D7%90%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95_9]] [[hu:Apollo-9]] [[nl:Apollo 9]] [[pt:Apollo 9]] [[sk:Apollo 9]] [[sv:apollo 9]] [[fi:Apollo 9]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Applied discrete math</title> <id>1775</id> <revision> <id>15900240</id> <timestamp>2002-08-28T04:19:05Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Andre Engels</username> <id>300</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>correcting redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Discrete mathematics]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Arthritis</title> <id>1776</id> <revision> <id>41970384</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T23:26:08Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Arcadian</username> <id>104523</id> </contributor> <comment>clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser\|AWB]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{DiseaseDisorder infobox \| Name = Arthritis \| ICD10 = M00-M25 \| ICD9 = {{ICD9\|710}}-{{ICD9\|719}} \| }} '''Arthritis''' (from Greek ''arthro-'', joint + ''-itis'', inflammation) is a group of conditions that affect the health of the [[bone]] [[joint]]s in the body. One in three adult Americans suffer from some form of arthritis and the disease affects about twice as many women as men. Arthritic [[disease]]s include [[rheumatoid arthritis]] and [[psoriatic arthritis]], which are [[autoimmune disorder\|autoimmune diseases]]; [[septic arthritis]], caused by joint infection; and the more common [[osteoarthritis]], or degenerative joint disease. Arthritis can be caused from strains and injuries caused by repetitive motion, sports, overexertion, and falls. Unlike the autoimmune diseases, osteoarthritis largely affects older people and results from the degeneration of joint cartilage. Other forms are discussed below. Arthritic joints can be sensitive to weather changes. The increased sensitivity is thought to be caused by the affected joints developing extra nerve endings in an attempt to protect the joint from further damage. ==Signs and symptoms== All arthritides feature [[pain]], which is generally worse in the morning and on initiating movement, and resolves in the course of time. In elderly people and child
<title>Demographics of Guam</title> <id>12150</id> <revision> <id>39428939</id> <timestamp>2006-02-13T02:01:06Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>83.105.58.176</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[statistical population\|Population]]:''' 154,623 (July 2000 est.) '''Age structure:''' : ''0-14 years:'' 34.9% (male 28,233; female 25,727) : ''15-64 years:'' 59.09% (male 48,126; female 43,238) : ''65 years and over:'' 6.01% (male 4,680; female 4,619) (2000 est.) '''Population growth rate:''' 1.67% (2000 est.) '''[[Birth rate]]:''' 26.19 births/1,000 population (2000 est.) '''[[Death]] rate:''' 4.16 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.) '''Net [[migration]] rate:''' -5.35 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) '''Sex ratio:''' : ''at birth:'' 1.14 male(s)/female : ''under 15 years:'' 1.1 male(s)/female : ''15-64 years:'' 1.11 male(s)/female : ''65 years and over:'' 1.01 male(s)/female : ''total population:'' 1.1 male(s)/female (2000 est.) '''[[Infant mortality rate]]:''' 6.83 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.) '''[[Life expectancy]] at birth:''' : ''total population:'' 77.78 years : ''male:'' 75.51 years : ''female:'' 80.37 years (2000 est.) '''Total [[fertility rate]]:''' 3.96 children born/woman (2000 est.) '''Nationality:''' : ''noun:'' Guamanian(s) : ''adjective:'' Guamanian '''[[Ethnic group]]s:''' [[Chamorro]] 47%, [[Filipino people\|Filipino]] 25%, white 10%, [[Chinese people\|Chinese]], [[Ethnic Japanese\|Japanese]], [[Koreans\|Korean]], and other 18% '''[[Religion]]s:''' Roman Catholic 85%, other 15% (1999 est.) '''[[Language]]s:''' [[English language\|English]], [[Chamorro language\|Chamorro]], [[Tagalog]], [[Japanese language\|Japanese]] '''[[Literacy]]:''' : ''definition:'' age 15 and over can read and write : ''total population:'' 99% : ''male:'' 99% : ''female:'' 99% (1990 est.) In the [[United States territory]] of [[Guam]], Asians, mostly Filipinos, with smaller numbers of Koreans, Chinese, and Japanese, are the largest minority group. :''See also :'' [[Guam]] [[Category:Guam]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Politics of Guam</title> <id>12151</id> <revision> <id>39337326</id> <timestamp>2006-02-12T13:06:13Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Warofdreams</username> <id>20855</id> </contributor> <comment>{{CIA}}, {{Oceania in topic\|Politics of}}</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}} {{Politics of Guam}} '''Country name:''' : ''conventional long form:'' Territory of Guam : ''conventional short form:'' Guam '''Data code:''' GQ '''Dependency status:''' organized, unincorporated territory of the US with policy relations between Guam and the US under the jurisdiction of the Office of Insular Affairs, US Department of the Interior '''Government type:''' NA '''Capital:''' Hagatna (Agana) '''Administrative divisions:''' none (territory of the [[United States\|US]]) '''Independence:''' none (territory of the US) '''National holiday:''' Magellan Day (first Monday in March) ([[1521]]); Liberation Day, [[21 July]] ([[1944]]) '''Constitution:''' Organic Act of [[1 August]] [[1950]] '''Legal system:''' modeled on US; US federal laws apply '''Suffrage:''' 18 years of age; universal; US citizens, but do not vote in US presidential elections '''Executive branch:''' : ''chief of state:'' [[President of the United States\|President]] [[George W. Bush]] of the US (since [[January 20]], [[2001]]); [[Vice President of the United States\|Vice President]] [[Dick Cheney]]. (since [[January 20]], [[2001]]) : ''head of government:'' Governor [[Felix P. Camacho]] (elected November 2002) and Lieutenant Governor [[Kaleo S. Moylan]] (elected November 2002) : ''cabinet:'' executive departments; heads appointed by the governor with the consent of the Guam legislature : ''elections:'' US president and vice president elected on the same ticket for a four-year term; governor and lieutenant governor elected on the same ticket by popular vote for four-year terms; election last held November 2002 (next to be held November 2006) : ''election results:'' Felix P. Camacho elected governor '''Legislative branch:''' unicameral Legislature (15 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve two-year terms) : ''elections:'' last held November 2004 (next to be held November 2006) : ''election results:'' percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - Republican 9, Democrat 6 : ''note:'' Guam elects one delegate to the US House of Representatives; election last held November November 2004; results - Madeleine Z. Bordallo was elected as delegate; percent of vote by party - NA; '''Judicial branch:''' Federal District Court (judge is appointed by the president); Territorial Superior Court (judges appointed for eight-year terms by the governor) '''Political parties and leaders:''' [[United States Republican Party\|Republican Party]] (party of the Governor) [leader NA]; [[United States Republican Party\|Republican Party]] (controls the legislature) [leader NA] '''International organization participation:''' ESCAP (associate), Interpol (subbureau), IOC, SPC '''Diplomatic representation in the US:''' none (territory of the US) '''Diplomatic representation from the US:''' none (territory of the US) '''Flag description:''' territorial flag is dark blue with a narrow red border on all four sides; centered is a red-bordered, pointed, vertical ellipse containing a beach scene, outrigger canoe with sail, and a palm tree with the word GUAM superimposed in bold red letters; [[Flag of the United States\|US flag]] is the national flag :''See also :'' [[Guam]] {{Oceania in topic\|Politics of}} [[Category:Guam]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Guam/Economy</title> <id>12152</id> <revision> <id>15909857</id> <timestamp>2002-06-14T14:20:38Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>The Epopt</username> <id>30</id> </contributor> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Economy of Guam]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Economy of Guam]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Communications in Guam</title> <id>12153</id> <revision> <id>15909858</id> <timestamp>2005-06-03T04:21:03Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Eyreland</username> <id>180850</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:''' 82,669 (1997) '''Telephones - mobile cellular:''' 55,000 (1998) '''Telephone system:''' : ''domestic:'' NA : ''international:'' [[satellite]] earth stations - 2 [[Intelsat]] ([[Pacific Ocean]]); submarine cables to [[United States]] and [[Japan]] '''[[Radio]] [[broadcasting\|broadcast]] stations:''' [[AM radio\|AM]] 4, [[FM]] 7, [[shortwave]] 2 (2005) '''Radios:''' 221,000 (1997) '''[[Television]] broadcast stations:''' 5 (1997) '''Televisions:''' 106,000 (1997) '''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):''' 5 (1999) '''[[Country code]] (Top-level domain):''' GU :''See also :'' [[Guam]] [[Category:Communications by country\|Guam]] [[Category:Guam]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Transport in Guam</title> <id>12154</id> <revision> <id>39308540</id> <timestamp>2006-02-12T06:20:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rt66lt</username> <id>275075</id> </contributor> <comment>list of highways in Guam</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Guam]] has no [[railway]]s, nor does it have a [[merchant marine]]. The largest [[seaport\|port]] is [[Apra Harbor]], which serves almost all commercial traffic including cruise, cargo and fishing vessels. There are smaller harbors located on the island (most notably one in Hagatna and one in Agat) which serve recreational boaters. Roads are primarily paved out of a [[coral]]/oil mixture. When wet, the oil tends to float to the surface of the roads making them very slippery and dangerous. This is one of the reasons the [[speed limit]] island-wide is 35mph. Its main commercial [[airport]] is the [[Antonio B. Won Pat International Airport]]. '''[[Highway]]s:''' : ''total:'' 885 [[kilometre\|km]] : ''paved:'' 675 km : ''unpaved:'' 210 km : ''note:'' there is another 685 km of roads classified non-public, including roads located on federal government installations '''Airports:''' 5 (1999 est.) '''Airports - with paved runways:''' : ''total:'' 4 : ''over 3,047 [[metre\|m]]:'' 2 : ''2,438 to 3,047 m:'' 1 : ''914 to 1,523 m:'' 1 (1999 est.) '''Airports - with unpaved runways:''' : ''total:'' 1 : ''under 914 m:'' 1 (1999 est.) :''See also:'' [[Guam]], [[List of highways in Guam]] {{Oceania in topic\|Transport in}} [[Category:Guam]] [[Category:Transportation in the United States]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Guam/Military</title> <id>12155</id> <revision> <id>15909860</id> <timestamp>2002-08-30T19:31:29Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>The Epopt</username> <id>30</id> </contributor> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Guam]] -- merged</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Guam]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>History of Guatemala</title> <id>12157</id> <revision> <id>41407515</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T03:03:38Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Clngre</username> <id>30878</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>rv vandalism</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">== Pre-Columbian Guatemala == The [[Maya civilization]] flourished throughout much of [[Guatemala]] and the surrounding region for close to 2000 years before the Spanish arrived in the early [[16th century]]. Most of the Great Classic Maya cities of the [[Petén]] region of Guatemala's northern lowlands were abandoned by the year 1000 AD. The states of the central highla
om magnetic tape without extreme distortion, as video signals have a very large range of frequency components &mdash; from a few [[hertz]] to several [[megahertz]], too wide for [[equaliser]]s to work with due to electronic noise below -60 [[decibel\|dB]]. FM also keeps the tape at saturation level, and therefore acts as a form of [[noise reduction]], and a simple [[audio level compression\|limiter]] can mask variations in the playback output, and the FM capture effect removes [[print-through]] and [[pre-echo]], a continuous pilot-tone, if added to the signal &mdash; as was done on [[V2000]] and many Hi-band formats can keep mechanical jitter under-control and assist [[timebase correction]]. FM is also used at [[audio frequency\|audio frequencies]] to synthesize sound. This technique, known as [[frequency modulation synthesis\|FM synthesis]], was popularized by early digital [[synthesizers]] and became a standard feature for several generations of [[personal computer]] [[sound card]]s. ==Applications in radio== [[Image:frequency-modulation.png\|right\|frame\|An example of frequency modulation. The top diagram shows the modulating signal superimposed on the carrier wave. The bottom diagram shows the resulting frequency-modulated signal.]] [[Edwin Armstrong]] presented his paper: [https://michael.industrynumbers.com/fm.pdf "A Method of Reducing Disturbances in Radio Signaling by a System of Frequency Modulation"], which first described FM radio, before the [[New York]] section of the [[Institute of Radio Engineers]] on [[November 6]], [[1935]]. Wideband FM (W-FM) requires a wider [[bandwidth]] than [[amplitude modulation]] by an equivalent modulating signal, but this also makes the signal more robust against [[Noise (radio)\|noise]] and [[interference]]. Frequency modulation is also more robust against simple signal amplitude fading phenomena. As a result, FM was chosen as the modulation [[standardization\|standard]] for high frequency, [[high fidelity]] [[radio]] transmission: hence the term "[[FM radio]]" (although for many years the [[BBC]] insisted on calling it "VHF radio", which is quite logical, since commercial FM broadcasting uses a well-known part of the [[VHF]] band; in certain countries, expressions referencing the more familiar wavelength notion are still used in place of the somewhat mysterious modulation technique name). FM [[receiver (radio)\|receivers]] inherently exhibit a [[phenomenon]] called '''capture''', where the [[Tuner (radio)\|tuner]] is able to clearly receive the stronger of two stations being broadcast on the same frequency. Problematically, however, frequency [[drift (telecommunication)\|drift]] or lack of [[selectivity]] may cause one station or signal to be suddenly overtaken by another on an [[adjacent channel]]. Frequency drift typically constituted a problem on very old or inexpensive receivers, while inadequate [[selectivity]] may plague any tuner. An FM signal can also be used to carry a [[stereophonic sound\|stereo]] signal: see [[FM stereo]]. However, this is done by using [[multiplexing]] and demultiplexing before and after the FM process, and is not part of FM proper. The rest of this article ignores the stereo multiplexing and demultiplexing process used in "stereo FM", and concentrates on the FM modulation and demodulation process, which is identical in stereo and mono processes. == Theory == <!-- The \, (small space) in the math elements force png instead of html, and are there deliberately to improve readability. --> If the signal to be transmitted is :<math>x_m(t)\,</math> which is restricted in amplitude to be :<math> \left\| x_m(t) \right\| \le 1 \,</math> and the [[sinusoid]]al carrier is :<math>x_c(t) = A \cos (2 \pi f_c t)\,</math> where ''f<sub>c</sub>'' is the carrier's base frequency in [[hertz]] and A is an arbitrary amplitude, the carrier will be modulated by the signal as in :<math>x_c(t) = A \cos \left( 2 \pi \int_{0}^{t} f(\tau)\, d \tau \right) = A \cos \left( 2 \pi \int_{0}^{t} \left[ f_c + f_\Delta x_m(\tau) \right] \, d \tau \right) </math> :where, <math>f(t) = f_c + f_\Delta x_m(t) </math> In this equation, ''f(t)'' is the ''[[instantaneous frequency]]'' of the oscillator and ''f<sub>&Delta;</sub>'' is the ''[[frequency deviation]]'', which represents the maximum shift away from ''f<sub>c</sub>'' in one direction, assuming ''x<sub>m</sub>(t)'' is limited to the range &plusmn;1. Although it may seem that this limits the frequencies in use to ''f<sub>c</sub>'' &plusmn; ''f<sub>&Delta;</sub>'', this neglects the distinction between ''instantaneous frequency'' and ''spectral frequency''. The [[frequency spectrum]] of an actual FM signal has components extending out to infinite frequency, although they become negligibly small beyond a point. For a simplified case, the [[harmonic]] distribution of a [[sine wave]] signal modulated by another sine wave signal can be represented with [[Bessel function]]s - this provides a basis for a mathematical understanding of frequency modulation in the frequency domain. A [[rule of thumb]], ''[[Carson_bandwidth_rule\|Carson's rule]]'' states that nearly all the power of a frequency modulated signal lies within a [[bandwidth]] of :<math>2(f_\Delta +f_m)\,</math> where ''f<sub>&Delta;</sub>'' is the peak deviation of the instantaneous frequency ''f(t)'' from the center carrier frequency ''f<sub>c</sub>'' (assuming ''x<sub>m</sub>(t)'' is in the range &plusmn;1) and ''f<sub>m</sub>'' is the highest modulating frequency of ''x<sub>m</sub>(t)''. Note that frequency modulation can be regarded as a special case of [[phase modulation]] where the carrier phase modulation is the time integral of the FM modulating signal. ''[[Frequency-shift keying]]'' refers to the simple case of frequency modulation by a simple signal with only discrete states, such as in [[Morse code]] or [[radioteletype\|radio-teletype]] applications. ''[[Manchester encoding]]'' may be regarded as a simple version of frequency shift keying, where the high and low frequencies are respectively double and the same as the bit rate, and the bit transitions are synchronous with carrier transitions. When used in supervisory signaling in telephony, the term [[frequency-change signaling]] has been used to describe frequency modulation. The phrase ''frequency-modulated'', an [[adjective]], should have a hyphen when used [[attributive\|attributively]]. ==Modulation index== As with other [[modulation index\|modulation indices]], in FM this quantity indicates by how much the modulated variable varies around its unmodulated level. For FM, it relates to the variations in the frequency of the carrier signal: :<math>h = \frac{\Delta{}f}{f_m} = \frac{f_\Delta \|x_m(t)\|}{f_m} \ </math> With a tone-modulated FM wave, if the modulation frequency is held constant and the modulation index is increased, the (non-negligible) bandwidth of the FM signal increases, but the spacing between spectra stays the same. If the frequency deviation is held constant and the modulation index increased, the bandwidth stays roughly the same, but the spacing between spectra decreases. == See also == * [[Frequency modulation synthesis]] (FM as an audio synthesis method) * [[Modulation index]] * [[Modulation]], for a list of other modulation techniques * [[History of radio]] == External links == * http://www.rfcafe.com/references/electrical/frequency_modulation.htm * http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/navy/docs/es310/FM.htm [[Category:Radio modulation modes]] [[ca:Freqüència modulada]] [[de:Frequenzmodulation]] [[es:Frecuencia Modulada]] [[eu:FM]] [[fr:Modulation de fréquence]] [[ko:주파수 변조]] [[nl:Frequentiemodulatie]] [[ja:周波数変調]] [[no:Frekvensmodulasjon]] [[pl:Modulacja częstotliwości]] [[pt:Modulação em frequência]] [[fi:FM]] [[sv:Frekvensmodulering]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Faith and rationality</title> <id>10837</id> <revision> <id>34594337</id> <timestamp>2006-01-10T07:52:48Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Carrionluggage</username> <id>247628</id> </contributor> <comment>modifier "only" in wrong place ("only rejects" means does not do worse than reject). See discussion page</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Faith and rationality''' are two modes of [[belief]] which are seen to exist in varying degrees of conflict or compatibility. [[Faith]] is generally defined either as belief not grounded in evidence and reason or as belief in what cannot be understood, while [[rationality]] is belief grounded in [[logic]] and/or evidence. Broadly speaking, there are three categories of view regarding the relationship between faith and rationality. [[Rationalism]] holds that [[truth]] should be determined by [[reason]] and factual analysis, rather than faith, [[dogma]] or religious teaching. [[Fideism]] holds that faith is necessary, and that beliefs must be held without evidence or reason, or even in conflict with evidence and reason. [[Natural theology]] holds that faith and rationality are compatible, so that the evidence and reason ultimately lead to belief in the objects of faith. ==Relationship between faith and rationality== Rationalism makes no statement either way regarding the [[existence of God]] or the validity or value of [[religion]], but it rejects any belief based on faith alone. Faith, on the contrary, does not rest on logical proof or evidence. To be semantically precise, definitions of faith and rationalism are in logical opposition. Beliefs held "by faith" may be seen existing in a number of relationships to rationality: * '''Faith as underlying
thos, John Meyendorff, and David Armstrong. [http://www.geocities.com/heartland/5654/orthodox/stylianopoulos_filioque.html "The Filioque: Dogma, Theologumenon or Heresy?"] Theodore Stylianopoulos here presents an extensive, scholarly overview of the contemporary discussion of the ''filioque''. His article is carefully reasoned and works toward reconciliation. [http://www.goarch.org/en/ourfaith/articles/article8523.asp "Papal Primacy"]. In this article, Emmanuel Clapsis provides a well-documented study of the context in which the ''filioque'' dispute may be resolved: a communion ecclesiology, with a renewed understanding of the primacy of the Bishop of Rome. As Cardinal Ratzinger says, we can return to the understanding of that primacy as it was in the first millennium; that would provide a basis for reconciliation of the Orthodox and Catholic Churches. [http://www.cin.org/archives/cineast/199702/0473.html "The True Faith"] Father Chrysostom here appeals for prayer, to resolve long-standing conflict and polemicism. === Catholic Church === [http://www.praiseofglory.com/congarfilioque.htm Yves Congar, O.P., '''I Believe in the Holy Spirit''', "Attempts at and Suggestions for an Agreement"] This renowned theologian says that varying formulations may be seen not as contradictory but as complementary. [http://www.praiseofglory.com/spiriteastwest.htm Irenee Dalmais, O.P., "The Spirit of Truth andof Life"] The author speaks of differing pneumatologies (theologies of the Spirit) in East and West. [http://ctsfw.edu/library/files/pb/1232 Avery Dulles, S.J., "The ''Filioque'': What Is at Stake?"] The author traces the history of the ''filioque'' controversy and evaluates current options. He says that it is important for the East to acknowledge that the West has not been in heresy for the past 1500 years. This is a PDF file. [http://faculty.washington.edu/ewebb/Pneumatology.pdf Eugene Webb, "The Pneumatology of Bernard Lonergan: A Byzantine Comparison"] In a PDF file, the author makes use of the pneumatology of Bernard Lonergan, S.J., to resolve the ''filioque'' controversy. [http://www.geocities.com/trvalentine/orthodox/vatican_clarification.html "The Greek and Latin Traditions regarding the Procession of the Holy Spirit," a clarification from the Pontifical Council for Promoting Christian Unity.] A very important document, making a substantial contribution to contemporary theological dialogue, working toward reconciliation. [http://www.geocities.com/trvalentine/orthodox/zizioulis_onesource.html Ioannis Zizioulas, "One Single Source: An Orthodox response to the Clarification on the Filioque"] The author says that East and West can easily continue dialogue on the ''filioque'', provided that both agree that the Father is the sole cause/origin both of the Son and of the Spirit. This article is a positive statement, giving grounds for further progress towards reconciliation. [http://www.myriobiblos.gr/texts/french/larchet.html Jean-Claude Larchet, "À propos de la récente <<clarification>> du conseil pontifical pour la promotion de l'unité des chrétiens] A 56-page, scholarly response to the clarification of the Pontifical Council, by Jean-Claude Larchet, in French. An extensive, well thought-out analysis. === Overview === [http://www.booksite.com/texis/scripts/pubsite/showdetail.html?sid=4460&isbn=0915866455 Excerpt from '''The Mass of the Roman Rite'''] Here, Joseph Jungmann, S.J., explains the importance of the mediating role of Christ in the liturgy, largely lost in the East, because of anti-Arianism, the same reactive force that in Spain gave rise to the ''filioque''. === Recent discussions and statements === [http://www.usccb.org/seia/filioque.htm The agreed statement of the North American Orthodox-Catholic Theological Consulation, Oct. 25, 2003.] A very important document, with objective, historical accounting and critical recommendations, to promote ultimate reconciliation between East and West, on the ''filioque'' dispute. [http://www.tcrnews2.com/Orthodox_Catholic.html "The Catholic-Orthodox Dialogue: Lights and Shadows"] James Likoudis here provides a record of some responses to the 2003 agreed statement. {{Nuttall}} [[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity]] [[Category:Christian texts]] [[Category:East-West Schism]] [[It:Filioque]] [[cs:Filioque]] [[da:Filioque]] [[de:Filioque]] [[el:Filioque]] [[fr:Filioque]] [[nl:Filioque]] [[ja:フィリオクェ問題]] [[pl:Filioque]] [[ru:Филиокве]] [[sv:Filioque]] [[zh:和子句争辩]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>FIPS</title> <id>11112</id> <revision> <id>40136538</id> <timestamp>2006-02-18T11:39:49Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>62.21.45.65</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''''FIPS''''' could mean [[Federal Information Processing Standard]], publicly announced [[Standards organization\|standard]]s developed by the U.S. Federal government. [[FIPS (computer program)\|FIPS]], a [[computer program]] for splitting [[hard disk]] [[partition (computing)\|partition]]s. [http://www.fips.cam.org/ Fédération internationale des patrouilles de ski], a corporation made up of ski patrol organizations representing ski patrollers and ski safety in their respective countries. (See also, [[CSPS]].) [http://www.fips.org.pl/ Fundacja Innowacyjnych Przedsięwzięć Społecznych] (Innovative Social Enterprises Foundation), a student organization in Poznań, Poland. {{4LA}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Federal Information Processing Standard</title> <id>11113</id> <revision> <id>38862014</id> <timestamp>2006-02-09T03:13:13Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Elwikipedista</username> <id>90304</id> </contributor> <comment>Links</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Federal Information Processing Standards''' ('''[[FIPS]]''') are publicly announced [[standard]]s developed by the [[U.S. Federal government]] for use by all (non-military) government agencies and by government contractors. Many FIPS standards are modified versions of standards used in the wider community ([[ANSI]], [[IEEE]], [[International Organization for Standardization\|ISO]], etc.) Some FIPS standards were originally developed by the U.S. government. For instance, standards for encoding data (e.g. [[country codes]]), but more significantly some encryption standards, such as the [[Data Encryption Standard]] ([[FIPS 46]]) and the [[Advanced Encryption Standard]]. Examples of FIPS standards: [[FIPS two-letter country codes]] ([[FIPS 10-4\|10-4]]) * [[FIPS place code]]s ([[FIPS 55-3\|55-3]]) * [[FIPS county code]]s ([[FIPS 6-4\|6-4]]) * [[FIPS state code]]s ([[FIPS 5-2\|5-2]]) All similar to or comparable with [[ISO 3166]], or the [[Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics\|NUTS]] standard of the [[European Union]]. ==See also== * [[FIPS 140]] * [[FIPS 201]] * [[List of FIPS region codes]] * [[FIPS 4]], "Representation of [[calendar date]] to facilitate interchange of data among information systems". The current revision (as of 2005) is FIPS 4-2 [http://www.itl.nist.gov/fipspubs/by-num.htm]. <!-- Yes, but what is FIPS 4-2? These links just say FIPS 4-2 was adopted. --> ==External links== * [http://www.itl.nist.gov/fipspubs FIPS homepage] [[Category:Standards]] [[de:Federal Information Processing Standard]] [[it:Federal Information Processing Standard]] [[ja:Federal Information Processing Standards]] [[zh:&#32879;&#37030;&#36039;&#26009;&#34389;&#29702;&#27161;&#28310;]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Fiqh</title> <id>11114</id> <revision> <id>42102948</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:18:40Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>209.215.94.221</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* The four schools /</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Islam}} '''Islamic jurisprudence''', (Arabic: '''''Fiqh''''') (in [[Arabic language\|Arabic]] and [[Persian language\|Persian]]: &#1601;&#1602;&#1607;) is made up of the rulings ([[Fatwa]]) of [[Muslim]] [[Islamic jurists]] ([[Ulema]]) to direct the lives of the Muslims. It is one of the fields of study in [[Islamic studies]]. By definition, Fiqh is the Islamic [[Jurisprudence]]. Technically, Fiqh expounds the methodology by which Islamic [[law]] is derived from primary and secondary sources, keeping in view the existing time and space. ==Etymology== Fiqh literally means to "comprehend and understand", from the Qur'an 3:7 and 4:162. Yet, Fiqh in Islamic terminology means: to extract religious rulings on practical matters from the main sources of Islam (i.e. Qur'an and Sunnah...and other sources that the are assigned by another science called [[Usul al-fiqh\|Usul al-fiqh (أصول الفقه)]], the fundamentals of fiqh. == Faqeeh (Muslim Jurist)فقيه== A faqeeh is someone that is specailized in the sciences of Fiqh and Islamic law. {{Section-stub}} ==Fields of jurisprudence== [[Islamic economical jurisprudence]]فقه المعاملات [[Islamic political jurisprudence]] [[Islamic marital jurisprudence]] [[Islamic criminal jurisprudence]]فقه العقوبات [[Adab (behavior)\|Islamic etiquettical jurisprudence]]الآداب [[Islamic theological jurisprudence]] [[Islamic war jurisprudence]]فقه الجهاد ==Methodologies of jurisprudence Usul al-fiqh (أصول الفقه)== There are different aproaches to the [[methodology]] used in Fiqh to derive [[Shariah]] from the Islamic sources. The main methodologies are: *The four classical sunni schools which are, in chronological order : the Hanafi school, the Maliki school, the Shafi'e school and the Hanbali school, which represent the generally accepted Sunni authority for Islamic jurisprudence. Yet, there are other schools that have not been famous but accept
nish and Amerindian ancestry) are by far the largest of all ethnic groups and constitute over 65 per cent of the current population. [[Amerindian\|Amerindians]] are second in numbers and account for approximately a quarter of the people, around 25%. Whites are mainly ''[[Spanish Criollo peoples\|criollos]]'', unmixed descendants of Spanish colonist, and account for 7% of the Ecuadorian population. A small minority of [[Afro-Ecuadorian people\|Afro-Ecuadorians]], including [[Mulatto]]s and ''[[zambo]]s'', constitute the remainder. Although Ecuadorians were most heavily concentrated in the mountainous Sierra (central highlands) region only a century ago, today's population is divided about equally between that area and the Costa (coastal lowlands) region. Migration toward cities -- particularly larger cities -- in all regions has increased the urban population to about 55%. The Oriente (amazonian jungle) region to the east of the mountains, and covering about half the country's land area, remains sparsely populated. It includes the headwaters of the Amazon River. It contains only about 3% of the population, many of whom are uninfluenced and unassimilated amazonian Native Americans who maintain their distance and caution from the recent mestizos and White settlers. There are nine indigenous peoples present: [[Quichua]], [[Shuar]], [[Achuar]], [[Huaorani]], [[Siona people\|Siona]], [[Secoya people\|Siona]], [[Shiwiar]], [[Záparo]], and [[Cofan]], all represented politically by the [[CONFENIAE\|Confederation of Indigenous Nationalities of the Ecuadorian Amazon, CONFENIAE]]. The recent settlers are a result of the small immigration experienced here (mainly mestizo migrants from the Sierra) which occurred during and after the 1970s when government sponsored multinationals began to exploit petroleum reserves in the region. The industrial expansion, and subsequent settlement resulted in the boom of the town of Lago Agrio as well as substantial deforestation, indigenous population loss and the final disappearance of the [[Tetete]] people. The public education system is tuition-free, and attendance is mandatory from ages 6 to 14. In practice, however, many children drop out before age 15, and, in rural areas only about one-third complete sixth grade. The government is striving to create better programs for the rural and urban poor, especially in technical and occupational training. In recent years, it also has been successful in reducing illiteracy. Enrollment in primary schools has been increasing at an annual rate of 4.4%--faster than the population growth rate. According to the 1979 constitution, the central government must allocate at least 30% of its revenue to education; in practice, however, it allots a much smaller percentage. Public universities have an open admissions policy. In recent years, however, large increases in the student population, budget difficulties, and extreme politicization of the university system have led to a decline in academic standards. '''Population:''' 13,710,234 (July 2003 est.) '''Age structure:''' <br>''0-14 years:'' 34.9% (male 2,430,303; female 2,351,166) <br>''15-64 years:'' 60.6% (male 4,116,289; female 4,198,667) <br>''65 years and over:'' 4.5% (male 284,082; female 329,727) (2003 est.) '''Median Age:''' <br>''Total:'' 22.5 years <br>''Male:'' 22 years <br>''Female:'' 23 years (2002) '''Population growth rate:''' 1.91% (2003 est.) '''Birth rate:''' 24.94 births/1,000 population (2003 est.) '''Death rate:''' 5.29 deaths/1,000 population (2003 est.) '''Net migration rate:''' -0.52 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2003 est.) '''Sex ratio:''' <br>''at birth:'' 1.05 male(s)/female <br>''under 15 years:'' 1.03 male(s)/female <br>''15-64 years:'' 0.98 male(s)/female <br>''65 years and over:'' 0.86 male(s)/female <br>''total population:'' 0.99 male(s)/female (2000 est.) '''Infant mortality rate:''' <br>''Total:'' 31.97 deaths/1,000 live births <br>''Female:'' 26.39 deaths/1,000 live births (2003 est.) <br>''Male:'' 37.28 deaths/1,000 live births '''Life expectancy at birth:''' <br>''total population:'' 71.89 years <br>''male:'' 69.06 years <br>''female:'' 74.86 years (2003 est.) '''Total fertility rate:''' 2.99 children born/woman (2003 est.) '''HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate:''' 0.3% (2001 est.) '''HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS:''' 20,000 (2001 est.) '''HIV/AIDS - deaths:''' 232 (2001) '''Nationality:''' <br>''noun:'' Ecuadorian(s) <br>''adjective:'' Ecuadorian '''Ethnic groups:''' mestizo (mixed Amerindian and Spanish) 65%, Amerindian 25%, Spanish and others 7%, black 3% '''Religions:''' Roman Catholic 95% '''Languages:''' Spanish (official), Amerindian languages (especially Quichua) '''Literacy:''' <br>''definition:'' age 15 and over can read and write <br>''total population:'' 92.5% <br>''male:'' 94% <br>''female:'' 91% (2003 est.) :''See also :'' [[Ecuador]] {{South_America_in_topic\|Demographics of}} [[Category:Ecuadorian society]] [[Category:Demographics by country\|Ecuador]] [[es:Demografía del Ecuador]] [[fr:Démographie de l'Équateur]] [[pt:Demografia do Equador]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Politics of Ecuador</title> <id>9338</id> <revision> <id>35602859</id> <timestamp>2006-01-17T23:08:21Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>John wesley</username> <id>689662</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Political parties and leaders */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}} {{Politics of Ecuador}} The [[constitution]] of [[Ecuador]] provides for concurrent four-year terms of office for the president, vice president, and members of [[National Congress of Ecuador\|Congress]]. Presidents may be re-elected after an intervening term, while legislators may be re-elected immediately. Citizens must be at least 18 years of age to vote. Suffrage is universal and compulsory for literate persons ages 18-65 and optional for other eligible voters. The executive branch includes 15 ministries. Provincial governors and councilors, like mayors and aldermen and parish boards, are directly elected. Congress meets throughout the year except for recess in July and December. There are 20 seven-member congressional committees. Former Vice President [[Alfredo Palacio]] assumed the presidency on [[April 20]] [[2005]] after Congress removed [[Lucio Gutiérrez]] amid escalating street protests precipitated by growing criticism of Gutiérrez Supreme Court appointments. New justices of the Supreme Court are elected by the sitting members of the court. A bare majority of Congress, acting in a special session called by former President [[Lucio Gutiérrez]] in December, 2004, ousted 27 of the 31 justices and replaced them with new members chosen by Congress, notwithstanding the lack of any provisions permitting impeachment of Supreme Court justices by Congress and the specific provisions giving the Court the power to select new members. Earlier, in [[November]] [[2004]], Congress replaced the majority of judges on the country’s Electoral Court and Constitutional Court by a similar process. '''Political conditions'''<br> Ecuador's [[political party\|political parties]] have historically been small, loose organizations that depended more on populist, often charismatic, leaders to retain support than on programs or ideology. Frequent internal splits have produced extreme factionalism. However, a pattern has emerged in which administrations from the center-left alternate with those from the center-right. Although Ecuador's political [[elite]] is highly factionalized along regional, ideological, and personal lines, a strong desire for consensus on major issues often leads to compromise. Opposition forces in Congress are loosely organized, but historically they often unite to block the administration's initiatives and to remove cabinet ministers. Constitutional changes enacted by a specially elected National Constitutional Assembly in 1998 took effect on [[August 10]], [[1998]]. The new constitution strengthens the executive branch by eliminating mid-term congressional elections and by circumscribing Congress' power to challenge cabinet ministers. Party discipline is traditionally weak, and routinely many deputies switch allegiance during each Congress. However, after the new Constitution took effect, the Congress passed a code of ethics which imposes penalties on members who defy their party leadership on key votes. Beginning with the [[1996]] election, the indigenous population abandoned its traditional policy of shunning the official political system and participated actively. The indigenous population has established itself as a significant force in Ecuadorian politics, as shown by the selection of indigenous representative Nina Pacari, who led the indigenous political party, Pachakutik, as second vice president of the 1998 Congress. The next presidential and congressional [[election]]s are currently scheduled for 2006. ===Executive branch=== <br>''chief of state:'' President [[Alfredo Palacio]] (since [[April 20]] [[2005]]); Vice President [[Alejandro Serrano]]; note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government <br>''head of government:'' President [[Alfredo Palacio]] (since [[April 20]] [[2005]]); Vice President [[Alejandro Serrano]]; note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government <br>''cabinet:'' Cabinet appointed by the president <br>''elections:'' The president and vice president are elected on the same ticket by popular vote for four-year term (no reelection); [[Lucio Gutierrez\|Lucio Gutiérrez]] was dramatically removed by an act of Congress on [[20 April]] [[2005]]; election last held [[20 October]] [[2002]]; runoff election held [[24 November]] [[2002]] (
k]] [[ca:Feroès]] [[cs:Faerština]] [[da:Færøsk (sprog)]] [[de:Färöische Sprache]] [[es:Idioma feroés]] [[eo:Feroa lingvo]] [[eu:Faroera]] [[fo:Føroyskt mál]] [[fr:Féringien]] [[ko:페로어]] [[is:Færeyska]] [[it:Lingua faroese]] [[kw:Faroyek]] [[la:Lingua Faroensis]] [[li:Faeröers]] [[nl:Faeröers]] [[ja:フェロー語]] [[no:Færøysk språk]] [[nn:Færøysk språk]] [[pl:Język farerski]] [[ru:Фарерский язык]] [[se:Fearagiella]] [[sk:Faerčina]] [[sl:Ferščina]] [[fi:Fäärin kieli]] [[sv:Färöiska]] [[th:ภาษาฟาโร]] [[wa:Faeroyès]] [[zh:法罗语]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Elementary particle</title> <id>11274</id> <revision> <id>40962294</id> <timestamp>2006-02-24T03:35:13Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>DV8 2XL</username> <id>146684</id> </contributor> <comment>Revert to revision 40178605 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups\|popups]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the novel by [[Michel Houellebecq]], see [[The Elementary Particles\|''The Elementary Particles'']]. In [[particle physics]], an '''elementary particle''' is a particle of which other, larger particles are composed. For example, [[atom]]s are made up of smaller particles known as [[electron]]s, [[proton (physics)\|protons]], and [[neutron]]s. The proton and neutron, in turn, are composed of more elementary particles known as [[quark]]s. One of the outstanding problems of particle physics is to find the most elementary particles — or the so-called '''fundamental particles''' — which make up all the other particles found in Nature, and are not themselves made up of smaller particles. == Standard Model == {{main\|Standard Model}} The Standard Model of particle physics contains 12 flavours of elementary [[fermion]]s ("[[matter]] particles"), plus their corresponding [[antiparticle]]s, as well as elementary [[boson]]s that mediate the forces and the still undiscovered [[Higgs boson]]. However, the Standard Model is widely considered to be a provisional theory rather than a truly fundamental one, since it is fundamentally incompatible with [[Albert Einstein\|Einstein]]'s [[general relativity]]. There are likely to be hypothetical elementary particles not described by the Standard Model, such as the [[graviton]], the particle that would carry the [[gravity\|gravitational force]] or the [[sparticle]]s, [[supersymmetry\|supersymmetric]] partners of the ordinary particles. === Fundamental fermions === {{main\|fermion}} The 12 fundamental fermionic flavours are divided into three [[generation (particle physics)\|generations]] of four particles each. Six of the particles are [[quarks]]. The remaining six are [[leptons]], three of which are [[neutrino]]s, and the remaining three of which have an electric charge of −1: the electron and its two cousins, the [[muon]] and the [[tau lepton]]. {\| width=100% \|+ '''''Particle Generations''''' \|- valign=top \| ''First generation'' * [[electron]]: ''e<sup>−</sup>'' * electron-[[neutrino]]: ''&nu;<sub>e</sub>'' * [[up quark]]: ''u'' * [[down quark]]: ''d'' \| ''Second generation'' * [[muon]]: ''&mu;<sup>−</sup>'' * muon-neutrino: ''&nu;<sub>&mu;</sub>'' * [[charm quark]]: ''c'' * [[strange quark]]: ''s'' \| ''Third generation'' * [[tau lepton]]: ''&tau;<sup>−</sup>'' * tau-neutrino: ''&nu;<sub>&tau;</sub>'' * [[top quark]]: ''t'' * [[bottom quark]]: ''b'' \|} ==== Antiparticles ==== {{main\|antimatter}} There are also 12 fundamental fermionic antiparticles which correspond to these 12 particles. The [[positron]] ''e<sup>+</sup>'' corresponds to the electron and has an electric charge of +1 and so on: {\| width=100% \|+ '''''Antiparticles''''' \|- valign=top \| ''First generation'' * [[positron]]: ''e<sup>+</sup>'' * electron-antineutrino: <math> \bar{\nu}_e </math> * up antiquark: <math> \bar{u} </math> * down antiquark: <math> \bar{d} </math> \| ''Second generation'' * positive muon: ''&mu;<sup>+</sup>'' * muon-antineutrino: <math> \bar{\nu}_\mu </math> * charm antiquark: <math> \bar{c} </math> * strange antiquark: <math> \bar{s} </math> \| ''Third generation'' * positive tau lepton: ''&tau;<sup>+</sup>'' * tau-antineutrino: <math> \bar{\nu}_\tau </math> * top antiquark: <math> \bar{t} </math> * bottom antiquark: <math> \bar{b} </math> \|} ==== Quarks ==== {{main\|quark}} Quarks and antiquarks have never been detected to be isolated, a fact explained by [[confinement]]. Every quark carries one of three [[color charge]]s of the [[strong interaction]]; antiquarks similarly carry anticolor. Color charged particles interact via [[gluon]] exchange in the same way that charged particles interact via [[photon]] exchange. However, gluons are themselves color charged, resulting in an amplification of the strong force as color charged particles are separated. Unlike the [[electromagnetism\|electromagnetic force]] which diminishes as charged particles separate, color charged particles feel increasing force; effectively, they can never separate from one another. However, color charged particles may combine to form color neutral [[composite particle]]s called [[hadron]]s. A quark may pair up to an antiquark: the quark has a color and the antiquark has the corresponding anticolor. The color and anticolor cancel out, forming a color neutral [[meson]]. Or three quarks can exist together: one quark is "red", another "blue", another "green". These three colored quarks together form a color neutral [[baryon]]. Or three antiquarks can exist together: one antiquark is "antired", another "antiblue", another "antigreen". These three anticolored antiquarks form a color neutral [[antibaryon]]. Quarks also carry fractional [[electric charge]]s, but since they are confined within hadrons whose charges are all integral, fractional charges have never been isolated. Note that quarks have electric charges of either +2/3 or −1/3, whereas antiquarks have corresponding electric charges of either −2/3 or +1/3. Evidence for the existence of quarks comes from [[deep inelastic scattering]]: firing [[electron]]s at [[atomic nucleus\|nuclei]] to determine the distribution of charge within [[nucleon]]s (which are baryons). If the charge is uniform, the [[electric field]] around the proton should be uniform and the electron should scatter elastically. Low-energy electrons do scatter in this way, but above a particular energy, the protons deflect some electrons through large angles. The recoiling electron has much less energy and a [[jet (particle physics)\|jet of particles]] is emitted. This inelastic scattering suggests that the charge in the proton is not uniform but split among smaller charged particles: quarks. === Fundamental bosons === {{main\|boson}} In the Standard Model, vector ([[spin (physics)\|spin]]-1) bosons ([[gluon]]s, [[photon]]s, and the [[W and Z bosons]]) mediate forces, while the [[Higgs boson]] is responsible for particles having intrinsic [[mass]]. ==== Gluons ==== {{main\|gluon}} Gluons are the mediators of the [[strong interaction]] and carry both [[color charge\|color]] and anticolor. Although gluons are massless, they are never observed in [[particle detector\|detectors]] due to [[confinement]]; rather, they produce [[particle jet\|jets]] of [[hadron]]s, similar to single [[quark]]s. ==== Electroweak bosons ==== {{main\|W and Z bosons}} There are three [[weak gauge boson]]s: ''W<sup>+</sup>'', ''W<sup>−</sup>'', and ''Z<sup>0</sup>''; these mediate the [[weak interaction]]. The massless [[photon]] mediates the [[electromagnetism\|electromagnetic interaction]]. ==== Higgs boson ==== {{main\|higgs boson}} Although the weak and electromagnetic forces appear quite different to us at everyday energies, the two forces are theorized to be unified as a single [[electroweak force]] at high energies. The reason for this difference at low energies is thought to be due to the existence of the [[Higgs field]]. Through the process of [[spontaneous symmetry breaking]], the Higgs selects a special direction in electroweak space that causes three electroweak particles to become very heavy (the weak bosons) and one to remain massless (the electromagnetic photon). Although the Higgs mechanism has become an accepted part of the Standard Model, the [[Higgs boson]] itself has never been observed in detectors. This is thought to be due to the particle's great mass, but its continuing absence is a major cause of concern for particle physicists. == Beyond the Standard Model == Although there is no experimental evidence that does not agree with the [[Standard Model]], many physicists find it to be unsatisfactory due to its many free parameters, many [[fundamental particle]]s, the non-observation of the [[Higgs boson]] and other problems such as the [[hierarchy problem]]. As a result, there are many speculative theories beyond the Standard Model. === Grand unification === {{main\|grand unification theory}} One extension of the Standard Model attempts to combine the [[electroweak interaction]] with the [[strong interaction]] into a single grand unified theory (GUT). Such a force would be [[spontaneous symmetry breaking\|spontaneously broken]] into the three forces by a [[Higgs mechanism\|Higgs-like mechanism]]. The most dramatic prediction of grand unification the existence of [[X boson]]s, which cause [[proton decay]]. However, the non-observation of proton decay at [[Super-Kamiokande]] rules out the simplest GUTs, including SU(5) and SO(10). === Supersymmetry === {{main\|supersymmetry}} Supersymmetry extends the Standard Model by adding an additional class of symmetries to the [[Lagrangian]]. These symmetries exchange [[fe
[[Emerson Radio Corporation\|Emerson Radio Corp]]. It was meant to outshine the [[Atari 2600]], but came out right before the more-advanced [[Atari 5200]] and the [[ColecoVision]]. It was a failure as soon as it came to market. The game library was composed 51 unique games and about 10 variations. The graphics were similar to those of the [[Intellivision]] and the [[Magnavox Odyssey²\|Odyssey²]]. The system is considered one of the biggest game console [[flop\|flops]] of all time. The Arcadia was not named after the company of the same name. Arcadia Corporation, makers of the 2600 [[Starpath Supercharger\|supercharger]], was sued by Emerson for trademark infringement. Arcadia Corporation changed its name to [[Starpath]]. ==Description== The Arcadia was originally intended to be a portable console, one can see that it was much smaller than it's competitors at the time. The console is powered by a standard 12-volt power supply, so it could be used in a boat, or a camper, and so on. This portability feature, however, required a portable television, which was extremely rare in the early 1980s. It also has two outputs(or inputs) earphones jacks types on the back of the unit, on the far left and far right sides. The system came with two [[Intellivision]]-style control pads, but with a lighter touch on the side 'fire' buttons. The control pads have screw holes in their centers, so that one could transform them into a joystick, a la [[Gravis Gamepad]]. Most games came with mylar overlays which could be applied to the controllers. The console itself had five buttons: power, start, reset, option, and select. There are at least three different types of cartridge case styles and artwork, with variations on each. Emerson-family carts come in two different lengths of black plastic cases; the short style is similar to Atari 2600 carts in overall size. This family uses a unique "sketch" type of picture label. MPT-03 family cart cases (see below) resemble Super NES carts in size and shape, except that they are molded in brown plastic. Their labels look much more modern and stylized, with only a minimal picture on each. There are also a family of what look like pirate carts, that look nothing like the others in shape, size or label artwork. The different labeled versions however all used the same cartridges. ==Market Failure== The console was essentially considered dead upon arrival. The system came out at the same time that much better systems came onto the market — the [[Atari 5200]] and [[ColecoVision]] — which immediately crushed sales. In addition, Atari's use of exclusive rights to many games made it very virtually impossible for Emerson to get popular games to the console. Emerson actually created many popular arcade titles including [[Pacman]], [[Galaxian]] and [[Defender]] for the Arcadia and had them manufactured. However, Atari started to sue it's competitors for companies that it had exclusive-rights agreements and Emerson was stuck with thousands of manufactured games that could no longer be sold. Today, only a very limited number of console collectors even bother to go after the Arcadia. ==Variants== Unlike almost all other consoles, the Arcadia 2001 was sold from many different firms under different names: These include: <table style="width: 500px;" padding="1" border="0"> <tr style="background: rgb(255, 255, 0) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: initial; -moz-background-origin: initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: initial;"> <td style="text-align: center;">'''Name'''</td> <td style="text-align: center;">'''Country'''</td> <td style="text-align: center;">'''Manufacturer'''</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Advision Home Arcade</td> <td style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);">France</td> <td>Advision</td> </tr> [[Image:Arcadia_leonardo.jpg\|thumb\|right\|The Leonardo from Italy]] <tr> <td>Bandai Arcadia</td> <td style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);">Japan</td> <td>[[Bandai]]</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Hanimex Fever 1</td> <td style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);">Germany</td> <td>Hanimex</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Hanimex HMG-2650</td> <td style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);">Germany</td> <td>Hanimex</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Hanimex MPT-03 </td> <td style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);">France?</td> <td>Hanimex</td> </tr> <tr> [[Image:Arcadia_telefever.jpg\|thumb\|right\|The Tele-fever from Germany]] <td>Intercord</td> <td style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);">Germany</td> <td>???</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Leisure-Vision</td> <td style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);">Canada</td> <td>Leisure-Dynamics</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Leonardo</td> <td style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);">Italy</td> <td>Leonardo?</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Palladium</td> <td style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);">Germany</td> <td>Palladium?</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Prestige MPT-03</td> <td style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);">France</td> <td>???</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Rowntron MPT-03</td> <td style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);">??</td> <td>Rowntron?</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Schmidt TVG-2000</td> <td style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);">Germany</td> <td>Schmidt</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Soundic MPT-03</td> <td style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);">??</td> <td>Soundic?</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Tele-Fever</td> <td style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);">Germany</td> <td>???</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Tyrom</td> <td style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);">???</td> <td>Tyrom?</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Tunix Home Arcade</td> <td style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);">New Zealand</td> <td>Monaco Distributors Ltd</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Video Master</td> <td style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);">New Zealand</td> <td>Grand Stand</td> </tr> </table> Each console had a different number of games releaed for them; some like the Schmidt had every game released for them, others like the Tele-fever only had 4 games released. The Palladium gas a different cartridge connector/pinout, 4 extra keys per controller. == Technical specifications == Main Processor: [[Signetics 2650]] CPU running at 3.58 MHz Some clones run a [[Signetics]] 2650A RAM: 512 bytes (originally promised 28k) ROM: None Video Display: 8 Colors Video Controller: [[Signetics]] 2637 Sound: Single Channel "Beeper" Hardware Sprites: 4 independent, single color Controllers: 2 x 2 way Keypads: 2 x 12 button ==Games== Many of the games for the '''Arcadia 2001''' are lesser-known arcade game such as ''Route 16'' and ''Jungler''. Different games were available for the various clones of the Arcadia 2001, consult the [http://www.digitpress.com/faq/arc2001.txt Arcadia FAQ] for more information. These game ROMS have been released into the [[public domain]] as [[abandonware]]. 3-D Bowling 3-D Raceway 3-D Soccer Alien Invaders Astro Invader [[Image:Auto_race_cartridge.jpg\|right\|thumb\|The (North American) [[SNES]] style cartridge]] American Football Baseball Brain Quiz Breakaway Capture Cat Trax Crazy Gobbler Crazy Climber (Unreleased) Escape Funky Fish [[Galaxian]] Grand Prix 3-D Grand Slam Tennis Hobo Home Squadron Jump Bug [[Image:Escape_cartridge.jpg\|right\|thumb\|An [[Intellivision]] style cartridge]] Jungler Kidou Senshi Gundamu (only in Japan) Math Logic Missile War Ocean Battle [[Pleiades]] RD2 Tank Red Clash Robot Killer (clone of [[Berzerk]]) Route 16 Soccer Space Attack Space Chess Space Mission Space Raiders Space Squadron Space Vultures Spiders Star Chess Super Gobbler Tanks A Lot The End Turtles/Turpin ==Screenshot gallery== <gallery> Image:Arcadia_baseball.gif\|Baseball Image:Arcadia_cattrax.gif\|Cat Trax Image:Arcadia_jumpbug.gif\|Jump Bug Image:Arcadia_missile_war.gif\|Missile War Image:Arcadia_robot_killer.gif\|Robot Attack Image:Arcadia_space_attack.gif\|Space Attack Image:Arcadia_space_raiders.gif\|Space Raiders Image:Arcadia_spiders.gif\|Spiders </gallery> ==References== [http://www.gstsoftware.co.nz/ The Arcadia 2001 emulator home page] [http://www.classicgaming.com/museum/arcadia Arcadia 2001 @ Classic Gaming.com] [http://www.old-computers.com/magazine/view.asp?r=2&a=8 Emerson Arcadia 2001 and Clone Systems] [http://homepages.ihug.co.nz/%7Epinwhiz/weird.htm Obscure Pixels: Weird UK & New Zealand Consoles] [http://www.digitpress.com/faq/arc2001.txt Em
> <text xml:space="preserve">{\| border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="275px" align="right" \|bgcolor="#ffffff" align="center" colspan="2"\| [[Image:Amoxicillin.png\|Molecular structure of amoxicillin]]<br> ''Amoxicillin'' \|- \|bgcolor="#ffffff" align="center" colspan="2"\| ''<nowiki>(2S,5R,6R)-6-[(R)-2-amino-2-(4-hydroxyphenyl)</nowiki><br><nowiki>acetamido]-3,3-dimethyl-7-oxo-4-thia-1-azabicyclo</nowiki><br><nowiki> [3.2.0] heptane-2-carboxylic acid</nowiki>'' \|- \|bgcolor="#efefef"\|Empirical formula \|bgcolor="#dfefff"\|C<sub>16</sub>H<sub>19</sub>N<sub>3</sub>O<sub>5</sub>S \|- \|bgcolor="#efefef"\|[[Molecular weight]] \|bgcolor="#dfefff"\|365.4 \|- \|bgcolor="#efefef"\|[[half life \| Half life]] \|bgcolor="#dfefff"\|61.3 minutes \|- \|bgcolor="#efefef"\|[[Excretion]] \|bgcolor="#dfefff"\|renal \|- \|bgcolor="#efefef"\|[[Pregnancy category (pharmaceutical)\|Pregnancy category]] \|bgcolor="#dfefff"\|A ([[Australia]]) \|} '''Amoxicillin''' ([[International Nonproprietary Name\|INN]]) or '''amoxycillin''' (former [[British Approved Name\|BAN]]) is a moderate-spectrum [[beta-lactam antibiotic\|&beta;-lactam antibiotic]] used to treat bacterial [[infection]]s caused by susceptible [[microorganism]]s. It is usually the drug of choice within the class because it is better absorbed, following oral administration, than other beta-lactam antibiotics. Amoxicillin is susceptible to degradation by [[beta-lactamase\|&beta;-lactamase]]-producing bacteria, and so may be given with [[Clavulanic acid]] to increase its susceptability (see below). It is currently marketed by [[GlaxoSmithKline]] under the trade name '''Amoxil'''&reg;. ==Mode of action== Amoxicillin acts by inhibiting the synthesis of bacterial cell walls. It inhibits cross-linkage between the linear peptidoglycan polymer chains that make up a major component of the cell wall of [[Gram-positive]] bacteria. ''Main article: [[beta-lactam antibiotic]]'' ==Microbiology== Amoxicillin is a moderate-spectrum antibiotic active against a wide range of [[Gram-positive]], and a limited range of [[Gram-negative]] organisms. Some examples of susceptible and resistant organisms, from the Amoxil® Approved Product Information (GSK, 2003), are listed below. ===Susceptible Gram-positive organisms=== ''[[Streptococcus]]'' spp., ''[[Diplococcus]] pneumoniae'', non [[beta-lactamase\|&beta;-lactamase]]-producing ''[[Staphylococcus]]'' spp., and ''[[Streptococcus]] faecalis.'' ===Susceptible Gram-negative organisms=== ''[[Haemophilus]] influenzae'', ''[[Neisseria]] gonorrhoeae'', ''[[Neisseria]] meningitidis'', ''[[Escherichia coli]]'', ''[[Proteus (bacterium)\|Proteus]] mirabilis'' and ''[[Salmonella]] spp.'' ===Resistant organisms=== Penicillinase producing organisms, particularly penicillinase producing ''[[Staphylococcus]]'' spp. Penicillinase-producing ''N. gonorrhoeae'' and ''H. influenzae'' are also resistant All strains of ''[[Pseudomonas]]'' spp., ''[[Klebsiella]]'' spp., ''[[Enterobacter]]'' spp., [[indole]]-positive ''[[Proteus (bacterium)\|Proteus]]'' spp., ''[[Serratia]]'' marcescens, and ''[[Citrobacter]]'' spp. are resistant. The incidence of &beta;-lactamase-producing resistant organisms, including ''E. coli'', appears to be increasing. Doubling the routinely given concentration (in pediatrics) of amoxicillin has been shown to eradicate intermediately resistant organisms (Red Book, 2003 Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases, American Academy of Pediatrics). ==Formulations== Amoxicillin in trihydrate form is avaialable as capsules or syrup for oral use, and as the sodium salt for intravenous administration. == Amoxicillin and Clavulanic acid == Amoxicillin (in either trihydrate or sodium salt forms) may be combined with [[Clavulanic acid]] (as [[potassium clavulanate]]), a &beta;-lactamase inhibitor, to increase the spectrum of action against [[Gram-negative]] organisms, and to overcome bacterial antibiotic resistance mediated through &beta;-lactamase production. This formulation is referred to as [[Co-amoxiclav]] ([[British Approved Name]]), but more commonly by proprietary names such as [[Augmentin]]® and Clamoxyl®. ''Main article: [[Co-amoxiclav]]'' == Proprietary Preparations == The patent for amoxicillin has expired. Thus amoxicillin is marketed under many trade names including: Actimoxi®, Amoxibiotic®, Amoxicilina®, Dispermox&reg;,Pamoxicillin®, Lamoxy®, Ospamox®, Polymox®, Trimox®, Tolodina®, Wymox® and Zimox®. == References == * GlaxoSmithKline Australia Pty Ltd (2003). ''Amoxil® Approved Product Information.'' Boronia: GlaxoSmithKline. * Neal, MJ (2002). ''Medical Pharmacology at a Glance'' (4 ed.). Oxford: Blackwell Science. ISBN 0-632-05244-9 * [[British National Formulary]] ''45'' March 2003 [[Category:Beta-lactam antibiotics]] [[ca:Amoxicil·lina]] [[de:Amoxicillin]] [[es:Amoxicilina]] [[he:אמוקסיצילין]] [[hu:Amoxicillin]] [[nl:Amoxicilline]] [[pt:Amoxicilina]] [[th:อะม็อกซีซิลลิน]] [[zh:阿莫西林]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Amorphous</title> <id>2888</id> <revision> <id>15901269</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Amorphous solid]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Amorphous solid</title> <id>2889</id> <revision> <id>41795420</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T20:27:30Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Joriki</username> <id>157970</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>provided missing definite article</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">An '''amorphous solid''' is a [[solid]] in which there is no [[long-range order]] of the positions of the [[atom]]s. (Solids in which there is long-range atomic order are called [[crystal\|crystalline solids]].) Most classes of solid materials can be found or prepared in an amorphous form. For instance, common window glass is an amorphous [[ceramic]], many [[polymer]]s (such as [[polystyrene]]) are amorphous, and even foods such as [[cotton candy]] are amorphous solids. Amorphous materials are often prepared by rapidly cooling molten material. The cooling reduces the mobility of the material's molecules before they can pack into a more thermodynamically favorable crystaline state. Some materials, such as metals, are difficult to prepare in an amorphous state. Unless a material has a high melting temperature (as ceramics do) or a low crystallization energy (as polymers tend to), solidification must be done extremely rapidly. Amorphous solids can exist in two distinct states, the 'rubbery' state and the 'glassy' state. The temperature at which the transition between the glassy and rubbery states is called their [[glass transition temperature]] or ''T''<sub>g</sub>. ==Glasses== In common parlance, the term [[glass]] refers to amorphous oxides, and especially silicates (compounds based on silicon and oxygen). Ordinary soda-lime [[glass]], used in windows and drinking containers, is created by the addition of [[soda]] and lime ([[calcium oxide]]) to [[silicon dioxide]]. Without these additives silicon dioxide will (with slow cooling) form [[sand]] or [[quartz]] crystal, not [[glass]]. To avoid confusion, other types of glass often are referred to with a modifier, such as the term ''metallic glass'' to refer to [[amorphous metal]]lic alloys. {{unsolved\|physics\|What is the nature of the [[phase transition\|transition]] between a fluid or regular solid and a glassy [[phase (matter)\|phase]]? What are the physical processes giving rise to the general properties of glasses?}} ===Metallic glass=== Some amorphous metallic alloys can be prepared under special processing conditions (such as [[rapid solidification]], [[thin-film deposition]], or [[ion implantation]]), but the term "metallic glass" refers only to rapidly solidified materials. Even with special equipment, such rapid cooling is required that, for most metals, only a thin wire or ribbon can be made amorphous. This is enough for many [[magnetic]] applications, but thicker sections are required for most structural applications such as [[scalpel]] blades, [[golf club]]s, and cases for [[consumer electronics]]. Recent efforts have made it possible to increase the maximum thickness of glassy [[casting]]s, by finding alloys where [[kinetic]] barriers to crystallization are greater. Such alloy systems tend to have the following inter-related properties: Many different solid [[phase (matter)\|phase]]s are present in the equilibrium solid, so that any potential crystal will find that most of the nearby atoms are of the wrong type to join in crystallization The composition is near a deep [[eutectic]], so that low melting temperatures can be achieved without sacrificing the slow diffusion and high liquid viscosity seen in alloys with high-melting pure components *Atoms with a wide variety of sizes are present, so that "wrong-sized" atoms interfere with the crystallization process by binding to atom clusters as they form. One such alloy is the commercial "[[Liquidmetal]]", which can be cast in amorphous sections up to an inch thick. ==Other synthesis routes== Amorphous solids produced by other routes, such as [[ion implantation]] and [[thin-film deposition]] are, technically speaking, not glasses. ===Damage=== One way to produce a material without an ordered structure is to take a crystalline material and remove the order by damaging it. A practical, controllable w
{fn\|13}} Boethius and ''Consolatio Philosophiae'' are cited frequently by the main character Ignatius J. Reilly in the [[Pulitzer Prize]] winning [[A Confederacy of Dunces]] (1980). It is a [[prosimeter]] (and probably the most famous one), written in sections alternately of narrative [[prose]] and more contemplative [[verse]], which display a virtuosic command of the forms of [[Latin poetry]]. It is classified as a [[Menippean satire]], a fusion of [[allegory\|allegoric]]al tale, [[platonic dialogue]], and lyrical poetry. In the 20th century there were close to four hundred manuscripts still surviving, a testament to its once great popularity. ==See also== [[Allegory in the Middle Ages]] {{Wikisourcelang\|la\|De philosophiae consolatione\|De philosophiae consolatione}} {{Commons\|Category}} ==References== [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/latin/boethius/boecons.html Boethius: ''Consolatio Philosophiae''] in the original Latin with English comments at the University of Virginia's Library Electronic Text Center. * [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/14328 Consolatio Philosophiae] from [[Project Gutenburg]], beautiful HTML conversion, originally translated by H.R. James, London 1897. * Boethius, Peterg. Walsh, VE Watts, ''The Consolation of Philosophy (Oxford World's Classics)'', 2001, ISBN 0872205843 * Sanderson Beck, [http://www.san.beck.org/Boethius.html The Consolation of Boethius] an analysis and commentary. 1996. * ''[[The Catholic Encyclopedia]]'', [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02610b.htm “Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius”], 1913. * Henry Chadwick, ''Boethius: The Consolations of Music, Logic, Theology and Philosophy'', 1990, ISBN 0198265492 * C.S. Lewis, ''The Discarded Image : An Introduction to Medieval and Renaissance Literature'', 1964, ISBN 0521477352 * ''[[The Cambridge History of English and American Literature]]'', [http://www.bartleby.com/211/0605.html Volume I Ch.6.5: ''De Consolatione Philosophiae''], 1907-1921. ==Footnotes== {{fnb\|1}} ''The Consolation of Philosophy (Oxford World's Classics)'', Introduction (2000) {{fnb\|2}} [[Edward Gibbon]]'s ''[[The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire]]'' {{fnb\|3}} Catholic Encyclopedia. The quote is commonly seen in a number of sources, but without attribution; the Catholic Encyclopedia article is the oldest “known” citation found. {{fnb\|4}} ''The Consolation of Philosophy (Oxford World's Classics)'', Introduction (2000) {{fnb\|5}} ''Boethius: The Consolations of Music, Logic, Theology and Philosophy'' (1990) {{fnb\|6}} ''The Discarded Image'' (1964), pg. 75 {{fnb\|7}} [[Dante]] placed Boethius the “last of the Romans and first of the Scholastics” among the doctors in his Paradise (see ''[[The Divine Comedy]]''). {{fnb\|8}} Sanderson Beck (1996). {{fnb\|9}} ''De Consolatione Philosophiae'' (1907-1921) {{fnb\|10}} Sanderson Beck (1996). {{fnb\|11}} ibid. {{fnb\|12}} Dante ''The Divine Comedy''. “blessed souls” inhabit Dante's Paradise, and appear as flames. (see note above). *{{fnb\|13}} Tom Shippey, ''The Road to Middle-Earth'', pg. 140, ISBN 0395339731, (1983). [[Category:Latin texts]] [[Category:Medieval literature]] [[de:Der Trost der Philosophie]] [[fi:Filosofian lohdutus]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon</title> <id>5313</id> <revision> <id>41938720</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:32:22Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Savidan</username> <id>677067</id> </contributor> <comment>if we have it break its better to break it here</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Film \| name = Crouching Tiger, <br> Hidden Dragon \| image = Crouching Tiger Hidden Dragon DVD.jpg \| writer = [[Wang Du Lu]] (book)<br>[[Hui-Ling Wang]]<br>[[James Schamus]]<br>[[Kuo Jung Tsai]] \| starring = [[Chow Yun-Fat]]<br>[[Michelle Yeoh]]<br>[[Zhang Ziyi]]<br>[[Chang Chen]] \| director = [[Ang Lee]] \| producer = [[Li-Kong Hsu]]<br>[[William Kong]]<br>[[Ang Lee]]<br>see article \| music by = [[Dun Tan]] distributor = [[Sony Pictures Entertainment Inc.]] \| released = [[July 6]] [[2000]] ([[Hong Kong]]) \| runtime = 120 min. \| language = [[Standard Mandarin\|Mandarin]] \| imdb_id = 0190332 \| budget = $15,000,000 US (est.)\| }} '''''Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon''''' ({{zh-tsp\|t=&#33253;&#34382;&#34255;&#40845;\|s=&#21351;&#34382;&#34255;&#40857;\|p=Wò H&#468; Cáng Lóng}}) is a [[Wuxia film\|wuxia]] ("[[martial arts film\|martial arts]] and chivalry") [[film]] released in [[2000]]. It is a [[China]]/[[Hong Kong]]/[[Taiwan]]/[[USA]] co-produced film. It was directed by [[Ang Lee]] and starred [[Chow Yun-Fat]], [[Michelle Yeoh]], and [[Zhang Ziyi]]. It was choreographed by [[Yuen Wo Ping]] (&#34945;&#21644;&#24179;; pinyin: Yuán Hépíng) and based on the fourth novel in a [[pentalogy]], known in China as the Crane/Iron Pentalogy by [[Wang Dulu]] (&#29579;&#24230;&#30439;; pinyin: Wáng Dùlú). Made on a mere $15 million budget, with dialogue in [[Mandarin Chinese\|Mandarin]], ''Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon'' became an international success. It grossed [[United States dollar\|$]]128 million in the [[United States]] alone, where foreign-language films are very rarely embraced by the public. The critically-acclaimed movie was nominated for numerous awards around the world including the [[Academy Awards]]' [[Academy Award for Best Picture\|Best Picture]]. It won four Academy Awards, including [[Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film\|Best Foreign Language Film]]. The score by composer [[Tan Dun]] also received much acclaim. ''Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon'' received the [[Hugo Award]] for Best Dramatic Presentation in [[2001]]. It was filmed in the [[Anhui]] and [[Xinjiang]] [[provinces of China\|provinces]] of [[China]]. ==Plot== {{spoiler}} Although a fiction, the story is set in the [[Qing Dynasty]] in [[Chinese history\|China]], likely during the reign of the [[Kangxi_Emperor\|Kangxi Emperor]] (circa 1680). Support for this is found in the props, the hair and clothing styles, the appearance of a [[telescope]] and the fact that the desert raiders still expected government officials to be Han Chinese, as opposed to Manchu. The story follows two experienced and legendary [[martial arts]] warriors, Li Mu Bai (&#26446;&#24917;&#30333;; pinyin: L&#464; Mùbái) (played by [[Chow Yun-Fat]]) and Yu Shu Lien (&#20313;&#31168;&#34030;; pinyin: Yú Xiùlián) (played by [[Michelle Yeoh]]). Both are in love but feel they cannot act on their feelings because of a previous commitment years ago, when Shu Lien was bethrothed to be married to Mu Bai's "Brother by Oath". Meanwhile Jen (&#29577;&#23308;&#40845;; pinyin: Yù Ji&#257;olóng) (played by [[Zhang Ziyi]]), a [[Manchu]] aristocrat's daughter, yearns for [[adventure (film)\|adventure]], not life as a court wife. Jen is a secret apprentice to the evil warrior woman Jade Fox (whom Mu Bai has sworn to kill for the death of his master). Mu Bai is tasked with locating the legendary sword, The Green Destiny, which has been stolen by Jen. Jen fights with Mu Bai on several occasions, but he refuses to kill her because he wants to train her as his apprentice. Jen also fights with Shu Lien, who spares her out of feelings of love and friendship. Jen is headstrong in her powers and emboldened by her forbidden love to the desert bandit Lo (played by [[Chang Chen]]), and consequently she does not accept Mu Bai as a master nor Shu Lien as a friend. The title ''Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon'' (&#33253;&#34382;&#34255;&#40845;) is attributed to a Chinese saying which teaches one to conceal one's strengths from others in order to preserve the element of surprise. It also references two of the characters: Jen's Mandarin name (Ji&#257;olóng) means "pampered [[Chinese dragon\|dragon]]", and Lo's (Xiào Hǔ) means "little [[tiger]]". [[Image:CrouchingTiger UKDVD.jpg\|right\|thumb\|UK DVD cover]] The [[fantasy film\|fantasy]] aspect of the film comes into play whenever the three protagonists fight. They possess seemingly [[magic (paranormal)\|magical]] powers, literally vaulting across roofs, running up walls, and moving with superhuman ease. These powers are explained in the movie only by the protagonists' training and secret knowledge of the ''[[Wudang Mountains\|Wudang]]'' school of martial arts. This aspect of the film, which is characteristic in the ''wuxia'' film genre, also lends itself to frequent [[parody]]. ==Pentalogy== The film is an adaptation of the fourth novel in a [[pentalogy]], or five-novel cycle, known as the Crane/Iron Pentalogy and written by noted wuxia novelist [[Wang Dulu]]. The novels in the pentalogy are: ''[[Crane Frightens Kunlun]]''; ''[[Precious Sword, Golden Hairpin]]''; ''[[Sword's Force, Pearl's Shine]]''; ''Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon''; and ''[[Iron Knight, Silver Vase]]''. The pentalogy has been adapted into a series of [[graphic novel]]s: # {{cite book \| author = [[Wang Du Lu]] \| others = illustrated by [[Andy Seto]] \| title = Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon: v. 1 \| year = 2003 \| publisher = Comics One Corporation \| id = ISBN 1588999998 }} # {{cite book \| author = [[Wang Du Lu]] \| others = illustrated by [[Andy Seto]] \| title = Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon: v. 2 \| year = 2004 \| publisher = Comics One Corporation \| id = ISBN 158899175X }} # {{cite book \| author = [[Wang Du Lu]] \| others = illustrated by [[Andy Seto]] \| title = Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon: v. 3 \| year = 2003 \| publisher = Comics One Corporation \| id = ISBN 1588991768 }} # {{cite book \| author = [[Wang Du Lu]] \| others = illustrated by [[Andy Seto]] \| title
