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lić]]'s [[Ustase]] fascist [[insurgent]]s in power. *[[1944]] - [[Rudolf Vrba]] and [[Alfred Wetzler]] escape from Auschwitz II death camp. *1944 - [[Henry Ford II]] is named executive vice president of [[Ford Motor Company]]. *[[1953]] - [[The House of Wax]] opens at [[New York City]]'s Paramount Theater (it was the first color feature in 3-D). *[[1957]] - The [[Suez Canal]] is reopened for all shipping after being closed for three months. *[[1959]] - [[Akihito]], future [[Emperor of Japan]], weds [[Empress Michiko of Japan|Michiko]] (née Michiko Shoda), a commoner. *[[1963]] - The [[submarine]] [[USS Thresher (SSN-593)|USS Thresher]] is lost at sea, with all hands (129 officers, crewmen and civilian technicians) *[[1968]] - Shipwreck of the [[Wahine disaster|Wahine]] outside Wellington harbour. *[[1970]] - [[Paul McCartney]] announces that [[The Beatles]] have broken up. *1970 - [[Vietnam War]]: 48 percent of the [[United States|American]]s polled in a [[Gallup poll|Gallup Poll]] approve of U.S. President [[Richard M. Nixon]]'s [[Vietnam]] policy, while 41 percent disapprove. *[[1971]] - [[Cold War]]: In an attempt to thaw relations with the [[United States]], the [[People's Republic of China]] host the U.S. [[table tennis]] team for a weeklong visit. *[[1972]] - 20 days after he was kidnapped in [[Buenos Aires]], [[Oberdan Sallustro]] is executed by communist guerrillas. *1972 - [[Vietnam War]]: For the first time since November 1967 [[United States|American]] [[B-52 Stratofortress|B-52 bomber]]s reportedly begin bombing [[North Vietnam]]. *[[1973]] - A British Vanguard turboprop crashes during a snowstorm at Basel, [[Switzerland]] killing 104. *[[1979]] - On the day known to meteorologists as "Terrible Tuesday", a tornado hits in [[Wichita Falls, Texas]] killing 42 people. (see [[Red River Valley Tornado Outbreak]]). *[[1988]] - The [[comic strip]] ''[[Fox Trot]]'' débuts. *[[1991]] - Italian ferry "Moby Prince" collides with an oil tanker in dense fog off [[Livorno]], [[Italy]] killing 140 *1991 - A [[South Atlantic tropical cyclone|rare]] [[tropical cyclone|tropical storm]] develops in the [[Southern Hemisphere]] off the coast of [[Angola]]; the first of its kind to be documented by [[weather satellite|satellites]]. *[[1998]] - The [[Belfast Agreement]] is signed. ==Births== *[[1389]] - [[Cosimo de' Medici]], ruler of Florence (d. [[1464]]) *[[1583]] - [[Hugo Grotius]], Dutch philosopher and writer (d. [[1645]]) *[[1651]] - [[Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus]], German mathematician (d. [[1708]]) *[[1704]] - [[Benjamin Heath]], English classical scholar (d. [[1766]]) *[[1713]] - [[John Whitehurst]], English clockmaker and scientist (d. [[1788]]) *[[1755]] - [[Samuel Hahnemann]], German physician (d. [[1843]]) *[[1762]] - [[Giovanni Aldini]], Italian physicist (d. [[1834]]) *[[1778]] - [[William Hazlitt]], English writer (d. [[1830]]) *[[1783]] - [[Hortense de Beauharnais]], Queen of Holland as wife of [[Louis Bonaparte]] (d. [[1837]]) *[[1794]] - [[Matthew Perry (naval officer)|Matthew Perry]], American commodore (d. [[1858]]) *[[1829]] - [[William Booth]], English founder of the Salvation Army (d. [[1912]]) *[[1847]] - [[Joseph Pulitzer]], American journalist and publisher (d. [[1911]]) *[[1864]] - [[Eugen d'Albert]], German composer (d. [[1932]]) *[[1867]] - [[George William Russell]], Irish nationalist, poet and artist (d. [[1935]]) *[[1868]] - [[George Arliss]], English actor (d. [[1946]]) *[[1870]] (O.S.) - [[Vladimir Lenin]], [[Premier of the Soviet Union]] (d. [[1924]]) *[[1880]] - [[Montague Summers]], English writer (d. [[1948]]) *[[1882]] - [[Frances Perkins]], American politician (d. [[1965]]) *[[1887]] - [[Bernardo Houssay]], Argentine physiologist, [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1971]]) *[[1894]] - [[Shri Ghanshyam Das Birla]], Indian industrialist (d. [[1983]]) *[[1910]] - [[Eddy Duchin]], American musician (d. [[1951]]) *1910 - [[Paul Sweezy]], American economist and editor (d. [[2004]]) *[[1913]] - [[Stefan Heym]], German author (d. [[2001]]) *[[1915]] - [[Harry Morgan]], American actor *[[1917]] - [[Robert Burns Woodward]], American chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1979]]) *[[1918]] - [[Jørn Utzon]], Danish architect *[[1921]] - [[Chuck Connors]], American actor and baseball player (d. [[1992]]) *1921 - [[Sheb Wooley]], American actor and singer (d. [[2003]]) *[[1926]] - [[Junior Samples]], American musician (d. [[1983]]) *[[1927]] - [[Marshall Warren Nirenberg]], American scientist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] *[[1929]] - [[Max von Sydow]], Swedish actor *[[1930]] - [[Claude Bolling]], French jazz composer and pianist *[[1930]] - [[Norma Candal]], Puerto Rican actress and comedienne {d. [[2006]]} *1930 - [[Spede Pasanen]], Finnish comedian, film director, director and writer (d. [[2001]]) *[[1932]] - [[Omar Sharif]], Egyptian actor *[[1934]] - [[David Halberstam]], American writer *1934 - [[Vladimir Posner]], Russian journalist *[[1936]] - [[John Madden (football)|John Madden]], American football coach and broadcaster *[[1937]] - [[Bella Akhmadulina]], Russian poet *[[1938]] - [[Don Meredith]], American football player and broadcaster *[[1941]] - [[Paul Theroux]], American author *[[1943]] - [[Andrzej Badenski|Andrzej Badeński]], Polish athlete *[[1946]] - [[David Angell]], American television producer (d. [[2001]]) *[[1947]] - [[Bunny Wailer]], Jamaican musician *[[1950]] - [[Ken Griffey, Sr.]], baseball player *1950 - [[Eddie Hazel]], American guitarist ([[P-Funk]] and [[The Temptations]]) (d. [[1992]]) *[[1951]] - [[David Helvarg]], American journalist and environmental activist *1951 - [[Steven Seagal]], American actor *[[1954]] - [[Peter MacNicol]], actor *[[1955]] - [[Lesley Garrett]], British soprano *[[1958]] - [[Yefim Bronfman]], Russian-born pianist *1958 - [[Babyface|Kenneth "Babyface" Edmonds]], American music producer, musician, and film producer *[[1960]] - [[Afrika Bambaataa]], American musician and activist *1960 - [[Katrina Leskanich]], American singer ([[Katrina and the Waves]]) *1960 - [[Brian Setzer]], American musician *[[1962]] - [[Steve Tasker]], American football player *[[1965]] - [[Tim Alexander]], American musician *[[1968]] - [[Orlando Jones]], American actor and comedian *[[1969]] - [[Billy Jayne]], American actor *[[1970]] - [[Kenny Lattimore]], American singer *[[1973]] - [[Roberto Carlos da Silva]], Brazilian footballer *1973 - [[Christopher Simmons]], American designer *[[1975]] - [[Chris Carrabba]], American singer ([[Dashboard Confessional]]) *[[1979]] - [[Shemekia Copeland]], American singer *1979 - [[Rachel Corrie]], American activist (d. [[2003]]) *1979 - [[Tsuyoshi Domoto]], Japanese artist *1979 - [[Sophie Ellis-Bextor]], English singer *[[1980]] - [[Charlie Hunnam]], British actor *[[1983]] - [[Ryan Merriman]], American actor *[[1984]] - [[Mandy Moore]], American singer *[[1987]] - [[Hayley Westenra]], New Zealand soprano *[[1988]] - [[Haley Joel Osment]], American actor *[[1990]] - [[Alex Pettyfer]], English actor *[[1991]] - [[Amanda Michalka]], American actress and singer ==Deaths== *[[879]] - [[Louis the Stammerer]], King of the West Franks (b. [[846]]) *[[1512]] - King [[James V of Scotland]] (d. [[1542]]) *[[1533]] - King [[Frederick I of Denmark]] (b. [[1471]]) *[[1545]] - [[Costanzo Festa]], Italian composer *[[1585]] - [[Pope Gregory XIII]] (b. [[1502]]) *[[1599]] - [[Gabrielle d'Estrée]], mistress of King [[Henry IV of France]] (b. [[1571]]) *[[1601]] - [[Mark Alexander Boyd]], Scottish poet (b. [[1562]]) *[[1640]] - [[Agostino Agazzari]], Italian composer (b. [[1578]]) *[[1646]] - [[Santino Solari]], Swiss architect and sculptor (b. [[1576]]) *[[1704]] - [[William Egon of Fürstenberg]], Bishop of Strassburg (b. [[1629]]) *[[1706]] - [[Arthur Chichester, 3rd Earl of Donegall]], Irish soldier (b. [[1666]]) *[[1756]] - [[Giacomo Antonio Perti]], Italian composer (d. [[1661]]) *[[1760]] - [[Jean Lebeuf]], French historian (b. [[1687]]) *[[1786]] - [[John Byron]], British naval officer (b. [[1723]]) *[[1813]] - [[Joseph-Louis Lagrange]], Italian-born mathematician (b. [[1736]]) *[[1823]] - [[Karl Leonhard Reinhold]], Austrian philosopher (b. [[1757]]) *[[1862]] - [[W.H.L. Wallace]], American Union general (b. [[1821]]) *[[1882]] - [[Dante Gabriel Rossetti]], English poet and painter (b. [[1828]]) *[[1904]] - Queen [[Isabella II of Spain]] (b. [[1830]]) *[[1919]] - [[Emiliano Zapata]], Mexican revolutionary (b. [[1879]]) *[[1931]] - [[Khalil Gibran]], Lebanese poet and painter (b. [[1883]]) *[[1945]] - [[Charles Nordhoff]], English-born writer (b. [[1887]]) *1945 - [[H.N. Werkman]], Dutch artist and printer (executed) (b. [[1882]]) *[[1954]] - [[Auguste and Louis Lumière|Auguste Lumière]], French film pioneer (b. [[1862]]) *1954 - [[Oscar Mathisen]], Norwegian speed skater (b. [[1888]]) *[[1962]] - [[Michael Curtiz]], Hungarian-born director (b. [[1886]]) *1962 - [[Stuart Sutcliffe]], English musician ([[The Beatles]]) (b. [[1940]]) *[[1965]] - [[Linda Darnell]], American actress (b. [[1923]]) *[[1966]] - [[Evelyn Waugh]], English writer (b. [[1903]]) *[[1968]] - [[Gustavs Celmins]], Latvian politician (b. [[1899]]) *[[1969]] - [[Harley J. Earl]], American automobile designer (b. [[1893]]) *[[1975]] - [[Josephine Baker]], American dancer (b. [[1906]]) *1975 - [[Marjorie Main]], American actress (b. [[1890]]) *[[1979]] - [[Nino Rota]], Italian composer (b. [[1911]]) *[[1986]] - [[Linda Creed]], American songwriter (b. [[1949]]) *[[1991]] - [[Kevin Peter Hall]], American actor (b. [[1955]]) *1991 - [[Natalie Schafer]], American actress (b. [[1900]]) *[[1992]] - [[Sam Kinison]], American comedian (b. [[1953]]) *[[1993]] - [[Chris Hani]], South African activist (b. [[1942]]) *[[1994]] - [[Sam B. Hall]], American politician (b. [[1924]]) *[[1995]] - [[Morarji Desai]], Indian activist (b. [[1896]]) *[[1997]] - [[
<minor /> <comment>Robot: Fixing [[Special:DoubleRedirects|double-redirect]] -&quot;Wikipedia:Agricultural sciences basic topics&quot; +&quot;List of basic agricultural science topics&quot;</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of basic agricultural science topics]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>List of basic architectural topics</title> <id>2356</id> <revision> <id>41922168</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T17:13:35Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Narsamson</username> <id>350112</id> </contributor> <comment>Disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">Below is an alphabetical list of basic topics in '''[[architecture]]''' -- topics which will help the beginner become familiar with the field of architecture. {| border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; |- |valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''A - H''' *[[Abacus]] -- *[[Adobe]] -- *[[Aisle]] -- *[[Alabaster]] -- *[[Ambulatory]] -- *[[Apse]] -- *[[Aqueduct]] -- *[[Arcade (architecture)|Arcade]] -- *[[Arch]] -- *[[Architect]] -- *[[Architectural history]] -- *[[Architecture]] -- *[[Architrave]] -- *[[Ashlar]] -- Stone cutting *[[Atrium (architecture)|Atrium]] -- &lt;!-- disambigged --[[User:Theodore Kloba|Theodore Kloba]] *18:16, 2004 Dec 23 (UTC) --&gt; *[[Axonometric projection]] -- *[[Balcony]] -- *[[Balustrade]] -- *[[Barn]] -- *[[Baroque]] -- *[[Bastion]] -- *[[Basilica]] -- *[[Beam (structure)|Beam]] -- *[[Bailey bridge]] -- *[[Bird's-eye view]] -- *[[Bowstring bridge]] -- *[[Brick]] -- *[[Bridge]] -- *[[Building]] -- *[[Building restoration]] -- *[[Buttress]] -- *[[Cable-stayed bridge]] -- *[[Caisson]] -- *[[Canal]] -- *[[Cantilever]] -- *[[Capital (architecture)]] -- *[[Caryatid]] -- *[[Catacomb]] -- *[[Castle architecture]] -- *[[Cement]] -- Building Material *[[Chancel]] -- *[[Chimney]] -- *[[Church architecture]] -- *[[Cladding]] -- *[[Clapper bridge]] -- *[[Classical order]] -- see: [[Orders (architecture)]] *[[Cloister]] -- *[[Cob (building)|Cob]] -- *[[Colonnade]] -- *[[Column]] -- *[[Concrete]] -- *[[Construction]] -- *[[Construction material]] -- *[[Construction technique]] -- *[[Cooling]] -- *[[Cornice]] -- *[[Cruck]] -- *[[Crypt]] -- *[[Cupola]] -- *[[Curtain wall]] -- *[[Damp-proofing]] -- *[[Dome]] -- *[[Domestic architecture]] -- *[[Door]] -- *[[Elevation]] -- *[[Engineering brick]] -- *[[Entablature]] -- *[[Facade (Architecture)|Facade]] -- *[[Factory]] -- *[[Fenestration]] -- *[[Floor]] -- *[[Foundation (architecture)|Foundation]] -- *[[Framed building]] -- *[[Fresco]] -- *[[Frieze]] -- *[[Gable]] -- *[[Gallery (architecture)]] -- *[[Gargoyle]] -- *[[Gazebo]] -- *[[Girder]] -- *[[Glass]] -- *[[Geodesic dome]] -- *[[Gothic architecture]] -- *[[Grotesque]] -- *[[Half-timbering]] -- *[[Hammerbeam]] -- *[[Heating]] -- *[[Hill fort]] -- *[[Hospital architecture]] -- *[[House]] -- *[[Hypocaust]] -- | |valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''I - Z''' *[[Industrial architecture]] -- *[[Inglenook]] -- *[[thermal insulation|Insulation]] -- *[[Isometric projection]] -- *[[Jack arch]] -- *[[Jetty]] -- *[[Joist]] -- *[[Landscape architecture]] -- *[[Mausoleum]] -- *[[Mezzanine]] -- *[[Minaret]] -- *[[Modern Architecture]] -- *[[Monastery]] -- *[[Monolithic architecture]] -- *[[Mortar (masonry)|Mortar]] -- *[[Motte and bailey]] -- *[[Mosque]] -- *[[Nave]] -- *[[Office building]] -- *[[Oratory]] -- *[[Orders (architecture)]] (i.e. Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, etc) -- *[[Pagoda]] -- *[[Palace]] -- *[[Palladian]] -- *[[Parapet]] -- *[[Pargeting]] -- *[[Pavilion (structure)|Pavilion]] -- *[[Pediment]] -- *[[Penthouse apartment]] -- *[[Piazza]] -- *[[Pier]] -- *[[Plan view]] -- *[[Plaster]] -- *[[Portal frame]] -- *[[Portcullis]] -- *[[Portico]] -- *[[Post and lintel]] -- *[[Presbytery]] -- *[[Quoin]] -- *[[Radburn system]] -- *[[Rendering (architecture)]] -- *[[Rococo]] -- *[[Rood]] -- *[[Roof]] -- *[[Roving bridge]] -- *[[Rustication (architecture)]] -- *[[School architecture]] -- *[[Section]] -- *[[Shopping mall]] -- *[[Skyscraper]] -- *[[Slate]] -- *[[Spire]] -- *[[Straw bale]] -- *[[Span (architecture)|Span]] -- *[[Stadium]] -- *[[Staircase]] -- *[[Steel-frame construction]] -- *[[Rock (geology)|Stone]] -- *[[Structural engineering]] -- *[[Stucco]] -- *[[Suspension bridge]] -- *[[Swing bridge]] -- *[[System building]] -- *[[Tabernacle]] -- *[[Technical drawing]] -- *[[Temple]] -- *[[Terraced house]] -- *[[Terracotta]] -- *[[Thatch]] -- *[[Theatre]] -- *[[Thrust]] -- *[[Tile]] -- *[[Timber]] -- *[[Timber frame]] -- *[[Tower]] -- *[[Tracery]] -- *[[Triumphal arch]] -- *[[Truss]] -- *[[Urban planning]] -- *[[Undercroft]] -- *[[Vault]] -- *[[Vernacular]] -- *[[Viaduct]] -- *[[Villa]] -- *[[Wall]] -- *[[Water wheel]] -- *[[Wattle and daub]] -- *[[Weatherboard]] -- *[[Window]] -- *[[Wood]] -- *[[Worm's-eye view]] | |- |} [[Category:Lists of basic topics|Architectural]] [[Category:Wikipedia missing topics]] [[pl:Podstawowe zagadnienia z zakresu architektury]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>American Football League</title> <id>2357</id> <revision> <id>40990757</id> <timestamp>2006-02-24T09:10:39Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Big Phoenix</username> <id>893155</id> </contributor> <comment>Added saints franchise note.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:AmericanFootballLeague.jpg|thumb|right|150px|AFL logo]] The '''American Football League (AFL)''' was a professional league of [[American football]] that operated from 1960 to 1969. In 1970 the AFL [[AFL-NFL merger|merged]] operations with the [[National Football League]]. All ten AFL franchises became part of the merged league, which retained the NFL name. ''Note: There were three earlier and unrelated American football leagues of the same name: One in 1926, one in 1936-1937 and one in 1940-1941. They are listed at the end of this article.'' ==League history== ===&quot;The Foolish Club&quot;=== In 1958 [[Lamar Hunt]] (son and heir of [[Texas]] oilman [[H. L. Hunt]]) attempted to bring an NFL franchise to his hometown of [[Dallas, Texas|Dallas]] but was rejected by the league. A second attempt in 1959 was also unsuccessful. Hunt was advised by league officials to contact the owners of the [[Chicago Cardinals]], who offered to sell Hunt a 20 percent stake in the team. Hunt rejected the offer, and it was then that he began to envision not just a new team in the NFL, but an entirely new league. Hunt began his quest for a new league by contacting others who had shown interest in the Cardinals, and assessing their interest in starting a new league. These included [[Bud Adams|K.S. (Bud) Adams]] of [[Houston, Texas|Houston]], [[Bob Howsam]] of [[Denver, Colorado|Denver]] and [[Max Winter]] and [[Bill Boyer]] of [[Minneapolis, Minnesota|Minneapolis]]. This brought to four the number of potential teams in the new league. Next, Hunt sought franchises in [[Los Angeles]] and [[New York City]]. But at the same time he sought the blessings of the NFL for his nascent league, as he did not seek a rivalry with the older and more established league. &quot;I told myself I didn’t want to go into this if it meant some kind of battle,&quot; Hunt would later recall. &quot;Of course, this was one of the more naive thoughts in the history of pro sports.&quot; [http://www.kcchiefs.com/history/] Soon after, Hunt received commitments from [[Barron Hilton]] (Los Angeles) and [[Harry Wismer]] (New York). On [[August 14]], [[1959]] the first league meeting was held in [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]] and charter teams were given to Dallas, New York, Houston, Denver, Los Angeles and Minneapolis. On [[August 22]] the league was officially named the American Football League. Two more cities were awarded franchises later in the year - [[Buffalo, New York|Buffalo]] ([[Ralph C. Wilson Jr.|Ralph Wilson]]) on [[October 28]] and [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] ([[William H. Sullivan|William H. (Billy) Sullivan]]) on [[November 22]]. The AFL's first draft took place the same day Boston was awarded their franchise. The draft lasted for 33 rounds. ===The first crisis=== In November 1959, Minneapolis owner Max Winter announced his intent to leave the AFL in order to accept a franchise offer from the NFL. In 1961, his team began play in the NFL, where it took the name [[Minnesota Vikings]]. The NFL now offered Hunt what he had originally wanted - an expansion franchise in Dallas. Hunt turned the NFL down, as he felt it would not be right to abandon his fellow AFL owners. Had Hunt left the AFL, it would likely have never played its first game. ===The AFL begins (1959-61)=== With the first major crisis passed, the AFL got back to the business of preparing for its first season. On [[November 30]], [[1959]] [[Joe Foss]], a [[World War II]] [[United_States_Marine_Corps|Marine]] hero and former governor of [[South Dakota]], was named the AFL's first Commissioner. Foss commissioned a friend of Harry Wismer's to develop the AFL's eagle-on-football logo. The league held a second draft on [[December 2]], which lasted for 20 rounds. Hunt was elected President of the AFL on [[January 26th]], 1960. On [[January 28]], the NFL awarded an expansion franchise to Dallas, which would offer direct competition to Hunt's team. The Minneapolis franchise formally withdrew from the AFL on [[January 27]] and was replaced on [[January 30]] by one in [[Oakland, California]], owned by a group of local investors headed by [[Chet Soda]]. ===The first coup=== [[Billy Cannon]], the All-American and 1959 [[Heisman Trophy]] winner from [[Louisiana State University]], had an uncommon combination of brute strength with the speed of a sprinter. In 1960, his signing by the [[Houston Oilers]] followed a fierce bidding war that began when Oilers owner Bud Ad
ry or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques|Environmental Modification]], [[International Tropical Timber Agreement, 1983|Tropical Timber 83]] and [[International Tropical Timber Agreement, 1994|Tropical Timber 94]], [[Ramsar Convention|Wetland]]s&lt;/small&gt; |-align=&quot;center&quot; !align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;| [[Wastes]] |align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|&lt;small&gt;[[Basel Convention|Hazardous Wastes]]&lt;/small&gt; |-align=&quot;center&quot; !align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;| [[Rivers]] |align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|&lt;small&gt;[[Indus Water Treaty]]&lt;/small&gt; |} == See also== * [[Extreme points of India]] *[[Geology of India]] *[[Climate of India]] *[[Ecoregions of India]] *[[National parks of India]] *[[Regions of India]] *[[Indian subcontinent]] ==Notes== # {{note|afgh}} The Indian government considers the entire state of [[Jammu and Kashmir]] to be a part of India. This state borders a part of [[Afghanistan]]. A ceasefire sponsored by the [[United Nations]] in [[1948]] freezes the positions of Indian- and Pakistani-held territory. As a result, the region bordering Afghanistan is in Pakistani-administered territory. # {{note|patkai}} [http://www.nios.ac.in/SecSoccour/English/Lesson07.pdf Physical divisions] # {{note|deccan}} [http://india.punjabilit.com/land/deccan_plateau.htm Deccan Plateau] # {{note|ecp}} [http://www.rainwaterharvesting.org/eco/ecp.htm The Eastern Coastal Plain] # {{note|rann}} [http://www.nationalgeographic.com/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/im/im0901.html Rann of Kutch seasonal salt marsh] ==References== * {{Web reference | title=Physical Divisions | work=The Smiling Face of our Mother Land | URL=http://www.nios.ac.in/SecSoccour/English/Lesson07.pdf | date=June 9 | year=2005}} * {{Web reference | title=Deccan Plateau | work=An eye on India | URL=http://india.punjabilit.com/land/deccan_plateau.htm | date=June 6 | year=2005}} * {{Web reference | title=The Eastern Coastal Plain | work=Water Harvesting Techniques Prevalent in the Eastern Coastal Plain | URL=http://www.rainwaterharvesting.org/eco/ecp.htm | date=June 6 | year=2005}} * {{Web reference | title=India | work=CIA World Factbook | URL=http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/in.html | date=June 6 | year=2005}} * {{Web reference | title=Geology of India | work=geohead:Earth Science on your desktop | URL=http://www.geoahead.com/strati/india/index.cfm | date=June 6 | year=2005}} * {{Web reference | title=The Land | work=The Great Mountains of the North | URL=http://www.geocities.com/kkbros.geo/kked8/docs/Geog04.doc | date=June 6 | year=2005}} * {{Web reference | title=Land and Natural Resources | work=Terrain | URL=http://library.thinkquest.org/28853/terrain.htm | date=June 6 | year=2005}} * {{Web reference | title=The Rann of Kutch | work=Rann Of Kutch, Geography Of Rann Of Kutch | URL=http://www.indiasite.com/land/kutch.html | date=June 6 | year=2005}} * {{Web reference | title=Rann of Kutch seasonal salt marsh | work=Terrestrial Ecoregions &amp;ndash; Rann of Kutch seasonal salt marsh (IM0901) | URL=http://www.nationalgeographic.com/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/im/im0901.html | date=June 6 | year=2005}} * [http://www.adrc.or.jp/publications/databook/databook_2003_eng/PDF_Eng/chapter4-2.pdf Asian and ADRC Member Countries and their Disaster Characteristics] (PDF), Accessed on [[June 6]], [[2005]] * {{cite book | author=Various authors | title=Manorama Year Book 2003 | publisher=Malayala Manorama Co. Ltd | year=2003 | id=ISBN 81-90461-8-7}} {{Life in India}} {{Asia in topic|Geography of}} {{featured article}} [[Category:Geography of India| ]] [[de:Geographie Indiens]] [[es:Geografía de la India]] [[fr:Géographie de l'Inde]] [[hr:Zemljopis Indije]] [[pt:Geografia da Índia]] [[sv:Indiens geografi]] [[ta:இந்தியாவின் புவியியல்]] [[zh:印度地理]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Demographics of India</title> <id>14598</id> <revision> <id>41635103</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T18:05:34Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Nickshanks</username> <id>20152</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:population density map.png|thumb|300px|Map showing the population density of each state in India]] Although [[India]] occupies only 2.4% of the world's land area, it supports over 15% of the world's population. Only [[China]] has a larger population. Almost 40% of Indians are younger than 15 years of age. More than 70% of the people live in more than 550,000 villages, and the remainder in more than 200 towns and cities. Over thousands of years of its history, India has had invasions from the [[Middle East]], [[Central Asia]], and the West; Indian people and [[Indian culture|culture]] have absorbed and changed these influences to produce a remarkable racial and cultural synthesis. Religion, [[caste]], and language are major determinants of social and political organization in India today. The government has recognized 22 languages as official; [[Hindi]] is the most widely spoken. India also has the second largest number of [[English language|English]] speakers in the world with over 150 million people speaking English in India. [[Image:literacy rate map.png|thumb|300px|Map showing the literacy rate of each state in India]] Although more than 80% of the people are [[Hindu]], India also is the home of more than 130 million [[Muslim]]s&amp;mdash;one of the world's largest Muslim populations. The population also includes [[Christianity|Christians]], [[Sikh]]s, [[Jainism|Jains]], [[Buddhism|Buddhists]], [[Zoroastrianism|Parsis]], [[Ayyavazhi]], [[Bahá'í Faith|Bahá'ís]], and [[Jew]]s. The [[caste]] system reflects Indian occupational and socio-religiously defined hierarchies. Traditionally, there are four broad categories of castes (varnas), including a category of outcastes, earlier called &quot;[[untouchables]]&quot; but now commonly referred to as &quot;[[dalits]].&quot; Within these broad categories there are thousands of castes and subcastes, called ''[[jati]]s'', whose relative status varies from region to region. Despite economic modernization and laws countering discrimination against the lower end of the class structure, the caste system remains an important source of social identification for most Hindus and many non-Hindus as well, thus making it a potent factor in the political life of the country. '''Population:''' 1,080,264,388 (July 2005 est.) '''Age structure:''' &lt;br&gt;''0–14 years:'' 31.2%(male 173,634,432/female 163,932,475) &lt;br&gt;''15–64 years:'' 63.9% (male 356,932,082/female 333,283,590) &lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:'' 4.9% (male 26,542,025/female 25,939,784) (2005 est.) The average age of Indians is 26 years. '''Population growth rate:''' 1.4% (2005 est.) '''Birth rate:''' 22.32 births/1,000 population (2005 est.) '''Death rate:''' 8.28 deaths/1,000 population (2005 est.) '''Net migration rate:''' &amp;minus;0.07 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2005 est.) '''Sex ratio:''' &lt;br&gt;''at birth:'' 1.05 male(s)/female &lt;br&gt;''under 15 years:'' 1.06 male(s)/female &lt;br&gt;''15–64 years:'' 1.07 male(s)/female &lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:'' 1.03 male(s)/female &lt;br&gt;''total population:'' 1.07 male(s)/female (2000 est.) '''Infant mortality rate:''' total: 56.29 deaths/1,000 live births female: 55.69 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 est.) male: 56.86 deaths/1,000 live births '''[[Life expectancy]] at birth:''' &lt;br&gt;''total population:'' 64.35 years &lt;br&gt;''male:'' 63.57 years &lt;br&gt;''female:'' 65.16 years (2005 est.) &lt;br&gt; '''Total fertility rate:''' 2.78 children born/woman (2005 est.) &lt;br&gt; '''Nationality:''' &lt;br&gt;''noun:'' Indian(s) &lt;br&gt;''adjective:'' Indian '''Ethnic groups:''' [[Indo-Aryans|Indo-Aryan]]([[Caucasoid]]) 72%, [[Dravidian race|Dravidian]] 25%, [[Mongoloid]] and other 3% '''Religions:''' Hindu 80.46%, Muslim 13.43%, Christian 2.34%, Sikh 1.87%, Buddhists 0.77%, Jains 0.41 %, Others or not stated 0.72% (2001 Census) '''Languages:''' [[English language|English]] enjoys associate status but is the most important language for national, political, and commercial communication, [[Hindi language|Hindi]] is the primary Official language of the Indian government and primary tongue of 30% of the people. Among the other major languages, [[Telugu language|Telugu]] (second highest spoken language in India), [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]], [[Marathi]] and [[Tamil language|Tamil]] all have about 50 million or more speakers ''within'' the boundaries of India (with more living in other countries). There are 22 languages recognised by the Indian Constitution - [[Assamese language|Assamese]], [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[Bodo]], [[Dogri language|Dogri]], [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]], [[Hindi]], [[Kannada language|Kannada]], [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]], [[Konkani language|Konkani]], [[Maithili language|Maithili]], [[Malayalam language|Malayalam]], [[Manipuri language|Manipuri]], [[Marathi language|Marathi]], [[Nepali language|Nepali]], [[Oriya language|Oriya]], [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], [[Sanskrit]], [[Santali language|Santali]], [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]], [[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Telugu language|Telugu]], and [[Urdu]]. ==Religion-wise breakdown== Censuses were conducted in India in ancient times with examples such as [[Kautilya]]'s [[Arthashastra]] which describes the collection of population statistics for taxation. The [[British India|British]] census in [[1871]] was the first conducted in modern times in India. The [[2001]] census figures released by the India Census Commission give a breakdown by various parameters including religion. # All figures in %. # Gender Ratio*: no of females/1000 males # ''Others'' includes Tribal Animists, [[Jew]]s, [[Parsi]]s and [[Bahá'í Faith|Bahá'ís]] {| class=
> <username>KnightRider</username> <id>430793</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>warnfile Adding: es</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Constellation| name = Chamaeleon | abbreviation = Cha | genitive = Chamaeleontis | symbology = [[Chameleon]] | RA = 11 | dec= &amp;minus;80 | areatotal = 132 | arearank = 79th | numberstars = 0 | starname = &amp;gamma; Cha | starmagnitude = 4.1 | meteorshowers = None | bordering = *[[Musca]] *[[Carina (constellation)|Carina]] *[[Volans]] *[[Mensa (constellation)|Mensa]] *[[Octans]] *[[Apus]] | latmax = 0 | latmin = 90 | month = April | notes=}} {{dablink|For other uses of the word, see '''[[chameleon (disambiguation)]]'''}} '''Chamaeleon''' ([[Latin]] for ''[[chameleon]]'') is a minor southern [[constellation]]. The constellation was one of twelve constellations created by [[Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser]] and [[Frederick de Houtman]] between [[1595]] and [[1597]], and it first appeared in [[Johann Bayer]]'s ''[[Uranometria]]'' of [[1603]]. ==Notable Stars== ===Stars with Bayer designations=== * [[Alpha Chamaeleontis|&amp;alpha; Cha]] 4.05; [[Beta Chamaeleontis|&amp;beta; Cha]] 4.24; [[Gamma Chamaeleontis|&amp;gamma; Cha]] 4.11; [[Delta1 Chamaeleontis|&amp;delta;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; Cha]] 5.46; [[Delta2 Chamaeleontis|&amp;delta;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; Cha]] 4.45; [[Epsilon Chamaeleontis|&amp;epsilon; Cha]] 4.88; [[Zeta Chamaeleontis|&amp;zeta; Cha]] 5.07; [[Theta Chamaeleontis|&amp;theta; Cha]] 4.34; [[Eta Chamaeleontis|&amp;eta; Cha]] 5.46; [[Iota Chamaeleontis|&amp;iota; Cha]] 5.34; [[Kappa Chamaeleontis|&amp;kappa; Cha]] 5.04; [[Mu Chamaeleontis|&amp;mu; Cha]] 5.53; [[Mu2 Chamaeleontis|&amp;mu;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; Cha]] 6.60; [[Nu Chamaeleontis|&amp;nu; Cha]] 5.43; [[Pi Chamaeleontis|&amp;pi; Cha]] 5.64 ===Stars with Flamsteed designations=== * [[9 Chamaeleontis|9 Cha]] 6.05 ==Notable Deep-sky Objects== In 1999, a nearby [[open cluster]] was discovered centered on the bright star [[Eta Chamaeleontis]]. The cluster, known as either the &quot;eta Chamaeleontis cluster&quot; or &quot;Mamajek 1&quot; is 6 million years old, and lies 316 [[light years]] from Earth. The constellation contains a number of [[molecular clouds]] (called the &quot;Chamaeleon dark clouds&quot;) that are forming low-mass [[T Tauri star]]s. The cloud complex lies some 400 to 600 [[light years]] from Earth, and contains tens of thousands of solar masses of gas and dust. ==History== Since it is an invention of the 17th century and was not visible to early [[Mediterranean]] [[culture]]s, there is no [[mythology]] associated with it. ==Mythology== ==See also== {{ConstellationsByBayer}} {{ConstellationList}} ==References== == External links == {{Commons|Chamaeleon}} * [http://www.allthesky.com/constellations/chamaeleon/ The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Chamaeleon] * [http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-bib_query?bibcode=1999ApJ...516L..77M&amp;amp;db_key=AST&amp;amp;data_type=HTML&amp;amp;format=&amp;amp;high=43a3b4e6f826104 &quot;The eta Chamaeleontis Cluster: A Remarkable New Nearby Young Open Cluster&quot; (Mamajek, Lawson, &amp; Feigelson 1999)]] * [http://www.univie.ac.at/webda/cgi-bin/ocl_page.cgi?dirname=mam01 &quot;WEBDA open cluster database entry for Mamajek 1&quot;]] [[Category:Chamaeleon constellation| ]] [[ca:Camaleó (constel·lació)]] [[da:Kamæleonen]] [[de:Chamäleon (Sternbild)]] [[es:Chamaeleon]] [[fr:Caméléon (constellation)]] [[ko:카멜레온자리]] [[it:Chamaeleon]] [[la:Chamaeleon (sidus)]] [[lt:Chameleonas (astronomija)]] [[hu:Kaméleon (csillagkép)]] [[nl:Kameleon (sterrenbeeld)]] [[ja:カメレオン座]] [[nn:Kameleonen]] [[pl:Kameleon (gwiazdozbiór)]] [[pt:Chamaeleon]] [[ru:Хамелеон (созвездие)]] [[sk:Súhvezdie Chameleón]] [[sv:Kameleonten]] [[th:กลุ่มดาวกิ้งก่าคะมีเลียน]] [[zh:堰蜒座]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cholesterol</title> <id>6437</id> <revision> <id>41582520</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T07:54:29Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>El C</username> <id>92203</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/82.198.3.212|82.198.3.212]] ([[User talk:82.198.3.212|talk]]) to last version by Elkman</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Cholesterol.png|240px|thumb|right|Cholesterol chemical structure]] '''Cholesterol''' is a [[sterol]] (a combination steroid and alcohol) and a [[lipid]] found in the [[cell membrane]]s of all [[human body|body]] tissues, and transported in the [[blood]] plasma of all [[animal]]s. The name originates from the Greek ''chole-'' ([[bile]]) and ''stereos'' (solid), and the chemical suffix ''-ol'' for an [[alcohol]], as researchers first identified cholesterol (C&lt;sub&gt;27&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;45&lt;/sub&gt;OH) in solid form in [[gallstone]]s in [[1784]]. Most cholesterol is not dietary in origin, it is synthesized internally. Cholesterol is present in higher concentrations in tissues which either produce more or have more densely-packed membranes, for example, the [[liver]], [[spinal cord]] and [[brain]], and also in [[atheroma]]. Cholesterol plays a central role in many [[biochemistry|biochemical]] processes, but is best known for the association of [[cardiovascular disease]] with various [[lipoprotein]] cholesterol transport patterns and [[hypercholesterolemia|high levels of cholesterol]] in the blood. Often, when most doctors talk to their patients about the health concerns of cholesterol, they are referring to &quot;bad cholesterol&quot;, or [[low-density lipoprotein]] (LDL). &quot;Good cholesterol&quot; is [[high-density lipoprotein]] (HDL). == Physiology == === Function === Cholesterol is required to build and maintain [[cell membrane]]s; it makes the membrane's fluidity - degree of [[viscosity]] - stable over bigger temperature intervals (the hydroxyl group on cholesterol interacts with the phosphate head of the membrane, and the bulky steroid and the hydrocarbon chain is embedded in the membrane). Cholesterol also aids in the manufacture of [[bile]] (which helps digest fats), and is also important for the metabolism of fat soluable vitamins, including vitamins [[vitamin A|A]], [[vitamin D|D]], [[vitamin E|E]] and [[vitamin K|K]]. It is the major precursor for the synthesis of [[vitamin D]], of the various [[steroid hormone]]s, including [[cortisol]] and [[aldosterone]] in the [[adrenal gland]]s, and of the sex hormones [[progesterone]], [[estrogen]], and [[testosterone]]. Further recent research shows that cholesterol has an important role for the brain [[synapse]]s as well as in the [[immune system]], including protecting against cancer. Recently, cholesterol has also been implicated in cell signalling processes, where it has been suggested that it forms [[lipid rafts]] in the [[plasma membrane]]. It also reduces the permeability of the plasma membrane to proton and sodium ions (Haines 2001). === Properties === Cholesterol is minimally soluble in [[water]]; it cannot dissolve and travel in the water-based bloodstream. Instead, it is transported in the bloodstream by [[lipoprotein]]s - protein &quot;molecular-suitcases&quot; that are water-soluble and carry cholesterol and fats internally. The proteins forming the surface of the given lipoprotein particle determine from what cells cholesterol will be removed and to where it will be supplied. The largest lipoproteins, which primarily transport fats from the [[intestine|intestinal]] mucosa to the liver, are called [[chylomicron]]s. They carry mostly [[triglyceride]] fats and cholesterol (that from food and especially internal cholesterol secreted by the liver into the bile). In the [[liver]], chylomicron particles give up triglycerides and some cholesterol, and are converted into [[low-density lipoprotein]] (LDL) particles, which carry triglycerides and cholesterol on to other body cells. In healthy individuals the LDL particles are large and relatively few in number. In contrast, large numbers of small LDL particles are strongly associated with promoting [[atheroma]]tous disease within the arteries. (Lack of information on LDL particle number and size is one of the major problems of conventional lipid tests.) [[High-density lipoprotein]] (HDL) particles transport cholesterol back to the liver for excretion, but vary considerably in their effectiveness for doing this. Having large numbers of large HDL particles correlates with better health outcomes. In contrast, having small amounts of large HDL particles is strongly associated with [[atheroma]]tous disease progression within the arteries. (Note that the concentration of total HDL does not indicate the actual number of functional large HDL particles, another of the major problems of conventional lipid tests.) The cholesterol molecules present in ''LDL cholesterol'' and ''HDL cholesterol'' are identical. The difference between the two types of cholesterol derives from the carrier protein molecules; the [[lipoprotein]] component. === Synthesis and intake === [[Image:HMG-CoA reductase pathway.png|280px|thumb|right|The HMG-CoA reductase pathway]]Cholesterol is primarily synthesized from [[acetyl CoA]] through the [[HMG-CoA reductase pathway]] in many [[cell (biology)|cell]]s and [[biological_tissue|tissues]]. About 20&amp;ndash;25% of total daily production (~1 [[gram|g]]/[[day]]) occurs in the [[liver]]; other sites of higher synthesis rates include the [[intestines]], [[adrenal gland]]s and [[reproductive organ]]s. For a person of about 150 pounds (68 kg), typical total body content is about 35 [[gram|g]], typical daily internal production is about 1 g and typical daily dietary intake is 200 to 300 mg. Of the 1,200 to 1,300 mg input to the intestines (via bile production and food intake), about 50% is reabsorbed into the bloodstream. [[Konrad Bloch]] and [[Feodor Lynen]] shared the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] in [[1964]]