m/film3.html Miami New Times] ==See also== * [[List of notable brain tumor patients]] ==References== Eric Pace. "Francois Truffaut, New Wave Director, Dies." ''[[The New York Times]].'' [[October 22]], [[1984]]. A1. ==External links== {{imdb name\|id=0000076\|name=François Truffaut}} [[Category:1932 births\|Truffaut, Francois]] [[Category:1984 deaths\|Truffaut, Francois]] [[Category:Film theory\|Truffaut, Francois]] [[Category:French actors\|Truffaut, François]] [[Category:French film directors\|Truffaut, François]] [[Category:Parisians\|Truffaut, Francois]] [[Category:Roman Catholics\|Truffaut, Francois]] <!-- corrupt link --> [[bg:Франсоа Трюфо]] [[cs:François Truffaut]] [[da:François Truffaut]] [[de:François Truffaut]] [[et:François Truffaut]] [[el:Φρανσουά Τριφό]] [[es:François Truffaut]] [[eo:François TRUFFAUT]] [[fr:François Truffaut]] [[ko:프랑수아 트뤼포]] [[hr:François Truffaut]] [[io:François Truffaut]] [[it:François Truffaut]] [[he:פרנסואה טריפו]] [[lb:François Truffaut]] [[hu:François Truffaut]] [[nl:François Truffaut]] [[ja:フランソワ・トリュフォー]] [[no:François Truffaut]] [[nn:François Truffaut]] [[pl:François Truffaut]] [[pt:François Truffaut]] [[ro:François Truffaut]] [[ru:Трюффо, Франсуа]] [[sr:Франсоа Трифо]] [[fi:François Truffaut]] [[sv:François Truffaut]] [[vi:François Truffaut]] [[tr:François Truffaut]] [[zh:杜魯福]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Feist Publications v. Rural Telephone Service</title> <id>10771</id> <revision> <id>39455721</id> <timestamp>2006-02-13T06:07:04Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Postdlf</username> <id>29695</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>[[WP:AWB\|AWB assisted]] clean up</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{\| cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" border="1" align="right" style="margin-left: 0.5em" width=300px ! bgcolor="6699FF" \| '''''Feist Publications, Inc.v. Rural Telephone Service Co.''''' \|- \| align="center" \| [[Image:Seal of the United States Supreme Court.png\|100px]]<br /> '''Supreme Court of the United States''' \|- ! bgcolor="6699FF" \| Argued January 9, 1991<br /> Decided March 27, 1991 \|- \| {\| align="center" \|- \| valign="top"\| <small>Full case name: \| valign="top"\|<small>''Feist Publications, Inc. v. Rural Telephone Service Co., Inc.'' \|- \| valign="top"\| <small>Citations: \| valign="top"\|<small>499 U.S. 340; 111 S. Ct. 1282; 113 L. Ed. 2d 358; 1991 U.S. LEXIS 1856; 59 U.S.L.W. 4251; 18 U.S.P.Q.2D (BNA) 1275; Copy. L. Rep. (CCH) P26,702; 68 Rad. Reg. 2d (P & F) 1513; 18 Media L. Rep. 1889; 121 P.U.R.4th 1; 91 Cal. Daily Op. Service 2217; 91 Daily Journal DAR 3580 \|- \| valign="top"\| <small>Prior history: \| valign="top"\|<small>Summary judgment for plaintiff, 663 F. Supp. 214 (D. Kan. 1987); affirmed, reported at 916 F.2d 718 (10th Cir. 1990); affirmed, full opinion at 1990 U.S. App. LEXIS 25881 (10th Cir. 1990); cert. granted, 498 U.S. 808 (1990) \|- \| valign="top"\| <small>Subsequent history: \| valign="top"\|<small> \|} \|- ! bgcolor="6699FF" \| '''Holding''' \|- \| A telephone book did not satisfy the minimum originality required by the Constitution to be eligible for copyright protection, and effort and expenditure of resources are not protected by copyright. Tenth Circuit Court of Appeals reversed. \|- ! bgcolor="6699FF" \| '''Court membership''' \|- \| {\| align="center" \|- \| '''Chief Justice''' [[William H. Rehnquist]] \|- \| '''Associate Justices''' [[Byron White]], [[Thurgood Marshall]], [[Harry Blackmun]], [[John Paul Stevens]], [[Sandra Day O'Connor]], [[Antonin Scalia]], [[Anthony Kennedy]], [[David Souter]] \|} \|- ! bgcolor="6699FF" \| '''Case opinions''' \|- \| {\| align="center" \|- \| '''Majority by:''' O'Connor \|- \| Joined by: Rehnquist, White, Marshall, Stevens, Scalia, Kennedy, Souter \|- \| '''Concurrence by:''' Blackmun \|} \|- ! bgcolor="6699FF" \| '''Laws applied''' \|- \| U.S. Const. Art. I \|} '''''Feist Publications, Inc., v. Rural Telephone Service Co.''''', [[Case citation\|499 U.S. 340]] ([[1991]]){{ref\|citation}}, commonly called just '''''Feist v. Rural''''', was a [[Supreme Court of the United States\|United States Supreme Court]] case in which Feist copied information from Rural's [[telephone]] listings to include in its own, after Rural refused to license the information. Rural sued for [[copyright infringement]]. The Court ruled that information contained in Rural's phone directory was not copyrightable, and that therefore no infringement existed. ==Background== Rural Telephone Service Company, Inc. was a telephone provider for areas in north-west Kansas. The company was under a statutory obligation to compile a phone directory of all their customers free of charge as condition to their monopoly franchise. Feist Publications, Inc. specialized in compiling telephone directories from larger geographic areas than Rural. They had licenced the directory of 11 other local directories with Rural being the only hold-out in the region. Feist went ahead and copied some 4000 entries from Rural's directory. Rural, however, had placed a small number of phony entries to detect copying and caught Feist. Prior to this case, the subsistence of copyright in United States law followed the [[sweat of the brow]] doctrine that gave copyright to anyone who invested significant amount of time and energy into their work. At trial and appeal level the courts followed this doctrine siding for Rural. ==Ruling of the Court== The unanimous ruling of the Court was given by [[Sandra Day O'Connor\|Justice O'Connor]]. In this she examines the purpose of copyright and proposes a new standard for subsistance of copyright based on originality. It is a long-standing principle of United States copyright law that "information" is not copyrightable, O'Connor notes, but "collections" of information can be. Rural claimed a collection copyright in its directory. The court clarified that the intent of copyright law was not, as claimed by Rural and some lower courts, to reward the efforts of persons collecting information, but rather "to promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts" (U.S. Const. 1.8.8), that is, to encourage creative expression. Since facts are purely copied from the world around us, O'Connor concludes, "the [[sine qua non]] of copyright is originality". However, the standard for creativity is extremely low. It need not be novel, rather it only needs to possess a "spark" or "minimal degree" of creativity to be protected by copyright. In regard to collections of facts, O'Connor states that copyright can only apply to the creative aspects of collection: the creative choice of what data to include or exclude, the order and style in which the information is presented, etc., but not on the information itself. If Feist were to take the directory and rearrange them it would destroy the copyright owned in the data. The court ruled that Rural's directory was nothing more than an alphabetic list of all subscribers to its service, which it was required to compile under law, and that no creative expression was involved. The fact that Rural spent considerable time and money collecting the data was irrelevant to copyright law, and Rural's copyright claim was dismissed. ==Implications== The ruling has major implications for any project that serves as a collection of knowledge. Information (that is [[fact]]s, discoveries, etc.), from any source, is fair game, but cannot contain any of the "expressive" content added by the source [[author]]. That includes not only the author's own comments, but also his choice of which facts to cover, his choice of which [[link]]s to make among the bits of information, his order of presentation (unless it is something obvious like an alphabetical list), any evaluations he may have made about the quality of various pieces of information, or anything else that might be considered "original creative work" of the author rather than mere facts. For example, a [[recipe]] is a process, and not copyrightable, but the words used to describe it are. Therefore, you can rewrite a recipe in your own words and publish it without infringing copyrights. But if you rewrote every recipe from a particular [[cookbook]], you might still be found to have infringed the author's copyright in the choice of recipes and their "coordination" and "presentation", even if you used different words, though the West decisions below suggest that this is unlikely unless there is some significant creativity in the presentation. The text of US Laws is in the [[public domain]], but [[West Publishing Corporation]] claims a copyright on the page numbers in its printed edition of those laws. By this reasoning, you could refer to a law or even include large excerpts with impunity, but if you reproduce it in such a way as to deliberately preserve West's page numbers, you might be in trouble. This [[copyright]] claim has been defeated in two court cases [http://www.tx-laws.com/ignoranceisnoexcuse.htm]. ''West v. Mead'' (No. 85-5399 7[[Case citation\|99 F.2d 1219]])(1986) and ''Matthew Bender & Company, Inc., & Hyperlaw, Inc., vs. West Publishing Co'' (No. 97-7430). The West claim of originality in the way it presented its reports of decisions has also been found to be uncreative and therefore not copyrightable, in ''[[Matthew Bender v. West Publishing Co.]]'' ([[Case citation\|158 F.3d 674]]) [http://www.hyperlaw.com/appeal1.htm] (may be known as ''Hyperlaw, Inc. v. West Publishing Company'', [[Case citation\|94 Civ. 589]] (SDNY 1997)). Another case covering this area is [[Assessment Tec
gorianum]] [[lt:Grigaliaus kalendorius]] [[lb:Gregorianesche Kalenner]] [[li:Gregoriaanse kalender]] [[hu:Gergely-naptár]] [[mk:Грегоријански календар]] [[ms:Kalendar Gregory]] [[nl:Gregoriaanse kalender]] [[ja:グレゴリオ暦]] [[no:Gregoriansk kalender]] [[nn:Den gregorianske kalenderen]] [[pl:Kalendarz gregoriański]] [[pt:Calendário gregoriano]] [[ro:Calendarul gregorian]] [[ru:Григорианский календарь]] [[se:Gregoriánalaš kaleandar]] [[simple:Gregorian calendar]] [[sl:Gregorijanski koledar]] [[sr:Грегоријански календар]] [[fi:Gregoriaaninen kalenteri]] [[sv:Gregorianska kalendern]] [[tl:Kalendaryong Gregorian]] [[th:ปฏิทินเกรกอเรียน]] [[tr:Gregoryen takvimi]] [[uk:Григоріанський календар]] [[wa:Calindrî gregoryin]] [[zh:公历]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gamma function</title> <id>12316</id> <revision> <id>41785164</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T19:03:24Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Fredrik</username> <id>26675</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Approximations / on iterations for rational arguments</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Gamma_plot.svg\|thumb\|right\|325px\|The Gamma function along part of the real axis]] In [[mathematics]], the '''Gamma function''' extends the [[factorial]] [[function (mathematics)\|function]] to [[complex number\|complex]] and non [[natural number\|natural]] numbers (where it is defined). The factorial function of an integer ''n'' is written ''n''! and is equal to the product ''n''!&nbsp;=&nbsp;1&nbsp;×&nbsp;2&nbsp;×&nbsp;3&nbsp;×&nbsp;...&nbsp;×&nbsp;''n''. The Gamma function "fills in" the factorial function for fractional values of ''n'' and for complex values of ''n''. If ''z'' is a complex variable, then for integer values only, we have :<math>\Gamma(z+1)=z!\, </math> but for fractional and complex values of ''z'', the above equation does not apply, since the factorial function is not defined. ==Definition== The notation Γ(''z'') is due to [[Adrien-Marie Legendre]]. If the real part of the complex number ''z'' is positive, then the [[integral]] :<math> \Gamma(z) = \int_0^\infty t^{z-1}\,e^{-t}\,dt </math> [[absolute convergence\|converges absolutely]]. Using [[integration by parts]], one can show that :<math>\Gamma(z+1)=z \, \Gamma(z)\,.</math> Because Γ(1)&nbsp;=&nbsp;1, this relation implies that :<math>\Gamma(n+1) = n \, \Gamma(n) = \cdots = n! \, \Gamma(1) = n!\,</math> for all [[natural number\|natural numbers]] ''n''. It can further be used to extend Γ(''z'') to a [[meromorphic function]] defined for all complex numbers ''z'' except ''z''&nbsp;=&nbsp;0,&nbsp; &minus;1, &minus;2, &minus;3, ... by [[analytic continuation]]. [[Image:Gamma abs.png\|thumb\|right\|The Gamma function in the complex numbers]] It is this extended version that is commonly referred to as the Gamma function. ==Alternative definitions== The following [[infinite product]] definitions for the Gamma function, due to [[Leonhard Euler\|Euler]] and [[Karl Weierstrass\|Weierstrass]] respectively, are valid for all complex numbers ''z'' which are not non-positive integers: :<math> \Gamma(z) = \lim_{n \to \infty} \frac{n! \; n^z}{z \; (z+1)\cdots(z+n)} </math> :<math>\Gamma(z) = \frac{e^{-\gamma z}}{z} \prod_{n=1}^\infty \left(1 + \frac{z}{n}\right)^{-1} e^{z/n}</math> where γ is the [[Euler-Mascheroni constant]]. ==Properties== Other important functional equations for the Gamma function are [[reflection formula\|Euler's reflection formula]] :<math> \Gamma(1-z) \; \Gamma(z) = {\pi \over \sin \pi z} </math> and the '''duplication formula''' :<math> \Gamma(z) \; \Gamma\left(z + \frac{1}{2}\right) = 2^{1-2z} \; \sqrt{\pi} \; \Gamma(2z). </math> The duplication formula is a special case of the '''multiplication theorem''' :<math> \Gamma(z) \; \Gamma\left(z + \frac{1}{m}\right) \; \Gamma\left(z + \frac{2}{m}\right) \cdots \Gamma\left(z + \frac{m-1}{m}\right) = (2 \pi)^{(m-1)/2} \; m^{1/2 - mz} \; \Gamma(mz). </math> Perhaps the most well-known value of the Gamma function at a non-integer argument is :<math>\Gamma\left(\frac{1}{2}\right)=\sqrt{\pi},</math> which can be found by setting ''z''=1/2 in the reflection formula or by noticing the [[beta function]] for (1/2, 1/2), which is <math>\sqrt \pi</math>. The derivatives of the Gamma function are described in terms of the [[polygamma function]]. For example: :<math>\Gamma'(z)=\Gamma(z)\psi_0(z).\,</math> The Gamma function has a [[pole (complex analysis)\|pole]] of order 1 at ''z''&nbsp;=&nbsp;&minus;''n'' for every [[natural number]] ''n''; the [[residue (complex analysis)\|residue]] there is given by :<math>\operatorname{Res}(\Gamma,-n)=\frac{(-1)^n}{n!}.</math> The [[Bohr-Mollerup theorem]] states that among all functions extending the factorial functions to the positive real numbers, only the Gamma function is [[log-convex]], that is, its [[natural logarithm]] is [[convex function\|convex]]. An alternative notation which was originally introduced by [[Carl Friedrich Gauss\|Gauss]] and which is sometimes used is the '''Pi function''', which in terms of the Gamma function is :<math>\Pi(z) = \Gamma(z+1) = z \; \Gamma(z),</math> so that :<math>\Pi(n) = n!.\,</math> Using the Pi function the reflection formula takes on the form :<math>\Pi(z) \; \Pi(-z) = \frac{\pi z}{\sin \pi z} = \frac{1}{\mathrm{sinc}_N(x)}</math> where sinc<sub>''N''</sub> is the normalized [[Sinc function]], while the multiplication theorem takes on the form :<math> \Pi\left(\frac{z}{m}\right) \, \Pi\left(\frac{z-1}{m}\right) \cdots \Pi\left(\frac{z-m+1}{m}\right) = \left(\frac{(2 \pi)^m}{2 \pi m}\right)^{1/2} \, m^{-z} \, \Pi(z). </math> We also sometimes find :<math>\pi(z) = {1 \over \Pi(z)}\,</math> which is an [[entire function]], defined for every complex number. That π(''z'') is entire entails it has no poles, so Γ(''z'') has no [[zero (complex analysis)\|zeros]]. == Relation to other functions == In the first integral above, which defines the Gamma function, the limits of integration are fixed. The [[incomplete gamma function\|incomplete Gamma function]] is the function obtained by allowing either the upper or lower limit of integration to be variable. The Gamma function is related to the [[Beta function]] by the formula :<math> \Beta(x,y)=\frac{\Gamma(x) \; \Gamma(y)}{\Gamma(x+y)}. </math> The [[derivative of the logarithm]] of the Gamma function is called the [[digamma function]]; higher derivatives are the [[polygamma function]]s. The analog of the Gamma function over a [[finite field]] or a finite [[ring (mathematics)\|ring]] are the [[Gaussian sum]]s, a type of [[exponential sum]]. The [[reciprocal Gamma function]] is an [[entire function]] and has been studied as a specific topic. ==Plots== <gallery> Image:Gamma real.png\|Real part of Γ(z) Image:Gamma imag.png\|Imaginary part of Γ(z) Image:Gamma absolute.png\|Absolute value of Γ(z) </gallery> <gallery> Image:Log gamma real.png\|Real part of log Γ(z) Image:Log gamma imag.png\|Imaginary part of log Γ(z) Image:Log gamma absolute.png\|Absolute value of log Γ(z) </gallery> == Particular values == ''Main article: [[Particular values of the Gamma function]]'' :{\| \|<math>\Gamma(-2)\,</math> \|(undefined) \|- \|<math>\Gamma(-3/2)\,</math> \|<math>= \frac {4\sqrt{\pi}} {3} \,</math> \|- \|<math>\Gamma(-1)\,</math> \|(undefined) \|- \|<math>\Gamma(-1/2)\,</math> \|<math>= -2\sqrt{\pi}\,</math> \|- \|<math>\Gamma(0)\,</math> \|(undefined) \|- \|<math>\Gamma(1/2)\,</math> \|<math>= \sqrt{\pi}\,</math> \|- \|<math>\Gamma(1)\,</math> \|<math>=0!=1 \,</math> \|- \|<math>\Gamma(3/2)\,</math> \|<math>= \frac {\sqrt{\pi}} {2} \,</math> \|- \|<math>\Gamma(2)\,</math> \|<math>=1!=1 \,</math> \|- \|<math>\Gamma(5/2)\,</math> \|<math>= \frac {3 \sqrt{\pi}} {4} \,</math> \|- \|<math>\Gamma(3)\,</math> \|<math>=2!=2 \,</math> \|- \|<math>\Gamma(7/2)\,</math> \|<math>= \frac {15\sqrt{\pi}} {8} \,</math> \|- \|<math>\Gamma(4)\,</math> \|<math>=3!=6 \,</math> \|} ==Approximations== Complex values of the Gamma function can be computed numerically with arbitrary precision using [[Stirling's approximation]] or the [[Lanczos approximation]]. By [[integration by parts\|partial integration]] of Euler's integral, the Gamma function can also be written :<math>\Gamma(z) = x^z e^{-x} \sum_{n=0}^\infty \frac{x^n}{z(z+1) \dots (z+n)} + \int_x^\infty e^{-t} t^{z-1} dt</math> where, if Re(''z'') has been reduced to the interval [1, 2], the last integral is smaller than <math>xe^{-x} < 2^{-N}</math>. Thus by choosing an appropriate ''x'', the Gamma function can be evaluated to ''N'' bits of precision with the above series. If ''z'' is rational, the computation can be performed with [[binary splitting]] in time <math>O((\log N)^2 M(N))</math> where ''M''(''N'') is the time needed to multiply two ''N''-bit numbers. For arguments that are integer multiples of 1/24, the Gamma function can also be evaluated quickly using [[arithmetic-geometric mean]] iterations (see [[particular values of the Gamma function]]). ==See also== [[Beta function]] [[Bohr-Mollerup theorem]] [[Digamma function]] [[Gamma distribution]] [[Gauss's constant]] [[Multivariate gamma function\|Multivariate Gamma function]] [[Polygamma function]] [[Stirling's approximation]] [[Trigamma function]] [[Elliptic gamma function]] == References == Milton Abramowit
rsity - see [[University of Glasgow]] #[[Glendale Community College]] #[[Goddard College]] #[[Golden Gate University]] #[[Golden West College]] #[[Goldey-Beacom College]] #[[Goldsmiths College, University of London]] #[[Gonzaga University]] #[[Gooding Institute of Nurse Anesthesia]] #[[Gordon College]] #[[Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary]] #[[Gorgan University]], [[Gorgan]], [[Iran]] #[[Goshen College]] #[[Gothenburg University]] #[[Gothenburg School of Economics and Commercial Law]] #[[Goucher College]] #[[Government College of Engineering, Pune]] #[[Government College of Engineering - Salem]] #[[Government College of Technology, Coimbatore]] #[[Grace College]] #[[Graceland College]] #[[Graduate Institute of International Studies]] #[[Graduate School, USDA]] #[[Grand Rapids Baptist Seminary]] #[[Grand Rapids Community College]] #[[Grand Valley State University]] #[[Grant MacEwan Community College]] #[[Grays Harbor Community College]] #[[Grayson County College]] #[[Graz University of Technology]] #[[Green Mountain College]] #[[Greenville Technical College]] #[[Gresham College]] #[[Grey College]], [[University of Durham]] #[[Griffith University]] #[[Grinnell College]] #[[University of Groningen\|Groningen University]] #[[Grossmont Community College]] #[[Grossmont-Cuyamaca Community College District]] #[[Grove City College]] #[[Guilan University of Medical Sciences]] ([[Rasht]], [[Iran]]) #[[Guildford College]] #[[Guilford College]] #[[Guilford Technical Community College]] #[[Gulf Coast Community College]] #[[Gunma University]] #[[Gustavus Adolphus College]] #[[Gutenberg College]] #[[Gwynedd Mercy College]] #[[Gyeongsang National University]] :''See also :'' [[Colleges and universities]] [[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order\|G]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>List of colleges and universities starting with H</title> <id>6481</id> <revision> <id>35577200</id> <timestamp>2006-01-17T19:51:05Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Vizcarra</username> <id>116263</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_A\|A]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_B\|B]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_C\|C]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_D\|D]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_E\|E]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_F\|F]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_G\|G]] -- '''H''' -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_I\|I]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_J\|J]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_K\|K]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_L\|L]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_M\|M]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_N\|N]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_O\|O]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_P\|P]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Q\|Q]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_R\|R]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_S\|S]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_T\|T]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_U\|U]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_V\|V]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_W\|W]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_X\|X]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Y\|Y]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Z\|Z]] ---- ==Ha== ===Haa-Han=== #[[Haagse Hogeschool]] #[[Hacettepe University]] #[[Hachinohe Institute of Technology]] #[[Hackney College]] #[[Hahnemann University]] #[[Hallym University]] #[[Halmstad University]] #[[Hame Polytechnic]] #[[Hamilton College]] #[[Hamline University]] #[[Hampden-Sydney College]] #[[Hampshire College]] #[[Hampton University]] #[[Handelshochschule Leipzig (HHL)]] #[[Hangzhou University]] #[[Hankook University of Foreign Studies]] #[[Hannan University]] #[[Hanover College]] #[[Hanyang University]] #[[Hanzehogeschool]] ===Har-Haw=== #[[Harbin Engineering University]] #[[Harbin Institute of Technology]] #[[Harding University]] #[[Hartland Institute of Health and Education]] #[[Harvard Graduate School of Education]] #[[Harvard University]] ([[Cambridge, Massachusetts]]) #[[Harvey Mudd College]] #[[University Hasselt\|Hasselt University]] #[[Hastings College]] #[[Hastings College of Law]] #[[Hatfield College]], [[University of Durham]] #[[Hautes Etudes Commerciales]] #[[Haverford College]] #[[Hawaii Pacific University]] ==He== #[[Heald Institute Of Technology]] #[[Hebrew College]] #[[Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion]] #[[Hebrew University of Jerusalem]] #[[Heidelberg College]] #[[Heinrich-Heine-Universitat Dusseldorf]] #[[Helsinki Business Polytechnic]] #[[Helsinki School of Economics]] #[[Helsinki University of Technology]] #[[Henderson State University]] #[[Hendrix College]] #[[Heriot-Watt University]] #[[Heritage College (Gatineau)\|Heritage College]] ([[Gatineau, Quebec]]) #[[Heritage College (Toppenish)\|Heritage College]] ([[Toppenish, Washington]]) #[[University of Hertfordshire]] #[[Hesston College]] ==Hi== #[[High Point University]] #[[Higher Colleges of Technology]] #[[Hill College]] #[[Hillsdale College]] #[[Hiram College]] #[[Hirosaki University]] #[[Hiroshima City University]] #[[Hiroshima Institute of Technology]] #[[Hiroshima Shudo University]] #[[Hiroshima University]] #[[Hiroshima-Denki Institute of Technology]] #[[Hitotsubashi University]] ==Ho== ===Hob-Hok=== #[[Hobart and William Smith Colleges]] #[[Hochschule fur Architektur und Bauwesen Weimar]] #[[Hochschule fur Druck Stuttgart]] #[[Hochschule fur Musik und Darstellende Kunst Mozarteum]] #[[Hochschule fur Musik und Darstellende Kunst in Graz]] #[[Hochschule fur Technik und Wirtschaft Dresden]] #[[Hochschule fur Technik und Wirtschaft Mittweida]] #[[Hochschule fur Technik und Wirtshaft Zwickau (FH)]] #[[Hochschule fur Technik, Wirtschaft und Kultur Leipzig]] #[[Hochschule fur Technik,Wirtshaft, und Sozialwesen Zittau/Gorlitz(FH)]] #[[Hocking College]] #[[Hofstra University]] #[[Hogeschool Eindhoven]] #[[Hogeschool Sint-Lukas Brussel]] #[[Hogeschool van Amsterdam]] #[[Hogeschool van Utrecht]] #[[Hogskolen i Bodo]] #[[Hogskolen i Hedmark]] #[[Hogskolen i Oslo]] #[[Hogskolan pa Gotland]] #[[Hohai University]] #[[Hokkaido University]] #[[Hokkaido University of Education]] ===Hol-How=== #[[Hólar University College]] #[[Holland College]] #[[Holyoke Community College]] #[[Hong Kong Baptist University]] #[[Hong Kong Polytechnic University]] #[[Hong Kong University of Science and Technology]] #[[Honolulu Community College]] #[[Hood College]] #[[Hope College]] #[[Houghton College]] #[[Houston Community College System]] #[[Howard Community College]] #[[Howard University]] ==Hu== #[[HuaFan College of Humanitites and Technology]] #[[Huazhong University of Science and Technology]], [[Wuhan]], [[China]] #[[Huddersfield University]] #[[Hudson Valley Community College]] #[[Humber College of Applied Arts and Technology]] #[[Humboldt State University ]] #[[Humboldt-University, Berlin]] #[[Hunan Agricultural University]] #[[Hung-Kuang College of Nursing]] #[[Huntingdon College]] #[[Huntington College]] :''See also :'' [[Colleges and universities]] [[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order\|H]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>List of colleges and universities starting with I</title> <id>6482</id> <revision> <id>40623777</id> <timestamp>2006-02-21T22:23:04Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Pjb007</username> <id>957380</id> </contributor> <comment>Added Isle of Man College</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_A\|A]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_B\|B]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_C\|C]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_D\|D]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_E\|E]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_F\|F]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_G\|G]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_H\|H]] -- '''I''' -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_J\|J]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_K\|K]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_L\|L]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_M\|M]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_N\|N]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_O\|O]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_P\|P]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Q\|Q]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_R\|R]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_S\|S]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_T\|T]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_U\|U]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_V\|V]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_W\|W]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_X\|X]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Y\|Y]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Z\|Z]] ---- #[[ICI University]] #[[IJselland Polytechnic]] #[[Idaho State University]] #[[Illinois Benedictine College]] #[[Illinois College]] #[[Illinois Institute of Technology]] #[[Illinois State University]] #[[Illinois Wesleyan University]] #[[Imam Hossein University, Tehran]] #[[Imperial College London]] #[[Imperial Valley College]] #[[Incarnate Word College]] #[[Independent University of Moscow]] #[[Indian Institute of Management, Calcutta]] #[[Indian Institute of Management, Lucknow]] #[[I
son the GPL has been described as a "copyright [[Hack (technology slang)\|hack]]". It also ensures that unlimited redistribution rights are not granted, should any legal flaw (or "[[computer bug\|bug]]") be found in the copyleft statement. Many distributors of GPLed programs bundle the source code with the [[executable]]s. An alternative method of satisfying the copyleft is to provide a written offer to provide the source code on a physical medium (such as a CD) upon request. In practice, many GPLed programs are distributed over the [[Internet]], and the source code is made available over [[File Transfer Protocol\|FTP]]. For Internet distribution, this complies with the license. The copyleft only applies when a person seeks to redistribute the program. One is allowed to make private modified versions, without any obligation to divulge the modifications as long as the modified software is not distributed to anyone else. Note that the copyleft only applies to the software and not to its output (unless that output is itself a derivative work of the program); for example, a web portal running a modified GPL [[content management system]] is not required to distribute its changes to the underlying software. (It has been suggested that this be changed for version 3 of the GPL.) === The GPL is a license === The GPL was designed as a [[license]], rather than a [[contract]]. In some [[Common Law]] jurisdictions, the legal distinction between a license and a contract is an important one: contracts are enforceable by contract law, whereas the GPL, as a license, is enforced under the terms of copyright law. However, this distinction is not useful in the many jurisdictions where there are no differences between contracts and licences, such as [[Civil law (legal system)\|Civil Law]] systems. The way the GPL license works is simple, if you do not abide by the GPL's terms and conditions you do not have permission, under copyright law, to copy or distribute GPL licensed software or derivative works. It does ''not'' mean that the rules of the GPL do not apply to you and that you may use the software however you like. The default is the restrictions of copyright law, not the anarchy of the public domain. == Copyright holders == The text of the GPL is itself copyrighted, and the copyright is held by the [[Free Software Foundation]] (FSF). However, the FSF does not hold the copyright for a work released under the GPL, unless an author explicitly assigns copyrights to the FSF (which seldom happens except for programs that are part of the [[GNU]] project). Only the individual copyright holders have the authority to sue when a license violation takes place. Unlike the works released under the GPL, the GPL itself is ''not'' freely modifiable: copying and distribution is allowed, but changing the text of the GPL itself is generally forbidden. The FSF does permit people to create new licenses based on the GPL, as long as the derived licenses do not use the GPL preamble without permission. This is discouraged, however, since such a license is generally incompatible with the GPL. (See the [http://www.fsf.org/licenses/gpl-faq.html GPL FAQ] for more information.) Other licenses created by the GNU project include the [[GNU Lesser General Public License]] and the [[GNU Free Documentation License]]. == GPL-related disputes == A key dispute related to the GPL is whether or not non-GPL software can [[library linking\|dynamically link]] to GPL libraries. The GPL is clear in requiring that all [[derivative work]]s of GPLed code must themselves be GPLed. However, it is not clear whether an executable that dynamically links to a GPL library should be considered a derivative work. The free/open-source software community is split on this issue, with the FSF asserting that such an executable is indeed a derivative work, and other experts disagreeing. This is ultimately a question not of the GPL ''per se'', but of how copyright law defines derivative works. In ''[[Galoob v. Nintendo]]'' the [[Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals]] defined a derivative work as having "'form' or permanence" and noted that "the infringing work must incorporate a portion of the copyrighted work in some form," but there have been no clear court decisions to resolve this particular conflict. Unfortunately, many developers believe this is a technical question. It is not. The question is entirely a legal issue -- is the linking work legally a derivative work. A number of businesses are based on distributing a GPLed library and selling a separate license to companies wishing to link the library with proprietary code, whether dynamically or not. Examples of such companies include [[MySQL]] AB and [[Trolltech]] ([[Qt (toolkit)\|Qt toolkit]]). Also, [[ReiserFS]] ([[Namesys]]) and [[Cygwin]] ([[Red Hat]]) are GPLed programs for which other licenses are offered. As there is no record of anyone circumventing the GPL by dynamic linking without backing down when threatened with lawsuits by the FSF or the respective copyright holder, the restriction is apparently ''[[de facto]]'' enforceable even if not currently ''[[de jure]]''. In [[2002]], MySQL AB sued Progress NuSphere for copyright and trademark infringement in [[U.S. District Court for the District of Massachusetts\|United States district court]]. NuSphere had allegedly violated MySQL's copyright by linking code for the Gemini table type into the MySQL server. After a preliminary hearing before Judge [[Patti Saris]] on [[February 27]], [[2002]], the parties entered settlement talks and eventually settled. At the hearing, Judge Saris "saw no reason" that the GPL would not be enforceable. In August [[2003]], the [[SCO Group]] stated that they believed the GPL to have no legal validity, and that they intended to take up lawsuits over sections of code supposedly copied from SCO Unix into the [[Linux kernel]]. This was a problematic stand for them, as they had distributed Linux and other GPLed code in their "Caldera Linux" distribution, and there is little evidence that they had any legal right to do so except under the terms of the GPL. For more information, see [[SCO-Linux controversies]]. In April [[2004]] the [[Netfilter\|Netfilter/iptables]] project was granted a preliminary [[injunction]] against Sitecom Germany by [[Munich]] District Court after Sitecom refused to desist from distributing Netfilter's GPLed software, allegedly in violation of the terms of the GPL. On July [[2004]], the German court confirmed this injunction as a final ruling against SiteCom. The court's justification for its decision exactly mirrored the predictions given earlier by the FSF's [[Eben Moglen]]: : ''Defendant has infringed on the copyright of plaintiff by offering the software 'netfilter/iptables' for download and by advertising its distribution, without adhering to the license conditions of the GPL. Said actions would only be permissible if defendant had a license grant... This is independent of the questions whether the licensing conditions of the GPL have been effectively agreed upon between plaintiff and defendant or not. If the GPL were not agreed upon by the parties, defendant would notwithstanding lack the necessary rights to copy, distribute, and make the software 'netfilter/iptables' publicly available.'' This ruling was important because it was the first time in the world that a court had confirmed that the GPL is a legally enforceable license. == GPL compatibility == Many of the most common [[free software]] licenses, such as the original [[MIT License\|MIT/X license]], the [[BSD license]], and the [[GNU Lesser General Public License\|LGPL]], are "GPL-compatible". That is, their code can be combined with a GPLed program without conflict (the new combination would have the GPL applied to the whole). However, some open source software licenses are not GPL-compatible. Many have strongly advocated that open source software developers use only GPL-compatible licenses, because doing otherwise makes it difficult to reuse software in larger wholes. Also see the [[List of software licenses]] for examples of compatible and incompatible licenses. ==Criticism== In 2001 [[Microsoft]] [[CEO]] [[Steve Ballmer]] referred to Linux as a "cancer" because of the effects of the GPL. Critics of Microsoft claim that the real reason Microsoft dislikes the GPL is because the GPL resists proprietary vendor's attempts to [[Embrace, extend and extinguish]] (EEE). Note that Microsoft has sold a product ([[Microsoft Windows Services for UNIX]]) with GPL-licensed code. Critics of the GPL often describe it as being [[Copyleft#Is_copyleft_.22viral.22.3F\|"viral"]], based on the GPL terms that all derived works must in turn be licensed under the GPL. Since the definition of "derived work" is commonly interpreted to include software containing GPLed code or dynamically linking to GPLed libraries (see above), the "virus" complaint comes from the view that the GPL forces its terms onto all other software whose authors choose to add GPLed code to their own. This is part of a [[BSD and GPL licensing\|philosophical difference]] between the GPL and permissive free software licenses such as the BSD-style licenses, which put fewer restrictions on derived works. While proponents of the GPL believe that free software should ensure that its freedoms are preserved in derivative works, others believe that free software should give its users the maximum freedom to use it as they wish. However, the GPL does ''not'' force copyright owners to do anything with code they own. Copyright owners of works licensed with the GPL are free to negotiate alternate terms with authors of derived works. Dual-licensing is becoming more common, where software licensed under the GPL can be made available under a commercial license for a fee, allowing others to create derived works
. == List of IOI websites and locations == * '''IOI 2009''' will be held in [[Bulgaria]], [[2009]] * '''IOI 2008''' will be held in [[Egypt]], [[2008]] * '''IOI 2007''' will be held in [[Croatia]], [[2007]] * '''IOI 2006''' will be held in [[Mérida, Yucatán\|Mérida]], [[Yucatán]], [[Mexico]], [[August 13]] - [[August 20\|20]], [[2006]] * '''IOI 2005''' was held in [[Nowy S&#261;cz]], [[Poland]], [[August 18]] - [[August 25\|25]], [[2005]] [http://www.ioi2005.pl/] * '''IOI 2004''' was held in [[Athens]], [[Greece]], [[September 11]] - [[September 18\|18]], [[2004]] [http://www.ioi2004.org/] * '''IOI 2003''' was held in [[Wisconsin]], [[United States\|USA]], [[August 16]] - [[August 23\|23]], [[2003]] [http://www.ioinformatics.org/ioi2003/] * '''IOI 2002''' was held in [[Yongin\|Yong-In]], [[Republic of Korea]], [[August 18]] - [[August 25\|25]], [[2002]] [http://www.ioi2002.or.kr/] * '''IOI 2001''' was held in [[Tampere]], [[Finland]], [[July 14]] - [[July 21\|21]], [[2001]] [http://www.ioi2001.edu.fi/] * '''IOI 2000''' was held in [[Beijing]], [[People's Republic of China]], [[September 23]] - [[September 30\|30]], [[2000]] [http://www.ioi2000.org.cn/] '''IOI 1999''' was held in [[Antalya\|Antalya-Belek]], [[Turkey]], [[October 9]] - [[October 16\|16]], [[1999]] [http://www.ioi99.org.tr/] '''IOI 1998''' was held in [[Setúbal]], [[Portugal]], [[September 5]] - [[September 12\|12]], [[1998]] * '''IOI 1997''' was held in [[Cape Town]], [[South Africa]], [[November 30]] - [[December 7]], [[1997]] * '''IOI 1996''' was held in [[Veszprém]], [[Hungary]], [[July 25]] - [[August 2]], [[1996]] * '''IOI 1995''' was held in [[Eindhoven]], The [[Netherlands]], [[June 26]] - [[July 3]], [[1995]] [http://olympiads.win.tue.nl/ioi95/] * '''IOI 1994''' was held in [[Haninge]], [[Sweden]], [[July 3]] - [[July 10\|10]], [[1994]] * '''IOI 1993''' was held in [[Mendoza]], [[Argentina]], [[October 16]] - [[October 25\|25]], [[1993]] [http://www.ioi.org.ar/mendoza/] * '''IOI 1992''' was held in [[Bonn]], [[Germany]], [[July 11]] - [[July 21\|21]], [[1992]] * '''IOI 1991''' was held in [[Athens]], [[Greece]], [[May 19]] - [[May 25\|25]], [[1991]] * '''IOI 1990''' was held in [[Minsk]], [[Belarus\|Belarusian SSR]], [[Soviet Union]], [[July 15]] - [[July 21\|21]], [[1990]] * '''IOI 1989''' was held in [[Pravets\|Pravetz]], [[Bulgaria]], [[May 16]] - [[May 19\|19]], [[1989]]. == See also == * [[International science olympiad]] * [[ACM International Collegiate Programming Contest]] * [[Central European Olympiad in Informatics]] * [[British Informatics Olympiad]] * [[National Olympiad in Informatics, China]] == External links == [http://www.ioinformatics.org/ IOI International Committee Website] [http://olympiads.win.tue.nl/ioi/ IOI Secretariat Website] [http://www.ioi2005.pl/ IOI 2005 Website] [http://www.ioiforum.org/ Olympiad Forum in Informatics] (had been closed and now reborn as a Chinese-only web forum) [http://www.tobias-thierer.de/olympiads-photos.html Photos] from some former Informatics Olympiads. [[Category:Olympiad]] [[Category:Programming contests]] [[de:Internationale Informatik-Olympiade]] [[fr:Olympiades internationales d'informatique]] [[ko:&#44397;&#51228; &#51221;&#48372; &#50732;&#47548;&#54588;&#50500;&#46300;]] [[th:คอมพิวเตอร์โอลิมปิก]] [[zh:&#22269;&#38469;&#20449;&#24687;&#23398;&#22885;&#26519;&#21305;&#20811;]] [[ru:Международная олимпиада по информатике]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>I</title> <id>14778</id> <revision> <id>41671276</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T23:41:41Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Cameron Nedland</username> <id>652628</id> </contributor> <comment>/ Usage /</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{AZ\|uc=I\|lc=i}} :''Due to MediaWiki's uppercase algorithm, [[ı]] (lower case [[dotless i]]) will bring you here. '''I''' is the ninth [[letter]] in the [[Latin alphabet]]. ==History== {\| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse: collapse;text-align:center;" \|- bgcolor="#EEEEEE" ! Egyptian hieroglyph {{unicode\|&#705;}} ! Proto-Semitic Y ! Phoenician Y ! Etruscan I ! Greek I \|----- \|<hiero>D36</hiero> \|[[Image:Proto-semiticI-02.png]] \|[[Image:PhoenicianI-01.png]] \|[[Image:EtruscanI-01.png]] \|[[Image:GreekI-01.png]] \|} In Semitic, the letter ''Yôdh'' was probably originally a [[pictogram]] for an arm with hand, derived from a similar hieroglyph that had the value of {{unicode\|/&#705;/}} in Egyptian, but was reassigned to /j/ (pronounced as English [[Y]] in "yoke") by Semites, because their word for "arm" began with that sound. This letter could also be used for the [[vowel]] sound /i/, mainly in foreign words. The Greeks adopted a form of this Phoenician ''yodh'' as their letter ''[[iota]]'' (&Iota;, &iota;). It stood for the vowel /i/, the same as in the [[Old Italic alphabet]]. In Latin (as in Modern Greek), it was also used for the consonant sound of /j/. The modern letter [[J]] was originally a variation of this letter, and both were interchangeably used for both the vowel and the consonant, only coming to be differentiated in the [[16th century]]. In modern English, I represents different sounds, mainly a "long" diphthong /ai/, that developed from /i:/ during the [[Great vowel shift]] of the [[15th century]], as well as the "short", open /I/ as in "bill". The dot over the lowercase 'i' is sometimes called a ''[[tittle]]''. In the [[Turkish alphabet]], dotted and [[dotless I]] are considered separate letters and both have uppercase (I, [[I-dot\|&#304;]]) and lowercase (&#305;, i) forms. ==Codes for computing== {{Letter \|NATO=India \|Morse=·· \|B1=○ \|B2=● \|B3=○ \|B4=● \|B5=○ \|B6=○ }} In [[Unicode]] the [[majuscule\|capital]] I is codepoint U+0049 and the [[minuscule\|lowercase]] i is U+0069. The [[ASCII]] code for capital I is 73 and for lowercase i is 105; or in [[Binary numeral system\|binary]] 01001001 and 01101001, correspondingly. The [[EBCDIC]] code for capital I is 201 and for lowercase i is 137. The [[numeric character reference]]s in [[HTML]] and [[XML]] are "<tt>&amp;#73;</tt>" and "<tt>&amp;#105;</tt>" for upper and lower case respectively. ==Meanings for I== In [[astronomy]], ''i'' stands for the [[orbital inclination]]. * In [[biochemistry]], I is the symbol for [[isoleucine]]. * In [[chemistry]], I is the symbol for [[iodine]]. * In [[computing]], <code>&lt;i&gt;</code> is the [[Deprecation\|deprecated]] [[HTML element\|HTML tag]] for marking [[italic type]]. It is also commonly used as the name of the index [[variable]] in [[for loop]]s when no other name suggests itself. * In [[English language\|English]], '''I''' is the [[nominative case]] of the [[pronoun]] denoting the first [[grammatical person\|person]], singular. See [[Wiktionary:I]]. * In [[List of international license plate codes\|international licence plate codes]], I stands for [[Italy]]. * In the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]], the letter I appears in three forms; its lowercase version, /i/, refers to the [[close front unrounded vowel]]; its barred version, {{IPA\|/ɨ/}}, stands for the [[close central unrounded vowel]]; and its small capital version, {{IPA\|/ɪ/}}, represents the [[near-close near-front unrounded vowel]]. * In [[mathematics]], ''i'' denotes the [[imaginary unit]], a [[complex number]] whose square is equal to &minus;1. I denotes the [[closed unit interval]], which contains all real numbers from 0 to 1, inclusive '''I''' denotes the [[identity matrix]]. ''i'' is commonly used as an [[Index (mathematics)\|index]] [[variable]] to [[coordinate vector]]s or [[Matrix (mathematics)\|matrices]]. It is written as a [[subscript]] after the indexed element. When used with matrices, it usually indexes rows, in which case columns are usually indexed by ''j''. * In [[physics]] and [[electronic engineering]], ''I'' is often the variable for [[electric current]]. Sometimes both ''I'' and ''i'' are used for static and small signal respecively. Therefore the imaginary unit is represented by ''j'' instead. * In [[radio]]communication, I is the [[ITU prefix]] allocated to [[Italy]]. * In [[Roman numerals]], I denotes the number [[1 (number)\|1]] (there are also separate [[Unicode]] characters for this number, 0x2160 "Ⅰ" and 0x2170 "ⅰ"). * In [[structural engineering]] ''I'' is used for the [[moment of inertia]] * In [[music]], the Roman numeral I is the [[tonic (music)\|tonic]] [[scale degree]], [[Chord (music)\|chord]], or [[diatonic function]], when distinguished I = major and i = minor. ''I'' is the name of the winner of the [[Norway\|Norwegian]] version of [[Pop Idol]] and also [[World Idol]], [[Kurt Nilsen]]'s debut album. See [[I (album)]]. ''[[I (The Magnetic Fields album)\|i]]'' is the name of an album by [[The Magnetic Fields]]. ''i'' is the name of a Portuguese [[post-rock]] band ** ''[[I (EP)\|I]]'' is the name of a song and EP by [[Sweden\|Swedish]] [[tech metal]] band, [[Meshuggah]]. * In [[economics]], I is usually used to represent [[investment]]. * In [[television]], ''[[i (TV network)\|i]]'' is the [[television network]] formerly known as PAX ==See also== [[Ì]], [[Í]], [[Î]], [[Ï]], [[I-breve\|&#300;]], [[I-dot\|&#304;]] {{AZsubnav}} [[Category:Latin letters]] [[Category:Vowels]] [[als:I]] [[bs:I]] [[ca:I]] [[cs:I]] [[da:I]] [[de:I]] [[el:I]] [[es:I]] [[eo:I]] [[fr:I]] [[gl:I]] [[ko:I]] [[it:I]] [[he:I]] [[kw:I]] [[la:I]] [[nl:I]] [[ja:I]] [[no:I]] [[nn:I]] [[pl:I]] [[pt:I]] [[ro:I]] [[ru:I (буква)]] [[simple:I]] [[sl:I]] [[fi:I]] [[sv:I]] [[vi:I]] [[yo:I]] [[zh:I]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Iota</title> <id>14779</id> <revision>
[Catholic]]) who seek unification with the independent southern state and [[Unionist (Ireland)\|Unionists]] (mostly [[Protestant]]) who wish for Northern Ireland to remain within the [[United Kingdom]]. This conflict exploded into a violent conflict in the late sixties known as the [[The Troubles\|Troubles]] involving groups such as the [[Provisional Irish Republican Army\|Provisional IRA]], [[loyalist]] paramilitaries, the [[RUC\|police]] and the [[British army]]. The Troubles have caused thousands of deaths in Northern Ireland but have also spilled over into bombings and acts of violence in [[England]] and in the Republic. Since its foundation it has been the stated long-term policy of governments of the state now called the Republic of Ireland to bring an end to the conflict in Northern Ireland and to bring about a [[united Ireland]]. Northern Ireland has also, in the past, often been a source of tension between the Irish Government and the [[British government]]. In order to find a solution to the Troubles the Irish Government became a partner in the [[Belfast Agreement\|Good Friday (Belfast) Agreement]] in [[1998]]. While Sinn Féin have long organised in both Northern Ireland and the Republic, Fianna Fáil have recently opened a ''cumann'''(branch) in [[Derry]] and begun recruiting members at [[Queen's_University_Belfast\|Queen's University]], [[Belfast]]. ''See also: [[History of Northern Ireland]].'' ==International organisation participation== The republic is member of [[Australia Group]], [[Bank for International Settlements\|BIS]], [[Council of Europe\|CE]], [[EBRD]], [[United Nations Economic Commission for Europe\|ECE]], [[European Investment Bank\|EIB]], [[Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union\|EMU]], [[European Space Agency\|ESA]], [[EU]], [[Food and Agriculture Organization\|FAO]], [[AEA]], [[IBRD]], [[ICAO]], [[International Criminal Court\|ICC]], [[International Chamber of Commerce\|ICC]], [[ICFTU]], [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement\|ICRM]], [[International Development Association\|IDA]], [[International Energy Agency\|IEA]], [[IFAD]], [[IFC]], [[IFRCS]], [[International Labour Organization\|ILO]], [[IMF]], [[International Maritime Organization]], [[Intelsat]], [[Interpol]], [[IOC]], [[International Organization for Migration\|IOM]] (observer), [[International Organization for Standardization\|ISO]], [[International Telecommunication Union\|ITU]], [[MINURSO]], [[NAM]] (guest), [[Nuclear Energy Agency\|NEA]], [[Nuclear Suppliers Group\|NSG]], [[OECD]], [[OPCW]], [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe\|OSCE]], [[Partnership for Peace\|PFP]], [[UN]], [[UNCTAD]], [[UNESCO]], [[UNFICYP]], [[UNHCR]], [[UNIDO]], [[UNIFIL]], [[UNIKOM]], [[UNITAR]], [[UNMIBH]], [[UNMIK]], [[UNMOP]], [[UNTAET]], [[UNTSO]], [[UPU]], [[World Customs Organization\|WCO]], [[WEU]] (observer), [[World Health Organization\|WHO]], [[WIPO]], [[WMO]], [[WTrO]], [[Zangger Committee]]. ==See also== [[List of Ireland-related topics]] [[History of the Republic of Ireland]] [[History of Ireland]] [[List of Irish general elections]] [[List of Irish by-elections]] [[Parliamentary Constituencies in the Republic of Ireland]] [[The Reform Movement]] ==External links== [http://www.electionsireland.org ElectionsIreland.org] - Irish election results from 1920 to today. [[Category:Republic of Ireland]][[Category:Politics of the Republic of Ireland]] [[de:Politik (Irland)]] [[ja:アイルランドの政治]] [[pt:Política da República da Irlanda]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Economy of the Republic of Ireland</title> <id>14678</id> <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions> <revision> <id>41890791</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T11:48:05Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>217.33.207.242</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}} {{Economy of Ireland table}} The '''[[economic system\|economy]] of the [[Republic of Ireland]]''' is modern, relatively small, and trade-dependent with growth averaging a robust 10% in [[1995]]&ndash;[[2000]]. [[Agriculture]], once the most important sector, is now dwarfed by [[industry]], which accounts for 46% of [[Gross Domestic Product\|GDP]], about 80% of [[export]]s, and employs 29% of the [[labour force]]. Although exports remain the primary engine for the Republic's robust growth, the economy is also benefiting from a rise in [[consumer spending]] and recovery in both [[construction]] and business [[investment]]. The annual rate of [[inflation]] stands at 2.3% [[as of 2005]], down from recent rates of between 4% and 5%. House price inflation has been a particular economic concern (average house price was €251,281 in February [[2005]]). Unemployment is very low and incomes have been rising rapidly although costs have also been rising [http://www.rte.ie/business/2005/0323/housing.html]) as well as service charges ([[public utility\|utilities]], [[insurance]], [[healthcare]], [[Lawyer\|legal representation]], etc.). [[Dublin]], the nation's [[capital]], was ranked 22nd in a worldwide cost of living survey in [[As of 2004\|2004]] [http://www.finfacts.com/costofliving4.htm] - a rise of two places on [[2003]]. Ireland has been reported to have the second highest per capita income of any country in the EU (if not Europe) next to Luxembourg, and fourth highest in the world. ==History== ''Main article: [[Economic history of the Republic of Ireland]]'' The state known today as the Republic of Ireland seceded from the [[United Kingdom]] in [[1922]]. The state was plagued by poverty and [[emigration]] until the 1990s. That decade saw the beginning of unprecedented economic success, in a phenomenon known as the "[[Celtic Tiger]]". Over the past decade, the Irish government has implemented a series of national economic programmes designed to curb [[inflation]], ease tax burdens, reduce government spending as a percentage of [[gross domestic product\|GDP]], increase labour force skills, and promote foreign investment. The Republic joined in launching the [[euro]] currency system in January [[1999]] along with ten other [[European Union]] nations. The economy felt the impact of the global economic slowdown in [[2001]], particularly in the high-tech export sector &ndash; the growth rate in that area was cut by nearly half. GDP growth continued to be exceptionally high in international terms, with a rate of about 6% in [[2001]] and [[2002]] &ndash; and it is expected to continue at more than 4 per cent (2006 onwards). Since 2001, GNI (which measures income to Irish residents rather than output) growth has been much worse, with an almost three-fold decrease in 2001 from the previous year. After a near stagnant year in 2002, growth started to pick up once again in [[2003]] has been very buoyant since.[http://www.finance.gov.ie/documents/publications/other/bes_04.pdf]. ==Infrastructure== Ireland's transport [[infrastructure]] varies substantially in quality. On the East coast, the country is served by a modern road network which includes a north-south [[motorway]] (the [[M1 motorway (Republic of Ireland)\|M1]]), various by-passes and several [[dual carriageway]]s. The rest of the country however is still served by a relatively poor standard of road. The main national routes are centred on Dublin, leading to other population centres. There is only one major non-Dublin route (or series of routes), extending through the western half of Ireland from Cork through Limerick to Galway, Sligo and Donegal. The nationwide road network is currently being upgraded and improved by the [[National Development Plan]]. The [[Dublin]] area - the best connected area in the country - is served by a light rail network (the [[Luas]]), the [[Dublin Port Tunnel]] the [[M50 motorway (Ireland)\|M50]], [[Dublin Airport]], [[commuter rail]] and the [[DART]]. Also most major national road and rail routes converge on the city. [[Image:DART Unit 8203.jpg\|thumb\|left\|200px\|The [[Dublin Area Rapid Transit\|DART]] is a key piece of infrastructure in [[Dublin]] for commuters]] Ireland's rail network is run by the semi-state body [[Iarnród Éireann]], a subsidiary of [[Córas Iompair Éireann\|CIÉ]] and is made up of 9 national lines and several regional commuter lines such as the [[DART]]. CIÉ retain some freight customers, though few new freight services have started in recent years. Only some major ports remain technically freight-connected, the connection at [[Sligo]] for example was removed in [[2003]], while the link to [[Foynes]] has remained unused since [[1999]]. The efficiency of the train network is poor, with regular delays and overcrowding on major routes ([http://www.thepost.ie/web/Home/Document%20View%20Business/did-889012424-pageUrl--2FBusiness-2FNews-2FAll-News.asp]). Some regional routes have few services, and as a result, struggle to achieve passengers. Much new rolling stock has been acquired since [[1994]], and [[as of 2004]], this is finally beginning to expand capacity rather than just replacing old stock. Most major routes have been relaid with continuous welded rail, and signalling has in most cases been upgraded from the more than century-old mechanical semaphores. The country has a total of 36 airports and airfields, of which 3 - [[Dublin Airport]], [[Shannon International Airport]] and [[Cork International Airport]] are of a substantial size. The country is served by several airlines, most notably [[Aer Lingus]], [[Ryanair]], [[Aer Arann]], and [[Cityjet]]. Air transport is relatively cheap. The main ports are [[Rosslare Europort]], [[Limerick]], [[Dublin]], [[Cork]] and [[Waterford]]. There are daily ferry services to Britain [http://www.infrastructure.ie/]. The telecommunications network is slowly improving, admittedly from a low base. [[As of 2004]] broadband is available to approximately 50% of homes and businesses, with about 15% geographic coverage - however it remains relatively expensive. Coverage may expand if t
=Current Operations== [[Image:ba.b737-436.g-docp.800pix.jpg\|thumb\|right\|250px\|British Airways [[Boeing 737\|Boeing 737-400]].]] British Airways is based at [[London Heathrow Airport]] in [[London]], [[England]]. It also has a commanding presence at [[London Gatwick Airport\|Gatwick]] and [[Manchester International Airport]]. BA has succeeded in dominating Heathrow to the point that the airport is commonly referred to as ''Fortress Heathrow'' within both the airline and its competitors. As an incumbent airline, BA had ''[[grandfather rights]]'' to around 36% of takeoff and landing slots at Heathrow, many of which are used for the lucrative trans-Atlantic market. Some competitors, such as [[Virgin Atlantic Airways\|Virgin Atlantic]], [[Bmi (airline)\|bmi]] and [[United Airlines]], assert that this stifles competition and some political think-tanks recommend an auction of slots. In recent years British Airways has been buying slots from other airlines including [[United Airlines]], [[SN Brussels]] and [[Swiss International Air Lines]], and now owns about 42% of slots at Heathrow. Some British Airways services are operated by various subsidiaries and franchisees: ===Subsidiaries=== [[BA Connect]] ===Franchisees=== [[British Mediterranean Airways]], UK, franchisee since [[1997]]. [[Comair (South Africa)\|Comair]], [[South Africa]], franchisee since 1996. [[GB Airways]], UK, franchisee since [[1 February]] [[1995]]. [[Loganair]], UK, franchisee since July [[1994]]. [[Sun Air of Scandinavia\|Sun Air]], [[Denmark]], franchisee since [[1 August]] [[1996]]. British Airways is pioneering the use of "flat beds" in the premium cabins on their long-haul routes and has the most flat beds of any airline on their aircraft. On [[8 September]] [[2004]] British Airways announced that it was to sell its 18.5% stake in [[Qantas]], but would continue their alliance (such as sharing revenue), particularly on the Kangaroo routes. Commentators have suggested that while the expected £425m from the sale will be used to reduce the airline's debt mountain it may also be used to fund expansion. It owns a 9% stake in Spanish airline [[Iberia Airlines\|Iberia]]. British Airways is a founding member of the [[oneworld]] [[airline alliance]]. ==Incidents and Accidents== On the [[24 June]] [[1982]], [[British Airways Flight 009\|flight 009]], a 747-200, G-BDXH, ''City of Edinburgh'' flew through a cloud of volcanic ash and dust from the eruption of [[Mount Galunggung]], causing all four engines to fail. The aircraft managed to glide out of the dust cloud and restart three engines, allowing it to make an emergency landing at [[Jakarta]]. On [[10 June]] [[1990]], [[British Airways Flight 5390]], a [[BAC 1-11]] flight between [[Birmingham]] and [[Malaga]], suffered a windshield blowout. The pilot was partially sucked out of the cockpit but was held back by the crew. The co-pilot landed the plane safely at [[Southampton Airport]] with no fatalities. * On [[August 2]], [[1990]]- [[British Airways Flight 149]] landed at [[Kuwait International Airport]] four hours after the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait, leading to the capture of the passengers and crew, and the destruction of the aircraft. On [[19 February]] [[2005]], the No 2 engine of a [[Boeing 747]]-400 (G-BNLG) surged and suffered internal damage just after take off from [[Los Angeles, California\|Los Angeles]] on a flight to [[London Heathrow Airport\|London Heathrow]] with 16 crew and 351 passengers on board. The crew shut the engine down. They continued the climb and, having checked the performance figures, decided that continuing to [[London]] was possible. Because it was cleared for a lower transatlantic flight level than requested, the aircraft suffered a fuel shortage and had to divert to [[Manchester]]. The [[United States]] [[Federal Aviation Administration]] has been critical of the crew's decision, but there was no breach of regulations and BA has supported the crew decision (ref:Flight International, July 2005). On [[25 February]] [[2005]], a crew flying the same aircraft (G-BNLG) also had to shut an engine down, this time in the cruise from [[Singapore]] to [[London]], and the crew again elected to continue. This time they landed without any further incident at their destination (ref: Flight International, July 2005). ==Destinations== {{main articles\|[[British Airways destinations]] and [[British Airways franchise destinations]]}} ==Fleet== [[Image:ba.a319-131.g-eupo.750pix.jpg\|thumb\|right\|250px\|British Airways [[Airbus A319-100]] (G-EUPO)]] [[image:britaw.a319-100.g-eupu.arp.jpg\|thumb\|right\|250px\|British Airways Airbus A319-100 (G-EUPU)]] Up until recently for its main fleet, BA had traditionally been a [[Boeing]] customer. This has been always been a subject of controversy, as many expect that as a British carrier it would be natural for BA to support the British manufacturing industry and buy [[Airbus]] jets ([[BAE Systems]] build all wings for Airbus jets and many Airbus subcontractors are based in the UK). The company has defended its decision by arguing that, with the exception of 29 of its 777 fleet, it has always equipped its Boeing aircraft with British-made [[Rolls-Royce plc\|Rolls-Royce]] engines; although some of their newer 777s are now powered by Rolls Royce Trents. This goes back to the [[1960s]] when the company ordered [[Boeing 707]]s - a condition was placed on the company that it used Rolls-Royce power for the new jets. However, it has operated non-Boeing planes in the past mainly as a result of takeovers and joint agreements with other airlines. One example of this was planes acquired through the buyout of [[British Caledonian\|British Caledonian Airways]] in the [[1980s]]; it successfully operated the [[Douglas DC-10]] and [[Airbus A320]] for a number of years. In the late 1990s British Airways placed its own first direct Airbus order, for over 100 A320/A319s to replace its own ageing fleet of Boeing 737s. BA was an operator of the famous Aerospatiale-BAC [[Concorde (aeroplane)\|Concorde]] [[supersonic]] [[airliner]], with a daily service between Heathrow and [[John F. Kennedy International Airport\|New York JFK]] (although the original service was from London to [[Bahrain]]). Initially, Concorde was very much a financial burden, placed on the national carrier by the government, and attracted criticism from the press as a white elephant. However [[John King, Baron King of Wartnaby\|Lord King]] recognised the importance of Concorde to British Airways, and the one thing that everybody agreed was the charismatic value of the aircraft. BA used Concorde to win business customers, guaranteeing a certain number of Concorde upgrades in return for corporate accounts with the airline - a key factor in winning business from transatlantic competitors. With the [[Air France Flight 4590\|Paris Crash]] in [[2000]], followed by the 9/11 [[September 11, 2001 attacks\|terrorist attacks]] the following year, coupled to escalating maintenance costs, the future of Concorde was limited &mdash; this despite an expensive upgrade. It was announced (on [[10 April]] [[2003]]) that, after [[24 October]] [[2003]], they would cease scheduled services with Concorde, due to depressed passenger numbers. The last day of its Saturday-only London Heathrow to [[Barbados]] Concorde flight was on [[30 August]] [[2003]]. ===Current Fleet=== The British Airways fleet consists of the following aircraft (at December 2005): 33 [[Airbus A319\|Airbus A319-100]] (further 3 on order) 5 [[Airbus A320\|Airbus A320-100]] 21 [[Airbus A320\|Airbus A320-200]] (further 3 on order) 7 [[Airbus A321\|Airbus A321-200]] 5 [[Boeing 737-300]] 18 [[Boeing 737-400]] 9 [[Boeing 737-500]] 57 [[Boeing 747-400]] 13 [[Boeing 757-200]] 21 [[Boeing 767-300\|Boeing 767-300ER]] 3 [[Boeing 777-200]] 40 [[Boeing 777-200\|Boeing 777-200ER]] ===Future=== The long-term replacement of the 767 fleet is likely to lead to a purchase of the [[Boeing 787]] or [[Airbus A350]].[http://seattlepi.nwsource.com/business/237717_air24.html] Additionally it is now seen likely that selection for the replacement of the Boeing 737 Classic fleet of 34 aircraft will see both [[Airbus A320]] series and [[Boeing 737NG]] evaluated, rather than being a simple follow-on order for additional A320 series aircraft. [http://www.flightinternational.com/Articles/2006/01/17/204072/+BA+grapples+with+747+succession+.html] British Airways' decision to replace its Boeing 747-400s will be viewed with interest, whether it selects the [[Airbus A380]] or [[Boeing 747-8]]. ==Tail fins== {\| align=right \|[[Image:ba.b767-300.g-bzhb.800pix.jpg\|thumb\|right\|250px\|British Airways [[Boeing 767]], featuring [[British Airways ethnic liveries\|Ethnic art tailfin]].]] \|- \|[[image:blue.peter.ba.b757.london.arp.jpg\|thumb\|right\|250px\|The [[Blue Peter]] special-paint British Airways [[Boeing 757]]-200]] \|} {{see\|British Airways ethnic liveries}} Since its formation in 1974, though to a limited extent until all aircraft were repainted, British Airways aeroplanes carried a [[Union Flag]] scheme painted on their [[tail fin]]s. In [[1997]], they began to be repainted (and the planes re-named) with abstract world images, [[Delft pottery]] or [[calligraphy\|Chinese calligraphy]] for example, relating to countries they fly to. This caused problems with [[air traffic control]]: previously controllers had been able to tell pilots to follow a BA plane, but because they were each painted in different colours they were harder to identify. [[Margaret Thatcher]] famously covered the tail fin of a model aircraft with the new design using her [[handkerchief]] at the 1997 [[Conservative Party (UK)\|Conservative Party]] conference. She claimed they made it look like a [[third world]] airline. "We fly the British flag, not these awful things." In [[May 2001]], chief executive [[Rod Eddington]] declared that all BA planes would be repainted with the [[Chatham Dockyar