racurricular]] involvement program (Sun Devil Involvement Center) with over 450 registered clubs and organizations on campus. Located on the 3rd floor of the [[Memorial Union]], the Sun Devil Involvement Center (SDIC) provides opportunities for student involvement through [[clubs]], [[sororities]], [[fraternities]], [[community service]], [[leadership]], [[student government]], and [[co-curricular]] programming. In 2003 the Student Government adopted a new [[Constitution]] under the oversight of several individuals that split it into 3 branches; &quot;[[Undergraduate]]&quot;, &quot;[[Graduate Student|Graduate]]&quot;, and the &quot;Programming and Activities Board&quot;. All three branches are overseen by a [[Supreme Court]]. A [[Senate]] and [[Executive (government)|Executive]] department are set aside for the [[Undergraduate]] branch, and an [[Deliberative assembly|Assembly]] and [[Executive (government)|Executive]] department are set aside for the [[Graduate Student|Graduate]] branch. The [[Senate]] and [[Deliberative assembly|Assembly]] have representatives from all colleges on campus, providing a critical forum for the discussion and resolution of issues that come before the student body. ''ASU Cares'' is the largest community service project sponsored by the university. It is an annual event that allows students to give back some time by helping residents and communities clean up, rebuild, and/or serve eachother. Faculty, staff, alumni, members of the community and their families and guests are also invited to be part of this large ASU effort to help residents of the various communities surrounding the metropolitan area. The Freshman Year Experience (FYE) and the [[Fraternities and sororities|Greek]] community (Greek Life) at Arizona State University have been important in binding students to the university, and providing social outlets. The Freshman Year Experience at Arizona State University was developed to improve the freshman experience at Arizona State University and increase student retention figures. FYE provides advising, computer labs, free walk-in tutoring, workshops, and classes for students. In 2003, ''[[U.S. News and World Report]]'' ranked FYE as the 23rd best first year program in the nation. It has also been recognized as one of the best in both public and private universities by the ''Chronicle of [[Higher Education]]''. In student media, ''The Blaze 1260 AM'' is the student run radio station at Arizona State University, while [[Sun Devil Television|Sun Devil Television (SDTV)]] is the student run television station. ==Athletics== ASU is a member of the [[Pacific Ten Conference|Pac-10]] athletic conference. Athletes, students, and alumni of ASU are known as &quot;Sun Devils,&quot; a nickname adopted in 1946; earlier nicknames were the Normals or the Owls and, later, the Bulldogs. The nickname was said to have come from an article in the newspaper in which the writer said the quote &quot;Lets call them Sun Devils,&quot; and the name eventually caught on the with the university. The Sun Devil mascot, Sparky, was designed by [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]] illustrator [[Bert Anthony]]. The ASU fight song is [[Maroon and Gold]], named for the school's colors. ASU's chief rival is the [[University of Arizona]]. ASU's football venue is named [[Sun Devil Stadium]]. Notable athletic alumni include baseball players [[Barry Bonds]], [[Paul Lo Duca]], [[Fernando Viña]] and [[Reggie Jackson]], football players [[Jake Plummer]], [[Todd Heap]], [[Danny White]], [[Terrell Suggs]], [[David Fulcher]], [[Darren Woodson]], and [[Pat Tillman]], basketball players [[Byron Scott]], [[Ike Diogu]] and [[Eddie House]], golfer [[Phil Mickelson]], and announcer [[Al Michaels]]. ASU is arguably one of the most successful baseball programs in the country. They have won five national championships, the third most by any school, and have the third most alumni to ever play in [[Major League Baseball]]. ASU won national championships in men's archery 15 times, women's archery 21 times, mixed archery 20 times, men's badminton 13 times, women's badminton 17 times, mixed badminton 10 times, baseball 5 times, women's tennis 3 times, men's gymnastics once, men's track and field once, wrestling once, men's golf twice, women's golf 13 times, women's softball twice, and women's swimming and diving 7 times, for a total of 129 national championships. Additionally, the men's basketball team has participated in 12 [[NCAA]] tournaments and the football team won the [[Rose Bowl (game)|Rose Bowl]] in 1986 as well as the [[Fiesta Bowl]] in 1982, [[1975]], [[1973]], [[1972]], and 1971. ===Football=== The Sun Devils played in the [[Border Intercollegiate Athletic Association|Border Conference]] between 1931 and 1961, before joining the [[Western Athletic Conference]] the following year. Led by legendary head coach [[Frank Kush]], the Sun Devils posted a remarkable 62-9 record between 1970 and 1975, culminating in a 17-14 upset of the [[University of Nebraska-Lincoln|Nebraska Cornhuskers]] in the 1975 Fiesta Bowl. In 1978, both ASU and the [[University of Arizona]] joined the Pacific Ten Conference, and in that year ASU celebrated with an emotional 20-7 victory over number-one-ranked [[University of Southern California]]. The Sun Devils then began a slow decline, interrupted only briefly by victories in the 1983 Fiesta Bowl and 1987 Rose Bowl. After a 1987 [[Freedom Bowl]] victory over [[United States Air Force Academy|Air Force]], the Sun Devils went a combined 43-44-1 between 1988 and 1995. In 1996, the Sun Devils went a surprising 11-1, highlighted by a 19-0 shutout of the number-one-ranked [[University of Nebraska-Lincoln|Nebraska Cornhuskers]] in Tempe. ASU quarterback [[Jake Plummer]] led the Sun Devils, propelling Arizona State into the Rose Bowl against the [[Ohio State Buckeyes]]. In a game with [[NCAA Division I-A national football championship|National Championship]] potential, the Sun Devils held a slim 17-14 lead with 1:47 left in the fourth quarter, but surrendered a late touchdown to Ohio State, falling by a final score of 20-17. Between 1997 and 2000, the Sun Devils underachieved greatly, leading to the dismissal of popular head [[American football|football]] coach [[Bruce Snyder]]. The hiring of head coach [[Dirk Koetter]] from [[Boise State University]] gave the Sun Devils a charismatic leader with a penchant for molding strong quarterbacks. Arizona State began the Dirk Koetter era with a thud, falling to 4-7 in 2001. However, ASU improved to 8-6 in 2002, highlighted by the play of defensive end [[Terrell Suggs]] and wide receiver [[Shaun McDonald]]. Quarterback [[Andrew Walter]] emerged to pass for a staggering 3,877 yards and 28 touchdowns. The Sun Devils eventually lost a nailbiter to [[Kansas State University]] in the 2003 [[Holiday Bowl]]. In 2004, the Sun Devils surprised nearly everyone, jumping out to a 5-0 record (including an impressive 44-7 victory over Iowa in Tempe). [[Andrew Walter]] led the suddenly resurgent Sun Devils, passing for 1,249 yards and 15 TDs through five games. This set up an attractive matchup between ASU and [[University of Southern California|Southern California]] in [[Los Angeles]] on October 16, 2004, which they lost. After a dramatic come from behind victory over Stanford University and a win over Washington State in a game in which ASU retired Pat Tillman's number, they ended up losing to rival University of Arizona. ASU won the Vitalis [[Sun Bowl]] over Purdue, 27-23, on New Year's Eve. 2005 brought a 6-5 record. The Sun Devils narrowly lost to [[Louisiana State University]] in that school's first game after [[Hurricane Katrina]]. Another narrow loss to USC was emotional, considering the Sun Devils led at the half. However, the school was still looking forward to a BCS bowl until [[Stanford University]] upset the Devils, which cost the school its national ranking. The wins over Washington State and Washington were unable to get back the ranking. In a thrilling 23-20 victory over archrival Arizona, the Sun Devils clinched a berth in, and eventually won, the [[Insight Bowl]] against [[Rutgers]]. ===Softball=== One of the nation's founding programs, the Sun Devils are in their 39th season on the diamond in Tempe. ASU holds a 1,039-561-1 (.649) all-time record since the 1967 team posted a 5-1 record. ASU has recorded 23 season of at least 30 wins and six with 40 or more victories, including an all-time high of 46 in 2002. The Sun Devils have earned 16 postseason bids, fourth all-time in the Pac-10 Conference, and has made four trips to the [[College World Series]]. Prior to the current NCAA format, ASU went to seven WCWS, claiming back-to-back national tiles in 1972 and 1973. Arizona State's storied tradition of softball excellence continues to flourish under the tutelage of 16th-year head coach [[Linda Wells]], one of the most prominent and successful coaches in NCAA history. Wells, who is currently the 7th-most successful active coach in NCAA Division I history with 907 victories (9th all-time), has led the Sun Devils to 11 (seven consecutive 1997-03) NCAA Regional appearances in 15 seasons, including two trips in the past six years to the College World Series (1999/2002). While at ASU, Wells has compiled a record of 554-394 and has had seven players earn a total of 12 All-American awards. Her 554 wins are the most victories all-time in ASU's storied 39-year history, surpassing coaching legend Mary Littlewood's 536. Wells earned the victory with a 3-2 win over Sacramento State (2/13/05). Wells' vast coaching experience and tireless work ethic has not gone unnoticed by the country or by the world as she was named the head coach of the Greek Olympic National Team that competed in the 2004 Olympic Games in Athens. Wells has coached 35 career .300 hitters at ASU in her 15 seasons, averaging a combined .335 -- not an easy accomplishment in the pitching-rich Pa
lis|8 Cam]] 6.09; [[11 Camelopardalis|11 Cam]] 5.22; [[12 Camelopardalis|12 Cam]] 6.08; [[14 Camelopardalis|14 Cam]] 6.49; [[15 Camelopardalis|15 Cam]] 6.13; [[16 Camelopardalis|16 Cam]] 5.24; [[17 Camelopardalis|17 Cam]] 5.43; [[18 Camelopardalis|18 Cam]] 6.44; [[19 Camelopardalis|19 Cam]] 6.15; [[22 Camelopardalis|22 Cam]] 7.17; [[23 Camelopardalis|23 Cam]] 6.17; [[24 Camelopardalis|24 Cam]] 6.05; [[26 Camelopardalis|26 Cam]] 5.93; [[28 Camelopardalis|28 Cam]] 6.79; [[29 Camelopardalis|29 Cam]] 6.53; [[30 Camelopardalis|30 Cam]] 6.14; [[31 Camelopardalis|31 Cam]] 5.20; [[35 Camelopardalis|35 Cam]] 6.39; [[36 Camelopardalis|36 Cam]] 5.36; [[37 Camelopardalis|37 Cam]] 5.35; [[40 Camelopardalis|40 Cam]] 5.37; [[42 Camelopardalis|42 Cam]] 5.14; [[43 Camelopardalis|43 Cam]] 5.11; [[47 Camelopardalis|47 Cam]] 6.36; [[49 Camelopardalis|49 Cam]] 6.50; [[51 Camelopardalis|51 Cam]] 5.93; [[53 Camelopardalis|53 Cam]] 6.02; [[54 Camelopardalis|54 Cam]] 6.48; [[55 Camelopardalis|55 Cam]] 5.34; [[56 Camelopardalis|56 Cam]] 6.43; [[57 Camelopardalis|57 Cam]] 5.73 {{ConstellationsByBartsch}} {{ConstellationList}} == External links == {{Commons|Camelopardalis}} * [http://www.allthesky.com/constellations/camelopardalis/ The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Camelopardalis] [[Category:Camelopardalis constellation| ]] [[ca:Girafa (constel·lació)]] [[cs:Žirafa (souhvězdí)]] [[da:Giraffen]] [[de:Giraffe (Sternbild)]] [[es:Camelopardalis]] [[fr:Girafe (constellation)]] [[ko:기린자리]] [[id:Camelopardalis]] [[it:Camelopardalis]] [[la:Camelopardalis (sidus)]] [[lt:Žirafa (astronomija)]] [[hu:Zsiráf (csillagkép)]] [[nl:Giraffe (sterrenbeeld)]] [[ja:きりん座]] [[nn:Sjiraffen]] [[pl:Żyrafa (gwiazdozbiór)]] [[pt:Camelopardalis]] [[ru:Жираф (созвездие)]] [[sk:Súhvezdie Žirafa]] [[fi:Kirahvi (tähdistö)]] [[th:กลุ่มดาวยีราฟ]] [[zh:鹿豹座]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Convention of Kanagawa</title> <id>6365</id> <revision> <id>37081124</id> <timestamp>2006-01-28T14:31:10Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ponder</username> <id>86301</id> </contributor> <comment>/* See also */ reformatted section, rm duplicate external link</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:PerryBustShimoda.jpg|thumb|right|Bust of Matthew Perry in Shimoda]] On [[March 31]], [[1854]], the '''Convention of Kanagawa''' ([[Japanese language|Japanese]]: 神奈川条約, Kanagawa Jōyaku, or 日米和親条約, Nichibei Washin Jōyaku) was used by Commodore [[Matthew Perry (naval officer)|Matthew Perry]] of the [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] to force the opening of the [[Japan]]ese ports of [[Shimoda]] and [[Hakodate]] to [[United States|American]] trade and ended Japan's 200 year policy of seclusion ([[Sakoku]]). It also guaranteed safety of shipwrecked American whalers and established a permanent American consul. Though he refused to deal with Japanese officials and demanded to speak with the Japanese Head of State, Perry did not realize that he had only spoken with representatives of the [[Tokugawa_shogunate|Tokugawa]] [[Shogun]] and not the [[Emperor]]. However, the [[Shogun]] was the de-facto ruler of Japan at that time. For the Emperor to interact in any way with foreigners was out of the question. After the '''Treaty of Kanagawa''' was concluded, similar treaties were negotiated by the [[Russians]] and the [[British Empire|British]]. This treaty was followed by the 1858 &quot;unequal&quot; [[U.S.-Japan Treaty of Amity and Commerce]] allowing the establishment of foreign concessions, extra-territoriality for foreigners, and minimal import taxes for foreign goods. ==See also== *[[Anglo-Japanese Friendship Treaty]] *[[History of Japan]] ==External links== * [http://web.jjay.cuny.edu/~jobrien/reference/ob58.html The Treaty of Amity and Commerce Between the United States and Japan, 1858 (The Harris Treaty)] (full text) [[Category:Japan history of foreign relations]] [[Category:United States treaties]] [[Category:Treaties]] [[Category:Edo period]] {{Japan-hist-stub}} {{US-hist-stub}} [[de:Konvention von Kanagawa]] [[es:Tratado de Kanagawa]] [[fr:Convention de Kanagawa]] [[id:Persetujuan Kanagawa]] [[ja:日米和親条約]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Canis Major</title> <id>6366</id> <revision> <id>39020007</id> <timestamp>2006-02-10T04:06:54Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>GrinBot</username> <id>411872</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Adding: hu</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Constellation| name = Canis major | abbreviation = CMa | genitive = Canis Majoris | symbology = the Greater Dog | RA = 7 | dec= &amp;minus;20 | areatotal = 380 | arearank = 43rd | numberstars = 5 | starname = [[Sirius]] (&amp;alpha; CMa) | starmagnitude = &amp;minus;1.46 | meteorshowers = None | bordering = *[[Monoceros]] *[[Lepus (constellation)|Lepus]] *[[Columba (constellation)|Columba]] *[[Puppis]] | latmax = 60 | latmin = 90 | month = February | notes=}} '''Canis Major''' ([[Latin]] for ''the greater [[dog]]'') is one of the 88 modern [[constellation]]s, and was also in [[Ptolemy]]'s list of 48 constellations. It is said to represent one of the dogs following [[Orion (mythology)|Orion]] the hunter (see also the constellations of [[Orion (constellation)|Orion]], [[Canis Minor]], and [[Canes Venatici]].) Canis Major contains [[Sirius]], the [[List of brightest stars|brightest star]] in the night sky, and that star is part of the [[Winter Triangle]]. == Notable features == Canis Major's alpha star [[Sirius]] is the brightest star besides the [[Sun]] as seen from [[Earth]]. It is also one of the [[List of nearest stars|nearest]]. The star's name means ''scorching'', since the summer heat occurred just after Sirius' [[heliacal rising]]. The [[Ancient Greece|Ancient Greeks]] referred to such times in the summer as ''dog days'', as only dogs would be mad enough to go out in the heat, leading to the star being known as the ''Dog Star''. Consequently, the constellation was named after it, as a ''Big Dog''. Other named stars in Canis Major (all names from Arabic): *[[Beta Canis Majoris|&amp;beta; CMa]]: Murzim *[[Gamma Canis Majoris|&amp;gamma; CMa]]: Muliphen *[[Delta Canis Majoris|&amp;delta; CMa]]: Wezen *[[Epsilon Canis Majoris|&amp;epsilon; CMa]]: Adhara *[[Zeta Canis Majoris|&amp;zeta; CMa]]: Furud *[[Eta Canis Majoris|&amp;eta; CMa]]: Aludra == Notable deep sky objects == There aren't many bright [[deep sky object]]s in this region of sky. The only [[Messier object]] in Canis Major is [[Messier Object 41|M41]] ([[NGC 2287]]), an [[open cluster]] of [[visual magnitude]] 4.6. It is located about 4 degrees directly south of Sirius. [[Canis Major (dwarf galaxy)|Canis Major Dwarf]] is a recently-discovered [[dwarf galaxy]] orbiting the [[Milky Way]], in the constellation. == Mythology == This constellation was known to the easterners from the time immemorial. In early European classical days, this constellation represented Laelaps, [[Acteon]]'s hound; or sometimes the hound of Procris, [[Diana (goddess)|Diana's]] nymph; or the one given by [[Eos|Aurora]] to Cephalus, so famed for its speed that [[Zeus]] elevated it to the sky. Most commonly, Canis Major (or perhaps just the star Sirius) is Orion's hunting dog, pursuing [[Lepus (constellation)|Lepus]] the [[hare]] or helping Orion fight [[Taurus (constellation)|Taurus]] the [[bull]], and is referred to in this way by [[Aratos]], [[Homer]] and [[Hesiod]]. The [[ancient Greece|ancient Greeks]] refer only to one dog, but by [[ancient Rome|Roman]] times, [[Canis Minor]] appears as Orion's second dog. Roman myth also refers to Canis Major as ''Custos Europae'', the dog guarding [[Europa (mythology)|Europa]] but failing to prevent her abduction by [[Jupiter (god)|Jupiter]] in the form of a bull; and as ''[[Cerberus|Janitor Lethaeus]]'', the watchdog of [[Hell]]. Depending on the faintness of stars considered, Canis Major resembles a dog facing either above or below the [[ecliptic]]. When facing below, since Sirius was considered a dog in its own right, early greek mythology sometimes considered it to be two headed. As such, together with the area of the sky that is deserted (now considered as the new and extremely faint constellations [[Camelopardalis]] and [[Lynx (constellation)|Lynx]]), and the other features of the area in the [[Zodiac]] sign of [[Gemini]] (i.e. the [[Milky Way]], and the constellations [[Gemini]], [[Orion constellation|Orion]], [[Auriga (constellation)|Auriga]], and [[Canis Minor]]), this may be the origin of the myth of the cattle of [[Geryon]], which forms one of [[The Twelve Labours]] of [[Herakles]]. ==Stars== :Stars with proper names: :* (9/&amp;alpha; CMa) &amp;minus;1.44 '''[[Sirius]]''' or '''Dog Star''' or '''''Aschere''''' or '''''Canicula''''' &amp;ndash; brightest star; double; nearby :*: &lt; s&amp;#299;rius &lt; &amp;#963;&amp;#949;&amp;#943;&amp;#961;&amp;#953;&amp;#959;&amp;#962; Brilliant :*: &lt; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1588;&amp;#1593;&amp;#1585;&amp;#1609; ''aš-ši’r&amp;#257;'' Sirius :*: &lt; ''can&amp;#299;cula'' The dog :* ([[Beta Canis Majoris|2/&amp;beta; CMa]]) 1.98 '''Murzim''' [Murzam, Mirzim, ''Mirza''] :*: &lt; ? ''al-murzim'' The roarer (lion)/announcer [announcing Sirius] :* ([[Gamma Canis Majoris|23/&amp;gamma; CMa]]) 4.11 '''Muliphein''' [Muliphen] or '''''Isis''''' :*: &lt; &amp;#1605;&amp;#1581;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1601;&amp;#1610;&amp;#1606; ''mu&amp;#295;lifayn'' (The star) sworn by [by two?] :* ([[Delta Canis Majoris|25/&amp;delta; CMa]]) 1.83 '''Wezen''' [''Alwazn, Wesen, Al Wazor''] :*: &lt; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1608;&amp;#1586;&amp;#1606; ''al-wazn'' The weight :* ([[Epsilon Canis Majoris|21/&amp;epsilon; CMa]]) 1.50 '''Adhara''' [''Adara''] :*: &lt; &amp;#1593;&amp;#1584;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1585;&amp;#1609; ''&lt;sup&gt;c&lt;sup&gt;að&amp;#257;r&amp;#257;'' (The) maidens
mini-episode&quot;]], set in the immediate aftermath of ''[[The Parting of the Ways]]'' and leading directly into ''[[The Christmas Invasion]]'', was shown as part of the Children in Need [[telethon]]. ===Other programmes=== The Doctor in his fourth incarnation ([[Tom Baker]]) has been represented on several episodes of ''[[The Simpsons]]'', starting with the episode &quot;[[Sideshow Bob's Last Gleaming]]&quot; where (along with [[Krusty the Clown]] and [[Steve Urkel]]) he was part of a delegation to the Pentagon of &quot;the esteemed representatives of television&quot;. The episode was broadcast the week of ''Doctor Who'''s 33rd anniversary. He was also in the episode &quot;[[Treehouse of Horror X]]&quot;, where he had been kidnapped by an evil science-fiction-crazed villain. [[Jon Culshaw]] frequently impersonates the Fourth Doctor in the BBC ''[[Dead Ringers (comedy)|Dead Ringers]]'' series. Culshaw's &quot;Doctor&quot; has telephoned four of the &quot;real&quot; Doctors — Tom Baker, Peter Davison, Colin Baker and Sylvester McCoy — in character as the Fourth Doctor. This prompted the bemused (and apparently confused) McCoy to ask the classic question: &quot;Have you been in the pub?&quot;. When Culshaw phoned Tom Baker himself and stated that he &quot;was the Doctor&quot;, Baker replied, &quot;But there must be some mistake...''I'm'' the Doctor...&quot; Baker had previously worked with Culshaw and was aware of his impression but not when the call would come, if at all, so his reaction was genuine. On the other hand, McCoy has said that his reaction was faked, as he had been warned immediately before the call took place. ===Merchandise=== {{main|Doctor Who merchandise}} [[Image:Drwhopinball.jpg|right|thumb|Flyer for [[Midway Games|Midway]]'s ''Dr. Who'' pinball game.]] In 1992, [[Midway Games|Midway]] (under the ''[[Bally]]'' label) released a Doctor Who [[pinball]] game, designed by [http://home.comcast.net/~pfutz/ Bill Pfutzenreuter] (also known as &quot;Pfutz&quot;) and Barry Oursler (designer of the 1986 classic [[Pin*Bot]]). The theme of the game was &quot;Time Streams&quot;, and featured a rearrangement of the ''Doctor Who'' theme tune by Jon Hey. Sylvester McCoy provided voice work for the game. In 1997, a [[Personal computer|PC]] [[computer game]] (using voices of all television Doctors from the third to the seventh, and imitations of the first two incarnations) based on the television series was released by [[BBC Multimedia]]. Called ''[[Destiny of the Doctors]]'', it featured attempts by the Master (reprised by [[Anthony Ainley]]) to eradicate the Doctor's seven past incarnations from the universe. Although it was well-received by fans and critics alike, its canonicity is made even more uncertain by the difficulty of placing it in the proper chronology of the series. Many games have been released that feature the [[Dalek]]s. See [[Dalek#Computer games|Dalek computer games]]. ==Awards== Although ''Doctor Who'' was fondly regarded during its original 1963–1989 run, it received little critical recognition at the time. In 1975, season eleven of the series won a [[British Academy of Film and Television Arts|BAFTA Children's Award]] for Best Drama. In 1996, BBC television held the &quot;Auntie Awards&quot; as the culmination of their &quot;TV60&quot; season, celebrating sixty years of BBC television broadcasting, where ''Doctor Who'' was voted as the &quot;Best Popular Drama&quot; the corporation had ever produced, ahead of such ratings heavyweights as ''[[EastEnders]]'' and ''[[Casualty (television)|Casualty]]''. In 2000, ''Doctor Who'' was ranked third in a list of the [[100 Greatest British Television Programmes]] of the twentieth century, produced by the [[British Film Institute]] and voted on by industry professionals. In 2005, the series came first in a survey by [[SFX magazine]] of &quot;The Greatest UK Science Fiction and Fantasy Television Series Ever&quot;. Also, in the 100 Greatest Kids' Shows (a [[Channel 4]] countdown in 2005), the 1963–1989 run was placed at number eight.[http://www.bbc.co.uk/doctorwho/news/cult/news/drwho/2006/01/26/29141.shtml]. The 2005 series has received especial recognition from critics and the public. At the [[National Television Awards]] (voted on by members of the British public), ''Doctor Who'' won &quot;Most Popular Drama&quot;, Christopher Eccleston won &quot;Most Popular Actor&quot; and Billie Piper won &quot;Most Popular Actress&quot;. A scene from ''[[The Doctor Dances]]'' won &quot;Golden Moment&quot; in the BBC's &quot;2005 TV Moments&quot; awards [http://www.bbc.co.uk/tvmoments/winners.shtml], and ''Doctor Who'' swept all the categories in [[BBC.co.uk]]'s online &quot;Best of Drama&quot; poll [http://www.bbc.co.uk/drama/bestof2005/]. The programme also won the [[Broadcast magazine|Broadcast]] Award for Best Drama. On [[February 21]] [[2006]], it was announced that ''Doctor Who'' had been nominated in the Best Drama Series category at the [[Royal Television Society]] Awards.[http://media.guardian.co.uk/broadcast/story/0,,1714821,00.html] The Awards, due to be announced on [[March 14]], are the most prestigious within the British television industry after the [[British Academy Television Awards]], nominations for which are due to be announced in April. On [[March 2]] [[2006]], further award nominations for the new series were announced, this time for the [[Broadcasting Press Guild]] Awards. ''Doctor Who'' is nominated as Best Drama, with Eccleston and Tennant (for ''[[Secret Smile]]'') both nominated in the Best Actor category, Piper nominated as Best Actress and Russell T. Davies as Best Writer. The winners of these awards are due to be announced on [[March 31]] [[2006]]. ==See also== {{portal}} *''[[Torchwood]]'' - spin-off series set in the same universe *''[[K-9 and Company]]'' - spin-off episode set in the same universe *[[Lengths of science fiction series]] {{doctor-who}} ==References== * {{cite book | author = Howe, David J &amp; Walker, Stephen James | year = 1998 | title = Doctor Who: The Television Companion | edition = 1st ed. | location = London | publisher = [[BBC Books]] | id = ISBN 0-563-40588-0 }} * {{cite book | author = Howe, David J &amp; Walker, Stephen James | year = 2003 | title = The Television Companion: The Unofficial and Unauthorised Guide to DOCTOR WHO | edition = 2nd ed. | location = Surrey, UK | publisher = [[Telos Publishing Ltd.]] | id = ISBN 1-903389051-0 }} ==External links== {{wikiquote}} ===Official sites=== *[http://www.bbc.co.uk/doctorwho BBC ''Doctor Who'' website] *[http://www.scifi.com/doctorwho SciFi Channel ''Doctor Who'' website] ===Reference sites=== *{{imdb title|id=0056751|title=Doctor Who (1963&amp;ndash;1989)}} *{{imdb title|id=0116118|title=Doctor Who (1996)}} *{{imdb title|id=0436992|title=Doctor Who (2005&amp;ndash;?)}} *[http://www.screenonline.org.uk/tv/id/454592/index.html British Film Institute Screen Online] *[http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/D/htmlD/doctorwho/doctorwho.htm Encyclopedia of Television] *[http://dmoz.org/Arts/Television/Programs/Science_Fiction_and_Fantasy/D/Doctor_Who/ DMOZ ''Doctor Who'' page] *[http://www.cuttingsarchive.org.uk/ ''Doctor Who'' Cuttings Archive] &amp;mdash; hosts a large number of press cuttings and articles from the 60s onwards. *[http://www.drwhoguide.com/ The ''Doctor Who'' Reference Guide] &amp;mdash; synopses of virtually every television episode, novel, audio drama, comic strip and spin-off video based upon the series *[http://www.doctorwhowebguide.net/ The ''Doctor Who'' Web Guide] &amp;mdash; an index of ''Who''-related web sites *[http://www.gallifreyone.com/thisweek.php &quot;This Week in Doctor Who&quot;] — a weekly listing of ''Doctor Who'' events and worldwide broadcasting schedules *[http://www.shillpages.com/dw/dwia.htm Steve Hill's ''Doctor Who'' Image Archive] *[http://www.throup.org.uk/doctor_who.php The Doctor Who Logo Collection] ===Fan sites=== *[http://www.gallifreyone.com Outpost Gallifrey] &amp;mdash; Large ''Doctor Who'' news site with reviews, articles, and a popular discussion forum *[http://www.dwasonline.co.uk Doctor Who Appreciation Society] &amp;mdash; UK-based fan club *[http://nitro9.earth.uni.edu/doctor/homepage.html Nitro-9] &amp;mdash; FAQs and archives *[http://www.pagefillers.com/dwrg/ The ''Doctor Who'' Ratings Guide] &amp;mdash; contains over 5000 fan-written reviews *[http://www.dewhurstdesigns.co.uk/dynamic ''Doctor Who'' Dynamic Rankings] *[http://www.timelord.co.uk/ Timelord.co.uk] &amp;mdash; creative forum and archive, including fan-fiction and audios. *[http://www.drwho-online.co.uk/ ''Doctor Who'' Online] *[http://www.unitnews.co.uk unitnews ''Doctor Who'' news &amp; chat] &amp;mdash; UK based site featuring news, forums and competitions *[http://www.kasterborous.com Kasterborous ''Doctor Who'' Online Webzine] &amp;mdash; articles and original artwork across all aspects of the ''Doctor Who'' universe *[http://tardis.wikicities.com/wiki/Main_Page TARDIS Index File ''Doctor Who'' wiki] &amp;mdash; articles are written from the fictional perspective of the ''Doctor Who'' universe *[http://www.whoniverse.org/ The Whoniverse] &amp;mdash; a guide to the fictional aspects of ''Doctor Who'' *[http://www.whofic.com/ A Teaspoon And An Open Mind] &amp;mdash; ''Doctor Who'' fanfiction archive *[http://www.podshock.net/ Doctor Who: Podshock] &amp;mdash; a weekly podcast with opinions from the US and the UK *[http://www.podcastwho.com/ Podcast Who] &amp;mdash; a podcast all about the Doctor Who Universe *[http://www.missingpiece.com/pinball/drwho/ Doctor Who Pinball: Time Streams] {{featured article}} [[Category:Doctor Who| ]] [[Category:British cultural icons]] [[de:Doctor Who]] [[fr:Docteur Who]] [[gl:Doutor Who - Doctor Who]] [[it:Doctor Who]] [[nl:Doctor Who]] [[pl:Doctor Who]] [[simple:Doctor Who]] [[sv:Doctor Who]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Democritus</title>
impression on Kafka and the influence of Poe's works on his are undeniable. Both authors focus on disturbed states of mind and the crimes or horrors that arrive from them. Also, they both used closed-off, isolated settings to explore their characters (though while Poe usually chooses exotic settings, such as the catacombs beneath an Italian palazzo or an abandoned mansion in the Apennines, Kafka tends more often to choose settings of urban blight, such as a stuffy apartment or the attics of housing projects.) [[Argentina|Argentinian]] author [[Jorge Luis Borges]] was a great admirer of Poe's works, and translated his stories into [[Spanish language|Spanish]]. Many of the characters from Borges' stories are borrowed directly from Poe's stories, and in many of his stories Poe is mentioned by name. The Japanese author [[Edogawa Rampo]] adopted that pseudonym in honor of Poe's invention of the detective story. ====Music==== In the music world, [[Lou Reed]], [[Joseph Holbrooke]], [[Claude Debussy]], [[Sergei Rachmaninoff]], and others composed musical works based on the works of Poe. Holbrooke composed a [[symphonic poem]] based on &quot;The Raven.&quot; Debussy often declared Poe's profound effect on his music (''Poe Encyclopedia'' 93) and began operas based on ''The Fall of the House of Usher'' and ''[[The Devil in the Belfry]]'', though he did not finish them. Rachmaninoff transformed &quot;The Bells&quot; into a choral symphony. (Three other orchestral works based on Poe, along with the Rachmaninoff, were featured in a concert given by the [[American Symphony Orchestra]] in October 1999 {{ref|music}}.) In addition, the American folk and protest singer [[Phil Ochs]] set Poe's poem of &quot;The Bells&quot; to music on his debut album &quot;All The News That's Fit To Sing&quot; in 1964. Choral composer Jonathan Adams also set three poems--&quot;Hymn,&quot; &quot;Evening Star,&quot; and &quot;Eldorado&quot;-- as ''Three Songs from Edgar Allan Poe'' for [[Choir#Structure of choirs|SATB]] chorus and piano in [[1993]]. [[Peter Hammill]] has written and recorded an operatic version of &quot;[http://www.sofasound.com/misccds/usher.htm The Fall of the House of Usher].&quot; In [[1976]], the [[Alan Parsons Project]], a British rock pop group, released ''Tales of Mystery and Imagination,'' an album of music based on Poe's stories and poems. In [[2003]], [[Eric Woolfson]] revisited the original concept that he and [[Alan Parsons]] developed with his [[musical]] [http://www.poe-cd.com Poe: More Tales of Mystery and Imagination] with [[Steve Balsamo]] playing the leading role of embattled writer. [[Lou Reed]] released a double CD [[concept album]] called [[The Raven (album)|The Raven]] in 2003 featuring a number of musical and spoken word interpretations, with guest appearances from various actors, including [[Steve Buscemi]] and [[Willem Dafoe]]. [[heavy metal music|Heavy metal]] band [[Iron Maiden]] recorded a song titled &quot;Murders in the Rue Morgue&quot; for their second album, ''Killers''. The metal band [[Grave Digger (band)|Grave Digger]] released an album in [[2001]] entitled &quot;The Grave Digger&quot;. All twelve songs are based fully on Poe's works. The progressive metal band [[Symphony X]] also has a few references to Poe's work in their tracks, like &quot;King of Terrors&quot; on their album ''[[The Odyssey (album)|The Oddysey]]''. [[The Beatles]] song &quot;[[I am the Walrus]]&quot; contains the line &quot;Man, you should seen them kicking Edgar Allan Poe.&quot; Other bands, such as [[Green Day]] and [[Good Charlotte]], have featured Edgar Allan Poe and his stories in some of their songs. [[Elysian Fields (music)|Elysian Fields]] has been known to perform some of Poe's work in song form. The song &quot;Tomb of Ligeia&quot; by the band [[Team Sleep|Team Sleep]] is based on Poe's story &quot;Ligeia.&quot; German-based band [http://www.diorama-music.com/ Diorama] recorded a song &quot;Her Liquid Arms&quot; in 2001, for the album of the same name, which starts with a spoken sample of the end of &quot;[[The Tell-Tale Heart]].&quot; The rock band Finch recorded a song titled &quot;The Casket of Roderick Usher&quot; as a continuation of Poe's &quot;The Fall of the House of Usher&quot; on their 2005 album ''Say Hello To Sunshine.'' [[Britney Spears]] named her [[2001]]-[[2002]] [[concert tour]] ''Dream Within a Dream'', incorporating lines from that poem (and other Poe works) in the show. Also in 2001, post-hardcore band Thrice released &quot;The Illusion of Saftey&quot;, which featured the song &quot;The Red Death&quot;, making reference to &quot;The Masque of the Red Death.&quot; Recently, English-born, New York singer/songwriter [[Anthony Heggarty]] of [[Anthony and the Johnsons]] used Poe's poem &quot;The Lake&quot; in a piano-accompanied [[torch song]], as the title track and single from their Lou Reed-endorsed ''The Lake'' EP. ====Visual Arts==== In the world of visual arts, [[Gustave Doré]] and [[Édouard Manet]] composed several illustrations for Poe's works. ====Playwrights and Filmmakers==== On the stage, the great dramatist [[George Bernard Shaw]] was greatly influenced by Poe's literary criticism, calling Poe &quot;the greatest journalistic critic of his time&quot; (''Poe Encyclopaedia'' 315). The musical play ''Nevermore'' [http://signature-theatre.org/seasondescrip.htm#nevermore], by Matt Conner and Grace Barnes, was inspired by Poe's poems and essays. [[Alfred Hitchcock]] declared Poe as one of his inspirations, saying &quot;It's because I liked Edgar Allan Poe's stories so much that I began to make suspense films.&quot; Actor [[John Astin]], who performed as Gomez in the [[Addams Family]] [[television series]], is an ardent admirer of Poe, and in recent years has starred in a [[one man play]] based on Poe's life and works, entitled ''[[Edgar Allan Poe: Once Upon a Midnight]]''. The play is lent a degree of realism by the fact that Astin more than slightly resembles Poe in appearance. [http://www.astin-poe.com/] Astin also wrote an essay on Poe's [[prose poem]] ''Eureka'' [http://www.astin-poe.com/eureka.html] and has said of Poe, &quot;I feel that Poe, through his own tortured existence, gained deep insight into the nature of the universe, along with an intense love and appreciation for life itself. Through this play I want to share that impression with others.&quot; [http://www.astin-poe.com/astin.html] ====Literary Criticism==== The poet and critic [[W. H. Auden]] revitalized interest in Poe's works, especially his critical works. Auden said of Poe, &quot;His portraits of abnormal or self-destructive states contributed much to [[Dostoyevsky]], his ratiocinating hero is the ancestor of Sherlock Holmes and his many successors, his tales of the future lead to H. G. Wells, his adventure stories to Jules Verne and [[Robert Louis Stevenson]].&quot; (''Poe Encyclopedia'' 27). ====Pop Culture==== His legacy is abundant in modern pop culture. It is much alive in the city of Baltimore. Even though Poe spent less than two years there, he is now treated as a native son. In 1996, when NFL football arrived, the team took the name [[Baltimore Ravens]], in honor of his best known poem. The team's three &quot;winged&quot; [[mascots]] were named Edgar, Allan, and Poe. The [[television]] [[show]] ''[[Homicide: Life on the Street]]'', set in Baltimore, made reference to Poe and his works in several episodes. Poe figured most prominently in an episode in which a Poe-obsessed killer walls up his victim in the basement of a house to imitate the grisly murder of Fortunado by Montressor in &quot;The Cask of Amontillado&quot;. In a disturbing scene near the end of the episode, the killer reads from the works of Poe as a [[dramatic]] effect to increase the tension. But Poe's vast influence over pop culture does not end with Baltimore. Poe's image, with his weary expression, piercing eyes and tangled hair (see the daguerreotype above), has become a cultural icon for the troubled genius. His face adorns the bottlecaps of Raven Beer {{ref|beer}}, the covers of numerous books on American literature as a whole, and is often stereotyped in cartoons as &quot;the creepy guy&quot;. {{ref|camb}} In 1967, Poe appeared as part of the backdrop crowd of the [[Beatles]]' immensely popular album, ''[[Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Heart's Club Band]]''. In one of their songs, &quot;[[I Am the Walrus]],&quot; the lyrics include &quot;man you should have seen them kicking Edgar Allen Poe.&quot; Besides the Beatles, numerous popular movie makers and rock stars have incorporated Poe or Poe's works into their works (see &quot;Adaptations&quot; below). The Lemony Snickett books have Mr. Poe with his children Edgar and Allen as the guardian of the Baudelaire children. ====Preserved home==== Edgar Allan Poe, his wife Virginia, and his mother-in-law Maria rented several homes in Philadelphia, but only the last house has survived. The Spring Garden home, where the author lived in 1843-44, is today preserved by the [[National Park Service]] as the [[Edgar Allan Poe National Historic Site]]. It is located on 7th and Spring Garden Streets, and is open Wednesday through Sunday, 9 a.m. to 5 p.m. ==Notable works== ===Poems=== *&quot;A Dream&quot; (1827) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/A_Dream_%28Poe%29 Full Text] at Wikisource) *&quot;A Dream Within a Dream&quot; (1827) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/A_Dream_Within_a_Dream Full Text] at Wikisource) *&quot;Dreams&quot; (1827) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Dreams_%28Poe%29 Full Text] at Wikisource) *&quot;Tamerlane&quot; (1827) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Tamerlane Full Text] at Wikisource) *&quot;[[Al Aaraaf]]&quot; (1829) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Al_Aaraaf Full Text] at Wikisource) *&quot;Alone&quot; (1830) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Alone Full Text] at Wikisource) *&quot;To Helen&quot; (1831) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/To_Helen_%281831%29 Full Text] at Wiki
:[[1048]]: Brecesburg :[[1052]]: Poson, Brezisburg, Bresburc, Preslawaspurch :[[1098]]: Prespurch :[[1107]]: Bosan :[[1108]]: Preburch, Bosania, Prespurch, Bresbruch, Prespuerch, Brespurg, Posonia, Possen :[[1109]]: Bosan, Presburch :[[1142]]: Poson :[[1143]]: Bosonium :[[1146]]: Bosan :[[1147]]: Prespurch :[[1151]] and [[1163]]/[[1164|4]]: Posonium (Latin, origin like Poson above) :[[1172]] and [[1194]]: Poson :[[1189]]: Bosonium, Brezburc, Bosonium quod Prespurc teutonice nuncupatur, Brisburc, Posonium :[[1197]]: Posony :[[1217]]: Posonia : ... :later also: :: - [[German language|German]]: Pressburg, Preßburg ::- [[Greek language|Greek]]: Istropolis (meaning &quot;the Danube City&quot;) :: - [[Latin]]: Posonium :: - [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]]: Pozsony :: - [[Croatian language|Croatian]]: Požun :: - [[Romany language|Romany]]: ''Pozhoma'' :: - [[Slovak language|Slovak]]: Pressporek (1773), Prešporok (later) &amp;ndash; stems from the German form :: - [[Czech language|Czech]]: Prešpurk :: - [[French language|French]]: Pressbourg, later: Presbourg &amp;ndash; see e. g. the corresponding street name in Paris : rue de Presbourg :: - [[English language|English]]: Pressburg(h) : [[1918]] temporarily: Wilsonovo mesto (i. e. &quot;Wilson City&quot;, after U.S. President [[Woodrow Wilson]]) :since [[1919]]: Bratislava (official name, origin disputed: according to older sources it is a mutilation of the old Slavic form Braslava, other say it is an invention by the US-president Wilson, according to newer sources it was created in the early 19th century by members of the Slovak movement and is derived (by mistake) from the name of the [[Bohemia]]n ruler [[Bretislav I|Bretislav]]) == Sights == Bratislava is picturesquely situated on both banks of the [[Danube]], at the base of the outlying spurs of the [[Small Carpathians]], in a position of strategic importance near the [[Devín Gate]] (earlier called Hainburger Pforte or Porta Hungarica), and the area includes a picturesque old town. One of the most conspicuous buildings of the town is the [[Bratislava Castle]] situated on a plateau 82 m above the Danube. The castle exists since time immemorial, has been the [[acropolis]] of a [[Celt]]ic town, a part of the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] [[Limes Romanus]], a huge Slav fortified settlement and a political, military and religious center of [[Great Moravia]]. A castle of stone was built only in the [[10th century]] (part of Hungary), it was turned to a Gothic anti-[[Hussite]] fortress under [[Sigismund of Luxemburg]] in [[1430]], in [[1562]] to a [[Renaissance]] castle, and in [[1649]] a [[baroque]] reconstruction took place. Under queen [[Maria Theresa of Austria|Maria Theresa]], the castle was turned into a prestige seat of the royal governor [[Albert von Sachsen-Teschen]], the son-in-law of [[Maria Theresa of Austria|Maria Theresa]], who founded the [[Albertina]] picture gallery in the castle, which was later moved to [[Vienna]]. In [[1784]], when Bratislava ceased to be the capital of Hungary, the castle was turned to a school for Catholic clergy, and later in 1802 to barracks. In [[1811]], the castle was inadvertently destroyed by fire by the soldiers of the barracks and was in ruins till the [[1950s]], when it was reconstructed mostly in its former [[Maria Theresa of Austria|Maria Theresa]] style. Another castle is the '''Devín Castle''' (still in ruins) in the city part Bratislava-Devín. It is situated on the top of a high rock at the point where the [[Morava River, Central Europe|March (Morava) river]], which forms the boundary between Austria and Slovakia, reaches the Danube. It is one of the most important Slovak archaeological sites and has been &amp;ndash;thanks to its excellent location &amp;ndash;a very important frontier castle of [[Great Moravia]] and the early Hungarian state. It was destroyed by Napoleonic troops in [[1809]] and is an important symbol of Slovak and Slavic history. Yet another castle, built in [[1813]] and turned to [[English Gothic]] style castle in the late [[19th century]], is situated in the city part Bratislava-'''Rusovce''', otherwise known for ruins of Roman ''Gerulata'' settlements. Other noteworthy buildings are: *the [[St. Martin's Cathedral]] (a Gothic edifice of the 14th-15th century replacing an older church from the 13th century) in which many of the Hungarian kings were crowned * [[Bratislava's Town hall]] (a complex of 14th-15th century buildings) containing an interesting museum &amp;ndash; the City Museum founded in 1868 * [[Bratislava's Franciscan church]], dating from 1297 * the building of the '''University Library''' (erected in 1756) where the sittings of the Diet (parliament) of the Kingdom of Hungary were held from 1802 to 1848 * the '''Primate´s Palace''' (erected in 1781) in which the (4th) [[Peace of Pressburg]] has been signed * the beautiful [[Slovak National Theatre]] (built in 1886), and * the [[Michael's Gate]] (early 17th century), the only still existing tower of the town wall * the '''narrowest house''' in central (or maybe in whole) Europe (just behind the Michael's Gate) * [[Nový Most Bratislava]] is a bridge across the [[Danube]] river, featuring a [[UFO]]-like tower restaurant * [[Kamzik TV Tower]] is a TV tower of unique design with an observation deck In general, the historic center is characterized by many [[baroque]] palaces. The [[Grassalkovich Palace]] (built around 1760), for example, is now the residence of the Slovak president, and the former [[Summer Archbishop's Palace|Archiepiscopal palace]] (1614-1765, the former summer residence of the archbishop of [[Esztergom]]) is now the seat of the Slovak government. == Economy == The economy of Bratislava is prosperous and mainly based on services, engineering ([[Volkswagen]]) and electrical industry; there is also an important international road and railroad junction, [[M. R. Štefánik Airport|Milan Rastislav Štefánik international airport]], and a [[port|river port]]. The [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] per capita ([[Purchasing power parity|PPP]]), which was valued at &amp;euro;25,531 in 2002, reaches 120% of the [[EU]] average, which is the second highest level (behind [[Prague]]) of all regions in all recent and expected acceding countries ([[Eurostat]], data as of 2002; for data of 2000 see for example: [http://www.eu-datashop.de/download/EN/sta_kurz/thema1/dn_03_02.pdf]) ==Territorial division== *5 ''districts'' (for the purpose of national administrative division): :[[Bratislava I]] (covers the city) :Bratislava II (covers the east and southeast) :Bratislava III (covers the north and northeast) :Bratislava IV (covers the west) :Bratislava V (covers the right river bank, i.e. the south, esp. the largest city part Petržalka) *17 ''&quot;city parts&quot;'' (for the purpose of municipal administrative division and of serving as entities to which the town delegates its powers and functions imposed by law on communities), the number in brackets shows the corresponding district: &lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:mcba.jpg|right|[[City Parts]].]] --&gt; :1 [[Old Town, Bratislava|Staré Mesto]] (I) [&quot;Old Town&quot;] :2 [[Ružinov]] (II) :3 [[Vrakuňa]] (II) :4 [[Podunajské Biskupice]] (II) :5 [[Nové Mesto]] (III) [&quot;New Town&quot;] :6 [[Rača]] (III) :7 [[Vajnory]] (III) :8 [[Karlova Ves]] (IV) :9 [[Dúbravka]] (IV) :10 [[Lamač]] (IV) :11 [[Devín]] (IV) :12 [[Devínska Nová Ves]] (IV) :13 [[Záhorská Bystrica]] (IV) :14 [[Petržalka]] (V) :15 [[Jarovce]] (V) :16 [[Rusovce]] (V) :17 [[Čunovo]] (V) *20 ''&quot;cadastral areas&quot;'' (''townships''): they are identical with the above city parts, except that: :Nové Mesto is split in Nové Mesto + Vinohrady, and : Ružinov is split into Ružinov + Nivy + Trnávka ==Population== Bratislava has 428 672 inhabitants with an average age of 38.7 y [2001 census], out of which: * '''in Districts''': Bratislava I 44 798, Bratislava II 108 139, Bratislava III 61 418, Bratislava IV 93 058, Bratislava V 121 259 * '''Nationality''': Slovaks 391 761, Hungarians 16 451, Roma 417, Czechs 7 972, Moravians 635, Ruthenes 461, Ukrainians 452, Germans 1 200, Poles 339, Croats 614 * '''Religion''': Roman Catholics 243 048, Lutherans of Augsburg Confession 24 810, Greeks Catholics 3 163, Reformed Christians 1 918, Orthodox 1 616, Jehovah's Witnesses 1 827, Methodist Protestants 737, Jews 700, Baptists 613 * '''Age''': 0 &amp;ndash; 5 : 4.1 %, 6 &amp;ndash; 14: 9.8 %, Productive Age: 62.9 %, Post-productive Age: 19% ==Partner Cities== * {{flagicon|Austria}} [[Vienna]], [[Austria]] * {{flagicon|Poland}} [[Kraków]], [[Poland]] * {{flagicon|Slovenia}} [[Ljubljana]], [[Slovenia]] * {{flagicon|Germany}} [[Ulm]], [[Germany]] * {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Perugia]], [[Italy]] * {{flagicon|Czech Republic}} [[Prague]], [[Czech Republic]] * {{flagicon|Ukraine}} [[Kyiv]], [[Ukraine]] * {{flagicon|Finland}} [[Turku]], [[Finland]] * {{flagicon|USA}} [[Cleveland]], [[USA]] * {{flagicon|Netherlands}} [[Rotterdam]], [[Netherlands]] ==Images== &lt;gallery&gt; Image:bts1.jpg|Bratislava Castle. Image:bts2.jpg|Devín Castle. Image:Ba-altesrathaus.jpg|The Old Town Hall viewed from the Main Square. Image:Ba-haus zum guten hirten.jpeg|The Good Shepherd's House below the Bratislava Castle, housing the Museum of Clocks. Image:Devin.jpg|The [[Devín]] Castle at the cofluence of the [[Danube]] and the [[Morava]] viewed from Austria - an old picture. Image:Ba-nationalgalerie.jpeg|The modern part of the [[Slovak National Gallery]]. image:bratislava_view.jpg|Old Town (Staré mesto) of Bratislava viewed from Bratislava Castle. Image:Bratislava_divadlo.jpg|[[Slovak National Theatre]]. Image:Petržalka apartment blocks in Bratislava.jpg|Apartment blocks of [[Petržalka]], across the [[Danube]] and the [[Nový Most]]. Image:Ba-palais grassalkovich front.jpeg|The [[Grassalkovich Palace]] - the seat of the President. Image:SKcastleBA.jpg|The [[Bratislava Castle]] viewed from the so
, [[SCSI]], the [[Universal Serial Bus]] (USB), [[Wi-Fi]] and, of course, graphical user interfaces (GUIs). Apple has recently adopted an Intel-based architecture. Apple's industry-standard software implementations include [[iCalendar]], as well as a host of other networking protocols. [[Open-source software|Open source software]] advocates are often critical of Apple's attempt to appeal to their particular movements. Such advocates claim that such a marketing scheme is not taken seriously enough by Apple because Mac OS X has many proprietary technologies in essential areas. Other open source advocates make a counter-argument that Apple has done much more for open source software than many other major commercial software developers by releasing large portions of source code to the public through the [[Apple Public Source License]] (APSL). Some third-party developers are also critical of the competing factions within Apple itself, noting an apparent rivalry between the developers of [[Cocoa (API)|Cocoa]], which came from NeXT, and those of [[Carbon (API)|Carbon]], which came from Apple. This rivalry is seen as counterproductive and unnecessary by many developers. Apple's retail initiative has had a mixed reception despite its success promoting the Apple brand. Retailers have suggested that Apple-owned retail stores receive preference when receiving Apple hardware, obtaining limited stock product earlier and at lower prices. This accusation is denied by Apple. &lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Steve Jobs2 cropped.png|thumb|100px|right|Steve Jobs, the current [[Chief executive officer|CEO]].]] --&gt; ===Apple CEOs, 1977-present=== &lt;!--If you change the title of this section, please change the link at [[List of Apple Computer CEOs]] correspondingly.--&gt; * 1977 - 1981: [[Michael Scott (Apple Computer)|Michael &quot;Scotty&quot; Scott]] * 1981 - 1983: [[Mike Markkula]] * 1983 - 1993: [[John Sculley]] * 1993 - 1996: [[Michael Spindler]] * 1996 - 1997: [[Gil Amelio]] * 1997 - present: [[Steve Jobs]] ===Current Apple Board of Directors=== * [[Fred D. Anderson]], managing director of [[Elevation Partners]] * [[Bill Campbell (CEO)|Bill Campbell]], chairman of [[Intuit, Inc.]] * [[Millard Drexler]], chairman and CEO of [[J.Crew]] * [[Al Gore]], former [[Vice President of the United States]] * [[Steve Jobs]], CEO of Apple and [[Pixar]] * [[Arthur D. Levinson]], chairman and CEO of [[Genentech]] * [[Jerry York (CEO)|Jerry York]], chairman, president and CEO of [[Harwinton Capital]] ===Current Apple executives=== * [[Steve Jobs]], CEO * [[Timothy D. Cook]], [[chief operating officer]] * [[Jon Rubinstein]], senior vice president of [[iPod]] division * [[Philip W. Schiller]], senior vice president of worldwide [[product marketing]] * [[Bertrand Serlet]], senior vice president of [[software engineering]] * [[Nancy R. Heinen]], senior vice president and general counsel * [[Ron Johnson (Apple)|Ron Johnson]], senior vice president of retail * [[Sina Tamaddon]], senior vice president of applications * [[Peter Oppenheimer]], senior vice president and [[Chief Financial Officer|CFO]] * [[Avie Tevanian]], chief software technology officer ==User culture== :''See Also: [[Cult of Mac]]'' Some Apple customers are devoted to their brand. Some refuse to buy from competitors and stridently uphold their belief in the perceived superiority of Apple products; according to surveys by [[J. D. Power]], Apple has the highest brand and repurchase loyalty of any computer manufacturer. While this brand loyalty is considered unusual for any product, Apple appears not to have gone out of its way to create it. At one time, [[Apple evangelist]]s were actively engaged by the company, but this was after the phenomenon was already firmly established. As [[Guy Kawasaki]] has said, &quot;[the brand fanaticism was] something that was stumbled upon&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.creatingcustomerevangelists.com/resources/evangelists/guy_kawasaki.asp The father of evangelism marketing] by Ben McConnell and Jackie Huba&lt;/ref&gt; Macintosh users meet at the [[Apple Expo]] and [[MacWorld Expo]] trade shows where Apple introduces new products each year to the industry and public. Many users show their loyalty and devotion by wearing Apple [[t-shirt]]s. Another example of Apple's user culture is the [[Apple_Store_%28retail%29|Apple Store]] openings where many wait and sleep outside of stores for days prior to their openings. [[John Sculley]], former Apple CEO, told the Guardian newspaper in 1997: &quot;''People talk about technology, but Apple was a marketing company, It was the marketing company of the decade.''&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.wired.com/news/culture/mac/0,56677-0.html Wired News: Apple: It's All About the Brand]&lt;/ref&gt; ==Notable litigation== {{main|Notable litigation of Apple Computer}} Apple's earliest court action dates to 1978 when [[Apple Records|Apple Corps]], [[The Beatles]]-founded record label, filed suit against Apple Computer for trademark infringement. The suit settled in 1981 with an amount of $80,000 being paid to Apple Corps. As a condition of the settlement, Apple Computer agreed to stay out of the music business. The case arose in 1989 again when Apple Corps sued, claiming violation of the 1981 settlement agreement. In 1991 another settlement of around $26.5 million was reached. &lt;ref&gt;[http://news.com.com/Apple+vs.+Apple+Perfect+harmony/2100-1027_3-5378401.html news.com: Apple vs. Apple: Perfect harmony?]&lt;/ref&gt; In September 2003 Apple Computer was sued by Apple Corps again, this time for introducing [[iTunes]] and the [[Apple iPod | iPod]] which Apple Corps believed was a violation of the previous agreement by Apple not to distribute music. &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.legalzoom.com/articles/article_content/article11325.html legalzoom.com: Apple v Apple: What is at the core of The Beatles’ Apple Records vs. Apple Ipod…]&lt;/ref&gt; The date for this trial has been set for [[March 27]], [[2006]] in the UK. At the present time [[the Beatles]]' songs are not available for download from any legal music download sites, including the [[iTunes Music Store]]. In 1982 Apple filed a lawsuit against [[Franklin Computer Corp.]], alleging that Franklin's ACE 100 personal computer used illegal copies of Apple's [[operating system]] and [[Read-only memory|ROM]]. [[Apple v. Franklin]] established the fundamental basis of copyright of computer software. As a result, Apple began embedding an encrypted image in ROM. This icon displays &quot;Stolen from Apple Computer&quot;. In 1988 Apple sued Microsoft and [[Hewlett-Packard]] on the grounds that they infringed Apple's copyright on a GUI. The [[Apple Computer, Inc. v. Microsoft Corp.]] trial lasted for four years. The ruling was decided against Apple, and the concept of a GUI was no longer the domain of Apple alone. In July 1998 [[Abdul Traya]] registered the domain name ''appleimac.com'', two months after Apple announced the [[iMac]], in an attempt to draw attention to a web-hosting business. &lt;ref&gt;[http://news.com.com/2100-1023-221921.html news.com: Teen in dispute with Apple over domain]&lt;/ref&gt; After a legal dispute that lasted until April 1999, Traya and Apple settled out of court with Apple paying legal fees and giving Traya a &quot;''token payment''&quot; in exchange for the domain name. &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.macobserver.com/news/99/april/990427/applevsteen.html macobserver.com: Battle For Domain Name Between Apple And Teen Resolved]&lt;/ref&gt; In 1994 Apple was sued by the astronomer and science popularizer [[Carl Sagan]] for using his name as the internal code-name for the [[Power Macintosh 7100]]. Sagan lost the suit twice. See the Carl Sagan [[Carl Sagan#Personality|article]] for details. In November 2000, [[Benjamin Cohen]] of [http://www.cyberbritain.co.uk CyberBritain] registered the domain name &quot;itunes.co.uk&quot; for an MP3 search engine. Apple was granted a UK restricted (non music) trademark for ITUNES on [[March 23]], [[2001]], and launched its popular iTunes music store service in the UK in 2004. In 2005, Apple took the matter to the Dispute Resolution Service operated by [[.uk]] [[domain|domain name]] [[registry]] [[Nominet UK]], stating that they had rights in the name &quot;iTunes&quot;. An expert decided in Apple's favor in the dispute. Cohen launched a media offensive stating that the DRS was biased towards large businesses and made frequent threats of lawsuits against Nominet. In November 2004, two popular [[weblog]] sites that feature [[Mac rumors community|Apple rumors]] publicly revealed information about an unreleased Apple product code-named &quot;Asteroid&quot;, also known as &quot;Project Q97&quot;. The sites, &quot;AppleInsider&quot; and &quot;PowerPage&quot;, were subpoenaed for information about their sources in the [[Apple v. Does]] case. In February 2005 it was decided by a court official in California that the bloggers do not have the same [[shield law]] protection as do journalists. In a related case, the websites went on to fight the journalistic status decision. In a separate matter, Apple filed a lawsuit against website [[Think Secret]] in January 2005, claiming that the site's reports about forthcoming Apple products violated trade secret law. In May 2005 Apple entered into a [[class action]] settlement &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.appleipodsettlement.com http://www.appleipodsettlement.com]&lt;/ref&gt;, upheld on December 20, 2005 following an appeal, regarding the battery life of [[Apple iPod | iPod]] music players sold prior to May 2004. Eligible members of the class are entitled to extended warranties, store credit, cash compensation, or battery replacement. ==See also== *[[Apple Computer financial history]] *[[Apple Developer Connection]] — Developer relations program *[[Apple Intel transition]] *[[Apple typography]] — Apple's [[typography|type]] related endeavors, technological and artis
b begins to crawl at 75 to 90 days and the mothers play with their cubs by rolling and wrestling with them. The cubs are able to eat small quantities of bamboo after six months, though mother's milk remains the primary food source for most of the first year. Giant panda cubs weigh 45 kg at one year and live with their mother until they are 18 months to two years old. The interval between births in the wild is generally two years. Breeders and biologists often experience difficulty in inducing captive pandas to mate, threatening their already diminished population. This problem may stem from the captive bears' lack of experience. In an attempt to remedy this, some keepers in China and Thailand have shown their subjects &quot;panda porn&quot; videos, containing footage of mating pandas. In some cases, the bears have been sufficiently stimulated from the videos to engage in reproductive activity. It is not likely that the animals actually learn mating behaviors from the video; rather, scientists believe that hearing the associated sounds has a stimulating effect on the bears exposed to it. ==Name== The name &quot;panda&quot; originates with a Himalayan language, possibly [[Nepalese]]. And as used in the [[Western world|West]] it was originally applied to the Red Panda, to which it was thought to be related. Until its relation to the Red Panda was &quot;discovered&quot; in [[1901]], the Giant Panda was known as '''Mottled Bear''' (''Ailuropus melanoleucus'') or '''Parti-colored Bear'''. In [[Chinese language|Chinese]], the Giant Panda is called the &quot;large bear cat&quot; ({{zh-stp|s=大熊猫|t=大熊貓|p=Dàxióngmāo}}), or sometimes (usually in [[Taiwan]]) &quot;cat bear&quot; ({{zh-stp|s=猫熊|t=貓熊|p=Māoxióng}}). Since Chinese [[stative verb]]s ([[Chinese adjectives|adjectives]]) are almost always placed before [[noun]]s, the latter (cat[-like] bear) is more [[Chinese grammar|grammatically correct]]. However, the former (bear, cat[-like]) is more widely-used. Most bears' eyes have round pupils. The exception is the Giant Panda, whose pupils are vertical slits, like cats' eyes. It is these unusual eyes that inspired the Chinese to call the panda the &quot;giant cat bear&quot;. ==Subspecies== Two subspecies of Giant Panda have been recognized on the basis of distinct cranial measurements, color patterns, and [[population genetics]] (Wan et al., 2005). '''''Ailuropoda melanoleuca melanoleuca''''' consists of most extant populations of panda. These animals are principally found in [[Sichuan]] and display the typical stark black and white contrasting colors. '''''Ailuropoda melanoleuca qinlingensis''''' is restricted to the [[Qinling Mountains]] in [[Shaanxi]] at elevations of 1300–3000&amp;nbsp;m. The typical black and white pattern of Sichuan pandas is replaced with a dark brown versus light brown pattern. The skull of ''A. m. qinlingensis'' is smaller than its relatives and it has larger molars. ==Pandas in zoos== [[As of 2005]], four major American [[zoo]]s have Giant Pandas (listed in order in which they acquired the pandas): * [[San Diego Zoo]], [[San Diego]], [[California]] - home of Bai Yun (F), Gao Gao (M), Mei Sheng (M), and a female cub named Su Lin * The US [[National Zoo]], [[Washington, D.C.]] - home of Mei Xiang (F), Tian Tian (M), and a male cub named [[Tai Shan (panda)|Tai Shan]] * [[Zoo Atlanta]], [[Atlanta, Georgia|Atlanta]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] - home of Lun Lun (F) and Yang Yang (M) * [[Memphis Zoo]], [[Memphis, Tennessee|Memphis]], [[Tennessee]] - home of Ya Ya (F) and Le Le (M) There is one zoo in Mexico: * [[Chapultepec Zoo]], [[Mexico City, Mexico]] - home of Shuan Shuan, Xin Xin and Xi Hua, all females Two zoos in Europe show Giant Pandas: * [[Zoologischer Garten Berlin]], [[Berlin]], [[Germany]] - home of Bao Bao, age 27, the oldest panda living in captivity; he has been in Berlin for 25 years and has never reproduced. * [[Tiergarten Schönbrunn]], [[Vienna]], [[Austria]] Pandas in Japan have double names: a Japanese name and a Chinese name. Three zoos in Japan show Giant Pandas: *[[Ueno Zoo]], Tokyo - home of Ling Ling (M), he is the only panda with &quot;Japanese citizenship&quot;. *Oji Zoo, Kobe, [[Hyogo]] - home of Kou Kou (M), Tan Tan (F) *Adventure World, [[Shirahama, Wakayama|Shirahama]], [[Wakayama]] - Ei Mei (M), Mei Mei (F), Rau Hin (F), Ryu Hin and Syu Hin (male twins), and Kou Hin (M). Yu Hin (M) went to China in [[2004]]. The [[Chiang Mai Zoo]] in northern [[Thailand]] is home to Chuang Chuang (M) and Lin Hui (F). Much to the joy of the public, the two have recently been observed mating and it is hoped that cubs will be produced from the union. [[London]], [[Madrid]], and [[Paris]] no longer have pandas, although Madrid is exploring the possibility of obtaining pandas in the future. On [[July 9]], 2005, a male Giant Panda cub was born at the National Zoo to mother Mei Xiang and father Tian Tian through artificial insemination; it was the first surviving cub birth in the zoo's history. For the first time in the nation's history, a public vote chose this panda's name. Following Chinese tradition, his name [[Tai Shan (panda)|Tai Shan]] (tie-SHON) was announced when he turned 100 days old. A female cub, Su Lin, was born on [[August 2]], 2005, to the female Bai Yun and male Gao Gao at the San Diego Zoo. Her name was also chosen by a public online poll. Bai Yun's two previous cubs were the first two Giant Pandas to survive past infancy in the United States (the first surviving cubs in [[North America]] were bred in the Chapultepec Zoo). The first, a female named Hua Mei, was fathered by Shi Shi via artificial insemination and was born on [[August 21]], [[1999]]. She returned to China in February 2004, where she has already given birth to 2 sets of twins, males in 2004 (named Hua Ling and Mei Ling) and one male/one female in 2005. Both sets of twins are doing fine to date. Bai Yun's second cub, a male named Mei Sheng, was the product of natural mating with Gao Gao and was born on [[August 19]], [[2003]]. Su Lin was also fathered by Gao Gao via natural mating. A [[2006]] ''[[New York Times]]'' article outlined the economics of keeping pandas, which costs five times more than that of the next most expensive animal, an [[elephant]]. American zoos must pay the Chinese government $2 million a year in fees, part of what is typically a ten-year contract. San Diego's contract with China is the first to expire, in 2008. The last contract, in Memphis, ends in 2013. ==Pandas in popular culture== [[Image:Panda_Express_Logo.png|150px|right]] Pandas are a popular animal in eastern and western culture. Pandas have often appeared in television programs, cartoons, and picture-books, while their images have graced all manner of consumer products. * [[Panda Express]] is the name of an American fast food chain which serves [[American Chinese cuisine]]. The chain's logo features a [[cute|chubby]], stylized panda. Some also give donations to panda preservation groups. *In the webcomic ''[[PvP]]'' a Giant Panda attacks a character, Brent, in what has become one of the longest running jokes in the comic. *In the webcomic ''[[The Suburban Jungle]]'', Yin the Panda is the main character's housemate. *In &quot;[[Homer vs. Dignity]],&quot; an episode of ''[[The Simpsons]]'', Homer dresses as a panda for Mr. Burns' pleasure and is subsequently violated by a male panda at Springfield Zoo. In addition, Moe briefly runs a panda-smuggling operation from the back room of the bar. In a later episode, on a trip to China, Homer attempts to steal a panda cub, and is attacked by the mother. * In the popular [[anime]]/[[manga]] series ''[[Ranma ½]]'', Ranma's father Genma Saotome suffers of a curse: he transforms into a Giant Panda when soaked in cold water, but can be reverted to his human form with hot water. When he is in his panda form, he expresses himself writing on a wooden board, due to his inability to speak. *In the movie ''[[Anchorman: The Legend of Ron Burgundy]]'' the news team follows the story of a Giant Panda's pregnancy. *In the popular manga ''[[Gantz]]'' one of the recent additions to the alien-hunting cast is a baby panda named Hoi Hoi. *In a chapter of the manga ''[[Great Teacher Onizuka]]'', main character Onizuka witnesses corrupt police officer Saejima illegally importing Giant Pandas into Japan. Saejima tries to convince Onizuka that the pandas are really advanced robot toys. *In an episode of ''[[South Park]]'', a mascot named Sexual Harassment Panda inadvertently causes [[sexual harassment]] lawsuits to proliferate. *Lynne Truss's book, ''[[Eats, Shoots &amp; Leaves|Eats, Shoots and Leaves: The Zero Tolerance Approach to Punctuation]]'', is a reference to a joke on poor [[punctuation]]: ::A panda walks into a cafe and orders a sandwich. After the panda has eaten his meal, he takes out a gun and shoots several holes in the ceiling. As the panda begins to leave, the waiter cries out, &quot;What was that for?&quot; in regard to the shootings. The panda tosses a wildlife guide to the waiter. The waiter reads the guide, and it says, &quot;Panda. Black-and-white mammal native to China. Eats, shoots and leaves.&quot; * In the web comic ''[[Radioactive Panda]]'' a Giant Panda can be seen wearing goggles fixing machinery, miniature versions of which are used to power devices. *In the popular series of [[Tekken]] action games on the Sony [[Playstation]] consoles there is a female panda character, a pet of the Xiaoyu character. * The [[World Wildlife Fund]] [[logotype]] is a stylized panda. *A panda named Jing Jing is one of the [[Friendlies]], the mascots for the [[2008 Summer Olympics]] in [[Beijing]]. * One of the artists of [[Blizzard Entertainment]], [[Samwise Didier]], is a huge fan of the panda, leading Blizzard to incorporate pandas in the [[Warcraft]] universe as [[Pandaren]]. Players can find references to Pandaren in ''[[World of Warcraft]]'' as w