he Koran, the study of the Prophet's Sunna (his sayings and doings), and learning about Islamic history and heritage from their authentic sources. This should be done by specialised and learned people, using a curriculum that would healthily form the thoughts and faith of the Moslem student. Side by side with this, a comprehensive study of the enemy, his human and financial capabilities, learning about his points of weakness and strength, and getting to know the forces supporting and helping him, should also be included. Also, it is important to be acquainted with the current events, to follow what is new and to study the analysis and commentaries made of these events. Planning for the present and future, studying every trend appearing, is a must so that the fighting Moslem would live knowing his aim, objective and his way in the midst of what is going on around him.</blockquote> <blockquote>''Article 18 (on women):'' Woman in the home of the fighting family, whether she is a mother or a sister, plays the most important role in looking after the family, rearing the children and embuing them with moral values and thoughts derived from Islam. She has to teach them to perform the religious duties in preparation for the role of fighting awaiting them. That is why it is necessary to pay great attention to schools and the curriculum followed in educating Moslem girls, so that they would grow up to be good mothers, aware of their role in the battle for liberation. She has to be of sufficient knowledge and understanding where the performance of housekeeping matters are concerned, because economy and avoidance of waste of the family budget, is one of the requirements for the ability to continue moving forward in the difficult conditions surrounding us. She should put before her eyes the fact that the money available to her is just like blood which should never flow except through the veins so that both children and grown-ups could continue to live.</blockquote> <blockquote>''Article 21 (on civic culture and social responsibility):'' Mutual social responsibility means extending assistance, financial or moral, to all those who are in need and joining in the execution of some of the work. Members of the Islamic Resistance Movement should consider the interests of the masses as their own personal interests. They must spare no effort in achieving and preserving them. They must prevent any foul play with the future of the upcoming generations and anything that could cause loss to society. The masses are part of them and they are part of the masses. Their strength is theirs, and their future is theirs. Members of the Islamic Resistance Movement should share the people's joy and grief, adopt the demands of the public and whatever means by which they could be realised. The day that such a spirit prevails, brotherliness would deepen, cooperation, sympathy and unity will be enhanced and the ranks will be solidified to confront the enemies.</blockquote> === Anti-Semitism === [[Anti-Semitism]] is a recurring theme in [[Wikisource:Hamas Covenant\|Hamas Covenant]] and speeches of its leaders. The Covenant cites the long-discredited anti-Semitic fraud, ''[[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion]]'', describing it as "the embodiment of the Zionist plan to usurp Palestine". Other examples of anti-Semitism in their Covenant include: <blockquote>''Introduction:'' Our struggle against the Jews is very great and very serious. It needs all sincere efforts. It is a step that inevitably should be followed by other steps. The Movement is but one squadron that should be supported by more and more squadrons from this vast Arab and Islamic world, until the enemy is vanquished and Allah's victory is realised.</blockquote> <blockquote>''Article 7:'' ... the Islamic Resistance Movement aspires to the realisation of Allah's promise, no matter how long that should take. The Prophet, Allah bless him and grant him salvation, has said: "The Day of Judgement will not come about until Moslems fight the Jews (killing the Jews), when the Jew will hide behind stones and trees. The stones and trees will say O Moslems, O Abdulla, there is a Jew behind me, come and kill him. Only the Gharqad tree would not do that because it is one of the trees of the Jews."</blockquote> <blockquote>''Article 28:'' ... when the Jews conquered the Holy City in 1967, they stood on the threshold of the Aqsa Mosque and proclaimed that "Mohammed is dead, and his descendants are all women." Israel, Judaism and Jews challenge Islam and the Moslem people. "May the cowards never sleep."</blockquote> Hamas dismisses the [[Freemasons]], [[Lions Clubs International\|Lions Club]], and the [[Rotary International\|Rotarians]] as organizations promoting "the interest of [[Zionism]]." It accuses those organizations, and the "Zionist invasion" in general, of being "behind the [[drug trade]] and [[alcoholism]] in all its kinds." [[Abdel Aziz al-Rantissi]], co-founder of Hamas, reiterated beliefs of [[Holocaust denial]] as recently as one year before his 2004 death, contending that [[the Holocaust]] did not occur in the manner described by Western historians. [http://www.imra.org.il/story.php3?id=18086] In 1998, Esther Webman of the Project for the Study of Anti-Semitism at the [[Tel-Aviv University]] wrote: "...the anti-Semitic rhetoric in Hamas leaflets is frequent and intense. Nevertheless, anti-Semitism is not the main tenet of Hamas ideology. Generally no differentiation was made in the leaflets between Jew and Zionist, in as much as Judaism was perceived as embracing Zionism, although in other Hamas publications and in interviews with its leaders attempts at this differentiation have been made."[http://www.ict.org.il/articles/articledet.cfm?articleid=51#motifs] According to Meir Litvak's 2003 study, "In Hamas' literature, anti-Semitism became almost dominant. Earlier anti-Semitic motifs are developed time and again in their magazine Falastin al-Muslama. Almost every issue contains anti-Jewish articles using elements from the Islamic tradition. Judaism is presented as a religion based on lies, which from its origin called for aggression against others and their exploitation."[http://www.jcpa.org/phas/phas-5.htm] However, the Hamas chosen Palestinian Prime Minister, Ismail Haniyeh, said in an interview: ''We do not have any feelings of animosity toward Jews. We do not wish to throw them into the sea. All we seek is to be given our land back, not to harm anybody.''[http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/L25737830.htm] ==Activities== ===Attacks against Israel=== [[Image:Buss Suicide Bombing West Jerusalem3.jpg\|thumb\|350px\|The wreckage of a commuter bus in West Jerusalem after a suicide bombing by Hamas on Tuesday, [[June 18]], [[2002]]. The blast killed 19 people.]] Hamas' first use of suicide bombing occurred on [[April 16]], [[1993]] when a suicide bomber driving an explosive-laden van detonated between two buses parked at a restaurant [http://www.ict.org.il/inter_ter/orgattack.cfm?orgid=13]. Hamas described it as a response to a mass-killing of 29 praying Palestinians by an American-born Jewish settler in a Hebron Mosque 40 days earlier. It was Hamas' 19th known attack since 1989 (the others being shootings, kidnappings and knife attacks)[http://www.ict.org.il/inter_ter/orgattack.cfm?orgid=13]. During the [[Al-Aqsa Intifada\|second Intifada]], Hamas, along with the [[Palestinian Islamic Jihad Movement\|Islamic Jihad Movement]], spearheaded the violence through the years of the Palestinian uprising. <ref> {{Citenews \| title=Victory leaves Hamas with a dilemma (Opinion) \| org=Telegraph \| date=January 27, 2006 \| url=http://www.opinion.telegraph.co.uk/opinion/main.jhtml?xml=/opinion/2006/01/27/do2702.xml&sSheet=/opinion/2006/01/27/ixopinion.html}} </ref> Since then Hamas has conducted many attacks on Israel, mainly through its military wing - the [[Ezzedeen-al-qassam]] Brigades. These attacks have included large-scale [[suicide bombing]]s against Israeli civilian targets, the most deadly of which was the bombing of a [[Netanya]] hotel on March 27 2002, in which 30 people were killed and 140 were wounded. This attack has also been referred to as the [[Passover massacre]] since it took place on the first night of the Jewish festival of [[Passover]]. Overall, from November 2000 to April 2004, 377 Israeli citizens and soldiers were killed and 2,076 wounded in 425 attacks by Hamas. ([http://www1.idf.il/DOVER/site/mainpage.asp?sl=EN&id=7&docid=30286.EN Source: IDF website].) The Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs maintains a comprehensive list of Hamas attacks.[http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Terrorism-+Obstacle+to+Peace/Terror+Groups/Hamas+terror+attacks+22-Mar-2004.htm] Hamas has used [[female suicide bomber]]s, including a mother of six and a mother of two children under the age of 10. Hamas claims that all suicide bombers volunteer for what they term "[[martyr]]dom operations" however an anonymous Israeli military source claims that one of the women was forced to commit these acts under threat of what is termed an "[[honor killing]]". [http://www.guardian.co.uk/israel/Story/0,2763,1131866,00.html][http://www.imra.org.il/story.php3?id=19474] Hamas has also attacked Israeli military and security forces targets (mostly inside the West Bank and Gaza Strip and occasionally inside Israel), suspected Palestinian collaborators, and [[Fatah]] rivals. Hamas shelled the [[Gush Katif]] [[Israeli settlement]]s in Gaza with homemade [[mortar (weapon)\|mortar]]s. About 5500 mortar shells have landed in [[Gush Katif]], killing 3 people before the settlements were dismantled. Since 2002, Hamas has used homemade [[Qassam rocket]]s to hit Israeli towns in the [[Negev]], such as [[Sderot]]. The i
le for the number 200. When writing in the Cantonese dialect, 二 (yi<sup>6</sup>) is used to represent the "2" numeral for all numbers. In the southern Min dialect of Chaozhou (Teochew), 兩 (no<sup>6</sup>) is used to represent the "2" numeral in all numbers. Thus: {\| border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=1 \|- bgcolor=eeeeee ! rowspan=2 \| Number \|\| rowspan=2 \| Structure \|\| colspan=4 \| Characters \|- bgcolor=eeeeee ! Mandarin \|\| Cantonese \|\| [[Chaozhou dialect\|Chaozhou]] \|\| [[Shanghainese]] \|- \| 60 \|\| [6] [10] \|\| &#20845;&#21313; \|\| &#20845;&#21313; \|\| &#20845;&#21313; \|\| 六十 \|- \| 20 \|\| [2] [10] or [20] \|\| 二十 \|\| 二十 or 廿 \|\| 二十 \|\| 廿 \|- \| 200 \|\| [2] (èr) or (li&#462;ng) [100] \|\| &#20108;&#30334; or &#20841;&#30334; \|\| &#20108;&#30334; \|\| &#20841;&#30334; \|\| 兩百 \|- \| 2000 \|\| [2] (li&#462;ng) [1000] \|\| &#20841;&#21315; \|\| &#20108;&#21315; \|\| &#20841;&#21315; \|\| 兩千 \|- \| 45 \|\| [4] [10] [5] \|\| &#22235;&#21313;&#20116; \|\| &#22235;&#21313;&#20116; \|\| &#22235;&#21313;&#20116; \|\| 四十五 \|- \| 2,362 \|\| [2] [1,000] [3] [100] [6] [10] [2] \|\| &#20841;&#21315;&#19977;&#30334;&#20845;&#21313;&#20108; \|\| &#20108;&#21315;&#19977;&#30334;&#20845;&#21313;&#20108; \|\| &#20841;&#21315;&#19977;&#30334;&#20845;&#21313;&#20108; \|\| 兩千三百六十二 \|} For the numbers 11 through 19, the leading "one" (&#19968;) is usually omitted. In some dialects, like [[Shanghainese]], when there are only two significant digits in the number, the leading "one" and the trailing zeroes are omitted. Sometimes, the one before "ten" in the middle of a number, such as 213, is omitted. Thus: {\| border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=1 \|- bgcolor=eeeeee ! rowspan=2 \| Number \|\| colspan=2 \| Strict Putonghua \|\| colspan=2 \| Colloquial or dialect usage \|- bgcolor=eeeeee ! Structure \|\| Characters \|\| Structure \|\| Characters \|- \| 14 \|\| [10] [4] \|\| &#21313;&#22235; \|\| &nbsp; \|\| &nbsp; \|- \| 12000 \|\| [1] [10000] [2] [1000] \|\| &#19968;&#33836;&#20108;&#21315; \|\| [1] [10000] [2] or<br>[10000] [2] \|\| &#19968;&#33836;&#20108; or<br>&#33836;&#20108; \|- \| 114 \|\| [1] [100] [1] [10] [4] \|\| &#19968;&#30334;&#19968;&#21313;&#22235; \|\| [1] [100] [10] [4] \|\| &#19968;&#30334;&#21313;&#22235; \|- \| 1158 \|\| [1] [1000] [1] [100] [5] [10] [8]\|\| &#19968;&#21315;&#19968;&#30334;&#20116;&#21313;&#20843; \|\| colspan=2 \| (nothing is ever omitted in large numbers such as this) \|} In certain older texts like the [[Protestant]] [[Bible]] or in poetic usage, numbers such as 114 may be ''written'' as [100] [10] [4] (&#30334;&#21313;&#22235;). For numbers larger than a [[myriad]], the same grouping system used in English applies, except in groups of four places (myriads) rather than in groups of three (thousands). Hence it is more convenient to think of numbers here as in groups of four, thus 1,234,567,890 is regrouped here as 12,3456,7890. Larger than a myriad, each number is therefore four zeroes longer than the one before it, thus 10000 &times; wàn (&#33836;) = yì (&#20740;), 10000 &times; yì (&#20740;) = zhào (&#20806;). If one of the numbers is between 10 and 19, the leading "one" is omitted as per the above point. Hence (numbers in parentheses indicate that the number has been written as one number rather than expanded): {\| border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=1 \|- bgcolor=eeeeee ! Number \|\| Structure \|\| Characters \|- \| 12,345,678,902,345<br>(12,3456,7890,2345) \|\| (12) [1,0000,0000,0000] (3456) [1,0000,0000] (7890) [1,0000] (2345) \|\| 十二兆三千四百五十六億七千八百九十萬兩千三百四十五 \|} Interior zeroes before the unit position (as in 1002) must be spelt explicitly. The reason for this is that trailing zeroes (as in 1200) are often omitted as shorthand, so ambiguity occurs. One zero is sufficient to resolve the ambiguity. Where the zero is before a digit other than the units digit, the explicit zero is not ambiguous and is therefore optional, but preferred. Thus: {\| border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=1 \|- bgcolor=eeeeee ! Number \|\| Structure \|\| Characters \|- \| 205 \|\| [2] [100] [0] [5] \|\| &#20108;&#30334;&#12295;&#20116; \|- \| 100,004<br>(10,0004) \|\| [10] [1,0000] [0] [4] \|\| &#21313;&#33836;&#12295;&#22235; \|- \| 10,050,026<br>(1005,0026) \|\| (1005) [1,0000] (26) or<br>(1005) [1,0000] (026)\|\| &#19968;&#21315;&#12295;&#20116;&#33836;&#12295;&#20108;&#21313;&#20845; or<br>&#19968;&#21315;&#12295;&#20116;&#33836;&#20108;&#21313;&#20845; \|} ===Large number systems=== For numeral characters greater than [[Wiktionary:&#33836;\|&#33836;]] (wàn), there have been four systems in ancient and modern usage: {\| border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=1 \|- bgcolor=eeeeee ! width=60 \|System \| width=40 \|[[Wiktionary:億\|億]]<br/>(yì) \| width=40 \|[[Wiktionary:兆\|兆]]<br/>(zhào) \| width=40 \|[[Wiktionary:京\|京]]<br/>(jīng) \| width=40 \|[[Wiktionary:垓\|垓]]<br/>(gāi) \| width=40 \|[[Wiktionary:秭\|秭]]<br/>(zǐ) \| width=40 \|[[Wiktionary:穰\|穰]]<br/>(ráng) \|Factor of increase \|- !align=center\|1 \|10<sup>5</sup> \|10<sup>6</sup> \|10<sup>7</sup> \|10<sup>8</sup> \|10<sup>9</sup> \|10<sup>10</sup> \|Each numeral is 10 (十 shí) times the previous. \|- !align=center\|2 \|10<sup>8</sup> \|10<sup>12</sup> \|10<sup>16</sup> \|10<sup>20</sup> \|10<sup>24</sup> \|10<sup>28</sup> \|Each numeral is 10,000 (萬 wàn) times the previous. \|- !align=center\|3 \|10<sup>8</sup> \|10<sup>16</sup> \|10<sup>24</sup> \|10<sup>32</sup> \|10<sup>40</sup> \|10<sup>48</sup> \|Each numeral is 10<sup>8</sup> (萬萬 wànwàn) times the previous. \|- !align=center\|4 \|10<sup>8</sup> \|10<sup>16</sup> \|10<sup>32</sup> \|10<sup>64</sup> \|10<sup>128</sup> \|10<sup>256</sup> \|Each numeral is the [[square (algebra)\|square]] of the previous. \|} In modern Chinese, only the second system is used in expressing numbers. Although there is some dispute on the value of 兆 (zhào), the usage is generally consistent through Chinese communities, as well as in [[Japanese numerals\|Japan]]. However, most people do not recognize numerals beyond 兆 (zhào) (10<sup>12</sup>) and dictionary definitions on these larger number words may not be consistent. ===SI prefixes=== The definition of [[Wiktionary:&#20806;\|&#20806;]] (zhào) = 10<sup>6</sup> survived in a translation for the [[SI prefix]] [[mega]], since there would otherwise have been no single Chinese numeral for that particular value. The translation has caused much confusion. Further complicating the matter, an early attempt to translate SI prefixes used larger, rarer numerals for larger multiples, such as &#20140; (j&#299;ng) for [[giga]], and rarer fractional numerals for smaller fractions, such as &#32406; (xi&#257;n) for [[nano]], creating even more values for each numeral. Today, both the governments of the [[People's Republic of China]] (Mainland China, Hong Kong and Macau) and [[Republic of China]] (Taiwan) have adopted standards that use phonetic transliterations for the prefixes. However, there are differences in the choices of characters, and the definition of &#20806; (zhào) is different between the two standards. The following table lists the two different systems together with the early translation. {\| border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=1 \|+ '''SI Prefixes''' \|- bgcolor=eeeeee ! Value \|\| Symbol \|\| English ! Early translation \|\| PRC standard \|\| ROC standard \|- \|10<sup>24</sup>\|\|Y\|\|[[yotta]] \|&nbsp;\|\|&#23591; yáo\|\|&#20305; yòu \|- \|10<sup>21</sup>\|\|Z\|\|[[zetta]] \|&nbsp;\|\|&#27901; zé\|\|&#30342; ji&#275; \|- \|10<sup>18</sup>\|\|E\|\|[[exa]] \|&#31344; ráng\|\|&#33406; ài\|\|&#33406; ài \|- \|10<sup>15</sup>\|\|P\|\|[[peta]] \|&#31213; z&#464;\|\|&#25293; p&#257;i\|\|&#25293; p&#257;i \|- \|10<sup>12</sup>\|\|T\|\|[[tera]] \|&#22419; g&#257;i\|\|&#22826; tài\|\|&#20806; zhào \|- \|10<sup>9</sup>\|\|G\|\|[[giga]] \|&#20140; j&#299;ng\|\|&#21513; jí\|\|&#21513; jí \|- \|10<sup>6</sup>\|\|M\|\|[[mega]] \|&#20806; zhào\|\|&#20806; zhào\|\|&#30334;&#33836; b&#462;iwàn \|- \|10<sup>3</sup>\|\|k\|\|[[kilo]] \|&#21315; qi&#257;n\|\|&#21315; qi&#257;n\|\|&#21315; qi&#257;n \|- \|10<sup>2</sup>\|\|h\|\|[[hecta]] \|&#30334; b&#462;i\|\|&#30334; b&#462;i\|\|&#30334; b&#462;i \|- \|10<sup>1</sup>\|\|da\|\|[[deca]] \|&#21313; shí\|\|&#21313; shí\|\|&#21313; shí \|- \|10<sup>-1</sup>\|\|d\|\|[[deci]] \|&#20998; f&#275;n\|\|&#20998; f&#275;n\|\|&#20998; f&#275;n \|- \|10<sup>-2</sup>\|\|c\|\|[[centi]] \|&#21400; lí\|\|&#21400; lí\|\|&#21400; lí \|- \|10<sup>-3</sup>\|\|m\|\|[[milli]] \|&#27627; háo\|\|&#27627; háo\|\|&#27627; háo \|- \|10<sup>-6</sup>\|\|&micro;\|\|[[micro]] \|&#24494; w&#275;i\|\|&#24494; w&#275;i\|\|&#24494; w&#275;i \|- \|10<sup>-9</sup>\|\|n\|\|[[nano]] \|&#32406; xi&#257;n\|\|&#32435; nà\|\|&#22856; nài \|- \|10<sup>-12</sup>\|\|p\|\|[[pico]] \|&#27801; sh&#257;\|\|&#30382; pí\|\|&#30382; pí \|- \|10<sup>-15</sup>\|\|f\|\|[[femto]] \|&#22645; chén\|\|&#39134; f&#275;i\|\|&#39131; f&#275;i \|- \|
by scholars '[[Q document\|Q]]' (from German: ''Quelle'', meaning ''source''. This view is known as the [[Two-Source Hypothesis\|"Two Source Hypothesis"]]. The related "Four Source Hypothesis" maintains that Matthew and Luke also had independent sources, termed by scholars [[Matthean material\|M]] and [[Lukean material\|L]]. Another theory which addresses the synoptic problem is the [[Farrer Hypothesis]]. This theory maintains [[Markan priority]] (that Mark was written first) and dispenses with the need for a theoretical document Q. What [[Austin Farrer]] has argued is that Luke used Matthew as a source as well as Mark, explaining the similarities between them without having to refer to a hypothetical document. Estimates for the dates when the canonical Gospel accounts were written vary significantly; and the evidence for any of the dates is scanty. Conservative scholars tend to date earlier than others. The following are mostly the date ranges given by the late [[Raymond E. Brown]], in his book ''An Introduction to the New Testament'', as representing the general scholarly consensus in 1996: * '''Matthew''': c. 70&ndash;100 as the majority view, with conservative scholars arguing for a pre-70 date, particularly if they do not accept Mark as the first gospel written. * '''Mark''': c. 68&ndash;73 * '''Luke''': c. 80&ndash;100, with most arguing for somewhere around 85 * '''John''': c. 90&ndash;110. Brown does not give a consensus view for John, but these are dates as propounded by C K Barrett, among others. The majority view is that it was written in stages, so there was no one date of composition. The general consensus among biblical scholars is that all four canonical Gospels were originally written in [[Greek language\|Greek]], the [[lingua franca]] of the Roman Orient. On the strength of an early commentator it has been suggested that Matthew may have originally been written in [[Aramaic language\|Aramaic]], and was known to [[Church fathers]] as the ''[[Gospel of the Hebrews]]'', or that it was translated from Aramaic to Greek with corrections based on ''Mark''. Regardless, no Aramaic original texts of the Gospel accounts have ever been found, only later translations from the Greek (see [[Peshitta]]). == Non-canonical gospels == :''Main article: [[New Testament apocrypha]]''. In addition to the four canonical gospels there have been other gospels that were not accepted into the canon. Some of these works appear to be later compositions than the canonical gospels, and as such were only ever accepted by small portions of the early Christian community. Some of the content of these non-canonical gospels (as much as it deviates from accepted theological norms) is considered [[heresy\|heretical]] by the leadership of mainstream churches, including the [[Roman Catholic Church\|Vatican]]. The two earliest non-canonical gospels are the sayings ''[[Gospel of Thomas]]'' and the narrative ''[[Gospel of Peter]]''. A genre of "[[Infancy gospel]]s" (Greek: ''protoevangelion'') arose in the 2nd century, such as the ''[[Gospel of James]]'', which introduces the concept of the [[Perpetual Virginity]] of Mary, and the ''[[Infancy Gospel of Thomas]]'' (not to be confused with the sayings ''Gospel of Thomas''), both of which related many miraculous incidents from the life of Mary and the childhood of Jesus that are not included in the canonical gospels, but which have passed into Christian lore. Another genre that has been suppressed is that of gospel harmonies, in which the apparent discrepancies in the canonical four gospels were selectively recast to present a harmoniously consistent narrative text. Very few fragments of harmonies survived. The ''[[Diatessaron]]'' was such a harmonization, compiled by [[Tatian]] around AD 175. It was popular for at least two centuries in [[Syria]], but eventually it fell into disuse, and no copies of it have survived, except indirectly in some medieval Gospel harmonies that can be considered its descendants. [[Marcion of Sinope]], c. AD 150, produced his own edition of the ''Gospel of Luke'' in accordance with his dualistic belief in two different gods, the compassionate God of Christ and the cruel God of the Old Testament. Specifically, he removed those parts of Luke that he considered too "Jewish". He also rejected all other gospels. The existence of private knowledge, briefly referred to in the canon, is part of the contention surrounding the '' [[Secret Gospel of Mark]]''. ==List of non-canonical ("apocryphal") Gospels== Some Gospels that were not eventually included in the canon are similar in style and content to the canonical Gospels. Others are "sayings gospels", as lost ''Q'' is supposed to have been. Still others are [[Gnostic]] in style and content, presenting a very different view of Jesus' teaching. Gospels that were not accepted, which form part of the [[Apocrypha\|New Testament Apocrypha]], include: * [[Gospel of Thomas]] * [[Gospel of Philip]] * [[Gospel of Peter]] * [[Gospel of Mary Magdalene]] * [[Gospel of the Egyptians]] * [[Gospel of the Hebrews]] * [[Gospel of James]] * [[Gospel of Judas]] See also the mistaken "[[Gospel of Hermes]]". Other works claiming to be gospels have surfaced in later periods. The [[Gospel of Barnabas]] originated in the medieval period. Works from the modern period (sometimes called ''modern apocrypha'') include the Aquarian Gospel of Jesus Christ and the Life of Issa. Parts of the [[Book of Mormon]] can also be considered to be a gospel, since they purport to tell of Jesus' appearances on the American continent. There also works that do not purport to be revealed but are titled "gospel" anyway: [[The Gospel According to Jesus Christ]] by [[José Saramago]] == Liturgical usage == In many Christian churches, all Christians present stand when a passage from one of the Gospels is read publicly, and sit when a passage from a different part of the [[Bible]] is read. The reading of the Gospels, often contained in a liturgical edition containing only the four Gospels, is traditionally done by a minister or priest, and in many traditions is brought into the midst of the congregation to be read. === Usage in [[Eastern Orthodoxy]] [[liturgy]] === [[Image:Siya.jpg\|thumb\|left\|Illustration from the [[Antoniev Siysky Monastery\|Siysky Gospel]] (1339).]] The Gospel book, usually decorated in an elaborate metal cover, is normally kept in a central place on the [[altar]]. The only things that are permitted to occupy this place on the altar are the [[chalice]] and [[paten\|discos]] for the celebration of the [[Eucharist]] or, on [[Feast of the Cross\|certain feasts]], a [[Christian cross\|Cross]]. During the [[Entrance (Liturgical)\|Little Entrance]], the Gospel is carried from the altar, through the [[nave]] of the church, and back into the altar. For the Gospel reading itself, the Gospel is brought from the altar to the [[ambo]], and afterwards returned to its place. A Gospel passage is read in the [[Divine Liturgy]] on every Sunday or [[Liturgical year\|feast]], and at daily services during the week. The reading is determined according to the annual liturgical calendar. (If a feast falls on a Sunday, the reading for that feast will often be included after or in place of the Sunday reading.) The cycle of readings begins with [[Pascha]] and the ''Pentecostarion'' (between Pascha and [[Pentecost]]), continues with the Sundays after Pentecost, and concludes with the [[Great Lent\|Lenten Triodion]] and [[Holy Week]]. The number of Sundays from one Pascha to the next varies from year to year; in some years, not all the passages for Sundays after Pentecost will be read, while in others, some weeks will have to be repeated. The entirity of the four Gospels is read in the course of the liturgical year, beginning with John 1:1-17 at the Paschal Matins Resurrection Service. The readings from John end on the Sunday of Pentecost, followed on Holy Spirit Monday by Matthew, starting in Chapter 4 (the Genealogy of Christ through the Nativity is read during the services for Christmas). From the 12th Monday through the 17th Friday after Pentecost, the readings are from the Gospel of St. Mark, with readings from Matt. Ch. 25 on Saturday and Sunday of the 17th week. The 18th Monday after Pentecost begins the readings from Luke, ending on the 29th Sunday. During the remaining weeks, 30-32, the weekday reading are from Mark, the weekend from Luke. This same pattern continues throughout the preparatory weeks from the Lenten Triodion, the Orthodox service book containing texts for the services of Great Lent and Holy Week. [[Image:Peresopnytske Gospel 04.jpg\|thumb\|Miniature of [[St Luke]] from the [[Peresopnytsia Gospel]] (1561).]] Once Great Lent begins (during the service of Vespers on Forgivness Sunday), there are no Gospel readings on weekdays; instead, three Old Testament reading are appointed, one each from Genesis, Isaiah, and Proverbs (note: the Lenten services are structured differently to allow this arrangement of reading without the Gospel; see [[Liturgy of the Presanctified Gifts\|Presanctified Liturgy]]). On Saturdays and Sundays, a Gospel is read with a message applicable to what the theme of that Sunday is (e.g. St. Mary of Egypt, the Cross, Holy Icons). This practice continues through Holy Week, with the exception of Matins of Great and Holy Friday, during which the 12 Passion Gosples are read, and the service culminates with a prossesion with a large wodden replica of the Cross, borne by the Priest to the ambo, and Christ is symbolically crucified on it. There are no other Gospel readings until Vesperal Liturgy of Holy Saturday, and then the Ressurectional Gospel at Midnight, Pascha Morning. At the [[Divine Liturgy]] the Gospel is publicly read by a [[deacon]] after he receives a [[blessing]] from the celebrating [[priest]] or [[bishop]]. If there is no
ypes== {{main\|Counter-Strike maps}} There are three official types of maps in ''Counter-Strike'', along with many more user-created types. The three official types include "cs_" (Hostage rescue), "de_" (Bomb defusal), and "as_" (Assassination). In earlier beta versions of the game another official type called "es_" (Terrorist Escape) also existed. ===List of Official Counter-Strike 1.6 maps=== {\| \|- valign ="top" \| [[as_oilrig]] [[cs_747]] [[cs_assault]] [[cs_backalley]] [[cs_estate]] [[cs_havana]] [[cs_italy]] [[cs_militia]] \| \| \| [[cs_office]] [[cs_siege]] [[de_airstrip]] [[de_aztec]] [[de_cbble]] [[de_chateau]] [[de_dust]] [[de_dust2]] \| \| \| [[de_inferno]] [[de_nuke]] [[de_piranesi]] [[de_prodigy]] [[de_storm]] [[de_survivor]] [[de_torn]] [[de_train]] [[de_vertigo]] \| \| \|} ===List of Commonly Played Counter-Strike 1.6 maps (Unofficial)=== de_rats [[fy_iceworld]] fy_pool_day fy_snow ka_roadwars_v2 scoutzknivez surf_egypt awp_map ==Player models== Corresponding player models for both Terrorists and Counter-Terrorists have appeared through development. The following eight are the original models which were to be (or are in the process of being) reproduced in ''[[Counter-Strike: Condition Zero]]'' and ''[[Counter-Strike: Source]]''. ''Condition Zero'' also added two additional models; the Midwest Militia for Terrorists and the [[Spetsnaz]] for Counter-Terrorists. On the matter of the best model for competitive play in ''Counter-Strike'', [http://whisper.ausgamers.com/wiki/index.php/Warstrats Whisper's Wiki] recommends that: <blockquote>Firstly, all players on one team should choose the same skin. As Terrorists you should choose the Elite Crew model. And as Counter-Terrorists, the [[GIGN]] model. "5 guys popping in and out 1 at a time will look like the 1 guy if you all have the same skin. Elite Crew is the skinniest and hardest to see model most of the time, and the [[GIGN]] model has the smallest head for Counter-Terrorists."</blockquote> ===Counter-Terrorist models=== All names are taken from real groups. '''[[SEAL Team 6]]''' - First appeared in initial CS beta - "ST-6 (to be later known as [[DEVGRU]]) was founded in 1980 under the command of Lieutenant-Commander [[Richard Marcinko]]. ST-6 was placed on permanent alert to respond to terrorist attacks against American targets worldwide." '''[[GSG 9]]''' - Added in CS beta 6 - "GSG 9 was formed out of the tragic events that led to the death of several Israeli athletes during the [[Munich massacre\|1972 Olympic games]] in [[Munich]], Germany." '''SAS ([[Special Air Service]])''' - Added in CS beta 5 - "World-renowned British SAS was founded in the Second World War by a man named [[David Stirling]]. Their role in WW2 involved [[miltary intelligence\|intelligence]] gathering behind enemy lines and executing sabotage strikes and assassinations against key targets." '''[[GIGN]]''' - Added in CS beta 3 - "France's elite counter-terrorist group, the GIGN, was designed to be a fast response force that could decisively react to any large-scale terrorist incident. Consisting of no more than 100 men, the GIGN has earned its reputation through a history of successful ops." ===Terrorist models=== All (understandably) fictional. '''Phoenix Connexion''' - First appeared in initial CS beta - "Having established a reputation for killing anyone who gets in their way, the Phoenix Connexion is one of the most feared terrorist groups in eastern Europe. Formed shortly after the breakup of the [[USSR]]." '''Elite Crew''' ('''L337 Krew''' prior to CS 1.6) - Added in CS beta 3 - "Middle Eastern fundamentalist group bent on world domination and various other evil deeds." '''Arctic Avengers''' - Added in CS beta 6 - "Swedish terrorist faction founded in 1977. Infamous for their bombing of the [[Canadian]] embassy in 1990." '''Guerilla Warfare''' - Added in CS beta 6.5 - "A terrorist faction founded in the Middle East, this group has a reputation for ruthlessness. Their disgust for American lifestyle was demonstrated in their 1982 bombing of a school bus full of [[Rock and Roll]] musicians." ===Other models=== '''Hostage''' - used in maps prefixed 'cs_' (eg: [[cs_italy]]). *'''VIP''' - Used in maps prefixed 'as_' (eg: [[as_oilrig]]). == Culture == {{main\|Counter-Strike culture}} ''Counter-Strike'' is famous for the culture surrounding it, which includes everything from professional gamers and leagues, to excessive cheating and disruptive behavior. Certain professional teams (such as [[SK Gaming\|SK]], [[Team 3D]] and [[Team NoA]]) and players ([[Kyle Miller\|Ksharp]] and [[Emil Christensen\|HeatoN]], for example) have achieved a measure of fame. <!-- DO NOT ADD your clan or your favorite CS player here without discussing it on the Talk page first. If you add something without discussing it first, it will be reverted, no questions asked. Note that the clans and players listed above are professionals and have Wikipedia pages - if your page cannot survive on Wikipedia, it is unlikly that it will stay on this page either. Click the "Discuss this page" link to start a discussion on why you think your clan or favorite player should be added. --> == Legacy of ''Counter-Strike'' == While ''Counter-Strike'' is nowadays perhaps the most professionally played computer game in the world behind ''[[StarCraft]]'' in [[South Korea]], most players simply ignore the professional side of the game and play for fun. The success of the game among both casual and competitive players highlights the wide appeal of ''Counter-Strike'''s simple game model. ''Counter-Strike'' has had a colorful and dramatic history which reaches far beyond what this document could hope to cover, and still remains extremely popular to this day. ''Half-Life'' and other contemporary games took full advantage of the advent of hardware graphics acceleration in the late [[1990s]], replacing earlier software-rendered games such as ''[[Quake]]''. Likewise, gamers were expected to abandon the [[DirectX]] 5.0 ''Half-Life'' and its mods in favour of games utilising the [[Transform and lighting\|hardware T&L]] capabilities of DirectX 7.0 graphics cards such as the [[Nvidia]] [[GeForce]] and [[ATI Technologies\|ATI]] [[Radeon]]. However, the universal shift to the DirectX 7.0 level and beyond has not happened, and the continued popularity of CS has given older video cards such as the [[3dfx]] Voodoo 3, ATI Rage 128, and Nvidia [[RIVA TNT2]] continued usefulness. Indeed, one possible reason for ''Counter-Strike''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s continued popularity is that almost any PC made since 1997 can play it since the game does not need the powerful CPU and video card required of many current FPS games. But as the the criticisms of ''Condition Zero'' showed, many players feel that the [[GoldSrc]] engine has reached its limits in its capacity to evolve and to stay updated. ''Counter-Strike'' was realistic for its time, but is dated in comparison to more recent [[first-person shooter\|first-person]] [[tactical shooter]]s. There is a growing frustration that the developers are unwilling to make official changes or add new features, maintaining the same map layouts and weapons to appease longtime CS players. Even ''Counter-Strike: Source'' has been criticised for not progressing the gameplay enough and failing to take full advantage of the [[Source engine]]. There have been a multitude of games claimed by their developers, reviewers and fans to be "''Counter-Strike'' killers", but none have seriously been able to dent its overall popularity. Server statistics in 2002 showed that ''Counter-Strike'' servers outnumbered their ''Battlefield'', ''[[Unreal Tournament 2003]]'' or ''Quake III'' FPS counterparts at least 3 to 1. The prohibitively expensive cost of an up-to-date gaming PC makes it unlikely that another game will become as popular as ''Counter-Strike'' has been. == Mods and scripts == Even though ''Counter-Strike'' is itself a mod, it developed its own community of script writers and modders. There have been many different mods and scripts to: # Add [[Computer_game_bot\|bots]] to make a LAN game multiplayer although there is only one computer # Improve gameplay # Remove features of the games which players felt were annoying # Give players superhuman powers (powers from units in ''[[Warcraft III]]'', for example.) # Make the game more humorous # Create different modes of play # Control players not following set rules # Keep track of player statistics and scores # Provide options for weapon improvement (AKA Skinning: Affects the way guns look and sound to the user but remain unchanged to anyone else in the game. Only the user sees the differences. The weapon's attributes remain the same.) # Give server administrators more flexible and efficient control over his/her server. "Admin plugins", as they are mostly referred as, have become very popular. One of the most successful, if not the only one, "Mani Admin Plugin", is met on nearly every dedicated server nowadays. Features include: varieties of teamkill punishes, auto-kick by certain triggers, rank system, advanced map changing and voting etc. See [[Metamod]], [[AMX Mod]] and [[AMX Mod X]] for more information. ==Criticisms== ''Counter-Strike'' has been criticised for its lack of realism, despite the fact it was originally popular for being realistic. While it falls squarely into the [[tactical shooter]] category, the mod features some inaccuracies. The weapons are also notably inaccurate for the ranges they fire at: most engagements in ''Counter-Strike'' occur at less than 100 meters. The [[M249 SAW]]'s rate of fire is much too slow, and many of the game's weapons have artificial sound effects. Perhaps the most notable criticism is th
series was repeated, along with a new and entirely original extra show, which tackled the tricky subject of [[pedophilia\|paedophilia]] and the associated [[moral panic]] prevalent in the media at the time. Celebrities including [[Gary Lineker]] and [[Phil Collins]] appeared in videotaped interviews, in which they endorsed a spoof charity "Nonce Sense" ("[[nonce]]" is a common British slang term for paedophile). [[Tomorrow's World]] presenter [[Philippa Forrester]] and [[ITN]] reporter [[Nicholas Owen (journalist)\|Nicholas Owen]] amongst others were tricked into explaining the details of "HOECS" (pronounced "hoax") computer games, which online paedophiles were supposed to be using to abuse children via the [[Internet]]. These fairly simple plays on words were opaque enough that none of the guest celebrities understood that they were being lampooned until the show was aired, in spite of what often seems to the viewer like plainly absurd subject matter. The [[Capital Radio]] DJ "Doctor" [[Neil Fox]], for example, informed viewers that "paedophiles have more genes in common with [[crab]]s than they do with you and me", before qualifying his remarks with "Now that is [[scientific fact]] - there's no real [[evidence]] for it - but it ''is'' scientific fact". Viewers were also told by MP [[Syd Rapson]] that paedophiles were using "an area of Internet the size of [[Ireland]]", and by [[Richard Blackwood]] that [[computer keyboard]]s emit noxious fumes in order to subdue children (Blackwood even claimed to be able to smell the fumes, which he remarked smelled like 'hammers', to much later derision). [[Image:BrassEye-MilitPede.jpg\|thumb\|right\|250px\|Sequence from the special episode on paedophilia, in 2001]] In one segment, the studio is "invaded" by members of a fictional paedophilia advocacy organization called MILIT-PEDE and the programme appears to suffer a short technical disturbance. When the show returns, presenter Chris Morris confronts a supposed spokesman, Gerard Chote (played by [[Simon Pegg]]) who has been captured and placed in a [[pillory]], and asks him whether he wants to have sex with his six-year-old son. Hesitantly, the spokesman looks at the boy and refuses, explaining, "I don't fancy him", which then drives Morris to further indignation that his son is found unattractive. Morris later claimed that the child actor was not present during filming, and was incorporated digitally in [[post-production]], but this scene was one of the key causes of the media backlash which followed its first broadcast. Around 2000 complaints (and approximately 3000 calls of support) were received regarding the show, and some [[politician]]s hastily spoke out against Morris. [[David Blunkett]] said he was "dismayed" by the show, and [[Beverley Hughes]] described it as "unspeakably sick" (while admitting that she had not seen the programme). Although she did not criticise the show, [[Tessa Jowell]] was reported as asking the [[Independent Television Commission]] to revise its rules to allow such a controversial show to be prevented from broadcast [http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk_news/story/0,,529528,00.html]. There was also a vociferous [[tabloid]] campaign against Morris, who refused to discuss the issue. The episode went on to win a Broadcast magazine award in [[2002]] and the complete series, including the 2001 special, was released as a bestselling [[DVD]] later that year. The show caused a furor among sections of the British tabloid press, with the ''[[Daily Mail]]'' leading the fray. Some have pointed out the ironic fact that ''[[The Daily Star]]'' printed an article decrying Morris and the show next to a piece about the then 15-year-old singer [[Charlotte Church]]'s breasts under the headline "She's a big girl now". Additionally, the Daily Mail featured pictures of Princesses [[Princess Beatrice of York\|Beatrice]] and [[Princess Eugenie of York\|Eugenie]], who were 13 and 11 at the time respectively, in their bikinis next to a headline describing Brass Eye as "Unspeakably Sick"[http://mysite.wanadoo-members.co.uk/Monobrow/star-1.jpg], [http://observer.guardian.co.uk/screen/story/0,6903,532307,00.html]. Defenders of the show argued that its satire of the media's articifial [[hysteria]] and hypocrisy on the subject of paedophilia was proved accurate by the ensuing moral panic towards the very programme itself. ==References to and appearances of celebrities by episode== ===Animals episode=== Celebrities appearing: [[Carla Lane]] Sir [[Peregrine Worsthorne]] [[Oliver Skeete]] [[Jilly Cooper]] (via phone only) [[Britt Ekland]] [[Paul Daniels]] [[Michael Van Wijk\|Wolf]] the Gladiator (U.K.) [[Nicholas Parsons]] [[Alexandra Paul]] (via phone only) Celebrities mentioned but not appearing: [[Charles Dickens]] [[Prince Albert]] [[Michael Heseltine]] [[Kenneth Clarke]] [[Tony Benn]] [[Jack Ashley]] [[Jimmy Page]] [[Desmond Morris]] *[[Ralph Fiennes]] ===Drugs episode=== Celebrities appearing: [[Bernard Ingham]] [[Bruno Brookes]] [[Rolf Harris]] [[Bernard Manning]] [[Noel Edmonds]] [[David Amess]] MP [[Claire Rayner]] [[Jimmy Greaves]] *[[Jas Mann]] Celebrities mentioned but not appearing: [[Liam Gallagher]] [[Michael Portillo]] [[Margaret Thatcher]] [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom\|Queen Elizabeth II]] ===Science episode=== Celebrities appearing: [[Eve Pollard]] [[Tania Bryer]] [[John McCririck]] [[Tamara Beckwith]] [[Richard Briers]] [[Nicholas Owen (journalist)\|Nick Owen]] [[Steven Berkoff]] [[Lynne Franks]] [[Jenny Powell]] [[Caesar the Geezer]] Celebrities mentioned but not appearing: [[Mohammed Al-Fayed]] [[Jas Mann]] [[Michael Jackson]] [[Hilary Clinton]] [[Donald Fagen]] [[Jacques Santer]] [[Donald Trump]] [[Saddam Hussein]] [[Michael Collins (astronaut)\|Michael Collins]] [[Buzz Aldrin]] *[[Neil Armstrong]] ===Sex episode=== Celebrities appearing: [[Claire Rayner]] [[Peter Stringfellow]] [[David Sullivan]] [[Peter Tatchell]] Celebrities mentioned but not appearing: [[Kenneth Clarke]] [[Robin Cook]] [[Bono]] [[Peter Sissons]] [[Jack Straw]] [[Michael Howard]] [[Joanna Lumley]] [[Anita Roddick]] [[Helena Bonham Carter]] ===Crime episode=== Celebrities appearing: Sir [[Rhodes Boyson]] 'Mad' [[Frankie Fraser]] [[Tommy Vance]] [[Geoffrey Boycott]] [[Michael Winner]] [[Vanessa Feltz]] *[[David Sullivan]] Celebrities mentioned but not appearing: [[Michael Howard]] Sir [[Paul McCartney]] ===Moral Decline episode=== Celebrities appearing: [[John McCririck]] [[Darcus Howe]] [[John Challis]] [[Frankie Fraser]] Celebrities mentioned but not appearing: [[Terry Waite]] [[Peter Sutcliffe]] [[Myra Hindley]] [[Clive Anderson]] [[Noel Edmonds]] [[Thomas Hamilton]] *[[Michael Grade]] (original broadcast only) ===Brass Eye special=== Celebrities Appearing: [[Gary Lineker]] [[Andy McNab]] [[Gerald Howarth\|Gerald Howarth MP]] [[Sebastian Coe, Baron Coe\|Lord Coe]] [[Neil Fox\|Neil "Dr." Fox]] [[Syd Rapson\|Syd Rapson MP]] [[Phil Collins]] [[Barbara Follett\|Barbara Follett MP]] [[Nicholas Owen (journalist)\|Nicholas Owen]] [[Michael Hames]] [[Philippa Forrester]] [[Kate Thornton]] *[[Richard Blackwood]] ==External links== {{imdb title \| id=0118273 \| title=Brass Eye}} [http://observer.guardian.co.uk/screen/story/0,6903,532307,00.html Why Chris Morris had to make ''Brass Eye''] [http://chilled.cream.org/forums/portal.php Cook'd And Bomb'd - Extensive Chris Morris fansite] [[category:British television comedy]] [[category:Satirical television programmes]] [[Category:Channel 4 television programmes]] [[Category:Parodies]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Channel 4</title> <id>6321</id> <revision> <id>41812154</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T22:31:55Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Campdavid</username> <id>28026</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Independence: 1990&ndash;Today */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{alternateuses}} {{Infobox TV channel\| name= Channel 4\| logosize=174px\| logofile=C4_logo_cutout.png\| logoalt=Channel 4 logo is now cut out from a white background, and is shown in moving distortions that reveal program-specific graphics underneath. \| launch=[[2 November]] [[1982]]\| share=9.6% (with S4C) \| share as of= Jan '06 \| share source= [http://www.barb.co.uk/viewingsummary/monthreports.cfm?report=monthgmulti]\| owner= Channel 4 Television Corporation <BR> (public not-for profit established by an act of UK parliament) \| web= [http://www.channel4.com www.channel4.com] \| terr serv 1=[[Analogue television in the United Kingdom\|UK analogue]]\| terr chan 1=''Usually Channel 4'' \| terr serv 2=[[Freeview]] \| terr chan 2=Channel 4 <BR> (Channel 8 in Wales) \| sat serv 1=[[Sky Digital]]\| sat chan 1=Channel 104<BR> (Channel 117 in Wales)\| cable serv 1= [[Telewest]]\| cable chan 1= Channel 104\| cable serv 2= [[NTL]]\| cable chan 2= Channel 104\| cable serv 3= [[NTL Ireland]]\| cable chan 3= Channel 108\| dummy parameter=\| \|}} '''Channel 4''' is a public service [[television]] broadcaster in the [[United Kingdom]] (see [[British television]]). It was created by an [[Act of Parliament]] and started broadcasting on [[November 2]], [[1982]]. Like the nation's long established public service broadcaster, the [[BBC]], it has gifted broadcasting frequencies, but it does not receive funding from the Television Licence income. All programming is financed through its commercial activities, which includes advertising. It is a publicly owned corporation whose board is appointed by [[OFCOM]], in agreement with the [[Secretary of State for Culture
unctions akin to presidential or semi-presidential systems, in some cases without containing reference to modern democratic principles of accountability to parliament or even to modern governmental offices. For example, the [[1848]] constitution of the [[Kingdom of Italy]] was sufficiently ambiguous and outdated by the 1920s to give King [[Victor Emmanuel III]] leeway to appoint [[Benito Mussolini]] to power in controversial circumstances. Some Commonwealth parliamentary systems combine a body of written constitutional law, unwritten constitutional precedent, [[Order-in-Council\|Orders-in-Council]], [[Letters Patent\|letters patent]], etc that may give a head of state or their representative additional powers in unexpected circumstances (eg. the dismissal of the [[Australia]]n prime minister, [[Gough Whitlam]] by [[Governor-General]] Sir [[John Kerr]].) Other examples of heads of state in parliamentary systems using greater powers than normal due either to ambiguous constitutions or unprecedented national emergencies, such as the decision by King [[Léopold III of Belgium\|Léopold III of the Belgians]] to surrender on behalf of his state to the invading German army in 1940, against the will of his government. Judging that his responsibility to the nation by virtue of his coronation oath required him to act, he believed that his government's decision to fight rather than surrender was mistaken and would damage Belgium. (Leopold's decision proved highly controversial. After [[World War II]], Belgium voted on whether to allow him back on the throne. It did so, but because of the ongoing controversy he ultimately abdicated.) ===Non-executive heads of state=== [[Image:marymca.jpg\|frame\|left\|[[Mary McAleese]], President of [[Ireland]], an example of a non-executive head of state.]] A final category of head of state which could be loosely called the ''non-executive head of state'' model also exists. Its holders are excluded completely from the executive. In other words they do not possess even theoretical executive powers or any role, even formal, within the government. Hence their states' governments are not referred to by the traditional parliamentary model head of state [[Style (manner of address)\|styles]] of ''His/Her Majesty's Government'' or ''His/Her Excellency's Government''. Within this general category, variants in terms of powers and functions may exist. The King of Sweden, since the passage of the modern Swedish constitution (the [[Instrument of Government]]) in the mid 1970s, no longer has any of the parliamentary system head of state functions that had previously belonged to Swedish kings. But he still receives formal cabinet briefings monthly in the Royal Palace. In contrast the only contact the Irish president has with the Irish government is through a formal briefing session given by the [[Taoiseach]] (prime minister) to the President. However she has no access to documentation and all access to ministers goes through the [[Department of An Taoiseach]] (prime minister's office). Examples of this category invariably date from the twentieth century. Some examples of this category are: * the [[President of Ireland]] * the [[Kings of Sweden\|King of Sweden]] (since 1975) * the [[President of the Federal Republic of Germany]] * the [[Emperor of Japan]] (since 1947). ===Complications with categorisation=== While clear categories do exist, it is sometimes difficult to choose which category some individual heads of state belong to. Constitutional change in [[Liechtenstein]] in [[2003]] gave its head of state, the Prince, unprecedented constitutional powers including a veto over legislation and power in theory to dismiss the cabinet. It could be argued that the strengthening of the Prince's powers vis-a-vis the legislature has moved Liechtenstein into the ''semi-presidential'' category. Similarly the original powers given to the [[List of Presidents of Greece\|Greek President]] under the 1974 Hellenic Republic constitution made Greece more akin to the French ''semi-presidential'' model. And the theoretical power of the British monarch to dismiss their government at will would suggest that the United Kingdom should belong to the ''semi-presidential'' category also. In reality the category to which each head of state-ship belongs is assessed not by theory but by practice. In practice no British monarch has forced a government from office since the early nineteenth century, while in reality the Greek Republic, even before the powers of the President of the Republic were curtailed, operated as a standard parliamentary system. Unless and until a Prince of Liechtenstein exercises the theoretical powers they now possess, the principality would still remain categorised as a ''parliamentary system''. ==Roles of the head of state== Often depending on which constitutional category (above) a head of state belongs to, they may have some or all of the roles listed below, and various other ones. ===Symbolic role=== [[Image:Saddam Hussein 4.jpg\|thumb\|left\|200px\|President [[Saddam Hussein]], whose portraits and statues could be found all over [[Iraq]], developed a personality cult.]] As the above quote by Charles de Gaulle indicates, one of the most important roles of the modern head of state is being a living [[national symbol]] of the nation. In many states official [[portrait]]s of the head of state can be found in government offices, courts of law, even airports, libraries, and other public buildings. The idea, sometimes regulated by law, is to use these portraits to make the public aware of the symbolic connection to the government, a practice that dates back to mediaeval times. Sometimes this practice is taken to excess, and the head of state begins to believe that he is the ''only'' symbol of the nation. A [[personality cult]] thus ensues, where the image of the head of state is the only visual representation of the country, surpassing other symbols such as the [[flag]], [[constitution]], [[founding fathers]], etc. A modern champion in this field was Adolf Hitler, the Nazi [[Führer]]; of course such a political technique can also be used by leaders without the formal rank of Head of state. Other common iconic presences, especially of monarchs, are on coins, stamps, banknotes. More discrete variations see them represented by a mention and/or signature. Furthermore all kinds of things are called after heads of state, e.g. streets and squares, schools, charitable and other organisations; in monarchies there can even be a practice to attribute the adjective 'royal' on demand based on existence for a given number of years. In general the active duties amount to a ceremonial role. Thus in diplomatic affairs, heads of state are often the first person to greet an important foreign visitor. They may also assume a sort of informal "host" role during the VIP's visit, inviting the visitor to a state dinner at his or her mansion or palace, or some other equally hospitable affair. At home, they are expected to render luster to various occasions by their presence, such as by attending artistic or sports performances or competitions, expositions, celebrations, military parades and remembrances, prominent funerals, visiting parts of the country, enterprises, care facilities (often in a theatrical honour box, on a platform, on the front row, at the honours table etc.), sometimes performing a symbolic act such as cutting a ribbon or pushing a button at an opening, christening something with champagne, laying the first stone, and so on. Some parts of national life receive their regular attention, often on an annual basis, or even in the form of official patronage. As the potential for such invitations is enormous, such duties are often in part delegated: to such persons as a spouse, other members of the dynasty, or a vice-president, for whom this is often the core of their public role, or in other cases (possibly as a message, eg. to distance themselves without giving protocollary offence) just military or other aid. For non-executive heads of state there is often a degree of censorship by the politically responsible government (e.g. Prime Minister), discretely approving agenda and speeches, especially where the constitution (or customary law) assumes all political responsibility by granting the crown inviolability (in fact also imposing political emasculation) as in the kingdom of Belgium from its very beginning; in a Monarchy this may even be extended to some degree to other members of the dynasty, especially the Heir to the throne. ===Chief diplomatic officer=== [[Image:lettercreed.jpg\|framed\|Russian Head of State and President [[Vladimir Putin]] receives the [[Letters of Credence]] from the French ambassador.]] The head of state ''accredits'' his or her country's [[Ambassador (diplomacy)\|ambassador]]s, through sending formal [[Letter of Credence\|Letters of Credence]] to other heads of state. Without that accreditation, an [[ambassador]] cannot take up a role and receive the highest diplomatic status. However there are provisions in international law to perform the same diplomatic functions, or at least part of them, such as accrediting with a lower title with the government, or functioning within He or she ''receives'' Letters of Credence, sent by other heads of state accrediting ''his''/''her'' ambassador to the state. *He or she signs international treaties on behalf of the state, or has them signed in his/her name by ministers (government members or diplomats); subsequent [[ratification]], when necessary, usually rests with the [[legislature]]. ::'''Example 1:''' Article 59 (1) of the [[Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany]] states - :::''The Federal President shall represent the Federation in its international relations. He shall conclude treaties with foreign states on behalf of the Federation. He shall accredit and receive envoys.'' ::'''Example 2:''' Section 2, Article 81 of the [[Con
The armour shown here of the Polish King, Stefan Batory, is an early example of the "field-marshall style" battle armour. === Plate Armour "Barding" for Horses === It should be noted that the horse was afforded protection from gunfire, and lances by steel plate "barding". This gave the horse protection and added a certain "heroic quality" to the appearance. Fanciful "unicorn spike horns" were frequently added to the protective steel mask. Body areas were protected as well. === Characteristics of armour === Going back to the heyday of armour in the 1400s,most parts of the [[human body]] have been fitted with specialised steel pieces, typically worn over linen or woollen underclothes and attached to the body via leather straps and buckles, with mail (maille) protecting those areas that could not be fitted with plate (the backs of the knee for instance). Well-known constituent parts of plate-armour include the [[helmet\|helm]], [[Gauntlet (gloves)\|gauntlet]]s, [[gorget]] or 'neckguard', [[breastplate]], and [[greaves]] worn on the lower legs. Typically, full-body plate armour was custom-made for the individual. This was understandably a very time-consuming and expensive undertaking, costing as much as a family house or high-powered car in today's money. As such, it was almost exclusively the luxury of the noble and landed classes, with soldiers of lower standing generally wearing cheaper armour (if at all) typically limited to a helm and a breastplate. Armour often bore an insignia in the interior, that was only visible to the wearer upon removal. Full plate armour made the wearer virtually impervious to sword blows as well as providing some protection against arrows, bludgeons and even early musket shot. Although sword edges could not penetrate the relatively thin (as little as 2 mm) plate, they ''could'' cause serious concussive damage via the impact. Also, although arrows shot from bows could often pierce early plate at close range, later improvements in the steel forging techniques and armour design made even this line of attack increasingly difficult. By its apex, toughened steel plate was almost impregnable on the battlefield. Knights were instead increasingly felled by ''blunt'' weapons like [[mace]]s or [[warhammer]]s that could send concussive force ''through'' the plate armour resulting in injuries such as broken bones, organ [[haemorrhage]] and/or head trauma. Another tactic was to attempt to strike though the gaps between the armour pieces, using daggers to attack the Knight's eyes or joints. [[image:etched armour.jpg\|thumb\|200px\|etched plate armour 1560 {{3d_glasses}}]] Contrary to common misconceptions, a well-made suit of medieval 'battle' armour (as opposed to the primarily ceremonial 'parade' and 'tournament' armours popular with kings and nobility of later years) hindered its wearer no more than the equipment carried by soldiers today. An armoured Knight (trained since his teens in its wearing) could comfortably run, crawl, climb ladders, as well as mount and dismount his horse without recourse to a crane (a myth originating from [[Mark Twain]]'s ''[[A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court]]''). A full suit of medieval plate is thought to have weighed little more than 60 lb (27 kg) on average, considerably ''lighter'' than the equipment often carried by the elite of today&#8217;s armies (e.g., SAS patrols have been known to carry equipment weighing well over 200 lb (91 kg) for many miles). ===Plate Armour slowly discarded=== Gradually starting in the mid 1500s, one plate element after another was discarded to save weight for foot soldiers, but breast and back plates continued to be used though the entire period of the 1700s through Napoleonic times in many (heavy) european cavalry units, all the way to the early 20th Century. Rifled muskets from about 1750 and later, could pierce plate, so cavalry had to be far more mindful of the fire. At the start of World War 1 the French Cuirassiers, in the thousands, rode out to engage the German Cavalry who likewise used helmets and armour. By that period, the shiny armour plate was covered in dark paint and a canvas wrap covered their elaborate Napoleonic style helmets. Their armour was meant to protect only against sabres and light lances. The cavalry had to beware of high velocity rifles and machine guns like the foot soldiers, who at least had a trench to protect them. Machine gunners in that war also occasionally wore a crude type of heavy armour. ===Modern personal armour=== [[Image:Bodyarmor.jpg\|thumb\|200px\|A modern ballistic vest.]] Today, [[bullet proof vest]]s made of ballistic cloth (e.g [[Kevlar]] or [[Dyneema]]) and ceramic or metal plates are common among [[police force]]s, [[security guard\|security staff]] and in some branches of the military. For [[infantry]] applications, lighter protection (historically known as a [[flak jacket]]) is often used to protect [[soldier]]s from [[grenade]] fragments and indirect effects of [[bombardment]], but usually not [[small arms]] fire. This is because [[assault rifle]]s usually fire harder, higher-energy [[armor piercing bullet\|bullets]] than [[pistol]]s, and the increased protection needed to stop these would be too cumbersome and heavy to use in [[combat]]. The US Army has adopted Interceptor Ballistic Armor, however, which uses ceramic plates in the chest and back of the armor. Each plate is rated to stop 3 hits from a 7.62 round at a range of 10m, though accounts in Iraq and Afghanistan tell of soldiers shot as much as seven times in the chest without penetration. However, as the name implies, modern ballistic armor is much less impervious to close combat weapons such as knives, due to the fact that they were not made to withstand such weapons. <br clear="left"> <gallery> Image:Horse barding facial plate.jpg\|Horse bard mask with "unicorn" spike, 1560 {{3d_glasses}} Image:closed helmet.jpg\|closed helmet, 1580 to 1600 {{3d_glasses}} </gallery> ==See also== {{Commonscat\|Armour}} * [[Jousting]] * [[Military uniforms]] * [[Battledress]] * [[Shield]] * [[Military history]] * [[Vehicle armour]] * [[List of AFVs]], [[Panzer]] * [[Rolled Homogeneous Armour]] == External links == [http://www.swuklink.com/BAAAGEHQ.php Medieval Armor and its History] [http://www.arador.com/main/index.html Medieval Armour Reproduction and History] [[Category:Personal armor]] [[Category:Ancient warfare]] [[de:Rüstung]] [[es:Armadura (combate)]] [[fr:Armure]] [[he:&#1513;&#1512;&#1497;&#1493;&#1503;]] [[id:Baju zirah]] [[ja:&#37799;]] [[nl:Harnas]] [[no:Rustning]] [[pl:Zbroja]] [[ro:Armură]] [[ru:&#1044;&#1086;&#1089;&#1087;&#1077;&#1093;&#1080;]] [[sv:Brynja]] [[zh:盔甲]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Armoured fighting vehicle</title> <id>2148</id> <revision> <id>40452796</id> <timestamp>2006-02-20T17:42:08Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Mzajac</username> <id>61482</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* See also / remove redundant link</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">An '''armoured fighting vehicle''' (AFV) is a military [[vehicle]], equipped with protection against hostile attacks and often mounted [[weapon]]s. Most AFVs are equipped for driving in rugged [[terrain]]. Armoured fighting vehicles are classified according to their intended role on the battlefield and characteristics. This classification is not absolute; at different times different countries will classify the same vehicle in different roles. For example, ''[[armoured personnel carrier]]s'' were generally replaced by ''[[infantry fighting vehicle]]s'' in a very similar role, but the latter has some capabilities lacking in the former. Successful general-purpose armoured fighting vehicles often also serve as the base of a whole family of specialised vehicles, for example, the [[M113]] and [[MT-LB]] tracked carriers, and the [[Mowag Piranha]] wheeled AFV. == Types of AFVs == [[Tank]] (main battle tank, MBT) * [[Armoured personnel carrier]] (APC) * [[Infantry fighting vehicle]] (IFV) * [[Self-propelled gun]]s: [[Self-propelled artillery]] [[Assault gun]] ** [[Tank Destroyer]] * [[Self-propelled anti-aircraft]] * [[Armoured car]] * [[Tankette]] * [[Armoured train]] * [[Aerosan]] Not AFVs, but often considered together with them: * Support vehicles (not strictly ''fighting'' vehicles): [[Combat engineering vehicle]] (CEV) [[Armoured recovery vehicle]] (ARV) * Unarmoured fighting vehicles: ''[[Technical (fighting vehicle)\|Technical]]'', a civilian truck mounting a support weapon ''[[Tachanka]]'', a horse-drawn machine gun carrier used in the [[Russian Civil War]] ** [[Katyusha]], a series of truck-mounted [[multiple rocket launcher]]s === Tank === [[Image:T72 Georgia.jpg \|thumb\|right\|A [[T-72]] main battle tank clad in reactive armour bricks, in [[Georgia (country) \|Georgian]] service.]] {{main \| tank}} A '''tank''' is a [[Caterpillar track\|tracked]], armoured combat vehicle ([[armoured fighting vehicle]]), designed primarily to engage enemy forces by the use of [[indirect fire\|direct fire]]. A modern [[main battle tank]] is distinguished by its high level of firepower, mobility and armour protection relative to other vehicles of its era. It can cross comparatively rough terrain at high speeds, but is fuel, maintenance, and ammunition-hungry and is [[Military logistics\|logistically]] demanding. It has the heaviest [[Vehicle armour \|armour]] of any vehicle on the battlefield, and carries a powerful weapon that may be able to engage a wide variety of ground targets. It is among the most versatile and fearsome weapons on the battlefield, valued for its [[fear \|shock action]] against other troops and high survivability. See also: [[Tank classification]]. === Armoured perso
been selected for preservation in the United States [[National Film Registry]]. In [[2000]], readers of ''[[Total Film]]'' magazine voted it the 24th greatest comedy film of all time. Roger Ebert has ''Dr. Strangelove'' in his list of Great Movies[http://rogerebert.suntimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=%2F19990711%2FREVIEWS08%2F907110301%2F1023], saying it's "arguably the best political satire of the century." == ''Fail-Safe'' and ''Seven Days in May''== ''Dr. Strangelove'' was based on the paperback novel ''[[Red Alert (book)\|Red Alert]]'' ([[1958]]) by [[Peter George]]. George collaborated on the screenplay with Kubrick and [[satire\|satirist]] [[Terry Southern]]. ''Red Alert'' was far more solemn in tone than its film version; the character of Dr. Strangelove never even existed on its pages. The main plot and technical elements, however, were quite similar. A [[novelization]] of the actual film, rather than a re-print of the original novel, was later penned by Peter George. During the filming of ''Dr. Strangelove'', Stanley Kubrick learned that [[Fail-Safe]], a project with a similar theme, was being produced. Although [[Fail-Safe]] was to be an ultra-realistic thriller, Kubrick feared that its overall plot resemblances would damage ''Strangelove'''s box office run, especially if were to be released first. What worried him the most about [[Fail-Safe]] was that it boasted an acclaimed director ([[Sidney Lumet]]) and first-rate dramatic actors ([[Henry Fonda]] as the American President and [[Walter Matthau]] as the bold civilian advisor to the Pentagon, Professor Groeteschele). As an ever-cunning strategist, Kubrick decided that it would be in ''Strangeloves'' 's best interest for a legal wrench to be thrown into the gears of [[Fail-Safe]]'s production efforts. Director Sidney Lumet recalls in the documentary, "Inside the Making of Dr. Strangelove": <blockquote>We started casting. Fonda was already set... which of course meant a big commitment in terms of money. I was set, Walter [Bernstein, the screenwriter] was set... And suddenly, this lawsuit arrived, filed by Stanley Kubrick and Columbia Pictures.</blockquote> Kubrick tried to halt production on [[Fail-Safe]] by arguing that its own 1960 source novel of the same name had been plagiarized from [[Peter George]]'s ''Red Alert,'' to which Kubrick himself owned the creative rights. The plan ended up working exactly as Kubrick intended; [[Fail-Safe]] opened a full eight months behind Dr. Strangelove to critical acclaim, but mediocre box office results. Also released in 1964 was [[Warner Brothers]]' ''[[Seven Days in May]].'' The plot involves a [[Coup d'etat\|coup]] attempt by the Joint Chiefs of Staff to prevent the President of the United States from signing a [[nuclear disarmament]] treaty with the Soviets, whom they believe cannot be trusted. == The Kennedy assassination == A first test screening of the movie was actually scheduled to be on [[November 22]], [[1963]], the day of the [[John F. Kennedy assassination]]. The film was just weeks from its scheduled premiere. The release was delayed until late January 1964 as it was felt that the public was in no mood for such a film any sooner. Additionally, one line by Slim Pickens ("a fella could have a pretty good weekend in [[Dallas, Texas\|Dallas]] with all that stuff") was dubbed to become "in [[Las Vegas, Nevada\|Vegas]]". The dub is just barely visible if Pickens' lips are watched closely when he speaks. Also, the climactic pie-fight scene was scripted to include General Turgidson exclaiming, "Gentlemen! Our gallant young president has been struck down in his prime!" after Muffley takes a pie in the face. While the pie fight was filmed but cut, this line, no matter how coincidental, would have hit too close to home to be used. == Songs == * An instrumental version of "Try a Little Tenderness", a sentimental pop song from the 1930s, is played during the opening titles sequence which features shots of [[aerial refueling]] of a B52 bomber. * "[[Johnny I Hardly Knew Ye]]", [[Irish]] traditional anti-war song. The tune is also used for the American patriotic song [[When Johnny Comes Marching Home]]. An instrumental version is used to accompany the B-52 flight, leaving an ambiguity as to which set of words is being referred to. * "[[We'll Meet Again (song)\|We'll Meet Again]]" sung by [[Vera Lynn]], optimistic, sentimental [[World War II]] song, played as the bombs explode at the end of the film. * Mandrake suspects that all is not as it seems, when he turns on an unconfiscated radio and hears pop music when there should be [[Civil Defense]] alerts, but the music itself is anonymous. ==Trivia== In several shots of the B-52 flying over the polar ice en route to Russia, the shadow of the actual camera plane, a [[Boeing]] [[B-17 Flying Fortress]], is visible on the snow below. The B-52 was a model composited into the arctic footage which was sped up to create a (quite unconvincing) sense of jet speed. The camera ship, a former USAAF B-17G-100-VE, serial 44-85643, registered F-BEEA, had been one of four Flying Forts purchased from salvage at Altus, Oklahoma in December 1947 by the French Institut Geographique National and converted for survey and photo-mapping duty. It was the last active B-17 of a total of fourteen once operated by the IGN, but it was destroyed in a take-off accident at RAF Binbrook in 1989 during filming of the movie "Memphis Belle." Home movie footage included in "Inside the Making of Dr. Strangelove" on the 2001 Special Edition DVD release of the film show clips of the Fortress with a cursive "Dr. Strangelove" painted over the rear entry hatch on the right side of the fuselage. The nuclear explosions at the end of the film are all of actual US nuclear tests. Many of them were shot at [[Bikini Atoll]], and old warships (such as the German [[Prinz Eugen]] heavy cruiser) expended as targets are plainly visible. In others the smoke trails of rockets used to create a calibration backdrop on the sky behind the explosion can be seen. In the novelisation, the "mineshaft" survival technique succeeded, at least for a while, as the story is said to have been reconstructed from documents found at the bottom of deep mineshafts. During the filming, Stanley Kubrick and George C. Scott had differences of opinions regarding certain scenes. However, Kubrick got Scott to conform based largely upon his ability to beat Scott at chess (which they played frequently on the set). In the end, Scott was extremely displeased with Kubrick's work methods and with the (purposely) overacted performance he got out of him, and swore to never work with him again. The photographic mural in General Ripper's office, presumably showing an aerial view of Burpelson AFB, is actually a view of [[Heathrow Airport]], London. The line "I can walk" given by Peter Sellers in this film is repeated by Sellers in Revenge of the Pink Panther when he has to walk on his knees in his Toulouse-Lautrec disguise. ==Popular Culture References== The popular television series ''[[The Simpsons]]'' contains several references to Dr. Strangelove. Here are only a few examples: :In the episode "[[Homer the Vigilante]]", [[Homer Simpson]] rides a bomb à la Major Kong :The episode "[[Sideshow Bob's Last Gleaming]]" features a 'war room', and [[Sideshow Bob]] whistles "[[We'll Meet Again (song)\|We’ll Meet Again]]" :The episode "$pringfield (or, How I learned to stop worrying and love legalized gambling)" is an obvious parody of the title. :General Turgidson appears in ''[[Treehouse of Horror XIII]]'', again in Mayor Quimby's war room. Professor Frink can be seen as Dr. Strangelove. In ''Dr. Strangelove'', the CRM-114 is the nomenclature of the [[Strategic Air Command]] encryption/decryption device aboard the [[B-52 Stratofortress]] (and also a frequent in-joke used by Kubrick in his other films). This has been referenced: In an episode of the television series Star Trek: Deep Space Nine, the characters make reference to a powerful laser cannon called the 'CRM-114'. In Kubrick's film "[[A Clockwork Orange]]" the serum which is given to the main character during the so-called "Lodovico treatment" is called 'Serum 114'. In the first scene of ''[[Back to the Future]]'', [[Marty McFly]] switches an amplifier with the words 'CRM-114' printed on it. The CRM114 Discriminator is the name of a data stream analyzer (think SPAM filter) which achieves very high accuracy based on a "learning" algorithm. *In the 2005 film ''[[Fun_with_Dick_and_Jane_%282005_film%29\|Fun with Dick and Jane]]'' a financial transaction form is referred to as a 'CRM-114'. The film inspired the nickname "Dr. Strangeglove" for [[Boston Red Sox]] slugger [[Dick Stuart]], a first baseman notorious for fielding his position poorly. The 1998 film [[Deep Impact (film)\|Deep Impact]] discussed preparations for surviving a massive asteroid strike upon the Earth, and mineshafts are drafted into service for this reason, in an echo of the survival plan in "[[Dr. Strangelove]]." Additionally, a lottery system is proposed for selection of candidates for survival, much like that proposed by Dr. Strangelove himself. In 1965 Science fiction author [[Philip K. Dick]] released a novel about a post apocalyptic society Titled [[Dr. Bloodmoney, or How We Got Along After the Bomb]]. This was not the originally intended title, but was suggested by his publisher to coincide with the popularity of the Kubrick film. Several video games reference various elements from ''Dr. Strangelove'': *The character of [[List of antagonists in Xenosaga#Sellers\|Sellers]] in ''[[Xenosaga]]'' appears to be based off Dr. Strangelove. He rides a (futuristic) wheelch