sings a song of lament for Saul and Jonathan. David then goes up to [[Hebron]] in [[Judah]], where he is anointed king of Judah, while in the north Saul's son [[Ish-bosheth]] is king over [[kingdom of Israel|Israel]]. &quot;There was a long war between the house of Saul and the house of David, and David grew stronger and stronger, while the house of Saul became weaker and weaker,&quot; until Ish-bosheth is assassinated. The assassins bring the head of Ish-bosheth to David hoping for reward, but he is angry that they have killed &quot;a righteous man,&quot; and executes them for their crime. Yet with the death of the son of Saul the elders of Israel come to Hebron, and David is anointed king of Israel, uniting the two kingdoms. He is now 30 years old. === God's promise to David === [[Image:Lucas Cranach d. Ä. 005.jpg|left|250px|David and Bathsheba, by [[Lucas Cranach]], 1526.]]David conquers the [[Jebusite]] fortress of [[Jerusalem]] and makes it his capital, and brings the [[Ark of the Covenant]] there, intending to build a temple. But God, speaking to the prophet [[Nathan]], forbids it, saying the temple must wait for a future generation, but that He will establish the house of David eternally: &quot;Your throne shall be established for ever.&quot; Then David establishes a mighty empire, conquering [[Zobah]] and [[Aram]] (modern Syria), [[Edom]] and [[Moab]] (roughly modern Jordan), the lands of the Philistines, and much more. === Bathsheba and Uriah the Hittite === David is infatuated with the beautiful [[Bathsheba]], wife of [[Uriah the Hittite]], and commits, what appears to have been, adultery with her. Bathsheba conceives, and David sends Uriah to the wars, with orders to the commanders that they should abandon him in the midst of the enemy. And so it is done, and David marries Bathsheba and has a son by her. But the prophet Nathan speaks out against the sin, and although David repents, God kills the child as a punishment. ([[Psalm 51]] is traditionally taken as David's response). David then leaves his lamentations, dresses himself, and eats. His servants ask why he lamented when the baby was alive, but leaves off when he is dead, and David replies: &quot;While the child was still alive, I fasted and wept; for I said, `Who knows whether the Lord will be gracious to me, that the child may live?' But now he is dead, why should I fast? Can I bring him back again? I shall go to him, but he will not return to me.&quot; === Absalom === David's beloved son [[Absalom]] rebels against his father. The armies of Absalom and David come to battle, and Absalom is caught in the branches of oak. David's general [[Joab]] kills him as he hangs there. When the news of the victory is brought to David he does not rejoice, but is instead shaken with grief: &quot;&quot;O my son Absalom, my son, my son Absalom! Would I had died instead of you, O Absalom, my son, my son!&quot; === The Psalms === David is described as the author of the [[Psalms]] - one of the most famous is [[Psalm 51]], traditionally said to have been composed by David after Nathan upbraided him for his adultery with Bathsheba: &quot;To the choirmaster. A Psalm of David, when Nathan the prophet came to him, after he had gone in to Bathsheba.&quot; Perhaps the best-known is Psalm 23: ::&quot;The Lord is my shepherd, I shall not want. He maketh me to lie down in green pastures, He leadeth me beside the still waters. He restoreth my soul. He leadeth me in the path of righteousness for his name's sake. Yea, though I walk through the valley of the shadow of death, I will fear no evil: for thou art with me; thy rod and thy staff they comfort me. Thou preparest a table before me in the presence of mine enemies: thou anointest my head with oil; my cup runneth over. Surely goodness and mercy shall follow me all the days of my life: and I will dwell in the house of the Lord for ever.&quot; === The reign of David === &quot;Thus David the son of Jesse reigned over all Israel. The time that he reigned over Israel was forty years; he reigned seven years in Hebron, and thirty-three years in Jerusalem. Then he died in a good old age, full of days, riches, and honor; and [[Solomon]] his son reigned in his stead.&quot; ==David's family== [[Image:Gustave dore bibel death of absalom.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The Death of Absalom (engraving from the [[Doré]] Bible).]] David's father was '''[[Jesse]]''' ('''ישי''' &quot;Gift&quot;, [[Standard Hebrew]] '''Yíšay''', [[Tiberian Hebrew]] '''Yíšay''' / '''Yēšay'''), the son of [[Obed]], son of [[Boaz]] of the tribe of [[Tribe of Judah|Judah]] and [[Ruth]] the [[Moab]]ite, whose story is told at length in the [[Book of Ruth]]. David's lineage is fully documented in Ruth 4:18-22. (The &quot;[[Pharez]]&quot; that heads the line is Judah's son, [[Genesis]] 38:29). David had eight wives, although he appears to have had children from other women as well: * [[Michal]], the second daughter of [[King Saul]] * [[Ahinoam]] of Jezreel * [[Abigail]], previously wife of the evil [[Nabal]] * [[Maachah]] * [[Haggith]] * [[Avital]] * [[Eglah]] * [[Bathsheba]], previously the wife of Uriah the Hittite In his old age he took the beautiful [[Abisag]] into his bed, leaving her still a virgin on his death (Book of Kings, 1,1-4). As given in [[Books of Chronicles|1 Chronicles]], chapter 3, ([[King James Version of the Bible|KJV]]), David had sons by various wives and [[concubine]]s; their names are not given in ''Chronicles''. By Bathsheba, his sons were: * [[Shimea]] * [[Shobab]] * [[Nathan (son of David)|Nathan]] * [[Solomon]] His sons by other mothers included: * [[Ibhar]] * [[Elishama]] * [[Eliphelet]] * [[Nogah]] * [[Nepheg]] * [[Japhia]] * Elishama (again) * [[Eliada]] * Eliphelet (again) David also had at least one daughter, [[Tamar (biblical figure)|Tamar]], the full sister of Absalom. == David as a religious figure == === David in Judaism === In [[Judaism]], David's reign represents the formation of a coherent Jewish kingdom with its political and religious capital in [[Jerusalem]] and the institution of a royal lineage that culminates in the [[Messianic Age]]. David's descent from a convert ([[Ruth]]) is taken as proof of the importance of converts within Judaism. That he was not allowed to build a permanent temple is taken as proof of the imperative of peace in affairs of state. David is also viewed as a tragic figure; his inexcusable acquisition of Bathsheba, and the loss of his son are viewed as central tragedies in Judaism. === David in Christianity === In [[Christianity]], David is important as the ancestor of the [[Messiah]]. Several [[Old Testament prophecies]] state that the Messiah will come from David's line; the Gospels of [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] and [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] trace [[Jesus]]' lineage to David to fulfill this requirement. David is also figurative of [[Christ]], the slaying of Goliath being compared to the way [[Jesus]] defeated [[Satan]] when Jesus died on the cross. More often, David is figurative of a Christian believer. The [[Psalms]] show a Christian how to depend upon God during times of adversity, how to praise, how to repent. The Catholic Church celebrates his feast day on [[December 29]]. === David (Da'ud) in Islam === David ('''داؤد''', '''Dā'ūd'''), is one of the [[prophets of Islam]], to whom the [[Zabur]] ([[Psalms]]) were revealed by [[Allah]]. As in Judaism, he is said to have killed Goliath ([[Jalut]]). Allah says in Surah Baqarah Chapter 2 ayah 251: &quot; And Da'ud slew Jalut, and Allah gave him kingdom and wisdom, and taught him of what He pleased.&quot; [[Muslim]]s reject the Biblical portrayal of David as an adulterer and murderer. This is based on the Islamic belief in the righteousness of prophets (&quot;[[Nabi]]&quot;). In Surah Maida, chapter 5, ayah 78, Allah says:&quot;Those who disbelieved from among the children of Israel were cursed by the tongue of Da'ud and Isa, son of Mariam; this was because they disobeyed and used to exceed the limit.&quot; In Surah Anbiya, chapter 21, ayahs 78-80, Allah says: &quot;And Da'ud and Sulaiman when they gave judgment concerning the field when the people's sheep pastured therein by night, and We were bearers of witness to their judgment. So We made Sulaiman to understand it; and to each one We gave wisdom and knowledge; and We made the mountains, and the birds to celebrate Our praise with Da'ud; and We were the doers. And We taught him the making of coats of mail for you, that they might protect you in your wars; will you then be grateful? &quot; Ibn Jarir recorded that Ibn Mas`ud said: &quot;Grapes which had grown and their bunches were spoiled by the sheep. Da'ud ruled that the owner of the grapes should keep the sheep. Sulayman (Solomon) said, &quot;Not like this, O Prophet of Allah!&quot; Da'ud said, &quot;How then?&quot; Sulayman said: &quot;Give the grapes to the owner of the sheep and let him tend them until they grow back as they were, and give the sheep to the owner of the grapes and let him benefit from them until the grapes have grown back as they were. Then the grapes should be given back to their owner, and the sheep should be given back to their owner.&quot; When he recited the Zabur in a beautiful manner, the birds would stop and hover in the air, and would repeat after him, and the mountains would respond and echo his words. The Prophet passed by Abu Musa Al-Ash`ari while he was reciting Qur'an at night, and he had a very beautiful voice, he stopped and listened to his recitation, and said: &quot;This man has been given one of the wind instruments (nice voices) of the family of Da'ud.&quot; He said: &quot;O Messenger of Allah, if I had known that you were listening, I would have done my best for you.&quot; In Surah Saba, chapter 34, ayahs 10-11, Allah says: &quot;And certainly We gave to Da'ud excellence from Us: O mountains! sing praises with him, and the birds; and We made the iron pliant to him, Saying: Make ample (coat
plex whole-body movements) ###persistent preoccupation with parts of objects #Delays or abnormal functioning in at least one of the following areas, with onset prior to age 3 years: (1) social interaction, (2) language as used in social communication, or (3) symbolic or imaginative play. #The disturbance is not better accounted for by [[Rett syndrome|Rett's Disorder]] or [[Childhood disintegrative disorder|Childhood Disintegrative Disorder]]. The ''Diagnostic and Statistical Manual''&lt;!-- --&gt;'s diagnostic criteria in general is controversial for being vague and subjective. (See the [[DSM cautionary statement]].) The criteria for autism is much more controversial and some clinicians today may ignore it completely, instead solely relying on other methods for determining the diagnosis. == Types of autism == Autism presents in a wide degree, from those who are nearly [[dysfunctional]] and apparently [[Developmental Disability|mentally handicapped]] to those whose symptoms are mild or remedied enough to appear unexceptional (&quot;normal&quot;) to the general public. In terms of both classification and therapy, autistic individuals are often divided into those with an [[Intelligence Quotient|IQ]]&amp;lt;80 referred to as having &quot;low-functioning autism&quot; (LFA), while those with IQ&amp;gt;80 are referred to as having &quot;high-functioning autism&quot; (HFA). Low and high functioning are more generally applied to how well an individual can accomplish activities of daily living, rather than to [[IQ]]. The terms low and high functioning are controversial and not all autistics accept these labels. Further, these two labels are not currently used or accepted in autism literature. This discrepancy can lead to confusion among service providers who equate IQ with functioning and may refuse to serve high-IQ autistic people who are severely compromised in their ability to perform daily living tasks, or may fail to recognize the intellectual potential of many autistic people who are considered LFA. For example, some professionals refuse to recognize autistics who can speak or write as being autistic at all, because they still think of autism as a communication disorder so severe that no speech or writing is possible. As a consequence, many &quot;high-functioning&quot; autistic persons, and autistic people with a relatively high [[IQ]], are underdiagnosed, thus making the claim that &quot;autism implies retardation&quot; self-fulfilling. The number of people diagnosed with LFA is not rising quite as sharply as HFA, indicating that at least part of the explanation for the apparent rise is probably better diagnostics. === Asperger's and Kanner's syndrome === [[Image:Hans Asperger.jpg|thumb|right|160px|Asperger described his patients as &quot;little professors&quot;.]] In the current [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]] (DSM-IV-TR), the most significant difference between Autistic Disorder (Kanner's) and Asperger's syndrome is that a diagnosis of the former includes the observation of &quot;[d]elays or abnormal functioning in at least one of the following areas, with onset prior to age 3 years: (1) social interaction, (2) language as used in social communication, or (3) symbolic or imaginative play[,]&quot; {{ref|bnat}} while a diagnosis of Asperger's syndrome observes &quot;no clinically significant delay&quot; in these areas. {{ref|bnas}} The DSM makes no mention of level of intellectual functioning, but the fact that Asperger's autistics as a group tend to perform better than those with Kanner's autism has produced a popular conception that ''[[Asperger's syndrome]]'' is synonymous with &quot;higher-functioning autism,&quot; or that it is a lesser [[disorder]] than ''autism''. There is also a popular but not necessarily true conception that all autistic individuals with a high level of intellectual functioning have Asperger's autism or that both types are merely [[geek]]s with a medical label attached. Also, autism has evolved in the public understanding, but the popular identification of autism with relatively severe cases as accurately depicted in ''[[Rain Man]]'' has encouraged relatives of family members diagnosed in the autistic spectrum to speak of their loved ones as having Asperger's syndrome rather than autism. ===Autism as a spectrum disorder=== {{details|Autistic spectrum}} Another view of these disorders is that they are on a continuum known as [[autistic spectrum]] disorders. A related continuum is [[Sensory Integration Dysfunction]], which is about how well we integrate the information we receive from our senses. Autism, Asperger's syndrome, and Sensory Integration Dysfunction are all closely related and overlap. There are two main manifestations of classical autism, [[regressive autism]] and [[early infantile autism]]. Early infantile autism is present at birth while regressive autism begins before the age of 3 and often around 18 months. Although this causes some controversy over when the neurological differences involved in autism truly begin, some believe that it is only a matter of when an environmental toxin triggers the disorder. This triggering could occur during gestation due to a toxin that enters the mother's body and is transfered to the fetus. The triggering could also occur after birth during the crucial early nervous system development of the child due to a toxin directly entering the child's body. == Increase in diagnoses of autism == {{details|Autism epidemic}} [[Image:autismnocgraph.png|right|thumb|400px|The number of reported cases of autism has increased dramatically over the past decade. Statistics in graph from the [[National Center for Health Statistics]].]] There has been an explosion worldwide in reported cases of autism over the last ten years, which is largely reminiscent of increases in the diagnosis of [[schizophrenia]] and [[multiple personality disorder]] in the twentieth century. This has brought rise to a number of different theories as to the nature of the sudden increase. Epidemiologists argue that the rise in diagnoses in the United States is partly or entirely attributable to changes in diagnostic criteria, reclassifications, public awareness, and the incentive to receive federally mandated services. A widely cited study from the [[M.I.N.D. Institute]] in California ([[17 October]] [[2002]]), claimed that the increase in autism is real, even after those complicating factors are accounted for (see reference in this section below). Other researchers remain unconvinced (see references below), including Dr. Chris Johnson, a professor of pediatrics at the University of Texas Health Sciences Center at [[San Antonio]] and cochair of the [[American Academy of Pediatrics]] Autism Expert Panel, who says, &quot;There is a chance we're seeing a true rise, but right now I don't think anybody can answer that question for sure.&quot; ([[Newsweek]] reference below). The answer to this question has significant ramifications on the direction of research, since a ''real increase'' would focus more attention (and research funding) on the search for environmental factors, while ''little or no real increase'' would focus more attention to genetics. On the other hand, it is conceivable that certain environmental factors (vaccination, diet, societal changes) may have a particular impact on people with a specific genetic constitution. There is little public research on the effects of [[in vitro fertilization]] on the number of incidences of autism. One of the more popular theories is that there is a connection between &quot;geekdom&quot; and autism. This is hinted, for instance, by a ''Wired Magazine'' article in 2001 entitled &quot;The [[Geek]] Syndrome&quot;, which is a point argued by many in the autism rights movement{{ref|Wired}}. This article, many professionals assert, is just one example of the media's application of mental disease labels to what is actually variant normal behavior&amp;mdash;they argue that shyness, lack of athletic ability or social skills, and intellectual interests, even when they seem unusual to others, are not in themselves signs of autism or Asperger's syndrome. Others assert that it is actually the medical profession which is applying mental disease labels to children who in the past would have simply been accepted as a little different or even labeled 'gifted'. See [[clinomorphism]] for further discussion of this issue. Due to the recent publicity surrounding autism and autistic spectrum disorders, an increasing number of adults are choosing to seek diagnoses of high-functioning autism or Asperger's syndrome in light of symptoms they currently experience or experienced during childhood. Since the cause of autism is thought to be at least partly genetic, a proportion of these adults seek their own diagnosis specifically as follow-up to their children's diagnoses. Because autism falls into the [[pervasive developmental disorder]] category, strictly speaking, symptoms must have been present in a given patient before age seven in order to make a [[differential diagnosis]]. == Therapies == {{details|Autism therapies}} ==Sociology== Due to the complexity of autism, there are many facets of [[sociology]] that need to be considered when discussing it, such as the culture which has evolved from autistic persons connecting and communicating with one another. In addition, there are several subgroups forming within the autistic community, sometimes in strong opposition to one another. ===Community and politics=== {{details|Autistic community}} {{details|Autism rights movement}} Much like many other controversies in the world, the autistic community itself has splintered off into several groups. Essentially, these groups are those who seek a cure for autism, dubbed ''pro-cure'', those who do not desire a cure for autism and as such resist it, dubbed ''anti-cure'', and the many people caught in the middle of the t
advocacy. Much of Houston is served by the [[Houston Community College System]], which is one of the largest [[community college]] systems in the United States. HCCS serves the HISD portion of Houston and other areas. Parts of northern Houston are served by [[North Harris Montgomery Community College District]]. Parts of eastern and southeastern Houston are served by [[San Jacinto College]]. Many of Houston's suburbs also have their own community college systems. ::''See also:'' :::*''[[List of colleges and universities in Houston, Texas|List of colleges and universities in Houston]]'' :::*''[[List of colleges and universities in Texas]]'' [[Image:HoustonISDWhiteHQ.jpg|thumb|225px|[[Houston ISD]]'s Hattie Mae White Administration Building]] [[Image:HoustonLamarHighSchool.JPG|thumb|225px|[[Lamar High School (Houston)|Lamar High School]].]] ===Public schools and libraries=== There are many school districts serving the city of Houston, the largest of which, the [[Houston Independent School District]], serves a large majority of the area within the city limits. &lt;!--Do not delink any of them!--&gt; A portion of west Houston falls under the [[Spring Branch Independent School District|Spring Branch]] and [[Alief Independent School District|Alief]] independent school districts. [[Aldine Independent School District|Aldine]] and [[North Forest Independent School District|North Forest]] independent school districts take up a part of northeast Houston. Parts of [[Pasadena Independent School District|Pasadena]], [[Clear Creek Independent School District|Clear Creek]], [[Crosby Independent School District|Crosby]], [[Cypress-Fairbanks Independent School District|Cypress-Fairbanks]], [[Fort Bend Independent School District|Fort Bend]], [[Galena Park Independent School District|Galena Park]], [[Huffman Independent School District|Huffman]], [[Humble Independent School District|Humble]], [[Katy Independent School District|Katy]], [[New Caney Independent School District|New Caney]], and [[Sheldon Independent School District|Sheldon]] independent school districts also take students from the city limits of Houston. The [[Houston Public Library]] has 36 branches throughout the city, plus the Central Library, located Downtown. The portion of Houston within Fort Bend County is served by the [[Fort Bend County Libraries]], in addition to Houston Public Library. The [[Harris County Public Library]] has 26 branches, mostly in areas outside the city limits of Houston. ===Private schools=== The Houston area is home to more than 300 [[private school]]s and several are well-known. Many of the schools are [[accredited]] by an accrediting agency recognized by Texas Private School Accreditation Commission (TEPSAC). Among the 50 [http://houstonprivateschools.org/ Houston Area Independent Schools] are [[Strake Jesuit College Preparatory]], [[Saint Agnes Academy]], [[St. Thomas High School]], [[Incarnate Word Academy]], [[St. John's School]], [[Saint Catherine's Montessori]], [[Awty International School]], [[The Emery/Weiner School]], [[St. Thomas' Episcopal School]] and [[The Kinkaid School]]. In nearby city of [[Bellaire, Texas|Bellaire]] is the [[Episcopal High School (Bellaire, Texas)|Episcopal High School]]. Houston-area [[Catholic school]]s are operated by the [[Archdiocese of Galveston-Houston]]. ==Professional sports== [[Image:Reliant Stadium.jpg|275px|right|thumb|[[Reliant Stadium]] and the [[Reliant Astrodome]].]] Houston is home to the MLB [[Houston Astros]], NFL [[Houston Texans]], NBA [[Houston Rockets]], WNBA [[Houston Comets]], and AHL [[Houston Aeros]], all of whom are playing in new state-of-the-art stadiums. [[Minute Maid Park]] (home of the Astros) and [[Toyota Center]] (home of the Rockets, Comets and Aeros) are located Downtown, contributing to an urban renaissance that has transformed Houston's center into a day-and-night destination. [[Rice Stadium]], at Rice University, was the home to [[Super Bowl VIII]], and [[Super Bowl XXXVIII]] was played at the [[Reliant Stadium]] in February [[2004]]. Other sports facilities in Houston are [[Hofheinz Pavilion]], [[Reliant Astrodome]], and [[Robertson Stadium]]. Beginning in [[2006]], the [[Champ Car]] auto racing series will return to Houston for a yearly race, held on the streets of the [[Reliant Park]] complex. The city had previously been home to a Champ Car round from [[1998]] to [[2001]]. On [[April 1]], [[2001]], Houston hosted [[WWE]]'s [[WrestleMania X-Seven]] at the [[Reliant Astrodome]]. The city hosts the annual NCAA football's [[Houston Bowl]] in December. Houston was also host of the NCAA football 2005 Big 12 Conference title game. Additionally, Houston's Minute Maid Park hosted the MLB All-Star game in 2004 and will host the NBA All-Star game at the Toyota Center in 2006. The city received a new [[Major League Soccer]] team on [[December 15]], [[2005]] when the [[San Jose Earthquakes]] decided to relocate the franchise to Houston. Under the relocation agreement the Earthquake name, mascot and logo will remain in San Jose reserved for a future expansion team. The Houston team, which is currently dubbed &quot;[[Houston 1836]],&quot; will play at [[Robertson Stadium]] at the start of the 2006 season. [[Houston Rockets]] owner Leslie Alexander is currently working to bring a [[National Hockey League]] (NHL) franchise to Houston. The team is expected to be acquired by the purchase and relocation of an existing team rather than through league expansion, most likely the [[Pittsburgh Penguins]]&amp;mdash;which is interested in relocating to Houston. {| style=&quot;border: 1px solid #ADADAD; margin-bottom: 10px; padding-bottom: 5px;&quot; |- bgcolor=#ADADAD align=left ! width=150px | Club ! width=100px | Sport ! width=270px | League ! width=120px | Stadium ! width=50px | Logo |- | [[Houston Aeros]] | [[Ice Hockey]] | [[American Hockey League]] | [[Toyota Center]] | [[Image:Houston aeros 200x200.png|30px|Logo of Houston Aeros]] |- | [[Houston Astros]] | [[Baseball]] | [[Major League Baseball]] ([[National League|NL]]) | [[Minute Maid Park]] | [[Image:HoustonAstros 100.png|30px|Logo of Houston Astros]] |- | [[Houston Texans]] | [[American Football|Football]] | [[National Football League]] ([[American Football Conference|AFC]]) | [[Reliant Stadium]] | [[Image:HoustonTexans 100.png|30px|Logo of Houston Texans]] |- | [[Houston Rockets]] | [[Basketball]] | [[National Basketball Association]] | [[Toyota Center]] | [[Image:HoustonRockets 100.png|30px|Logo of Houston Rockets]] |- | [[Houston Comets]] | [[Basketball]] | [[Women's National Basketball Association]] | [[Toyota Center]] | [[Image:HoustonComets 100.png|30px|Logo of Houston Comets]] |- | [[Houston 1836]]&lt;br/&gt; | [[Soccer]] | [[Major League Soccer]] | [[Robertson Stadium]] | [[Image:Houston_1836_logo.gif|30px|Logo of Houston 1836]] |} :''See also: [[Former professional sports teams in Houston, Texas]] ==Media and entertainment== [[Image:HOU069.JPG|66KB|thumb|left|Houston at night]] Houston is served by ''[[Houston Chronicle|The Houston Chronicle]]'', its only major daily newspaper with wide distribution. Houston also is home to several [[Houston Television Stations|TV stations]] and [[Houston Radio Stations|radio stations]] that serve the metro area. [[KTRK TV]]'s [[Marvin Zindler]] is a well-known figure in Houston, recognizable as much for his voice as for his trademark blue eyeglasses. His week-long exposé on the [[Chicken Ranch (Texas)|Chicken Ranch]] brothel later became the basis for the Broadway musical ''[[The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas]]'', and his health reports on local restaurants have made the phrase &quot;slime in the ice machine&quot; immediately recognizable to any local. [[KHOU-TV]]'s investigative team, &quot;The 11 News Defenders,&quot; began an investigation into the failure of [[Firestone]] Wilderness AT tires on several vehicles (most notably on the popular [[Ford Explorer]]). The expose ended up becoming a national story with wide-reaching implications for both Ford and Firestone. These reports garnered the station and the lead reporter, Anna Werner international attention and several awards including the prestigious [[Edward R. Murrow]] Award and George Foster [[Peabody Award]]. Among the many respected journalists that have worked for KHOU, the best known are former CBS Evening News anchor [[Dan Rather]], [[Linda Ellerbee]] and [[Jessica Savitch]]. [[Univision]] Affiliate [[KXLN]]-TV is among the highest rated Spanish-language television stations in the United States. Its &quot;En Su Defensa&quot; (in your defense) segments have garnered regional acclaim, and En Su Defensa month was proclaimed by Mayor Bill White in 2004. ::''See also:'' :::* ''[[List of movies set in Houston]]'' :::* ''[[List of newspapers in Houston, Texas|List of newspapers in Houston]]'' :::* ''[[List of television stations in Texas]]'' :::* ''[[List of radio stations in Texas]]'' ==Sister cities== Houston has 16 [[sister city|sister cities]] designated by [[Sister Cities International]]. Parentheses denote the year in which sister city relationships were established. *[[Image:Flag_of_Scotland.svg|20px|]] [[Aberdeen]], [[Scotland]] (1979) *[[Image:Flag of the United Arab Emirates.svg|20px|]] [[Abu Dhabi]], [[United Arab Emirates]] (2001) *[[Image:Flag of Azerbaijan.svg|20px|]] [[Baku]], [[Azerbaijan]] (1976) *[[Image:Flag of Japan.svg|20px|]] [[Chiba City|Chiba]], [[Japan]] (1973) *[[Image:Flag of Ecuador.svg|20px|]] [[Guayaquil]], [[Ecuador]] (1987) *[[Image:Flag_of_Spain.svg|20px|]] [[Huelva]], [[Spain]] (1969) *[[Image:Flag_of_Turkey.svg|20px|]] [[Istanbul]], [[Turkey]] (1986) *[[Image:Flag_of_Germany.svg|20px|]] [[Leipzig]], [[Germany]] (1993) *[[Image:Flag_of_Angola.svg|20px|]] [[Luanda]], [[Angola]] (2003) *[[Image:Flag_of_France.svg|20px|]] [[Nice]], [[France]] (1973) *[[Image:Flag_of_Australia.svg|20px|]] [[Perth, Western Australia|Perth]], [[Western Australia]], [[Australi