s we have another example in the case of St Bruno. Popes and sovereigns gradually encroached on the rights of the monks, until in Italy the pope had usurped the nomination of all abbots, and the king in France, with the exception of Cluny, Premontre and other houses, chiefs of their order. The election was for life, unless the abbot was canonically deprived by the chiefs of his order, or when he was directly subject to them, by the pope or the bishop. The ceremony of the formal admission of a [[Benedictine]] abbot in medieval times is thus prescribed by the [[consuetudinary]] of Abingdon. The newly elected abbot was to put off his shoes at the door of the church, and proceed barefoot to meet the members of the house advancing in a procession. After proceeding up the [[nave]], he was to kneel and pray at the topmost step of the entrance of the choir, into which he was to be introduced by the bishop or his [[commissary]], and placed in his stall. The monks, then kneeling, gave him the kiss of peace on the hand, and rising, on the mouth, the abbot holding his [[staff of office]]. He then put on his shoes in the [[vestry]], and a [[chapter (religion)\|chapter]] was held, and the bishop or his delegate preached a suitable sermon. The power of the abbot was paternal but absolute, limited, however, by the [[canon law]]. One of the main goals of monasticism was the purgation of self and selfishness, and obedience was seen as a path to that perfection. It was sacred duty to execute the abbot's orders, and even to act without his orders was sometimes considered a transgression. Examples among the Egyptian monks of this submission to the commands of the superiors, exalted into a virtue by those who regarded the entire crushing of the individual will as a goal, are detailed by Cassian and others, e.g. a monk watering a dry stick, day after day, for months, or endeavouring to remove a huge rock immensely exceeding his powers. ==General Information== Before the late modern era, the abbot was treated with the utmost reverence by the brethren of his house. When he appeared either in church or chapter all present rose and bowed. His letters were received kneeling, as were those of the pope and the king. No monk might sit in his presence, or leave it without his permission, reflecting the hierarchical etiquette of families and society. The highest place was assigned to him, both in church and at table. In the East he was commanded to eat with the other monks. In the West the [[Rule of St Benedict]] appointed him a separate table, at which he might entertain guests and strangers. This permission opening the door to luxurious living, the council of Aachen, AD [[817]], decreed that the abbot should dine in the [[refectory]], and be content with the ordinary fare of the monks, unless he had to entertain a guest. These ordinances proved, however, generally ineffectual to secure strictness of diet, and contemporaneous literature abounds with satirical remarks and complaints concerning the inordinate extravagance of the tables of the abbots. When the abbot condescended to dine in the refectory, his [[chaplain]]s waited upon him with the dishes, a servant, if necessary, assisting them. When abbots dined in their own private hall, the Rule of St Benedict charged them to invite their monks to their table, provided there was room, on which occasions the guests were to abstain from quarrels, slanderous talk and idle gossiping. The ordinary attire of the abbot was according to rule to be the same as that of the monks. But by the 10th century the rule was commonly set aside, and we find frequent complaints of abbots dressing in silk, and adopting sumptuous attire. They sometimes even laid aside the monastic habit altogether, and assumed a secular dress. With the increase of wealth and power, abbots had lost much of their special religious character, and become great lords, chiefly distinguished from lay lords by [[clerical celibacy\|celibacy]]. Thus we hear of abbots going out to hunt, with their men carrying bows and arrows; keeping horses, dogs and huntsmen; and special mention is made of an abbot of [[Leicester]], c. [[1360]], who was the most skilled of all the nobility in hare hunting. In magnificence of equipage and [[retinue]] the abbots vied with the first nobles of the realm. They rode on mules with gilded bridles, rich saddles and housings, carrying hawks on their wrist, followed by an immense train of attendants. The bells of the churches were rung as they passed. They associated on equal terms with laymen of the highest distinction, and shared all their pleasures and pursuits. This rank and power was, however, often used most beneficially. For instance, we read of Whiting, the last abbot of [[Glastonbury Abbey\|Glastonbury]], judicially murdered by [[Henry VIII of England\|Henry VIII]], that his house was a kind of well-ordered court, where as many as 300 sons of noblemen and gentlemen, who had been sent to him for virtuous education, had been brought up, besides others of a lesser rank, whom he fitted for the universities. His table, attendance and officers were an honour to the nation. He would entertain as many as 500 persons of rank at one time, besides relieving the poor of the vicinity twice a week. He had his country houses and fisheries, and when he travelled to attend parliament his retinue amounted to upwards of 100 persons. The abbots of [[Cluny]] and [[Vendome\|Vendôme]] were, by virtue of their office, [[Cardinal (Catholicism)\|cardinal]]s of the Roman church. In process of time the title abbot was extended to [[clergy#Catholic clergy\|clerics]] who had no connection with the monastic system, as to the principal of a body of parochial clergy; and under the [[Charlemagne\|Carolingians]] to the chief chaplain of the king, ''Abbas Curiae,'' or military chaplain of the emperor, ''Abbas Castrensis.'' It even came to be adopted by purely secular officials. Thus the chief magistrate of the republic at [[Genoa]] was called ''Abbas Populi''. [[Lay abbot]]s (M. Lat. ''defensores'', ''abbacomites'', ''abbates laici'', ''abbates milites'', ''abbates saeculares'' or ''irreligiosi'', ''abbatiarii'', or sometimes simply ''abbates'') were the outcome of the growth of the [[Feudalism \| feudal]] system from the [[8th century]] onwards. The practice of [[commendation]], by which--to meet a contemporary emergency--the revenues of the community were handed over to a lay lord, in return for his protection, early suggested to the emperors and kings the expedient of rewarding their warriors with rich abbeys held ''in [[commendam]].'' During the Carolingian epoch the custom grew up of granting these as regular heritable [[fiefdom\|fiefs]] or [[benefice]]s, and by the [[10th century]], before the great [[Cluny \| Cluniac]] reform, the system was firmly established. Even the [[Saint Denis Basilica\|abbey of St Denis]] was held in commendam by [[Hugh Capet]]. The example of the kings was followed by the feudal nobles, sometimes by making a temporary concession permanent, sometimes without any form of commendation whatever. In England the abuse was rife in the 8th century, as may be gathered from the acts of the council of Cloveshoe. These lay abbacies were not merely a question of overlordship, but implied the concentration in lay hands of all the rights, immunities and jurisdiction of the foundations, i.e. the more or less complete secularization of spiritual institutions. The lay abbot took his recognized rank in the feudal hierarchy, and was free to dispose of his fief as in the case of any other. The enfeoffment of abbeys differed in form and degree. Sometimes the monks were directly subject to the lay abbot; sometimes he appointed a substitute to perform the spiritual functions, known usually as [[dean (religion)\|dean]] (decanus), but also as abbot (''abbas legitimas'', ''monasticus'', ''regularis''). When the great reform of the 11th century had put an end to the direct jurisdiction of the lay abbots, the honorary title of abbot continued to be held by certain of the great feudal famines, as late as the 13th century and later, the actual head of the community retaining that of dean. The connection of the lesser lay abbots with the abbeys, especially in the south of France, lasted longer; and certain feudal families retained the title of abbes chevaliers (abbates milltes) for centuries, together with certain rights over the abbey lands or revenues. The abuse was not confined to the West. John, [[patriarch of Antioch]], at the beginning of the 12th Century, informs us that in his time most monasteries had been handed over to laymen, ''bencficiarii,'' for life, or for part of their lives, by the emperors. [[Giraldus Cambrensis]] reported (''Itinerary'', ii.iv) the common customs of lay abbots in the late 12th-century Church of Wales: :"for a bad custom has prevailed amongst the clergy, of appointing the most powerful people of a parish stewards, or, rather, patrons, of their churches; who, in process of time, from a desire of gain, have usurped the whole right, appropriating to their own use the possession of all the lands, leaving only to the clergy the altars, with their tenths and oblations, and assigning even these to their sons and relations in the church. Such defenders, or rather destroyers, of the church, have caused themselves to be called abbots, and presumed to attribute to themselves a title, as well as estates, to which they have no just claim." In conventual cathedrals, where the bishop occupied the place of the abbot, the functions usually devolving on the superior of the monastery were performed by a prior. ==Abbatial hierarchy== In several orders, there exists a pyramidal relationship between a major abbey (often the old mother of several others, especially if it was the place from where a monastic reform was launched, which in other cases even lead to breaking away as
eemasonry.bcy.ca/texts/illuminati.html A Bavarian Illuminati Primer:] with citations [[Category:1748 births\|Weishaupt, Adam]] [[Category:1811 deaths\|Weishaupt, Adam]] [[Category:Jesuits\|Weishaupt, Adam]] [[Category:Freemasons\|Weishaipt, Adam]] [[de:Adam Weishaupt]] [[es:Adam Weishaupt]] [[et:Adam Weishaupt]] [[it:Adam Weishaupt]] [[nl:Adam Weishaupt]] [[sv:Adam Weishaupt]] [[fr:Adam Weishaupt]] [[ru:Вейсгаупт, Адам]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Acorn Electron</title> <id>2078</id> <revision> <id>40637332</id> <timestamp>2006-02-21T23:59:40Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>ThomasHarte</username> <id>184177</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* History */ fixed some links, added one</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:ElectronMagazineAd.jpg\|right\|thumb\|An original press advertisement for the Acorn Electron]] The '''Acorn Electron''' was a budget version of the [[BBC Micro]] educational/[[home computer]] made by [[Acorn Computers Ltd]]. It had 32 [[kilobyte]]s of [[Random Access Memory\|RAM]], and its ROM memory included [[BBC BASIC]] along with its operating system. The Electron was able to save and load programs onto [[compact audio cassette\|audio cassette]] via a supplied converter cable that plugged into the [[microphone]] socket of any [[tape recorder]]. It was capable of basic graphics, and could display onto either a television set or a "[[green screen]]" monitor. At its peak, the Electron was the third best selling micro in the United Kingdom, and total lifetime game sales for the Electron exceeded those of the BBC Micro. There are at least 500 known games for the Electron and the true total is probably in the thousands. The hardware of the BBC Micro was emulated by a single customized [[Gate array\|ULA]] chip designed by Acorn. It had feature limitations such as being unable to output more than one channel of sound where the BBC was capable of three-way polyphony and the inability to provide [[teletext]] mode. The machine architecture also imposed a substantial speed decrease on applications running from RAM, although ROM applications ran at the same speed The ULA controlled memory access and was able to provide 32K &times; 8 bits of addressable RAM using 4 &times; 64K &times; 1-bit [[random-access memory\|RAM]] chips (4164). ==History== [[Image:ElectronBASIC.png\|thumb\|right\|Acorn Electron BASIC - the first thing displayed when an unexpanded Electron is switched on]] The Electron was developed during 1983 as a cheap sibling for the [[BBC Micro]] with the intention of capturing the low cost Christmas sales market for that year. Although Acorn were able to shrink substantially the same functionality as the [[BBC Micro\|BBC]] into just one chip, manufacturing problems meant that very few machines were available for the Christmas period - to the extent that some shops reported eight presales for every delivered machine. This was a blow from which the machine never fully recovered, although games sales for it would ultimately outstrip those of the BBC Micro. Following [[Olivetti]]'s 1985 cash injection into Acorn the machine was effectively sidelined. With hindsight, the machine was too lacking in RAM (a typical program would need to fit in only around 20 kB once display memory is subtracted) and processing power to take on the prevailing [[ZX Spectrum]] and [[Commodore 64]]. Despite this, several features that would later be associated with [[BBC Master]] and [[Acorn Archimedes\|Archimedes]] were first features of Electron expansion units, including ROM cartridge slots and the [[Advanced Disc Filing System]] - a hierarchical improvement to the BBC's original [[Disc Filing System]]. ==Popular upgrades== ===Acorn Plus 1=== [[Image:Electron Plus One.jpg\|thumb\|left\|250px\|An Electron with Plus 1 attached]] The Acorn Plus 1 added two ROM slots, an analogue interface and serial and parallel ports. The analogue interface was normally used for joysticks, the parallel for a printer and the serial for a modem. Access to ROM memory occurred at 2 MHz regardless of graphics mode so theoretically programs released on ROM could run at least twice as fast as those released on tape or disc. Despite this all of the games released on ROM were packaged as 'serial ROMS', from which the micro would load programs into main memory in exactly the same way as if it was loading from tape. This meant that programs did not need to be modified for their new memory location but gave no execution speed benefits whatsoever. ===Acorn Plus 3=== The Acorn Plus 3 was a hardware module that connected independently of the Plus 1 that added a double density 3.5" disc drive connected through a WD1770 drive controller and an [[Advanced Disk Filing System\|ADFS]] ROM. Because the WD1770 is capable of single density mode and uses the same IBM360 derived floppy disc format as the NEC8271 found in the BBC Micro it was also possible to run a [[Disc Filing System\|DFS]] filing system with an alternate ROM. ===P.R.E.S. Advanced Plus 3=== [[Image:Advanced_Plus_3.jpg\|thumb\|right\|250px\|The P.R.E.S. Advanced Plus 3 with a 3.5" drive]] The Advanced Plus 3 was very similar to the Acorn Plus 3 but packaged as a ROM catridge for the Plus 1 with a disc drive connector at the head. This made it possible to connect a 5.25" floppy disc drive as used by BBC Micro owners or a more common 3.5" drive. ===Slogger/Elektuur Turbo Board=== The Slogger and Elektuur Turbo Boards were born out of a hack initially devised at Acorn. By moving the lowest 8 kB of RAM outside of reach of the ULA, the CPU could always access it at 2 MHz. The tradeoff was that the screen could not be located in that 8 kB. In practice the operating system ROMs always put the screen into the top 24 kB and as a result this probably only broke compatibility with around 2% of software. The Slogger Turbo Board was a professionally fitted upgrade whereas the Elektuur modification was described in an article in Dutch Electronic's magazine Elektuur and intended for users to perform at home. Speeding up the low portion of memory is particarly useful on 6502 derived machines because that processor has a faster addressing mode for the first 256 and so it is common for software to put any variables involved in time critical sections of program into that region. If Acorn had thought to include this small modification in the original Electron design it is likely the machine would have had a much greater impact as it would have nearly doubled the amount of motion possible in games and saved modes 0-3 (including the only 16 colour mode) from being nearly useless due to contended memory timings. ===Slogger Master RAM Board=== A development of the Turbo Board, the Master RAM Board duplicated the Turbo Board functionality and added a further option of running the micro with 32 kB of shadow RAM in addition to the ordinary 32 kB - giving 64 kB total. Some clever program counter catches meant that the ordinary system ROMs and any software using the OS calls could function without significant modification, making substantially more memory available for BASIC, View, Viewsheet and almost every other business application. Applications could not directly address video memory in this mode without modification so it was incompatible with most games although there is no inherent reason why a game couldn't be written to function in shadow mode. During its decline, Master RAM Boards were added to every Electron to try and increase sales. ===Jafa Systems Mode 7 Display Unit=== Of the capabilities present in the BBC Micro but absent from the Electron, the teletext style ''mode 7'' was particularly conspicuous because of the very low memory usage in that mode (just less than 1 kB) and the high number of BBC programs that used it. Jafa Systems provided a number of solutions to redress this deficiency. The most basic solution was a pure software system supplied on a ROM cartridge that drew a low resolution approximation of the mode 7 display in a graphics mode. Although cheap and effective in enabling use of some software that only used official ROM entry points for text output, this solution proved very slow because the Electron had to be placed into an 80 byte pitch display to be able to get anywhere near to reproducing mode 7 and the CPU spent a lot of time drawing approximations of mode 7 characters and graphics that in a hardware solution would be achieved without any CPU processing. It also used up 20 kB of RAM for the graphics display rather than the 1 kB of a hardware mode 7. Two solutions with additional hardware were provided. The first used the same graphics processor as the BBC Micro in mode 7 - the [[SAA5050]] - but used software to ensure that it was fed with the correct graphics data. A software ROM would put the machine into an ordinary 40 byte pitch display. While the ULA would read the display from memory in the usual fashion, the SAA5050 would listen to the data it was reading and produce a mode 7 interpretation of the same information. When necessary the hardware would switch between the graphics output being produced by the micro and that being produced by the add-on. The disadvantage to this system is that while the SAA5050 would expect to be repeatedly fed the same 40 bytes of data for every display scanline of every character row, the ULA would read a different set of 40 bytes for every display scanline in order to produce a full graphics display. A software ROM worked around this by duplicating the data intended for a mode 7 display in memory. Although this produced a mode 7 that barely impacted upon CPU performance and gave the same visual quality as the BBC Micro, it remained compatible only with software that used the ROM routines for outputting text and graphics and still used 10 kB of memory for the display. A second version of the hardware add-
in contrast to Lisp variants such as [[Emacs Lisp\|Emacs Lisp]] and [[AutoLISP]] which are embedded extension languages in particular products. Unlike many earlier Lisps, Common Lisp (like [[Scheme programming language\|Scheme]]) uses lexical variable [[scope (programming)\|scope]]. Common Lisp is a multi-paradigm [[programming language]] that: * Supports programming techniques such as [[procedural programming\|imperative]], [[functional programming\|functional]] and [[object-oriented]] programming. * Is dynamically typed, but with optional type declarations that can improve efficiency. * Is extensible through standard features such as Lisp macros (compile-time code rearrangement accomplished by the program itself) and reader macros (extension of syntax to give special meaning to characters reserved for users for this purpose). ==Syntax== Common Lisp is a Lisp; it uses [[S-expression]]s to denote both code and data structure. Function and macro calls are written as lists, with the name of the function first, as in these examples: (+ 2 2) ; adds 2 and 2, yielding 4 (setf p 3.1415) ; sets the variable "p" equal to 3.1415 <!-- "pi" is a built-in constant; can't setf it--> ; Define a function that squares a number: (defun square (x) (* x x)) ; Execute the function: (square 3) ; Returns "9" <!-- I truncated this a bit; in smaller browsers, it runs off the side--> ; construction - variables existing only in 'let' block, so you can easily give any new ; values to any existing variables without changing them. Old values are restored after ; the end of the block. (let ((a 6) (b 4)) (+ a b)) ; returns 10 ==Data types== Common Lisp has a plethora of data types, more than many languages. ===Scalar types=== ''Number'' types include [[integer]]s, [[ratio]]s, [[floating-point number]]s, and [[complex number]]s. Common Lisp uses [[bignum]]s to represent numerical values of arbitrary size and precision. The ratio type represents fractions exactly, a facility not available in many languages. Common Lisp automatically coerces numeric values among these types as appropriate. The Common Lisp ''[[character (computing)\|character]]'' type is not limited to [[ASCII]] characters -- unsurprising, as Lisp predates ASCII. Some modern implementations allow [[Unicode]] characters. [http://www.cliki.net/Unicode%20Support] The ''[[symbol]]'' type is common to Lisp languages, but largely unknown outside them. A symbol is a unique, named data object. Symbols in Lisp are similar to identifiers in other languages, in that they are used as variables to hold values; however, they are more general and can be used for themselves as well. Normally, when a symbol is evaluated, its value as a variable is returned. Exceptions exist: ''keyword'' symbols such as <TT>:foo</TT> evaluate to themselves, and ''Boolean'' values in Common Lisp are represented by the reserved symbols <TT>T</TT> and <TT>NIL</TT>. ===Data structures=== ''Sequence'' types in Common Lisp include lists, vectors, bit-vectors, and strings. There are many operations which can work on any sequence type. As in any other Lisp, ''lists'' in Common Lisp are composed of ''conses'', sometimes called ''cons cells'' or ''pairs''. A cons is a data structure with two slots, called its ''car'' and ''cdr''. A list is a linked chain of conses. Each cons's car refers to a member of the list (possibly another list). Each cons's cdr refers to the next cons -- except for the last cons, whose cdr refers to the <TT>nil</TT> value. Conses can also easily be used to implement trees and other complex data structures; though it is usually advised to use structure or class instances instead. Common Lisp supports multidimensional ''arrays'', and can dynamically resize arrays if required. Multidimensional arrays can be used for matrix mathematics. A ''vector'' is a one-dimensional array. Arrays can carry any type as members (even mixed types in the same array) or can be specialized to contain a specific type of members, as in a vector of integers. Many implementations can optimize array functions when the array used is type-specialized. Two type-specialized array types are standard: a ''string'' is a vector of characters, while a ''bit-vector'' is a vector of [[bit]]s. ''[[Hash table]]s'' store associations between data objects. Any object may be used as key or value. Hash tables, like arrays, are automatically resized as needed. ''Packages'' are collections of symbols, used chiefly to separate the parts of a program into [[namespace]]s. A package may ''export'' some symbols, marking them as part of a public interface. ''Structures'', similar in use to [[C programming language\|C]] structs and [[Pascal programming language\|Pascal]] records, represent arbitrary complex data structures with any number and type of fields (called ''slots''). Class ''instances'', similar to structures, but created by the object system, [[CLOS]]. ===Functions=== In Common Lisp, the type of ''functions'' is a data type. For instance, it is possible to write functions that take other functions as arguments or return functions as well. This makes it possible to describe very general operations. The Common Lisp library relies heavily on such higher-order functions. For example, the <CODE>sort</CODE> function takes a [[comparison operator]] as an argument. This can be used not only to sort any type of data, but also to sort data structures according to a key. (sort (list 5 2 6 3 1 4) #'>) ; Sorts the list using the > function as the comparison operator. ; Returns (6 5 4 3 2 1). (sort (list '(9 a) '(3 b) '(4 c)) #'(lambda (x y) (< (car x) (car y)))) ; Sorts the list according to the first element (car) of each sub-list. ; Returns ((3 b) (4 c) (9 a)). The evaluation model for functions is very simple. When the evaluator encounters a form <code>(F A1 A2...)</code> then it is to assume that the symbol named F is one of the following: # A special operator (easily checked against a fixed list) # A macro operator (must have been defined previously) # The name of a function (default), which may either be a symbol, or a sub-form beginning with the symbol <code>lambda</code>. If F is the name of a function, then the arguments A1, A2, ..., An are evaluated in left-to-right order, and the function is found and invoked with those values supplied as parameters. ====Defining functions==== The macro <CODE>defun</CODE> defines functions. A function definition gives the name of the function, the names of any arguments, and a function body: (defun square (x) (* x x)) Function definitions may include ''declarations'', which provide hints to the compiler about optimization settings or the data types of arguments. They may also include ''documentation strings'' (docstrings), which the Lisp system may use to provide interactive documentation: (defun square (x) <EM>(declare (number x) (optimize (speed 3) (debug 0) (safety 1))) "Calculates the square of the number x."</EM> (* x x)) Anonymous functions are defined using the <CODE>lambda</CODE> special operator. Lisp programming style frequently uses higher-order functions for which it is useful to provide anonymous functions as arguments. There are a number of other operators related to the definition and manipulation of functions. For instance, a function may be recompiled with the <CODE>compile</CODE> operator. (Some Lisp systems run functions in an interpreter by default unless instructed to compile; others compile every entered function on the fly.) ====The function namespace==== The namespace for function names is separate from the namespace for data variables. This is a key difference between Common Lisp and [[Scheme programming language\|Scheme]]. Operators which define names in the function namespace include <code>defun</code>, <code>flet</code>, and <code>labels</code>. To pass a function by name as an argument to another function, one must use the <code>function</code> special operator, commonly abbreviated as #'. The first <code>sort</code> example above refers to the function named by the symbol <code>&gt;</code> in the function namespace, with the code <code>#'&gt;</code>. [[Scheme programming language\|Scheme]]'s evaluation model is simpler: there is only one namespace, and all positions in the form are evaluated (in any order) -- not just the arguments. Code written in one dialect is therefore sometimes confusing to programmers more experienced in the other. For instance, many CL programmers like to use descriptive variable names such as ''list'' or ''string'' which could cause problems in Scheme as they would locally shadow function names. Whether a separate namespace for functions is an advantage is a source of contention in the Lisp community. It is usually referred to as the ''Lisp-1 vs. Lisp-2 debate''. These names were coined in a 1988 paper by [[Richard P. Gabriel]] and [[Kent Pitman]], which extensively compares the two approaches. [http://www.nhplace.com/kent/Papers/Technical-Issues.html] ===Other types=== Other data types in Common Lisp include: ''Pathnames'' represent files and directories in the [[filesystem]]. The Common Lisp pathname facility is more general than most operating systems' file naming conventions, making Lisp programs' access to files broadly portable across diverse systems. Input and output ''streams'' represent sources and sinks of binary or textual data, such as the terminal or open files. *Common Lisp has a built-in [[pseudo-random number generator]]. ''Random state'' objects represent reusable sources of pseudo-random numbers, allowing the user to seed the PRNG or cause it to
ue the Red Cross has identified that shows strong potential for treating people in new ways is through [[cellular therapy\|cellular therapies]]. This new method of treatment involves collecting and treating blood cells from a patient or other blood donor. The treated cells are then introduced into a patient to help revive normal cell function; replace cells that are lost as a result of disease, accidents or aging; or used to prevent illnesses from appearing. Cellular therapy may prove to be particularly helpful for patients who are being treated for illnesses such as [[cancer]], where the treated cells may help battle cancerous cells. ==Court ordered consent decree== The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) took court action against the American Red Cross in response to deficiencies in their tracking and procedures for ensuring the safety of the blood supply. The consent decree outlines some of the violations of federal law that the American Red Cross engaged in before 1993. Fines were imposed in the millions of dollars. In response to the decree, Red Cross Biomedical Services now has: a standardized [[computer]] system that efficiently maintains the blood donor database; a network of eight, state-of-the-art National Testing Laboratories (NTLs) that test about 6 million units of blood collected by the Red Cross's 36 blood regions; the Charles Drew Biomedical Institute, which allows for the Red Cross to provide training and other educational resources to Red Cross Blood Services' personnel; a highly qualified Quality Assurance/Regulatory Affairs Department, which helps to ensure compliance with [[FDA]] regulations in every Red Cross Blood Services region; and, a centrally managed blood inventory system to ensure the consistent availability of blood and blood components in every Red Cross Blood Services region throughout the country. In an [http://www.fda.gov/ora/frequent/letters/1000123507_ARC/consent_decree_100023507.pdf agreement with the American Red Cross] the Consent Decree was amended in 2003 with penalties for specific violations. The FDA can impose penalties after April 2003 up to the following maximum amounts: * $10,000 per event (and $10,000 per day) for any violation of an ARC standard operating procedure (SOP), the law, or consent decree requirement and timeline * $50,000 for preventable release of each unit of blood for which FDA determines that there is a reasonable probability that the product may cause serious adverse health consequences or death *$5,000 for the release of each unit that may cause temporary problems, up to a maximum of $500,000 per event $50,000 for the improper re-release of each unsuitable blood unit that was returned to ARC inventory * $10,000 for each donor inappropriately omitted from the [[National Donor Deferral Registry]], a list of all unsuitable donors == Red Cross Health and Safety services == The American Red Cross has become a household name for providing first aid, Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR), Automated External Defibrillator (AED), water safety and lifeguarding training throughout the United States. The training programs are primarily aimed at laypersons, workplaces, and aquatic facilities. In 2005, the American Red Cross co-lead the 2005 Guidelines for First Aid, which aims to provide up-to-date and peer-reviewed first aid training material. Many American Red Cross chapters also sell first aid kits and other related equipment. ==Disaster services== Each year, the American Red Cross responds immediately to more than 67,000 [[disasters]], including house or apartment [[fires]] (the majority of disaster responses), [[hurricane]]s, [[flood]]s, [[earthquake]]s, [[tornado]]es, [[hazardous materials]] spills, transportation [[accidents]], [[explosions]], and other natural and man-made disasters. Although the American Red Cross is not a [[government]] agency, its authority to provide disaster relief was formalized when, in [[1905]], the Red Cross was chartered by [[Congress]] to "carry on a system of national and international relief in time of peace and apply the same in mitigating the sufferings caused by pestilence, famine, fire, floods, and other great national calamities, and to devise and carry on measures for preventing the same." The Charter is not only a grant of power, but also an imposition of duties and obligations to the nation, to disaster victims, and to the people who support its work with their donations. Red Cross disaster relief focuses on meeting people's immediate emergency disaster-caused needs. When a disaster threatens or strikes, the Red Cross provides [[shelter]], [[food]], and [[health]] and [[mental health]] services to address basic human needs. In addition to these services, the core of Red Cross disaster relief is the assistance given to individuals and families affected by disaster to enable them to resume their normal daily activities independently. The Red Cross also feeds emergency workers, handles inquiries from concerned family members outside the disaster area, provides blood and blood products to disaster victims, and helps those affected by disaster to access other available resources. The American Red Cross also works hard to encourage preparedness by providing important literature on readiness. Many chapters also offer free classes to the general public. ==2005 Hurricanes== The 2005 Hurricane Season proved to be the most challenging disaster response the American Red Cross had ever seen in its history. Forcasting a major disaster before the landfall of [[Hurricane Katrina]], the organization enlisted 2,000 volunteers throughout the nation to be on a "stand by" deployment list. During and after the Hurricanes Katrina, Wilma and Rita, the American Red Cross had opened 2,700 different shelters across 27 different states (and registered 3.4 million overnight stays), some of which were evacuation centers for those displaced by the disaster. A total of 225,000 Red Cross workers (95% of which were non-paid volunteers) were utilized to provide sheltering, casework, communication and assessment services throughout thse three hurricanes. The organization served 34 million meals and 30 million snacks to victims of the disasters and to rescue workers. Red Cross emergency financial assistance was provided to 1.4 million families, which encompassed a total of 4 million people. The Red Cross estimated that it would need USD $2.1 Billion to cover costs associated with the disaster. No other non-governmental agency has provided such a significant amount assistance to the victims of the Hurricane Season of 2005. On February 3rd 2006, 5 months after Katrina's landfall, the American Red Cross announced that it had met its fundraising goals, and would no longer engage in new 2005 Hurricane relief fundraising. The National organization urged the public to help other charities engaged in hurricane relief work, or to donate to their local Red Cross chapters. ==September 11 controversy== In the aftermath of the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]], the Red Cross, like many charitable organizations, solicited funds and blood donations for Red Cross activities for the victims of the attacks. Dr. Bernardine Healy, the president of the American Red Cross, appeared on telethons urging individuals to give generously. However, according to America's Blood Centers, the nonprofit consortium that provides the other 50% of the United States blood supply, no national blood drive was needed, since localized blood drives in the affected areas would be sufficient to meet the demand. The American Red Cross felt that the terrorist attacks were a sign of increased instability and urged people to donate blood, even though it wasn't needed at that time. In the end, some blood was destroyed unused. Also, the American Red Cross created the ''Liberty Fund'' that was ostensibly designed for relief for victims of the terrorist attacks. However, when the fund was closed in October, after reaching the goals of donations, only 30% of the $547 million received was spent. Dr. Healy announced that the majority of the remainder of the money would be used to increase blood supply, improve telecommunications, and prepare for terror attacks in other parts of the country. Many donors felt that they had donated specifically to the victims of the September 11 attacks and objected to the diversion of funds. Survivors complained of the bureaucratic process involved in requesting funds and the slow delivery of the checks to meet immediate needs. Congressional hearings were called and New York State Attorney General [[Eliot Spitzer]] investigated the Red Cross. In the end, the American Red Cross appointed former U.S. senator [[George_J._Mitchell\|George Mitchell]] to handle distribution of the funds. Dr. Healy was forced to resign for her role in the situation, and the Red Cross pledged that all funds would go to directly benefit the victims of the September 11 attacks. Healy received a severance payment of $1,569,630 [http://www.give.org/reports/arc.asp]. In the end, out of the $961 million received, 71% went as cash assistance to those directly affected, 15% went for long term mental care and hospital care for the victims and people in the affected region, and 10% went for immediate disaster relief like shelters, food, and health care. The remaining 4% went for administration. [http://www.redcross.org/press/disaster/ds_pr/pdfs/libertyfund013103.pdf] Significant changes to Red Cross fundraising collection and policy have since been implemented after the Liberty Fund debacle. Numerous watchdog organizations, such as Charity Navigator, have since given high praise to the improved system of honoring donor's intent and minimizing administration costs. During the Hurricane Katrina disaster, the American Red Cross issued a statement saying that 91 cents of every dollar donated specifically for the Hurricane Katrina disaster will go directly to dis
s]]. It is possible, though, to value serious scholarship without being an academic elitist, of course. A lesser and broader form of this, [[intellectual elitism]], exists in non-academic circles, so academic elitism might also be viewed as a further extreme of intellectual elitism, depending upon one's perspective. The tendency towards academic elitism is most pronounced in highly competitive and highly regarded environments. The [[peer review]] of academia process is ocassionaly cited as suppressing dissent against "[[mainstream]]'" theories (part of an overall system of ''[[suppression of dissent\|suppression of intellectual dissent]]''). Some [[Science and technology studies\|sociologists of science]] argue that peer review makes the ability to publish susceptible to control by [[elite]]s and to personal jealousy. Reviewers tend to be especially critical of [[conclusion]]s that contradict their own [[view]]s, and lenient towards those that accord with them. At the same time, elite scientists are more likely than less established ones to be sought out as referees, particularly by high-prestige journals or [[publisher]]s. As a result, it has been argued, ideas that harmonize with the elite's are more likely to see print and to appear in premier journals than are iconoclastic or revolutionary ones, which accords with [[Thomas Kuhn]]'s well-known observations regarding scientific revolutions. The tendency towards academic elitism is noticable in some [[education system]]s (particularly in developed countries). More attention and resources are afforded to students who are deemed most intelligent at an early age. This inequality tends to further separate the elite from the remainder of society. [[Streaming]] systems include branded institutions, gifted classes, and other elite student groups. Countries with extensive private school systems also exemplify this trend. === Arguments against === * It is an inherently exclusionary process * It serves to hamper the advancement of human knowledge by ignoring potentially valid ideas * It encourages waste through the development of a winner-takes-all mentality * Academic institutions are unreasonably shielded from [[economic competition]] by government funding programs * Selection processes are unfairly biased towards certain groups * It alienates those who are not of the elite and discourages them from participating in decision-making === Arguments for === * [[Elitism]] is an illusion which masks an inherent human tendency to group by abilities and interests * Human societies are best advanced by those who are most willing and able to participate in academic study * Human societies require a vetting process that leads people to roles that will yield the most efficient management of societal resources. == Writings, authors, and books== Authors &mdash; including (but not limited to) ''[[Aldous Huxley]]'', ''[[George Orwell]]'' ([[Social Democrat]]), and ''[[Ayn Rand]]'' &mdash; have explored both sides of [[Social Elitism]] through [[Academia]]/[[Intelligentsia]]. They present theoretical examples of the [[Dystopian]] societies which might result from either extreme support or extreme undermining of elitism. For example, George Orwell has written several books on the subject, such as [[Nineteen_Eighty-Four\|1984]] and [[Animal Farm]], where there are characters who take the role of a '[[Vanguard]]', acting FOR&mdash;or on the behalf OF&mdash;their society, who turn to them for everything, or rely on them. It usually ends up with them making some mistakes or abusing their trust, while going straight at a task they cannot comprehend, because they are stubbornly believing in themselves. ==See also== * [[Anti-intellectualism]] * [[Expert]] * [[Pseudointellectual]] * [[Ivy League]] * [[Elitism]] * [[Elite media]] * [[I Not Stupid]] * [[Ivory Tower]] * [[Neolibertarianism]] * [[suppression of dissent\|suppression of intellectual dissent]] * [[Little Ivies]] ==External articles and references== * Leah Sprain, "''[http://www.com.washington.edu/Program/publicscholarship/ps_sprain.pdf Sending Signals from the Ivory Tower]: Barriers to Connecting Academic Research to the Public''". ([[PDF]]) * Lionel Lewis, "''[http://www.aaup.org/publications/Academe/2005/05jf/05jflewi.htm The Academic Elite Goes to Washington, and to War]; Critics of the academy have lambasted faculty doves. History shows that academia has roosted a flock of hawks''". American Association of University Professors. * Tom Bramble, "''[http://www.anu.edu.au/polsci/courses/ape/uniclass.htm Class and power in the ivory tower]''". Australian Universities Review (unpublished), University of Queensland. * Jordan L. Hylden and John H. Jernigan, "''[http://www.hpronline.org/news/2003/06/08/Cover/Leaning.Ivory.Tower-437662.shtml Leaning Ivory Tower]; The most troubling bias among academics is not political but religious''". Havard Political Review, 6/8/03. * Jeffrey H. Bair and Myron Boor, "''The Academic Elite in Law: Linkages Among Top-Ranked Law Schools''". Psychological Reports 68: 891-94, 1991. * Jeffrey H. Bair, "''[http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0254/is_2_62/ai_100202314 The Hiring practices in finance education: linkages among top-ranked graduate programs - The University]''". American Journal of Economics and Sociology, April, 2003. * Xi Lin, "''[http://archives.thedaily.washington.edu/1998/020298/elites.20298.html The academic elite]; Cynicism and disillusionment are protocol for UW elites''". The Daily of the University of Washington, 1998. * Annalee Newitz, "''[http://www.salon.com/it/career/1998/11/06career.html Ivory Tower]\| Out of academia''". Salon.com, 2000. * Gerard A. Best, "''[http://www.meppublishers.com/online/caribbean-beat/current_issue/article.php?id=cb76-2-36 Breaking down the Ivory tower]''". Caribbean Beat, Issue No. 76, November/December 2005. * Ellen W. Schrecker, "''No Ivory Tower : McCarthyism and the Universities''". 1986. ISBN 0195035577 * Mike S. Adams, "''Welcome to the Ivory Tower of Babel: Confessions of a Conservative College Professor''". Harbor House, 2004, ISBN 1891799177 [[Category:Academia\|Elitism]] [[nl:Ivoren Toren]] [[no:Akademisk Eltisme]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>African American</title> <id>2154</id> <revision> <id>42150896</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:51:14Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>69.216.245.113</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{AfricanAmerican\|right}} An '''African American''' (also '''Afro-American''', '''Black American''', '''American-African, is a member of an [[ethnic group]] in the [[United States]] whose ancestors, usually in predominant part, were indigenous to [[Africa]]. Many African Americans have [[European]] and/or [[Native Americans in the United States\|Native American]] ancestry as well. Some have [[Asian]] ancestry too. The term refers specifically to black African ancestry; not, for example, to white or Arab African ancestry, such as Moroccan or white South African ancestry. Blacks from non-African countries such as [[Haiti]], [[Cuba]], or [[Australia]] are theoretically referred to by their nation of origin and not African American, but in general the cultural assumption in the U.S. is that if a person is black, he or she is "African American." ==Nomenclature== The term "African American" has been in common usage in the United States since the late [[1980s]], when greater numbers of African Americans began to adopt the term self-referentially. [[Malcolm X]] favored the term "African American" over "Negro" and used the term at an [[OAAU]] (Organization of Afro American Unity) meeting in the early [[1960s]], saying, "Twenty-two million African-Americans - that's what we are - Africans who are in America." Former NBA player/coach [[Lenny Wilkens]] is another who used the term as a teenager when filling a job application. Many blacks began to abandon the term "Afro-American", which had become popular in the [[1960s]] and [[1970s\|'70s]], for "African-American," because they desired an unabbreviated expression of their African heritage that could not be mistaken or derided as an allusion to the [[afro]] hairstyle. The term became increasingly popular, and by the 1980s, [[Jesse Jackson]] and others pressed for its adoption and acceptance. Users of the term argued that "African-American" was more in keeping with the nation's immigrant tradition of so-called "hyphenated Americans", who were known by terms like "[[Irish-American]]", or "[[Chinese-American]]", "[[Polish-American]]"), which link people with their, or their ancestors', geographic points of origin. Terms used at various points in American history include ''[[Negro]]es'', ''[[colored]]'', ''[[blacks]]'' and ''Afro-Americans''. ''Negro'' and ''colored'' were common until the late [[1960s]], but are now less commonly used and considered derogatory. ''African American'', ''black'' and, to a lesser extent, ''Afro-American'' are used interchangeably today, but their precise meanings and connotations are in dispute. The term ''African American'' is sometimes problematic because of its imprecise [[cultural]] and geographic meaning. It also means that the people it is refering to are black. The term as originally applied refers to only those descended from a small number of colonial [[indentured servitude\|indentured servants]] and the estimated 500,000 Africans taken to the U.S. as slaves (of approximately 11 million Africans taken to the western hemisphere in general). In slightly broader usage, the term can include Indians and Afro-Latino [[immigrants]] whose African ancestors also survived the Middle Passage, recent Afr
or /> <comment>circumventing two-step redirect, removing text from redirect page</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Al Gore]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Aves</title> <id>623</id> <revision> <id>15899152</id> <timestamp>2004-07-04T10:37:36Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Tannin</username> <id>6169</id> </contributor> <comment>restore redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[bird]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Alaska</title> <id>624</id> <revision> <id>42081829</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:26:49Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>RexNL</username> <id>241337</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/71.40.182.97\|71.40.182.97]] ([[User talk:71.40.182.97\|talk]]) to last version by Kareeser</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom\|North to the future}} {{otheruses}} {{US state \| Name = Alaska \| Fullname = State of Alaska \| Flag = Flag of Alaska.svg \| Flaglink = [[Flag of Alaska]] \| Seal = Alaskastateseal.jpg \| Map = ak-locator.png \| Nickname = The Last Frontier, The Land of the Midnight Sun \| Motto = North to the Future \| Capital = [[Juneau, Alaska\|Juneau]] \| OfficialLang = [[English language\|English]] \| Languages = [[English language\|English]] 85.7%, Native North American 5.2%, [[Spanish language\|Spanish]] 2.9% \| LargestCity = [[Anchorage, Alaska\|Anchorage]] \| Governor = [[Frank Murkowski]] (R) \| Senators = [[Ted Stevens]] (R)<br>[[Lisa Murkowski]] (R) \| PostalAbbreviation = AK \| AreaRank = 1<sup>st</sup> \| TotalArea = 663,267 mi² / 1&nbsp;717&nbsp;854 \| LandArea = 571,951 mi² / 1&nbsp;481&nbsp;347 \| WaterArea = 91,316 mi² / 236&nbsp;507 \| PCWater = 13.77 \| PopRank = 47<sup>th</sup> \| 2000Pop = 626,932 \| DensityRank = 50<sup>th</sup> \| 2000Density = 1.09/mi² / 0.42 \| AdmittanceOrder = 49<sup>th</sup> \| AdmittanceDate = [[January 3]], [[1959]] \| TimeZone = [[Alaska Standard Time Zone\|Alaska]]: [[Coordinated Universal Time\|UTC]]-9/[[Daylight saving time\|-8]]<br/>[[Hawaii-Aleutian Standard Time Zone\|Aleutian]]: UTC-10/[[Daylight saving time\|-9]] (west of 169° 30') \| Latitude = 54°40'N to 71°50'N \| Longitude = 130°W to 173°E \| Width = 808 mi / 1300 \| Length = 1,479 mi / 2380 \| HighestElev = 20,321 ft / 6194 \| MeanElev = 10,039 ft / 3060 \| LowestElev = 0 ft / 0 \| ISOCode = US-AK \| Website = www.state.ak.us }} '''Alaska''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet\|IPA]]: {{IPA\|[ə 'læ skə]}}) is the 49th [[U.S. state\|state]] of the [[United States]]. It was admitted on [[January 3]], [[1959]]. The population of the state is 626,932, [[as of 2000]], according to the [[United States Census, 2000\|2000 U.S. census]]. Alaska is most likely ranked the fourth smallest state population wise in the U.S. with Wyoming, Vermont, and by now North Dakota smaller than Alaska. The name "Alaska" is most likely derived from the [[Aleut]] word ''Alyeska'', meaning ''greater land'' as opposed to the Aleut word ''Aleutia,'' meaning ''lesser land''. To the Aleuts, this distinction was a linguistic variation distinguishing the ''mainland'' from an ''island''. It is bordered by [[Yukon\|Yukon Territory]] and [[British Columbia]], [[Canada]] to the east, the [[Gulf of Alaska]] and the [[Pacific Ocean]] to the south, the [[Bering Sea]], [[Bering Strait]], and [[Chukchi Sea]] to the west, and the [[Beaufort Sea]] and the [[Arctic Ocean]] to the north. Alaska is the largest state by area in the United States. It is larger in area than all but 18 of the world's nations. ==History== {{main\|History of Alaska}} Alaska was first inhabited by humans who came across the [[Bering Land Bridge]]. Eventually, Alaska became populated by the [[Inupiaq]], [[Inuit]] and [[Yupik]] [[Eskimo]]s, [[Aleut]]s, and a variety of [[American Indians in the United States\|American Indian]] groups. Most, if not all, of the pre-Columbian population of the Americas probably took this route and continued further south and east. The first written accounts indicate that [[Russian colonization of the Americas\|the first Europeans to reach Alaska came from Russia]]. [[Vitus Bering]] sailed east and saw [[Mount Saint Elias\|Mt. St. Elias]]. The [[Russian-American Company]] hunted [[sea otter]]s for their fur. The colony was never very profitable, because of the costs of transportation. At the urging of [[United States Secretary of State\|U.S. Secretary of State]] [[William H. Seward\|William Seward]], the [[United States Senate]] approved the [[Alaska purchase\|purchase of Alaska]] from [[Russia]] for $7,200,000 (approximately $134,000,000 in 2005 dollars, adjusted for inflation[http://www.westegg.com/inflation/]) on [[9 April]] [[1867]], and the United States flag was raised on [[18 October]] of that same year (now called [[Alaska Day]]). Coincident with the ownership change, the de facto [[International Date Line]] was moved westward, and Alaska changed from the [[Julian calendar]] to the [[Gregorian calendar]]. Therefore, for residents, Friday, [[October 6]], [[1867]] was followed by Friday, [[October 18]], [[1867]]; two Fridays in a row because of the date line shift. The first American administrator of Alaska was [[Poles\|Polish]] immigrant [[Wlodzimierz Krzyzanowski\|Włodzimierz Krzyżanowski]]. The purchase was not popular in the contiguous United States, where Alaska became known as "Seward's Folly" or "Seward's Icebox." Alaska celebrates the purchase each year on the last Monday of [[March]], calling it [[Seward's Day]]. After the purchase of Alaska between 1867 and 1884 the name was changed to the Department of Alaska. Between 1884 and 1912 it was called the district of Alaska. {{lastfrontier}} President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] signed the [[Alaska Statehood Act]] into [[United States law]] on [[7 July]] [[1958]] which paved the way for Alaska's admission into the Union on [[January 3]] [[1959]]. Alaska suffered one of the worst [[earthquake]]s in recorded North American history on [[Good Friday]] 1964 (see [[Good Friday Earthquake]]). In 1976, the people of Alaska amended the state's constitution, establishing the [[Alaska Permanent Fund]]. The fund invests a portion of the state's mineral revenue, including revenue from the [[Trans-Alaskan Pipeline System]], "to benefit all generations of Alaskans." In March 2005, the fund's value was over $30 billion. Prior to 1983, the state lay across four different [[time zone]]s&mdash;Pacific Standard Time (UTC -8 hours) in the southeast panhandle, a small area of Yukon Standard Time (UTC -9 hours) around [[Yakutat]], Alaska&ndash;Hawaii Standard Time (UTC -10 hours) in the [[Anchorage, Alaska\|Anchorage]] and [[Fairbanks, Alaska\|Fairbanks]] vicinity, with the [[Nome, Alaska\|Nome]] area and most of the [[Aleutian Islands]] observing Bering Standard Time (UTC -11 hours). In 1983 the number of time zones was reduced to two, with the entire mainland plus the inner Aleutian Islands going to UTC -9 hours (and this zone then being renamed Alaska Standard Time as the [[Yukon Territory]] had several years earlier (circa 1975) adopted a single time zone identical to Pacific Standard Time), and the remaining Aleutian Islands were slotted into the UTC &minus;10 hours zone, which was then renamed Hawaii&ndash;Aleutian Standard Time. Over the years various [[vessel]]s have been named [[USS Alaska\|USS ''Alaska'']], in honor of the state. During [[World War II]] three of the outer Aleutian Islands&mdash;[[Attu Island\|Attu]], [[Agattu]] and [[Kiska]]&mdash;were occupied by [[Japan\|Japanese]] troops. It was the only territory within the current borders of the United States to have land occupied during the war. ==Politics== Alaska is often characterized as a [[Republican Party (United States)\|Republican]]-leaning state with strong [[Libertarianism\|Libertarian]] tendencies. Local political communities often work on issues related to land use development, [[fishing]], [[tourism]], and [[individual rights]] as many residents are proud of their rough Alaskan heritage. [[Alaska Native\|Alaska Natives]], while organized in and around their communities, are often active within the [[Alaska Native Regional Corporations\|Native corporations]] which have been given ownership over large tracts of land, and thus need to deliberate resource conservation and development issues. In presidential elections, the state's Electoral College votes have been most often won by a Republican nominee. Only once has Alaska supported a [[Democratic Party (United States)\|Democratic]] nominee, when it supported [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] in the landslide year of 1964, although the 1960 and 1968 elections were close. No state has voted for a Democratic presidential candidate fewer times. President [[George W. Bush]] won the state's electoral votes in 2004 by a margin of 25 percentage points with 61.1% of the vote. Juneau stands out as an area that supports Democratic candidates. When the [[United States Congress]], in 1957 and 1958, debated the wisdom of admitting it as the 49th state, much of the political debate centered on whether Alaska would become a [[Democratic Party (United States)\|Democratic]] or [[Republican Party (United States)\|Republican]]-leaning state. Conventional wisdom had it that, with its rugged individualism, penchant for new ideas, and dependence on the [[Federal Government]] largess for basic needs, it would become a Democratic stronghold, about which Republicans, and the, then, Republican Administration of [[Dwight
>Christian escathology</title> <id>5924</id> <revision> <id>15904096</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Christian_eschatology]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Colour</title> <id>5925</id> <revision> <id>27717521</id> <timestamp>2005-11-08T12:38:43Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Interiot</username> <id>122679</id> </contributor> <comment>rv cut-paste (please see [[Wikipedia:How to move a page]])</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Color]] {{R from alternate spelling}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Computation</title> <id>5926</id> <revision> <id>38997112</id> <timestamp>2006-02-10T00:50:20Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>R.Koot</username> <id>170083</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>-ru:</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date\|January 2006}} In [[computer science]], a '''computation''' is the ''evolution over time of a computer''. However, the meaning of the word "computer" should be understood here in a large sense, since it does not apply only to [[digital computer]]s. A typical example of a '''physical computation''' is the evolution over time of a [[digital computer]]. Other examples of physical computations are derived from ''[[quantum computer]]s'', ''[[DNA computer]]s'' or ''[[molecular computer]]s''. In computer science, which is sometimes described as the discipline that studies computations, mathematical models of computers are defined; a typical model is the [[Turing machine]]. In this context, a computation thus becomes a ''mathematical object'': the evolution over time of a Turing machine. The sub-field of computer science which studies mathematical models of computations is called the [[theory of computation]]. == History == The word computation has an archaic meaning (from its Latin etymological roots), but the word has come back in use with the arising of a new scientific discipline: [[computer science]]. [[Category:Computer science]] [[he:חישוביות]] {{Comp-sci-stub}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Clown</title> <id>5928</id> <revision> <id>42108572</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:57:02Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>70.56.197.33</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:OttoGriebling.jpg\|right\|200px\|thumb\|The greatest of 20th century American circus clowns, Master Clown [[Otto Griebling]]]] [[Image:LouJacobs.jpg\|right\|150px\|thumb\|The quintessential American grotesque auguste, Master Clown [[Lou Jacobs]] (born Jacob Ludwig)]][[Image:Grock1.jpg\|right\|200px\|thumb\|Internationally recognized as the greatest of all stage or circus clowns, Grock (born Adrian Wettach)]] [[Image:Fratellini.jpg\|150px\|right\|thumb\|Longtime stars of the Cirque Medrano, the legendary clown trio of Albert (auguste), Francois (whiteface), and Paul ("contre-auguste" or character) Fratellini]] [[Image:Rivel.jpg\|right\|150px\|thumb\|Celebrated European auguste, Charlie Rivel (born Josep Andreau).]] [[Image:FelixAdler.JPG\|right\|150px\|thumb\|American grotesque whiteface, [[Felix Adler]] with one of his trained pigs.]] A '''clown''' today is one of various types of comedic performers, on stage, television, in the [[circus (performing art)\|circus]] and [[rodeo]]. Though not every clown is readily identifiable by appearance alone, clowns frequently appear in [[makeup]] and [[costume]], as well as typically unusually large [[footwear]], oversized or otherwise outlandish [[clothing]], big or otherwise unusual [[nose]], and enacting humorous sketches, usually in the interludes between major presentations. The clown's humor today is often visual and includes many elements of [[physical comedy]] or [[Slapstick\|slapstick humor]] but not exclusively. For instance, [[Wavy Gravy]]'s comedy is often cerebral, spiritual, or even political in nature. The largest membership organization is the [[Clowns of America International]]. == History == Clowning is an ancient [[Performance art\|art]] form, which appears in some manner in virtually every culture. In most cultures the clown is a ritual character associated with [[festival]] or [[rites of passage]] and is often very different from the most popular western form. In Europe, up until as late as the 19th century the clown was a typical ayday character, and often appears in [[carnival]]. The performance is symbolic of [[liminality]] - being outside the rules of regular society the clown is able to subvert the normal order, and this basic premise is contemporarily used by many activists to point out social absurdity. A popular early form of clown was the [[fool]], a role that can be traced back as far as ancient [[Egypt]] and appears as the first card in the [[tarot]] deck. Most fools suffered from some physical or mental deformity, and were given to the local landlord as charge because their families were unable to look after them, and the surrounding communities often feared them. They were the butt of jokes, and their masters had the power to inflict violence upon them and even take their lives. However, being perceived 'idiots' they were often the only people in court who enjoyed [[free speech]], and during the 16th century, especially in France, actors began to train as [[fools]] often in order to have the ability to make satirical comment. This is mainly where we get the contemporary idea of the [[court jester]], immortalised and romanticised by actors such as [[Danny Kaye]] in ''[[The Court Jester]]''. There is evidence of the 'wise fool' similar in function to the jester in many other cultures. The clown of this era and eras previous to it were also associated with [[jugglers]], who were seen as the [[pariahs]] of society alongside actors, prostitutes and lepers, and thus (at least in Europe) wore stripes, or motley - cloth associated with marginalised people such as the condemned, with strong associations of the devil. Jugglers often used attributes of the clown, and the later court jesters often danced, performed acrobatics, and juggling. During the 16th century the [[Commedia dell'arte]] also became a huge influence on perceptions of the clown in Europe, and influence which passed through [[pantomime]], into [[Vaudeville]] and on to the touring circuses of the 19th and 20th centuries. The Commedia[http://home.flash.net/~trshane/dellarte.htm] took influences from the grotesque masked clowns of carnivals and [[mysteries]], and began in market places as a way to sell vegetables. It became incredibly popular throughout Europe amongst both the general public and the courts. The stock characters of the commedia originally included the Zanni - peasant clowns, Pantalone, the old Miser, Il Dottore - The Banal Doctor, and the grew from there to incorporate the Lovers, Arlechinno, Pedrolino, and Brighella, who have survived into the twentieth century in one form or another. == Word origin == The word ''clown'' comes from words meaning "clot" or "clod" which came also to mean "clumsy fellow", according to the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]''. ''Clown'' is both a noun and a verb, and can also be an adjective (clown bike, clown shoes, clown white, clown gag and so on). ''Clown'' is also used to refer to anyone who provides entertainment in a clownish manner. Within the "clown world", and among professional clowns, "clown" often refers to the ''character'' portrayed, rather than the performer. This usage is somewhat rare outside of the professional clown and/or theatrical community. ==Clown skills== It has been said "clowns can do anything", mostly because clowns have such wildly varying performances. "Everyone knows" a clown can do magic, juggle, balance things on his nose and do backflips, but clowns might be called on to do just about anything. While there are ample media and amateur resources for developing a clown's skill set, the [[ clown conservatory ]] at the San Francisco Center for Circus Arts is the only professional year-long clown training program in America. In the circus, a clown might be convinced to perform another circus role: * Walk a tightrope, a highwire, a slack rope, or a piece of rope on the ground, though in the last case, the predictably unpredictable clown might be just as likely to wrestle around on the ground with it, as if it were a boa constrictor. * Ride a [[horse]], a [[zebra]], a [[donkey]], an [[elephant]], or even an [[ostrich]]. * Substitute himself in the role of "lion tamer". * Act as "emcee", from M.C. or [[Master of Ceremonies]], the preferred term for a clown taking on the role of "Ringmaster". * "Sit in" with the [[orchestra]], perhaps in a "pin spot" in the center ring, or from a seat in the audience. * Anything any other circus performer might do. It is not uncommon for an [[ Acrobatics\|acrobat]], a horse-back rider, or a lion tamer to secretly stand in for the clown, the "switch" taking place in a brief moment offstage. == Types == There are several different types of clowns, including: * The '''whiteface clown''', the best-known of modern clown types - [[Joseph Grimaldi\|Joey Grimaldi]] (whose name, Joey, is the insider term for clown) was a whiteface clown. The whiteface clown uses makeup to exaggerate their facial features and expressions rather than modify or conceal them. When a whiteface is performing with other clowns it is usually the leader and the smartest one. skullcaps/baldcaps or headgear appliances simulating a tall, pointy, or otherwise unusually shaped head. The whiteface
;FONT SIZE="1">334,117</TD> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">522,653</TD> </TR> <TR ALIGN="right"> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">16</TD> <TD></TD> <TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Denmark</TD> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">34,999</TD> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">42,732</TD> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">61,410</TD> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">85,060</TD> </TR> <TR ALIGN="right"> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">17</TD> <TD></TD> <TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Finland</TD> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">22,313</TD> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">29,172</TD> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">45,499</TD> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">67,624</TD> </TR> <TR ALIGN="right"> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">18</TD> <TD></TD> <TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Iceland</TD> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">5,071</TD> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">4,156</TD> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,895</TD> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,780</TD> </TR> <TR ALIGN="right"> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">19</TD> <TD></TD> <TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Norway</TD> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">42,240</TD> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">63,316</TD> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">97,243</TD> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">152,698</TD> </TR> <TR ALIGN="right"> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">20</TD> <TD></TD> <TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sweden</TD> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">53,676</TD> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">77,157</TD> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">127,070</TD> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">214,491</TD> </TR> <TR></TR> <TR ALIGN="right"> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">21</TD> <TD></TD> <TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Western Europe</TD> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,090,582</TD> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,300,758</TD> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,357,609</TD> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,640,541</TD> </TR> <TR ALIGN="right"> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">22</TD> <TD></TD> <TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Low countries</TD> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">132,617</TD> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">142,748</TD> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">155,513</TD> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">173,069</TD> </TR> <TR ALIGN="right"> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">23</TD> <TD></TD> <TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Belgium</TD> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">34,366</TD> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">36,487</TD> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">41,412</TD> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">50,294</TD> </TR> <TR ALIGN="right"> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">24</TD> <TD></TD> <TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Luxembourg</TD> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,053</TD> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,125</TD> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,531</TD> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">4,360</TD> </TR> <TR ALIGN="right"> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">25</TD> <TD></TD> <TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Netherlands</TD> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">96,198</TD> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">103,136</TD> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">110,570</TD> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">118,415</TD> </TR> <TR ALIGN="right"> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">26</TD> <TD></TD> <TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Austria</TD> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">87,673</TD> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">145,607</TD> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">214,014</TD> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">304,507</TD> </TR> <TR ALIGN="right"> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">27</TD> <TD></TD> <TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;France</TD> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">119,233</TD> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">120,215</TD> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">105,385</TD> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">111,582</TD> </TR> <TR ALIGN="right"> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">28</TD> <TD></TD> <TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Germany</TD> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">711,929</TD> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">849,384</TD> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">832,965</TD> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">989,815</TD> </TR> <TR ALIGN="right"> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">29</TD> <TD></TD> <TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Switzerland</TD> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">39,130</TD> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">42,804</TD> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">49,732</TD> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">61,568</TD> </TR> <TR ALIGN="right"> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">30</TD> <TD></TD> <TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Other Western Europe</TD> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD> <TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD> </TR> <TR>&