t, in both sides, participants to such a dialogue keeps their mouth shut (''bouche cousue''). It is impossible to admit that one has met and negotiated with his sworn enemy.&quot; {{ref label|Canard|16|b}} === January 2006 - Winning the legislative election === While Hamas had boycotted the [[Palestinian presidential election, 2005|January 2005 presidential election]], during which [[Mahmoud Abbas]] was elected to replace [[Yasser Arafat]], it did participate to the [[Palestinian municipal election, 2005|municipal elections]] held between January and May 2005, in which it took control of [[Beit Lahia]] in Gaza, [[Qalqiliya]] in the West Bank and [[Rafah]]. The [[Palestinian legislative election, 2006|January 2006 legislative elections]] marqued another victory for Hamas, which gained the majority of seats, defeating the ruling [[Fatah]] party. The &quot;List of Change and Reform&quot;, as Hamas presented itself, obtained 42.9% of the vote and 76 of the 132 seats. &lt;ref&gt; [http://www.elections.ps/pdf/result_seat_distribution_EN.pdf] &lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt; [http://www.elections.ps/template.aspx?id=291] &lt;/ref&gt; [http://www.elections.ps]; according to Reuters 74 seats [http://today.reuters.com/news/newsArticle.aspx?type=worldNews&amp;storyID=2006-02-04T115145Z_01_L0459754_RTRUKOC_0_US-MIDEAST.xml&amp;archived=False]. Palestinian Prime Minister [[Ahmed Qurei]] and his cabinet resigned, leaving Hamas to form a new government. On February 19, Hamas chose [[Ismail Haniya]] as [[Prime Minister of the Palestinian National Authority|Prime minister of the PA]], and on the same day the government of Israel decided counter-measures against the new Hamas-led Palestinian Authority (suspension of $50 million transfer of tax-receipts). After the victory, Israeli Human Rights organizations have called on Hamas to stop its terror campaign against civilians and to avoid using violence as a tool to achieve a political solution. [[Vladimir Putin|President Vladimir Putin]] said that Russia would not support any efforts to cut off financial assistance to the Palestinians, stating that Hamas gained power by democratic means. He invited some Hamas leaders to Moscow beginning of March 2006. However, the US [[Bush administration]] and the [[European Union]] have threatened to cut financial aid to the [[Palestinian Authority]] if Hamas members hold ministerial positions. On February 19, 2006, interim Israeli Prime minister [[Ehud Olmert]] decided to stop transfer of the $50 million tax-receipts to the PA, which accounts for a third of the PA's budget and insure the wages of 140 000 Palestinian civil servants (among them 60 000 security and police officers). It also decided to increase controls on check-points, but finally decided against blocking Palestinians from [[commuting]] between Gaza and the West Bank and from prohibiting to work in Israel. The result of the election is regarded as a major setback for governments attempting to mediate the ongoing Israeli-Palestinian conflict. The United States has said that it will not deal with Hamas until it renounces its support of suicide bombings and terrorism, and accepts Israel's right to exist. Israeli president [[Moshe Katsav]] and Israel's ex-prime minister [[Shimon Peres]] have both said that, if Hamas will accept Israel's right to exist and give up terror, Israel should negotiate with the organization. &lt;/ref&gt; Although Hamas omitted its call for the destruction of Israel from its election manifesto, calling instead for &quot;the establishment of an independent state whose capital is [[Jerusalem]],&quot; several Hamas candidates insisted that the charter remains in force &lt;ref&gt; {{Citenews | title=Hamas drops call for destruction of Israel from manifesto | org=The Guardian | date=January 12, 2006 | url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/israel/Story/0,2763,1684472,00.html}} &lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt; {{Citenews | title=Hamas manifesto offers softer line ahead of vote | org=Yahoo News | date=January 12, 2006 | url=http://news.yahoo.com/s/nm/20060112/wl_nm/mideast_hamas_dc}} &lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt; {{Citenews | title=Hamas: Ceasefire for return to 1967 border | org=Y Net News | date=January 30, 2006 | url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3207845,00.html}} &lt;/ref&gt; On Feb 8, Hamas head Haled Mash'al speaking in Cairo had clarfied that &quot;&quot;Anyone who thinks Hamas will change is wrong,&quot; stating that while Hamas is willing for a ceasefire with Israel, its long term goal remains: elimination of Israel by Islam via a holy war ([[jihad]]) against non-Muslims in all of what he called [[Palestine]][http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2006/02/09/wmid09.xml&amp;sSheet=/news/2006/02/09/ixworld.html]. The [[Quartet for the Middle East|Quartet]] threatened to cut all funds to the Palestinian Authority, with only Russia warning against the potential dangers of cutting out the PA from any Occidental support. On the other hand, interim [[Prime Minister of Israel|Israeli Prime minister]] [[Ehud Olmert]], who called the PA a &quot;terrorist authority&quot; and declared that these measures &quot;were not against [[civilian]]s but against a terrorist power&quot;, decided on February 19, 2006 to stop transferring approximatively $50 millions tax receipts to the Palestinian Authority (which account for a third of the PA's budget). {{ref label|Reuters|1|a}} &lt;ref&gt; {{Citenews | title=Israel halts funds for Palestinians, Abbas slams move | org=Reuters | date=February 19, 2006 | url=http://today.reuters.com/news/NewsArticle.aspx?type=topNews&amp;storyID=uri:2006-02-19T204037Z_01_L17580155_RTRUKOC_0_US-MIDEAST.xml&amp;pageNumber=0&amp;summit=}} &lt;/ref&gt;. These measures were to be implemented start of March 2006. Criticizing them, moderate [[Labour Party (Israel)|Labour leader]] [[Amir Peretz]] said that they are &quot;indirect ways&quot; to &quot;get around Hamas and strengthen moderate forces&quot; among the Palestinians &lt;ref&gt; {{Citenews | title=Israel Threatens Tough Economic Sanctions | org=AP | date=February 17, 2006 | url=http://hosted.ap.org/dynamic/stories/I/ISRAEL_PALESTINIANS?SITE=WKHG&amp;SECTION=HOME&amp;TEMPLATE=DEFAULT}} &lt;/ref&gt;. Before the Israeli decision to cut transfer of tax receipts, Palestinian Assembly passed legislation giving to the Palestinian President, [[Mahmoud Abbas]], the power to appoint a court that could veto legislation passed by the new Hamas-led parliament to be sworn in start of February. The constitutional court would veto legislation deemed in violation of the Palestinians' Basic Law, a forerunner to the Palestinian constitution. Palestinian deputies also backed a [[decree]] which automatically makes members of the incoming parliament members of the [[Palestine Liberation Organisation]]'s (PLO) parliament in exile. Unlike the Hamas charter, the PLO charter recognises the legitimacy of Israel. &lt;ref&gt; {{Citenews | title=Palestinian Parliament Gives New Power | org=The Washington Post | date=February 13, 2006 | url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/02/13/AR2006021300259.html?sub=AR}} {{Citenews | title=Outgoing MPs boost Abbas' power | org=BBC News | date=February 13, 2006 | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/4708820.stm}} &lt;/ref&gt;. Furthermore, in an interview in Russian newspaper ''[[Nezavisimaya Gazeta]]'', published on February 13, 2006, Hamas leader [[Khaled Mashal]] declared that Hamas would stop armed struggle against Israel if it recognized the 1967 borders and withdrew itself from all [[Palestinian territories|Palestinian occupied territories]] (including the West Bank and [[East Jerusalem]]). However, Mashal continued to refuse to acknowledge the [[Road map for peace]], adopted by the Quartet in [[June 2003]], &quot;since nobody respects it&quot;. The Road map projected the establishment of an independent Palestinian state in 2005. &lt;ref&gt; {{Citenews | title=Hamas will end armed struggle if Israel quits territories - leader | org=AFX News Limited | date=February 13, 2006 | url=http://www.forbes.com/home/feeds/afx/2006/02/12/afx2519867.html}}{{Citenews | title=Le Hamas pose ses conditions (&quot;Hamas states its conditions&quot;) | org=Le Figaro | date=February 13, 2006 | url=http://www.lefigaro.fr/international/20060213.FIG0288.html}} [http://www.ng-az.info ''Nezavisimaya Gazeta'' website] &lt;/ref&gt;. Following Hamas' victory in the Palestinian elections EU announced that future aid to the Palestinians is tied to &quot;Three Principles&quot; outlined by the international community: * Hamas must renounce violence * Hamas must recognize Israel right to exist * Hamas must express clear support for the Middle East peace process, as outlined in the [[Oslo accords]]. ==Legal action against Hamas== In 2004, a federal court in the United States found Hamas liable in a civil lawsuit for the 1996 murders of Yaron and Efrat Ungar near [[Beit Shemesh]], [[Israel]]. Hamas has been ordered to pay the families of the Ungars $116 million. On [[July 5]], [[2004]], the court issued a default judgment against the [[Palestinian Authority]] and the [[Palestine Liberation Organization|PLO]] regarding the Ungars' claim that the Palestinian Authority and the PLO provide [[safe haven]] to Hamas. On [[August 20]], [[2004]], three Palestinians, one a naturalized American citizen, were charged with a &quot;lengthy racketeering conspiracy to provide money for [[terrorism|terrorist]] acts in Israel&quot;. The indicted include [[Mousa Mohammed Abu Marzook]], senior member of Hamas, believed to be currently in [[Damascus]], [[Syria]] and considered a [[fugitive]]. The two others &amp;mdash; [[Muhammad Hamid Khalil Salah]] of [[Chicago, Illinois]] and [[Abdelhaleem Hasan Abdelraziq Ashqar]] of Alexandria, Va. &amp;mdash; were arrested on [[August 19]]. The indictment states that Salah received $50,000 which was used over the course of the following three months to help Ha
, Petrarch, [[Geoffrey Chaucer]] (''[[The Canterbury Tales]]''), and [[William Langland]] (''[[Piers Plowman]]''), which all discuss the Black Death, are generally recognized as some of the best works of their era. ''La Danse Macabre'', or the ''Dance of death'', is an [[allegory]] on the universality of [[death]], expressing the common wisdom of the time: that no matter one's station in life, the dance of death united all. It consists of the [[personification|personified]] Death leading a row of dancing figures from all walks of life to the [[grave]] &amp;mdash; typically with an [[emperor]], [[monarch|king]], [[pope]], [[monk]], youngster, beautiful girl, all in [[skeleton]]-state. They were produced under the impact of the Black Death, reminding people of how fragile their lives were and how vain the glories of [[personal life|earthly life]]. The earliest artistic example is from the [[fresco]]ed cemetery of the [[Church of the Holy Innocents]] in Paris (1424). There are also works by [[Konrad Witz]] in [[Basel]] (1440), [[Bernt Notke]] in [[Lübeck]] (1463) and woodcuts by [[Hans Holbein the Younger]] (1538). [[Israil Bercovici]] claims that the ''Danse Macabre'' originated among [[Sephardic Jew]]s in 14th century [[Spain]] (Bercovici, 1992, p. 27). Additionally see Aleksander Pushkin's verse play, &quot;Feast in the Time of the Plague.&quot; === Modern === Because of its resounding recurrence throughout modern history, and its [[symbolism]] and connotation, the subject of or [[setting]] during the Black Death has also become commonplace in modern literature. The relatively new medium of [[film]] has given [[writer]]s and [[film producer|producer]]s an innovative venue to portray the plague with more realism than ever. The movie classic ''Det sjunde inseglet'' (''[[The Seventh Seal]]'') is a [[1957]] [[film]] directed by [[Ingmar Bergman]], most notable for the scene in which a medieval [[knight]] (played by [[Max von Sydow]]) plays [[chess]] with the [[personification]] of [[Death (personification)|Death]], with his life resting on the outcome of the game. The knight returns from the [[Crusade|Crusades]] and finds that his home country is ravaged by Black Death. To his dismay, he discovers that Death ([[Bengt Ekerot]]) has come for him too. In order to buy time he challenges Death to a match of chess, which allows him to reach his home and be reunited with his wife. The film explores the purpose of life and loss of faith, as the protagonist questions God's existence. The final scene of ''The Seventh Seal'' depicts a kind of ''Danse Macabre''. The [[1988]] [[science fiction]] film ''[[The Navigator: A Mediaeval Odyssey]]'' portrayed a group of [[14th-century]] [[England|English]] [[village]]rs who dig a tunnel to [[20th-century]] [[New Zealand]], with the aid of a boy's vision, to escape the Black Death. [[Connie Willis]]'s [[Hugo award]]-winning science fiction [[novel]] ''[[Doomsday Book (novel)|Doomsday Book]]'' ([[1993 in literature|1993]], ISBN 0553351672) imagines a future in which historians do field work by traveling into the past as observers. The protagonist, a historian, is sent to the wrong year, arriving in England just as the Black Death is starting. Likewise, [[Kim Stanley Robinson]]'s [[Alternate history (fiction)|alternate history]] novel [[The Years of Rice and Salt]] ([[2002]], ISBN 0553580078) presents a future dramatically changed by the Black Death, in which Christian Europe was almost completely destroyed and played no major role in future history. It has been alleged (since [[1961]]) that the Black Death inspired one of the most enduring [[nursery rhyme]]s in the English language, ''[[Ring around a rosie]], a pocket full of posies, / Ashes, ashes, we all fall down.'' However, this explanation is a literary interpretation [http://www.snopes.com/language/literary/rosie.htm] without historical supporting evidence. A Swedish captain named Johan Strandberg in Norrtälje in Stockholm's skerries is the last known victim of this disease with deadly outcome [year unknown]. ==Selected sources and further reading== ===References=== &lt;references/&gt; ===Primary sources=== * [[Giovanni Boccaccio]] (''[[The Decameron]]'') * [[Petrarch]] ====Primary sources online==== *[http://www.themediadrome.com/content/articles/blackdeath.htm Henry Knighton's account] *[http://housatonic.net/Documents/627.htm Agnolo di Tura's account] &lt;!--I can't seem to find the full text online!--&gt; *[http://www.brown.edu/Departments/Italian_Studies/dweb/plague/perspectives/de_mussi.shtml Gabriele de' Mussi's account] *[http://www.brown.edu/Departments/Italian_Studies/dweb/plague/perspectives/marchionne.shtml Marchionne di Coppo di Stefano Buonaiuti's account] *[http://www.brown.edu/Departments/Italian_Studies/dweb/plague/perspectives/petrarca2.shtml A Petrarch account] and [http://www.brown.edu/Departments/Italian_Studies/dweb/plague/perspectives/petrarca.shtml More quotes from Petrarch] === Secondary sources === * Appleby, Andrew B. “The Disappearance of the Plague: A Continuing Puzzle.” Economic History Review 33, 2, 1980 161-173. * Deaux, George (1969). ''The Black Death 1347''. New York: Weybright and Talley. ISBN 0241015146. * Derr, Mark. &quot;New Theories Link Black Death to Ebola-Like Virus&quot; ''The [[New York Times]]'', Science Section, October 2 2001. * Dols, Michael W. (1977). ''The Black Death in the Middle East'' Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey. ISBN 069103107X. * Gottfried, Robert S (1983). ''The Black Death''. New York: The Free Press. ISBN 0029123704. * Herlihy, David (1997). ''The Black Death and the Transformation of the West''. Cambridge: Harvard UP. ISBN 0674076133. This text is a definitive short text on the Black Death. * Kelly, John (2005). ''The Great Mortality, An Intimate History of the Black Death, the Most Devastating Plague of All Time''. HarperCollins Publisher Inc., New York, NY. ISBN 0060006927 * Marks, Geoffrey (1971). ''The Medieval Plague: The Black Death of the Middle Ages'' New York; Doubleday. ISBN 0385006306. * McNeill, William H. (1976). ''Plagues and People''. New York: Anchor Books. ISBN 0385121229. *Scott, Susan and Duncan, Christopher. (2004). ''Return of the Black Death: The World's Greatest Serial Killer'' West Sussex; John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 04700900006 * Slack, Paul. “The Disappearance of the Plague: An Alternative View.” Economic History Review 34, 3. 1981 469-476. * Ziegler, Phillip (1969). ''Black Death''. ISBN 0061315508 ====Secondary sources online==== * [http://www.historyguide.org/ancient/lecture29b.html ''The History Guide'' &quot;Satan Triumphant: The Black Death&quot;] * [http://www.emedicine.com/EMERG/topic428.htm Symptoms, causes, pictures of bubonic plague] * [http://www.themiddleages.net/plague.html Overview of the black death] * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/health/newsid_1925000/1925513.stm BBC news story on controversy over Black Death origins] * [http://www.snopes.com/language/literary/rosie.htm Examination of &quot;Ring around the Rosy&quot;'s relationship to the plague] * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/society_culture/welfare/black_01.shtml Black Death Overview from BBC] * [http://jefferson.village.virginia.edu/osheim/intro.html Plague and Public Health in Renaissance Europe]. Primary source documents and analysis. * [http://www.pbs.org/wnet/secrets/case_plague/ Secrets of the Dead . Mystery of the Black Death] [[PBS]] ===Related events=== * [[Great Famine of 1315-1317]] * [[Great Plague of London]] * [[Hundred Years' War]] * [[Plague of Justinian]] * [[Popular revolt in late medieval Europe]] * [[Plague Riot]] * [[Third Pandemic]] * [[Abandoned village]] * [[Little Ice Age]] * [[Avignon papacy]] * [[Peasants' Revolt]] * [[List of Bubonic plague outbreaks]] {{Link FA|de}} {{Link FA|pt}} {{Link FA|sv}} [[Category:Euroasian history]] [[Category:History of Asia]] [[Category:History of Europe]] [[Category:History of the Middle East]] [[Category:Middle Ages]] [[Category:Pandemics]] [[bg:Черна смърт]] [[ca:Pesta Negra]] [[da:Den sorte død]] [[de:Schwarzer Tod]] [[es:Peste negra]] [[fr:Peste noire]] [[gd:Am Bàs Dubh]] [[ko:흑사병]] [[he:המוות השחור]] [[nl:Zwarte Dood]] [[nds:Swart Dood]] [[ja:ペスト]] [[no:Svartedauden]] [[nn:Svartedauden]] [[pl:Czarna śmierć]] [[pt:Peste negra]] [[simple:Black Death]] [[sl:Črna smrt]] [[fi:Musta surma]] [[sv:Digerdöden]] [[zh:鼠疫]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Biotechnology</title> <id>4502</id> <revision> <id>41778734</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T18:09:24Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Llull</username> <id>9973</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Biotechnology timeline */ 8000 BC Roman people? I think that no...</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Biotechnology''' is a [[technology]] based on [[biology]], especially when used in [[agriculture]], [[food science]], and [[medicine]]. Of the many different definitions available, the one formulated by the [[UN]] [[Convention on Biological Diversity]] is one of the broadest: :&quot;Biotechnology means any technological application that uses biological systems, living organisms, or derivatives thereof, to make or modify products or processes for specific use.&quot; (Article 2. Use of Terms) Or another definition can be: Biotechnology is the manipulation of organisms to do practical things and to provide useful products. One section of biotechnology is the directed use of [[organisms]] for the manufacture of organic products (examples include [[beer]], [[milk]] products, and [[skin]]). Naturally present [[bacterium|bacteria]] are utilized by the mining industry in [[bioleaching]]. Biotechnology is also used to recycle, treat waste, clean up sites contaminated by industrial activities ([[bioremediation]]), and produce [[biological warfare|biological weapons]]. There are also applications of biotechnology that do not use living [[organisms]]. Examples are
ramatists and playwrights]] [[Category:Ancient Athenians]] [[Category:Ancient Greek poets]] [[bg:Еврипид]] [[ba:Еврипид]] [[ca:Eurípides]] [[de:Euripides]] [[el:Ευριπίδης]] [[es:Eurípides]] [[eo:Eŭripido]] [[fr:Euripide]] [[ko:에우리피데스]] [[it:Euripide]] [[he:אוריפידס]] [[lv:Eiripīds]] [[lt:Euripidas]] [[hu:Euripidész]] [[nl:Euripides]] [[ja:エウリピデス]] [[no:Evripides]] [[pl:Eurypides]] [[pt:Eurípedes]] [[ru:Еврипид]] [[sr:Еурипид]] [[fi:Euripides]] [[sv:Euripides]] [[uk:Евріпід]] [[zh:欧里庇得斯]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Electromagnetic force</title> <id>9809</id> <revision> <id>23582711</id> <timestamp>2005-09-20T08:08:48Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Lucinos</username> <id>289704</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Electromagnetic interaction]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Emily Brontë</title> <id>9810</id> <revision> <id>41788517</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T19:32:25Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Pavel Vozenilek</username> <id>87110</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>rv Michellebryan - promotion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:emilybronte.jpg|right|thumb|Portrait by her brother]]'''Emily Jane Brontë''' {{IPA|/b&amp;#633;&amp;#593;nti/}} ([[July 30]], [[1818]] &amp;ndash; [[December 19]], [[1848]]) was a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[novelist]] and [[poet]], best remembered for her only [[novel]] ''[[Wuthering Heights]]'', which is now an acknowledged classic of [[English literature]]. Emily was born at [[Thornton, Bradford|Thornton]] in [[Yorkshire]] to [[Patrick Brontë]] and Maria Branwell. She was the younger sister of [[Charlotte Brontë]] and the fifth of six children. In [[1820]], the family moved to [[Haworth]], where Emily's father was [[vicar|perpetual curate]], and it was in these surroundings that their literary talent flourished. In childhood, after the death of their mother, the three sisters and their brother Branwell created imaginary lands (Angria, Gondal, Gaaldine), which featured in stories they wrote. Little of Emily's work from this period survives, except for poems spoken by characters (''The Brontës' Web of Childhood'', Fannie Ratchford, 1941). In [[1838]], Emily commenced work as a governess at Miss Patchett's Ladies Academy at Law Hill Hall, near [[Halifax, West Yorkshire|Halifax]]. Later, with her sister Charlotte, she attended a private school in [[Brussels]]. It was the discovery of Emily's poetic talent by her family that led her and her sisters, [[Charlotte Brontë|Charlotte]] and [[Anne Brontë|Anne]], to publish a joint collection of their poetry in [[1846]]. To evade contemporary prejudice against female writers, all three used male pseudonyms, Emily's being &quot;Ellis Bell&quot;. She subsequently published her only novel, ''[[Wuthering Heights]]'', in [[1847]] - a powerful, poetic work, but whose innovative structure somewhat puzzled critics. Although it received mixed reviews when it first came out, the book subsequently became an [[English literature|English]] literary classic. Like her sisters, Emily's constitution had been weakened by their harsh life at home and at school. She died on [[December 19]], [[1848]] of [[tuberculosis]], having caught a chill during the funeral of her brother in September, and was interred in the Church of St. Michael and All Angels family vault, [[Haworth]], [[West Yorkshire]], [[England]]. Emily was a woman of remarkable force of character, reserved and taciturn. ==References== * {{A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature}} ==Further Reading== * ''A Life of Emily Brontë'', Edward Chitham * ''Heretic'', Stevie Davies * ''Emily Brontë'', Katherine Franks * ''The Brontës'', Juliet Barker * ''Emily Brontë'', Winifred Gerin * ''The Brontës' Web of Childhood'', Frances Ratchford * ''Gondal's Queen'', Fannie E. Ratchford * ''The Birth of Wuthering Heights: Emily Brontë at Work'', Edward Chitham * ''Emily Brontë'', Charles Simpson * ''In the Footsteps of the Brontës'', Ellis Chadwick * ''The Oxford Reader's Companion to the Brontës'', Christine Alexander &amp; Margaret Smith * ''Literature and Evil'', Georges Bataille * ''The Brontë Myth'', Lucasta Miller ==See also== * [[Walterclough Hall]] ==External links== {{Wikiquote}} {{Wikisource author}} *{{gutenberg author | id=Emily_Brontë | name=Emily Brontë}} *[http://www.poetseers.org/the_great_poets/british_poets/emily_bronte_poems/ Short Bio and selected Poems] *[http://bronteblog.blogspot.com News and information about the Brontës using a blog format.] * [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/BronteSistersLinks/ Bronte Sisters Links: the biggest collection of links regarding the Bronte Sisters] *[http://bronteana.blogspot.com Brontëana: Brontë Studies Weblog] [[Category:1818 births|Bronte, Emily]] [[Category:1848 deaths|Bronte, Emily]] [[Category:English poets|Bronte, Emily]] [[Category:English novelists|Brontë, Emily]] [[Category:Brontë family]] [[Category:Natives of Yorkshire|Brontë, Emily]] [[Category:Women of the Victorian era|Brontë, Emily]] [[Category:Women poets|Brontë, Emily]] [[Category:Women writers|Brontë, Emily]] [[cy:Emily Brontë]] [[da:Emily Brontë]] [[de:Emily Brontë]] [[es:Emily Brontë]] [[eo:Emily BRONTË]] [[fr:Emily Brontë]] [[ko:에밀리 브론테]] [[hr:Emily Brontë]] [[it:Emily Brontë]] [[he:אמילי ברונטה]] [[nl:Emily Brontë]] [[ja:エミリー・ブロンテ]] [[no:Emily Brontë]] [[pl:Emily Brontë]] [[pt:Emily Brontë]] [[simple:Emily Bronte]] [[fi:Emily Brontë]] [[sv:Emily Brontë]] [[zh:艾米莉·勃朗特]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Exchange particle</title> <id>9811</id> <revision> <id>15907677</id> <timestamp>2004-02-21T01:26:23Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Herbee</username> <id>42818</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Merge with force carrier</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Force carrier]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Extinction event</title> <id>9813</id> <revision> <id>41918770</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T16:46:34Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Vsmith</username> <id>84417</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/169.199.30.254|169.199.30.254]] ([[User talk:169.199.30.254|talk]]) to last version by Emre D.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">An '''extinction event''' (also '''extinction-level event''', '''ELE''') occurs when a large number of [[species]] [[extinction|die out]] in a relatively short period of time. Based on the [[fossil record]], the background rate of extinctions on [[Earth]] is about two to five [[taxonomy|taxonomic]] [[family (biology)|families]] of marine [[invertebrate]]s and [[vertebrate]]s every million years. [[Image:Extinction Intensity.png|thumb|right|325px|Apparent extinction intensity, i.e. the fraction of [[genus|genera]] going extinct at any given time, as reconstructed from the [[fossil record]]]] Since [[life]] began on Earth, a number of major mass extinctions have greatly exceeded the background extinction rate present at other times. Though there were undoubtedly mass extinctions in the [[Archean]] and [[Proterozoic]], it is only during the [[Phanerozoic]] [[Eon (geology)|Eon]] that the biological invention of bones and shells has provided a sufficient fossil record from which to make a systematic study of extinction patterns. The number of major mass extinctions attributed to this most recent 540 million years varies from source to source, with some authorities arguing for as few as 5 or more than 20. These differences stem primarily from the threshold chosen for describing an extinction event as &quot;major,&quot; and what set of data one chooses to believe is the best measure of past diversity. ==Extinction events== &lt;div class=&quot;floatright&quot;&gt; &lt;timeline&gt; ImageSize = width:120 height:600 PlotArea = left:35 right:5 bottom:5 top:25 AlignBars = early Period = from:0 till:525 TimeAxis = orientation:vertical ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:100 start:0 ScaleMinor = unit:year increment:10 start:0 PlotData= align:left textcolor:black fontsize:8 mark:(line,white) width:25 shift:(0,-5) text:&quot;millions of~years ago&quot; from:525 till:525 shift:(-45,15) #&gt; comment: must have at least one (from, till) to keep the marks to the right... weird &lt;# align:left textcolor:black fontsize:8 mark:(line,black) width:25 shift:(0,-5) text:&quot;Cambrian-~Ordovician&quot; at:488 shift:(-9,1) text:&quot;Ordovician-~Silurian&quot; at:444 shift:(-9,1) text:&quot;Devonian-~Carboniferous&quot; at:360 shift:(-9,1) text:&quot;Permian-~Triassic&quot; at:251 shift:(-9,1) text:&quot;Triassic-~Jurassic&quot; at:200 shift:(-9,1) text:&quot;Cretaceous-~Tertiary&quot; at:65 shift:(-9,1) text:&quot;Holocene&quot; at:0 shift:(-9,2) &lt;/timeline&gt; &lt;/div&gt; The classical &quot;Big Five&quot; mass extinctions identified by Raup and Sepkoski (1982) are widely agreed upon as some of the most significant: [[Ordovician-Silurian extinction events|End Ordovician]], [[Late Devonian extinction|Late Devonian]], [[Permian-Triassic extinction event|End Permian]], [[Triassic-Jurassic extinction event|End Triassic]], and [[Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event|End Cretaceous]]. These and a selection of other extinction events are highlighted below: # 488 million years ago &amp;mdash; a series of mass extinctions at the [[Cambrian]]-[[Ordovician]] transition (the [[Cambrian-Ordovician extinction events]]) eliminated many [[brachiopod]]s and [[conodont]]s and severely reduced the number of [[trilobite]] species. # 444 million years ago &amp;mdash; at the [[Ordovician]]-[[Silurian]] transition two [[Ordovician-Silurian extinction events]] occurred, probably as the resu
r, pieces of it damaging his own aircraft, and it crash-landed in the water. Ugaki survived the crash as did two others and all were later rescued. Barber, Holmes and Hine were attacked by Zeroes, Barber's P-38 receiving 140 hits, and Holmes and Barber each claimed a Zero shot down during this meleé. The top cover briefly engaged reacting zeroes without making any kills and Major Mitchell observed the column of smoke from Yamamoto's crashed bomber. The P-38s broke off contact and returned to base, with Lt. Holmes so short of fuel that he was forced to land in the [[Russell Islands]]. Hine's Lightning was the only one missing and was never found. As he approached Henderson Field, Lanphier radioed the Guadalcanal fighter director that &quot;I got Yamamoto&quot;, breaching security on the mission. Immediately on landing (his plane was so short on fuel that one engine quit during landing rollout) he again put in a claim for shooting down the bomber, relating that when he turned to engage the escort Zeroes he shot the wing off one, flipped upside down as he circled back towards the bombers, and saw the lead bomber turning a circle below him. He stated he came out of his turn at a right angle to the circling bomber and fired, blowing off its right wing. He stated that he witnessed Barber shoot down another bomber which also crashed in the jungle. Holmes put in a claim for the Betty that crashed into the water, so it was assumed that three bombers had been downed. The fifteen surviving pilots were not &quot;debriefed&quot; after the mission because this formal interrogation did not exist in the procedures on Guadalcanal at that time, and thus it was never formally established that no one else witnessed Lanphier's claim. Lanphier initially received credit for the kill of Yamamoto's bomber but the other pilots on the mission were immediately skeptical. Although one of the most expertly-executed missions in history, the interception was subsequently marred by controversy over who actually shot down Yamamoto, and by Navy outrage over unauthorized releases of operational details to the press, including an October 1943 issue of ''[[Time Magazine]]'' which featured articles on both the shootdown and Lanphier by name. Mitchell had been nominated for the [[Medal of Honor]] for the mission, but as a result of the security issues this was downgraded to the [[Navy Cross]], which he and all the pilots of the killer flight were subsequently awarded. After the war it was found that none of the escorting Japanese fighters were even damaged, much less shot down, and Lanphier was stripped of his claim for a Zero shot down. Since other Zero fighters were taking off from nearby Kahili airfield, both Barber and Holmes were allowed their claims during the second combat. Also records confirmed that only two bombers had been shot down, not three, and subsequently the Air Force officially awarded &quot;half kills&quot; to Lanphier and Barber for the Yamamoto shootdown. A video-taped interview in 1985 with one of the escorting Zero pilots, Kenji Yanagiya, appeared to corroborate Barber's claim, but the Air Force declined to reopen the issue. The crash site and body of Admiral Yamamoto were found the next day in the jungle north of Buin by a Japanese search and rescue party, led by Army engineer Lieutenant Hamasuna. According to Hamasuna, Yamamoto had been thrown clear of the plane's wreckage, his white-gloved hand grasping the hilt of his [[samurai]] [[sword]], still upright in his seat under a tree. Hamasuna said Yamamoto was instantly recognizable, head dipped down as deep in thought. A [[post-mortem]] of the body disclosed that Yamamoto received two wounds, one to the back of his left shoulder and one to his left lower jaw that exited above his right eye. Whether or not the admiral initially survived the crash has also been a matter of controversy in Japan. In Japan this became known as the &quot;Navy ''kō'' incident&quot;(海軍甲事件). It raised morale in the States, and shocked the Japanese who were officially told about the incident only on [[21 May]] [[1943]]. To cover up the fact that the Allies were reading Japanese code, American news agencies were told the cover story originally created for briefing the 339th, that civilian coast-watchers in the Solomons saw Yamamoto boarding a bomber in the area. Captain Watanabe and his staff cremated Yamamoto's remains at Buin, and the ashes were returned to Tokyo aboard the battleship [[Japanese battleship Musashi|''Musashi'']], Yamamoto's last flagship. Yamamoto was given a full state funeral on [[3 June]] [[1943]], where he received, posthumously, the title of Fleet Admiral and awarded the [[Order of the Chrysanthemum]], First Class. He was also the only foreigner awarded [[Nazi Germany]]'s highest military order. Part of his ashes were buried in the public cemetery in Tama in Tokyo(多摩霊園), and the remainder at his ancestral burial grounds at the Chuko-Ji Temple in Nagaoka City. ==References== *Dull, Paul S. (1978). ''A Battle History of the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1941-1945'', Naval Institute Press. (ISBN 0870210971) *Evans, David C. and Mark R. Peattie (1997). ''Kaigun : Strategy, Tactics, and Technology in the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1887-1941'', Naval Institute Press. (ISBN 0870211927) *Lundstrom, John B. (1984). ''The First Team: Pacific Naval Air Combat from Pearl Harbor to Midway,'' Naval Institute Press. (ISBN 0870211897) *Miller, Edward S. (1991). ''War Plan Orange: The U.S. Strategy to Defeat Japan, 1897-1945'', Naval Institute Press. (ISBN: 0870217593) *Peattie, Mark R. (2002). ''Sunburst: The Rise of Japanese Naval Air Power, 1909-1941'', Naval Institute Press. (ISBN 1557504326) * Prados, John (2001). ''Combined Fleet Decoded: The Secret History of American Intelligence and the Japanese Navy in World War II'', Naval Institute Press, 1st Naval edition. (ISBN 1557504318) ==External links== *[http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/2WWyamamoto.htm Yamamoto biography] From Spartacus Educational *[http://www.ww2db.com/person_bio.php?person_id=1 World War II Database: Isoroku Yamamoto biography] *[http://www.ww2db.com/battle_spec.php?battle_id=51 World War II Database: Death of Yamamoto] *[http://www.history.navy.mil/photos/prs-for/japan/japrs-xz/i-yamto.htm Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, Japanese Navy] US Naval Historical Center *[http://www.pacificwrecks.com/aircraft/g4m/2656.html Pacific Wrecks. Place where Yamamoto Type 1 bomber crash] ==Further reading== * Agawa, Hiroyuki; Bester, John (trans.), ''The Reluctant Admiral'', Kodansha, 1979. (ISBN 4770025394) A definitive biography of Yamamoto in English. This book explains much of the political structure and events within Japan that lead to the war. * Hoyt, Edwin P. ''Yamamoto: The Man Who Planned Pearl Harbor'', McGraw-Hill, 1990. (ISBN 158574428X) * ''Fading Victory: The Diary of Admiral Matome Ugaki, 1941-45'', University of Pittsburgh Press, 1991. (ISBN 0822954621) Provides a high-level view of the war from the Japanese side, from the diaries of Yamamoto's Chief of Staff, Admiral [[Matome Ugaki]]. Provides evidence of the intentions of the imperial military establishment to seize Hawaii and to operate against the British navy in the Indian Ocean. Translated by [[Masataka Chihaya]], this edition contains extensive clarifying notes from the U.S. editors derived from U.S. military histories. * Glines, Carroll V. ''Attack on Yamamoto'', Crown (1st edition), 1990. (ISBN 0517577283). Glines documents both the mission to shoot down Yamamoto and the subsequent controversies with thorough research, including personal interviews with all surviving participants and researchers who examined the crash site. [[Category:1884 births|Yamamoto Isoroku]] [[Category:1943 deaths|Yamamoto Isoroku]] [[Category:Imperial Japanese Navy admirals|Yamamoto Isoroku]] [[Category:Japanese military leaders|Yamamoto Isoroku]] [[Category:Japanese World War II people|Yamamoto Isoroku]] [[Category:Attack on Pearl Harbor|Y]] [[Category:People from Niigata Prefecture]] [[Category:Battle of Midway]] [[Category:Harvard alumni|Yamamoto, Isoroku]] [[cs:Isoroku Jamamoto]] [[de:Yamamoto Isoroku]] [[es:Isoroku Yamamoto]] [[fr:Isoroku Yamamoto]] [[ms:Isoroku Yamamoto]] [[nl:Isoroku Yamamoto]] [[ja:山本五十六]] [[ko:야마모토 이소로쿠]] [[pl:Isoroku Yamamoto]] [[pt:Isoroku Yamamoto]] [[sv:Isoroku Yamamoto]] [[zh:山本五十六]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Inversion (music)</title> <id>15409</id> <revision> <id>38313861</id> <timestamp>2006-02-05T14:39:44Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Szorko</username> <id>197114</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">:''For non-musical meanings of inversion, see [[inversion]].'' In [[music theory]], the word '''''inversion''''' has several meanings. There are inverted ''chords'', inverted ''melodies'', inverted ''intervals'', and (in [[counterpoint]]) inverted ''voices''. The concept of inversion also plays a role in [[musical set theory]]. ==Inverted chords== An inverted [[chord (music)|chord]] is a chord which has a note other than its [[Root (chord)|root note]] as the [[bass note]]. Since [[Rameau]] (1722), chords remain equivalent when inverted, being functions rather than sonorities. However, before Rameau factors including the ''regola delle terze e seste'', &quot;rule of sixths and thirds&quot;, which required the resolution of imperfect consonances to perfect ones, precluded the analysis of &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; sonorites as inversions of &lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; sonorities. For example, the ''[[root position]]'' of a triad of C major has the C in the bass: [[Image:c_triad.png]] A triad in root position, therefore, consists of the root note and a third and a fifth above it. Triads in root position are also in [[normal form]]. The ''[[first inversion]]'' of the same triad has the E