the Académie française#Seat 29\|Seat 29]]<br>[[Académie française]] \| years=1973&ndash; \| before = [[Henry de Montherlant]] \| after = Incumbent}} {{end box}} [[Category:1908 births\|Levi-Strauss, Claude]] [[Category:20th century philosophers\|Levi-Strauss, Claude]] [[Category:Continental philosophers\|Levi-Strauss, Claude]] [[Category:Erasmus Prize winners\|Levi-Strauss, Claude]] [[Category:French anthropologists\|Levi-Strauss, Claude]] [[Category:French philosophers\|Levi-Strauss, Claude]] [[Category:Living people\|Levi-Strauss, Claude]] [[Category:Members and associates of the US National Academy of Sciences\|Levi-Strauss, Claude]] [[Category:Members of the Académie française\|Levi-Strauss, Claude]] [[Category:Social philosophy\|Levi-Strauss, Claude]] [[Category:Structuralism\|Levi-Strauss, Claude]] [[bg:Клод Леви Строс]] [[ca:Claude Lévi-Strauss]] [[de:Claude Lévi-Strauss]] [[el:Κλοντ Λεβί-Στρος]] [[es:Claude Lévi-Strauss]] [[eo:Claude LEVI-STRAUSS]] [[fr:Claude Lévi-Strauss]] [[ko:클로드 레비스트로스]] [[it:Claude Lévi-Strauss]] [[he:קלוד לוי-שטראוס]] [[nl:Claude Lévi-Strauss]] [[ja:クロード・レヴィ＝ストロース]] [[pl:Claude Lévi-Strauss]] [[pt:Claude Lévi-Strauss]] [[sk:Claude Lévi-Strauss]] [[zh:克勞德·李維史陀]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Chemical vapor deposition</title> <id>6111</id> <revision> <id>41235143</id> <timestamp>2006-02-25T23:43:53Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Shadow1</username> <id>690159</id> </contributor> <comment>Fixed link to disambiguation page</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:PICT0111.JPG\|thumb\|right\|200px\|[[direct current\|DC]] [[plasma physics\|plasma]] (violet) enhances the growth of [[carbon nanotube]]s in this laboratory-scale PECVD apparatus.]] '''Chemical vapor deposition (CVD)''' is a [[chemical]] process for depositing thin films of various materials. In a typical CVD process the [[substrate]] is exposed to one or more volatile [[precursor]]s, which react and/or [[decompose]] on the substrate surface to produce the desired deposit. Frequently, volatile [[byproduct]]s are also produced, which are removed by gas flow through the reaction chamber. CVD is widely used in the [[semiconductor]] industry, as part of the [[Fabrication (semiconductor)\|semiconductor device fabrication]] process, to deposit various films including: [[polycrystalline]], [[amorphous]], and [[Epitaxy\|epitaxial]] [[silicon]], [[Silicon dioxide\|SiO<sub>2</sub>]], [[silicon]] [[germanium]], [[tungsten]], [[silicon]] [[nitride]], [[silicon]] oxynitride, [[titanium]] [[nitride]], and various [[High-k \| high-k dielectrics]]. The CVD process is also used to produce [[synthetic diamond]]s. A number of forms of CVD are in wide use and are frequently referenced in the literature. '''Atmospheric pressure CVD''' (APCVD) - CVD processes at atmospheric pressure. '''Atomic layer CVD''' (ALCVD) (also referred to as [[Atomic layer epitaxy \| Atomic Layer Epitaxy]] and Atomic layer deposition (ALD)) - A CVD process in which two complementary precursors (eg. [[Trimethylaluminium\|Al(CH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>3</sub>]] and H<sub>2</sub>O) are alternatively introduced into the reaction chamber. Typically, one of the precursors will adsorb onto the substrate surface, but cannot completely decompose without the second precursor. The precursor [[adsorbs]] until it [[saturate]]s the surface and further growth cannot occur until the second precursor is introduced. Thus the film thickness is controlled by the number of precursor cycles rather than the deposition time as is the case for conventional CVD processes. In theory ALCVD allows for extremely precise control of film thickness and uniformity. '''Aerosol Assisted CVD''' (AACVD) - A CVD process in which the precursors are transported to the substrate by means of a liquid/gas aerosol, which can be generated ultrasonically. This technique is suitable for use with involatile precursors. '''Hot Wire CVD''' (HWCVD) - Also known as Catalytic CVD (Cat-CVD)or Hot Filament CVD (HFCVD) '''Low-pressure CVD''' (LPCVD) - CVD processes at subatmospheric pressures. Reduced pressures tend to reduce unwanted gas phase reactions and improve film uniformity across the wafer. Most modern CVD process are either LPCVD or UHVCVD. '''[[Metalorganic vapour phase epitaxy\|Metal-organic CVD]]''' (MOCVD) - CVD processes based on metal-organic precursors, such as [[Tantalum]] Ethoxide, Ta(OC<sub>2</sub>H<sub>5</sub>)<sub>5</sub>, to create Ta<sub>2</sub>O<sub>5</sub>, '''T'''etra '''D'''i'''m'''ethyl '''a'''mino '''T'''itanium (or TDMAT) to create TiN. MOCVD is also called as MO[[Molecular beam epitaxy\|MBE]] when it is under ultra-high [[vacuum]]. '''Microwave plasma-assisted CVD''' (MPCVD) '''[[Plasma-Enhanced CVD]]''' (PECVD) - CVD processes that utilize a [[Plasma (physics)\|plasma]] to enhance chemical reaction rates of the precursors. PECVD processing allows deposition at lower temperatures, which is often critical in the manufacture of semiconductors. See also [[Plasma processing]]. '''Rapid thermal CVD''' (RTCVD) - CVD processes that use heating lamps or other methods to rapidly heat the [[Wafer (electronics)\|wafer substrate]]. Heating only the substrate rather than the gas or chamber walls helps reduce unwanted gas phase reactions that can lead to [[particle_(ecology)\|particle]] formation. '''Remote plasma-enhanced CVD''' (RPECVD) - Similar to PECVD except that the wafer substrate is not directly in the plasma discharge region. Removing the wafer from the plasma region allows processing temperatures down to room temperature. '''Ultra-high vacuum CVD''' (UHVCVD) - CVD processes at very low pressures, typically in the range of a few to a hundred [[millitorr]]s (1 to 10 [[pascal]]s. Polysilicon deposition TEOS deposition == Silicon or silicon germanium [[epitaxy]] == Common use in industry is the growth of additional layers of [[Doping (Semiconductors) \| doped]] [[silicon]] on the polished sides of prime silicon [[Wafer (electronics) \| wafers]], before they are processed into [[semiconductor]] devices. This is typical of the [[power device]]s, such as those used in [[pacemaker]]s, vending machine controllers, automobile computers, etc. Commonly, this is accomplished by either single or batch wafer processing using CVD in an [[epitaxial reactor]], which heats the wafers, etches the exposed face with [[hydrogen chloride]] gas, and then grows the epitaxial layers by flowing a gas mixture that contains silicon and a [[dopant]] over the wafer which is so hot that it glows. The gaseous molecules deposit on the face, if done properly, and extend the crystalline structure. Manufacturing issues include control of the amount and uniformity of the deposition's resistivity and thickness, the cleanliness and purity of the surface and the chamber atmosphere, the prevention of the typically much more highly doped substrate wafer's diffusion of dopant to the new layers, imperfections of the growth process, and protecting the surfaces during the manufacture and handling. ==See also== [[Plasma physics\|Plasma]] * [[Physical_vapor_deposition\|Physical vapor deposition]] ==External links== * http://www.semiconfareast.com/epitaxy.htm [[Category:Plasma processing]] [[Category:Semiconductor device fabrication]] [[Category:Chemical processes]] [[Category:Thin film deposition]] [[de:Chemical vapor deposition]] [[nl:CVD-proces]] [[ja:化学気相成長]] [[zh:化学气相沉积]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>CN Tower</title> <id>6112</id> <revision> <id>42141155</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:19:58Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Skeezix1000</username> <id>455783</id> </contributor> <comment>Revert to Canadian spelling</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Cntower2.jpg\|thumb\|210px\|right\|CN Tower as seen from Lake Ontario]] The '''CN Tower''' is the tallest free-standing structure on land in the world, at [[1 E2 m\|553.33]] [[metre]]s (1,815 ft., 5 inches). It is located in the [[city]] of [[Toronto]], [[Ontario]], [[Canada]], and is considered the signature icon of the city ([[Geographic coordinates]]: {{coor dms\|43\|38\|33.24\|N\|79\|23\|13.7\|W\|}}). The CN Tower attracts over two million visitors annually. Construction on the CN Tower started on [[February 6]], [[1973]] by [[Canadian National Railway]] who wanted to build a large TV and radio communication platform to service the Greater Toronto Area and also to demonstrate the strength of Canadian industry. Key project team members were NCK Engineering as structural engineer; John Andrews Architects; Webb, Zerafa, Menkes, Housden Architects; Foundation Building Construction and Canron (Eastern Structural Division). The project proceeded 24 hours a day, five days a week for 40 months with 1,537 workers involved in the project, finally opening to the public on June 26, 1976. The structure's microwave receivers for distant signals are housed at 338 metres, and the top of the transmission antenna is at the apex of the tower. The construction costs of approximately $300 million 2005 Canadian Dollars (approximately $260 million 2005 U.S. Dollars) were repaid in fifteen years. A metal staircase with 1,776 steps reaches the Sky Pod level (447m/1465ft/147 stories) and is the tallest metal staircase on earth. These stairs are intended for emergency use and are not open to the public, except for twice a year for charity stairclimb events: around [[Earth Day]] in the spring by the [[World Wildlife Fund]]; and in the fall by the [[United Way]]'s Toronto chapter. The average climber takes approximately 30 minutes to climb to the base of the radome (the white ring around the bottom of the main pod), but the fastest climb on record is 7 minutes 52 seconds. [[Image:Cntower_unfinished.jpg\|thumb\|200px\|right\|CN
aluation of [[polynomial]]s in [[monomial form]]. ==History== Even though it is named after William George Horner, who described the algorithm in [[1819]], it was already known to [[Isaac Newton]] in [[1669]] and even to the Chinese [[mathematician]] [[Ch'in Chiu-Shao]] around [[1200s]]. It has been shown that the Horner scheme is optimal, that is, any algorithm that evaluates an arbitrary polynomial must use at least as many steps. That the number of additions required is minimal was shown by [[Alexander Ostrowski]] in [[1954]], and [[Victor Pan]] proved that the number of multiplications is minimal in [[1966]]. ==Basic idea== Assume we want to evaluate the polynomial in the [[monomial form]] :<math>p(x) = a_0 + a_1x + a_2x^2 + a_3x^3 + \cdots + a_nx^n.</math> for given ''a''<sub>0</sub>,...,''a''<sub>''n''</sub>. That is we want to know :<math>p(x) = y</math> for a given ''x''. When using the monomial form of the polynomial we need ''n'' additions and (''n''<sup>2</sup>+''n'')/2 multiplications for the calculation of ''p''(''x''). Our aim is to decrease the number of multiplications because they are slow and [[numerical stability \| numerically unstable]] compared to the additions. The Horner algorithm rearranges the polynomial into the [[recursion\|recursive]] form :<math>p(x) = a_0 + x(a_1 + x(a_2 + \cdots x(a_{n-1} + a_n x)))</math> and then evaluates the polynomial recursively using only ''n'' additions and ''n'' multiplications. Additionally it is numerically more stable because we eliminated some multiplications. Alternatively it could be computed with ''n'' [[fused multiply-add]]s. ==Horner algorithm== Given the polynomial :<math>p(x) = a_0 + a_1 x + a_2 x^2 + a_3 x^3 + \cdots + a_n x^n.</math> we rearrange it into :<math>p(x) = a_0 + x(a_1 + x(a_2 + \cdots x(a_{n-1} + a_n x)))</math> Then starting from the innermost parentheses and working outwards we define :<math> \begin{matrix} b_n & := & a_{n} \\ b_{n-1} & := & a_{n-1} + b_{n} x \\ & \vdots & \\ b_{0} & := & a_{0} + b_{1} x \end{matrix} </math> If we put the ''b''<sub>''n''</sub> in the polynomial we see that :<math> \begin{matrix} p(x) & = & a_0 + x(a_1 + x(a_2 + \cdots x(a_{n-1} + b_n x))) \\ p(x) & = & a_0 + x(a_1 + x(a_2 + \cdots x(b_{n-1}))) \\ & \vdots & \\ p(x) & = & a_0 + x(b_1) \\ p(x) & = & b_0 \\ \end{matrix} </math> so ''b''<sub>0</sub> is the value of the polynomial ''p'' at ''x''. ==Application== The Horner scheme is often used to convert between different positional [[numeral system]]s (in which case ''x'' is the base of the number system, and the ''a''<sub>''i''</sub> are the digits) and can also be used if ''x'' is a [[matrix (math)\|matrix]], in which case the gain is even larger. The Horner scheme can also be viewed as a fast algorithm for dividing a polynomial by a linear polynomial (see [[Ruffini's rule]]). ==See also== * William George Horner. A new method of solving numerical equations of all orders, by continuous approximation. In ''Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London'', pp. 308-335, July 1819. [[Clenshaw algorithm]] to evaluate polynomials in [[Chebyshev form]] [[De Casteljau's algorithm]] to evaluate polynomials in [[Bézier form]] ==References== * [[Donald Knuth\|Donald Knuth]]. ''The Art of Computer Programming'', Volume 2: ''Seminumerical Algorithms'', Third Edition. Addison-Wesley, 1997. ISBN 0-201-89684-2. Pages 486&ndash;488 in section 4.6.4. * [[Thomas H. Cormen]], [[Charles E. Leiserson]], [[Ronald L. Rivest]], and [[Clifford Stein]]. ''[[Introduction to Algorithms]]'', Second Edition. MIT Press and McGraw-Hill, 2001. ISBN 0262032937. Problem 2-3 (pg.39) and page 823 of section 30.1: Representation of polynomials. [[Category:Numerical analysis]] [[de:Horner-Schema]] [[fr:Méthode de Hörner]] [[pl:Schemat Hornera]] [[pt:Esquema de Horner]] [[sv:Horners algoritm]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>The Hexer</title> <id>14266</id> <revision> <id>41036572</id> <timestamp>2006-02-24T17:19:16Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Juliusz Mróz</username> <id>985075</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''The Hexer''' or '''the Witcher''' ([[Polish language\|Polish]]: ''Wiedźmin'') named Geralt is a character created by [[Andrzej Sapkowski]]. Hexers appear in Sapkowski's ''Hexer cycle'', comprising two short story collections and five novels. The novels sometimes wrongly described as the ''Hexer Saga'' (''Saga o wiedźminie''), where the correct over-title is ''Blood of the Elves''. The stories and novels have been translated into Czech, Slovak, German, Russian, Lithuanian, French and Spanish. English translation of ''The Final Wish'' short story collection is going to be published by [[Victor Gollancz Ltd\|Gollancz]] in [[2006]]. ''Hexers'' are professional monster killers who receive special training and preparation. They are sterile mutants with supernatural abilities. During their training they are also taught to suppress their feelings, which leads many people to believe that they have no emotions. Geralt, the central character in Sapkowski's stories, is one of the best hexers. Alternatively, the word ''warlock'' has been used informally in English translations, while ''witcher'', being a new word in English (as ''wiedźmin'' is in Polish) describes better the spirit of Geralt's profession. ''Witcher'' is also used by the makers of a computer game based on the books. Sapkowski himself prefers the translation ''hexer''. ==The Hexer cycle== [[Image:Wiedzmin plakat.jpg\|250px\|thumb\|right\|Movie poster]] ===Short stories=== The hexer cycle started as a series of short stories, at first published in ''[[Fantastyka]]'', a Polish science fiction magazine. The first short story was ''Wiedźmin'' (''Hexer'') ([[1986]]), written for a contest of ''Fantastyka'' magazine, where it won the 3rd place. The first four stories of Geralt (and ''Droga, z której się nie wraca'' (''The road with no return''), which took place in the same world, but dozens of years before the Hexer stories) were published in a short story collection titled ''Wiedźmin''. All fifteen short stories were later collected in three books published by superNOWA - ''Ostatnie życzenie'' (''The final wish''), ''Miecz przeznaczenia'' (''The sword of destiny'') and ''Coś się kończy, coś się zaczyna'' (''Something ends, something begins''). ===The Saga=== ''Blood of the Elves'' is the over-title of the five novels about Geralt - ''Krew elfów'' (''Blood of the Elves''), ''Czas pogardy'' (''Season of contempt''), ''Chrzest ognia'' (''Baptism by fire''), ''Wieża jaskółki'' (''The Swallow's Tower'') and ''Pani jeziora'' (''Lady of the lake'') - in which Sapkowski joins the threads started in the short stories, and adds new ones. Apart from the hexer himself, another central character is princess Ciri. ===List of books=== ====Short story collections:==== ''[[The Final Wish]]'' (''Ostatnie życzenie'') ([[1993]]) ''[[Sword of Destiny]]'' (''Miecz przeznaczenia'') ([[1992]]) ''[[Something ends, something begins]]'' (''Coś się kończy, coś się zaczyna'') ([[2000]]) ====Hexer saga:==== ''[[Blood of the Elves]]'' (''Krew elfów'') ([[1994]]) ''[[Season of Contempt]]'' (''Czas pogardy'') ([[1995]]) ''[[Baptism by Fire]]'' (''Chrzest ognia'') ([[1996]]) ''[[The Swallow's Tower]]'' (''Wieża jaskółki'') ([[1997]]) ''[[Lady of the Lake (novel)\|Lady of the Lake]]'' (''Pani jeziora'') ([[1999]]) ==Comic books== In [[1993]]-[[1995]], Sapkowski's stories were adapted into six [[comic book]] albums by [[Maciej Parowski]] (story), [[Boguslaw Polch]] (art), and Sapkowski himself. They are: ''The Road with no Return'' (''Droga bez powrotu'', based on short story ''Droga, z której się nie wraca'') ''Geralt'' (based on the short story ''Wiedźmin'') ''Lesser Evil'' (''Mniejsze zło'', based on a short story of the same title) ''The Final Wish'' (''Ostatnie życzenie'', based on a short story of the same title) ''The Border of Possibility'' (''Granica możliwości'', based on a short story of the same title) ''Betrayal'' (''Zdrada'') ==Film== '''The Hexer''' is also the title of a movie ([[2001]]) and television series ([[2002]]), directed by [[Marek Brodzki]], written by [[Michal Szczerbic\|Michał Szczerbic]], and produced by [[Lew Rywin]]. The role of Geralt was played by [[Michal Zebrowski\|Michał Żebrowski]], and the music was composed by [[Grzegorz Ciechowski]]. The film was essentially the TV series chopped into about 2 hours and received very poor reviews from both the fans and the critics. ==TV Series== A 13 episode TV series came out the following year. The series was much more coherent than the confusing movie, but was still considered a failure mostly due to the film's already bad reputation. The TV series has been unofficially released in English on the internet. ==Role-playing game== In [[2001]] a [[role-playing game]] called ''The Hexer: A Game of Imagination'' (''Wiedźmin: Gra Wyobraźni'') based on Sapkowski's books was published by MAG. A second edition of the game is currently in production. ==Computer game== A [[computer role-playing game]] based on Sapkowski's saga called ''[[The Witcher (computer game)\|The Witcher]]'' is in develop stage by [[CD Projekt\|CD Projekt's]] studio called [[CD Projekt RED]] and it will be released on [[2006 in gaming\|2006]]. ==External links== [http://www.sapkowski.pl Official website of Andrzej Sapkowski] [http://film.sapkowski.pl Unofficial website of the movie] [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0300657/ Internet Movie Database page for the movie] [http://www.wiedzmin.rpg.pl Official website of the role-playing game] *[http:/
fugee\|political asylum]], either by being designated a refugee while abroad or by physically entering the United States and requesting asylee status thereafter. Asylum is offered as part of the United States' obligation under the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees and the 1967 Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees. Under these agreements, a refugee is a person who is outside his or her country of nationality (or place of habitual residence if stateless) who, owing to a fear of persecution on account of a protected ground, is unable or unwilling to avail himself of the protection of the state. Protected grounds include race, nationality, religion, political opinion and membership of a particular social group. The signatories to these agreements are obliged not to return or "refoul" refugees to the place where they would face persecution. Advocates of refugee protection claim that for the most part, such persons are fleeing warfare; escaping persecution based on political or religious beliefs; or are victims of torture in their countries of origin. Critics claim the process has been widely abused and large numbers of people claim persecution simply to obtain the benefits of living in the United States. The primary benefit for such an asylum applicant is the eligibility for a work permit (employment authorization) by simply filing an application for asylum with [[U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services\|USCIS]] (former [[Immigration and Naturalization Service\|INS]]). To the later dismay of a large number of these applicants, however, if their claims of persecution are not backed up by genuine evidence or proofs, the claims are eventually denied and they are placed in removal (deportation) proceedings in the Immigration Court. Since the effective date of the [[Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act\|1996 IIRIRA legislation]], an applicant must apply for asylum within one year of entry or be barred from doing so unless there were certain exceptional circumstances. Some asylum cases have been also granted based on [[sexual orientation]] or [[gender role\|gender]], where cultural norms of the home country create and sustain conditions that make life unsafe or unbearable for the individual. As of 2004, recipients of political asylum faced a wait of approximately 14 years to receive permanent resident status after receiving their initial asylee status, because of an annual cap of 10,000 green cards for this class of individuals. However, in May 2005, under the terms of a proposed settlement of a class-action lawsuit, Ngwanyia v. Gonzales, brought on behalf of asylees against [[USCIS]], the government agreed to make available an additional 31,000 green cards for asylees during the period ending on September 30, 2007. This is ''in addition'' to the 10,000 green cards allocated for each year until then. This should speed up the green card waiting time considerably for asylees. However, the issue is rendered somewhat moot, since the enactment of the [[REAL ID Act of 2005]] (Division B of United States Public Law 109-13 (H.R. 1268)) eliminated the cap on annual asylee green cards and currently an asylee who has continuously resided in the US for more than one year in that status has an immediately available visa number. ===Miscellaneous legal immigration=== In [[removal proceedings]] ([[deportation]]) in front of an [[immigration judge]], [[cancellation of removal]] is a form of relief that is available for certain long-time residents of the United States. It allows a person being faced with the threat of removal to obtain permanent residence if that person: (1) has been physically present in the U.S. for at least ten years, (2) has had good moral character during that period, (3) has not been convicted of certain crimes, and (4) can show that removal would result in exceptional and extremely unusual hardship to his or her US citizen/permanent resident spouse, children, or parent. Unfortunately, this form of relief is only available when a person is served with a Notice to Appear (like a civil summons) to appear in the proceedings in the [[Immigration Court]]. Many persons have received their green cards in this way even though removal or deportation was looming. Member of Congress may submit [[private bill]]s granting residency to specific named individuals. A special committee vets the requests, which require extensive documentation. Congress has bestowed the title of "[[Honorary Citizen of the United States]]" to six people. The only two living recipients were [[Winston Churchill]] and [[Agnes Gonxha Bojaxhiu]] (Mother Teresa), the other instances were posthumous honors. The [[Central Intelligence Agency]] has the statutory authority to admit up to one hundred people a year outside of normal immigration procedures, and to provide for their settlement and support. The program is called "PL110" after the legislation that created the agency, [[Public Law 110]], the [[Central Intelligence Agency Act]]. ===Illegal immigration=== One consequence of laws restricting the number and ethnicity of persons entering the USA is a phenomenon referred to as [[illegal immigration]], in which persons enter a country and obtain work without legal sanction. In some cases, this is accomplished by entering the country legally with a [[Visa (document)\|visa]], and then simply choosing not to leave upon expiration of the visa. In other cases people enter the country surreptitiously without ever obtaining a visa. Often, people entering in this fashion are economic refugees&mdash;a class of refugee not recognized by the [[U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services]] (formerly the [[Immigration and Naturalization Service]]); these persons have left their home country in a desperate bid to provide financial support for themselves and/or their families. This is particularly true in cases where "minimum wage" in the U.S. is several times what the average laborer earns in a given country; such immigrants often send large portions of their income to their countries and families of origin. Much of the controversy today with immigration to the U.S. involves an increasing number of activists calling for a [[immigration reduction\|reduction in illegal immigration]]. Critics of these activists say that those who call for an end to "illegal immigration" really advocate an end to all immigration, but do not realize it. Two claims made against immigration reduction activists by those opposed to restrictions on immigration are: # All the problems associated with illegal immigration ([[race to the bottom]] in wages, etc.) also apply almost equally to legal immigrants. # They allegedly misunderstand the immigration process and do not realize that many immigrant workers who they see as replacing American citizens in jobs they can do have immigrated completely legally, albeit without citizenship (this number exceeds the number of illegal immigrants on a per-country basis). On the other hand, those who would reduce immigration make the point that illegal immigrants do not pay income taxes, social security taxes, or other taxes collected only from citizens with social security numbers, yet those illegal immigrants do utilize the services and structures paid for by public money. Much of this argument is based on false information. All employers are required by law to withhold income and payroll taxes. Illegals usually use a false Social Security number--knowing that they will never receive benefits. Of course, they all pay sales taxes, property taxes (directly or through landlords), gasoline taxes, hunting licenses, and so on. In terms of benefits, the illegals are quite young (so few receive Social Security or Medicare) and seldom receive any welfare payments. The main cost to local government is the cost of public schools, which by law must be open to all children. Most of the children of illegals are in fact American citizens because they were born in the US. Congress in early 2006 was debating provision to strip babies born in the US of their American citizenship if their parents were undocumented. ==Political issues surrounding immigration== ===Debates over immigration numbers=== In recent years a debate has arisen over the effect of high immigration levels into the United States on such issues as [[labour (economics)\|labor]], [[wages]], and [[ecology]]. A movement has emerged which supports lower levels of legal and illegal immigration into the U.S. The most important of these groups is the [[Federation for American Immigration Reform]]. See: [[immigration reduction]]. There is also the issue of illegal immigrants coming to the US and giving birth, thus having children who are American citizens. ==Immigration in popular culture== The history of immigration to the United States of America is, according to the claims of some, the history of the United States itself and the journey from beyond the sea is an element found in the [[American folklore\|American myth]], appearing over and over again in everything from ''[[The Godfather]]'' to ''[[Gangs of New York]]'' to "[[Song of Myself\|The Song of Myself]]" to [[Neil Diamond]]'s "America" to the [[animation\|animated feature]] ''[[An American Tail]]''. ==Media== {{multi-video start}} {{multi-video item \| filename = Ellis Island immigration footage.ogg \| title = Ellis Island immigration footage, 1906 \| description = Depicts scenes at the Immigration Depot and a nearby dock on Ellis Island. (3:37, 16.6 [[Megabyte\|MB]], [[ogg]]/[[Theora]] format). \| format = [[Theora]] }} {{multi-video end}} ==See also== * [[European colonization of the Americas]] * [[Demographics of the United States]] * [[Ellis Island]] * [[Citizenship]] * [[Emigration]] * [[Immigration]] * [[Nationality]] * [[Naturalization]] * [[List of United States Immigration Acts]] *
be merged withthe above? why list it as Other? --> <!-- No achievements are represented here; e. g., the Tulli Papyrus does not physically exist! And it is a controversial ancient account of UFOs! --> ===Open problems=== {{main\|Unsolved problems in Egyptology}} There is a question as to the sophistication of ancient Egyptian technology, and there are several [[open problem]]s concerning real and alleged ancient Egyptian achievements. Certain artifacts and records do not fit with conventional technological development systems. It is not known why there is no neat progression to an Egyptian [[Iron Age]] nor why the historical record shows the Egyptians taking so long to begin using [[iron]]. It is unknown how the Egyptians shaped and worked [[granite]]. The exact date the Egyptians started producing [[glass]] is debated. Some question whether the Egyptians were capable of long distance [[navigation]] in their [[boat]]s and when they became knowledgeable sailors. It is contentiously disputed as to whether or not the Egyptians had some understanding of [[electricity]] and if the Egyptians used [[engine]]s or [[Baghdad Battery\|batteries]]. The [[Dendera light\|relief at Dendera]] is interpreted in various ways by scholars. The topic of the [[Saqqara Bird]] is controversial, as is the extent of the Egyptians' understanding of [[aerodynamics]]. It is unknown for certain if the Egyptians had [[kite]]s or [[glider]]s. [[Beekeeping]] is known to have been particularly well developed in Egypt, as accounts are given by several [[Ancient Rome\|Roman]] writers &mdash; [[Virgil]], [[Gaius Julius Hyginus]], [[Marcus Terentius Varro\|Varro]] and [[Columella]]. It is unknown whether Egyptian [[beekeeping]] developed independently or as an [[import]] from [[Southern Asia]]. ==See also== {{commonscat\|Ancient Egypt}}{{portal}} * [[List of Ancient Egyptians]] * [[List of pharaohs]] * [[Egyptology]] * [[Unsolved problems in Egyptology]] * [[History of Egypt]] * [[List of Ancient Egyptian sites]] * [[Egyptian Museum]] * [[Race of the Ancient Egyptians]] * [[Egypt in the European imagination]] ==Further reading== [[John Baines]] & Jaromir Malek, ''The Cultural Atlas of Ancient Egypt'', revised edition, Facts on File, 2000. ISBN 0816040362 [[Barry Kemp]], ''Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of a Civilization'', Routledge, 1991. ISBN 0415063469 Bill Manley (ed.), ''The Seventy Great Mysteries of Ancient Egypt''. Thames & Hudson, ISBN 0500051232 Ian Shaw, ''The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt'', Oxford University Press, 2003. ISBN 0192804588 ==External links== [http://www.ancientegypt.co.uk/ Ancient Egypt] - maintained by the [[British Museum]], this site provides a useful introduction to Ancient Egypt for older children and young adolescents [http://archaeology.about.com/od/ancientegypt/ Ancient Egypt and Egyptians] articles and resources from About Archaeology [http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/egyptians/ BBC History: Egyptians] - provides a reliable general overview and further links [http://www.mysteries-in-stone.co.uk Ancient Egyptian History] - A comprehensive & consise educational website focusing on the basic and the advanced in all aspects of Ancient Egypt [http://www.ancientneareast.net/egypt.html Ancientneareast.net: Ancient Egypt] - provides a comprehensive listing of resources relating to the archaeology of Ancient Egypt [http://www.newton.cam.ac.uk/egypt/ Egyptology Resources] - maintained by Dr Nigel Strudwick, offers one reliable guide to online documentation of Ancient Egypt [http://www.kv5.com/ The Theban Mapping Project] - although focusing on the Theban region (modern [[Luxor]]), this site holds much of general interest relating to Ancient Egypt [http://www.projectshum.org/Ancient/egypt.html Ancient Civilizations - Ancient Egypt] children's site == Notes == <!-- How to add a footnote: NOTE: Footnotes in this article use names, not numbers. 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NOTE: It is important to add footnotes in the right order in the list! --> # {{note\|www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.348}} {{cite web \| title=Entrez PubMed \| url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15202071&query_hl=6&itool=pubmed_docsum \| accessdate=January 24 \| accessyear=2006 }} # {{note\|www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.349}} {{cite web \| title=Entrez PubMed \| url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12495079 \| accessdate=December 5 \| accessyear=2005 }} # {{note\|www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.350}} {{cite web \| title=Entrez PubMed \| url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15457403&query_hl=11&itool=pubmed_docsum \| accessdate=January 24 \| accessyear=2006 }} # {{note\|www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.351}} {{cite web \| title=Entrez PubMed \| url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=14748828\| accessdate=December 5 \| accessyear=2005 }} # {{note\|Zakrzewski}} {{cite web \| title=Entrez PubMed \| url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?dmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=12772210&dopt=Abstract\|accessdate=January 27 \| accessyear=2006 }} # {{note\|www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.352}} {{cite web \| title=Who were the Ancient Egyptians? \| url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=16331657&query_hl=16&itool=pubmed_docsum \| accessdate=January 24 \| accessyear=2006 }} # {{note\|www.world-science.net.353}} {{cite web \| title=Study traces Egyptians’ stone-age roots \| url=http://www.world-science.net/exclusives/exclusives-nfrm/051217_egypt1.htm \| accessdate=January 24 \| accessyear=2006 }} # {{note\|www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.354}} {{cite web \| title=Entrez PubMed \| url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=10091248&itool=iconabstr \| accessdate=December 5 \| accessyear=2005 }} # {{note\|www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.355}} {{cite web \| title=Entrez PubMed \| url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=11148985&itool=iconabstr \| accessdate=December 5 \| accessyear=2005 }} # {{note\|www.touregypt.net.356}} {{cite web \| title=Egypt: History - Predynastic Period \| url=http://www.touregypt.net/ebph5.htm \| accessdate=December 5 \| accessyear=2005 }} # {{note\|www.exn.ca.357}} {{cite web \| title=:: Discovery Channel CA :: \| url=http://www.exn.ca/egypt/story.asp?st=Lifestyles \| accessdate=December 5 \| accessyear=2005 }} # {{note\|www.findarticles.com.358}} {{cite web \| title=Accounting Historians Journal, The: oldest writings, and inventory tags of Egypt, The \| url=http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3657/is_200206/ai_n9107461 \| accessdate=December 5 \| accessyear=2005 }} # {{note\|www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk.359}} {{cite web \| title=Overview of Egyptian Mathematics \| url=http://www.touregypt.net/ebph5.htm \| accessdate=December 5 \| accessyear=2005 }} # {{note\|www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk.360}} {{cite web \| title=Overview of Egyptian Mathematics \| url=http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Egyptian_mathematics.html \| accessdate=December 5 \| accessyear=2005 }} # {{note\|www.touregypt.net.361}} {{cite web \| title=Wine in Ancient Egypt \| url=http://www.touregypt.net/magazine/mag11012000/magf2.htm \| accessdate=December 5 \| accessyear=2005 }} # {{note\|xoomer.virgilio.it.362}} {{cite web \| title=Francesco Raffaele Egyptology News \| url=http://xoomer.virgilio.it/francescoraf/hesyra/news.htm \| accessdate=December 5 \| accessyear=2005 }} # {{note\|www.touregypt.net.363}} {{cite web \| title=Egypt: Science and chemistry in ancient Egypt \| url=http://www.touregypt.net/science.htm \| accessdate=December 5 \| accessyear=2005 }} # {{note\|www.msichicago.org.364}} {{cite web \| title=MSIChicago : Exhibits : Ships Through the Ages \| url=http://www.msichicago.org/exhibit/ships/ \| accessdate=December 5 \| accessyear=2005 }} # {{note\|www.touregypt.net.365}} {{cite web \| title=The Ancient Egyptian Navy \| url=http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/navy.htm \| accessdate=December 5 \| accessyear=2005 }} # {{note\|www.vftn.org.366}} {{cite web \| title=apiary2 \| url=http://www.vftn.org/projects/bryant/navbar_pages/apiary_2.htm \| accessdate=December 5 \| accessyear=2005 }} # {{note\|www.touregypt.net.367}} {{cite web \| title=Egypt: Tour Egypt Monthly: Anceint Egyptian Alcohol and Beer \| url=http://www.touregypt.net/magazine/mag04012001/magf2.htm \| accessdate=December 5 \| accessyear=2005 }} # {{note\|www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk.368}} {{cite web \| title=Overview of Egyptian Mathematics \| url=http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Egyptian_mathematics.html \| accessdate=December 5 \| accessyear=2005 }} # {{note\|www.touregypt.net.369}} {{cite web \| title=Egypt: Ramses the Great, The Pharaoh Who Made Peace with his Enemies And the First Peace Treaty in History \| url=http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/treaty.htm \| accessdate=December 5 \| accessyear=2005 }} # {{note\|www.geotimes.org.370}} {{cite web \| title=Geotimes - February 2005 - Mummy tar in ancient Egypt \| url=http://www.geotimes.org/feb05/NN_mummytar.html \| accessdate=January 9 \| accessyear=2006 }} {{Ancient Egypt}} [[Category:Ancient Egypt\| ]] [[ar:قدماء المصريين]] [[bg:Древен Египет]] [[ca:Antic Egipte]] [[da:Det gamle Ægypten]] [[de:Altes Ä
Buddhists, Feminists, and the Art of the Self''. Beacon Press: Boston. ISBN 0807073067. [[Robert Moynihan\|Moynihan, Robert]], ''Recent Imagining: Interviews with Harold Bloom, Geoffrey Hartmen, Paul DeMan, J. Hillis Miller'' (Shoe String Press 1986). ISBN 0208021205. [[Richard Rorty\|Rorty, Richard]], "From Formalism to Poststructuralism", in ''The Cambridge History of Literary Criticism'', Vol.8, Cambridge University Press, 1995. {{Philosophy navigation}} [[Category:Deconstruction\| ]] [[Category:Literary criticism]] [[Category:Philosophical movements]] [[Category:Philosophical terminology]] [[Category:Postmodern literature]] [[Category:Postmodern theory]] [[ar:تفكيكية]] [[de:Dekonstruktion]] [[es:Deconstrucción]] [[fa:ساختارشکنی]] [[fr:Déconstruction]] [[he:דקונסטרוקציה]] [[hu:Dekonstrukció]] [[nl:Deconstructie]] [[ru:Деконструкция]] [[fi:Dekonstruktio]] [[sv:Dekonstruktion]] [[zh:解構主義]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Direct product</title> <id>8887</id> <revision> <id>27293877</id> <timestamp>2005-11-03T23:07:14Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Bluebot</username> <id>527862</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Bringing "External links" and "See also" sections in line with [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style\|Manual of Style]] recommendations.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], one can often define a '''direct product''' of objects already known, giving a new one. Examples are the product of sets (see [[Cartesian product]]), groups (described below), the [[product of rings]] and of other [[abstract algebra\|algebraic structures]]. The [[product topology\|product of topological spaces]] is another instance. == Group direct product == In [[group (mathematics)\|group theory]] one can define the direct product of two groups (''G'', ) and (''H'', o), denoted by ''G'' &times; ''H''. For [[abelian group]]s which are written additively, it is also called the [[direct sum]], denoted by <math>G \oplus H</math>. It is defined as follows: as [[set]] of the elements of the new group, take the ''[[cartesian product]]'' of the sets of elements of ''G'' and ''H'', that is {(''g'', ''h''): ''g'' in ''G'', ''h'' in ''H''}; * on these elements put an operation, defined elementwise: <center>(''g'', ''h'') &times; (''g' '', ''h' '') = (''g'' * ''g' '', ''h'' o ''h' '')</center> (Note the operation * may be the same as o.) This construction gives a new group. It has a [[normal subgroup]] [[isomorphic]] to ''G'' (given by the elements of the form (''g'', 1)), and one isomorphic to ''H'' (comprising the elements (1, ''h'')). The reverse also holds, there is the following recognition theorem: If a group ''K'' contains two normal subgroups ''G'' and ''H'', such that ''K''= ''GH'' and the intersection of ''G'' and ''H'' contains only the identity, then ''K'' = ''G'' x ''H''. A relaxation of these conditions gives the [[semidirect product]]. As an example, take as ''G'' and ''H'' two copies of the unique (up to isomorphisms) group of order 2, ''C''<sub>2</sub>: say {1, ''a''} and {1, ''b''}. Then ''C''<sub>2</sub>&times;''C''<sub>2</sub> = {(1,1), (1,''b''), (''a'',1), (''a'',''b'')}, with the operation element by element. For instance, (1,''b'')(''a'',1) = (1''a'', ''b''1) = (''a'',''b''), and (1,''b'')(1,''b'') = (1,''b''<sup>2</sup>) = (1,1). With a direct product, we get some natural [[group homomorphism\|group homomorphisms]] for free: the projection maps :<math>\pi_1 \colon G \times H \to G\quad \mathrm{by} \quad \pi_1(g, h) = g</math>, :<math>\pi_2 \colon G \times H \to H\quad \mathrm{by} \quad \pi_2(g, h) = h</math> called the '''coordinate functions'''. Also, every homomorphism ''f'' on the direct product is totally determined by its component functions <math>f_i = \pi_i \circ f</math>. For any group (''G'', ), and any integer ''n'' &ge; 0, multiple application of the direct product gives the group of all ''n''-[[tuple]]s ''G''<sup>''n''</sup> (for ''n''=0 the trivial group). Examples: '''Z'''<sup>''n''</sup> *'''R'''<sup>''n''</sup> (with additional [[vector space]] structure this is called [[Euclidean space]], see below) == Vector space direct product == The direct product for [[vector space\|vector spaces]] (not to be confused with the [[tensor product]]) is very similar to the one defined for groups above, using the [[cartesian product]] with the operation of addition being componentwise, and the scalar multiplication just distributing over all the components. Starting from '''R''' we get [[Euclidean space]] '''R'''<sup>''n''</sup>, the prototypical example of a real ''n''-dimensional vector space. The vector space direct product of '''R'''<sup>''m''</sup> and '''R'''<sup>''n''</sup> is '''R'''<sup>''m'' + ''n''</sup>. Note that a direct product for a finite index <math>\prod_{i=1}^n X_i </math> is identical to the [[direct sum\|direct sum]] <math>\bigoplus_{i=1}^n X_i </math>. The direct sum and direct product differ only for infinite indices, where the elements of a direct sum are zero for all but for a finite number of entries. == Topological space direct product == The direct product for a collection of [[topological space\|topological spaces]] ''X<sub>i</sub>'' for ''i'' in ''I'', some index set, once again makes use of the cartesian product :<math>\prod_{i \in I} X_i </math> Defining the [[topology]] is a little tricky. For finitely many factors, this is the obvious and natural thing to do: simply take as a [[basis (topology)\|basis]] of open sets to be the collection of all cartesian products of open subsets from each factor: :<math>\mathcal B = \{ U_1 \times \cdots \times U_n\ \|\ U_i\ \mathrm{open\ in}\ X_i \}</math> This topology is called the '''product topology'''. For example, directly defining the product topology on '''R'''<sup>2</sup> by the open sets of '''R''' (disjoint unions of open intervals), the basis for this topology would consist of all disjoint unions of open rectangles in the plane (as it turns out, it coincides with the usual [[metric space\|metric]] topology). The product topology for infinite products has a twist, and this has to do with being able to make all the projection maps continuous and to make all functions into the product continuous if and only if all its component functions are continuous (i.e. to satisfy the categorical definition of product: the morphisms here are continuous functions): we take as a basis of open sets to be the collection of all cartesian products of open subsets from each factor, as before, with the proviso that all but finitely many factors are the entire space: :<math>\mathcal B = \left\{ \prod_{i \in I} U_i\ \|\ (\exists j_1,\ldots,j_n)(U_{j_i}\ \mathrm{open\ in}\ X_{j_i})\ \mathrm{and}\ (\forall i \neq j_1,\ldots,j_n)(U_i = X_i) \right\}</math> (Not a very pretty sight!). The more natural-sounding topology would be, in this case, to take products of infinitely many open subsets as before, and this does yield a somewhat interesting topology, the '''box topology'''. However it is not too difficult to find an example of bunch of continuous component functions whose product function is not continuous (see the separate entry [[box topology]] for an example and more). The problem which makes the twist necessary is ultimately rooted in the fact that the intersection of open sets is only guaranteed to be open for finitely many sets in the definition of topology. Products (with the product topology) are nice with respect to preserving properties of their factors; for example, the product of Hausdorff spaces is Hausdorff; the product of connected spaces is connected, and the product of compact spaces is compact. That last one, called [[Tychonoff's theorem]], is yet another equivalence to the [[axiom of choice]]. For more properties and equivalent formulations, see the separate entry [[product topology]]. <!-- == Partially ordered sets == ''Still working on this... add stuff here if you like... thought it was going to be fast but have to make sure I understand the definitions just right...'' --> == Categorical product == ''Main article: [[Product (category theory)]]'' The direct product can be abstracted to an arbitrary [[category theory\|category]]. In a general category, given a collection of objects ''A<sub>i</sub>'' ''and'' a collection of [[morphism\|morphisms]] ''p<sub>i</sub>'' from ''A'' to ''A<sub>i</sub>'' with ''i'' ranging in some index set ''I'', an object ''A'' is said to be a '''categorical product''' in the category if, for any object ''B'' and any collection of morphisms ''f<sub>i</sub>'' from ''B'' to ''A<sub>i</sub>'', there exists a unique morphism ''f'' from ''B'' to ''A'' such that ''f<sub>i</sub> = p<sub>i</sub> f'' and this object ''A'' is unique. This not only works for two factors, but arbitrarily (possibly infinitely) many. For groups we similarly define the direct product of a more general, arbitrary collection of groups ''G<sub>i</sub>'' for ''i'' in ''I'', ''I'' an index set. Denoting the cartesian product of the groups by ''G'' we define multiplication on ''G'' with the operation of componentwise multiplication; and corresponding to the ''p<sub>i</sub>'' in the definition above are the projection maps :<math>\pi_i \colon G \to G_i\quad \mathrm{by} \quad \pi_i(g) = g_i</math>, the functions that take ''g'' to its ''i''th component (''g<sub>i</sub>''). <!-- this is easier to visualize as a [[commutative diagram]]; eventually somebody should inse
ge (mathematics)\|range]] of f. If V' is a variety contained in <math>{\mathbb A}^m</math>, we say that f is a '''regular function''' from V to V' if the range of f is contained in V'. This makes the collection of all affine varieties into a [[category theory\|category]], where the objects are affine varieties and the [[morphism]]s are regular maps. The following theorem characterizes the category of affine varieties: : The category of affine varieties is the [[dual (category theory)\|opposite category]] to the category of finitely generated [[reduced (ring theory)\|reduced]] k-[[algebra_over_a_field\|algebras]] and their homomorphisms. == Projective space == Consider the variety V(y=x<sup>2</sup>). If we draw it, we get a [[parabola]]. As x increases, the slope of the line from the origin to the point (x,x<sup>2</sup>) becomes larger and larger. As x decreases, the slope of the same line becomes smaller and smaller. Compare this to the variety V(y=x<sup>3</sup>). This is a [[cubic equation]]. As x increases, the slope of the line from the origin to the point (x,x<sup>3</sup>) becomes larger and larger just as before. But unlike before, as x decreases, the slope of the same line again becomes larger and larger. So the behavior "at infinity" of V(y=x<sup>3</sup>) is different from the behavior "at infinity" of V(y=x<sup>2</sup>). It is, however, difficult to make the concept of "at infinity" meaningful, if we restrict to working in affine space. The remedy to this is to work in [[projective space]]. Projective space has properties analogous to those of a [[compact space\|compact]] [[Hausdorff space]]. Among other things, it lets us make precise the notion of "at infinity" by including extra points. The behavior of a variety at those extra points then gives us more information about it. As it turns out, V(y=x<sup>3</sup>) has a [[Mathematical singularity\|singularity]] at one of those extra points, but V(y=x<sup>2</sup>) is smooth. While [[projective geometry]] was originally established on a [[synthetic geometry\|synthetic]] foundation, the use of [[homogeneous coordinates]] allowed the introduction of algebraic techniques. Furthermore, the introduction of projective techniques made many theorems in algebraic geometry simpler and sharper: For example, [[Bézout's theorem]] on the number of intersection points between two varieties can be stated in its sharpest form only in projective space. For this reason, projective space plays a fundamental role in algebraic geometry. == The modern viewpoint == The modern approach to algebraic geometry redefines the basic objects. Varieties are subsumed in [[Alexander Grothendieck]]'s concept of a [[scheme (mathematics)\|scheme]]. Schemes start with the observation that if finitely generated reduced k-algebras are geometrical objects, then perhaps arbitrary commutative rings should also be geometrical objects. As such, schemes become both a more general algebro-geometric object, and a convenient language to describe those objects. This language of schemes has proved to be a valuable way of dealing with geometric concepts and has become a cornerstone of modern algebraic geometry. == Notes and history == Algebraic geometry was largely developed by [[Islamic mathematics\|Islamic mathematicians]], particularly the [[Persian people\|Persian]] mathematician/poet [[Omar Khayyám]] (born [[1048]]). He was well known for inventing the general method of solving [[cubic equation]]s by intersecting a parabola with a circle. In addition he discovered the [[binomial expansion]], and authored criticisms of [[Euclid]]'s theories of parallels which made their way to [[England]], where they contributed to the eventual development of [[non-Euclidean geometry]]. Omar Khayyám also combined the use of [[trigonometry]] and [[approximation theory]] to provide methods of solving algebraic equations by geometrical means. Algebraic geometry was further developed by the [[Italian school of algebraic geometry\|Italian geometers]] in the early part of the 20th century. Enriques classified [[algebraic surface\|algebraic surfaces]] up to [[birational isomorphism]]. The style of the Italian school was very intuitive and does not meet the modern standards of [[rigor]]. By the [[1930s]] and [[1940s]], [[Oscar Zariski]], [[André Weil]] and others realized that algebraic geometry needed to be rebuilt on foundations of [[commutative algebra]] and [[valuation theory]]. Commutative algebra (earlier known as [[elimination theory]] and then [[ideal theory]], and refounded as the study of commutative rings and their [[module (mathematics)\|modules]]) had been and was being developed by [[David Hilbert]], [[Max Noether]], [[Emanuel Lasker]], [[Emmy Noether]], [[Wolfgang Krull]], and others. For a while there was no standard foundation for algebraic geometry. In the [[1950s]] and [[1960s]] [[Jean-Pierre Serre]] and [[Alexander Grothendieck]] recast the foundations making use of the theory of [[sheaf theory]]. Later, from about 1960, the idea of [[scheme (mathematics)\|schemes]] was worked out, in conjunction with a very refined apparatus of [[homological algebra\|homological techniques]]. After a decade of rapid development the field stabilised in the [[1970s]], and new applications were made, both to [[number theory]] and to more classical geometric questions on algebraic varieties, [[singularity theory\|singularities]] and [[moduli space\|moduli]]. An important class of varieties, not easily understood directly from their defining equations, are the [[abelian varieties]], which are the projective varieties whose points form an abelian [[group (mathematics)\|group]]. The prototypical examples are the [[elliptic curve]]s, which have a rich theory. They were instrumental in the proof of [[Fermat's last theorem]] and are also used in [[elliptic curve cryptography]]. While much of algebraic geometry is concerned with abstract and general statements about varieties, methods for effective computation with concretely-given polynomials have also been developed. The most important is the technique of [[Gröbner basis\|Gröbner bases]] which is employed in all [[computer algebra]] systems. ==See also== * [[List of publications in mathematics#Algebraic geometry\| Important publications in algebraic geometry]] * [[List of algebraic surfaces]] * [[Root-finding algorithm]] ==References== A classical textbook, predating schemes: * [[W. V. D. Hodge\|Hodge, W. V. D.]], and [[Daniel Pedoe\|Pedoe, Daniel]], ''Methods of Algebraic Geometry: Volume 1'', [[Cambridge University Press]], 1994, ISBN 0521469007 * Hodge, W. V. D., and Pedoe, Daniel, ''Methods of Algebraic Geometry: Volume 2'', Cambridge University Press, 1994, ISBN 0521469015 * Hodge, W. V. D., and Pedoe, Daniel, ''Methods of Algebraic Geometry: Volume 3'', Cambridge University Press, 1994, ISBN 0521467756 Modern textbooks that do not use the language of schemes: * Cox, Little, and O'Shea, ''Ideals, Varieties, and Algorithms (second edition),'' Springer, 1997, ISBN 0387946802 * Griffiths, Phillip, and Harris, Joe, ''Principles of Algebraic Geometry'', Wiley-Interscience, 1994, ISBN 0471050598 * Harris, Joe, ''Algebraic Geometry: A First Course'', [[Springer-Verlag]], 1995, ISBN 0387977163 * [[David Mumford\|Mumford, David]], ''Algebraic Geometry I: Complex Projective Varieties'', 2nd ed., Springer-Verlag, 1995, ISBN 3540586571 * Reid, Miles, ''Undergraduate Algebraic Geometry'', Cambridge University Press, 1988, ISBN 0521356628 * Shafarevich, Igor, ''Basic Algebraic Geometry I: Varieties in Projective Space'', Springer-Verlag, 2nd ed., 1995, ISBN 0387548122 Textbooks and references for schemes: * Eisenbud, David, and Harris, Joe, ''The Geometry of Schemes'', Springer-Verlag, 1998, ISBN 0387986375 * [[Alexander Grothendieck\|Grothendieck, Alexander]], ''[[Éléments de géométrie algébrique]]'', Publications mathématiques de l'[[IHÉS]], vols. 4, 8, 11, 17, 20, 24, 28, 32, 1960, 1961, 1963, 1964, 1965, 1966, 1967 * Grothendieck, Alexander, ''Éléments de géométrie algébrique'', vol. 1, 2nd ed., Springer-Verlag, 1971, ISBN 3540051139 * Hartshorne, Robin, ''Algebraic Geometry'', Springer-Verlag, 1997, ISBN 0387902449 * Mumford, David, ''The Red Book of Varieties and Schemes: Includes the Michigan Lectures (1974) on Curves and Their Jacobians'', 2nd ed., Springer-Verlag, 1999, ISBN 354063293X * Shafarevich, Igor, ''Basic Algebraic Geometry II: Schemes and Complex Manifolds'', Springer-Verlag, 2nd ed., 1995, ISBN 0387548122 On the internet: * Kevin R. Coombes: [http://odin.mdacc.tmc.edu/~krc/agathos/ ''Algebraic Geometry: A Total Hypertext Online System''] * [http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/AlgebraicGeometry.html ''Algebraic geometry''] entry on [http://planetmath.org/ PlanetMath] * [http://eqworld.ipmnet.ru/en/solutions/ae.htm ''Algebraic Equations and Systems of Algebraic Equations''] at EqWorld: The World of Mathematical Equations [[Category:Algebraic geometry\|]] [[de:Algebraische Geometrie]] [[es:Geometría algebraica]] [[fr:Géométrie algébrique]] [[ko:대수기하학]] [[it:Geometria algebrica]] [[ja:代数幾何学]] [[pl:Geometria algebraiczna]] [[pt:Geometria algébrica]] [[fi:Algebrallinen geometria]] [[zh:代数几何]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Austin, Texas</title> <id>1998</id> <revision> <id>41898070</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T13:30:18Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>67.101.68.116</ip> </contributor> <comment>/ Media and entertainment */ I think it's enough to leave the one mention of Sin City just in the sentence about Austin Studios. location shots weren't done around the city. just green screen</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:AustinSkyline.jpeg\|269px\|thumb\|right\|Downtown Austin]] {{Infobox City \| official_name = Austin, Texas \| nic
nd 'convict' and changed it to wikilink.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Con''' is a variant on the Latin [[prefix]] "com", meaning "with" or "together" In [[Spanish language\|Spanish]], '''''con''''' is the word for ''with'', and as such appears in some Spanish borrowings such as "[[chili con carne]]". In [[Hong Kong English]], '''''[[contact lens\|con]]''''' is the short form for [[contact lens\|contact lens(es)]]. '''Con''' is an alternate spelling for the god Kon in [[Inca mythology]], '''Con''' is an [[apocopation]] of '[[confidence trick]]', which is a scam pulled off by a 'con man'. '''Con''' is an apocopation of [[convention]]. Used primarily in the titles of the conventions. '''Con''' is an apocopation of [[convict]], as in "ex-con". '''Con''' is an [[adverb]] meaning "against" (short for Latin "contra") '''[[Con (television series)\|Con]]''' is the name of a [[television series]] on [[Comedy Central]]. '''[[Con (Mossi state)\|Con]]''' was a state located in what is now [[Burkina Faso]]. '''Con''' is also an abbreviation of "[[conference]]". '''[[Conning tower\|Con]]''' is a verb meaning to steer (a ship) by giving instructions to the helmsman. It is ironic that the prefix definition of "con" is antonymous with the adverb definition. {{disambig}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Coal</title> <id>5987</id> <revision> <id>41995312</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T02:44:18Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>King of Hearts</username> <id>258000</id> </contributor> <comment>/* External links / add link</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Coal''' is a [[fossil fuel]] extracted from the ground by underground mining or open-pit mining ([[strip mining]]). It is a readily combustible black or brownish-black [[sedimentary rock]]. It is composed primarily of [[carbon]] along with assorted other elements, including [[sulfur]]. Often associated with the [[Industrial Revolution]], coal remains an enormously important fuel and is the largest single source of [[electricity]] world-wide. In the [[United States]], for example, the burning of coal generates 50% of the electricity consumed. [[Image:Coal.jpg\|thumb\|right\|250px\|Coal]] == Etymology and folklore == The word "coal" came from [[Anglo-Saxon]] ''col'', which meant [[charcoal]]. Coal was not mined in Britain before the late [[Middle Ages]]; i.e. after ca. [[1000]] AD. [[Mineral]] coal was referred to as '''sea-coal''', either because it was found on beaches occasionally having fallen from the exposed coal seams above or washed out of underwater [[coal seam]] [[outcrop]]s, or because it was easier to transport by sea rather than on the very poor road system; in [[London]], [[England]] there is still a Seacoal Lane (off the north side of [[Ludgate Hill]]) where the coal merchants conducted their business It is associated with the [[astrology\|astrological]] sign [[Capricorn]]. It is carried by thieves to protect them from detection and to help them to escape when pursued. It is an element of a popular ritual associated with [[New Year's Eve]]. To dream of burning coals is a symbol of disappointment, trouble, affliction, and loss, unless they are burning brightly, when the symbol gives promise of uplifting and advancement. [[Santa Claus]] is said to leave a lump of coal instead of [[Christmas]] presents in the stockings of naughty children. == Composition == Carbon forms more than 50 percent by weight and more than 70 percent by volume of coal (this includes inherent moisture). This is dependent on coal ''rank'', with higher rank coals containing less hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen, until 95% purity of carbon is achieved at [[Anthracite coal\|Anthracite]] rank and above. [[Graphite]] formed from coal is the end-product of the thermal and [[diagenesis\|diagenetic]] conversion of plant matter (50% by volume of water) into pure carbon. Coal usually contains a considerable amount of incidental moisture, which is the water trapped within the coal in between the coal particles. Coals are usually mined wet and may be stored wet to prevent spontaneous combustion, so the carbon content of coal is quoted as both a 'as mined' and on a 'moisture free' basis. Lignite and other low-rank coals still contain a considerable amount of water and other volatile components trapped within the particles of the coal, known as its [[maceral]]s. This is present either within the coal particles, or as hydrogen and oxygen atoms within the molecules. This is because coal is converted from [[carbohydrate]] material such as [[cellulose]], into carbon, which is an incremental process (see below). Therefore coal carbon contents also depend heavily on the degree to which this cellulose component is preserved in the coal. Other constituents of coals include [[mineral]] matter, usually as [[silicate]] minerals such as [[clay]]s, [[illite]], [[kaolin]]ite and so forth, as well as [[carbonate]] minerals like [[siderite]], [[calcite]] and [[aragonite]]. Iron sulfide minerals such as [[pyrite]] are common constituents of coals. Sulfate minerals are also found, as is some form of salt, trace amounts of metals, notably iron, uranium and cadmium, and rarely gold. [[Methane]] gas is another component of coal, produced not from bacterial means but from methanogenesis. Methane in coal is dangerous as it can cause coal seam explosions especially in underground mines, and may cause the coal to spontaneously combust. It is, however, a valuable by-product of some coal mining, serving as a significant source of [[natural gas]]. Coal composition is determined by specific [[coal assay]] techniques, and is performed to quantify the physical, chemical and mechanical behaviour of the coal, including whether it is a good candidate for [[coke (fuel)\|coking coal]]. ==Origin of coal== Coal is formed from plant remains that have been compacted, hardened, chemically altered, and metamorphosed by heat and pressure over [[geologic time]]. Coal was formed in [[swamp]] [[ecosystem\|ecosystems]] which persisted in lowland sedimentary basins similar, for instance, to the [[peat]] swamps of [[Borneo]] today. These swamp environments were formed during slow subsidence of passive continental margins, and most seem to have formed adjacent to estuarine and marine sediments suggesting that they may have been in tidal delta environments. When plants die in these peat swamp environments, their [[biomass]] is deposited in [[wikt:anaerobic\|anaerobic]] aquatic environments where low [[oxygen]] levels prevent their complete decay by bacteria and oxidation. For masses of undecayed organic matter to be preserved and to form economically valuable coal the environment must remain steady for prolonged periods of time, and the waters feeding these peat swamps must remain essentially free of sediment. This requires minimal erosion in the uplands of the rivers which feed the coal swamps, and efficient trapping of the sediments. Eventually, and usually due to the initial onset of [[orogeny]] or other tectonic events, the coal forming environment ceases. In the majority of cases this is abrupt, with the majority of coal seams having a knife-sharp upper contact with the overlying sediments. This suggests that the onset of further sedimentation quickly destroys the peat swamp ecosystem and replaces it with meandering stream and river environments during ongoing subsidence. Burial by sedimentary loading on top of the peat swamp converts the organic matter to coal by the following processes; compaction, due to loading of the sediments on the coal which flattens the organic matter * removal of the water held within the peat in between the plant fragments * with ongoing compaction, removal of water from the inter-cellular structure of fossilised plants * with heat and compaction, removal of molecular water * methanogenesis; similar to treating wood in a pressure cooker, methane is produced, which removes hydrogen and some carbon, and some further oxygen (as water) * dehydrogenation, which removes [[hydroxyl]] groups from the cellulose and other plant molecules, resulting in the production of hydgen-reduced coals Generally, to form a coal seam 1 metre thick, between 10 and 30 metres of peat is required. Peat has a moisture content of up to 90%, so loss of water is of prime importance in the conversion of peat into [[lignite]], the lowest rank of coal. Lignite is then converted by dehydrogenation and methanogenesis to sub-bituminous coal. Further dehydrogenation reactions, removing progressively more methane and higher hydrocarbon gases such as [[ethane]], [[propane]], etcetera, create [[bituminous coal]] and, when this process is complete at sub-metamorphic conditions, [[anthracite]] and [[graphite]] are formed. Evidence of the types of plants that contributed to carbonaceous deposits can occasionally be found in the shale and sandstone sediments that overlie coal deposits and within the coal. Fossil evidence is best preserved in lignites and sub-bituminous coals, though fossils in anthracite is not too rare. To date only three fossils have been found in graphite seams created from coal. The greatest coal-forming time in geologic history was during the [[Carboniferous]] era (280 to 345 million years ago). Further large deposits of coal are found in the [[Permian]], with lesser but still significant [[Triassic]] and [[Jurassic]] deposits, and minor [[Cretaceous]] and younger deposits of [[lignite]]. In the modern European lowlands of Holland and Germany considerable thicknesses of peat have accumulated, testifying to the ubiquity of the coal-forming process. In Europe, Asia, and North America, the [[Carboniferous]] coal was formed from tropical swamp forests, which are sometimes called the "coal forests". Southern hemisphere C
belong to the [[NFC North\|Northern Division]] of the [[National Football Conference]] (NFC) in the [[National Football League]] (NFL). Originally called the '''Decatur Staleys''', the team was established by the A.E. Staley Company of [[Decatur, Illinois]] in 1919. One year later, [[George Halas]] took over the team and it became a charter member of the NFL. The team relocated to Chicago in 1921, where it was called the '''Chicago Staleys''' before being renamed the Bears in 1922. The Bears have won 9 total league titles (trailing only the [[Green Bay Packers]], who have 12), including 8 [[List of NFL champions\|NFL Championships]] and [[Super Bowl XX]]. The Bears have the most enshrinees (26 members) in the [[Pro Football Hall of Fame]]. The team also has a fierce rivalry with the [[Green Bay Packers]], which is the longest rivalry in the [[NFL]] with over 170 meetings between the two clubs. Since 1971, the team has played its home games at [[Soldier Field]] in [[Chicago, Illinois]]. The stadium is located right next to [[Lake Michigan]] and was recently remodeled to resemble the other newer stadiums being built around the league. ==Franchise history== <!-- Note: This is just a summary, please do not add too much detail; the main article is probably best for detailed additions -->{{details\|History of the Chicago Bears}} Since becoming a charter member of the league in [[1920 NFL season\|1920]], the Bears have played in over 1,000 games. Through the [[2005 NFL season\|2005 season]], they led the NFL in overall franchise wins with 671 and have an overall record of 671-495-42 (going 657-479-42 during the regular season and 14-16 in the playoffs). They were founded in 1919 by the A.E. Staley Company in [[Decatur, Illinois]] as the Decatur Staleys, originally as the company team, a typical start for several of the classic NFL franchises. Staley hired [[George Halas]] and Edward "Dutch" Sternaman in 1920 to run the team and turned control of the team over to them in 1921. However, official team and league records call [[George Halas]] the founder as he took over the team in 1920 when it became a charter member of the NFL. The team relocated to Chicago in 1921, where it was called the Chicago Staleys under an agreement that was reached by Halas and Sternaman with Staley. At the time when the franchise moved to Chicago, Halas purchased the rights for $100. Halas liked the bright orange-and-blue colors of his alma mater, the [[University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign\|University of Illinois]], and the Bears adopted those colors as their own, albeit in a darker shade of each (the blue is a Navy Blue, and the orange is [[Pantone]] 1665, similar to burnt orange). As with several early NFL franchises, the Bears derived their nickname from that of their landlords, in this case the [[Chicago Cubs]]. The Bears's rivalry with the [[Green Bay Packers]] is one of the oldest and fiercest in professional sports, dating back to 1921. In one infamous incident in 1921, Halas got the Packers expelled from the league in order to prevent them signing a particular player, and then graciously got them re-admitted after the Bears had closed the deal with that player. In the 1985 season, Coach [[Mike Ditka]] used 350-plus pound lineman [[William Perry (football)\|"Refrigerator" Perry]] as a truly "wide" receiver in a touchdown play at [[Lambeau Field]], flagrantly taunting the Packers. The Packers have also one-upped the Bears from time to time over the years, such as the "[[Instant Replay]] Loss" game of 1989.{{ref\|bear-pack}} The Bears were responsible for triggering the NFL's long-standing rule that a player could not be signed until his senior class had graduated. The NFL took that action as a consequence of the Bears' aggressive signing of famous U of I player [[Red Grange]], within a day after his final game as a collegian.{{ref\|grange}} The Bears became a dominant team in the early 1940s, reaching the NFL Championship Game 5 times during a 7 season span, and winning 4 of them. The team acquired the [[University of Chicago]]'s discarded nickname "Monsters of the Midway" as well as a newly-penned theme song that declared them "The Pride and Joy of Illinois". One famous victory during that period was their 73-0 victory over the ''favored'' [[Washington Redskins]] at [[Griffith Stadium]] in the [[NFL Championship Game, 1940\|1940 NFL Championship Game]]. That score is still an NFL record for lopsided results.{{ref\|1940}} The Bears declined in the late 1940's and continued to be on a down trend throughout the 1950's. The team did rebound in 1963 to capture their 8th NFL Championship under Halas. The late 1960's and early 1970's gave way to notable players like [[Dick Butkus]], [[Gale Sayers]], and the tragic story of [[Brian Piccolo]]. After his partner Dutch Sternaman left the organization, Halas maintained control of the Bears until his death in 1983. Halas also coached the team off-and-on for forty seasons, an NFL record. For the most part, the Bears have stayed in the Halas family. The team is currently owned by Halas' daughter Virginia McCaskey and has been run on a day-to-day basis since 1999 by President and CEO [[Ted Phillips]]. The Bears have won a total of 9 league championships, including [[Super Bowl XX]] after the 1985 season in which they dominated the NFL with their then-revolutionary [[46 defense]] and a cast of characters that recorded the novelty rap song "[[Super Bowl Shuffle\|The Super Bowl Shuffle]]". The season was notable in that the Bears had only one loss, the "unlucky 13th" game of the season, a Monday night affair in which they were defeated by the [[Miami Dolphins]]. At the time, much was made of the fact that the Dolphins are the only franchise in history (through the 2005 season) to have an undefeated season and post-season. The Dolphins came close to setting up a rematch in the [[Super Bowl]], but lost to the [[New England Patriots]] in the AFC title game. Ironically enough, "The Super Bowl Shuffle" was videotaped the next day after that Monday night loss. Since the 1985 Championship season, the Bears have been on a downward slide. Since 1992, the Bears have made the playoffs only three times--winning only one game. They have been defeated at home in the playoffs twice in the new millennium. The Bears have not played in the [[NFC Championship]] Game since [[NFL playoffs, 1987-88\|1988]], when the [[San Francisco 49ers]] blasted the Bears 28-3 at [[Soldier Field]].<!-- Note: This is just a summary, please do not add too much detail, especially for the 2005 season and beyond; the article "Chicago Bears history" is probably best for detailed additions --> ==Logo history== [[Image:ChicagoBears1962.png\|right\|thumb\|Bears Logo: 1962-1974]] [[Image:ChicagoBears_100.png\|left\|thumb\|The current Bears logo since 1974]] Throughout the team history, the Chicago Bears have had a few official team logos. The first was introduced in the early 1950's as a black bear with a football. The team kept this until 1962, when the Bears trademark 'C' logo was first used by the team.{{ref\|bear-logo}} The change in logo was due to the addition of a logo on the helmets, which pro football teams started adding in the late 1950's early 1960's. Unlike some NFL franchises that have had many different looks over time, the Bears have kept the wishbone 'C' for over 40 years. In 1974, the team decided to keep the same white 'C' logo but to change to color of it from white to orange with a white trim. The current verison of the logo which is the orange wishbone C has been around since 1974. ==Uniforms/Colors== [[Image:Chicago92.gif\|right\|thumb\|The traditional "Home" and "Away" uniform kits]] '''Current Uniform Colors:''' '''Home:''' ''Navy blue jerseys with orange trim, and white pants'' '''Away:''' ''White jerseys, navy blue pants'' '''Alternate:''' ''Orange jerseys, white pants'' '''Helmet design:''' ''Navy blue, with an orange "C"'' :<small>*George Halas, a [[University of Illinois]] [[alumnus]], is credited with bringing his [[alma mater]]'s colors to the Chicago Bears. The team's navy blue and [[Pantone]] 1665 (similar to burnt orange) are shades of the blue and orange of the [[Fighting Illini]].</small> In the 1930s, the Chicago Bears' team uniform underwent some substantial alterations. After many subtle and not-so-subtle changes, by 1933 the Bears donned all-orange jerseys with navy numbers and matching black [[helmet]]s. In 1936, they modified this design into "an early version of psychodelia" by adding three orange stripes to their helmets, changing the color of the jerseys from orange to white, complementing the new white jerseys with 14 navy and orange alternating stripes on the sleeves, and introducing socks with a similar striped pattern extending from ankle to knee. Mercifully, this design lasted only one season{{ref\|uniforms}}. [[Image:NFLClock-Bears-Large.jpg\|thumb\|right\|Chicago Bears Uniform History (1920-2005)]] By 1949, the team was wearing the familiar navy blue shirts with white, rounded numbers. In 1956, the team added "TV numbers" to the sleeves. The Bears 'C' [[logo]] first appeared on the helmets in 1962. The logo changed from white to a white-bordered orange 11 years later, and has remained unchanged ever since. The Bears added the initials ''GSH'' to the left sleeve of their jerseys in 1984 in honor of the late founder/owner/player/head coach 'Papa Bear' George S. Halas who passed away on [[October 31]], [[1983]]. Other variations to the Bears uniforms over the years include the addition of navy blue pants as a part of the road kit in 1984. On [[October 7]], [[2002]] the Bears wore navy blue pants with their navy blue home jerseys for the first and so far only time in team history. On [[November 13]
derway. ==The term "Byzantine Empire"== ''Main article: [[Greek (name)\|Names of the Greeks]]'' The name ''Byzantine Empire'' is derived from the original [[Greek language\|Greek]] name for [[Constantinople]], [[Byzantium]]. The name is a modern term and would have been alien to its contemporaries. The Empire's native [[Greek language\|Greek]] name was '''{{Polytonic\|Ῥωμανία}}''' ''Romanía'' or '''{{Polytonic\|Βασιλεία Ῥωμαίων}}''' ''Basileía Romaíon'', a direct translation of the [[Latin]] name of the Roman Empire, '''''Imperium Romanorum'''''. The term 'Byzantium' seems to have been first re-introduced by 15th century classicising Greeks who preferred it to 'Constantinople'. Through the translations of their texts into Latin, its usage was picked up north of the Alps by historians who were just becoming acquainted with the art of historiography. Hence, to the best of our knowledge, the term ''Byzantine Empire'' was introduced in 1557, about a century after the [[fall of Constantinople]] by German historian [[Hieronymus Wolf]], who presented a system of Byzantine historiography in his work ''Corpus Historiae Byzantinae'' in order to distinguish ancient Roman from medieval Greek history without drawing attention to their ancient predecessors. So far, it appears that there has been no study tracking the reasons why that term came to gain prominence. Nevertheless, standardization of the term began gradually in the 18th century, when French authors such as [[Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu\|Montesquieu]] began to popularize it. Hieronymus himself was influenced by the rift caused by the 9th century dispute between Romans (Byzantines as we render them today) and [[Franks]], who, under [[Charlemagne]]'s newly formed empire, and in concert with the [[Pope]], attempted to legitimize their conquests by claiming inheritance of Roman rights in [[Italy]] thereby renouncing their eastern neighbours as true Romans. The [[Donation of Constantine]], one of the most famous [[forgery\|forged]] documents in history, played a crucial role in this. Henceforth, it was fixed policy in the West to refer to the emperor in Constantinople not by the usual "Imperator Romanorum" (Emperor of the Romans) which was now reserved for the Frankish monarch, but as "Imperator Graecorum" (Emperor of the Greeks) and the land as "Imperium Graecorum", "Graecia", "Terra Graecorum" or even "Imperium Constantinopolitanum". This served as a precedent for Wolf who was motivated, at least partly, to re-interpret Roman history in different terms. Nevertheless, this was not intended in a demeaning manner since he ascribed his changes to ''historiography'' and not ''history'' itself. Later, a [[derogatory use of 'Byzantine']] was developed. ==Identity, continuity, and consciousness== "[[Byzantium]] may be defined as a multi-ethnic empire that emerged as a Christian empire. It soon comprised the Hellenized empire of the East and ended its thousand year history, in 1453, as a [[Greek Orthodox]] state: An empire that became a [[nation]], almost by the modern meaning of the word".<sup>[[#References\|1]]</sup> In the centuries following the [[Arab]] and [[Lombards\|Lombard]] conquests in the 7th century, its multi-ethnic (albeit not multi-national) nature remained even though its constituent parts in the [[Balkans]] and [[Asia Minor]] contained an overwhelmingly large Greek population. Ethnic minorities and sizeable communities of religious [[heretic]]s often lived on or near the borderlands, the [[Armenians]] being the only sizeable one. The Byzantines identified themselves as Romans (Ρωμαίοι – Romans) which, by the 12th century, had already become a synonym for a [[Hellene]] (Έλλην – Greek). However, the term was used for mainly legal and administrative purposes. The Byzantines preferred to call themselves Romioi (Ρωμιοί – Christian Greeks with Roman citizenship). The Byzantines were also developing a national consciousness as residents of Ρωμανία (Romania, as the Byzantine state and its world were called). This nationalist awareness is reflected in literature, particularly in the [[acritic songs]], where frontiersmen (ακρίτες) are praised for defending their country against invaders, of which the most famous is the heroic or [[epic poem]] [[Digenis Acritas]]. To the Byzantines, "Romans" and "Latins" were two completely different, almost opposite terms. From all their contemporaries, it was only the [[Islamic Empire\|Islamic world]] that referred to them under their constitutional name "''Rum''" (=Romans). Northern Europeans, Latins and Slavs (namely [[Russians]]), would refer to them simply as "''Greeks''". Modern historians use terms such as ''Byzantines'', ''Greeks'', or even ''Byzantine Greeks'' interchangeably. The overwhelming majority of the Byzantines were conscious of their continuity with the ancient Greeks. Even though the ancient Greeks were not Christians, the Byzantines regarded them as their ancestors. In fact, the Byzantines did not only refer to themselves as ''Romioi'' in order to retain both their Roman citizenship and their ancient Hellenic heritage. A common substitute for the term ''Hellene'' (which had pagan connotations) other than ''Romios'' was the term ''Graekos'' (Γραίκος). This term was often used by the Byzantines (along with ''Romios'') for ethnic self-identification. {{History of Greece}} Evidence of the use of the term ''Graekos'' can be found in the works of [[Priscus]], a historian of the 5th century AD. The historian stated in one of his accounts that while on an unofficial embassy to [[Attila the Hun]], he had met at Attila's court someone who dressed like a [[Scythian]] yet spoke Greek. When Priskos asked the person where he had learned the language, the man smiled and said that he was a Graekos by birth. Many authors spoke of the Eastern Roman Empire's natives as Greeks [Graekoi] or Hellenes such as [[Constantine Porphyrogenitus]] of the 10th century AD. His accounts discuss the revolt of a Slavic tribe in the district of Patras in the Peloponnesos. On a sidenote, the Slavic revolt was not the outcome of a larger Slavic invasion since most Slavs were placed in ''Sclavinai'' or segregated Slavic communities meant to provide Byzantine forces extra man-power for military campaigns. Constantine states that the Slavs who revolted first proceeded to sack the dwellings of their neighbors, the Greeks (ton Graikon), and next they moved against the inhabitants of the city of Patras. The official dissolution of the Byzantine state in the 15th century did not immediately undo Byzantine society. During the [[Ottoman Greece\|Ottoman occupation]] Greeks continued to identify themselves as both Ρωμαιοί (Romans) and Έλληνες (Hellenes), a trait that survived into the early 20th century and still persists today in modern [[Greece]], albeit the former has now retreated to a secondary folkish name rather than a national synonym as in the past. [[Image:Tetrarch_system.PNG\|frame\|left\|Map of the Roman Empire ca. 379 AD, showing the praetorian prefectures of [[Gaul]], [[Italy]], [[Illyricum]] and [[Oriens]] (east), roughly analogous to the four [[Tetrarch\|Tetrarchs']] zones of influence after [[Diocletian\|Diocletian's]] reforms.]] ==Origin== [[Caracalla]]'s decree in 212, the ''Constitutio Antoniniana'', extended [[citizenship]] outside of Italy to all free adult males in the entire Roman Empire, effectively raising provincial populations to equal status with the city of [[Rome]] itself. The importance of this decree is historical rather than political. It set the basis for integration where the economic and judicial mechanisms of the state could be applied around the entire [[Mediterranean]] as was once done from [[Latium]] into all of Italy. Of course, integration did not take place uniformly. Societies already integrated with Rome such as [[Greece]] were favored by this decree, compared with those far away, too poor or just too alien such as [[Britain]], [[Palestine (region)\|Palestine]] or [[Egypt]]. The division of the Empire began with the [[Tetrarchy]] (quadrumvirate) in the late 3rd century with [[Roman Emperors\|Emperor]] [[Diocletian]], as an institution intended to more efficiently control the vast Roman Empire. He split the Empire in half, with two emperors (''Augusti'') ruling from Italy and Greece, each having as co-emperor a younger colleague of their own (''Caesares''). After Diocletian's voluntary abandonment of the throne, the Tetrarchic system began soon to crumble: the division continued in some form into the 4th century until 324 when [[Constantine I of the Roman Empire\|Constantine the Great]] killed his last rival and became the sole emperor. Constantine decided to found a new capital for himself and chose [[Byzantium]] for that purpose. The rebuilding process was completed in 330. Constantine renamed the city [[New Rome\|Nova Roma]], but the populace would commonly call it [[Constantinople]] (in Greek, Κωνσταντινούπολις, ''Constantinoúpolis'', meaning Constantine's City). This new capital became the centre of his administration. Constantine deprived the single praetorian prefect of his civil functions, introducing regional prefects with civil authority. During the 4th century, four great "regional prefectures" were also created. [[image:Constantine i.gif\|right\|150px\|thumb\|Emperor Constantine I the Great.]] Constantine was also probably the first [[Christianity\|Christian]] emperor. The religion, which had been persecuted under Diocletian, became a "permitted religion" and steadily increased its power as years passed, apart from a short-lived return to pagan predominance under the emperor [[Julian the Apostate\|Julian]]. Although the empire was not yet "Byzantine" under Constantine, Christianity would become one of the defining characteristics of
wife, [[Actor\|actress]] [[Giulietta Masina]] (married in 1943) was often in his movies. Other actors with whom Fellini frequently worked include [[Marcello Mastroianni]], [[Alberto Sordi]], and [[Anita Ekberg]]. In [[1945]] Fellini had a son who survived for only 2 weeks; he was the only son of Fellini and Giulietta Masina. In [[1948]] Fellini acted in Rossellini's ''Il Miracolo''. Throughout the [[1950s]], [[1960s]], [[1970s]] and [[1980s]] his films were widely acclaimed and he was rewarded with several Oscars. In 1991 Fellini's text "''[[Trip to Tulum]]''" was translated into [[English language\|English]] by Stefano Gaudiano and published in a graphic form in the magazine: [[Crisis (comic)\|Crisis]] with artwork by [[Milo Manara]]. In [[1993]] he received an [[Academy Award]] ("Oscar") for his lifetime achievement. That same year, he died in [[Rome]] at the age of 73. The [[Federico Fellini International Airport]] in [[Rimini]], is named in his honor. == Filmography as director == ''links to Fellini's drawings related to single films'' ''[[Variety Lights\|Luci del Varietà]]'' (1950) (co-credited with Alberto Lattuada) ''[[The White Sheik\|Lo Sceicco Bianco]]'' (1951) [http://www.cinemaitaliano.net/diseht/sceicco.htm] [http://www.cinemaitaliano.net/diseht/fellsceic.htm] ''[[I Vitelloni]]'' (1953) [http://www.cinemaitaliano.net/diseht/fellvent.htm] ''[[L'Amore in Città]]'' (1953) (segment ''Un'agenzia matrimoniale'') ''[[La Strada (1954 film)\|La Strada]]'' (1954) [[Academy_award\|Oscar]] (best foreign movie) [http://www.cinemaitaliano.net/diseht/felldisgiu.htm] ''[[Il bidone]]'' (1955) ''[[Le Notti di Cabiria]]'' (1957) Oscar (best foreign movie) [http://www.cinemaitaliano.net/diseht/discab.htm] ''[[La Dolce Vita]]'' (1960) Oscar (best costumes) ''[[Boccaccio '70]]'' (1962) (segment ''Le tentazioni del Dottor Antonio'') ''[[8½]]'' (1963) 2 Oscars (best foreign movie, best costumes) ''[[Giulietta degli Spiriti]]'' (1965) ''[[Satyricon (film)\|Satyricon]]'' (1969) ''[[I Clowns]]'' (1970) ''[[Roma (1972 film)\|Roma]]'' (1972) ''[[Amarcord]]'' (1973) Oscar (best foreign movie) ''[[Il Casanova di Federico Fellini]]'' (1976) ''[[Prova d'orchestra]]'' (1979) ''[[La città delle donne]]'' (1980) ''[[E la Nave Va]]'' (1983) ''[[Ginger and Fred]]'' (1986) ''[[Intervista]]'' (1987) ''[[La voce della luna]]'' (1990) == See also == [[Art film]] == Bibliographies == [http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/MRC/fellini.html Fellini Bibliography] (via UC Berkeley) == External links == {{wikiquote}} [http://www.federicofellini.it/ Official Fellini's Foundation Web Site] {{imdb name\|name=Federico Fellini \|id=0000019}} {{senses\|id=directors/02/fellini\|name=Federico Fellini}} [http://www.filmref.com/directors/dirpages/fellini.html Various short reviews] [http://web.tiscali.it/mauriziodibona/fellini_file/disegno4.htm One of Fellini's artworks] [http://www.adherents.com/people/pf/Federico_Fellini.html The Religious Affiliation of Federico Fellini] [http://www.outofbalance.org/fellini Images and Archetypes: A perspective on the work of Federico Fellini ] [http://www.fellinidoc.com Site for the documentary film "Fellini Ungrateful Celebration", directed by: Eric Burritt ] [http://www.felliniana.com Researching and documenting the influence of Federico Fellini on popular culture] {{Fellini}} [[Category:1920 births\|Fellini]] [[Category:1993 deaths\|Fellini]] [[Category:Italian film directors\|Fellini]] [[Category:Natives of Emilia-Romagna\|Fellini]] [[Category:Roman Catholics\|Fellini]] [[cs:Federico Fellini]] [[da:Federico Fellini]] [[de:Federico Fellini]] [[es:Federico Fellini]] [[eo:Federico FELLINI]] [[fr:Federico Fellini]] [[gl:Federico Fellini]] [[hr:Federico Fellini]] [[it:Federico Fellini]] [[he:פדריקו פליני]] [[hu:Federico Fellini]] [[nl:Federico Fellini]] [[ja:フェデリコ・フェリーニ]] [[no:Federico Fellini]] [[pl:Federico Fellini]] [[pt:Federico Fellini]] [[ro:Federico Fellini]] [[ru:Феллини, Федерико]] [[scn:Fidiricu Fellini]] [[sr:Федерико Фелини]] [[fi:Federico Fellini]] [[sv:Federico Fellini]] [[tr:Federico Fellini]] [[zh:费德里柯·费里尼]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Fleetwood Mac</title> <id>11787</id> <revision> <id>41758209</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T15:08:01Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>141.156.70.20</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:fleetwoodmac.jpg\|thumb\|240px\|Fleetwood Mac during its [[1970s]] commercial heyday. Clockwise from top: [[John McVie]], [[Stevie Nicks]], [[Mick Fleetwood]], [[Christine McVie]] and [[Lindsey Buckingham]].]] '''Fleetwood Mac''' (formed in [[1967]]) is an influential and commercially successful British-American [[Rock and Roll]] band. ==Beginnings== In the late [[1960s]], Fleetwood Mac was a success among [[British blues]] bands. The band was started by [[guitar]]ist [[Peter Green (musician)\|Peter Green]], who recruited the rhythm section of [[John Mayall]]'s Bluesbreakers: drummer [[Mick Fleetwood]] and bass guitarist [[John McVie]]. Green himself had replaced a departing member, [[Eric Clapton]], as the lead guitarist of the "Bluesbreakers"; Green and McVie had appeared on Mayall's 1967 [[A_Hard_Road\|A Hard Road]] album. The band employed another bassist, [[Bob Brunning]], until John McVie was persuaded to join the band. Slide-guitarist and [[Elmore James]] devotee, [[Jeremy Spencer]], rounded out the lineup. Its "full" name was now "Peter Green's Fleetwood Mac featuring Jeremy Spencer." The band released two albums of Chicago-based blues, and it released a single, "[[Black Magic Woman]]," which, when re-recorded by [[Santana (band)\|Santana]] in 1970, became a big U.S. hit. Jeremy Spencer's comedic work with the band counterbalanced Peter Green's serious take on the blues. His performances tended towards parodies and loving pastiches of 1950's [[rockabilly]]. One of his Fleetwood Mac songs, the B-side "Somebody's Gonna Get Their Head Kicked in Tonight," was jokingly credited to "Earl Vince and the Valiants" and later covered by 70's Scottish punk band the Rezillos. After its second album, "[[Mr. Wonderful]]", a third guitarist, 18-year-old [[Danny Kirwan]], was added to the lineup. At this point the band began shifting into a more melodic, introspective, and experimental/progressive mode. Most performances were built around the twin leads of Green and Kirwan, and Kirwan's songwriting was featured in nearly equal proportion to Green's. After releasing two successful singles, the instrumental "[[Albatross (composition)\|Albatross]]" (which remains the band's only #1 hit in the UK), and the ballad "Man of the World" [#2 UK], it produced what is often considered the best album of the band's Peter Green era, "[[Then Play On]]". Spencer was, for the most part, absent from these recording sessions. The epic 2-part "Oh Well" single followed [#2 UK], and was included in later pressings of the U.S. LP album (and in all CDs). After recording "[[Then Play On]]", Green announced that he was leaving the band. Experimentation with various drugs, particularly [[LSD]], accompanied growing frustration with the commercial nature of the music business. The situation was reflected in the tortured single "[[The Green Manalishi\|The Green Manalishi (With The Two Pronged Crown)]]", which was nevertheless a #10 UK hit. On May 28, 1970 he performed with Fleetwood Mac for the last time on stage. Following its first album without Green, "Kiln House" in 1971, in the middle of a tour in California, Spencer joined the religious group [[Children of God]]. Peter Green was summoned to fill in for the remainder of its engagements. By this time [[Keyboard instrument\|keyboard]]ist and singer [[Christine McVie\|Christine Perfect]], married John McVie, became [[Christine McVie]], and joined the band. Kirwan acted as front man for 1971's "Future Games" and 1972's "[[Bare Trees]]", the latter becoming its biggest success to date. ==Fleetwood Mac in the early Seventies== The early 1970s of Fleetwood Mac were turbulent for the band, which gained and lost members at a troubling rate. American guitarist [[Bob_Welch_(musician)\|Bob Welch]] joined up, at the suggestion of good friend [[Judy_Wong_(promoter)\|Judy Wong]], lending a jazz-rock flavor to Kirwan's more melodic songs. Kirwan's and Welch's tenures overlapped by two albums, but eventually, Kirwan's own erratic behavior on tour led to his dismissal in late 1972. Welch's contributions included "Future Games" (from 1971's [[Future Games]]''), "Sentimental Lady" (from [[1972 in music\|1972]]'s ''[[Bare Trees]]''), and "Hypnotized" (from [[1973 in music\|1973]]'s ''[[Mystery To Me]]''). [[Bob_Weston_(guitarist)\|Bob Weston]] (guitar) and [[Savoy Brown\|Savoy Brown's]] [[Dave Walker]] (vocals) were also briefly hired during this phase of the band. The firing of Weston during a late 1973 tour led to that tour's abrupt cancellation. This led its manager, Clifford Davis, to send another dummy band out on the road billed as "Fleetwood Mac", but featuring no original members of the band, resulting in a year-long legal battle. ==Rumours era== In late [[1974 in music\|1974]], Welch indicated that he intended to leave the band, and Fleetwood and John McVie needed to fill the possible vacancy. While Fleetwood was scouting Van Nuys, California's Sound City Studios, house engineer Keith Olsen played a track titled "Frozen Love" (from ''The Buckingham Nicks'', Polydor PD 5058, September 1973), which he had mixed there for an obscure American duo, The Buckingham Nicks . Fleetwood liked what he heard, and he was introduced to the guitarist, [[Lindsey Buckingham]], who just happened to be in the building. When Welch resigned from the band, Fleetw
ne of the [[Stanegate]] at the [[Solway Firth\|Solway]]-[[River Tyne\|Tyne]] isthmus around this time. A new crisis occurred at the beginning of [[Hadrian]]'s reign (117), a rising in the north which was suppressed by [[Quintus Pompeius Falco]]. When [[Hadrian]] reached Britannia on his famous tour of the Roman provinces around [[120]], he directed an extensive defensive wall, known to posterity as [[Hadrian's Wall]], to be built close to the line of the Stanegate frontier. Hadrian appointed [[Aulus Platorius Nepos]] as governor to undertake this work who brought [[Legio VI Victrix\|VI ''Victrix'']] with him from [[Lower Germany]]. Legio VI replaced the famous [[Legio IX Hispana\|IX ''Hispana'']], whose disappearance has been much discussed. Archaeology indicates considerable instability in Scotland during the first half of the second century, and the shifting frontier at this time should be seen in this context. In the reign of [[Antoninus Pius]] the Hadrianic border was briefly extended north to the Forth-Clyde isthmus, where the [[Antonine Wall]] was built around [[142]] following the military re-occupation of the Scottish lowlands by a new governor, [[Quintus Lollius Urbicus]]. This northward extension of the empire was probably the result of attacks, maybe by the [[Selgovae]] of south-west Scotland, on the Roman [[buffer state]] of the [[Votadini]] who lived north of the Hadrianic frontier. The first Antonine occupation of Scotland ended as a result of a further crisis in [[155]]-[[157]], when the [[Brigantes]] revolted. With limited options to despatch re-inforcements, the Romans moved their troops south and this rising was suppressed by the governor [[Cnaeus Julius Verus]]. Within a year the Antonine Wall was re-occupied, but by [[163]] or [[164]] it was abandoned. The second occupation was probably connected with Antonius' undertakings to protect the Votadini or his pride in enlarging the empire as the retreat to the Hadrianic frontier occurred not long after his death when a more objective strategic assessment of the benefits of the Antonine Wall could be made. The Romans did not entirely withdraw from Scotland at this time however, as the large fort at Newstead was maintained along with seven smaller outposts until at least c. [[180]]. During the twenty year period following the reversion of the frontier to Hadrian's Wall, Rome was concerned with continental issues primarily problems in the [[Danube]] provinces. Increasing numbers of [[hoard]]s of buried coins in Britain at this time indicate that peace was not entirely achieved. Sufficient Roman silver appears in Scotland to suggest more than ordinary trade and it is likely that the Romans were boosting [[treaty]] agreements with cash payments, a situation with comparators elsewhere in the empire at the time. In [[175]] a large force of [[Sarmatian]] cavalry, consisting of 5,500 men arrived in Britannia, probably to re-inforce troops fighting unrecorded uprisings. Certainly, in 180 Hadrian's Wall was breached and barbarians had killed the commanding officer or governor there in what [[Dio Cassius]] described as the most serious war of the reign of [[Commodus]]. [[Ulpius Marcellus]] was sent as replacement governor and by [[184]] he had won a new peace only to be faced with a mutiny from his own troops. Unhappy with Marcellus' strictness, they tried to elect a legate named [[Caerellius Priscus\|Priscus]] as usurper emperor, he refused but Marcellus himself was lucky to leave the province alive. The Roman army in Britannia continued its insubordination, they sent a delegation of 1,500 to [[Rome]] to demand the execution of [[Tigidius Perrenis]], a [[Praetorian Prefect]] whom they felt had earlier wronged them by posting lowly [[equites]] to legate ranks in Britannia. Commodus met the party outside Rome and agreed to have Perrenis killed, but this only made them feel more secure in their mutiny. The future emperor, [[Pertinax]] was sent to Britannia to restore order and was initially successful in regaining control. A riot broke out amongst the troops however, in which Pertinax was attacked and left for dead, and he asked to be recalled to Rome, briefly succeeding Commodus in [[192]]. ==Trade and industry== By the time of the Roman occupation, Britain's [[tin]] exports to the Mediterranean had been largely eclipsed by the more convenient supply from [[Hispania\|Iberia]]. [[Gold]], [[iron]], [[lead]], [[silver]], [[jet (lignite)\|jet]], [[marble]] and [[pearl]]s however were all exploited by the Romans in Britain along with more everyday commodities such as hunting dogs, animal skins, timber, wool, corn and slaves. Foreign investment created a vigorous domestic market and imports were often of exotic Continental items such as fine pottery, olive oil, lavastone [[quern]]s, glassware, [[garum]] and fruit. Mineral extraction sites such as the [[Dolaucothi Gold Mines\|Dolaucothi]] gold mine, the [[Weald]]en ironworking zone and the lead and silver mines of the [[Mendip Hills]] seem to have been private enterprises leased from the government for a fee. Although mining had long been practised in Britain, the Romans introduced new technical knowledge and large-scale industrial production to revolutionise the industry. Many prospecting areas were in dangerous, upland country, and, although mineral exploitation was presumably one of the main reasons for the Roman invasion, it had to wait until these areas were subdued. Although Roman designs were most popular, rural craftsmen still produced items derived from the [[Iron Age]] [[La Tène culture\|La Tène]] artistic traditions. Local pottery rarely attained the standards of the [[Gaul]]ish industries although the [[Castor ware]] of the [[Nene Valley]] was able to withstand comparison with the imports. Most native pottery was unsophisticated however and intended only for local markets. By the third century, Britain's economy was diverse and well-established, with commerce extending into the non-Romanised north. The design of Hadrian's Wall especially catered to the need for customs inspections of merchants' goods. ==The third century== The death of [[Commodus]] put into motion a series of events which eventually led to civil war. Following the short reign of [[Pertinax]], several rivals for the throne emerged, including [[Septimius Severus]] and [[Clodius Albinus]]. The latter was the new governor of Britain, and had seemingly won the natives over after their earlier rebellions; he also controlled three legions, making him a potentially significant claimant to the purple. His sometime rival Severus promised him the title of ''Caesar'' in return for Albinus' support against [[Pescennius Niger]] in the east. Once Niger was neutralised however, Severus turned on his ally in Britain&mdash;though it is likely that Albinus saw that he would be the next target, and was already preparing for war. Albinus crossed to Gaul in 195 where the provinces were also sympathetic to him and set up at [[Lugdunum]]. Severus arrived in February 196 and the ensuing battle was decisive. Although Albinus came close to victory, Severus' reinforcements won the day, and the British governor found it expedient to commit suicide. Severus soon purged Albinus' sympathisers, perhaps as well confiscating large tracts of land in Britain in punishment. Albinus demonstrated the two major political problems posed by Roman Britain. First, in order to maintain its security it had three legions stationed there. These would provide an ambitious man with weak loyalties a powerful base for rebellion, as it had for Albinus. Second, deploying the legions elsewhere would strip the island of its garrison, with the result that Britain was defenceless to invaders. Traditionally, the view has been that northern Britain descended into anarchy during Albinus' absence. Certainly [[Cassius Dio]] records that the new governor, [[Virius Lupus]] was obliged to buy peace from the fractious northern tribe known as the [[Maeatae]], however more recent work suggests that it is more likely that he left a reasonable force behind to protect the frontier and that the level of chaos was not as great as earlier thought. Even so, a succession of militarily distinguished governors were appointed to the province and [[Lucius Alfenus Senecio]]'s report back to Rome in 207 described barbarians "rebelling, over-running the land, taking booty and creating destruction". Alfenus requested either re-inforcements or an Imperial expedition and Severus chose the latter option, despite now being 62 years old. Archaeological evidence shows that Alfenus had been rebuilding the defences of Hadrian's Wall and the forts beyond it and Severus' arrival in Britain prompted the rebellious tribes to immediately sue for peace. The emperor had not come all that way to leave without a victory however and it is likely that he wished to provide his teenage sons [[Caracalla]] and [[Publius Septimius Geta\|Geta]] with first hand experience of controlling and administering a barbarian province. An expedition led by Severus and probably numbering around 20,000 troops, moved north in 208 or 209, crossing the wall and passing through eastern Scotland in a route similar to that used by Agricola. Harried by guerrilla raids by the natives and slowed by an unforgiving terrain, Severus was unable to meet the Caledonians on a battlefield. The campaign pushed northwards as far as the [[River Tay]] and peace treaties were signed with the Caledonians who seem to have suffered similar losses to the Romans. By 210, Severus had returned to York with the frontier set at Hadrian's Wall and assumed the title ''Britannicus''. Almost immediately another northern tribe, the [[Maeatae]] rebelled. Caracella left with a punitive expedition but by the next year his ailing father had died and he and his brother left the province to press their claim for the throne. As one of his last acts, [[Septimius Severus]] trie
to a Freeman Dyson interview on Radiophiles.org ] [http://www.npr.org/rundowns/segment.php?wfId=4139566 audio of NPR interview with Freeman Dyson] [http://splorg.org:8080/lectures/dyson.html Freeman Dyson: Gravity is Cool, or, Why our Universe is Hospitable to Life] - text of the Oppenheimer lecture March 9, 2000 [http://www.bbc.co.uk/bbcfour/audiointerviews/profilepages/dysonf1.shtml Disturbing the Universe: Interview with Freeman Dyson] [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/740688.stm Freeman Dyson wins $1m religion prize] * [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=search&term=Dyson+F Freeman Dysons scientific publications] from [[PubMed]] * [http://www.itconversations.com/shows/detail170.html In Praise of Open Thinking, audio from a panel discussion with his son George on ITConversations.com] * {{MacTutor Biography\|id=Dyson}} [[Category:1923 births\|Dyson, Freeman]] [[Category:Living people\|Dyson, Freeman]] [[Category:20th century mathematicians\|Dyson, Freeman]] [[Category:American mathematicians\|Dyson, Freeman]] [[Category:American physicists\|Dyson, Freeman]] [[Category:Christians in science\|Dyson]] [[Category:English mathematicians\|Dyson, Freeman]] [[Category:English physicists\|Dyson, Freeman]] [[Category:Naturalized citizens of the United States\|Dyson, Freeman]] [[Category:Old Wykehamists\|Dyson, Freeman]] [[Category:Space advocacy\|Dyson, Freeman]] [[Category:Members and associates of the US National Academy of Sciences\|Dyson, Freeman]] [[de:Freeman Dyson]] [[es:Freeman Dyson]] [[it:Freeman Dyson]] [[ja:フリーマン・ダイソン]] [[ko:프리먼 다이슨]] [[pl:Freeman Dyson]] [[sl:Freeman John Dyson]] [[zh:弗里曼·戴森]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Fourth Council of the Lateran</title> <id>11399</id> <revision> <id>37056461</id> <timestamp>2006-01-28T07:26:30Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>213.230.129.21</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{\| border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right" width="400" \|- \| colspan="2" bgcolor="lightgreen" style="font-size:120%" align="center"\|'''''Fourth Council of the Lateran''''' \|- \|Date \|[[1215]] \|- \|Accepted by \|[[Catholicism]] \|- \|Previous Council\|\|[[Third Council of the Lateran]] \|- \|Next Council \|[[First Council of Lyons]] \|- \|Convoked by\|\|[[Pope Innocent III]] \|- \|Presided by\|\|[[Pope Innocent III]] \|- \|Attendance\|\|71 [[patriarch]]s and metropolitans, 412 [[bishop]]s, 900 [[abbot]]s and priors \|- \|Topics of discussion\|\|[[Crusader States]], [[Investiture Controversy]] \|- \|Documents and statements\|\|seventy papal decrees, [[transubstantiation]], papal primacy, conduct of clergy, [[confession]] at least once a year, [[Fifth Crusade]] \|- \|colspan="2" align="center"\|[[Ecumenical council\|chronological list of Ecumenical councils]] \|} The '''Fourth Council of the Lateran''' was summoned by [[Pope Innocent III]] with his Bull of [[April 19]], [[1213]]. The assembly took place in November, [[1215]]. It was the 12th [[ecumenical council]] and is sometimes called "the General Council of Lateran" due to the attendance by seventy-one [[patriarch]]s and metropolitans, four hundred and twelve [[bishop]]s, and nine hundred [[abbot]]s and priors. Innocent III stated his purposes as the defence of the Catholic faith, for the aid to the [[Crusader State]]s in [[Palestine (region)\|Palestine]], and to establish the liberty of the Church from [[Investiture Controversy\|lay investiture]] and other lay interference. The pope presented to the council seventy decrees; these were considered along with measures against [[heresy\|heretics]], and the organisation of the [[Fifth Crusade]]. The council did little more than rubber-stamp the decrees presented to them. The decrees included: Exposition of the faith and of the dogma of [[transubstantiation]] Procedure and penalties against heretics and their protectors Proclamation of the papal primacy - After the pope, primacy is attributed to the patriarchial sees in the following order: [[Patriarch of Constantinople\|Constantinople]] (at this time there was a [[Latin Patriarch of Constantinople\|Latin Patriarch]]) [[Patriarch of Alexandria\|Alexandria]] [[Patriarch of Antioch\|Antioch]] [[Patriarch of Jerusalem\|Jerusalem]] Rules on the conduct of the clergy including against irregularities such as: incontinence or non-celibate living drunkenness hunting attendance at farces and histrionic exhibitions performing of surgical operations conducting trials by [[trial by ordeal\|ordeal]] or [[trial by combat\|combat]] the ''Omnis utriusque sexus'' (also called the Easter Duty), which commands every Christian who has reached the years of discretion to confess all their sins at least once a year to their priest [[Jew]]s and [[Muslim]]s shall wear a special dress to enable them to be distinguished from Christians (see [[Judenhut]], [[yellow badge]]). The council also confirmed the elevation of [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor\|Frederick II]] to the position of Holy Roman Emperor. ==See also== * [[Ecumenical council]] ==External links== [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/lateran4.html Canons of the Fourth Lateran Council, 1215] [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09018a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Fourth Lateran Council (1215)] [[Category:1215]] [[Category:Roman Catholic Church Councils\|Lateran 4]] [[cs:4. lateránský koncil]] [[de:Viertes Laterankonzil]] [[fr:IVe concile œcuménique du Latran]] [[it:IV concilio lateranense]] [[nl:Concilies van Lateranen]] [[ru:Двенадцатый вселенский собор]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Franconia</title> <id>11401</id> <revision> <id>40431940</id> <timestamp>2006-02-20T14:30:12Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>212.144.143.5</ip> </contributor> <comment>state colours re-added --~~~~--~~~~</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other places named '''Franconia''', see [[Franconia (disambiguation)]].'' [[Image:Frankenrechen.jpg\|thumb\|200px\|The 'Franconian Rake' is originally is a heraldic symbol of the bishops of [[Würzburg]], who - though nominally [[Duke]]s of Franconia - only ruled in parts of Franconia. The rake appears in emblems of many Franconian cities, which were ruled by the bishops. It was only the Bavarian King [[Ludwig I of Bavaria\|Louis I]], who made the rake a symbol for entire Franconia by adding it to the royal coat of arms in 1835 representing the king's rule in Franconia as a whole.]] '''Franconia''' ([[German language\|German]]: ''Franken''), a historic region in [[Germany]], now forms three administrative districts of the [[States of Germany\|state]] of [[Bavaria]]: [[Lower Franconia]] (''Unterfranken''), [[Middle Franconia]] (''Mittelfranken''), and [[Upper Franconia]] (''Oberfranken''). The ancient name was resurrected in [[1837]] by [[Ludwig I of Bavaria\|Ludwig I, King of Bavaria]]. Though its area has shifted, Franconia was one of the five original [[stem duchy\|stem duchies]] that eventually made up the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. Franconia, east of the [[Rhine]] (with the cities of [[Mainz]], [[Speyer]] and [[Worms, Germany\|Worms]] on the west bank), was part of the Eastern Frankish kingdom, [[Austrasia]]. At the failure of the direct Carolingian male line in [[911]], [[Conrad of Franconia\|Conrad, Duke of Franconia]] was acclaimed [[List of German Kings and Emperors\|King of the Germans]] but failed to establish an heir in the imperial title. Instead, the Emperor [[Otto I]] crushed the rebellion of Conrad's brother, [[Eberhard of Franconia\|Duke Eberhard]]; then, rather than appoint a new duke from his own circle, in [[939]] Otto divided the threatening power of the Duchy of Franconia among the great ecclesiastics with and through whom he ruled, who had remained faithful to his cause: the [[Bishop]] of [[Würzburg]], and the [[Abbot]] of [[Fulda]]; they were later joined ([[1008]]) by a new bishopric erected on former ducal territory, [[Bamberg]]. The great abbeys and episcopal seats that [[Boniface]] and his successors had established in southwestern Germany had a monopoly on literacy and were territorial magnates in Franconia on a par with the counts of lands farther west (Cantor 1993). They had another virtue in the Ottonian scheme: as celibates they were less likely to establish hereditary lineages. By contrast, Otto's son-in-law, Conrad the Red, whom he had installed as duke of Lorraine ([[944]]-[[955]]), extended his power base in Franconia, establishing the [[Salian]] dynasty of the following century. Two Franconian duchies emerged, at least on paper, Rhenish Franconia along the Rhine, and Eastern Franconia. '''Rhenish Franconia''' (''Rheinfranken''), which gave the empire the Franconian or [[Salian]] dynasty of Emperors ([[1024]]&ndash;[[1125]]; [[Conrad II]], [[Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor\|Henry III]], [[Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor\|Henry IV]] and [[Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor\|Henry V]]), was virtually an empty title held by the Ottonian emperors until [[1024]], when Conrad, the Salian count of Speyer and of Worms, became emperor. Rhenish Franconia's lands were actually governed in a constellation of [[free cities]] (like [[Frankfurt am Main\|Frankfurt]] and Worms), bishoprics (Mainz, Speyer and Worms), the Rhenish [[Palatinate]], [[Hesse]] and many smaller territories. The Salian Franconian territories were granted as a [[fief]] in [[1093]] to the [[count palatine]] at [[Aachen]], a territory that would evolve into the important German principality of the Rhenish [[Palatinate]]. In this way the Rhenish Franconia was divided and extinguished. In [[1115]] Emperor Henry V awarded the territory of '''Eastern Franconia''' (''Ostfranken'') to his nephew [[Conrad III of Germany\|Conrad of Hohenstaufen]], who used the title "Duke of Franconia"; as the [[Hohenstaufen]]
[[XML]]services, the [[Internet]] and the [[World Wide Web]], EDI is still the data format used by the vast majority of [[electronic commerce]] transactions in the world. == Standards == The EDI standards were designed from the beginning to be independent of lower level technologies and can be transmitted using Internet protocols as well as private networks. It is important to differentiate between the EDI documents and the methods for transmitting them. While comparing the [[bisynchronous protocol\|bisynchronous]] 2400 bit/s modems and [[value-added network]] to the Internet some people predicted erroneously that EDI would be replaced. These older transmission methods are being replaced by [[Internet Protocol]]s such as [[File transfer protocol\|FTP]], [[telnet]] and [[e-mail\|email]], although standards for these media are still emerging. In 2002, the [[IETF]] published RFC 3335, offering a standardized, secure method of transferring EDI data via e-mail. [[As of 2005]], an IETF working group, EDIINT, is preparing similar documents for HTTP and FTP transfers. The EDI documents themselves, as well as the traditional EDI service providers ([[value-added network]]s), remain. EDI documents contain the same data that would normally be found in a paper document used for the same organisational function. For example an EDI 940 ship-from-warehouse order is used by a manufacturer to tell a warehouse to ship product to a retailer. It typically has a ship to address, bill to address, a list of product numbers (usually a [[Universal Product Code\|UPC code]]) and quantities. It may have other information if the parties agree to include it. However, EDI is not confined to just business data related to trade but encompasses all fields such as medicine (patient records, laboratory results..), transport (container and modal information...), engineering and construction, etc. There are three major sets of EDI standards. [[UN/EDIFACT]] is the only international standard (in fact, a United Nations recommendation) and is predominant in all areas outside of North America. [[ANSI ASC X12]] (X12) and the [[Uniform Communication Standard]] (UCS) are popular in [[North America]] and are very similar to each other. These standards prescribe the formats, character sets, and data elements used in the exchange of documents and forms, such as purchase orders (called "ORDERS" in [[UN/EDIFACT]] and an "850" in X12) and invoices. The standard says which pieces of information are mandatory for a particular document, which pieces are optional and give the rules for the structure of the document. The standards are like building codes. Just as two kitchens can be built "[[building code\|to code]]" but look completely different, two EDI documents can follow the same standard and contain different sets of information. For example a food company may indicate a particular product expiration date while a clothing manufacturer would choose to send color and size information. Organizations that send or receive documents from each other are referred to as "trading partners" in EDI terminology. The trading partners agree on the specific information to be transmitted and how it should be used. This is done in human readable specifications (also called specs or spec sheets). While the standards are analogous to building codes the specifications are analogous to blue prints. (The specification may also be called a mapping but the term mapping is typically reserved for specific machine readable instructions given to the translation software.) Larger companies have existing specification sheets and are usually unwilling to negotiate. Often in a large company these sheets will be written to be used by different branches or divisions and therefore will contain information not needed for a particular exchange. (Deviations from and clarification to the specification sheets should always be obtained in writing.) Service providers, such as GXS, provide global platforms to connect and integrate "trading partners" around-the-world. They provide integration platforms that make the exchange of EDI (or XML) documents transparent and easy between diverse constituents. == Interpreting data == Often missing from the specifications are real world descriptions of how the data should be interpreted. This is particularly important when specifying quantity. For example, suppose candy is packaged in a large box that contains 5 display boxes and each display box contains 24 boxes of candy packaged for the consumer. If an EDI document says to ship 10 boxes of candy it may not be clear whether to ship 10 consumer packaged boxes, 240 consumer packaged boxes or 1200 consumer packaged boxes. It is not enough for two parties to agree to use a particular qualifiers indicating case, pack, box or each; they must also agree on what that particular qualifier means. ''EDI translation software'' provides the interface between the internal system and the common standards. For an "inbound" document it typically takes the variable length fields of the EDI document, translates the individual pieces of data and then creates a file of fixed length fields. For an "outbound" document the translation software queries the internal system, as in the case of an [[SQL]] database, or it translates a fixed width file exported by the internal software. Translation software may also utilize other methods or file formats. The mechanism of translation is not part of the standard. (In EDI terminology "inbound" and "outbound" refer to the direction of transmission of an EDI document in relation to a particular system, not the direction of merchandise, money or other things represented by the document. For example, an EDI document that tells a warehouse to perform an outbound shipment is an inbound document in relation to the warehouse computer system. It is an outbound document in relation to the manufacturer or dealer that transmitted the document.) ==See also== * [[OASIS (organization)\|OASIS]] * [[RosettaNet]] * [[EDIFICE]] ==Software== * [http://skylark.davenport.gb.com/joomla/index.php Skylark EDI extends Joomla (Mambo Fork) as an Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) server. (GNU General Public License) ] ==External links== * [http://www.geocities.com/tablizer/softeng.htm#template EDI "War Stories"] * [http://www.imc.org/ietf-ediint/ IETF ediint working group] * [http://members.aol.com/getmydata/pskb/ANSI-X12-EDI-Format.htm ANSI X12/EDI Format Overview] * [http://www.kleinschmidt.com/x12_transaction_descriptions_a.HTM ANSI X12/EDI Transaction Descriptions] [[Category:Information technology]][[category:Electronic commerce]][[category:Information technology management]] [[de:Electronic Data Interchange]] [[es:EDI]] [[fr:Échange de données informatisées]] [[it:EDI]] [[he:EDI]] [[hu:EDI]] [[nl:Electronic Data Interchange]] [[ja:電子データ交換]] [[pl:EDI]] [[pt:EDI]] [[uk:Електронний обмін даними]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ecstacy</title> <id>9791</id> <revision> <id>15907657</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ecstasy]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Extra-vehicular activity</title> <id>9792</id> <revision> <id>41515741</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T21:59:14Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Tianxiaozhang</username> <id>557868</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Astronaut-EVA.jpg\|thumb\|right\|Astronaut Bruce McCandless on an untethered EVA]] '''Extra-vehicular activity''' (EVA) is work done by an [[astronaut]] or [[cosmonaut]] away from the Earth and outside of his or her [[spacecraft]]. The term most commonly applies to an EVA made outside a craft orbiting Earth (a '''spacewalk''') but also applies to an EVA made on the surface of the Moon (a ''moonwalk''). In the later lunar landing missions the command module pilot did an EVA to retrieve film canisters on the return trip. Due to the different designs of the early spacecraft, the [[United States\|American]] and [[Soviet Union\|Soviet]] space programs also define an EVA differently. [[Russia]]n, and [[Soviet Union\|Soviet]], spacecraft have always included an [[airlock]] and consequently Russians define an EVA as occurring when a [[cosmonaut]] is in a [[vacuum]]. Early [[United States]] spacecraft, however, did not include an airlock but instead depressurized the entire spacecraft. An American [[astronaut]] was consequently not considered to have made an EVA until at least his head was outside the spacecraft. The term stand-up EVA (SEVA) is used for being partly outside. EVAs may be tethered (the astronaut is connected to the spacecraft, oxygen can be supplied through a tube, no propulsion is needed to return to the spacecraft) or untethered. When the tether performs life support functions such as providing oxygen, it is called an ''umbilical''. For untethered EVAs during space flight, capability of returning to the spacecraft is essential; see [[Manned maneuvering unit\| Manned Maneuvering Unit]] (MMU). == EVA Milestones == [[Image:Voskhod2.jpg\|thumb\|right\|Aleksei Leonov during the first EVA]] * The first EVA was carried out by Soviet [[cosmonaut]] [[Aleksei Leonov]] on [[March 18]], [[1965]] from the [[Voskhod 2]] spacecraft. * The first woman to perform an EVA was Cosmonaut [[Svetlana Savitskaya]] on [[July 25]], [[1984]] while aboard the [[Salyut 7]] space station. * The first EVA by an American [[astronaut]] was made on [[1965]] [[June 3]] by [[Edward Higgins White\|Edward White]] during the [[Gemini 4]] mission. The first American woman to make an EVA was [[Kathryn D. Sullivan]], who stepped into s
een celebrities were involved in the most iconic films of Wood's career. [[Bela Lugosi]] had earned lasting fame for his performances in ''[[White Zombie (movie)\|White Zombie]]'' and ''[[Dracula]]'', but fell into obscurity and alcohol and drug addiction after [[Hollywood]] lost interest in his [[genre]] movies. Lugosi was given a second chance by Wood and starred in Wood's best and most famous pictures. Some suggest that Wood exploited Lugosi's fame, which was probably true to an extent, but most documents and interviews with other Wood alumni suggest that the two of them were good friends and that Wood helped Lugosi through the worst days of his [[clinical depression\|depression]] and [[addiction]]. Other Wood alumni include B-movie regulars [[Kenne Duncan]], [[Lyle Talbot]], [[Conrad Brooks]], [[Duke Moore]] and [[Timothy Farrell]], Swedish [[wrestler]] [[Tor Johnson]]; TV horror host [[Vampira]]; the eccentric gay socialite [[Bunny Breckinridge]] and the [[psychic]] [[Criswell]]. His troupe of "Wood Spooks" would sometimes feature in his pictures completely illogically. Vampira's character in ''Plan 9'' served no purpose to the plot and her vampire attire makes no sense in the context of the film. Similarly, Lugosi's horror-scientist character in ''Glen or Glenda'' is completely out of place for a quasi-documentary on transexuality, and Criswell's horror-film-cliche rising from a coffin during a thunderstorm is incongruous for a science fiction film. Wood would go to radical extremes to drum up funding for his movies. Most notably, on ''Plan 9 from Outer Space'' he convinced members of the [[Southern Baptist Convention\|Southern Baptist church]] to invest the initial capital. There were always [[bilateral]] catches to these unorthodox funding methods though, and in this case the Baptists wanted a member of their own church to take a lead role in the film and demanded that every member of the cast (including Vampira, Tor, 'Bunny' and Criswell) be [[baptism\|baptised]] prior to filming. They also changed the name of the movie from ''Grave Robbers from Outer Space'' and removed lines from the script which they considered profane. Such editing from producers and financiers was one factor contributing to Wood's depression and was something he personally attributed to his lack of commercial success. [[Angora]], Wood's most fond [[fetish]], was regularly featured in his films (most notably in ''[[Glen or Glenda]]''). Kathy O'Hara and others recall that Ed's transvestitism was not a sexual inclination but rather that angora appealed to him because of the neo-[[maternal]] comfort it offered. ==Wood pulp: Wood as author== While he is famed for his work as a film maker, Wood also penned innumerable novels and occasional [[non-fiction]] pieces. In his later years, he was unable to produce films on a regular basis due to his alcoholism, so he dedicated himself to writing. He would write screenplays for other directors (most famously, ''Bride and the Beast'' for Adrian Weiss) and his own novels for six years after his filmmaking career had drawn to a close. Most of Wood's novels derived from his own transvestite [[fantasy (psychology)\|fantasies]] as well as tapping into his love of crime and the occult. Wood’s careers of novelist and filmmaker would often intersect in that his books would often be [[novelisation]]s of his own screenplays or that the stories from his novels would give way to the writing of a screenplay. Most notably, the character ‘Glen/Glenda’ from the movie ''Glen or Glenda'' would appear in two of his novels. His stories typically careen off into different and unforeseen directions halfway through, as though no planning had taken place at all, and that Wood had sat down at the typewriter and simply made the story up as he went along. In his quasi-memoir, ''Hollywood Rat Race'', Wood advises new writers to "just keep on writing. Even if your story gets worse, you'll get better." As Ed Wood is generally seen to be a naïve and friendly individual with high hopes but an easy-going attitude -- an image perhaps deriving from Johnny Depp's and Tim Burton's portrayal of him in the 1994 [[biopic]] -- some of his novels may be shocking to the average film/literature historian. Wood's dark side emerges in such sexual shockers as ''Raped in the Grass'' or ''The Perverts'' and in short stories such as "Toni: Black Tigress", which preyed on common [[racist]] fears. One might argue, however, that Wood was writing for a specific market and that the content of these books are not personal opinion. <!--but it is nonetheless true that most of his books did derive from Wood's own vices and views.--> Many of Ed's books did not make it into publication. ''Hollywood Rat Race'', for example, was only released in 1998, perhaps as a result of modern interest in Ed Wood resulting from Tim Burton's 1994 biopic. The book is non-fiction: part primer for young actors and writers wanting to take on the motion picture industry and part memoir, revealing such stories as how he and Lugosi entered into the world of night club [[cabaret]]. ==Last days== Wood had serious money troubles in his last days as he was often at the mercy of exploitative producers and independent directors. He would often produce full movie scripts for as little as one hundred dollars in order to make ends meet, and the entirety of his personal belongings could be packed into a single leather suitcase. His film career degenerated into directing (and occasionally appearing in) low grade [[pornographic]] films such as ''[[Necromania]]''. Wood's depression grew, and with it a serious [[alcoholism\|drinking problem]], notably an addiction to [[whisky]]. Many believe his depression was caused by the realization that he had failed in his quest for artistic recognition and stardom. Evicted from his Hollywood apartment, Wood and his wife moved into the bungalow of an actor friend. Only days after the move, Wood died of a heart attack while watching a televised football game, aged 54. Posthumously, his extensive portfolio of terrible motion pictures earned him the Golden Turkey Award for being "the worst director of all time". ==Tim Burton's ''Ed Wood'' (1994)== ''Main article: [[Ed Wood (film)]].'' The [[1994]] film ''[[Ed Wood (movie)\|Ed Wood]]'', by director [[Tim Burton]], tells the story of Wood and Bela Lugosi and the making of the three films they did together (''[[Glen or Glenda]]'', ''[[Bride of the Monster]]'' and ''[[Plan 9 from Outer Space]]''), from a sympathetic point of view. Wood was played by [[Johnny Depp]] and Lugosi by [[Martin Landau]], who won an [[Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor]]. ==Cult Status== Among connoiseurs of [[kitsch]] and bad cinema, Ed Wood is revered as being the ultimate "bad" director of all time. His cult status began two years after his death with his recognition in the book ''The 50 Worst Films Ever Made'', and has continued with the rediscovery of many of his long-lost works. Most recently, his unfilmed script ''I Awoke Early The Day I Died'' has been filmed with [[Billy Zane]] and [[Christina Ricci]], and has preserved the inept, goofy character that made Ed's films famous. The prestigious [[University of Southern California]] annually holds the "Ed Wood Film Festival", in which students of all disciplines are challenged to form teams that write, film, and edit an Ed Wood-inspired short film based on a preassigned theme. Past themes have included "Slippery When Wet" (2006), "What's That In Your Pocket?" (2005), and "Rebel Without A Bra" (2004). Paradoxically, many of Ed Wood's most famous films, including ''Glen or Glenda?'' and ''Plan 9 From Outer Space'' have been remade as [[Pornography\|pornographic]] movies (as "''Glen & Glenda'''' and "''Plan 69 From Outer Space''," respectively) - not simply spoofed or referenced, but reshot, with the same or similar script, with sex scenes worked in around what little plot was in the original. This is somewhat ironic due to the fact that many of Ed Wood's later films were fully or partly pornographic or contained sexual themes. ==Books== There have also been a number of titles written about Ed Wood including: ''Nightmare of Ecstasy'' by Rudolph Grey (ISBN 0922915245) - the primary source of biographical information for anyone interested in Ed Wood. ''Muddled Mind: The Complete Works of Edward D. Wood, Jr.'' by David C. Hayes and Hayden Davis. ''This is Wood: an illustrated conversation between a Hollywood Historian and a Dead Director'' by Rob Westwood. ''Ed Wood: The Early Years'' by Jean Marie Stine. ==See also== [[B-Movie]] ''[[Plan 9 from Outer Space]]'' ''[[Ed Wood (movie)\|Ed Wood]]'' [[Ed Wood, Jr. filmography]] [[Ed Wood, Jr. bibliography]] ==External links== {{imdb name\|id=0000248\|name=Ed Wood Jr.}} * [http://home.netcom.com/~hunt_for_ed_wood/MAIN.html The Hunt for Edward D. Wood, Jr.] Exhaustive guide to Ed's films and their commercial releases. * [http://www.edwood.org/index-main.html The Church of Ed Wood] "Church" devoted to the 'teachings' of Ed Wood. * [http://www.freeinfosociety.com/site.php?postnum=584 Bio and pictures] [[Category:1924 births\|Wood, Ed, Jr.]] [[Category:1978 deaths\|Wood, Ed, Jr.]] [[Category:American film directors\|Wood, Ed Jr.]] [[Category:American World War II veterans\|Wood, Ed]] [[Category:B-movie directors\|Wood, Ed Jr.]] [[Category:Mystery Science Theater 3000\|Wood, Ed, Jr.]] [[Category:People from New York\|Wood, Ed, Jr.]] [[Category:Transgender and transsexual people\|Wood, Ed, Jr.]] [[cs:Ed Wood]] [[de:Ed Wood]] [[es:Edward D. Wood Jr.]] [[fr:Edward Davis Wood Junior]] [[nl:Ed Wood]] [[ja:エド・ウッド]] [[pt:Ed Wood]] [[fi:Ed Wood]] [[sv:Ed Wood]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>EDIF</title> <id>10522</id> <revision> <id>40363392</id> <timestamp>2006-02-20T01
assumption becomes all states corresponding to a given energy and particle number/charge, and a similar derivation would lead to [[chemical potential]]s, [[electric potential]]s and the like) For example, vibrational states of a given energy are just as likely to be populated as rotational or electronic states of the same energy. We also assume that the molecules are independent in the sense that the total energy of the system is equal to the sum of the energies of each individual particle. At any instant there will be ''n''<sub>0</sub> molecules in the state with energy ''E''<sub>0</sub>, ''n''<sub>1</sub> with ''E''<sub>1</sub>, and so on. The complete specification of populations ''n''<sub>0</sub>, ''n''<sub>1</sub>, ... for each energy state gives the instantaneous ''configuration'' of the system. For convenience we may write a particular configuration as {''n''<sub>0</sub>, ''n''<sub>1</sub>, ... }. We'll also take ''E''<sub>0</sub> to correspond to the lowest energy level or the ground state. A large number of configurations are possible. For instance one possible configuration is {''N'', 0, 0, ...} with all of the molecules in the ground state, ''E''<sub>0</sub>. Another possible configuration could be {''N''&nbsp;&minus;&nbsp;1, 1, 0, ...}, where one of the molecules is in the excited state, ''E''<sub>1</sub>. Of these two configurations, the second is much more likely, since any of the ''N'' molecules could be in the excited state resulting in a total of ''N'' possible arrangements of molecules. On the other hand there is only one possible way to get the first configuration, since all of the molecules must be in the ground state. If the system were free to fluctuate between these two states, we would expect to find it most frequently in the second state, especially for large values of ''N''. Since the system would most often be found in the second state, we would also expect the characteristics of the system to be dominated by the characteristics of that state. The number of arrangements, ''W'', corresponding to a given configuration {''n''<sub>0</sub>, ''n''<sub>1</sub>, ...} is given by: :<math>W = \frac{N!}{n_0 !n_1 !n_2 !...}\qquad\qquad\qquad(1)</math> This expression comes from [[combinatorics]] (and is applied in [[probability theory]]) and corresponds to the number of distinguishable ways ''N'' objects can be sorted into bins with ''n<sub>i</sub>'' objects in bin ''i''. When working with large numbers it is often convenient to work with ln(''W'') instead of ''W'' itself. For this case: :<math>\begin{matrix}\ln W &=& \ln \frac{N!}{n_0 !n_1 !n_2 !...} \ \qquad\qquad\qquad \\ \\ \ &=& \ \ln N! - \ln(n_0 !n_1 !n_2 !...) \ \qquad\qquad \\ \\ \ &=& \ \ln N! - \sum_{i=0}^m \ln n_i! \ \qquad\qquad(2)\end{matrix}</math> Applying [[Stirling's formula\|Stirling's approximation]], :<math>\ln n! \approx n\ln n - n</math> and the fact that :<math>N = \sum n_i</math> gives :<math>\begin{matrix}\ln W &=& \ N \ln N - N - \sum (n_i \ln n_i - n_i) \ \qquad\qquad \\ \\ \ &=& \ N \ln N - \sum (n_i \ln n_i) \ \qquad\qquad(3)\end{matrix}</math> We showed previously that the configuration {''N''&nbsp;&minus;&nbsp;1, 1, 0, ...} dominates {''N'', 0, 0, ...} because there are more ways to obtain it. We would expect there to be other configurations that dominate both of these. In fact we would expect the configuration with the largest value of ''W'' to dominate all other configurations. We can find this dominant configuration by finding the maximum of the function ''W'' with respect to ''n<sub>i</sub>''. We know that when ''W'' is a maximum then ln(''W'') is also a maximum, so for convenience we will instead try to find the maximum of ln(''W''). One way to find the maximum of ln(''W'') is to solve the equation: :<math> \frac{\partial \ln(W)}{\partial n_i} = 0\qquad\qquad\qquad(4)</math> However, Equation (4) applies to the situation in which any arbitrary configuration {''n''<sub>0</sub>, ''n''<sub>1</sub>,...} is possible. In reality there are a few constraints on the system that must be accounted for. First, since the total number of molecules is fixed at ''N'', not all values of ''n<sub>i</sub>'' can be arbitrary. Instead only configurations in which: :<math>N = \sum n_i\qquad\qquad\qquad(5)</math> are possible. Also, the total energy of the system is fixed at ''E''. Therefore, since the total energy is the sum of the energies of all the individual molecules: :<math>E = \sum n_i E_i\qquad\qquad\qquad(6)</math> We can find the maximum of ln(''W'') subject to the constraints on ''N'' and ''E'' expressed in equations (5) and (6) using the method of [[Lagrange multiplier]]s as follows. First, we must rearrange the constraint equations as: :<math>N - \sum n_i = 0 \quad\mbox{and}\quad E - \sum n_i E_i = 0\qquad\qquad\qquad(7)</math> Next, we create a new function by multiplying the constraints by the arbitrary constants &minus;&alpha;' and &beta;, and adding them to the original function, ln(''W''), to get: :<math>\begin{matrix}f(n_i) &=& \ln(W) - \alpha'\left(N-\sum n_i\right) + \beta\left(E-\sum n_i E_i\right)\qquad\qquad\qquad \\ \\ &=& N \ln N - \sum n_i\ln n_i - \alpha'\left(N-\sum n_i\right) + \beta\left(E-\sum n_i E_i\right)\qquad(8) \end{matrix}</math> Taking the derivative of Equation (8) and setting the result to zero gives: :<math>\frac{\partial f(n_i)}{\partial n_i} = -\left(1 + \ln(n_i)\right) + \alpha' - \beta E_i = 0\qquad\qquad\qquad(9)</math> We define a new parameter &alpha; = &alpha;'&nbsp;&minus;&nbsp;1, giving: :<math>-\ln\left(n_i\right) + \alpha - \beta E_i = 0</math> Solving this for ''n<sub>i</sub>'' gives the most probable population of state ''E<sub>i</sub>'': :<math>n_i = \exp(\alpha - \beta E_i)\qquad\qquad\qquad(10)</math> Finally, we must evaluate the constants &alpha; and &beta;. Substituting Equation (10) back into Equation (5) and solving for exp(&alpha;) gives: :<math> N = \sum n_i = \exp(\alpha)\sum\exp(-\beta E_i)</math> :<math> \exp(\alpha)= \frac{N}{\sum\exp(-\beta E_i)}</math> Changing the subscript to ''j'' and substituting this result back into Equation (10) gives the [[Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution]]: :<math>n_i = \frac{N \exp(-\beta E_i)}{\sum\exp(-\beta E_j)}\qquad\qquad\qquad(11)</math> The Boltzmann distribution gives the most probable energy distribution of molecules in a system. It can further be shown that &beta; = 1/''kT'', where ''k'' is Boltzmann's constant and ''T'' is the absolute temperature (given in [[kelvin]]s). The term in the denominator is called the partition function and is defined as follows: : <math>Z = \sum_j \exp\left(\frac{-E_j}{kT}\right)</math> The partition function provides a measure of the total number of energetic states that are accessible at a particular temperature and can be related to many different thermodynamic properties (see [[statistical mechanics]]). == [[Canonical ensemble]] derivation== The previous derivation is too restricted. Because of its assumption of the independence of the molecules, it only really applies to [[ideal gas]]es. In the following derivation, we assume the system is immersed in a "heat bath" environment with no transfer of matter across the boundary. The environment is assumed to be so much larger than the system that a huge influx of heat (energy) across the boundary in either direction would affect the system a lot but create very little of a change in its environment. Let's call the system ''S'' and the environment ''V'', the energy of the system ''E<sub>S</sub>'' and the energy of the environment E<sub>V</sub>. The conservation of energy tells us ''E'' = ''E<sub>S</sub>''&nbsp;+&nbsp;''E<sub>V</sub>'' is conserved. Suppose the states of the system have energies ''E<sub>i</sub>'' for the ''i''<sup>th</sup> state. The corresponding case for a continuum of states is similar in argument. Because the environment is so huge, even if its energy spectrum is discrete, the spacing between its energy levels is so small that for all intents and purposes, we can treat it as a continuum. So, let ''W''(''E<sub>V</sub>'') give the number of environmental states with energies between ''E<sub>V</sub>'' and ''E<sub>V</sub>''&nbsp;+&nbsp;''dE'' divided by ''dE''. It is a general statistical observation that at least for tiny changes in energy (and because the environment is so huge, even what is considered an extremely, extremely huge energy transfer for the system, is still tiny for the environment) tends to vary exponentially with ''E''. So, since the environment is so huge, :<math>\ln[W(E_V)] = \ln[W(E-E_S)]\approx \ln[W(E)]-E_S\left.{d \ln[W]\over dE'}\right\|_{E'=E}</math> as ''E<sub>S</sub>'' varies over the entire range of energies the system can take without having astronomically tiny probabilities. So, essentially, assuming [[ergodicity]], the probability of the system being in state ''i'' is proportional to :<math>W(E-E_i)</math> which in turn is proportional to :<math>e^{-E_i\left.{d \ln[W]\over dE'}\right\|_{E'=E}}</math>. Let us call <math>\left.{d \ln[W]\over dE'}\right\|_{E'=E}</math> &beta;. Note that this is purely a property of the environment.