eographic coordinates:''' {{coor d|7|N|21|E|}} '''Map references:''' Africa '''Area:''' &lt;br&gt;''total:'' 622,984 km&amp;sup2; &lt;br&gt;''land:'' 622,984 km&amp;sup2; &lt;br&gt;''water:'' 0 km&amp;sup2; '''Area - comparative:''' slightly smaller than [[Texas]] '''Land boundaries:''' &lt;br&gt;''total:'' 5,203 km &lt;br&gt;''border countries:'' [[Cameroon]] 797 km, [[Chad]] 1,197 km, Democratic Republic of the Congo 1,577 km, [[Republic of the Congo]] 467 km, [[Sudan]] 1,165 km '''Coastline:''' 0 km (landlocked) '''Maritime claims:''' none (landlocked) '''Climate:''' tropical; hot, dry winters; mild to hot, wet summers '''Terrain:''' vast, flat to rolling, monotonous plateau; scattered hills in northeast and southwest '''Elevation extremes:''' &lt;br&gt;''lowest point:'' [[Oubangui River]] 335 m &lt;br&gt;''highest point:'' [[Mont Ngaoui]] 1,420 m '''Natural resources:''' [[diamond]]s, [[uranium]], [[timber]], [[gold]], [[petroleum]], [[hydropower]] '''Land use:''' &lt;br&gt;''arable land:'' 3% &lt;br&gt;''permanent crops:'' 0% &lt;br&gt;''permanent pastures:'' 5% &lt;br&gt;''forests and woodland:'' 75% &lt;br&gt;''other:'' 17% (1993 est.) '''Irrigated land:''' NA km&amp;sup2; '''Natural hazards:''' hot, dry, dusty harmattan winds affect northern areas; floods are common '''Environment - current issues:''' tap water is not potable; poaching has diminished its reputation as one of the last great wildlife refuges; desertification; deforestation '''Environment - international agreements:''' &lt;br&gt;''party to:'' [[Biodiversity]], [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|Climate Change]], [[Desertification]], [[Endangered Species]], [[Nuclear Test Ban]], [[Ozone Layer Protection]], [[Tropical Timber 94]] &lt;br&gt;''signed, but not ratified:'' [[Law of the Sea]] '''Geography - note:''' [[landlocked]]; almost the precise center of Africa ==See also== *[[Central African Republic]] {{Africa in topic|Geography of}} [[Category:Geography of the Central African Republic| ]] [[Category:Geography by country|Central African Republic]] [[pt:Geografia da República Centro-Africana]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Demographics of the Central African Republic</title> <id>5481</id> <revision> <id>35162648</id> <timestamp>2006-01-14T17:13:59Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>KnightRider</username> <id>430793</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>warnfile Adding: es</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Central African Republic-demography.png|thumb|300px|right|Demographics of Central African Republic, Data of [[FAO]], year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands.]] There are more than 80 ethnic groups in the [[Central African Republic]] (CAR), each with its own language. About 50% are [[Baya-Mandjia]] and [[Banda (CAR)|Banda]]--40% (largely located in the northern and central parts of the country), and 7% are [[M'Baka]] (southwestern corner of the CAR). [[Sangho]], the language of a small group along the [[Oubangui]] River, is the national language spoken by the majority of Central Africans. Only a small part of the population has more than an elemental knowledge of French, the official language. More than 55% of the population of the CAR lives in rural areas. The chief agricultural areas are around the [[Bossangoa]] and [[Bambari]]. [[Bangui]], [[Berberati]], [[Bangassou]], and [[Bossangoa]] are the most densely populated urban centers. ==Demographic data from the CIA World Factbook== ===Population=== :3,799,897 :''Note'': estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2005 est.) ===Age structure=== :0-14 years: 42.5% (male 813,596/female 802,728) :15-64 years: 54% (male 1,010,696/female 1,041,903) :65 years and over: 3.4% (male 54,345/female 76,629) (2005 est.) ===Median age=== :Total: 18.12 years :Male: 17.75 years :Female: 18.5 years (2005 est.) ===Population growth rate=== :1.49% (2005 est.) ===Birth rate=== :35.17 births/1,000 population (2005 est.) ===Death rate=== :20.27 deaths/1,000 population (2005 est.) ===Net migration rate=== :0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2005 est.) ===Sex ratio=== :At birth: 1.03 male(s)/female :Under 15 years: 1.01 male(s)/female :15-64 years: 0.97 male(s)/female :65 years and over: 0.71 male(s)/female :Total population: 0.98 male(s)/female (2005 est.) ===Infant mortality rate=== :Total: 91 deaths/1,000 live births :Male: 97.84 deaths/1,000 live births :Female: 83.96 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 est.) ===Life expectancy at birth=== :Total population: 41.01 years :Male: 39.21 years :Female: 42.86 years (2005 est.) ===Total fertility rate=== :4.5 children born/woman (2005 est.) ===HIV/AIDS=== :Adult prevalence rate: 13.5% (2003 est.) :People living with HIV/AIDS: 260,000 (2003 est.) :Deaths: 23,000 (2003 est.) ===Major infectious diseases=== :Degree of risk: very high :Food or waterborne diseases: bacterial diarrhea, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever :Vectorborne disease: malaria :Respiratory disease: meningococcal meningitis (2004) ===Nationality=== :Noun: Central African(s) :Adjective: Central African ===Ethnic groups=== :Baya 33%, Banda 27%, Mandjia 13%, [[Sara people|Sara]] 10%, Mboum 7%, M'Baka 4%, Yakoma 4%, other 2% ===Religions=== :Indigenous beliefs 35%, Protestant 25%, Roman Catholic 25%, Muslim 15% :''Note'': animistic beliefs and practices strongly influence the Christian majority ===Languages=== :French (official), Sangho (lingua franca and national language), tribal languages ===Literacy=== :Definition: age 15 and over can read and write :Total population: 51% :Male: 63.3% :Female: 39.9% (2003 est.) ==References== {{CIA WFB 2005}} {{Africa in topic|Demographics of}} [[Category:Central African Republic]] [[Category:Demographics by country|Central African Republic]] [[es:Demografía de la República Centroafricana]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Politics of the Central African Republic</title> <id>5482</id> <revision> <id>39374350</id> <timestamp>2006-02-12T19:19:27Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>83.121.2.141</ip> </contributor> <comment>disambiguation from [[FAO]] to [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] by the [[User:DabMachine|DabMachine]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Central African Republic}} '''Politics of the Central African Republic''' takes place in a framework of a [[presidential system|presidential]] [[republic]], whereby the [[Heads of state of the Central African Republic (and Central African Empire)|President]] is both [[head of state]] and [[head of government]] (with an executive [[Heads of government of the Central African Republic (and Central African Empire)|Prime Minister]]. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. [[Legislative power]] is vested in both the [[government]] and parliament. The official government was deposed in [[March 15]], [[2003]] by forces under the rebel leader [[François Bozizé]], who promised elections in 18 to 30 months. A new cabinet was set up in [[April 1]], [[2003]]. Elections were held on [[March 13]], [[2005]]. ==Executive branch== {{office-table}} |[[Heads of state of the Central African Republic (and Central African Empire)|President]] |[[François Bozizé]] | |[[15 March]] [[2003]] |- |[[Heads of government of the Central African Republic (and Central African Empire)|Prime Minister]] |[[Élie Doté]] | |[[13 June]] [[2005]] |} The president is elected by popular vote for a six-year term, the prime minister is appointed by the president. ==Legislative branch== The ''' [[National Assembly of the Central African Republic|National Assembly]] ''' (''Assemblée Nationale'') has 105 members, elected for a five-year term using the two-round (or [[Runoff voting|Run-off]]) system. ==Political parties and elections== {{elect|List of political parties in the Central African Republic|Elections in the Central African Republic}} {{main|Central African Republic elections, 2005}} {{Central African Republic presidential election, 2005}} {{Central_African_Republic_parliamentary_election,_2005}} ==Judicial branch== Supreme Court or Cour Supreme, judges appointed by the president; Constitutional Court, judges appointed by the president ==Administrative divisions== The Central African Republic is divided in 14 prefectures (prefectures, singular - prefecture), 2 economic prefectures* (prefectures economiques, singular - prefecture economique), and 1 commune**; Bamingui-Bangoran, Bangui**, Basse-Kotto, Gribingui*, Haute-Kotto, Haute-Sangha, Haut-Mbomou, [[Kemo-Gribingui]], Lobaye, Mbomou, Nana-Mambere, Ombella-Mpoko, Ouaka, Ouham, Ouham-Pende, Sangha*, Vakaga. ==International organization participation== [[ACCT]], [[ACP]], [[AfDB]], [[BDEAC]], [[CCC]], [[CEEAC]], [[ECA]], [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], [[FZ]], [[G-77]], [[IBRD]], [[ICAO]], [[International Criminal Court|ICC]], [[ICFTU]], [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement|ICRM]], [[IDA]], [[IFAD]], [[IFC]], [[IFRCS]], [[International Labour Organization|ILO]], [[International Monetary Fund|IMF]], [[Intelsat]], [[Interpol]], [[IOC]], [[ITU]], [[NAM]], [[OAU]], [[OIC]] (observer), [[OPCW]], [[UDEAC]], [[United Nations|UN]], [[UNCTAD]], [[UNESCO]], [[UNIDO]], [[UPU]], [[WCL]], [[WHO]], [[WIPO]], [[WMO]], [[WToO]], [[WTrO]] {{Africa in topic|Politics of}} [[Category:Central African Republic]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Economy of the Central African Republic</title> <id>5483</id> <revision> <id>38981964</id> <timestamp>2006-02-09T22:51:18Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Briaboru</usern
ot;the mental capacity needed to understand the wrongfulness of [an] act, or to conform...behavior to the...law.&quot; This is related to the M'Naghten Rule and the idea of 'irresistible impulse'. ===The Brawner rule=== The Brawner Rule ([[1972]]) argues that insanity should be decided by a [[jury]]. Under this proposal, juries are allowed to decide the &quot;insanity question&quot; as they see fit. ===Temporary insanity=== The notion of '''temporary insanity''' argues that a defendant was insane, but is now sane. A defendant found to have been temporarily insane will often be released without any requirements of psychiatric treatment. This defense was first used by [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. Congressman]] [[Daniel Sickles]] of [[New York]] in [[1859]] after he had killed his wife's lover, [[Philip Barton Key (1818-1859)|Philip Barton Key]], but was most used during the [[1940s]] and [[1950s]]. Since then, it has not been as successful. ==Scottish law== The Scottish Law Commission in its Discussion Paper No 122 on Insanity and Diminished Responsibility (2003) [http://www.scotlawcom.gov.uk/downloads/dp122_insanity.pdf] pp.16/18 confirms that the law has not substantially changed from the position stated in Hume's Commentaries: :We may next attend to the case of those unfortunate persons, who have plead the miserable defence of idiocy or insanity. Which condition, if it is not an assumed or imperfect, but a genuine and thorough insanity, and is proved by the testimony of intelligent witnesses, makes the act like that of an infant, and equally bestows the privilege of an entire exemption from any manner of pain; ''Cum alterum innocentia concilii tuetur, alterum fati infelicitas excusat''. I say, where the insanity is absolute, and is duly proved: For if reason and humanity enforce the plea in these circumstances, it is no less necessary to observe a caution and reserve in applying the law, as shall hinder it from being understood, that there is any privilege in a case of mere weakness of intellect, or a strange and moody humour, or a crazy and capricious or irritable temper. In none of these situations does or can the law excuse the offender. Because such constitutions are not exclusive of a competent understanding of the true state of the circumstances in which the deed is done, nor of the subsistence of some steady and evil passion, grounded in those circumstances, and directed to a certain object. To serve the purpose of a defence in law, the disorder must therefore amount to an absolute alienation of reason, ''ut continua mentis alienatione, omni intellectu careat'' - such a disease as deprives the patient of the knowledge of the true aspect and position of things about him - hinders him from distinguishing friend from foe - and gives him up to the impulse of his own distempered fancy. The phrase &quot;absolute alienation of reason&quot; is still regarded as at the core of the defence in the modern law (see ''HM Advocate v Kidd'' 1960 JC 61 and ''Brennan v HM Advocate'' (1977) JC 38). == External links == * [http://www.uchastings.edu/plri/spring95/tmpinsan.html The Temporary Insanity Defense in California] * [http://samvak.tripod.com/insanitydefense.html Cultural and medical considerations in the concept of insanity defense] * [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/local/longterm/aron/qa227.htm The Insanity Defense: A Closer Look] ==References== *Bienstock, ''Mothers Who Kill Their Children and Postpartum Psychosis'', (2003) Vol. 32, No. 3 Southwestern University Law Review, 451. *Dressler, Joshua, ''Reaffirming the Moral Legitimacy of the Doctrine of Diminished Capacity: A Brief Reply to Professor Morse'', (1984) Vol. 75 Journal of Criminal Law &amp; Criminology, 953. *Keram, ''The Insanity Defense and Game Theory: Reflections on Texas v.Yates'', (2002) Vol. 30, No. 4 Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law, 470. *Schopp, Robert F. (1991) ''Automatism, Insanity, and the Psychology of Criminal Responsibility'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 052140150X. *Schopp, Robert F. (2001) ''Competence, Condemnation, and Commitment: An Integrated Theory of Mental Health Law'', American Psychological Assn., ISBN 1557987459. *Slobogin, ''An End to Insanity: Recasting the Role of Mental Disability in Criminal Cases'', (2000) Vol. 86 Virginia Law Review, 1199. [[Category:Criminal defenses]] [[Category:Mental health law]] [[Category:Ethics]] [[Category:Pleas]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Irish Gaelic</title> <id>15359</id> <revision> <id>15912835</id> <timestamp>2003-01-07T07:09:57Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Maveric149</username> <id>62</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Irish language]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ice age</title> <id>15361</id> <revision> <id>42124516</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:58:16Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>The tooth</username> <id>652482</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>RV</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}} [[Image:Vostok-ice-core-petit.png|thumb|300px|Variations in CO2, temperature and dust from the [[Vostok, Antarctica|Vostok]] ice core over the last 400 000 years]] An '''ice age''' is a period of long-term downturn in the [[temperature]] of [[Earth]]'s [[climate]], resulting in an expansion of the continental [[ice sheet]]s, polar ice sheets and mountain [[glacier]]s (&quot;[[glaciation]]&quot;). [[Glaciology|Glaciologically]], ''ice age'' is often used to mean a period of ice sheets in the northern and southern hemispheres; by this definition we are still in an ice age (because the [[Greenland]] and [[Antarctic]] ice sheets still exist). More colloquially, when speaking of the last few million years, ''ice age'' is used to refer to colder periods with extensive ice sheets over the [[North America]]n and [[Europe]]an continents: in this sense, the last ice age ended about 10,000 years ago. This article will use the term ''ice age'' in the former, glaciological, sense; and use the term 'glacial periods' for colder periods during ice ages and 'interglacial' for the warmer periods. During the last few million years, there have been many glacial periods, occurring initially at 40,000-year frequency but more recently at 100,000-year frequencies. These are the best studied. There have been four major ice ages in the further past. == Origin of ice age theory == The idea that, in the past, glaciers had been far more extensive was folk knowledge in some alpine regions of Europe (Imbrie and Imbrie, p25, quote a woodcutter telling [[Jean de Charpentier]] of the former extent of the [[Switzerland|Swiss]] Grimsel glacier). No single person invented the idea [http://academic.emporia.edu/aberjame/histgeol/agassiz/glacial.htm]. Between 1825 and 1833, Charpentier assembled evidence in support of this idea. In 1836 Charpentier convinced [[Jean Louis Rodolphe Agassiz|Louis Agassiz]] of the theory, and Agassiz published it in his book ''Étude sur les glaciers'' of [[1840]]. At this early stage of knowledge, what were being studied were the glacial periods within the past few hundred thousand years, during the current ice age. The far earlier ice ages' very existence was unsuspected. == Major ice ages == There have been at least four major ice ages in the Earth's past. The earliest hypothesized ice age is believed to have occurred around 2.7 to 2.3 [[billion]] (10&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;) years ago during the early [[Proterozoic]] Age. :''Main article: [[Snowball Earth]]''. The earliest well-documented ice age, and probably the most severe of the last 1 billion years, occurred from 800 to 600 million years ago (the [[Cryogenian]] period) and it has been suggested that it produced a [[Snowball Earth]] in which permanent sea ice extended to or very near the equator. It has been suggested that the end of this ice age was responsible for the subsequent [[Cambrian Explosion]], though this theory is recent and controversial. A minor ice age occurred from 460 to 430 million years ago, during the [[Late Ordovician]] Period. There were extensive polar [[ice cap]]s at intervals from 350 to 260 million years ago, during the [[Carboniferous]] and [[Permian|early Permian]] Periods, associated with the [[Karoo Ice Age]]. [[Image:Five_Myr_Climate_Change.png|thumb|400px|right|Sediment records showing the fluctuating sequences of glacials and interglacials during the last several million years.]] The present ice age began 40 million years ago with the growth of an ice sheet in Antarctica, but intensified during the [[Pleistocene]] (starting around 3 million years ago) with the spread of ice sheets in the Northern Hemisphere. Since then, the world has seen cycles of glaciation with ice sheets advancing and retreating on 40,000 and 100,000 year time scales. The last glacial period ended about 10,000 years ago. The timing of ice ages throughout geologic history is in part controlled by the position of the continental plates on the surface of the Earth. When landmasses are concentrated near the polar regions, there is an increased chance for snow and ice to accumulate. Small changes in solar energy can tip the balance between summers in which the winter snow mass completely melts and summers in which the winter snow persists until the following winter. Due to the positions of Greenland, Antarctica, and the northern portions of Europe, Asia, and North America in polar regions, the Earth today is considered prone to ice age glaciations. Evidence for ice ages comes in various forms, including rock scouring and scratching, [[glacial moraines]], [[drumlins]], valley cutting, and the deposition of [[till]] or tillites and [[glacial erratic]]s. Successive glaciations tend to distort and erase the geological evi
/sup&gt;. Concretely, if we interpret '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; as space of columns of ''n'' [[real number]]s, its dual space is typically written as the space of ''rows'' of ''n'' real numbers. Such a row acts on '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; as a linear functional by ordinary [[matrix multiplication]]. If V consists of the space of geometrical [[vector (spatial)|vector]]s (arrows) in the plane, then the elements of the dual V* can be intuitively represented as collections of parallel lines. Such a collection of lines can be applied to a vector to yield a number in the following way: one counts how many of the lines the vector crosses. If V is infinite-dimensional, then the above construction of ''e''&lt;sup&gt;''i''&lt;/sup&gt; does not produce a basis for V* and the dimension of V* is greater than that of V. Consider for instance the space '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;(&amp;omega;)&lt;/sup&gt;, whose elements are those [[sequence]]s of real numbers which have only finitely many non-zero entries (dimension is countably infinite). The dual of this space is '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;omega;&lt;/sup&gt;, the space of all sequences of real numbers (dimension is uncountably infinite). Such a sequence (''a''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;) is applied to an element (''x''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;) of '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;(&amp;omega;)&lt;/sup&gt; to give the number &amp;sum;&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;''a''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;''x''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;. === Bilinear products and dual spaces === As we saw above, if V is finite-dimensional, then V is isomorphic to V*, but the isomorphism is not [[natural transformation|natural]] and depends on the basis of V we started out with. In fact, any isomorphism &amp;Phi; from V to V* defines a unique non-degenerate [[bilinear form]] on V by :&lt;math&gt; \langle v,w \rangle = (\Phi (v))(w) \,&lt;/math&gt; and conversely every such non-degenerate bilinear product on a finite-dimensional space gives rise to an isomorphism from V to V*. === Injection into the double-dual === There is a [[natural transformation|natural]] [[linear map|homomorphism]] &amp;Psi; from V into the double dual V**, defined by (&amp;Psi;(v))(&amp;phi;) = &amp;phi;(v) for all v in V, &amp;phi; in V*. This map &amp;Psi; is always [[injective]]; it is an isomorphism if and only if V is finite-dimensional. === Transpose of a linear map === If &lt;math&gt;f: V \rightarrow W&lt;/math&gt; is a [[linear operator|linear map]], we may define its ''transpose'' (also known as a [[pullback]], denoted ''f''&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;) &lt;math&gt;{}^t f: W^*\rightarrow V^*&lt;/math&gt; by :&lt;div style=&quot;vertical-align: 20%;display:inline;&quot;&gt;&lt;math&gt; {}^t f (\phi ) = \phi \circ f \,&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/div&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; where &lt;math&gt; \phi &lt;/math&gt; is in &lt;math&gt;W*&lt;/math&gt;. The assignment &lt;math&gt;f \mapsto \, ^t f&lt;/math&gt; produces an [[injective]] [[homomorphism]] between the space of linear operators from V to W and the space of linear operators from W* to V*; this homomorphism is an [[isomorphism]] [[iff]] W is finite-dimensional. If the linear map ''f'' is represented by the [[matrix_(mathematics)|matrix]] ''A'' with respect to two bases of V and W, then &lt;sup&gt;t&lt;/sup&gt;''f'' is represented by the [[transpose|transposed matrix]] &lt;sup&gt;t&lt;/sup&gt;''A'' with respect to the dual bases of W* and V*. If ''g'': W &amp;rarr; X is another linear map, we have &lt;math&gt;{}^t(g \circ f) = {}^t f \, \circ \, {}^t g&lt;/math&gt;. In the language of [[category theory]], taking the dual of vector spaces and the transpose of linear maps is therefore a [[contravariant functor]] from the category of vector spaces over F to itself. Also, transposing twice gives the original map, to be more precise : &lt;math&gt;\psi_{W}(f(v))={}^t({}^t f) (\psi_{V}(v))&lt;/math&gt; == Continuous dual space == When dealing with [[topological vector space]]s, one is typically only interested in the [[continuous function (topology)|continuous]] linear functionals from the space into the base field. This gives rise to the notion of the '''continuous dual space''' which is a linear subspace of the algebraic dual space. The continuous dual of a vector space ''V'' is denoted ''V''&amp;prime;. When the context is clear, the continuous dual may just be called the ''dual''. The continuous dual ''V''&amp;prime; of a [[normed vector space]] ''V'' (e.g., a [[Banach space]] or a [[Hilbert space]]) forms a normed vector space. The norm ||&amp;phi;|| of a continuous linear functional on ''V'' is defined by :&lt;math&gt;\|\phi \| = \sup \{ |\phi ( x )| : \|x\| \le 1 \}&lt;/math&gt; This turns the continuous dual into a normed vector space, indeed into a Banach space so long as the underlying field is complete which is often included in the definition of the normed vector space. In other words, the dual of a normed space over a complete field is necessarily complete. For any ''finite-dimensional'' normed vector space or topological vector space, such as [[Euclidean space|Euclidean ''n''-space]], the continuous dual and the algebraic dual coincide. This is however false for any infinite-dimensional normed space, as shown by the example of [[discontinuous linear map]]. === Examples === Let 1 &lt; ''p'' &lt; &amp;infin; be a real number and consider the Banach space [[Lp space|''L&lt;sup&gt;p&lt;/sup&gt;'']] of all [[sequence]]s '''a''' = (''a''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;) for which :&lt;math&gt;\|\mathbf{a}\|_p = \left ( \sum_{n=0}^\infty |a_n|^p \right) ^{1/p}&lt;/math&gt; is finite. Define the number ''q'' by 1/''p'' + 1/''q'' = 1. Then the continuous dual of ''L&lt;sup&gt;p&lt;/sup&gt;'' is naturally identified with ''L&lt;sup&gt;q&lt;/sup&gt;'': given an element &amp;phi; &amp;isin; (''L&lt;sup&gt;p&lt;/sup&gt;'')', the corresponding element of ''L&lt;sup&gt;q&lt;/sup&gt;'' is the sequence (&amp;phi;('''e'''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;)) where '''e'''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; denotes the sequence whose ''n''th term is 1 and all others are zero. Conversely, given an element '''a''' = (''a''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;) &amp;isin; ''L&lt;sup&gt;q&lt;/sup&gt;'', the corresponding continuous linear functional &amp;phi; on ''L&lt;sup&gt;p&lt;/sup&gt;'' is defined by &amp;phi;('''b''') = &amp;sum;&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; ''a''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; ''b''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; for all '''b''' = (''b''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;) &amp;isin; ''L&lt;sup&gt;p&lt;/sup&gt;'' (see [[Hölder's inequality]]). In a similar manner, the continuous dual of ''L&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;'' is naturally identified with ''L&lt;sup&gt;&amp;infin;&lt;/sup&gt;''. Furthermore, the continuous duals of the Banach spaces ''c'' (consisting of all [[limit (mathematics)|convergent]] sequences, with the supremums norm) and ''c''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; (the sequences converging to zero) are both naturally identified with ''L&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;''. === Further properties === If ''V'' is a [[Hilbert space]], then its continuous dual is a Hilbert space which is anti-isomorphic to ''V''. This is the content of the [[Riesz representation theorem]], and gives rise to the [[bra-ket notation]] used by physicists in the mathematical formulation of [[quantum mechanics]]. In analogy with the case of the algebraic double dual, there is always a naturally defined injective continuous linear operator &amp;Psi; : ''V'' &amp;rarr; ''V''&amp;nbsp;&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; from ''V'' into its continuous double dual ''V''&amp;nbsp;&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;. This map is in fact an [[isometry]], meaning ||&amp;Psi;(''x'')|| = ||''x''|| for all ''x'' in ''V''. Spaces for which the map &amp;Psi; is a [[bijection]] are called [[reflexive space|reflexive]]. The continuous dual can be used to define a new topology on ''V'', called the [[weak topology]]. If the dual of ''V'' is [[separable space|separable]], then so is the space ''V'' itself. The converse is not true; the space ''l''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; is separable, but its dual is ''l''&lt;sub&gt;&amp;infin;&lt;/sub&gt;, which is not separable. [[Category:Linear algebra]] [[Category:Functional analysis]] [[Category:Duality theories]] [[de:Dualraum]] [[es:Espacio dual]] [[fr:Espace dual]] [[it:Spazio duale]] [[ja:双対ベクトル空間]] [[zh:对偶空间]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Dianetics</title> <id>7989</id> <revision> <id>42094169</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:07:34Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Antaeus Feldspar</username> <id>86720</id> </contributor> <comment>Calling this &quot;the single purpose&quot; makes it sound like it is the end goal, not a means to an end such as higher IQ, etc., and this is clearly not the case</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{ScientologySeries}} {{otheruses4|the set of ideas and practices known as Dianetics|the book by L. Ron Hubbard first published in 1950|Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health}} '''Dianetics''' is a set of ideas about the nature and structure of the human mind, and a set of associated practices which attempt to treat physical and mental ailments. It was developed primarily by author [[L. Ron Hubbard]] starting in the late 1940s and was first presented to the general public in his 1950 book ''[[Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health]]''. Hubbard characterized Dianetics as a revolutionary and scientifically developed alternative to conventional [[psychotherapy]] and [[psychiatry]]. He claimed that it could alleviate unwanted emotions, irrational fears and a wide range of illnesses that he regarded as being [[Psychosomatic illness|psychosomatic]]. Since 1952 the subject has centered around the idea of an individual creating his mind, and thus being able to resolve any conditions of his mind. Dianetics became the foundation for the religion Hubbard subsequently founded, [[Scientol
* Kaspar Hauser Monument * St. Gumbertus and St. Johannis churches, both 15th century == References == * {{1911}} == External links == *[http://www.ansbach.de Official Website] (German, English, French) *[http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/facility/ansbach.htm Ansbach information] *[http://www.ansbach.army.mil 235th Base Support Battalion - Ansbach Military Community] {{Germany_districts_bavaria}} [[Category:Towns in Bavaria]] [[de:Ansbach]] [[es:Ansbach]] [[gl:Ansbach]] [[nl:Ansbach]] [[no:Ansbach]] [[pl:Ansbach]] [[sv:Ansbach]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>National Alliance (Italy)</title> <id>3237</id> <revision> <id>41374737</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T22:48:02Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>82.156.71.144</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Italy_Political_Party | party_name = National Alliance | party_name_italian = Alleanza Nazionale | party_logo = [[Image:Alleanza Nazionale.png|center|150px]] | party_status = Italian National Party | leader = [[Gianfranco Fini]] | coalition = [[House of Freedoms]] | newspaper = [http://www.alleanzanazionale.it/secolo/ Il Secolo d'Italia]| ideology = [[Conservatism]] | website = [http://www.alleanzanazionale.it http://www.alleanzanazionale.it] }} '''National Alliance''' ([[Italian language|Italian]]: ''Alleanza Nazionale'', often shortened to ''AN'') is a right-wing [[Italy|Italian]] political party. It was formed by current secretary [[Gianfranco Fini]] from the [[Italian Social Movement]] (''MSI''), which was declared dissolved in January [[1995]], and conservative elements of the former [[Christian Democracy (Italy)|Christian Democracy]], which had disbanded in [[1994]] after two years of scandals and various splits due to [[Political corruption|corruption]] at its hightest levels, exposed by the [[Mani Pulite]] investigation. Former MSI members were however still the bulk of the new party. The [[logo]] follows a template very similar to the [[Democratic Party of the Left]], with the previous logo in a small circle (as a means of legally preventing others from using it). The name was suggested by an article on the Italian newspaper ''Il Tempo'' written in 1992 by [[Domenico Fisichella]], and echoes the name of the left-wing [[Democratic Alliance (Italy)|Democratic Alliance]], a contemporary short-lived project of a lay centre-left coalition whose founder was [[Ferdinando Adornato]]. Its electorate is mainly in the central-southern regions, but it also competes in the north-east with the [[Lega Nord]], its ally in the ruling right center coalition [[Casa delle Libertà]]. The relationship of AN with the Northern League can be tense at times, especially about issues of national unity, but the two parties share views on other issues such as [[immigration]]; AN's view is normally more moderate than Lega Nord's. ==Political program== AN's political program emphasizes: * [[Catholicism]], close to the official [[Church]] position, also due to the participation of the former members of the Christian Democracy; * [[law and order (politics)|law and order]], especially laws aimed at controlling [[immigration]] and promoting national cohesion, also due to the partitipation of the members of the former MSI. Distinguishing itself from the MSI, AN has used the expression &quot;post-Fascist&quot; to characterise itself, and proclaims its commitment to [[constitutionalism]], [[democracy]] and [[political pluralism]]. However, while the uncontested leader Gianfranco Fini has been steering mostly clear of strong association to the fascist pasts, many high-ranking members (often dubbed ''colonels''), such as [[Ignazio La Russa]], have been caught in statements defending the combatants of the [[Repubblica Sociale Italiana]], the German [[puppet state]] in northern Italy during [[World War II]]. Some proposals have been laid out by members of AN to make the status of RSI [[veteran]]s equal to that of [[Italian resistance movement|partisan]]s, thus equating freedom fighters and Mussolini-loyalist fascist soldiers. Alleanza Nazionale has distanced itself from [[Benito Mussolini]] and [[Fascism|fascism]] and made efforts to improve relations with [[Jew]]ish groups. With most hardliners leaving the party, it seeks to present itself as a respectable [[rightwing]] party. Nearly two-thirds of the party's supporters approve of the [[capitalist]] system and hold favourable views on the [[privatisation]] of [[state industries]]. ==History== In January 1995, as officially Gianfranco Fini proclaimed MSI's dissolution, and the foundation of the AN, he announced the abandonment MSI's ideological stances, symbols, gestures and salutes that had closely identified it with the Mussolinian past. Despite Fini's success in distancing the party's image from the former MSI, including the suppression of anti-Jewish comments in public and the party organ &quot;Il Secolo d'Italia&quot;, there remain contradictions within the party, mainly in regard to its fascist past. A rare anti-Semitic manifestation was a March 1999 leaflet produced by the AN's [[Julius Evola]] Club in [[Sestu]] ([[Cagliari]]). The leaflet quoted alleged [[Talmud]]ic passages as proof that Jews compared [[gentile]]s to beasts. In response to protests, the local AN president claimed that the references were intended to be &quot;neither racist, nor anti-democratic nor anti-Jewish&quot;. The AN club in [[Fiumicino]] (close to [[Rome]]), called for a square to be named after fascist leader [[Ettore Muti]], while the president of the region of [[Latium]], [[Francesco Storace]], asked that each city dedicate a street to [[Giorgio Almirante]], the predecessor of Fini as the leader of the now-defunct MSI, and a [[criminal of war]] during [[World War II]]. When Gianfranco Fini visited [[Israel]] in late November [[2003]] in the function of Italian deputy prime minister, he labeled the [[racial law]]s issued by the fascist regime in [[1938]] as &quot;infamous&quot;. He also referred to the RSI as belonging to the most shameful pages of the past, and considered fascism part of an era of &quot;absolute evil&quot;. As a result, [[Alessandra Mussolini]], the granddaughter of the former fascist dictator [[Benito Mussolini]], and some hardliners left the party; she stated that &quot;absolute evil&quot; for her was piazzale Loreto, the square in [[Milan]] where her grandfather's remains were shown to the public in the final days of World War II. ==Government participation== The party has taken part in the first three [[House of Freedoms]] coalition governments ([[1994]] and from [[2001]]) of prime minister [[Silvio Berlusconi]], in the second and third of which Fini is deputy prime minister and, from November [[2004]], [[foreign minister]]. ==Electoral Results== In [[1998]], it had a membership of 485,657 in 11,539 branches, 89 deputies and 41 senators in the [[Italian Parliament]] and nine members of the [[European Parliament]]. The AN suffered a 5 % loss in the [[1999]] elections to the European Parliament, obtaining only 10.3 % of the vote. It recovered somewhat in the April regional elections, gaining 12.8 % nationwide, and well over 20 % in Rome and Latium. In the May [[2001]] national elections AN obtained 96 seats out of 630 in the Chamber of Deputies and 46 seats out of 324 in the Senate. The party lost a few key seats in the [[2003]] local elections such as the Province of Rome, but its position remained firm. The party obtained 11.5 % of the vote and 9 seats in the June [[2004]] European Parliament elections. In the [[2005]] regional elections AN lost almost all the remaining key seats, such as the Region of Lazio. In the [[European Parliament]], its [[Member of the European Parliament|MEP]]s work within the group of the [[Union for a Europe of Nations]]. ==July 2005 purge== In July [[2005]], three of Fini's &quot;colonels&quot; ([[Altero Matteoli]], [[Ignazio La Russa]] and [[Maurizio Gasparri]]), among the most powerful politicians in the party, were overheard in a café close to the [[Italian Parliament]] by an [[intern]] of the [[newspaper]] [[Il Tempo]]. [http://www.iltempo.it/approfondimenti/index.aspx?id=731449] They were recorded making unflattering comments about Fini's health, political capacity and unfitness to run the upcoming political campaign for the [[2006]] national elections. As the news was made public, the three tried to apologize, but an allegedly furious Fini fired all of them on [[July 18]], and assumed complete control of the party. He proceeded to reengineer the party's structure, and assigned the new posts. In the [[congress]] that had been held a few weeks before these events, Fini had criticised [[factionalism]] in the party, and received explicit criticism for that&amp;mdash;possibly for the first time so explicitly in a party that has a long tradition of obedience to its leader. ==External links== * [http://www.azionegiovani.org Azione Giovani web site] * [http://www.skugnizzo.it/agischia Azione Giovani Isola d'Ischia web site] * [http://www.tau.ac.il/Anti-Semitism/asw97-8/sznajder.html Continuity or change in the ideology of the Alleanza Nazionale] * [http://www.tau.ac.il/Anti-Semitism/annual-report.html The annual report of Anti-semitism worldwide], [http://www.tau.ac.il/Anti-Semitism/asw97-8/italy.html 1997], [http://www.tau.ac.il/Anti-Semitism/asw99-2000/italy.htm 1999], [http://www.tau.ac.il/Anti-Semitism/asw2003-4/italy.htm 2003] and between. {{Political parties of Italy}} [[Category:Euronationalist parties]] [[Category:Political parties in Italy]] [[de:Alleanza Nazionale]] [[fr:Alliance nationale]] [[it:Alleanza Nazionale]] [[ja:国民同盟]] [[nl:Alleanza Nazionale]] [[no:Alleanza Nazionale]] [[pl:Sojusz Narodowy]] [[sv:Alleanza Nazionale]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Arno</title> <id>3238</id> <revision> <id>41659160</id> <time