e heart called the sinus node. The sinus node contains specialized cells that have spontaneous electrical activity that starts each normal heart beat. == Frequency too high/low == A heart rate faster than 100 beats/minute is considered a [[tachycardia]]. With exercise the sinus node increases its rate of electrical activity to accelerate the heart rate. The normal fast rate that develops is called sinus tachycardia. Arrhythmias that are due to fast, abnormal electrical activity can cause tachycardias that are dangerous. If the [[left ventricle\|ventricles]] of the heart experiences one of these tachycardias for a long period of time, there can be [[deleterious]] effects. Individuals may sense a tachycardia as a pounding sensation of the heart, known as [[palpitations]]. If a tachycardia lowers blood pressure it may cause lightheadedness or dizzinesses, or even fainting ([[syncope]]). If the tachycardia is so fast that the heart can not function, it leads to death, which may occur suddenly. Most tachycardias are not dangerous. Anything that increases adrenaline or its effects on the heart will increase the heart rate and potentially cause palpitations or tachycardias. Causes include stress, ingested or injected substances (ie: [[caffeine]], [[ethanol\|alcohol]] (see [[Holiday heart syndrome]]), and an overactive thyroid gland [[hyperthyroidism]]. Individuals who have a tachycardia are often advised to limit or remove exposure to any causative agent. A slow rhythm, known as [[bradycardia]] (less than 60 beats/min), is usually not life threatening, but may cause symptoms. When it causes symptoms implantation of a permanent pacemaker may be needed. Either dysrhythmia requires medical attention to evaluate the risks associated with the arrhythmia. == Fibrillation == A serious variety of arrhythmia is known as [[fibrillation]]. Fibrillation occurs when the [[heart]] [[muscle]] begins a quivering motion instead of a normal, healthy pumping rhythm. Fibrillation can affect the atrium ([[atrial fibrillation]]) or the ventricle ([[ventricular fibrillation]]); ventricular fibrillation is imminently life-threatening. ''Atrial fibrillation'' is the quivering, chaotic motion in the upper chambers of the heart, known as the [[atria]]. Atrial fibrillation is often due to serious underlying medical conditions, and should be evaluated by a [[physician]]. It is not typically a medical emergency. ''Ventricular fibrillation'' occurs in the [[ventricle (heart)\|ventricles]] (lower chambers) of the heart, it is always a medical emergency. If left untreated, [[ventricular fibrillation]] (VF, or V-fib) can lead to death within minutes. When a heart goes into V-fib, effective pumping of the blood stops. V-fib is considered a form of [[cardiac arrest]], and an individual suffering from it will not survive unless [[cardiopulmonary resuscitation]] (CPR) and [[defibrillation]] are provided immediately. CPR can prolong the survival of the [[brain]] in the lack of a normal pulse, but defibrillation is the intervention which is most likely to restore a more healthy heart rhythm. It does this by applying an electric shock to the heart, after which sometimes the heart will revert to a rhythm that can once again pump blood. Almost every person goes into ventricular fibrillation in the last few minutes of life as the heart muscle reacts to diminished oxygen or general blood flow, trauma, irritants, or depression of electrical impulses themselves from the brain. ==Origin of impulse== When an electrical impulse begins in any part of the heart, it will spread throughout the [[myocardium]] and cause a contraction; see [[Electrical conduction system of the heart]]. Abnormal impulses can begin by one of two mechanisms: automaticity or reentry. ===Automaticity=== Automaticity refers to a cardiac muscle cell firing off an impulse on its own. Every cardiac cell has this potential: if it does ''not'' receive any impulses from elsewhere, its internal "pacemaker" will fire off an impulse after a certain amount of time. A single specialized location in the atria, the [[sinoatrial node]], has a higher automaticity (a faster pacemaker) than the rest of the heart, and therefore is usually the one to start the heartbeat. Any part of the heart that initiates an impulse without waiting for the sinoatrial node is called an ''ectopic focus'', and is by definition a pathological phenomenon. This may cause a single premature beat now and then, or, if the ectopic focus fires more often than the sinoatrial node, it can produce a sustained abnormal rhythm. Rhythms produced by an ectopic focus in the atria, or by the [[atrioventricular node]], are the least dangerous dysrhythmias; but they can still produce a decrease in the heart's pumping efficiency, because the signal reaches the various parts of the heart muscle with slightly different timing than usual and causes a poorly coordinated contraction. Conditions that increase automaticity include [[sympathetic nervous system]] stimulation and [[Hypoxia (medical)\|hypoxia]]. The resulting heart rhythm depends on where the first signal begins: if it is the sinoatrial node, the rhythm remains normal but rapid; if it is an ectopic focus, many types of dysrhythmia can result. ===Reentry=== Reentrant dysrhythmias occur when an electrical impulse travels in a circle within the heart, rather than moving outward and then stopping. Every cardiac cell is able to transmit impulses in every direction, but will only do so once within a short period of time. Normally the impulse spreads through the heart quickly enough that each cell will only respond once, but if conduction is abnormally slow in some areas, part of the impulse will arrive late and will be treated as a new impulse, which can then spread backward. Depending on the timing, this can produce a sustained abnormal rhythm, such as [[atrial flutter]], a self-limiting burst of [[supraventricular tachycardia]], or the dangerous [[ventricular tachycardia]]. By analogy, imagine a room full of people all given these instructions: "If you see anyone starting to stand up, then stand up for three seconds and sit back down." If the people are quick enough to respond, the first person to stand will trigger a single wave which will then die out; but if there are stragglers on one side of the room, people who have already sat down will see them and start a second wave, and so on. ==Diagnosis== Cardiac dysrhythmias are often first detected by simple but nonspecific means: auscultation of the heartbeat with a [[stethoscope]], or feeling for peripheral [[pulse]]s. These cannot usually diagnose specific dysrhythmias, but can give a general indication of the heart rate and whether it is regular or irregular. Not all the electrical impulses of the heart produce audible or palpable beats; in many cardiac arrhythmias, the premature or abnormal beats do not produce an effective pumping action and are experienced as "skipped" beats. The simplest ''specific'' diagnostic test for assessment of heart rhythm is the [[electrocardiogram]] (abbreviated '''ECG''' or '''EKG'''). A [[Holter monitor]] is an ECG recorded over a 24-hour period, to detect dysrhythmias that may happen briefly and unpredictably throughout the day. ==SADS== '''SADS''', or '''sudden arrhythmia death syndrome''', is a term used to describe sudden [[death]] due to [[cardiac arrest]] brought on by an arrhythmia. The most common cause of sudden death in the US is coronary artery disease. Approximately 300,000 people die suddenly of this cause every year in the US. SADS can also occur from other causes. Tragically there are many inherited condictions and heart diseases that can affect young people that can cause sudden death. Many of these victims have no symptoms before dying suddenly. The most common causes of SADS in young people are [[long QT syndrome]], [[Brugada syndrome]], and [[hypertrophic cardiomyopathy]] and arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia. ==List of common cardiac dysrhythmias== Atrial Arrhythmias [[Atrial fibrillation]] Atrial Dysrhythmias [[Premature atrial contraction]] [[Atrial flutter]] [[Supraventricular tachycardia]] [[Sick sinus syndrome]] Ventricular Arrhythmias [[Ventricular fibrillation]] Ventricular Dysrhythmias [[Premature ventricular contraction]] [[Pulseless electrical activity]] [[Ventricular tachycardia]] [[Asystole]] Junctional Dysrhythmias [[Premature junctional contraction]] [[Junctional tachycardia]] Heart Blocks [[First degree heart block]] [[Second degree heart block]] *[[Type 1 Second degree heart block]] a.k.a. [[Mobitz I]] or [[Wenckebach]] [[Type 2 Second degree heart block]] a.k.a. [[Mobitz II]] *[[Third degree heart block]] a.k.a. [[complete heart block]] == Antiarrhythmic therapies== There are many classes of antiarrhythmic medications and many individual drugs within these classes. See the article on '''[[antiarrhythmic agents]]'''. Dysrhythmias may also be treated electrically. [[Cardioversion]] is the application of electrical current across the chest wall to the heart and it is used for treatment of supraventricular or pulsed ventricular tachycardia. [[Defibrillation]] differs in that it is used for ventricular fibrillation and pulseless ventricular tachycardia, and more electricity is delivered with defibrillation than with cardioversion. In cardioversion, the recipient is either sedated or lightly [[anesthesia\|anesthetized]] for the procedure. In defibrillation, the recipient has lost consciousness so there is no need for sedation. Electrical treatment of dysrhythmia includes [[cardiac pacing]]. Temporay pacing may be done for very slow heartbeats, or [[bradycardia]], from [[drug overdose]] or [[myocardial infarction]]. A [[pacemaker]] may be placed in situations where the bradycardia is not expected to recover. Atrial fibrillation can also be treated through a
ntroduction of the ''Qassam-2 rocket'' has allowed Hamas to reach large Israeli cities such as [[Ashkelon]], bringing great concern to the Israeli populace and many attempts by the Israeli military to stop the proliferation and use of the rockets. ===Support for the Palestinian population=== The organization is particularly popular among Palestinians in the [[Gaza Strip]], though it also has a following in the [[West Bank]], and to a lesser extent in other [[Middle East]]ern countries. Since its formation in 1987, Hamas has conducted numerous social, political, and military actions. Its popularity stems in part from its [[social welfare\|welfare]] and social services to Palestinians in the occupied territories, including school and hospital construction. The group devotes much of its estimated $70-million annual budget to an extensive social services network, running many relief and [[education]] programs, and funds schools, orphanages, mosques, healthcare clinics, soup kitchens, and sports leagues. According to an article by Israeli scholar Reuven Paz, published by the conservative US think-tank [[Council on Foreign Relations]], approximately 90 percent of the organization's work is in social, welfare, cultural, and educational activities. <ref> {{note label\|CFR\|16\|a}} [http://cfrterrorism.org/groups/hamas.html US [[Council of Foreign Relations]] think-tank on Hamas] </ref> These programs are viewed variously as part of a sincere social development agenda, an integrated [[para-state]] policy, as [[propaganda]] and [[recruitment]] exercises, or both. In any case, Hamas has significantly increased literacy in areas where it is active. Hamas also funds a number of other charitable activities, primarily in the Gaza Strip. These include religious institutions, medical facilities, and social needs of the area's residents. The work of Hamas in these fields supplements that provided by the [[United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East\|United Nations Relief Works Agency]] (UNRWA). The [[charitable trust]] [[Holy Land Foundation for Relief and Development]] was accused in December 2001 of funding Hamas. Hamas is also well regarded by Palestinians for its efficiency and perceived lack of corruption compared to Fatah. <ref> {{Citenews \| title=Why Rising Popularity Poses a Dilemma for Hamas \| org=Time \| date=January 23, 2006 \| url=http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1151969,00.html?cnn=yes}} </ref> <ref> {{Citenews \| title=“The Palestinian Authority held a democratic election and Israel and the rest of the world must accept that Hamas was the victor” \| org=Jewish Virtual Library \| date=No date \| url=http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/myths/mf24.html#a46}} </ref> === Funding === Hamas is well funded and known to support families of [[suicide bombing\|suicide bombers]] after their deaths. <ref> {{Citenews \| title=Hamas from cradle to grave \| org=The Middle East Quaterly \| date=Winter 2004 \| url=http://www.meforum.org/article/582}} </ref> According to the [[United States Department of State\|U.S. State Dept]], it is funded by [[Iran]] (led by a [[shiite]] Islamic regime), Palestinian expatriates, and private benefactors in [[Saudi Arabia]] and other Arab states. {{ref label\|US\|2\|a}} However, various sources, among them ''[[United Press International]]'', ''[[Le Canard Enchaîné]]'' and ''[[L'Humanité]]'' have highlighted that Hamas' early growth - before its official founding and the creation of the military branch - had been supported by the [[Mossad]] as a "counterbalance to the [[Palestine Liberation Organization]] (PLO)". <ref>{{note label\|Humanite\|13\|a}}{{Citenews \| title=Hamas is a creation of Mossad \| org=L'Humanite \| date=transl. March 2004 \| url=http://globalresearch.ca/articles/ZER403A.html}}</ref> <ref> {{note label\|UPI\|14\|a}}{{Citenews \| title=Hamas history tied to Israel \| org=UPI \| date=June 18, 2002 \| url=http://www.upi.com/view.cfm?StoryID=18062002-051845-8272r}} </ref> Furthermore, the French investigative newspaper ''[[Le Canard Enchaîné]]'' revealed that the [[Shin Beth]] had also supported Hamas as a counterweight to the PLO and the [[Fatah]], in an attempt to give "a religious slant to the conflict, in order to make believe Occident that the conflict was between Jews and Muslims" <ref> {{note label\|Canard\|15\|a}}{{note label\|Canard\|15\|b}} {{Citenews \| title=Les très secrètes 'relations' Israël-Hamas (The very secret Israel-Hamas 'relations') \| org=Le Canard Enchaîné \| date=February 1, 2006 (issue n°4449) \| url=http://www.canardenchaine.com/une4449.html}} </ref>. ===Other=== Hamas has an unknown number of hard-line members and tens of thousands of supporters and sympathizers {{fact}} It is believed to operate dozens of websites. A current listing can be found at [[Internet Haganah]] (External link below). [http://www.palestine-info.info/ The main website of Hamas] provides translations of official communiques and [[propaganda]] in [[Persian language]] [[Urdu language\|Urdu]], [[Malay language\|Malay]], [[Russian language\|Russian]], [[English language\|English]], and [[Arabic language\|Arabic]]. In 2005, Hamas announced its intention to launch an experimental TV channel, "Al-Aqsa". The station was launched on January 7, 2006, less than three weeks before the [[Palestinian legislative election, 2006\|Palestinian legislative elections]]. [http://www.intelligence.org.il/eng/eng_n/al_aqsa_e.htm] It included a TV show for children. ==History== <!--there was no HAMAS party in any way before 1987--> === Brief timeline === '''1984'''. Arrest of [[Sheikh Ahmed Yassin]], condemned to 12 years of prison after the discovery of an arms cache. Yassin is freed the next year. '''1987. Creation of Hamas''' by Sheikh Ahmed Yassin. '''1987-1993. [[First Intifada]]''' '''1988 [[wikisource:Hamas Covenant\|Hamas Covenant]]'''. '''1989. Israel outlaws Hamas''' and imprisons Sheikh Ahmed Yassin. '''1991. [[Gulf War]].''' '''1992. Creation of the military branch [[Ezzedeen-al-qassam]]'''. '''1993. [[Oslo Accords]]''' '''[[April 1993]]. First Hamas suicide bombing''' at Mehola Junction[http://www.tau.ac.il/jcss/memoranda/m48notes.html]. '''[[Palestinian legislative and presidential election, 1996]]'''. Hamas boycotts them, allowing the [[Fatah]], led by Yasser Arafat, a large victory. '''[[January 1996]]. [[Targeted killing\|Assassination]] of [[Yahya Ayyash]],''' Hamas bombmaker. '''[[February]]-[[March]] [[1996]]. 47 Israelis killed''' in three different bombings. '''[[October 1997]]'''. Freed by Prime minister [[Benjamin Netanyahu]] for "humanitarian reasons", Sheikh Yassin is acclaimed as hero at his return to Gaza. '''[[September 2000]]. [[Al-Aqsa Intifada]]''' - Hundreds of civilians killed on both sides (405 Palestinians (source: [[B'Tselem]]) and 256 Israeli citizens). '''[[July 2002]]'''. Assassination of [[Salah Shahade]], leader of the Ezzedeen-al-qassam brigades. '''[[January 6]], [[2004]]. 10 year truce (''[[hudna]]'')''' offered by senior Hamas official Abdel Aziz al-Rantissi in exchange of Israel's complete withdrawal to the 1967 borders. '''[[March 22]] [[2004]], assassination of Sheikh Yassin'''. Yassin, then an old man restricted to a wheel-chair due to his life-long paralysis was assassinated in an Israeli missile strike on March 22, 2004. Abdel Aziz al-Rantissi replaced him as the leader of Hamas. On [[March 28]], Rantissi stated in a speech given at the Islamic University of [[Gaza City]] that "America declared war against God. [[Ariel Sharon\|Sharon]] declared war against God, and God declared war against America, Bush and Sharon." '''[[April 17]], [[2004]], assassination of [[Abdel Aziz al-Rantissi]]'''. Rantissi was also assassinated in an airstrike by the [[Israel Defense Forces]], five hours after a fatal suicide bombing by Hamas. [[Khaled Mashaal]], the leader of Hamas in Syria, said Hamas should not disclose the name of its next leader in Gaza. [http://www.nytimes.com/2004/04/18/international/middleeast/18MIDE.html] On [[April 18]] [[2004]], Hamas secretly selected a new leader in the Gaza Strip, fearing he would be killed if his identity were made public. [http://www.nytimes.com/aponline/international/AP-Israel-Palestinians.html?hp (NYT)]. However, Israel believes that the new leader is [[Mahmoud al-Zahar]]; the second-in-command, [[Ismail Haniya]]; and third-in-command, [[Sa'id A-Siyam]]. [http://www.israelnn.com/news.php3?id=61435] [[September 2004]]. Israeli army chief [[Moshe Yaalon]] said that Israel would "deal with ... those who support terrorism," including those in "terror command posts in Damascus." '''[[September 26]], [[2004]]. Assassination of [[Izz El-Deen Sheikh Khalil]].''' Sheikh Khalil was assassinated by a car bomb in Damascus, Syria. Khalil was described variously as "mid-level," "senior," a "distinguished member," and "believed to be in charge of the group's military wing outside the Palestinian territories." [http://wireservice.wired.com/wired/story.asp?section=Breaking&storyId=927356&tw=wn_wire_story]Although the Israeli government offered no official confirmation, anonymous Israeli officials acknowledged responsibility for the attack. In a statement released in Gaza, Hamas threatened to target Israelis abroad in retaliation. [http://olympics.reuters.com/newsArticle.jhtml?type=worldNews&storyID=6334113][http://www.boston.com/dailynews/270/world/Car_bomb_kills_Hamas_operative:.shtml]. '''[[October 2004]]'''. Assassination of [[Adnan al-Ghoul]], assistant of [[Mohammed Deif]], the leader of the Ezzedeen-al-qassam brigades. *'''[[November 11]], [[2004]]. Death of [[Yasser Arafat]]''', chairman of the [[Palestine Liberation Organization]] (PLO) and president of the [[Palestinian Nati
nfused with ''code generator'' for the overlapped functionality of generating assembly code. Some literature use ''Middle end'' to distinguish the generic analysis and optimization phases in the back end from the machine dependent code generators. The work in back end is done in multiple steps: #[[Compiler analysis]] - This is the process to gather program information from the intermediate representation of the input source files. Typical analysis are variable define-use and [[use-define chain]], [[dependence analysis]], [[alias analysis]] etc. Accurate analysis is the base for any compiler optimizations. The [[call graph]] and [[control flow graph]] are usually also built during the analysis phase. #[[Compiler optimization\|Optimization]] - the intermediate language representation is transformed into functionally equivalent but faster (or smaller) forms. Popular optimizations are [[inline expansion]], [[dead code elimination]], [[constant propagation]], [[loop transformation]], [[register allocation]] or even [[auto parallelization]]. #[[Code generation]] - the transformed intermediate language is translated into the output language, usually the native [[machine language]] of the system. This involves resource and storage decisions, such as deciding which variables to fit into registers and memory and the selection and scheduling of appropriate machine instructions along with their associated addressing modes (see also Sethi-Ullman algorithm). Compiler analysis is the prerequisite for any compiler optimization and they tightly work together. For example, [[dependence analysis]] is crucial for [[loop transformation]]. In addition, the scope of compiler analysis and optimization vary greatly, from as small as a [[basic block]] to the procedure/function level, or even over the whole program ([[interprocedural optimization]]). Obviously, a compiler can potentially do a better job using a broader view. But that broad view is not free: large scope analysis and optimizations are very costly in terms of compilation time and memory space; this is especially true for interprocedural analysis and optimizations. The existence of interprocedural analysis and optimization is common in modern commercial compilers from [[SGI]], [[Intel]], [[Microsoft]], and [[Sun Microsystems]]. The open source [[GNU Compiler Collection \| GCC]] was criticized for a long time for lacking powerful interprocedural optimizations, but it is changing in this respect. Another good open source compiler with full analysis and optimization infrastructure is [[Open64]], which is used by many organizations for research and commercial purposes. Due to the extra time and space needed for compiler analysis and optimization, most compilers choose to skip them by default. Users have to use compilation options to explicitly tell the compiler which optimizations should be enabled. <!--==runtime system==--> ==Notes== #{{note label\|passes\|1\|a}}A ''pass'' has also been known as a ''parse'' in some textbooks. The idea is that the source code is ''parsed'' by gradual, iterative refinement to produce the completely translated object code at the end of the process. There is, however, some dispute over the general use of ''parse'' for all those phases (passes), since some of them, e.g. object code generation, are arguably not regarded to be parsing as such. ==References== ''[[Compilers: Principles, Techniques and Tools]]'' by [[Alfred V. Aho]], [[Ravi Sethi]], and [[Jeffrey D. Ullman]] (ISBN 0201100886) is considered to be the standard authority on compiler basics(undergraudate level), and makes a good primer for the techniques mentioned above. (It is often called the '''''Dragon Book''''' because of the picture on its cover showing a Knight of Programming fighting the Dragon of Compiler Design.) [http://www.aw.com/catalog/academic/product/0,4096,0201100886,00.html link to publisher] ''Advanced Compiler Design and Implementation'' by [[Steven Muchnick]] (ISBN: 1558603204). One of the widely-used text books for advanced compiler courses(graudate level). ''Understanding and Writing Compilers: A Do It Yourself Guide'' (ISBN 0333217322) by [[Richard Bornat]] is an unusually helpful book, being one of the few that adequately explains the recursive generation of machine instructions from a parse-tree. Having learnt his subject in the early days of mainframes and minicomputers, the author has many useful insights that more recent books often fail to convey. ''An Overview of the Production Quality Compiler-Compiler Project'' by Leverett, Cattel, Hobbs, Newcomer, Reiner, Schatz and Wulf. Computer 13(8):38-49 August 1980 == See also == * [[Compiler optimization]] ** [[Loop nest optimization]] * [[Compiler analysis]] * [[Assembler]] * [[Compiler construction]] * Interpreters: [[Interpreter (computer software)\|Interpreter software]] [[Abstract interpretation]] * [[Linker]] * [[Parsing]]: [[Top-down parsing]] [[Bottom-up parsing]] ** [[Attribute grammar]] * [[Semantic analysis (computer science)\|Semantic analysis]] ** [[Semantics encoding]] * [[Error avalanche]] * [[Decompiler]] * [[Just-in-time compiler]] * [[Meta-Compilation]] * [[Preprocessor]] * [[Parallel compilers]] * [[List of important publications in computer science#Compilers\| Important publications in compilers]] for [[programming language]]s * [[Hardware compilation]] == External links == {{Wikibookspar\|\|Compiler construction}} * [http://codepedia.com/compile What is "compile"?] from the developer's encyclopedia <!-- delink dev-pedia for the time being --> * [http://www.kegel.com/crosstool/ Building and Testing gcc/glibc cross toolchains] * [http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/cs?q=compiler Citations from CiteSeer] * [http://compilers.iecc.com/ The comp.compilers newsgroup and RSS feed] * [http://compilers.iecc.com/crenshaw/ ''Let's Build a Compiler'' by Jack Crenshaw (1988 to 1995)] "a non-technical introduction to compiler construction" * [http://www.gtoal.com/software/CompilersOneOhOne Simple compiler source] from the "[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/compilers101/ Compilers 101]" group. One page, easy to follow. * [http://www.tutorial-reports.com/computer-science/parallel-compiler/ Parallel Compilers] [[Category:Compilers\|*]] [[Category:Computer science]] [[af:Vertalerkonstruksie]] [[ast:Compilador]] [[bg:Компилатор]] [[ca:Compilador]] [[cs:Překladač]] [[da:Compiler]] [[de:Compiler]] [[es:Compilador]] [[et:Kompilaator]] [[fi:Ohjelmointikielen kääntäjä]] [[fr:Compilateur]] [[gl:Compilador]] [[he:מהדר]] [[hr:Program-prevodilac]] [[hu:Fordítóprogram]] [[id:Kompilator]] [[it:Compilatore]] [[ja:コンパイラ]] [[ko:컴파일러]] [[lt:Kompiliatorius]] [[nl:Compiler]] [[no:Kompilator]] [[pl:Kompilator]] [[pt:Compilador]] [[ru:Компилятор]] [[simple:Compiler]] [[sv:Kompilator]] [[th:ตัวแปลโปรแกรม]] [[tr:Derleyici]] [[vi:Trình biên dịch]] [[zh:编译器]] [[ta:நிரல்மொழிமாற்றி]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Monetary policy of central banks</title> <id>5741</id> <revision> <id>17892100</id> <timestamp>2005-06-30T13:12:43Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Elfguy</username> <id>269251</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>merged and redirected</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Monetary policy]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Castrato</title> <id>5742</id> <revision> <id>41976388</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T00:13:45Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>84.70.10.50</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Vocal range}} A '''castrato''' is a male [[soprano]], [[mezzo-soprano]], or [[alto (voice)\|alto]] [[human voice\|voice]] produced either by [[castration]] of the [[singer]] before [[puberty]] or who, because of an [[endicrinology\|endocrinological]] condition, never reaches sexual maturity. Therefore, their voices never deepen. This practice began in the [[16th century]]. Due to [[Catholicism]]'s traditional ban on females singing in church, castrati were employed as church singers. The first castrati appeared in Western Europe in chapel choirs. In the late 1550s, the Duke of Ferrara had castrati in his chapel choir, the Munich court chapel from 1574 and in 1599 the Papal (Sistine) Chapel choir was formally described as having castrati. Elsewhere in Europe, castrati were in Württemburg from 1610, Vienna from 1637 and about a decade later in Dresden. In an official Bull of 1589, Pope Sixtus V approved the recruitment of castrati for the choir of St. Peter. Often times, the term "Castrato" was used to define the high register created by the young men who sang the Castrato style. The typical register of a Castrato was above that of a "normal" soprano voice, resulting in the creation of a temporary range in Italian music which was regarded as above or superior to traditional soprano. The practice reached its peak in [[17th century\|17th]] and [[18th century]] [[opera]]. It is known as castratism. 70 percent of opera singers of the [[Baroque music\|Baroque]] period were castrati. The male heroic lead would often be written for a castrato singer (in the operas of [[George Friderich Handel\|Handel]] for example). When such operas are performed today, a woman or [[countertenor]] takes these roles. However, some Baroque [[opera]]s with parts for castrati are so complex and difficult that they cannot be performed today. Castration before puberty (or in its early stages) prevents the boy's [[larynx]] from being fully transformed by the normal physiological effects of puberty. As a result, the vocal range of prepubescence (shared by boys and girls) is largely retained, and the voice develops into adulthood in a unique way. As the castrato's body grows (especially in [[lung]] capacity and [[muscle\|muscular]] strength), and as his musical training and maturity increase, his voice develops a range, power a
ening", in the [[Arabic language]]. The acronym "FATAH" is created from the complete Arabic name: ''HA''rakat al-''TA''hrir al-Watani al-''F''ilastini, becoming "HATAF", which, since it means "death" in Arabic, was reversed to become "FATAH". This word (Fatah) is prominently used for the [[History_of_Islam#The_spread_of_Islam\|Islamic expansion]] in the 700s, and so has strongly positive connotations for [[Muslim]]s. == History == [[Image:Fateh-logo.jpg\|right\|thumb\|The Fatah official emblem shows two fists holding [[rifle]]s and a [[hand grenade]] superimposed on a map of historic [[Palestine]] (i.e. the post-1922 [[British Mandate of Palestine\|British Mandate]] borders, including present-day [[Israel]], the [[West Bank]] and the [[Gaza Strip]])]] The movement, which espoused a Palestinian [[nationalist]] [[ideology]] in which [[State of Palestine\|Palestine]] would be liberated by the actions of Palestinians, was founded in 1958 or 1959 by members of the Palestinian diaspora - principally professionals working in the [[Gulf States]] who had been refugees in [[Gaza]] and had gone on to study in [[Cairo]]. The most notable of these was [[Yasser Arafat]], who was head of the Palestinian student movement in Cairo from 1952 to 1956. Fatah became the dominant force in Palestinian politics after the 1967 [[Six-Day War]] dealt the [[coup de grâce]] to the Arab nationalism that had inspired [[George Habash]]'s [[Arab Nationalist Movement]]. The November 1959 edition of Fatah's underground journal, ''Filastinuna'', indicated that the movement was motivated by the status of the Palestinian refugees in the Arab world: <blockquote> The youth of the catastrophe (''shibab al-nakba'') are dispersed... Life in the tent has become as miserable as death... [T]o die for our beloved Fatherland is better and more honorable than life, which forces us to eat our daily bread under humiliations or to receive it as charity at the cost of our honour... We, the sons of the catastrophe, are no longer willing to live this dirty, despicable life, this life which has destroyed our cultural, moral and political existence and destroyed our human dignity. (quoted in Baumgarten, 2005, p. 32). </blockquote> From the beginning the armed struggle, as manifested in the [[Great Uprising]] of 1936-1939 and the military role of Palestinian fighters under the leadership of [[Abd al-Qadir al-Husayni]] in the [[1948 Arab-Israeli War]], was central to Fatah's ideology. Fatah joined the PLO and won the [[leadership]] role in 1969, after which the other consitutent members the [[Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine]] and the [[Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine]] were marginalized. According to the [[BBC]], "Mr Arafat took over as chairman of the executive committee of the PLO in 1969, a year that Fatah is recorded to have carried out 2,432 [[guerrilla warfare\|guerrilla]] attacks on Israel." ([http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_depth/middle_east/israel_and_the_palestinians/profiles/1371998.stm]). Fatah's first ever guerilla attack came on [[January 3]], 1965, when they attempted to sabotage the Israeli [[National Water Carrier]], which had recently started operation. The attack was thwarted by the [[Israeli Security Forces]]. Fatah's commanders were expelled to [[Lebanon]] from [[Jordan]] following violent confrontations with Jordanian forces during the period 1970&ndash;1971, beginning with [[Black September in Jordan\|Black September]] in 1970. In the 1960s and the 1970s, Fatah provided training to a wide range of [[Europe]]an, [[Middle East]]ern, [[Asia]]n, and [[Africa]]n militant and insurgent groups, and carried out numerous attacks against Israeli targets in [[Western Europe]] and the Middle East during the 1970s. Some militant groups that affiliated themselves to Fatah, and some of the ''fedayeen'' within Fatah itself, carried out civilian plane [[hijacking]]s and [[terrorism\|terrorist]] attacks, attributing them to [[Black September (group)\|Black September]], [[Abu Nidal]]'s [[Fatah-Revolutionary Council]], [[Said_al-Muragha\|Abu Musa]]'s group, the [[PFLP]], and the [[PFLP-GC]]. Fatah received weapons, explosives and training from the former [[Soviet Union\|USSR]] and the former [[Communist]] regimes of [[East Europe]]an states. [[People's Republic of China\|China]] has also provided some weapons. When Israel invaded [[Lebanon]] in 1982, the faction was dispersed to several Middle Eastern countries with the help of US and other Western governments: [[Tunisia]], [[Yemen]], [[Algeria]], [[Iraq]] and others. In the period 1982-1993, Fatah's leadership resided in [[Tunisia]]. Until his death, Arafat was the head of the [[Palestinian Authority]]. [[Farouk Kaddoumi]] is the current Fatah chairman, elected to the post soon after Arafat's death in 2004. Fatah has "Observer Party" status at the [[Socialist International]]. Fatah endorsed [[Mahmoud Abbas]] in the [[Palestinian presidential election, 2005\|Palestinian presidential election of 2005]]. In 2005, [[Hamas]] won landslide victories in nearly all the municipalities it [[Palestinian municipal election, 2005\|contested]]. Fatah is "widely seen as being in desperate need of reform", as "the PA's performance has been a story of corruption and incompetence - and Fatah has been tainted." Political analyst Sallah Abdelshafi told BBC about the difficulties of Fatah leadership: "I think it's very, very serious - it's becoming obvious that they can't agree on anything." [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/4386355.stm] On [[December 14]], [[2005]], jailed [[intifada]] leader [[Marwan Barghouti]] announced that he had formed a new political party, ''[[al-Mustaqbal]]'' ("The Future"), mainly composed of members of Fatah's "Young Guard." These younger leaders have repeatedly expressed frustration with the entrenched corruption in the party, which has been run by the "Old Guard" who returned from exile in [[Tunisia]] following the [[Oslo Accords]]. al-Mustaqbal was to compete against Fatah in the [[Palestinian legislative election, 2006\|January 2006 Palestinian legislative election]], presenting a list including [[Mohammed Dahlan]], [[Kadoura Fares]], [[Samir Mashharawi]] and [[Jibril Rajoub]] on [[December 14]][http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1134309581046&pagename=JPost%2FJPArticle%2FShowFull] [http://dwb.newsobserver.com/24hour/world/story/2979990p-11657995c.html]. However, on [[December 28]], [[2005]], the leadership of the two factions agreed to submit a single list to voters, headed by Barghouti, who began actively campaigning for Fatah from his jail cell. Reactions to the news have been split. Some have suggested that the move could be a positive step towards peace, as Barghouti's new party could help reform major problems in Palestinian government. Others have raised concern that it could wind up splitting the Fatah vote, inadvertently helping Hamas. Barghouti's supporters argue that al-Mustaqbal will split the votes of both parties, both from disenchanted Fatah members as well as moderate Hamas voters who do not agree with Hamas' political goals, but rather its social work and hard position on corruption. Some observors have also hypothesized that the formation of Mustaqbal is mostly a negotiating tactic to get members of the young guard into higher positions of power within Fatah and its electoral list. A variant theory, highly plausible, is that after the elections, Mustaqbal will either be partially re-incorporated into Fatah, or will function as part of a Parliamentary coalition with it in opposition to Hamas and other political rivals. [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/15/international/middleeast/15cnd-mide.html] Some editorialists have drawn a parallel between Barghouti's split from Fatah and the upheaval in Israeli party politics resulting from [[Ariel Sharon]]'s leaving the [[Likud]] to form [[Kadima]].[http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/659182.html][http://www.democracyarsenal.org/2005/11/is_marwan_bargh.html] == Participation in the peace process and controversies == Yasser Arafat signed the [[Oslo Accords\|Declaration of Principles]] with [[Israel]] in 1993 and exchanged mutual renounce of terrorism with Israel mutual recognition between PLO and Israel, and was allowed to return to the [[Palestinian territories]] from exile in [[Tunisia]]. The PNC met in a special session on 26 April 1996 to consider the issue of amending the Charter and assigned its legal committee the task of redrafting the Palestinian National Charter consistent with the Arafat letters in order to present it for approval. [http://www.pna.gov.ps/Government/gov/plo_Charter.asp] A redrafted charter that does not call for the destruction of Israel has yet to be presented or approved and the official PNA website displays the original, unamended text of the PNC Charter. According to the US [[Department of State]], "The Palestinian National Charter... [was] amended by canceling the articles that are contrary to the letters exchanged between the P.L.O. and the Government of Israel 9-[[10 September]] [[1993]]." [http://www.state.gov/p/nea/rls/22573.htm] The group has been accused of continuing attacks against Israeli civilians, and of supporting [[guerrilla warfare]] against Israeli soldiers and settlers in the [[West Bank]] and [[Gaza Strip]] and against the security forces inside Israel as a part of the [[Al-Aqsa Intifada]], started in 2000 after the failure of the [[Camp David 2000 Summit]]. Those who hold that some forces within the leadership of Fatah still have a goal to destroy Israel, find the evidence in quotes such as [[Farouk Kaddoumi]]'s November, 2004 interview to Iran's Al-Aram TV station ([http://www.memritv.org/search.asp?ACT=S9&P1=390], [http://www.worldtribune.com/worldtribune/breaking_9.html]): :- ''Kaddoum
> {{Infobox Australian City\| name = Hobart \| image_map = Hobart locator-MJC.png \| name = Hobart \| latd=42\|latm=53\|latNS=S\|longd=147\|longm=17\|longEW=E\| jurisdiction = [[Tasmania]] \| area = 1357.3 \| time_zone= [[UTC10\|AEST]] \| utc_offset= +10 \| time_zone_DST= [[UTC11\|AEDT]] \| utc_offset_DST= +11 \| population_estimate_year = 2004 \| population_estimate = 202,138 \| population_estimate_rank = 12th \| population_density = 148.9 \| }} <!-- END INFOBOX --> '''Hobart''' is the [[List of Australian capital cities\|state capital]] and most populous city of the [[Australia]]n island state of [[Tasmania]]. Founded in 1804 as a [[penal colony]], it is Australia's second oldest and twelfth largest city, with a metropolitan population of just over 200,000. The city is the financial and administrative heart of Tasmania, and also serves as the home port for both Australian and French [[Antarctic]] operations. ==History== The first settlement was started in 1803 as a penal colony at [[Risdon Cove]] on the eastern shores of the [[Derwent River, Tasmania\|Derwent River]], amid British concerns over the presence of French [[explorers]]. In 1804 it was moved to a better location at the present site of Hobart at [[Sullivan's Cove, Tasmania\|Sullivan's Cove]]. The area's [[Tasmanian_Aborigine\|original inhabitants]] were members of the semi-nomadic Mouheneer tribe. A series of bloody encounters with the Europeans and the effects of diseases brought by the settlers forced away the aboriginal population, which was rapidly replaced by free settlers and the [[convict]] population. [[Charles Darwin]] visited Hobart Town in February, 1836 as part of the [[The Voyage of the Beagle\|Beagle expedition]]. He writes of Hobart and the Derwent estuary in his ''Voyage of the Beagle'' :''...The lower parts of the hills which skirt the bay are cleared; and the bright yellow fields of corn, and dark green ones of potatoes, appear very luxuriant... I was chiefly struck with the comparative fewness of the large houses, either built or building. Hobart Town, from the census of 1835, contained 13,826 inhabitants, and the whole of Tasmania 36,505.'' But since the Derwent River was one of Australia's finest deepwater ports and was the centre of the Southern Ocean whaling and seal trade, it rapidly grew into a major port, with allied industries such as ship-building. Hobart Town became a city in 1842, and was renamed Hobart in 1875. <!-- ''(history needed here, including penal colony, seal and whalers, postwar economic decline)'' --> ==Geography== [[Image:Mt_wellington.jpg\|right\|frame\|Hobart from the Eastern Shore]] Hobart is located on the estuary of the [[Derwent River, Tasmania\|Derwent River]] in the state's south-east at {{coor dm\|42\|52\|S\|147\|19\|E\|type:city(245,000)_region:AU-TAS}}. The [[central business district]] is located on the western shore, adjacent to [[Sullivan's Cove, Tasmania\|Sullivan's Cove]], with the inner suburbs spread out along the shores of the Derwent and climbing up the hills at the foot of [[Mount Wellington, Tasmania\|Mount Wellington]] (1270 metres/4233 feet high). The Port of Hobart occupies the whole of the original Sullivan's Cove. The Greater Hobart Metropolitan area consists of three self-governing cities, Hobart, Glenorchy and Clarence, plus the urbanised areas of the Municipalities of Kingborough and Brighton. The suburban areas cover a significant amount of both the western and eastern sides of the river. Apart from the city, the main commercial centres are [[Glenorchy, Tasmania\|Glenorchy]] (the ''northern suburbs'') and [[Rosny, Tasmania\|Rosny]] (the ''eastern shore''). The satellite town [[Kingston, Tasmania\|Kingston]], south of the city, is fast becoming an outlying suburb of Hobart. Other surrounding towns such as [[Sorell, Tasmania\|Sorell]], [[Margate, Tasmania\|Margate]], [[Brighton, Tasmania\|Brighton]] and [[New Norfolk, Tasmania\|New Norfolk]] are popular residential areas for commuters. See also ''[[List of Hobart suburbs]]'' ===Climate=== Hobart has a mild temperate [[oceanic climate]], with four distinct [[season]]s. The highest temperature recorded was 40.8°C on 4 January 1976 and the lowest was -2.8°C on 25 June 1972. {\| class="wikitable" style="width: 75%; margin: 0 auto 0 auto;" \|+ '''Climate Table''' \|- ! ! Jan ! Feb ! Mar ! Apr ! May ! Jun ! Jul ! Aug ! Sep ! Oct ! Nov ! Dec !Year \|- ! Mean daily maximum temperature ([[Celsius\|°C]]) \|21.6 \|21.6 \|20.1 \|17.3 \|14.4 \|11.9 \|11.6 \|13.0 \|15.0 \|16.9 \|18.6 \|20.3 \|16.9 \|- ! Mean daily minimum temperature ([[Celsius\|°C]]) \|11.8 \|12.0 \|10.8 \|8.9 \|6.9 \|5.2 \|4.5 \|5.2 \|6.4 \|7.7 \|9.2 \|10.8 \|8.3 \|- ! Mean total rainfall ([[Millimetre\|mm]]) \|48.0 \|39.8 \|45.7 \|51.8 \|47.0 \|54.6 \|52.8 \|53.0 \|52.4 \|62.6 \|54.5 \|57.2 \|619.5 \|- ! Mean number of rain days \|10.9 \|9.4 \|11.3 \|12.2 \|13.4 \|14.0 \|14.9 \|15.2 \|15.1 \|16.4 \|14.2 \|12.9 \|159.9 \|- \| colspan="15" style="text-align: center;" \| <small>'''Source:''' [http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_094029.shtml Bureau of Meteorology]</small> \|} ==Demographics== [[Image:LGA_Tas_SE_Hobart.png\|thumb\|250px\|left\|The City of Hobart (green) and Greater Hobart (teal)]] The greater Hobart area has a population of around 245,000 (census 2005) people. The '''City of Hobart''' local government area has a population of 47,319 (census 2001). ==Government== ''See also: [[List of Mayors and Lord Mayors of Hobart]]'' The greater Hobart area today is covered by five [[Local Government Areas of Tasmania\|local government areas]] - the '''City of Hobart''', [[Glenorchy, Tasmania\|City of Glenorchy]] and [[City of Clarence]], as well as a small part of [[Municipality of Kingborough\|Kingborough]] and [[Brighton, Tasmania\|Brighton municipalities]]. The City of Hobart is governed by twelve aldermen, headed by the Lord Mayor of Hobart [[Rob Valentine]]. Councillors are elected biennially. ==Economy and tourism== This picturesque little city is a busy seaport, notably serving as the home port for Australia's (and [[France\|France's]]) [[Antarctica\|Antarctic]] activities. It supports several other industries, including a high-speed [[catamaran]] factory and a [[zinc]] smelter, as well as a vibrant tourist industry. Visitors come to the city to explore its historic inner suburbs, to visit the weekly craft market in [[Salamanca, Tasmania\|Salamanca Place]], as well as to use the town as a base from which to explore the rest of Tasmania. The world leader in high speed catamaran ferries, [http://www.incat.com.au/intro.html InCat] is based here. Other local attractions include the [[Australia\|Australian]] [[Cadbury-Schweppes\|Cadbury]] chocolate factory, and for a day trip places like [[Port Arthur, Tasmania\|Port Arthur]], and the [[tessellate]]d pavement, the [[Huon Valley]], the [[Tahune]] Forest Air Walk, [[Cockle Creek]] (the southernmost point reachable by car) and the walk to [[South Cape Bay Beach]] which also forms part of a 6 day walk to South Western [[Tasmania]]. The [[Cascade Brewery]] is located in [[South Hobart, Tasmania\|South Hobart]], near the natural spring waters of [[Mount Wellington, Tasmania\|Mount Wellington]]. The Hobart surrounding area has many vineyards, including [[Moorilla Estate]] at [[Berriedale, Tasmania\|Berriedale]]. Nationally known bootmaker [[Blundstones]] is based in [[Moonah, Tasmania\|Moonah]] in the northern suburbs. National lottery company [[Tattersalls]] was founded by [[George Adams (businessman)\|George Adams]] in Hobart but is now based in [[Melbourne]]. The [[Royal Tasmanian Botanical Gardens]] is a popular recreation area a short distance from the City centre. It is the second-oldest Botanic Gardens in [[Australia]] and holds extensive significant plant collections as well as built heritage. ==Events== [[Image:Hobart_Marina_MTWellington.jpg\|250px\|thumb\|right\|View of [[Hobart]] and [[Mt Wellington]] from Constitution Dock]] Hobart is internationally famous among the yachting fraternity as the finish of the [[Sydney to Hobart Yacht Race]] which starts in [[Sydney]] on Boxing Day (the day after Christmas Day). The arrival of the yachts is celebrated as part of the [[Hobart Summer Festival]], a food and wine festival beginning just after Christmas and ending in mid January. The [[Taste of Tasmania]] is a major part of the festival, where locals and visitors can taste fine local and international food and wine. Hobart is the finish point of the [[Targa Tasmania]] rally car event held annually in April since 1991. The annual [[Tulip]] Festival at the [[Royal Tasmanian Botanical Gardens]] is a popular Spring celebration in the City. ==Entertainment== Australia's first legal [[casino]] was the 17-storey [[Wrest Point Hotel Casino]] in [[Sandy Bay, Tasmania\|Sandy Bay]], opened in 1973. It is still the tallest building in the city, despite being several kilometres out of the CBD, and a nationally recognised icon. Popular restaurant strips include [[Elizabeth Street, Hobart\|Elizabeth Street]], in [[North Hobart, Tasmania\|North Hobart]] and [[Salamanca, Tasmania\|Salamanca Place]] near the waterfront. These include a large number of ethnic restaurants including [[Chinese food\|Chinese]], [[Thai food\|Thai]], [[Greek food\|Greek]], [[Italian food\|Italian]], [[Indian food\|Indian]] and [[Mexican food\|Mexican]]. Several [[pubs]] and nightclubs can be found concentrated in the city and waterfront area. Hobart is home to Australia's oldest [[theatre]], the [[Theatre Royal, Hobart\|Theatre Royal]]. It also has three [[Village Cinema]] complexes, one in the city, and two in [[Glenorchy, Tasmania\|Glenorchy]] and [[Rosny, Tasmania\|Rosny]]. Hobart is home to the [[Tasmanian Symphony Orchestra]], which is resident at the [[Federation Concert Hall]] on the City's waterfront. It offers a year-round program of concerts. ==Media== Hobart's major newspaper is [[The Mercury]], which was founded by [[John Davies (publisher)\|John Davies]] in 1854 and has been continuall
fined)\| skewness =(not defined)\| kurtosis =(not defined)\| entropy =<math>\ln(4\,\pi\,\gamma)\!</math>\| mgf =(not defined)\| char =<math>\exp(x_0\,i\,t-\gamma\,\|t\|)\!</math> }} The '''Cauchy-Lorentz distribution''', named after [[Augustin Cauchy]] and [[Hendrik Lorentz]], is a continuous [[probability distribution]] with [[probability density function]] :<math> f(x; x_0,\gamma) = \frac{1}{\pi\gamma \left[1 + \left(\frac{x-x_0}{\gamma}\right)^2\right]} = { 1 \over \pi } \left[ { \gamma \over (x - x_0)^2 + \gamma^2 } \right] \!</math> where ''x''<sub>0</sub> is the [[location parameter]], specifying the location of the peak of the distribution, and ''&gamma;'' is the [[scale parameter]] which specifies the half-width at half-maximum (HWHM). As a probability distribution, it is known as the '''Cauchy distribution''' while among physicists it is known as the '''Lorentz distribution''' or the '''Breit-Wigner''' distribution. Its importance in [[physics]] is largely due to the fact that it is the solution to the [[differential equation]] describing forced [[resonance]]. In [[spectroscopy]] it is the description of the line shape of spectral lines which are broadened by many mechanisms including resonance broadening. The statistical term ''Cauchy distribution'' will be used in the following discussion. The special case when ''x''<sub>0</sub> = 0 and ''&gamma;'' = 1 is called the '''standard Cauchy distribution''' with the probability density function :<math> f(x; 0,1) = \frac{1}{\pi (1 + x^2)}. \!</math> ==Properties== Since it is a distribution function, it [[integral\|integrates]] to unity: :<math>\int_{-\infty}^\infty f(x; x_0,\gamma)\,dx=1. \!</math> The cumulative distribution function is: :<math>F(x; x_0,\gamma)=\frac{1}{\pi} \arctan\left(\frac{x-x_0}{\gamma}\right)+\frac{1}{2}</math> and the inverse cumulative distribution function of the Cauchy distribution is :<math>F^{-1}(p; x_0,\gamma) = x_0 + \gamma\,\tan(\pi\,(p-1/2)). \!</math> The Cauchy distribution is often cited as an example of a distribution which has no [[mean]], [[variance]] or higher [[moment (mathematics)\|moments]] defined, although its [[mode (statistics)\|mode]] and [[median]] are well defined and are both equal to x<sub>0</sub>. The [[Characteristic function (probability theory)\|characteristic function]] of the Cauchy distribution is well defined: :<math>\phi_x(t; x_0,\gamma) = \mathrm{E}(e^{i\,x\,t}) = \exp(i\,x_0\,t-\gamma\,\|t\|). \!</math> When ''U'' and ''V'' are two independent [[normal distribution\|normally distributed]] [[random variable]]s with [[expected value]] 0 and [[variance]] 1, then the ratio ''U''/''V'' has the standard Cauchy distribution. If ''X''<sub>1</sub>, &hellip;, ''X''<sub>''n''</sub> are [[independent and identically distributed]] random variables, each with a standard Cauchy distribution, then the [[Arithmetic mean\|sample mean]] (''X''<sub>1</sub> + &hellip; + ''X''<sub>''n''</sub>)/''n'' has the same standard Cauchy distribution. To see that this is true, compute the [[Characteristic function (probability theory)\|characteristic function]] of the sample mean: :<math>\phi_\overline{X}(t) = \mathrm{E}\left(e^{i\,\overline{X}\,t}\right) \!</math> where <math>\overline{X}</math> is the sample mean. This example serves to show that the hypothesis of finite variance in the [[central limit theorem]] cannot be dropped. It is also an example of a more generalized version of the central limit theorem that is characteristic of all [[Lévy skew alpha-stable distribution]]s, of which the Cauchy distribution is a special case. The Cauchy distribution is an [[infinite divisibility\|infinitely divisible]] probability distribution. It is also a strictly [[stability (probability)\|stable]] distribution. The standard Cauchy distribution coincides with the [[Student's t-distribution]] with one degree of freedom. The [[location-scale family]] to which the Cauchy distribution belongs is closed under [[Möbius transformation\|linear fractional transformations]] with [[real number\|real]] coefficients. In this connection, see also [[McCullagh's parametrization of the Cauchy distributions]]. ==Why the mean of the Cauchy distribution is undefined== If a [[probability distribution]] has a [[probability density function\|density function]] ''f''(''x'') then the mean or [[expected value]] is :<math>\int_{-\infty}^\infty x f(x)\,dx. \qquad\qquad (1)\!</math> The question is now whether this is the same thing as :<math>\int_0^\infty x f(x)\,dx-\int_{-\infty}^0 \|{x}\| f(x)\,dx.\qquad\qquad (2) \!</math> If both the positive and negative terms in (2) are finite, then (1) is the same as (2). If either the positive term or the negative term is infinite, then (1) is the same as (2) (and is infinite, with either a positive or a negative sign). But in the case of the Cauchy distribution, both are infinite. This means (2) is undefined. Moreover, if (1) is construed as a [[Lebesgue integral]], then (1) is also undefined, since (1) is then defined simply as the difference (2) between positive and negative parts. However, if (1) is construed as an [[improper integral]] rather than a Lebesgue integral, then (2) is undefined, and (1) is not necessarily well-defined. We may take (1) to mean :<math>\lim_{a\to\infty}\int_{-a}^a x f(x)\,dx, \!</math> and this is its [[Cauchy principal value]], which is zero, but we could also take (1) to mean, for example, :<math>\lim_{a\to\infty}\int_{-2a}^a x f(x)\,dx, \!</math> which is ''not'' zero, as can be seen easily by computing the integral. Various results in probability theory about expected values, such as the strong [[law of large numbers]], will not work in such cases. ==Why the second moment of the Cauchy distribution is infinite== Without a defined mean, it is impossible to consider the [[variance]] or [[standard deviation]] of a standard Cauchy distribution. But the second moment about zero can be considered. It turns out to be [[infinite]]: :<math>\mathrm{E}(X^2) \propto \int_{-\infty}^{\infty} {x^2 \over 1+x^2}\,dx = \int_{-\infty}^{\infty} dx - \int_{-\infty}^{\infty} {1 \over 1+x^2}\,dx = \infty -\pi. \!</math> == Relationship to other distributions == Relation to [[Lévy skew alpha-stable distribution]]: if <math>X\sim \textrm{Levy-S}\alpha\textrm{S}(1,0,\gamma,\mu)</math> then <math>X \sim \textrm{Cauchy}(\mu,\gamma)</math>. ==See also== [[McCullagh's parametrization of the Cauchy distributions]] == External links == * [http://mathworld.wolfram.com/CauchyDistribution.html MathWorld Cauchy Distribution] * [http://www.gnu.org/software/gsl/manual/gsl-ref.html#SEC294 GNU Scientific Library - Reference Manual] [[Category:Continuous distributions]] [[de:Cauchy-Verteilung]] [[es:Distribución de Cauchy]] [[it:Variabile casuale di Cauchy]] [[pl:Rozkład Cauchy'ego]] [[su:Sebaran Cauchy]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Choosing summary statistics</title> <id>7004</id> <revision> <id>15905109</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Dreamyshade</username> <id>32</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>redirect to summary statistics</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Summary statistics]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Christopher Houston</title> <id>7007</id> <revision> <id>15905110</id> <timestamp>2002-08-18T20:28:22Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ortolan88</username> <id>1325</id> </contributor> <comment>reversing erroneous redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Kit Carson]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Contraceptive</title> <id>7009</id> <revision> <id>15905112</id> <timestamp>2002-03-15T08:00:29Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>AxelBoldt</username> <id>2</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>*</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Birth control]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Craggy Island</title> <id>7010</id> <revision> <id>39999094</id> <timestamp>2006-02-17T11:28:02Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>213.94.242.128</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Craggy Island''' is a fictional island off the west coast of [[Ireland]] and is used as the principal external setting for [[Father Ted]] in the [[television]] series of the same name. Craggy Island is an unpleasant place, not to be found on any map; the residents believe maps are more the area of flashy cities such as [[New York City]]. It has only a North, South and East side, the West side of the island having broken off in a storm. However, Ted assures visitors that it was lovely. Because of its remoteness to anything resembling civilization, it was the perfect location to send Father Ted, [[Father Dougal]], and [[Father Jack]] for punishment because of past transgressions. The island is populated by many eccentrics and has no landmarks. Some claim the island itself is a bit of a landmark, as sailors use it as a directional point, the general rule being that if you're going away from it, you're going in the right direction. The sea around is also a dumping ground for nuclear waste, accroding to Fr. Crilly. Craggy Island is home to very little entertainment and very little crime, but does have its own newspaper, the "Craggy Island Examiner." Upon the theft of the whistle of Mr. Benson, the gentleman who monitors the picnic spot from his shack, the newspa
[http://www.blueoystercult.com/ Official Blue Öyster Cult web site] [http://www.rockreviews.co.uk Rock Reviews] [http://members.aol.com/bocfaqman/ The BÖC FAQ MAN] - Frequently Asked Questions ==External links== [http://www.blueoystercult.com/Studio/BOC_Discography.pdf Official Blue Öyster Cult discography] ([[Portable Document Format\|PDF]]; requires [[Adobe Acrobat\|Adobe Reader]]) [http://www.bocfans.com/ BOCfans.com] (Bulletin board, bios, pics, FAQ, and discography) [http://www.flamingtelepaths.com/ Flamingtelepaths.com] - BOC fan sites, with blog * [http://www.rockpages.gr/tributes/blueoystercult-en.htm Rockpages.gr] - Band history === Band member sites === [http://www.buckdharma.com/ Official Buck Dharma site] [http://www.ericbloom.net/ Official Eric Bloom site] [http://www.richiecastellano.com/ Official Richie Castellano site] [http://www.hotrails.co.uk/ BOC Gig lists and reviews] ([http://www.hotrails.co.uk/bds/ Joe Bouchard fan page]) ([http://www.hotrails.co.uk/tbs/ Albert Bouchard Fan page]) [[Category:American musical groups]] [[Category:Rock music groups]] [[de:Blue Öyster Cult]] [[fr:Blue Öyster Cult]] [[he:בלו אויסטר קאלט]] [[ru:Рондинелли, Бобби]] [[simple:Blue Öyster Cult]] [[fi:Blue Öyster Cult]] [[sv:Blue Öyster Cult]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Battery Park City</title> <id>4580</id> <revision> <id>41658736</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T21:36:30Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Richard Arthur Norton (1958- )</username> <id>158051</id> </contributor> <comment>{{Manhattan}}</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Battery Park City''' is a 90 acre (0.4 km&sup2;) [[planned community]] at the southwestern tip of [[Manhattan]] in [[New York City]], [[United States]]. The land upon which it stands was created from the [[Hudson River]] using 1.2 million cubic yards (917,000 cubic meters) of dirt and rocks excavated during the construction of the [[World Trade Center]] and certain other construction projects. The neighborhood, which is the site of the [[World Financial Center]] along with numerous housing, commercial and retail buildings, is named for adjacent [[Battery Park (New York)\|Battery Park]]. Battery Park City is owned and managed by the [[Battery Park City Authority]], a [[public-benefit corporation]] created by New York State. Excess revenue from the area is contributed to other housing efforts, typically low-income projects in the [[Bronx]] and [[Harlem, Manhattan\|Harlem]]. ==Geography== Battery Park City is bounded on the east by West Street, which insulates the area from the [[Financial District (Manhattan)\|Financial District]] of downtown Manhattan. To the west, north and south, the area is surrounded by the tidal estuary of the Hudson River. The development consists of roughly five major sections. Traveling North to South, the first neighborhood, the "North Residential Neighborhood," consists of high-rise residential buildings, a large hotel and a mall (currently occupied by a movie theater, restaurants and a discount store for leather goods and accessories). Former parkland in the area is being converted into high-rise buildings. Immediately to the South lies the [[World Financial Center]], a complex of several commercial buildings occupied by tenants including [[American Express]], [[Dow Jones & Company]], [[Merrill Lynch]] and [[Deloitte & Touche]]. The World Financial Center's ground floor and portions of the second floor are occupied by a mall; its center point is a steel-and-glass atrium known as the [[Winter Garden]]. Outside of the Winter Garden lies a sizeable [[yacht]] harbor on the Hudson known as [[North Cove]]. South of the World Financial Center lies the majority of Battery Park City's residential areas, in three sections: "Gateway Plaza", a high-rise building complex; the "Rector Place Residential Neighborhood" and the "Battery Place Residential Neighborhood", mostly low-rise building complexes. These neighborhoods contain most of the area's residential buildings, along with park space and various types of supporting businesses ([[supermarket]]s, [[restaurant]]s, [[movie theatre]]s.) Construction of residential buildings began north of the World Financial Center in the late 1990s. ==History== By the late 1950s, the once prosperous port area of downtown Manhattan was occupied by a number of dilapidated shipping piers, casualties of the rise of air transport. The initial proposal to reclaim this area through landfill was offered in the early 1960s by private firms and supported by the Mayor. This plan became complicated when Governor [[Nelson Rockefeller]] announced his desire to redevelop a part of the area as a separate project. The various groups reached a compromise, and in [[1966]] the governor unveiled the proposal for what would become Battery Park City. The creation of architect [[Wallace K. Harrison]], the proposal called for a 'comprehensive community' consisting of housing, social infrastructure and light industry. In [[1968]], the [[New York State Legislature]] created the [[Battery Park City Authority]] (BPCA) to oversee development. For the next several years, the BPCA made slow progress. In [[1969]], it unveiled a master plan for the area, and in [[1972]] issued $200 million in bonds to fund construction efforts. By [[1976]] the landfill was completed; in many cases, the pre-existing piers were simply buried. Construction efforts ground to a halt for nearly two years beginning in [[1977]], as a result of city-wide financial hardships. In [[1979]], the title to the landfill was transferred from the city to the BPCA, which financially restructured itself and created a new, more limited master plan. Construction began on the first residential building in [[1980]], followed in [[1981]] with the start of construction on the World Financial Center, which saw its first tenants in [[1985]]. Throughout the 1980s, the BPCA oversaw a great deal of construction, including the entire [[Rector Place]] neighborhood and the river Esplanade. In the early 1990s, Battery Park City became the new home of the [[Stuyvesant High School]]. By the turn of the century, Battery Park City was mostly completed, with the exception of some ongoing construction on West Street. Current residential neighborhoods of Battery Park City are divided into a north and south section, separated by the World Financial Center Complex. The southern section, extending down from the Winter Garden, is the more densly populated region, containing Gateway Plaza, and Rector Place apartment buildings. The northern section, although still under very large construction, consists entirely of large, 20-45 story buildings which are all various shades of orange brick. The [[September 11, 2001 attacks]] had a major impact on Battery Park City. More than two thirds of the area's residents fled after the adjacent [[World Trade Center\|Trade Center]] towers collapsed. Gateway Plaza, the largest of the residential buildings, was punctured by airplane parts, and the Winter Garden was severely damaged. Environmental concerns regarding dust from the Trade Center have also been a continuing source of worry. Since the attacks, much of the damage has been repaired; reduced rents and government subsidies have gone a long way to restoring residential occupancy. ==External links== [http://www.batteryparkcity.org Battery Park City Authority] [http://www.nycfoto.com/showPage.php?albumID=196 NYCfoto.com] Photos of Battery Park City *[http://batteryparkcityonline.com Battery Park City ONLINE] Community Web-site {{New York City}} [[Category:Manhattan neighborhoods]] [[es:Battery Park City]] [[fr:Battery Park City]] {{Manhattan}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bacterial vaginosis</title> <id>4581</id> <revision> <id>40818564</id> <timestamp>2006-02-23T05:21:26Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Girlstyle</username> <id>697996</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{DiseaseDisorder infobox \| Name = Bacterial vaginosis \| ICD10 = {{ICD10\|B\|96\|\|b\|95}}, {{ICD10\|N\|76\|\|n\|70}} \| ICD9 = {{ICD9\|616.1}} \| }} '''Bacterial vaginosis (BV)''' is the most common cause of vaginal infection ([[vaginitis]]). ==Symptoms and signs== The commonest symptom of BV is an abnormal [[vaginal discharge]] with an unpleasant fishy smell. However, half of all [[women]] with BV don't notice any symptoms. [[Clue cells]] can also be used in diagnosis. ==Causes== A healthy vagina normally contains many [[microorganisms]], one of the common ones being [[Lactobacillus acidophilus]]. Lactobacillus appears to help prevent other vaginal microorganisms from multiplying to a level where they cause symptoms. The microorganisms involved in BV include [[Gardnerella vaginalis]], [[Mobiluncus]], [[Bacteroides]], and [[Mycoplasma]]. For reasons not well understood, the numbers of these organisms increase with BV while the number of lactobacillus organisms decreases. Most cases of bacterial vaginosis occur in sexually active women between the ages of 15 and 44, especially after contact with a new partner. [[Condom]]s do not appear to provide protection, but use of [[spermicide]]s increases BV risk somewhat. Although BV appears to be associated with and triggered by [[sexual intercourse]], there is no clear evidence of sexual transmission. Rather, BV is a disordering of the chemical and biological balance of the [[normal flora]]. Recent research is exploring the link between sexual partner treatment and eradication of recurrent cases of BV. [[Pregnancy\|Pregnant]] women and women with a [[sexually transmitted disease]] are especially at risk for getting this infection. Bacterial vaginosis does not usually affect women after [[menopause]]. ==Treatment== Bacterial vaginosis can
nces, especially with reference to certain goods, services and institutions. Examples that would come into everyday conversation include: To '''banjax''' something is to break it, ruin it, or render it incapable of use. As in "My mobile's been banjaxed since I dropped it in the toilet." '''Bold''' describes someone (usually a child) who is impudent, naughty or badly behaved. '''Crack''' or '''craic''' is a good time, good company, good atmosphere and conversation. If you are enjoying yourself, it is good craic. [http://globalgateway.monster.ie/nationaltour_culture_culture.asp] The word may also be used to refer to events, news, or gossip, as in the phrases '''what's the craic?''' and '''how's the craic?'''. '''College''', more like American English than British English, would usually be referring to any sort of third-level education, be it college, university or [[Regional Technical College\|Institute of Technology]]. This is because the [[Leaving Certificate Examinations]] (the rough equivalent of [[A-levels]] or [[NVQ]]s in the UK) are taken in secondary school in Ireland, so there is no intermediary college like sixth-form colleges in Britain. (The probable origin of this usage is that, until the 1970s, the only [[tertiary education]] available was at university level, through the Colleges (Dublin, Cork, Galway, Maynooth) of the [[National University of Ireland]] or [[Trinity College, Dublin\|Trinity College, Dublin University]] or the [[Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland]]. '''Couple''' often means "a few", somewhere between two and (?) four or five - whereas in British and American English it means precisely two. '''Cute''' can mean shrewd or clever, as in "cute hoor". '''Delph''' meaning [[Dishware]], occasionally meaning [[artificial teeth]]. ''From the name of the original source of supply, [[Delft]] in [[the Netherlands]]. See [[Delftware]].'' '''Dinner''' can often still mean the meal eaten in the middle of the day, especially in rural Ireland. '''[[Electricity Supply Board\|ESB]]''' (Electricity Supply Board), being the only national electricity supplier in Ireland, is regularly used in reference to this type of service. Whereas in other countries one would use the term "mains supply" or "power supply" when referring to the electricity supply that comes to their house/business, in Ireland a lot of people would say "ESB supply". '''Flag''' can mean the conventional [[Flag]] it can also be a [[Flagstone]] '''Footpath''' is used in Ireland where "pavement" is in British English and "sidewalk" in American English. '''Guards''' refers to the [[Garda Síochana]], the Republic's police force, the equivalent in Irish '''Gardaí''' being used more formally, usually in the media. The singular '''Garda''' is widely used, the female equivalent, '''Bangharda''' less so. The word "police" generally refers to police in other countries. '''Grand''' can be used as a response to refer to a person or thing as being alright, for instance, "I'm grand" or "That's grand". '''Handy''' has more meanings in Hiberno-Irish than just "useful": it usually also means "great", "terrific". It is also used to describe a person's skill at a particular task; "Paul is pretty handy with a golf club" meaning "Paul is a good golfer". '''Hiace''' (as in [[Toyota Hiace]]) is used by many to refer to any light commercial van, much like "Transit" or "Transit van" (as in [[Ford Transit]]) in the UK. '''Jacks''' : toilet, usually in a pub or similar. As in "mind my handbag while I go to the jacks". From 16th century English "Jakes". ('''mind''' means "look after") the words Bog and Loo are also used. '''Jeep''', much like "Hiace", is used by many to refer to any sort of off road vehicle, be it a small 4x4 like a [[Suzuki Jimny]] or large SUV like a long [[wheelbase]] [[Mitsubishi Pajero]]. This comes from U.S. military usage of the term, while, oddly enough, actual [[Chrysler]] [[Jeep]]s were never officially sold in Ireland until the 1990s, and the word was just as common before then. '''Messages''' means [[groceries]] or [[errands]]. ''She's gone to the shop to get the messages.'' ''I had a few messages to do in town.'' '''Minerals''' means [[soft drinks]] '''Oul' fella''' and '''oul' wan''' are used to describe one's father or mother respectively. '''Oxter''' means [[Armpit]] ''He had a book under his oxter.'' (sounds similar to the [[german language\|German]] ''Achsel'' (axel)) '''Press''' is almost invariably used instead of [[Cupboard]]. The hot press is the airing cupboard. '''Rubber''' means an eraser (not a [[condom]]!) (Note to American readers: this is standard British English too) '''Runners''' or '''tackies''', or in the north '''gutties''', refers to "trainers" (British English) or "sneakers" (American English). '''[[Scallion]]''' is almost always used instead of Spring Onion (British English) or Green Onion (American English). However, since the proliferation of British supermarkets such as [[Tesco Ireland]], some people have also started to use the term Spring Onion. '''Scoop''' is used to describe an alcoholic bevarage i.e. "Going for a few scoops". It is rarely, if ever, used in the singular (for example "I left my scoop on the table" is not a phrase that would ever be used). Also used is the word '''Jars''' (giving rise to the expression to be intoxicated '''jarred'''), usually referring to pints (of [[Guinness]]) '''[[Tayto]]''' (an Irish brand of potato crisps) has become synonymous with any sort of crisps, regardless of brand. In Dublin, especially in working class areas, the alternative '''crips''' is commonly used (as in ''"Get us a packet o' crips will ye?"'') '''Tin''' means "can", especially for processed foods. ''Give us a tin of beans.'' "Can" is usually reserved for soft drinks or beer/cider. '''Topper''', '''pointer''' and '''parer''' are often used to refer to a "pencil sharpener". '''Wean''' an abbreviated form of the [[Scots language\|Scots]] '''wee ane''', is used to refer to a child, but almost exclusively in [[Ulster]] and north [[Leinster]]. ==See also== The lists at [[Wiktionary]], the free dictionary and Wikipedia's sibling project: * [[Wiktionary:Category:Irish language\|list of Irish words]] [[Wiktionary:Category:Irish derivations\|list of words of Irish origin]] [[Wiktionary:Category:Scots language\|list of Scots words]] [[Wiktionary:Category:Scots derivations\|list of words of Scots origin]] [[Wiktionary:Category:Scottish Gaelic language\|list of Scottish Gaelic words]] ** [[Wiktionary:Category:Scottish Gaelic derivations\|list of words of Scottish Gaelic origin]] [[List of English words of Irish origin]] [[Regional accents of English speakers]] [[Ulster Scots language\|Ulster Scots]] [[Mid Ulster English]] *[[English speaking Europe]] [[Category:Languages of Ireland]] [[Category:English language]] [[Category:Forms of English]] [[de:Hiberno-Englisch]] [[es:Inglés en Irlanda]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Harmonic analysis</title> <id>14147</id> <revision> <id>37362249</id> <timestamp>2006-01-30T14:50:57Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Chlewbot</username> <id>620581</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Adding: tr Modifying: it</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Harmonic analysis''' is the branch of [[mathematics]] which studies the representation of functions or signals as the superposition of basic [[wave]]s. It investigates and generalizes the notions of [[Fourier series]] and [[Fourier transform]]s. The basic waves are called "[[harmonic]]s", hence the name "harmonic analysis." In the past two centuries, it has become a vast subject with applications in areas as diverse as [[signal processing]], [[quantum mechanics]], and [[neuroscience]]. The classical Fourier transform on '''R'''<sup>''n''</sup> is still an area of ongoing research, particularly concerning Fourier transformation on more general objects such as [[tempered distribution]]s. For instance, if we impose some requirements on a distribution f, we can attempt to translate these requirements in terms of the Fourier transform of f. The [[Paley-Wiener theorem]] is an example of this. The Paley-Wiener theorem immediately implies that if f is a nonzero [[distribution (mathematics)\|distribution]] of [[compact support]] (these include functions of compact support), then its Fourier transform is never compactly supported. This is a very elementary form of an [[uncertainty principle]] in a harmonic analysis setting. See also [[classic harmonic analysis]]. Fourier series can be conveniently studied in the context of [[Hilbert space]]s, which provides a connection between harmonic analysis and [[functional analysis]]. ==Abstract harmonic analysis== One of the more modern branches of harmonic analysis, having its roots in the mid-twentieth century, is [[mathematical analysis\|analysis]] on [[topological group]]s. The core motivating idea are the various [[Fourier transform]]s, which can be generalized to a transform of [[function (mathematics)\|function]]s defined on [[local compactness\|locally compact groups]]. The theory for [[abelian group\|abelian]] locally compact groups is called [[Pontryagin duality]]; it is considered to be in a satisfactory state, as far as explaining the main features of harmonic analysis goes. It is developed in detail on its dedicated page. Harmonic analysis studies the properties of that duality and Fourier transform; and attempts to extend those features to different settings, for instance to the case of non-abelian [[Lie gr
2003) farm scale studies in the [[United Kingdom\|UK]] found this to be the case with GM [[sugar beet]] and GM [[rapeseed]], but not with GM maize (though in the last instance, the non-GM comparison maize crop had also been treated with environmentally-damaging pesticides subsequently (2004) withdrawn from use in the [[EU]]). Proponents of current genetic techniques as applied to food plants cite the benefits that the technology can have, for example, in the harsh agricultural conditions of [[Africa]]. They say that with modifications, existing crops would be able to thrive under the relatively hostile conditions providing much needed food to their people. Proponents also cite [[golden rice]] and golden rice 2, genetically engineered rice varieties (still under development) that contain elevated vitamin A levels. There is hope that this rice may alleviate vitamin A deficiency that contributes to the death of millions and permanent blindness of 500,000 annually. Proponents say that genetically-engineered crops are not significantly different from those modified by nature or humans in the past, and are as safe or even safer than such methods. There is gene transfer between unicellular [[eukaryote]]s and [[prokaryote]]s. There have been no known genetic catastrophes as a result of this. They argue that [[animal husbandry]] and [[crop breeding]] are also forms of genetic engineering that use [[artificial selection]] instead of modern genetic modification techniques. It is politics, they argue, not economics or science, that causes their work to be closely investigated, and for different standards to apply to it than those applied to other forms of agricultural technology. Proponents also note that species or genera barriers have been crossed in nature in the past. An oft-cited example is today's modern red wheat variety, which is the result of two natural crossings made long ago. It is made up of three groups of seven chromosomes. Each of those three groups came from a different wild wheat grass. First, a cross between two of the grasses occurred, creating the [[durum wheat]]s, which were the commercial grains of the first civilizations up through the [[Roman Republic]]. Then a cross occurred between that 14-chromosome durum wheat and another wild grass to create what became modern red wheat at the time of the [[Roman Empire]]. === Economic and political effects === * Many opponents of current genetic engineering believe the increasing use of GM in major crops has caused a power shift in agriculture towards Biotechnology companies gaining excessive control over the production chain of crops and food, and over the farmers that use their products, as well. * Many proponents of current genetic engineering techniques believe it will lower pesticide usage and has brought higher yields and profitability to many farmers, including those developing nations. A few GM licenses allow farmers in less economically developed countries to save seeds for next year's planting. * In August 2002, [[Zambia]] cut off the flow of [[Genetically Modified Food]] (mostly [[maize]]) from [[UN]]'s [[World Food Program]]. Although there were claims that this left a famine-stricken population without food aid, the U.N. program succeeded in replacing the rejected grain with other sources, including some foods purchased locally with European cash donations. In rejecting the maize, Zambians cited the "Precautionary Principle" and also the desire to protect future possibilities of grain exports to Europe. * In December 2005 the Zambian government changed its mind in the face of further famine and allowed the importation of GM maize [http://www.consumerfreedom.com/news_detail.cfm?headline=2936] * In April 2004 [[Hugo Chávez]] announced a total ban on genetically modified seeds in [[Venezuela]]. * In January 2005, the [[Hungary\|Hungarian]] government announced a ban on importing and planting of genetic modified maize seeds, although these were authorised by the EU. [http://www.eu.greenpeace.org/downloads/gmo/PRonHungaryBan.pdf] == See also == * [[List of genetic engineering topics]] * [[Biorobotics]] * [[Cloning]] * [[Gene therapy]] * [[Genetically modified food]] * [[Genetically modified organism]] * [[Genetic engineering in fiction]] * [[Germinal choice technology]] * [[Human genetic engineering]] * [[Human Genome Project]] * [[Plant breeding]] * [[PNA]] * [[Protein engineering]] * [[Reprogenetics]] * [[Substantial equivalence]] * [[Stem Cells]] * [[Transformation (genetics)\|Transformation]] * [[Transgenic plant]] ==References== <references/> ==External links== {{wiktionary\|genetic engineering}} [http://www.gene-watch.org Council for Responsible Genetics] - Council for Responsible Genetics [http://www.royalsoc.ac.uk/gmplants/ Debate on the genetic modification of plants] [http://www.vega.org.uk/series/tnbt/gmfoods/index.php Round table discussion from the Vega Science Trust] [http://www.fao.org/ag/ FAO Agriculture Department] and its [http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/y5160e/y5160e00.HTM SOFA report on Agricultural Biotechnology] addressing the methods used in genetic engineering [http://www.greenfacts.org/gmo/index.htm Genetically Engineered Crops] &ndash; A summary for non-specialists of the above FAO report by [[GreenFacts]]. [http://biosci.umn.edu/~pregal/ryanpromoter.htm CaMV Promoter is A Recombination Hotspot - No Transgenic Plant Containing CaMV Promoter Should be Released]; also [http://www.biotech-info.net/CMV.pdf] as a [[PDF]] [http://www.i-sis.org.uk/list.shtml Open Letter from Scientists to All Governments calling for a moratorium on GE technology] (825 Names) [http://www.agbioworld.org/declaration/index.html Petition from Scientists In Support Of Agricultural Biotechnology]. (3400 names) *[http://www.monbiot.com/archives/2002/05/14/the-fake-persuaders/ The Fake Persuaders] article by [[George Monbiot]], published in ''[[The Guardian]]'', on [[Monsanto]]'s use of [[viral marketing]] and its role in shaping scientific discourse on native maize contamination. [[Category:Biotechnology]] [[Category:Ethics]] [[Category:Genetic engineering]] [[Category:Molecular genetics]] [[da:Gensplejsning]] [[de:Gentechnik]] [[es:Ingeniería genética]] [[eo:Gentekniko]] [[id:Rekayasa genetika]] [[fr:Transgénèse]] [[he:הנדסה גנטית]] [[nl:Genetische manipulatie]] [[nn:Gensløyd]] [[pl:Inżynieria genetyczna]] [[ru:Генная инженерия]] [[sr:Генетски инжењеринг]] [[fi:Geenitekniikka]] [[sv:Genetisk modifiering]] [[vi:Kỹ thuật di truyền]] [[tr:Genetik mühendisliği]] [[zh:基因工程]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gettysburg Address</title> <id>12384</id> <revision> <id>42112558</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:25:27Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Toya</username> <id>316173</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Lincolnatgettysburg.jpg\|thumb\|250px\|The only known photo of [[Abraham Lincoln]] at [[Gettysburg]] (seated, center), taken about noon, just after Lincoln arrived and some three hours before he spoke. To Lincoln's right is his bodyguard, [[Ward Hill Lamon]]. ([[Media:Lincolnatgettysburgbig.jpg\|full view]])]] The '''Gettysburg Address''' is the most famous speech of [[President of the United States\|U.S. President]] [[Abraham Lincoln]] and one of the most quoted famous speeches in [[history of the United States\|United States history]]. It was delivered at the dedication of the [[Gettysburg National Cemetery\|Soldiers' National Cemetery]] in [[Gettysburg, Pennsylvania\|Gettysburg]], [[Pennsylvania]], on [[November 19]], [[1863]], during the [[American Civil War]], four and a half months after the [[Battle of Gettysburg]]. Lincoln's carefully crafted address, secondary to other presentations that day, has ultimately become regarded as one of the greatest speeches in American history. In fewer than 300 words delivered over two to three minutes, Lincoln invoked the principles of human equality espoused by the [[Declaration of Independence (United States)\|Declaration of Independence]] and redefined the Civil War as a struggle not merely for the [[United States\|Union]], but as "a new birth of [[freedom]]" that would bring true [[equality]] to all of its [[citizen]]s. Beginning with the now iconic phrase "four [[20 (number)\|score]] and seven years ago," Lincoln referred to the events of the [[American Revolution]] and described the ceremony at Gettysburg as an opportunity not only to dedicate the grounds of a cemetery, but also to consecrate the living in the struggle to ensure that "government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth." Despite the speech's prominent place in the history and popular culture of the United States, the exact wording of the speech is disputed. The five known manuscripts of the Gettysburg Address differ in a number of details and also differ from contemporary newspaper reprints of the speech. ==Background== [[Image:Battle of Gettysburg.jpg\|250px\|thumb\|right\|[[Union (American Civil War)\|Union]] dead at [[Battle of Gettysburg\|Gettysburg]], photographed by Timothy O'Sullivan, [[July 5]]&ndash;[[July 6]], [[1863]].]] [[Image:Gettsyburginvitationpage2.jpg\|150px\|thumb\|right\|David Wills's letter inviting [[Abraham Lincoln]] to make a few remarks, noting that [[Edward Everett]] would deliver the oration.]] The Battle of Gettysburg (July 1-3, 1863) forever changed the little town of Gettysburg. The battlefield contained the bodies of more than 7000 dead soldiers and several thousand horses of the Union's [[Army of the Potomac]] and the [[Confederate States of America\|Confederacy's]] [[Army of Northern Virginia]]. The stench of rotting bodies made many townspeople violently ill in the weeks following the battle, and the burial of the dead in a dignified and orderly manner became a high prior
a discussion of standards used for probability distribution articles such as this one. -->{{Probability distribution\| name =Binomial\| type =mass\| pdf_image =\| cdf_image =\| parameters =<math>n \geq 0</math> number of trials ([[integer]])<br /><math>0\leq p \leq 1</math> success probability ([[real number\|real]])\| support =<math>k \in \{0,\dots,n\}\!</math>\| pdf =<math>{n\choose k} p^k (1-p)^{n-k} \!</math>\| cdf =<math>I_{1-p}(n-\lfloor k\rfloor, 1+\lfloor k\rfloor) \!</math>\| mean =<math>n\,p\!</math>\| median =one of <math>\{\lfloor n\,p\rfloor-1, \lfloor n\,p\rfloor, \lfloor n\,p\rfloor+1\}</math>\| mode =<math>\lfloor (n+1)\,p\rfloor\!</math>\| variance =<math>n\,p\,(1-p)\!</math>\| skewness =<math>\frac{1-2\,p}{\sqrt{n\,p\,(1-p)}}\!</math>\| kurtosis =<math>\frac{1-6\,p\,(1-p)}{n\,p\,(1-p)}\!</math>\| entropy =\| mgf =<math>(1-p + p\,e^t)^n \!</math>\| char =<math>(1-p + p\,e^{i\,t})^n \!</math>\| }} :''See [[binomial (disambiguation)]] for a list of other topics using that name.'' In [[probability theory]] and [[statistics]], the '''binomial distribution''' is the discrete [[probability distribution]] of the number of successes in a sequence of ''n'' [[statistical independence\|independent]] yes/no experiments, each of which yields success with [[probability]] ''p''. Such a success/failure experiment is also called a Bernoulli experiment or [[Bernoulli trial]]. In fact, when ''n'' = 1, then the binomial distribution is the [[Bernoulli distribution]]. The binomial distribution is the basis for the popular [[binomial test]] of [[statistical significance]]. ==Occurrence== A typical example is the following: assume 5% of the population is HIV-positive. You pick 500 people randomly. How likely is it that you get 30 or more HIV-positives? The number of HIV-positives you pick is a [[random variable]] ''X'' which follows a binomial distribution with ''n'' = 500 and ''p'' = 0.05 (when picking the people with replacement). We are interested in the probability Pr[''X'' &ge; 30]. ==Specification== ===Probability mass function=== In general, if the random variable ''X'' follows the binomial distribution with parameters ''n'' and ''p'', we write ''X'' ~ B(''n'', ''p''). The probability of getting exactly ''k'' successes is given by the [[probability mass function]]: :<math>f(k;n,p)={n\choose k}p^k(1-p)^{n-k}\,</math> for <math>k=0,1,2,\dots,n</math> and where :<math>{n\choose k}=\frac{n!}{k!(n-k)!}</math> is the [[binomial coefficient]] "''n'' choose ''k''" (also denoted ''C''(''n'', ''k'') or ''n''C''k''), whence the name of the distribution. The formula can be understood as follows: we want ''k'' successes (''p''<sup>''k''</sup>) and ''n'' &minus; ''k'' failures ((1 &minus; ''p'')<sup>''n'' &minus; ''k''</sup>). However, the ''k'' successes can occur anywhere among the ''n'' trials, and there are C(''n'', ''k'') different ways of distributing ''k'' successes in a sequence of ''n'' trials. ===Distribution function=== The [[cumulative distribution function]] can be expressed in terms of the [[regularized incomplete beta function]], as follows: :<math> F(k;n,p) = I_{1-p}(n-k, k+1) \!</math>. For <math>k \leq n\,p</math>, [[Chernoff bound\|upper bounds]] for the lower tail of the distribution function can be derived. In particular, [[Hoeffding's inequality]] yields the bound :<math> F(k;n,p) \leq \exp\left(-2 \frac{(n\,p-k)^2}{n}\right), \!</math> and [[Chernoff's inequality]] can be used to derive the bound :<math> F(k;n,p) \leq \exp\left(-\frac{1}{2\,p} \frac{(n\,p-k)^2}{n}\right). \!</math> ==Mean, standard deviation, and mode== If ''X'' ~ B(''n'', ''p'') (that is, ''X'' is a binomially distributed random variate), then the [[expected value]] of ''X'' is :<math>E[X]=np\,</math> and the [[variance]] is :<math>\mbox{var}(X)=np(1-p).\,</math> This fact is easily proven as follows. Suppose first that we have exactly one Bernoulli trial. We have two possible outcomes, 1 and 0, with the first having probability ''p'' and the second having probability 1&nbsp;&minus;&nbsp;''p''; the mean for this trial is given by &mu;&nbsp;=&nbsp;''p''. Using the usual formula for standard deviation, we have :<math>\sigma = \sqrt{\sum_{k=1}^n (x_k - \mu)^2 f(x_k)} = \sqrt{(1 - p)^2p + (-p)^2(1 - p)} = \sqrt{p(1-p)} \Rightarrow \sigma^2 = p(1 - p).</math> Now suppose that we want the variance for ''n'' such trials (i.e. for the general binomial distribution). Since the trials are independent, we may add the variances for each trial, giving :<math>\sigma^2_n = \sum_{k=1}^n \sigma^2 = np(1 - p). \quad \Box</math> The most likely value or [[mode (statistics)\|mode]] of ''X'' is given by the largest integer less than or equal to (''n''&nbsp;+&nbsp;1)''p''; if ''m'' = (''n''&nbsp;+&nbsp;1)''p'' is itself an integer, then ''m''&nbsp;&minus;&nbsp;1 and ''m'' are both modes. ==Is it a binomial distribution? A [[mnemonic]]== Bi = Are there TWO possible outcomes? (i.e., yes or no, win or lose) Nom = Is there a fixed NUMBER of observations or items of interest? I = Is each observation INDEPENDENT? Al = Is the probability for ALL outcomes equal? (However, the letters ''nom'' are actually derived from a [[Latin]] word that means "name", not "number".) ==Relations to other distributions== If ''X'' ~ B(''n'', ''p'') and ''Y'' ~ B(''m'', ''p'') are independent binomial variables, then ''X'' + ''Y'' is again a binomial variable; its distribution is ::<math>X+Y \sim B(n+m, p).\,</math> :Two other important distributions arise as approximations of binomial distributions: [[image:BinDistApprox_large.png\|right\|250px\|thumb\|Binomial PDF and normal approximation for ''n'' = 6 and ''p'' = 0.5.]] If ''n'' is large enough and the skew of the distribution is not too great, then an excellent approximation(provided a suitable [[continuity correction]] is used) to B(''n'', ''p'') is given by the [[normal distribution]] ::<math> N(np, np(1-p)).\,</math> :Specifically, if both ''np'' and ''n''(1 &minus; ''p'') are greater than 5 (the specific number varies from source to source, and is arbitrary; some sources give 10), then the normal approximation is suitable. Another commonly used "rule" holds that the above normal approximation is appropriate only if ::<math>\mu \pm 3 \sigma = np \pm 3 \sqrt{np(1-p)} \in [0,n]</math>. :This approximation is a huge time-saver; historically, it was the first use of the normal distribution, introduced in [[Abraham de Moivre]]'s book ''[[The Doctrine of Chances]]'' in 1733. Nowadays, it can be seen as a consequence of the [[central limit theorem]] since B(''n'', ''p'') is a sum of ''n'' independent, identically distributed 0-1 [[indicator variable]]s. '''Warning:''' this approximation gives inaccurate results unless a [[continuity correction]] is used. '''Note:''' that the picture gives the normal and binomial [[probability density function]]s (PDF) and not the [[cumulative distribution function]]s. :For example, suppose you randomly sample ''n'' people out of a large population and ask them whether they agree with a certain statement. The proportion of people who agree will of course depend on the sample. If you sampled groups of ''n'' people repeatedly and truly randomly, the proportions would follow an approximate normal distribution with mean equal to the true proportion ''p'' of agreement in the population and with standard deviation &sigma; = (''p''(1 &minus; ''p'')/''n'')<sup>1/2</sup>. Large sample sizes ''n'' are good because the standard deviation gets smaller, which allows a more precise estimate of the unknown parameter ''p''. If ''n'' is large and ''p'' is small, so that ''np'' is of moderate size, then the [[Poisson distribution]] with parameter &lambda; = ''np'' is a good approximation to B(''n'', ''p''). The formula for [[Bézier curve]]s was inspired by the binomial distribution. ==Limits of binomial distributions== As ''n'' approaches &infin; and ''p'' approaches 0 while ''np'' remains fixed at &lambda;&nbsp;>&nbsp;0 or at least ''np'' approaches &lambda;&nbsp;>&nbsp;0, then the Binomial(''n'',&nbsp;''p'') distribution approaches the [[Poisson distribution]] with [[expected value]] &lambda;. * As ''n'' approaches &infin; while ''p'' remains fixed, the distribution of ::<math>{X-np \over \sqrt{np(1-p)\ }}</math> :approaches the [[normal distribution]] with expected value 0 and [[variance]] 1. ==References== * Luc Devroye, ''Non-Uniform Random Variate Generation'', New York: Springer-Verlag, 1986. ''See especially [http://cgm.cs.mcgill.ca/~luc/chapter_ten.pdf Chapter X, Discrete Univariate Distributions].'' * Voratas Kachitvichyanukul and Bruce W. Schmeiser, Binomial random variate generation, ''[[Communications of the ACM]]'' 31(2):216–222, February 1988. {{doi\|10.1145/42372.42381}} ==See also== [[beta distribution]] [[multinomial distribution]] [[negative binomial distribution]] [[Poisson distribution]] [[Category:Discrete distributions]] ==External links== * [http://www.adsciengineering.com/bpdcalc/ Binomial Probability Distribution Calculator] [[Category:Factorial and binomial topics]] [[de:Binomialverteilung]] [[es:Distribución Binomial]] [[fr:Loi binomiale]] [[it:Variabile casuale binomiale]] [[he:התפלגות בינומית]] [[lt:Binominis skirstinys]] [[nl:Binomiale verdeling]] [[ja:二項分布]] [[pl:Rozkład dwumianowy]] [[su:Seb
ich might allow a runner on third to score. But modern rules forbid going backwards on the basepaths once a base has been legally reached, so there is currently no legal way to steal first base. Base stealing is an important characteristic of a particular style of baseball, sometimes called "small ball." A team playing with this style emphasizes doing little things (including as risky running plays like base-stealing) to advance runners and score runs, often relying on pitching and defense to keep games close. The [[Los Angeles Dodgers]] of the 1960's, led by pitcher [[Sandy Koufax]] and speedy shortstop [[Maury Wills]], were a successful example of this style. The antithesis of this would be a team that relies on power hitting. The [[Baltimore Orioles]] of the 1970's, led by manager [[Earl Weaver]], were an example of such a "slugging" team that aspires to score most of its runs by a three-run homer. Oftentimes the "small ball" model is associated with the [[National League]], while power hitting is seen as more associated with the [[American League]]. However, some of the more successful American League teams of recent memory, including the [[2005 in baseball\|2005]] [[Chicago White Sox]] and the [[2002 in baseball\|2002]] [[Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim\|Anaheim Angels]], have experienced their success in part as a result of playing "small ball," advancing runners through means such as the stolen base and the related [[hit and run (baseball)\|hit and run]] play. Successful teams often combine both styles, with a speedy runner or two complementing hitters with power. ==See also== * [[The Steal]] ==Related links== [http://mlb.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/mlb/stats_historical/mlb_historical_leaders.jsp?baseballScope=mlb&statType=1&sortByStat=SB&timeFrame=3&timeSubFrame2=0 MLB.com list of All-Time Career steals leaders] [[Category:Baseball statistics]] [[ja:&#30423;&#22593;]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Plate appearance</title> <id>3812</id> <revision> <id>37292443</id> <timestamp>2006-01-30T01:31:20Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Silsor</username> <id>26195</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>typos</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[baseball statistics]], a player is credited with a '''plate appearance''' (denoted by '''PA''') each time he completes a turn batting. A player completes a turn batting when: * He is declared [[out (baseball)\|out]] before reaching first base, or * He reaches first base [[safe (baseball)\|safely]], or * He hits a [[fair ball]] which causes a third out on another runner (''see'' [[left on base]]) Thus, a batter does not have a plate appearance if, while he was at bat, the inning ended some other way (for example, a teammate on base is [[caught stealing]] for the third out). Basically, "plate appearances" = [[At bat\| at bats]] + some of the scenarios excluded from at bats such as [[base on balls]], [[hit by pitch]] or [[interference (baseball)#Catcher's interference\|catcher's interference]] which positively affect the offensive team. The main use of the plate appearance statistic is in calculating the [[on base percentage]], an alternative measurement of a position player's performance. [[Category:Baseball statistics]] [[ja:打席]] [[zh:打席數]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Baseball statistics/sabermetric</title> <id>3813</id> <revision> <id>15902128</id> <timestamp>2003-10-30T12:51:52Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Andre Engels</username> <id>300</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>removing 'see also'</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Sabermetrics]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Games played</title> <id>3814</id> <revision> <id>33763249</id> <timestamp>2006-01-03T21:14:35Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Mareino</username> <id>114034</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>adding information about other sports, removing stub tag</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Games played''' (denoted by '''G''') is a sports [[statistic]]al category that indicates the total number of games in which a player has participated (in any capacity). Generally, it does not matter in how much of the game the player was active. Using [[baseball]] as an example: if player A plays the whole game until there are two out in the bottom of the ninth inning, and then is replaced by player B as a pinch-runner for the final third of an inning, then A and B are each credited with one game played. Players are credited with a game played if they are listed on the lineup card or if they are announced as a substitute, even if they are subsequently replaced before taking part in the game. "Games played", therefore, can present somewhat different information from the related statistical category of [[games started]] as well as from the categories (usually only collected for baseball pitchers) of [[games finished]], [[complete games]], and [[innings pitched]]. ''See also'': [[Baseball statistics]] [[Category:Baseball statistics]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Baseball statistics/BA Talk</title> <id>3815</id> <revision> <id>15902130</id> <timestamp>2002-07-25T00:09:31Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jeronimo</username> <id>108</id> </contributor> <comment>redirect to talk of the non-subpage aritlce</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Talk:Baseball statistics]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Boogie Down Productions</title> <id>3817</id> <revision> <id>41315640</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T14:29:21Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>DabMachine</username> <id>922466</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>disambiguation from [[NWA]] to [[N.W.A]] - ([[WP:DPL\|You can help!]])</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_band \| band_name = BDP \| image = [[Image: Boogie_Down_Productions_crew.png\|200px]] \| years_active = [[1987]]&ndash;[[1996]] \| origin = [[New York City]], [[USA]] \| music_genre = [[Hip-hop music\|Hip-hop]] \| record_label = [[Jive Records]] \| current_members = [[KRS One\|Kris Parker]]<br />[[Scott La Rock\|Scott Sterling (deceased)]]<br> [[Mad Lion]]<br>Channel Live<br>Simone \| }} [[de:Boogie Down Productions]] '''Boogie Down Productions''' was originally composed of [[KRS One]], [[D Nice]], and DJ [[Scott La Rock]]. The latter got shot after the release of BDP's debut album ''Criminal Minded'' in [[1987]], at about the same time when [[Ice T]] and [[N.W.A\|NWA]] released their debut albums. While ''Criminal Minded'' was basically about sex and crime, BDP radically changed after Scott's death, becoming the most popular conscious rap group besides [[Public Enemy]]. BDP pioneered the fusion of [[Raggamuffin]] and [[hip hop music]]. The membership of BDP changed continuously throughout its existence, the only constant being KRS One. BDP members and collaborators included [[Mad Lion]], [[Channel Live]], [[Joseph Simmons\|Run]], [[Keith Murray (rap)\|Keith Murray]], [[McBoo]], [[Ms. Melodie]], [[Scottie Morris]], [[Willie D.]], [[Robocop (BDP)\|Robocop]], [[Harmony (BDP)\|Harmony]], [[DJ Red Alert]], [[DJ Jazzy Jay Kramer]], [[D-Square]], [[Rebekah (BDP)\|Rebekah]], and [[Sidney Mills]]. BDP as group essentially ended because KRS One began recording and performing under his own name, rather than the group name. ==Discography== * ''[[Criminal Minded (album)\|Criminal Minded]]'' (B-Boy, 1987) * ''Man & His Music'' (B-Boy, 1988) * ''By All Means Necessary'' (Jive/Zomba, 1988) * ''Ghetto Music: The Blueprint of Hip Hop'' (Jive/Zomba, 1989) * ''Edutainment'' (Jive/Zomba, 1990) * ''Live Hardcore Worldwide'' (Jive/Zomba, 1991) * ''Sex and Violence'' (Jive/Zomba, 1992) ==Singles== '''From ''Ghetto Music: The Blueprint of Hip Hop'':''' * 1989: "Why Is That" '''From ''Edutainment'':''' * 1990: "Love's Gonna Getcha" '''From ''Sex and Violence'':''' * 1992: "Duck Down" * 1992: "13 & Good" * 1992: "We in There" ==External links== [http://www.ohhla.com/YFA_krs.html Boogie Down Productions lyrics] [[Category:American hip hop groups\|Boogie Down Productions]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>BABELFISH</title> <id>3818</id> <revision> <id>15902132</id> <timestamp>2003-09-26T16:44:58Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>RadicalBender</username> <id>23743</id> </contributor> <comment>Revert - the redirect is the proper thing to do and that text appears to have been straight from the BabelFish web site</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Babel fish]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Babel fish</title> <id>3819</id> <revision> <id>41958072</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T21:56:27Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Angr</username> <id>157842</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>remove link to deleted article</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink\|For [[AltaVista]]'s web translation service, see [[Babel Fish (website)]].}} [[Image:Babel Fish diagram.jpg\|thumb\|right\|240px\|Anatomy of a babel fish as explained in [[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (TV series)\|the BBC TV series]].]] The '''Babel fish''' is a [[fiction]]al species of [[fish]] in ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]'' by [[Douglas Adams]]. A Babel fish is a highly improbable [[biology\|biological]] [[universal translator]]. It appears as a &quo
God has chosen them beforehand. [[Arminianism\|Arminians]] hold a modified form of this doctrine. In this case, a person can choose to have faith in Christ out of their free will and is not compelled to by divine power. A detailed examination of the differences between these two protestant strands of thought are examined in their respective articles. Many critics of Protestant theology see a contradiction between the idea that a person obtains salvation through choosing to put his/her faith in Christ, and the idea that God predestined those who would enter heaven. However, neither the [[Paul of Tarsus\|Apostle Paul]] nor [[Polycarp]] seemed to see a paradox between the true God's sovereignty and mankind's ability to perceive and choose. Many Protestants hold that both ideas are taught clearly in the Bible; they teach that eternal salvation in Heaven with God is a supreme free gift [[divine grace]] made available to "whosoever will" trust in the Lord Jesus Christ alone for His full payment. While these divisions still exists within the Protestant church, since the early [[20th century]] few Protestant churches have adopted a Universalist approach. Although [[Protestantism\|Protestants]] believe that eternal life, entering heaven, is granted by placing one's faith in [[Jesus\|Christ]] alone, they still generally believe that people who have lived blatantly evil lives will be denied entry to heaven. It is widely believed that it is insufficient to simply belong to a faith and verbally express a belief in Christ, but one must also live by His teachings and live a good and decent life. Blatant disobedience to God and living an evil life is seen by some Protestants as evidence that a person was never really sincere in making a confession of faith in Jesus Christ, and by other Protestants as evidence that a person has 'fallen away' from their original confession of faith. The distinction between Catholic theology and Protestant theology here is that Catholism teaches that one can enter heaven by having faith in Christ and also living a good and decent life, while most streams of Protestant theology contend that salvation is by [[divine grace]] (alone) through [[faith]] (i.e. trust, alone) in the person and work of Jesus, alone, but that a person who doesn't live a good and decent life probably doesn't really have true, sincere faith in Christ. See also [[Salvation]]. Heaven is an especially interesting doctrine in Christian thought, which has the resurrection of the body dominating the concept of afterlife. The intermediate state (between death and the resurrection) is unclear in Christian thought (see the article on [[psychopannychism]]). However the final state of believers is in an incorruptible, resurrected, and new body, living in the [[New Jerusalem]], which descends from Heaven to the Creation. The person was never meant to be disembodied. Death is not a natural part of life, but was allowed to happen after [[Adam and Eve]] disobeyed [[God]] (see [[original sin]]) so that mankind would not live forever in a state of [[sin]] and thus a state of separation from God. The Greek "hê basileia tous ouranous", usually translated as "the [[Kingdom of Heaven]]", is indeed more literally "the rule of the skies", with "the skies" a codeword for [[God]]. Thus most Christians interpret it as a state, rather than a place. [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] reject the idea of heaven as the final hope and home for humanity; in their view only a few people including the Apostles (John 14:1-3; Rev. 5:9,10; 14:1-5) will go to Heaven to rule the remainder of good people (including [[David]] and [[John the Baptist]]), who will inherit the Earth to live forever ([[Matthew 5:5\|Matt. 5:5]]; Acts 2:34; Rev. 21:3-5). [[Christadelphians]] believe that all who are saved will live on Earth for eternity after the resurrection. Many Christians believe that the "wealth" of heaven is nonmaterial; its blessings are forever, and cannot be tarnished, destroyed or taken away. Some of these will be enjoyed by redeemed people after death such as enjoying the actual presence of God (Rev 22.3-4) and the absence of pain and sorrow (Rev 21.4), while some are enjoyed in the present life, such as peace (Ph 4.7) and joy (Jn 16.22). ==Heaven in Islam== The concept of heaven in [[Islam]] is similar to that found in Judaism and Christianity. The [[Qu'ran]] is filled with references to an afterlife in Eden for those who do good deeds. Heaven itself is commonly described in the [[Qu'ran]] in verse 35 of Surah Al-Ra¹d: "The parable of the Garden which the righteous are promised! Beneath it flow rivers: Perpetual is the fruits thereof and the shade therein:Such is the End of the Righteous; and the end of the unbelievers is the Fire." wherein a person dwells forever. Since Islam rejects the concept of [[original sin]], Muslims believe that all human beings are born pure and will naturally turn to God, but it is their environment which influences them to choose ungodly ways of life. In Islam, therefore, a child who dies automatically goes to heaven, regardless of the religion of his or her parents. The highest level of heaven is Firdaws (فردوس), which is where the prophets, the martyrs and the most truthful and pious people will dwell. ---- [[Qu'ranic Names of Heaven:]] ---- Jannat–This name has been used most commonly in the Qur’an and Hadith. (Al-Baqarah: 35, Al-e-Imran: 133, 142, Al-Maidah: 72) Dar-us-Salam–This means the Home of Peace (Yunus: 25) Jannat-ul-Khuld–The Eternal Gardens. (Al-Furqan: 15) Darul-Maqamah–The Home (Fatir: 35) Jannat-e-Adan–Gardens of Everlasting Bliss (Tauba: 72, Ar-Rad: 23) Darul-Hywan–But verily the Home in the Hereafter–that is life indeed, if they but knew. (Al-Ankabut: 64) Jannat-un-Naeem–The Gardens of Delight. (Al-Maida: 65 Yunus: 9 Al-Haj: 56) Al-Maqam-al-Ameen–The House of Security (Ad-Dukhan: 51) Jannat-ul-Mawa–Garden of Abode (An-Najm: 15) Maqad-as-Sidq–Assembly of Truth (Al-Qawr: 55) Qadam-as-Sidq-Assembly ofTruth (Al-Qawr:55). Firdous–The Highest Gardens of the Heaven (Al-Kahaf: 107, Al-Muminoon: 11) ---- [[Small Description of Jannath]] : ---- The Prophet of Allah (Sallalahou Al'aihe Was-salam) said: Hadith implies that the heaven has eight doors: Whoever performed a perfect ablution and recited shahadah then all the eight doors of the heaven are thrust open for him–he may enter from whichever door he likes. (Sahih Muslim). By Him in whose hands my soul is, the distance between the two gate posts of paradise is like the distance between Makkah and Himyar or between Makkah and Basra (Bukhari). Indeed, there are hundred grades of the Heaven and the distance between the two grades is as great as between the heaven and earth. Allah has prepared these grades for those who perform Jihad in the way of Allah. (Bukhari) When you pray ask for Firdous, for it is in the middle of heaven and is higher in grade than the heaven and above Firdous is Allah’s throne, moreover the canals of heaven flow from Firdous. (Bukhari) And then I was showed in the heaven, I saw there were camps made of pearls and the soil was of musk. (Bukhari) The Qur’an says of the dwellers of the heaven: They will see there neither the sun’s (excessive heat) nor the moon’s excessive cold. Indeed, there is a tree in heaven so big that if a person keeps riding on a brisk Madhamar (a specially bred horse) for a hundred years even then he would not reach the end of that tree. (Bukhari) Abu Huraira (RA) reported that the Prophet of Allah (SAW) said: There is no tree in the heaven that does not have a trunk of gold. (Muslim) There is a tree in the heaven, which will manufacture robes for the dwellers of the heaven. That tree is called Tuba. A hadith has these words about this tree. Tuba is a tree in the heaven, which spreads out as much as a distance that can be covered in a hundred years. Robes for the dwellers of the heaven will sprout from its buds. The Prophet of Allah (SAW) said: In the night of Isra when I met Ibrahim (AS) he said: O Muhammad (SAW) tell your people that the heaven has pure soil and sweet water but the land is bare. If they want to plant trees in the heaven, they should say Subhan Allah Al-Hamdulillah and Allah Akbar. Indeed, there will be a mansion made of pearls for a believer. It will be spread over an area of 60 miles, and in it will be the household of a believer who will visit them but they will not be able to see each other. (Bukhari) Sleep is the sisiter of death and the dwellers of the heaven will not sleep (Silsalatul Ahadith) Indeed, there is a bazaar in the heaven where the dwellers of the Heaven will come on every Friday. The northerly wind will spray scent on them and this will enhance their beauty. And when they will return to their homes, their households will say "By Allah, your beauty has enhanced." "So has yours," they will return the compliment. (Muslim) In short, they will be overwhelmed by Allah’s favours. And when you look, it is there you will see a bliss and a realm magnificent. (Ad-Dahr: 20) When Allah Almighty created the heaven and the hell, He asked Jibraeel to go and take a look at what He has prepared for believers in the Heaven. Jibraeel went and had a look at what was there in the Heaven, and then he came back and expressed himself thus: By your dignity! Whoever will hear of this Heaven will certainly strive for it. Then it was said that the road to the heaven is littered with hardships, and Jibraeel was asked to take another look at the Heaven. He came back and said, "By your dignity I am afraid that nobody will be able to enter it. (Tirmizee) ==Heaven in the Bahá'í Faith== For Bahá'ís, entry into the next life has the potential to bring great joy. [[Bahá'u'lláh]] likened death to the process of birth. He explains: "The world beyond is as different from this world as t
iv> The '''Apple III''', or '''Apple ///''' as it was sometimes styled, was the first completely new computer designed by [[Apple Computer]], Inc. Its predecessor, the better-known [[Apple II]], was designed by Apple co-founder [[Steve Wozniak]] prior to the company's incorporation in [[1976]]. Design work on the Apple III started in late [[1978]] under the guidance of Dr. [[Wendell Sander]]. It had the internal code name of "Sara", named after Sander's daughter. The Apple III was introduced in May [[1980]]. The Apple III was designed to be a business computer. It featured an advanced [[operating system]] called [[SOS (operating system)\|SOS]] (the '''S'''ophisticated '''O'''perating '''S'''ystem) and a new [[BASIC programming language\|BASIC]] [[interpreter (computing)\|interpreter]], "Apple /// Business BASIC" (an implementation of UCSD [[Pascal programming language\|Pascal]] was also offered for more structured programming). Other features included an 80-column display with upper and lowercase characters, a numeric keypad, support for a real-time clock, 6-bit (DAC) audio, 16-color graphics, hierarchical level file support, and the ability to emulate a 48[[kilobyte\|KB]] Apple II+. There was a built-in 140K 5.25" [[floppy disk]] drive, with up to three additional external "Disk ///" floppy disk drives and a [[Apple ProFile\|ProFile]] 5 [[megabyte]] [[hard disk]] drive available as options. Microsoft developed an add-in "Softcard" that allowed the Apple III to run [[CP/M]], which was actually sold as an Apple product. The Apple III was powered by a 1.8 [[megahertz\|MHz]] [[MOS Technology 6502\|6502B]] [[8-bit]] [[central processing unit\|CPU]] and, like some of the more advanced machines in the Apple II family, used [[bank switching]] techniques to address up to 256K of memory (512K with a third-party upgrade). For a variety of reasons, the Apple III was a commercial failure. With a starting price of about $3,500 US, it was more expensive than many of the CP/M-based business computers that were available at the time. The Apple III's software library was very limited, and whilst sold as an Apple II compatible, the emulation that made this possible was intentionally hobbled, thus it could not make use of the advanced III features (specifically 64K RAM or higher, required by a large number of Apple II software titles based on PASCAL) which limited its usefulness. Far more importantly, the machine was plagued by numerous hardware and software [[computer bug\|bug]]s. The real time clock, the first in an Apple computer, would fail after prolonged use. At Steve Jobs' insistence, the machine did not include a cooling fan—the metal case was supposed to act as a [[heat sink]], despite not being designed for this purpose. Furthermore, the case itself was too small to properly accommodate the III's internals, and Apple skimped on gold-plating the electrical contacts. The result was an unmitigated disaster. The system would overheat so severly that the motherboard would warp in its tight confines, and thermal expansion would actually push the [[dual in-line package\|DIP]] chips out of their sockets. One popular anecdote about the Apple III is probably better remembered than the machine itself: in a technical bulletin, customers were actually instructed to lift the machine three inches (76 mm) and drop it in order to reseat the chips. An improved version, the '''Apple III Plus''', was introduced in December [[1983]]. The III Plus fixed the hardware problems of the original III, included 256KB RAM, built-in clock, video interlacing, and featured a keyboard in the style of the [[Apple IIe]]. However, not even the new "allow me to reintroduce myself" campaign could salvage the III's reputation. Possibly more relevant in the long run was the fact that the III was essentially an enhanced Apple II—newest heir to a line of [[8-bit]] machines dating back to [[1976]]. The year after the III was originally released, [[IBM]] unveiled its [[IBM PC\|PC]]—a completely new [[16-bit]] design soon available in a wide range of inexpensive clones. The business market moved rapidly towards the IBM machines and, in September 1985, the Apple III line was discontinued, having sold only about 65,000 systems. Some of the features and codebase of the Sophisticated Operating System made their way into the Apple II's [[ProDOS]] and [[GS/OS]] operating systems, as well as those of the [[Apple Lisa\|Lisa]] and [[Apple Macintosh\|Macintosh]]. Although the Apple III shares much of the same technology and traits found in the Apple II series, it is not part of the Apple II family line. Not being a direct Apple II compatible, a special boot disk was required to put it into II emulation mode, much like the [[Apple Lisa]] in how it emulated the Macintosh. For this and other reasons, the Apple III can be considered a cousin of the Apple II rather than a member of its family line. ==External links== [http://www.wap.org/a3 Washington Apple Pi Apple III Resources] [[Category:Failed Apple initiatives]] [[Category:Apple hardware]] [[Category:Apple III family\|Apple III family]] [[de:Apple III]] [[es:Apple III]] [[fr:Apple III]] [[it:Apple III e III+]] [[ja:Apple III]] [[pl:Apple III]] [[sk:Apple III]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>AVL tree</title> <id>2118</id> <revision> <id>41287844</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T08:12:09Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>65.11.208.185</ip> </contributor> <comment>/ Lookup /</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Non-AVLtree.png\|thumb\|right\|251px\|An example of a '''non-AVL''' tree]] In [[computer science]], an '''AVL tree''' is the first-invented [[self-balancing binary search tree]]. In an AVL tree the heights of the two [[child node\|child]] subtrees of any node differ by at most one, therefore it is also known as [[height-balanced tree\|height-balanced]]. Lookup, insertion, and deletion are all [[big O notation\|O]](log ''n'') in both the average and worst cases. Additions and deletions may require the tree to be rebalanced by one or more [[tree rotation]]s. The AVL tree is named after its two inventors, [[Georgii Adelson-Velsky\|G.M. Adelson-Velsky]] and [[Yevgeniy Landis\|E.M. Landis]], who published it in their [[1962]] paper "An algorithm for the organization of information." The '''balance factor''' of a node is the height of its right subtree minus the height of its left subtree. A node with balance factor 1, 0, or -1 is considered balanced. A node with any other balance factor is considered unbalanced and requires rebalancing the tree. The balance factor is either stored directly at each node or computed from the heights of the subtrees. [[Image:AVLtree.png\|thumb\|right\|251px\|The same tree after being height-balanced]] ==Operations== The basic operations of an AVL tree generally involve carrying out the same algorithms as would be carried out on an unbalanced [[binary search tree]], but preceded or followed by one or more of the so-called "AVL rotations." ===Insertion=== Insertion into an AVL tree may be carried out by inserting the given value into the tree as if it were an unbalanced binary search tree, and then retracing one's steps toward the root, rotating about any nodes which have become unbalanced during the insertion (see ''[[tree rotation]]''). Since at most 1.5 times [[binary logarithm\|lg&nbsp;''n'']] nodes are retraced on the journey back to the root, and each AVL rotation takes constant time, the insertion process in total takes O(log&nbsp;''n'')&nbsp;time. ===Deletion=== Deletion from an AVL tree may be carried out by rotating the node to be deleted down into a leaf node, and then pruning off that leaf node directly. Since at most log&nbsp;''n'' nodes are rotated during the rotation into the leaf, and each AVL rotation takes constant time, the deletion process in total takes O(log&nbsp;''n'')&nbsp;time... ===Lookup=== Lookup in an AVL tree is performed exactly as in an unbalanced binary search tree, and thus takes O(log ''n'') time, since an AVL tree is always kept balanced. No special provisions need to be taken, and the tree's structure is not modified by lookups. (This is in contrast to [[splay tree]] lookups, which do modify their tree's structure.) ==See also== [[Tree rotation]] [[Splay tree]] [[Red-black tree]] [[B-tree]] ==References== G. Adelson-Velskii and E.M. Landis, "An algorithm for the organization of information." ''Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR'', 146:263&ndash;266, 1962 ([[Russian language\|Russian]]). [[English language\|English]] translation by Myron J. Ricci in ''Soviet Math. Doklady'', 3:1259&ndash;1263, 1962. * [[Donald Knuth\|Donald Knuth]]. ''The Art of Computer Programming'', Volume 3: ''Sorting and Searching'', Third Edition. Addison-Wesley, 1997. ISBN 0-201-89685-0. Pages 458&ndash;475 of section 6.2.3: Balanced Trees. Note that Knuth calls AVL trees simply "balanced trees". ==External links== [http://www.nist.gov/dads/HTML/avltree.html Description from the Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures] [http://www.goletas.com/solutions/collections/ Iterative Implementation of AVL Trees in C#] [http://www.auto.tuwien.ac.at/~blieb/woop/avl.html AVL Tree Traversal] [http://www.elude.ca/aapl/doc/classAvliTree.html Linked AVL tree] [http://geocities.com/wkaras/gen_cpp/avl_tree.html C++ AVL Tree Template] and [http://geocities.com/wkaras/gen_c/cavl_tree.html C AVL TREE "Generic Package"] by [[Walt Karas]] [http://vbwm.com/art_2001/avltree08/ A Visual Basic AVL Tree Container Class] by [[Jim Harris]] [http://cmcrossroads.com/bradapp/ftp/src/libs/C++/AvlTrees.html AVL Trees: Tutorial and C++ Implementation] by [[Brad Appleton]] [http://www.mathematik.uni-ulm.de/oberon/0.5/lib/man/AVLTrees.html Ulm's Oberon Library: AVLTrees] *[http://www-old.physik.fu-berlin.de
assung. Das Werden der Frühmittelalterlichen Gentes'' (Köln 1961). ==External links== [http://www.acs.ucalgary.ca/~vandersp/Courses/texts/jordgeti.html "The Origins and Deeds of the Goths", by Jordanes, trans. Charles C. Mierow] [http://www.muzarp.poznan.pl/archweb/gazociag/title5.htm "The Goths in Greater Poland" by Tadeusz Makiewicz] [http://www.muzarp.poznan.pl/muzeum/muz_eng/wyst_czas/Goci_katalog/index_kat.html "Jewellery of the Goths", by Tomasz Skorupka, on a Polish museum site] [http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~dee/MA/GERMANS.HTM "The Germans" by Richard Hooker] [http://www.arkeologi.uu.se/publications/opia/gothicabstract.htm Summary of "Gothic Connections" by Anders Kaliff] ==Notes== {{fnb\|1}} E.g. [[Encarta\|Microsoft Encarta]] (on Swedish history), [http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/OMACL/Volsunga/ translations from Old Norse], [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/9701 Anglo-Saxon] or [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/anskar.html Latin] and the [[Primary Chronicle]] and modern scholarly works on Germanic tribes [http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/0595336485]. ==See also== [[Arheimar]] [[The Battle of the Goths and Huns]] [[Crimean Goths]] [[Gothic language]] [[Gothic alphabet]] [[Gotlander]]s [[Götaland]] [[Geats]] [[Gepidae]] [[Hervarar saga]] [[Jutes]] [[King of the Geats]] [[Migrations period]] [[Ostrogoth]] [[Reidgotaland]] [[Sava the Goth]] [[Ulfilas]];[[Codex Argenteus]] [[Visigoth]] [[Category:Ancient Germanic peoples]] [[Category:Ancient Roman enemies and allies]] [[Category:Ethnic groups in Europe]] [[Category:Goths]] [[Category:History of the Germanic peoples]] [[Category:Late Antiquity]] [[Category:Migration Period]] [[af:Gote]] [[ar:قوط]] [[bg:Готи]] [[br:Goted]] [[cs:Gótové]] [[da:Goter]] [[de:Goten]] [[es:Godo]] [[eo:Gotoj]] [[fr:Goths]] [[got:𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌰𐌽𐍃]] [[ko:고트족]] [[it:Goti]] [[he:גותים]] [[la:Gothi]] [[lt:Gotai]] [[hu:Gótok]] [[nl:Goten]] [[ja:ゴート族]] [[no:Gotere]] [[pl:Goci]] [[pt:Godos]] [[ru:Готы]] [[sv:Goter]] [[uk:Готи]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Goddess Worship</title> <id>12643</id> <revision> <id>15910315</id> <timestamp>2002-05-25T17:25:10Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Maveric149</username> <id>62</id> </contributor> <comment>#REDIRECT [[goddess worship]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[goddess worship]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Glycolysis</title> <id>12644</id> <revision> <id>41559228</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T03:40:59Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Daycd</username> <id>252905</id> </contributor> <comment>/ [[Hexokinase]] */ enzyme correct name</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Glycolysis''' is a series of [[biochemistry\|biochemical]] [[chemical reaction\|reactions]] by which a [[molecule]] of [[Glucose\|glucose (Glc)]] is [[oxidation\|oxidized]] to two molecules of [[Pyruvic acid\|pyruvic acid (Pyr)]]. The word glycolysis is from [[Greek language\|Greek]] ''glyk'' (meaning sweet) and ''lysis'' (meaning dissolving). It is the initial process of many [[metabolic pathway\|pathways]] of [[carbohydrate]] [[catabolism]], and serves two principal functions: generation of high-energy molecules ([[Adenosine triphosphate\|ATP]] and [[NADH]]), and production of a variety of six- or three-carbon intermediate metabolites, which may be removed at various steps in the process for other intracellular purposes (such as nucleotide biosynthesis). Glycolysis is one of the most universal [[metabolism\|metabolic]] processes known, and occurs (with variations) in many types of [[Cell (biology)\|cell]]s in nearly all types of organisms. Glycolysis alone produces less energy per glucose molecule than complete aerobic oxidation, and so flux through the pathway is greater in anaerobic conditions (i.e., in the absence of [[oxygen]]). The most common and well-known type of glycolysis is the [[Embden-Meyerhof pathway]], initially elucidated by [[Gustav Embden]] and [[Otto Meyerhof]]. The term can be taken to include alternative pathways, such as the [[Entner-Doudoroff Pathway]]. However, '''glycolysis''' will be used here as a synonym for the [[Embden-Meyerhof pathway]]. ==Overview== The overall reaction of glycolysis is: :Glc + 2 NAD<sup>+</sup> + 2 ADP + 2 P<sub>i</sub> &#8594; 2 NADH + 2 Pyr + 2 ATP + 2 H<sub>2</sub>O + 2 H<sup>+</sup> So, for simple [[fermentation]]s, the metabolism of 1 molecule of glucose has a net yield of 2 molecules of ATP. Cells performing [[cellular respiration\|respiration]] synthesize much more ATP, but this is not considered part of glycolysis proper, although these aerobic reactions do use the product of glycolysis. Eukaryotic aerobic respiration produces an additional 34 molecules (approximately) of ATP for each glucose molecule oxidized. Unlike most of the molecules of ATP produced via aerobic respiration, those of glycolysis are produced by [[substrate-level phosphorylation]]. In [[eukaryote]]s, glycolysis takes place within the [[cytosol]] of the cell. Some of the glycolytic reactions are conserved in the [[Calvin cycle]] that functions inside the [[chloroplast]]. This is consistent with the fact that glycolysis is highly conserved in evolution, being common to nearly all living organisms. This suggests great antiquity; it may have originated with the first [[prokaryote]]s, 3.5 billion years ago or more. ==Pathway== ===Sequence of reactions=== ====Preparatory phase==== The first five steps are regarded as a preparatory phase since they actually consume energy as the glucose is converted to two three-carbon sugars phosphates ([[Glyceraldehyde_3-phosphate\|G3P]]). The bold abbreviations in the two tables correspond to the nomenclature used in the diagram. {\| class="wikitable" !Step !colspan="2"\|Substrate !colspan="2"\|Enzyme !Enzyme class !Comment \|- \|1 \|[[glucose]] \|'''Glc''' \|[[hexokinase]] \|'''HK''' \|[[transferase]] \|ATP used at this step. Glucose is usually from the [[hydrolysis]] of starch or glycogen. \|- \|2 \| [[glucose-6-phosphate]] \|'''G6P''' \|[[phosphoglucose isomerase]] \|'''GPI''' \|[[isomerase]] \| \|- \|3 \|[[fructose 6-phosphate]] \|'''F6P''' \|[[phosphofructokinase]] \|'''PFK''' \|transferase \|The energy expenditure of another ATP in this step is justified in 2 ways: the glycolytic process (up to this step) is now irreversible, and the energy supplied destablises the molecule. \|- \|4 \| [[fructose 1,6-bisphosphate]] \|'''F1,6BP''' \|[[aldolase]] \|'''ALDO''' \|[[lyase]] \|Destablising the molecule in the previous reaction allows the hexose ring to be split by [[Aldolase\|ALDO]] into two triose sugars, [[dihydroxyacetone phosphate\|DHAP]] and [[Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate\|GADP]]. \|- \|5 \|[[dihydroxyacetone phosphate]] \|'''DHAP''' \|[[triose phosphate isomerase]] \|'''TPI''' \|isomerase \|[[Triose phosphate isomerase\|TPI]] rapidly interconverts DHAP with [[glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate]] ('''GADP''') that proceeds further into glycolysis. \|- \|} ====Pay-off phase==== The second half of glycolysis is known as the pay-off phase, characterised by a net gain of the energy-rich molecules ATP and NADH. Since glucose leads to two triose sugars in the preparatory phase, each reaction in the pay-off phase occurs twice per glucose molecule. This yields 2 NADH molecules and 4 ATP molecules, leading to a net gain of 2 NADH molecules and 2 ATP molecules from the gylcolytic pathway per glucose. {\| class="wikitable" !Step !colspan="2"\|Substrate !colspan="2"\|Enzyme !Enzyme class !Comment \|- \|6 \|[[glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate]] \|'''GADP''' \|[[glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase]] \|'''GAP''' \|[[oxidoreductase]] \|Triose sugars are [[oxidised\|dehydrogenated]] and inorganic phosphate is added to them. The hydrogen is used to reduce two molecules of [[NAD]], a hydrogen carrier, to give NADH+H<sup>+</sup>. \|- \|7 \| [[1,3-bisphosphoglycerate]] \|'''1,3BPG''' \|[[phosphoglycerate kinase]] \|'''PGK''' \|[[transferase]] \|A reaction that converts [[Adenosine diphosphate\|ADP]] to ATP by an enzymatic transfer of a phosphate to ADP; is an example of [[substrate-level phosphorylation]]. \|- \|8 \|[[3-phosphoglycerate]] \|'''3PG''' \|[[phosphoglyceromutase]] \|'''PGAM''' \|[[isomerase]] \| \|- \|9 \| [[2-phosphoglycerate]] \|'''2PG''' \|[[enolase]] \|'''ENO''' \|[[lyase]] \| \|- \|10 \|[[phosphoenolpyruvate]] \|'''PEP''' \|[[pyruvate kinase]] \|'''PK''' \|transferase \|Another example of substrate-level phosphorylation that converts [[Adenosine diphosphate\|ADP]] to ATP, forming [[pyruvate]] ('''Pyr'''). \|- \|} [[Image:Glycolysis.png\|thumb\|right\|550px\|<div style="border-width: 0px; border-bottom: 1px solid black; text-align: left;">'''Glycolysis pathway'''.</div>The color scheme is as follows: <span style="font-weight: bold;"><span style="color: blue;">enzymes</span>, <span style="color: rgb(219,155,36);">coenzymes</span>, <span style="color: rgb(151,149,45);">substrate names</span>, <span style="color: rgb(227,13,196);">metal ions</span>, <span style="color: rgb(128,0,0);">inorganic molecules</span>, <span style="color: red;">inhibition</span> and <span style="color: red;">attached phosphate</span>, <span style="color: green;">stimulation</span> </span>]] ===Entry of sugars=== The first step in glycolysis is phosphorylation of Glc by a family of enzymes called [[hexokinase\|HK]]s to form [[Glucose 6-phosphate\|G6P]]. In the liver, an [[isozyme]] of hexokinase called [[glucokinase\|GCK]] is used, which differs primarily in regulatory properties. This reaction consumes 1 ATP, but the energy is well-spent - it keeps [Glc]<sub

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