:22:42Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Zoe</username> <id>2376</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Kauai]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hearse</title> <id>13274</id> <revision> <id>36370417</id> <timestamp>2006-01-23T16:14:37Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>84.59.52.207</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Cultural references */: reference to harold&amp;maude</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:JapaneseHearse.JPG|250px|thumb|A [[Buddhism|Buddhist]]-style [[Japan|japanese]] hearse]] A '''hearse''' is a [[funeral]] [[vehicle]], a conveyance for the [[coffin]] from e.g. a [[church]] to a [[cemetery]], a similar burial site, or a [[crematorium]]. In the funeral trade, they are often called '''funeral coaches'''. The name, supposedly, derives from the Anglo-Saxon word [[harrow]], describing the temporary framework on which candles were placed above the [[bier]]. This also held banners and armorial bearings and other heraldic devices. Verses or epitaphs were often attached to the hearse. Hearses were originally horse-drawn, but motorised examples began to be produced from [[1909]] in the [[United States]], and became more widely accepted in the [[1920s]]. The vast majority of hearses since then have been based on larger, more powerful [[automobile|car]] chassis, generally retaining the front end up to and possibly including the front doors but with custom bodywork to the rear to contain the coffin. Normally more luxurious brands of car are used as a base; the vast majority of hearses in the [[United States]] are [[Cadillac (automobile)|Cadillacs]] and [[Lincoln automobile|Lincolns]]. Cadillac produced what they referred to as a &quot;commercial chassis.&quot; This was a strengthened version of the long-wheelbase Fleetwood limousine frame to carry the extra weight of bodywork, rear deck and cargo. Designed for [[professional car]] use, the rear of the Cadillac commercial chassis was considerably lower than the passenger car frame, thereby lowering the rear deck height as well for ease of loading and unloading. They were shipped as incomplete cars to [[coachbuilder]]s for final assembly. A commercial chassis Cadillac was little more than a complete rolling chassis, front end sheet metal with lighting and trim, dashboard and controls. Rear quarter panels and sometimes the front door shells were shipped with the chassis for use in the finished coachwork. Today, most hearses are made from converted sedans on stretched wheelbases. The fleet division of [[Ford Motor Company]] sells a [[Lincoln Town Car]] with a special &quot;hearse package&quot; strictly to coachbuilders. Shipped without rear seat, rear interior trim, rear window or decklid, the hearse package also features a heavy-duty suspension, brakes, charging system and tires and was once offered on a modified Ford Expedition [[SUV]] chassis with the Triton [[V10]] truck engine. Because the working life of a hearse is generally one of light duty and short, sedate drives, they remain serviceable for a long time; hearses 30 years old or more may still be in service, although some funeral homes replace them at least once a decade. [[As of 2004]], a new hearse in the USA usually costs in the range of $40,000 to $65,000. [[Image:Volvohearse.jpg|thumb|250px|An antique limousine style hearse from [[Volvo]]]] Two styles of hearse [[car body style|bodywork]] are common. The older style is the [[limousine]] style; these have narrow pillars and lots of glass. These are more popular in the [[United Kingdom]], among others. More popular in the [[United States]] is the [[landau (car)|landau]] style, with a heavily-padded leather or (later) vinyl roof, and long blind rear quarters, similarly covered, and decorated with large metal S-shaped bars designed to resemble those used to lower the tops on some horse-drawn coaches. It is common practise in the USA for the windows to be curtained, while in the UK the windows are normally left unobscured. Hearses resemble [[station wagon|station wagons]] strictly because of the shape of the rear ends of conventional ones. In recent times, the [[Motorcycle]] hearse has become more popular. This type of hearse is a motorcycle with a special sidecar built to carry a casket or an urn. These hearses are often used during the funeral of motorcycle enthusiasts. Until the late [[1970s]], it was common for hearses in the USA to be ''[[combination car|combination coaches]]'' which also could serve in the [[ambulance]] role; these were common in rural areas. Car-based ambulances and combination coaches were unable to meet stricter Federal specifications for such vehicles and were discontinued after 1979. Perhaps owing to the morbid nature of the hearse, its luxurious accommodations for the driver, or both, the hearse has a number of enthusiasts who own and drive retired hearses. [[Celebrity]] hearse enthusiasts include rock singer [[Neil Young]] and [[NASCAR]] racer [[Tony Stewart]]. ==Cultural references== *The 1971 film &quot;[[Harold and Maude]] features a unique [[Jaguar E-Type]], converted to a hearse by it's owner, Harold. *The 1984 film ''[[Ghostbusters]]'' famously features the &quot;[[Ectomobile]]&quot;, a white 1959 Cadillac Miller-Meteor hearse. ==See also== {{commons|Category:Hearses}} * [[Flower car]] * [[First Call vehicle]] * [[car body style]] ==External links== * [http://www.dead-ends.com/ Dead Ends Hearse Club (Atlanta)] * [http://www.hearsedriver.com/ Hearse Driver.com] Devoted to the privately-owned hearse and the wonderful people who own them. Includes pictures, terminology, classified ads, and much more. * [http://www.angelfire.com/zine/TheHearseEnthusiast/ The Hearse Enthusiast] * [http://www.hearse.de/ Nice selection of photographs of European and American hearses.] * [http://www.professionalcar.org/ The Professional Car Society (hearses, flower cars, car-based ambulances, limousines)] * [http://www.phantomcoaches.org/ The Phantom Coaches Hearse Club in Southern California] * [http://www.motorcyclefunerals.com Motorcycle Funerals Web Site] * [https://www.fleet.ford.com/ Ford Motor Company fleet vehicle site] * [http://www.albeyer.de.vu Hearses, limousines and other unusual cars] [[da:Rustvogn]] [[ja:&amp;#38666;&amp;#26601;&amp;#36554;]] [[sv:Bårbil]] [[Category:Death customs]] [[Category:Vehicles]] [[Category:Car body styles]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hungary</title> <id>13275</id> <revision> <id>42120382</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:25:10Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>193.11.239.144</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Country| |native_name = Magyar Köztársaság |common_name = Hungary |image_flag = Flag of Hungary.svg |image_coat = Hungary COA.jpg |image_map = LocationHungary.png |national_motto = None&lt;br&gt;Historical: ''Regnum Mariae Patrona Hungariae'' &lt;br&gt;([[Latin]]: Kingdom of Mary the Patron of Hungary) |national_anthem = [[Himnusz|Himnusz (Isten, áldd meg a magyart)]] by [[Ferenc Kölcsey]] |official_languages = [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] (''Magyar'') |capital = [[Budapest]] |latd=47 |latm=26 |latNS=N |longd=19 |longm=15 |longEW=E | |largest_city = [[Budapest]] |government_type = Democratic [[republic]] |leader_titles = [[President of Hungary|President]]&lt;br&gt;[[Prime minister of Hungary|Prime minister]] |leader_names = [[László Sólyom]]&lt;br&gt;[[Ferenc Gyurcsány]] |area_rank = 108th |area_magnitude = 1 E10 |area = 93,030 |percent_water = 0.74% |population_estimate = 10,082,000 |population_estimate_year = October 2005 |population_estimate_rank = 80th |population_census = 10,198,315 |population_census_year = 2001 |population_density = 108 |population_density_rank = 69th |GDP_PPP_year = 2005 |GDP_PPP = $162,289 million |GDP_PPP_rank = 49th |GDP_PPP_per_capita = $16,627 |GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 43rd |sovereignty_type = Foundation |established_events = Foundation:&lt;br&gt; Independence: |established_dates = &lt;br&gt; December, [[1000]]&lt;br&gt; November 16, [[1918]] |HDI_year = 2003 |HDI = 0.862 |HDI_rank = 35th |HDI_category = &lt;font color=&quot;#009900&quot;&gt;high&lt;/font&gt; |currency = [[Hungarian forint|Forint]] |currency_code = HUF |country_code = hu |time_zone = [[Central European Time|CET]] |utc_offset = +1 |time_zone_DST = [[Central European Summer Time|CEST]] |utc_offset_DST = +2 |cctld = [[.hu]] |calling_code = 36 |footnotes = }} The '''Republic of Hungary''' (''Magyar Köztársaság'' {{audio|hu-Magyar Köztársaság.ogg|listen}}), or '''Hungary''' (''Magyarország'' {{audio|hu-Magyarország.ogg|listen}}), is a [[landlocked]] country in [[Central Europe]], bordered by [[Austria]], [[Slovakia]], [[Ukraine]], [[Romania]], [[Serbia and Montenegro]], [[Croatia]] and [[Slovenia]]. It is known locally as the ''Country of the [[Magyars]]''. == History == ''Main article: [[History of Hungary]]'' In the time of the [[Roman Empire]], the Romans called the region [[Pannonia]] (west from the [[Danube river]]). After Rome fell under the [[Germanic tribes]] migration and [[Carpia|Carpians']] pressure, the [[Migration Period]] continued bringing many invaders. First came the [[Huns]], who built up a powerful empire under [[Attila the Hun|Attila]]. The name &quot;Hungary&quot; may be influenced by the name of the Hun people, although it probably comes from the name of a later, 7th century [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] alliance called [[Onogur]]. After the Hunnish rule faded, the other Germanic tribes [[Lombards]] and [[Gepids]] ruled in Pannonia for about 100 years, during which the [[Slavic tribes]] also began migrating south. In the [[560s]], these were supplanted by the [[Eurasian Avars|Avars]] who would maintain their supremacy of the land for over two centuries. The [[Franks]] under [[Charlemagne]] from the west and the [[Bulgars]]
;]] In December, [[1974]] the Navy Flight Demonstration Team began flying the McDonnell Douglas [[A-4 Skyhawk|A-4F Skyhawk II]] and was reorganized into the Navy Flight Demonstration Squadron. This reorganization permitted the establishment of a commanding officer, a flight leader, added support officers, and further redefined the squadron's mission emphasizing the support of recruiting efforts. Commander Tony Less was the squadron's first official commanding officer. On [[November 8]], [[1986]] the Blue Angels completed their 40th anniversary year during ceremonies unveiling their present aircraft, the sleek McDonnell Douglas [[F/A-18 Hornet]], the first dual-role fighter/attack aircraft now serving on the nation's front lines of defense. The Blue Angels also operate a [[C-130 Hercules|C-130T Hercules]] nicknamed &quot;Fat Albert&quot; to provide support and (at selected venues) put on a show of its own with a jet-assisted take off ([[JATO]]) before the &quot;Blues&quot; begin their demonstration. &quot;Fat Albert Airlines&quot; flies with an all-Marine crew of three officers and five enlisted personnel. The Blue Angels perform more than 70 shows at 34 different locations throughout the United States each year, where they still employ many of the same practices and techniques in their aerial displays as they did back in 1946. Since their inception, the &quot;Blues&quot; have flown for more than 260 million spectators worldwide. ==Timeline== * 1946: The &quot;Navy Flight Exhibition Team&quot; is formed and takes the name '''Blue Angels'''. [[Image:Blues Support Crew watching Diamond Formation at Show.jpg|thumb|300px|right|The &quot;Blues&quot; support crew watches the team perform in the Grumman F9F-2 Panther jet fighter.]] * 1950: The team is ordered to Combat Duty Status in response to the [[Korean War|Korean Conflict]]. * 1951: Lt. Cdr. Johnny Magda is the first Blue Angel killed in combat over Korea. The team is reactivated in October. * 1952: Two aircraft collide during a demonstration in [[Corpus Christi, Texas]]; one pilot is killed, but the team resumes its performances two weeks thereafter. * 1954: &quot;Blues&quot; pilot Lt. Cdr. Hawkins becomes the first naval aviator to survive an ejection at supersonic speeds. The first [[United States Marine Corps|Marine Corps]] pilot, Capt. Chuck Hiett, joins the team. * 1956: The team gives its first-ever performance outside the United States in [[Toronto, Canada]]. * 1965: The Blue Angels are the only team to receive a standing ovation during the four-day [[Paris Air Show]]. * 1968: Lt. Mary Russell becomes the first woman assigned to the &quot;Blues.&quot; * 1973: Cdr. Harley Hall is shot down over [[Vietnam]], and is officially listed as [[Missing In Action]]. * 1974: The team transitions to the McDonnell Douglas A-4F Skyhawk II and is reorganized to add support officers and redefine the squadron’s mission, which emphasizes the support of recruiting efforts. * 1986: The Blue Angels complete their 40th anniversary year and unveil their present aircraft, the sleek McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet. * 1992: The Blue Angels becomes the first foreign flight demonstration team to perform in [[Russia]]. More than a million spectators witness the &quot;Blues&quot; performances during a month-long European tour. * 1998: Cdr. Patrick Driscoll makes the first &quot;Blue Jet&quot; landing on a &quot;haze gray and underway&quot; aircraft carrier, the [[USS Harry S. Truman|USS ''Harry S. Truman'']] (CVN-75). * 2000: Show season attendance tops 15 million spectators. ==Blue Angels Creed== [[Image:Blue Angels Skypatch insignia.jpg|frame|180px|right]] :''Today is a very special and memorable day in your military career that will remain with you throughout your lifetime. You have survived the ultimate test of your peers and have proven to be completely deserving to wear the crest of the U.S. Navy Blue Angels. :''The prestige of wearing the Blue Angels uniform carries with it an extraordinary honor &amp;mdash; one that reflects not only on you as an individual, but on your teammates and the entire squadron. To the crowds at the air shows and to the public at hospitals and schools nationwide, you are a symbol of the Navy and Marine Corps' finest. You bring pride, hope and a promise for tomorrow's Navy and Marine Corps in the smiles and handshakes of today's youth. Remember today as the day you became a Blue Angel; look around at your teammates and commit this special bond to memory. &quot;Once a Blue Angel, always a Blue Angel,&quot; rings true for all those who wear the crest of the U.S. Navy Blue Angels. Welcome to the team. ==Trivia== [[Image:BlueAngelsFA18.jpg|right|200px|thumb|An Angels Hornet heads for the sky.]] * The &quot;Blues&quot; aircraft are completely combat-ready, and could be repainted and armed for combat service in just 24 hours. * ''The Blue Angels'' was a short-lived dramatic television series inspired by the team's exploits and filmed with the cooperation of the Navy, that aired from [[September 1]], [[1960]] to [[March 20]], [[1961]]. * In 2005, [[The Military Channel]] aired a documentary miniseries, &quot;Blue Angels: A Year in the Life&quot;, focusing on the intricate day-to-day details of that year's training and performance schedule. * The video for the [[United States|American]] [[rock and roll|rock]] [[rock band|band]] [[Van Halen|Van Halen's]] 1986 release &quot;Dreams&quot; is comprised of Blue Angels performance footage. The video was originally shot featuring the Blues in the [[McDonnell-Douglas]] [[A-4 Skyhawk]]. It was later reshot after the transition to the [[F/A-18 Hornet]]. ==References== * (2005). &quot;The First Blue Angel.&quot; ''Miramar 50th Air Show Special Commemorative Program'' 18. * (2005). &quot;The Blue Angels History.&quot; ''Miramar 50th Air Show Special Commemorative Program'' 22. * [http://www.blueangels.com/timeline.shtml#46 Blue Angels Timeline (1946&amp;ndash;1980)] accessed November 10, 2005. * [http://www.mcweekly.com/issues/Issue.04-01-04/831/Article.831/print &quot;First Blue: Monterey resident Butch Voris formed the nation’s most-loved aviation team&quot;] article by Brett Wilbur in the April 1, 2004 edition of the ''Monterey County Weekly'' &amp;mdash; accessed October 16, 2005. * [http://www.grummanpark.org/blueangels.htm &quot;Grumman and the Blue Angels&quot;] article by William C. Barto at the [http://www.grummanpark.org/ Grumman Memorial Park] official website &amp;mdash; accessed October 15, 2005. ==External links== * [http://www.blueangels.navy.mil/ Explore the Navy: Blue Angels] official website. * [http://www.blueangels.com The Blue Angels] &amp;mdash; show schedules and other information. * [http://www.firstblueangel.com/ First Blue Angel] story of World War II Ace Butch Voris and the Creation of the Blue Angels. * [http://www.chinfo.navy.mil/navpalib/aircraft/b-angels/blues.html The Navy Flight Demonstration Squadron: The Blue Angels] U.S. Navy official website. * [http://www.blueangels.org/ U.S. Navy Blue Angels Alumni Association] official website. * [http://www.rtptv.homestead.com/rtpblueangels.html RTP-TV Aerospace Show on the Blue Angels] (online video). {{Modern aerobatic teams}} [[Category:United States Navy]] [[ja:ブルーエンジェルス]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Born again</title> <id>4950</id> <revision> <id>40853163</id> <timestamp>2006-02-23T12:41:45Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Wiki alf</username> <id>303874</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/69.47.155.156|69.47.155.156]] ([[User talk:69.47.155.156|talk]]) to last version by Looper5920</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the religious concept. For other uses of the term see [[Born Again]]''. '''Born again''' is a term used primarily in the [[Fundamentalist_Christianity|Fundamentalist]], [[Evangelicalism|Evangelical]], and [[Pentecostalism|Pentecostal]] branches of [[Protestantism|Protestant]] [[Christianity]], where it is associated with salvation, conversion and spiritual rebirth. Outside of these circles, the term is often applied by extension to other phenomena, including a ''transcending personal experience'' &amp;mdash; or the experience of ''being spiritually reborn'' as a &quot;new&quot; human being. ==Christian concepts== To be '''born again''' in [[Christianity]] is synonymous with [[spirituality|spiritual]] [[rebirth]] and, in many denominational traditions, [[salvation]]. The term is used somewhat differently in different Christian traditions. The Christian use of the term is derived from the third chapter of the [[Gospel of John]], where [[Nicodemus]] visits [[Jesus]]: :''Now there was a Pharisee named Nicodemus, a leader of the Jews. He came to Jesus by night and said to him, &quot;Rabbi, we know that you are a teacher who has come from God; for no one can do these signs that you do apart from the presence of God.&quot;'' :''Jesus answered him, &quot;Very truly, I tell you, no one can see the kingdom of God without being born again.&quot;'' :''Nicodemus said to him, &quot;How can anyone be born after having grown old? Can one enter a second time into the mother's womb and be born?&quot; Jesus answered, &quot;Very truly, I tell you, no one can enter the kingdom of God without being born of water and Spirit.&quot;'' ::-John 3:1-5 (''New Revised Standard Version'') :::::(''Note that some translators consider &quot;born from above&quot; to be a better translation than &quot;born again&quot;''.) Most Christian denominations hold that a person must be ''born again'' in some sense in order to be a Christian, and thus that all who are true Christians are in fact born again, whether they describe themselves as such or not. The [[Roman Catholic]] church, for example, considers that &quot;[[Baptism]] is ... the sacrament by which we are born again of wat
xt> </revision> </page> <page> <title>GNU Library General Public License</title> <id>13074</id> <revision> <id>15910715</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[GNU Lesser General Public License]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gosford, New South Wales</title> <id>13075</id> <revision> <id>42070056</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T16:42:32Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Randwicked</username> <id>73688</id> </contributor> <comment>changes to intro</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;div style=&quot;float:right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #dddddd; width: 25%; padding: 3pt;&quot;&gt; '''Gosford''' * Country: [[Australia]] * State: [[New South Wales]] * Location: {{coor dm|33|22|S|151|20|E|}} * Gosford Council Area: 940.2 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; * Population (2001): 154,654 * [[Postal code|Postcodes]]: 2250, 2251, 2256, 2257, 2260 &lt;/div&gt; '''Gosford''' is the main town of the [[Central Coast, New South Wales|Central Coast]] of [[New South Wales]], located approximately 70 km north of the [[Sydney]] [[Central business district|Central Business District]] (CBD). The city is situated at the northern extremity of [[Brisbane Water]], an extensive northern branch of the [[Hawkesbury River]] [[estuary]] and [[Broken Bay]]. The town is the administrative centre of [[Gosford City Council]], which along with [[Wyong Shire Council|Wyong Shire]] forms the Central Coast. Gosford is often recognised as being part of the [[Sydney]] Metropolitan Area. ==History== Prior to European settlement, the area around Gosford were occupied by two groups of [[Australian Aborigine]]s, the [[Guringai]] and [[Darkinjung]] peoples, with the Guringai being principally coastal-dwellers and the Darkingung occupying land to the west. Along with the other land around the Hawkesbury River estuary, the Brisbane Water district was explored during the [[History of Sydney|early stages]] of the settlement of Sydney. In the early [[1800s]] some pioneering European settlers began occupying the land, for timber-cutting (mainly [[ironbark]] and [[Toona ciliata|Australian red cedar]]), [[Calcium oxide|lime]] production and [[grazing]]. Gosford itself was founded as a government township in the [[1830s]], originally to be named [[Point Frederick, New South Wales|Point Frederick]], but named Gosford at the direction of the Governor of NSW. The name Point Frederick is now used for a suburb and the spit of land it occupies, stretching southwards from Gosford. Since shipping was the principal form of transport, the position at the northernmost end of Brisbane water provided access to the timber and other developing primary industries in the valleys of Narara Creek to the north and Erina Creek to the east. By the late 1800s the agriculture in the region was diversifying, with [[market garden]]s and citrus orchards occupying the rich soil left after the timber harvest. In [[1887]] the rail link to Sydney was completed, requiring a bridge over the Hawkesbury River and a tunnel through the sandstone ridge west of [[Woy Woy, New South Wales|Woy Woy]]. The introduction of this transport link, and then the [[Pacific Highway (Australia)|Pacific Highway]] in [[1930]] accelerated the development of the region. Prior to 1947, the town of Gosford was part of the Erina Shire. In January of 1980, Gosford was declared a city. ==General information== Gosford proper is located in a valley with '''President's Hill''' on the city's western border and '''Rumbalara Reserve''' on its eastern border, and '''Brisbane water''' to the city's south. The city's main street runs north-south and is called '''Mann Street''' and there are a number of small shops and cafes on this street. Mann Street also forms part of the old '''Pacific Highway''' which winds its way up the coast from [[Sydney]] to [[Brisbane]], [[Queensland]]. The Imperial centre, the city's main shopping complex, also has a major frontage on Mann Street. Most of the central coast's buses to eastern suburbs (run by 2 private companies), like [[Erina, New South Wales|Erina]] and [[Terrigal, New South Wales|Terrigal]] travel via Mann Street. Also on Mann Street is '''William Street Mall''' which runs east-west (which is bound by Mann Street and Mortimer Lane), which was upgraded in 2004. The city centre focuses around '''Kibble Park''' (a small park which is bound by Henry Parry Drive, William Street, Donnison Street and Eliza Street). and the '''Gosford city library''' (located on Donnison Street). There are many small events and minor festivals that get held in Kibble Park such as the 'Crazy Day Sales' (run by Gosford chamber of Commerce). Gosford is also home to [[Gosford Hospital]] - the largest hospital on the central coast, the Central Coast Conservatorium (home the original Gosford Court. The Gosford court is now on the south eastern corner of Henry Parry Drive and Donnison Streets) and the newly built [[Central Coast Stadium]] (completed in 2001). The city also hosted 3 games of the '''2003 Rugby Union World Cup'''. In [[2005]] the Central Coast became the home of an [[A-League]] soccer team - the [[Central Coast Mariners FC|Central Coast Mariners]]. Adjacent to Gosford city itself, is the Gosford Racecourse and the Gosford showgrounds. Directly east of the city is Rumballara reserve which encompasses the ridgeline which serves as the city's eastern border. While central Gosford is somewhat run down at the moment - with businesses moving to near by Erina and, in particular, [[Erina Fair]] - new highrise apartments are being built in and around the CBD to accommodate people wanting to live near the railway station. The NSW State Government also relocated the headquarters of its workers' compensation fund administration to Gosford in 2002 to a distinctive modern building on Donnison Street, near to the Central Coast Leagues Club. ==See also== *[[List of cities in Australia]] ==External links== * [http://www.gosford.nsw.gov.au/ Gosford city council website] * [http://www.cctourism.com.au/ Central Coast tourism] * [http://www.ccrdc.org.au/ Central Coast regional development organisation website] * NSW Department of Local Government: [http://www.dlg.nsw.gov.au/dlg/dlghome/dlg_Regions.asp?regiontype=2&amp;slacode=3100&amp;region=SS Suburbs and Towns in Gosford Council] (includes map) * [http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=-33.426427,151.342163&amp;spn=0.050699,0.065802&amp;t=k&amp;hl=en Google Maps view of Gosford] showing (from West to East) Narara Creek, President's Hill, the Gosford CBD, Rumbalara Reserve and Erina Creek, with Brisbane Water to the South. * [http://www.centralcoaststadium.com.au/index.asp Central Coast Stadium website] [[Category:Cities in New South Wales]] [[ro:Gosford]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gordon Brown</title> <id>13076</id> <revision> <id>42121187</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:31:40Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Cmc0</username> <id>147656</id> </contributor> <comment>rv vandalism</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">''This article is about the [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]]. For the [[rugby union]] player of the same name, see [[Gordon Brown (rugby player)]]'' [[Image:Gordon Brown.jpg|thumb|The Rt Hon. Gordon Brown]] [[The Right Honourable]] '''James Gordon Brown''' (born [[20 February]] [[1951]]) is a [[Scotland|Scottish]] [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] politician. He was [[Member of Parliament#United Kingdom|MP]] for [[Dunfermline East (UK Parliament constituency)|Dunfermline East]] from [[United Kingdom general election, 1983|1983]] - [[United Kingdom general election, 2005|2005]], then [[Kirkcaldy and Cowdenbeath (UK Parliament constituency)|Kirkcaldy and Cowdenbeath]] from [[United Kingdom general election, 2005|2005]] following a major revision in the composition of parliamentary constituencies in Scotland. Brown has served as [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]] of the [[United Kingdom]] since May [[1997]] (the longest continuously serving Chancellor since [[Nicholas Vansittart, 1st Baron Bexley|Nicholas Vansittart]] [[1812]]-[[1823]]) and is widely tipped to become [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]] after the retirement of [[Tony Blair]]. ==Early and private life== Brown was born in [[Glasgow]] and educated at [[Kirkcaldy High School]], [[Fife]]. His father, John, was a [[Church of Scotland]] [[Minister (religion)|minister]]. While at school he suffered [[detached retina]]s in a [[rugby union|rugby]] accident and now has an artifical left eye. Brown read History at the [[University of Edinburgh]], graduating with [[First Class Honours]]. Brown would stay at [[Edinburgh]] to complete his [[PhD|Doctorate]] on [[radical]] Labour Party politician, [[James Maxton]]. Even before entering [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Parliament]], Brown had achieved some prominence: he was elected [[Rector]][http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/4683799.stm] of the University of Edinburgh and Chairman of the University Court while still a student, and edited &quot;The Red Paper on Scotland&quot;[http://www.redpaper.net/about.htm]. Brown lectured at that university and then at [[Glasgow Caledonian University|Glasgow College of Technology]] before working as a journalist at [[Scottish Television]]. In the 1979 general election, Brown fought the [[Edinburgh South]] constituency, but lost to the [[Conservative]] candidate, [[Michael Ancram]]. In [[1986]], he published a [[biography]] of the [[Independent Labour Party]] politician James Maxton - the subject of his PhD thesis. Brown married [[Sarah Macaulay]] at his home in
's play. In 1973, in the movie ''Henry VIII and his Six Wives,'' [[Frances Cuka]] played Catherine and Keith Michell reprised his role as Henry VIII. A scene was incorporated between Ms. Cuka and [[Charlotte Rampling]] (playing Anne Boleyn) to show their quiet, glacial enmity. It was not until 2001 that Catherine again appeared on the screen. This time it was in Dr. [[David Starkey]]'s documentary series on Henry's queens. She was portrayed by [[Annabelle Dowler]], with [[Julia Marsen]] as Anne Boleyn. In 2003 Catherine appeared twice on British television. In January, Spanish actress [[Yolanda Vasquez]] made a brief appearance in the wildly-inaccurate ''The Other Boleyn Girl,'' opposite [[Jared Harris]] as Henry VIII and [[Natascha McElhone]] as [[Mary Boleyn]]. In October, the [[ITV]] 2-part television drama, ''Henry VIII'' starred [[Ray Winstone]] in the title role and [[Assumpta Serna]] as Queen Catherine. Part 1 chronicled the king's life from the birth of his [[illegitimacy|bastard]] son, [[Henry Fitzroy]] until the execution of Anne Boleyn (played by [[Helena Bonham Carter]]) in 1536. [[David Suchet]] co-starred as [[Cardinal Wolsey]]. Catherine's story appears in fiction: ''Katharine of Aragon'' by Jean Plaidy, a trilogy recently published under one volume. Also, for younger readers, Catherine's story is told in ''Patience, Princess Catherine'' by Carolyn Meyer. Released in 2005, also by Philippa Gregory (author of ''The Other Boleyn Girl'') ''The Constant Princess'', her take on Catherine's story. ==Historiography== For centuries, Catherine had been revered by many as a saint-like figure. She became a symbolic representation of the wronged woman and was presented in an extremely favourable light. This view was first challenged in 1860 by historian [[G. A. Bergenroth]]. He had seen the Spanish royal archives, and believed that the universal praise of Catherine of Aragon needed &quot;to be more or less lowered.&quot; Bergenroth's research formed the basis of the work of modern British historian, Dr. David Starkey, whose recent book, ''Six Wives'' gives a full account of Catherine's talent for intrigue and less-than-perfect cultural awareness. [[Joanna Denny]] also takes a firmer line with Catherine than historians of previous generations, and criticised her savagely in her [[2004]] biography of Anne Boleyn. Catherine is described by Denny as &quot;arrogant, stubborn, even bloody-minded&quot;. Nevertheless, Catherine still has her ardent admirers; chief amongst them is the historian [[Alison Weir]], author of ''The Six Wives of Henry VIII'' and ''Henry VIII: King and Court''. Weir makes no mention of Bergenroth's findings. These revisionists were greeted with derision from Catherine's admirers. Starkey insisted that he had meant no disrespect and he argued that Catherine would have been both naïve and foolish to try and survive in the 1500s without employing espionage and political subterfuge. He believed that these tactics, which he highlighted in his book ''Six Wives'', are a tribute to Catherine's intelligence. Even so, those who insist upon seeing Catherine as a saint were outraged. The blame for Catherine's maltreatment has always been attributed to her successor, Anne Boleyn. Now a new generation of historians seem to be suggesting that neither Catherine nor Anne can be blamed; they both simply reacted to circumstances, and Catherine would have done the same to Anne if she had the opportunity. Another assessment, which was put forward by several authors, including the American feminist [[Karen Lindsey]], is that neither woman should be blamed, and that instead the true culprit for Catherine's misery in her final years was her husband, Henry. It was convenient for his contemporaries to blame Catherine's exile upon Anne instead. Historians today are trying to construct a more balanced portrait of all six of Henry's queens, including Catherine. Despite being the first in a series of six wives of [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]], she was married to him the longest and reigned as [[queen consort]] the longest of all six, having been married to Henry and been Queen of England for 24 years until Henry married Anne Boleyn. She was also Queen for more years than all of Henry's other wives put together. {{Princesses of Wales}} {{sequence|prev=---|list= [[Wives of Henry VIII]] |next=[[Anne Boleyn]]}} ==External links== *[http://tudorhistory.org/aragon/ tudorhistory.org] - A good overview of Catherine's life, accompanied by an excellent portrait gallery *[http://englishhistory.net/tudor/monarchs/aragon.html englishhistory.net] - An in-depth look at Catherine's life and times *[http://tudorhistory.org/humor/ tudorhistory.org] - ''Tales from the Tudor Rose Bar'': a humorous look at the Tudor Royal Family &lt;!--Categories--&gt; [[Category:1485 births]] [[Category:1536 deaths]] [[Category:Spanish women]] [[Category:Wives of Henry VIII]] &lt;!--Interlanguage links--&gt; [[ar:كاترين من أراغون]] [[ca:Caterina d'Aragó]] [[cy:Catrin o Aragon]] [[da:Katharina af Aragonien]] [[de:Katharina von Aragón]] [[es:Catalina de Aragón]] [[fr:Catherine d'Aragon]] [[it:Caterina d'Aragona]] [[he:קתרינה מאראגון]] [[la:Catharina Aragonensis]] [[nl:Catharina van Aragón]] [[ja:キャサリン・オブ・アラゴン]] [[pl:Katarzyna Aragońska]] [[pt:Catarina de Aragão]] [[simple:Catherine of Aragon]] [[sk:Katarína Aragónska]] [[sr:Катарина Арагонска]] [[sv:Katarina av Aragonien]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cathode ray</title> <id>6943</id> <revision> <id>38311490</id> <timestamp>2006-02-05T14:11:14Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>213.46.153.58</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* External links */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:CrookesTube.png|thumb||250px|right|A schematic diagram of a [[Crookes tube]] apparatus. '''A''' is a low voltage power supply to heat cathode '''C'''. '''B''' is a high voltage power supply to energize the phosphor-coated anode '''P'''. Shadow mask '''M''' is connected to the cathode potential and its image is seen on the phosphor as an non-glowing area.]] '''Cathode rays''' are streams of [[electron]]s observed in [[vacuum tube]]s, i.e. [[vacuum|evacuated]] glass tubes that are equipped with at least two [[electrode]]s, a [[cathode]] (negative electrode) and an [[anode]] (positive electrode) in a configuration known as a [[diode]]. When the cathode is heated, it emits some radiation which travels to the anode. If the inner glass walls behind the anode are coated with a [[phosphorescence|phosphorescent]] material, they glow. A metal shape placed between the electrodes casts a shadow on the glowing coating. This means that the cause of the light emission is rays emitted by the cathode and hitting the coating. They travel towards the anode in straight lines, and continue past it for some distance. This phenomenon was studied in great detail by physicists toward the end of the [[19th century]], yielding a [[Nobel prize]] for [[Philipp von Lenard]]. Cathode rays were first produced by [[Geissler tube]]s. Special tubes were developed for the study of these rays by [[William Crookes]] and are called [[Crookes tube]]s. It was soon understood that cathode rays consist of the actual carriers of electricity which are now known as [[electron]]s. The fact that the rays are emitted by the cathode, i.e. the negative electrode, showed that electrons have negative [[charge]]. Cathode rays propagate in a straight line in the absence of external influences, but are deflected by [[electric field|electric]] or [[magnetic field]]s (which can be produced by placing [[High voltage|high-voltage]] electrodes or magnets outside the vacuum tube - this explains the effect of magnets on a TV screen). The refinement of this idea is the [[cathode ray tube]] (CRT), also known as ''Braun's tube'' (because it was invented [[1897]] by [[Ferdinand Braun]]). The CRT is key to [[television set]]s (though alternative display technologies are making inroads), [[oscilloscope]]s, and [[vidicon]] television cameras. [[Category:Television technology]] [[de:Kathodenstrahlen]] [[ja:陰極線]] [[pt:Raio catódico]] ==External links== *[http://members.chello.nl/~h.dijkstra19/page3.html The Cathode Ray Tube site]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cathode</title> <id>6944</id> <revision> <id>41524825</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T23:06:03Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>DV8 2XL</username> <id>146684</id> </contributor> <comment>revert</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Copper cathode.png|thumb|Diagram of a [[copper]] cathode in a [[galvanic cell|Daniell's cell]].]] A '''cathode''' is the [[electrode]] at which [[electron|electrons]] go into a cell, tube or diode, whether driven externally or internally. It comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word ''&amp;#954;&amp;#940;&amp;#952;&amp;#959;&amp;#948;&amp;#959;&amp;#962;'' meaning, 'going down'. The other charged electrode in the same cell or device is the [[anode]]. == Flow of electrons == The flow of electrons is '''always''' from '''''anode–to–cathode''''' '''outside''' of the cell or device, and from '''''cathode–to–anode''''' '''inside''' the cell or device, regardless of the cell or device type. Inside a chemical cell, ions are carrying the electrons but the flow is still from '''''cathode–to–anode''''' '''inside''' the cell. == Chemistry cathode == In [[chemistry]], a '''cathode''' is the [[electrode]] of an [[electrochemical cell]] at which [[Reduction (chemistry)|reduction]] occurs (electrons are added to cations to complete the valence shell or bond). === Electrolytic cell === In an [[electrolytic cell]], the cathode is where the negative polarity is applied to drive the cell. Common results of reduction at the cathode are hydrogen gas or pure metal from metal ions. === Galvanic cell === In a [[galvanic cell]], the ca
ters in Atlas_Shrugged|Orren Boyle]]. The company was started with just a few hundred-thousand dollars of [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Boyle's]] own money, and hundreds of millions of dollars in government grants. Boyle used this money to buy out his competitors, and now relies on influence peddling and political favors to run his business. Associated Steel is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 111, 114, 131 and 171. ==Ayers Music Publishing Company== Ayers Music Publishing Company is the publisher of the music of [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Richard Halley]]. [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Dagny Taggart]] contacts [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Mr. Ayers]] to inquire as to the existence of [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged|Halley's Fifth Concerto]]. Ayers Music Publishing Company is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 114. ==Barton and Jones== The company, located in [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Denver]], that supplies food for the workers rebuilding the [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged|Rio Norte Line]]. They go bankrupt in the middle of the project. Barton and James is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 171. ==d'Anconia Copper== A copper and mining company founded by [[Minor Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Sebastian d'Anconia]] in [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Argentina]] during the time of the Inquisition. Each man who ran the company saw it grow by 10% in his lifetime, so by the time [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Francisco d'Anconia]] heads the company it is the largest in the world. His dream, from childhood, is to increase the size of the company by 100%. d'Anconia Copper is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 152 and 171. ==Hammond Motors== A car company in Colorado. They make the best cars on the market until the founder disappears. [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Hank Rearden]] buys a Hammond on his trip to [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Colorado]] in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 171. ==Incorporated Tool== A company that is contracted to deliver drill heads to Taggart Transcontinental but who fail to do this. It is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 171. ==Phoenix-Durango== The Phoenix-Durango is an old, small railroad located in the Southwest run by [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Dan Conway]] that has been insignificant for most of its existence. However, the Phoenix-Durango grows rapidly when [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Ellis Wyatt]] revives the economy of [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Colorado]] and Taggart Transcontinental's [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged|Rio Norte Line]] fails to service Wyatt adequately. Later, [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|James Taggart]] conspires to get the Phoenix-Durango driven out of [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Colorado]] with the [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged|Anti-dog-eat-dog Rule]]. The Phoenix-Durango is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 111, 114, 131 (alluded to), 132, 145, 146, 147 and 152. ==Rearden Coal== A business founded by [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Hank Rearden]] prior to the founding of Rearden Steel. It is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 121. ==Rearden Limestone== A business founded by [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Hank Rearden]] prior to the founding of Rearden Steel. It is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 121. ==Rearden Ore== The first business founded by [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Hank Rearden]]. It is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 121. ==Rearden Steel== A company founded by [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Hank Rearden]] about ten years prior to the start of the story in the novel. Rearden bought an abandoned steel mill in [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Philadelphia]] at a time when all the experts thought that such a venture would be hopeless. He turned it into the most reliable and profitable steel company in the country. As [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Dagny Taggart]] struggles to save Taggart Transcontinental, she becomes increasingly dependent on Rearden Steel. Rearden Steel is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 111, 114, 121, 131 (alluded to), 161 and 162. ==Summit Casting== A company in [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Illinois]] under contract to deliver rail spikes to Taggart Transcontinental. They go bankrupt before they can deliver, prompting [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Dagny Taggart]] to fly to [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Chicago]] and buy the company to get it started again. Summit Casting is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 171. ==Taggart Transcontinental== The fictional [[railroad]] run by [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Dagny Taggart]]. Her commitment to the railroad creates one of the book's major conflicts. Taggart Transcontinental was founded by [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Nathaniel Taggart]] who lived three generations (or so) prior to Dagny's generation. It was built without any grants, loans, or favors from the government, and was the last railroad that was still owned and controlled by its founder's descendants. Its motto is, ''From Ocean to Ocean''. The 'flagship' of Taggart Transcontinental is the [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged|Taggart Comet]] which runs from [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|New York]] to [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|San Francisco]], and which has never been late. ==United Locomotive Works== An incompetent company that is supposed to deliver Diesel engines to Taggart Transcontinental. The order is delayed in perpetuity, and the [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|president]] of the company refuses to ever give a straight answer as to why this is so. The United Locomotive Works is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 133 and 141. ==Wyatt Oil== The oil company run by [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Ellis Wyatt]]. Wyatt's father had squeezed a living out of the oil fields in [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Colorado]], but when Ellis Wyatt took over the business took off. He discovered a technique for extracting oil from wells that had been abandoned as dried up. The success of Wyatt Oil that followed this discovery suddenly and unexpectedly turned [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Colorado]] into the leading economy in the country. Wyatt Oil traditionally relied on Taggart Transcontinental's [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged|Rio Norte Line]] to ship its oil. But when that company could not grow fast enough to keep up with the booming [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Colorado]] economy, Wyatt started using the small but well-managed Phoenix-Durango instead. This prompted [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|James Taggart]] to make deals with his friends to drive the Phoenix-Durango out of [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Colorado]]. Afterwards, [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Dagny Taggart]] has to rebuild the [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged|Rio Norte Line]] so it can supply transportation to Wyatt Oil - if she fails, the economy of [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Colorado]], and of the whole country, could collapse. Wyatt Oil is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 111, 132 and 171. [[Category:Atlas Shrugged]] [[Category:Fictional companies|Atlas Shrugged]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Concepts in Atlas Shrugged</title> <id>365</id> <revision> <id>28929793</id> <timestamp>2005-11-21T20:43:06Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Iceberg3k</username> <id>50063</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">Some of the important '''concepts''' discussed in [[Atlas Shrugged]] include the ''Sanction of the Victim'' and the ''Theory of Sex''. ===Sanction of the Victim=== The Sanction of the Victim is defined as &quot;the willingness of the good to suffer at the hands of the [[evil]], to accept the role of sacrificial victim for the '[[sin]]' of creating values.&quot; The entire story of Atlas Shrugged can be seen as an answer to the question, what would happen if this sanction was revoked? When Atlas shrugs, relieving himself of the burden of carrying the world, he is revoking his sanction. The concept is supposedly original in the thinking of [[Ayn Rand]] and is foundational to her moral theory. She holds that evil is a parasite on the good and can only exist if the good tolerates it. To quote from [[Atlas_Shrugged/Galts Speech|Galt's Speech]]: &quot;Evil is impotent and has no power but that which we let it extort from us&quot;, and, &quot;I saw that evil was impotent...and the only weapon of its triumph was the willingness of the good to serve it.&quot; Morality requires that we do not sanction our own victimhood, Rand claims. In adhering to this concept, Rand assigns virtue to the trait of [[selfishness]]. Throughout Atlas Shrugged, numerous characters admit that there is something wrong with the world but they cannot put their finger on what it is. The concept they cannot grasp is the sanction of the victim. The first person to grasp the concept is [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|John Galt]], who vows to stop the motor of the world by getting the creators of the world to withhold their sanction. We first glimpse the concept in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 121 when [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Hank Rearden]] feels he is duty-bound to support his family, despite their hostility towards him. In [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 146 the principle is stated explicitly by [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Dan Conway]]: &quot;I suppose somebody's got to be sacrificed. If it turned out to be me, I have no right to complain.&quot; ===Theory of Sex=== In rejecting the traditional [[Christianity|Christian]] altruist [[moral code]], Rand also rejects the sexual code that, in her view, is a [[logical implication]] of [[altruism]]. Rand introduces a theory of sex in ''Atlas Shrugged'' which is purportedly implied by her broader ethical and psychological theories. Far from being a debasing animal instinc
ings with ''perfected'' or ''glorified'' (often called ''celestial'') bodies referred to as [[Heavenly Father]] (or less commonly &quot;Elohim&quot;) and his son, Jesus Christ. They believe that through the mercy of Jesus Christ and by following their religion's teachings, humans are eligible to become gods (sometimes phrased as &quot;become like Heavenly Father&quot;) at some point after death and [[resurrection]]; this is also called [[Exaltation]]. * [[Rastafari movement|Rastafarians]] believe that [[Haile Selassie]] is both God the Father and God the Son, made manifest in human flesh as the reincarnation of Jesus, while the Holy Spirit is seen to dwell within all believers (of Rastafari), and within all people (believed by some). * Hasidic Jews hold that there are ten [[Sephirah|Sefirot]] (emanations) of God. Each of these are more distinct than a characteristic, but less distinct than a separate personage. * [[Monism]] is the metaphysical position that all is of one essential essence, substance or energy, that being a pantheist, or panentheist, immanent God. Monism can be inclusive of other interpretations of God. * Dualism is the idea of two, nearly equal divine entities, one being the good God, and the other being an evil god, or [[Satan]]. All beings are under the influence of one side, or the other, if they know it or not. [[Zoroastrianism]] is an example of dualism. ==== Binitarianism ==== '''[[Binitarianism]]''': A view within Christianity that there were originally two beings in the Godhead, the Father and the Word that became the Son (Jesus the Christ). Binitarians normally believe that God is a family, currently consisting of the Father and the Son. Some binitarians believe that others will ultimately be born into that divine family. Hence, binitarians are [[nontrinitarian]], but they are also not unitarian. Binitarians, like most [[unitarians]] and [[trinitarians]], claim their views were held by the original New Testament Church. Unlike most unitarians and [[trinitarian]]s who tend to identify themselves by those terms, binitarians normally do not refer to their belief in the duality of the Godhead, with the Son subordinate to the Father, as binitarianism&amp;amp;mdash;they simply teach the Godhead in a manner that has been termed as binitarianism. &quot;The word “binitarian” is typically used by scholars and theologians as a contrast to a trinitarian theology: a theology of “two” in God rather than a theology of “three”... it is accurate to offer the judgment that most commonly when someone speaks of a Christian “binitarian” theology the “two” in God are the Father and the Son...A substantial amount of recent scholarship has been devoted to exploring the implications of the fact that Jesus was ''worshipped'' by those first Jewish Christians, since in Judaism &quot;worship&quot; was limited to the worship of God&quot; (Barnes M. Early Christian Binitarianism: the Father and the Holy Spirit. Early Christian Binitarianism&amp;amp;mdash;as read at NAPS 2001). Much of this recent scholarship has been the result of the translations of the ''[[Nag Hammadi]]'' and other ancient manuscripts which were not available when older scholarly texts (such as W. Bousset's ''Kyrios Christos'', 1913) were written. Although some critics prefer to use the term ditheist or dualist instead of binitarian, those terms suggests that God is not one, yet binitarians believe that God is one family. ===Conceptions of God in Hinduism=== [[Image:Aum.png|right|160px|thumb|'''[[Aum]]'''. Found first in the Vedic scriptures of Hinduism, Aum has been seen as the first manifestation of the unmanifest [[Brahman]] (the single Divine Ground of Hinduism) that resulted in the phenomenal universe]] [[Image:UniversalForm.jpg|160px|right|thumb|[[Krishna]] revealing the eternal super-consciousness to [[Arjuna]]]] * In the Rig-Veda, a hymn which came to be known as the &quot;The Song of the Creation&quot; by Max Muller, a noted Indologist probably best describes the Hindu view of God. ## Then there was not non-existent nor existent: there was no realm of air, no sky beyond it. What covered in, and where? and what gave shelter? was water there, unfathomed depth of water? ## Death was not then, nor was there aught immortal: no sign was there, the day's and night's divider. That one thing, breathless, breathed by its own nature: apart from it was nothing whatsoever. ## Darkness there was: at first concealed in darkness, this all was undiscriminated chaos. All existed then was void and formless; by the great power of warmth was born that unit. ## Thereafter rose desire in the beginning, Desire the primal seed and germ of spirit. Sages who searched with their heart's thought discovered the existent's kinship in the non-existent. ## Transversely was their severing line extended: what was above it then, and what below it? There were begetters, there were mighty forces, free action here and energy of yonder. ## '''Who verily knows and who can here declare it, whence it was born and whence comes this creation? The gods are later than this world's production. Who knows, then, whence it first came into being? ''' ## '''He, the first origin of this creation, whether he formed it all or did not form it, Whose eye controls this world in highest heaven, he verily knows it, or perhaps he knows it not. ''' :: Translation from Hindu Scriptures, Everyman's Library (Qtd in Discovery of India, Pandit Nehru) * The [[Sanskrit]] and [[Hindi]] word for God, that is used most commonly, is Ishvara, lit., the Supreme Lord, pronounced as &quot;īshvərə&quot;. Hindus believe that '''Ishvara''' is only One. This must not be confused with the numerous deities of the Hindus known as [[deva (Hinduism) | devas]], which can number up to 330 million. A deva may be translated into English as a god, a deity, a demi-god, an [[angel]] or any celestial being or thing of high excellence, and hence is venerable. * The [[Vedanta|Vedantic]] school of Hindu philosophy also has a notion of a Supreme Cosmic Spirit called [[Brahman]], pronounced as &quot;brəh mən&quot;. '''Brahman''' is (at best) described as that infinite, omnipresent, omnipotent, incorporeal, transcedent and immanent reality that is the divine ground of all existence in this universe. Brahman is actually undescribable. It is at best, &quot;Sat&quot; + &quot;Chit&quot; + &quot;Ananda&quot;, ie, Infinite Truth, Infinite Consciousness and Infinite Bliss. Brahman may be called as God, or better, as Godhead. * A major branch of Hinduism, [[Advaita Vedanta]], served as the fertile grounds from which one of the first monistic philosophies of God was developed. According to Advaitins, '''Brahman''' is the only Ultimate Reality in this world, and everything else is an illusion. They believe that [[Maya (Hinduism)|Māyā]] is that complex illusionary power of Brahman which causes the Brahman to be seen as the distinct material world. When man tries to know the attributeless Brahman with his mind, under the influence of Maya, Brahman becomes God ('''Ishvara''' as described as above). God is Brahman with Maya. He is [[Saguna Brahman]] or Brahman with positive attributes. He is one and unique. He is omniscient, omnipresent, incorporeal, independent, creator of the world, its ruler and also destroyer. He is eternal and unchangeable. He rules the world with his Maya. However, while God is the Lord of Maya and she (ie, Maya) is always under His control, living beings (jīva, in the sense of humans) are the servants of Maya (in the form of ignorance). This ignorance is the cause of the unhappiness and sin in the mortal world. While God is Infinite Bliss, humans are miserable. God (Ishvara) always knows the unity of the Brahman substance, and the Mayic nature of the world. There is no place of a Satan or devil in Hinduism, unlike Abrahamic religions. Advaitins explain the misery because of '''ignorance'''. God or Ishvara can also be visualized and worshipped in anthromorphic form like Vishnu, Krishna or Shiva. The Advaita Vedanta philosophy continues with the view that once one becomes aware of the ''unity of being'' of Godhead, he will then be able to see beyond the illusions of division and separation from Godhead, and recognize his or her own inherent unity with the Brahman. See [[Advaita Vedanta]]. * In the two largest branches of Hinduism, Shaivism and Vaishnavism, it is believed that '''Ishvara''' and Brahman are identical, and God is in turn anthromorphically identified with Shiva or Vishnu. God, whether in the form of Shiva or Vishnu has six attributes. However, the actual number of auspicious qualities of God, are '''countless''', with the following six qualities being the ''most important''. * The number six is invariably given, but the individual attributes listed vary. One set of attributes (and their common interpretations) are: **''Jñāna'' (Omniscience), defined as the power to know about all beings simultaneously; **''Aishvarya'' ([[Sovereignty]], derived from the word Ishvara), which consists in unchallenged rule over all; **''Shakti'' (Energy), or power, which is the capacity to make the impossible possible; **''Bala'' (Strength), which is the capacity to support everything by will and without any fatigue; **''Vīrya'' (Vigor), or valour which indicates the power to retain immateriality as the supreme being in spite of being the material cause of mutable creations; and **''Tejas'' (Splendor), which expresses his self-sufficiency and the capacity to overpower everything by his spiritual effulgence.; (''cited from ''Bhakti Schools of Vedanta'', by Swami Tapasyānanda.'') * A second set of six characteristics are **''Jñāna'' (Omniscience), **''Vairagya'' ([[Detachment]]), **''Yashas'' (Fame), **''Aishvarya'' (Sovereignty, derived from the word Ishvara), **''Srī'' (Glory) and **''Dharma'' ([[Righteousness]]). *Other important qualities attributed to God are ''Gambhīrya'' (grandeur), ''Audārya'' (generosity), and ''K
rightwards' shift in Lib Dem thinking in recent years, though it should be noted that former party leader [[Charles Kennedy]] (and the majority of the party membership) is closer to the social liberal position. It would be easy, but misleading, to presume to characterise these two wings of the party as consisting of former SDP members and former Liberal Party members respectively. However, many prominent social liberals (including [[Menzies Campbell]] and [[Paddy Ashdown]]) were former Liberal MPs, whereas the two most prominent economic liberals ([[Mark Oaten]] and [[Vincent Cable]]) both came to the Liberal Democrats from the SDP. Content of personnel in these two wings are almost totally unrelated to such former party affiliation, whereas some ideological features of these wings can be said to have been stronger represented in former element parties. ==Structure== The Liberal Democrats are a federal party comprising the state parties of Wales, Scotland and England, with around 72,000 members in total. Scotland and England are further split into regional parties. There are a number of Specified Associated Organisations (SAOs), representing particular groupings such as Ethnic Minorities ([[Ethnic Minority Liberal Democrats|EMLD]]), Women ([[Women Liberal Democrats|WLD]]), LGBT people ([[Delga]]), Youth &amp; Student ([[Liberal Democrat Youth &amp; Students|LDYS]]), Trade Unionists (ALDTU), Engineers &amp; Scientists ([http://www.aldes.org.uk ALDES]), Parliamentary Candidates ([[PCA]]) and Local Councillors (ALDC) which formally review and input to party policy. Other groups can become Associated Organisations (AOs) as pressure groups within the party. The Liberal Democrats, like the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservatives]], organise in [[Northern Ireland]]. However, unlike the Conservatives, the Lib Dems have chosen not to contest elections in the province. Instead, they have opted to work with the [[Alliance Party of Northern Ireland]], with the ''de facto'' agreement that the Liberal Democrats will support the Alliance Party in elections. Indeed, many individuals, including several notable parliamentarians, hold membership of both parties. Alliance members of the [[House of Lords]] take the Liberal Democrat [[whip (politics)|whip]] on non-Northern Ireland issues, and the Alliance Party always maintains a stall set out at the [[Liberal Democrat Party Conference]]. ==See also== *[[List of Liberal Democrat MPs]] *[[Liberalism]] *[[Contributions to liberal theory]] *[[Liberalism worldwide]] *[[List of liberal parties]] *[[Liberal democracy]] *[[Liberalism in the United Kingdom]] *[[LDYS]] *[[British politics]] *[[Federalism]] *[[Community politics]] *[[EARS (Software)|EARS]] *[[Social Democratic Party (UK)|SDP]] *[[Glee Club (Liberalism)|Glee Club]] *[[The Land (song)|The Land]] *[[Beveridge Group]] == Leaders of the Liberal Democrats, 1988–present == * [[David Steel]] and [[Robert Maclennan]], [[1988]] (interim) * [[Paddy Ashdown]], 1988 – [[1999]] * [[Charles Kennedy]], 1999 – [[2006]] * Sir [[Menzies Campbell]], 2006 – {{further|[[Liberal Democrats leadership election, 2006]]}} ==Frontbench: &quot;Shadow cabinet&quot;== {{further|[[Liberal Democrat Frontbench Team]]}} ==External links== *[http://www.libdems.org.uk/ Liberal Democrats] official site === Party sub-organisations === *[http://www.scotlibdems.org.uk/ Scottish Liberal Democrats] *[http://www.demrhydcymru.org.uk/ Welsh Liberal Democrats] *[http://www.glalibdems.org.uk/ London Assembly Liberal Democrats] *[http://www.libdempca.org.uk/ Liberal Democrat Parliamentary Candidates Association] *[http://www.delga.org.uk/ Delga: Liberal Democrats for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Action] *[http://www.ldys.org.uk/ Liberal Democrat Youth &amp; Students] *[http://www.libg.org.uk/ Liberal International British Group] *[http://www.greenlibdems.org.uk/ Green Liberal Democrats] *[http://www.liberalfuture.com/ Liberal Future] *[http://www.beveridgegroup.org.uk The Beveridge Group] *[http://www.dmoz.org/Regional/Europe/United_Kingdom/Society_and_Culture/Politics/Parties/Liberal_Democrats/ Liberal Democrats websites directory] === Historical information === *[http://www.liberalhistory.org.uk/ Liberal Democrat History Group] *[http://www.libdemmanifesto.com/ An archive of Liberal/SDP/Liberal Democrat electoral manifestos from 1900-present] === Category listings === *[http://search.looksmart.com/p/browse/us1/us317836/us552286/us526499/us526505/us10234373/us703545/us671216/us671224/ ''LookSmart'' Liberal Democrats] *[http://dmoz.org/Regional/Europe/United_Kingdom/Society_and_Culture/Politics/Parties/Liberal_Democrats/ ''Open Directory Project'' Liberal Democrats] *[http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/United_Kingdom/Government/Politics/Parties/Liberal_Democrat_Party/ ''Yahoo!'' Liberal Democrat Party] === Miscellaneous === *[http://www.flocktogether.org.uk/ An overview of upcoming Liberal Democrat meetings around the country] *[http://politics.guardian.co.uk/libdems/ Guardian Unlimited Politics - Special Report: Liberal Democrats] *[http://kwiki.ffii.org/ElectUkLib0405En Liberal Democrats and Software patents] *[http://www.liberator.org.uk Liberator - a British liberal publication] *[http://www.bonkers.hall.btinternet.co.uk Lord Bonkers' Liberal Satire from Rutland] *[http://www.liberalreview.com Liberal Review, a review of Liberal Democrat blogs and media] *[http://www.libdemblogs.co.uk Lib Dem Blogs, an aggregator of Liberal Democrat blogs] *[http://www.united4belarus.org.uk United4Belarus, a campaign, run by the Liberal Democrat Youth and Students for democracy in upcoming Belarussian presidential elections] {{British_political_parties}} [[Category:UK Liberal Democrats| ]] [[Category:Political parties in the United Kingdom]] [[Category:Liberal_parties]] [[cy:Plaid Democratiaid Rhyddfrydol]] [[da:Liberal Democrats]] [[de:Liberal Democrats]] [[fr:Démocrates libéraux (Royaume-Uni)]] [[kw:Parti Livrel-Werinel]] [[ja:自由民主党 (イギリス)]] [[no:Liberaldemokratene]] [[pl:Liberalni Demokraci]] [[sv:Liberaldemokraterna]] [[zh:英国自由民主党]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Baptist Church</title> <id>4439</id> <revision> <id>15902705</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Baptist]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Berkeley Software Distribution</title> <id>4440</id> <revision> <id>42154235</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:24:57Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Uris</username> <id>174426</id> </contributor> <comment>Spacing</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|BSD}}{{Infobox OS |name = BSD Unix |screenshot = [[Image:BSD-daemon-rendering.png|A rendering of Beastie, the BSD daemon by Poul-Henning Kamp]] |caption = |developer = [[Computer Systems Research Group|Computer Systems &lt;br /&gt;Research Group]], [[University of California, Berkeley|UC Berkeley]] |family = [[Unix]] |source_model = [[Open source]] |latest_release_version = 4.4-Lite2 |latest_release_date = 1995 |kernel_type = Monolithic |license = BSD |working_state = Replaced by offspring (see below) |website = N/A |}} '''Berkeley Software Distribution''' ('''BSD''', sometimes called '''Berkeley Unix''') is the [[Unix]] derivative distributed by the [[University of California, Berkeley]] starting in the [[1970s]]. The name is also used collectively for the modern descendants of these distributions. BSD was widely identified with the versions of Unix available for workstation-class systems. This can be attributed to the ease with which it could be licensed and the familiarity it found among the founders of many technology companies during the 1980s. This familarity often came from using similar systems&amp;mdash;notably [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]]'s [[Ultrix]] and [[Sun Microsystems|Sun]]'s [[SunOS]]&amp;mdash;during their education. While BSD itself was largely superseded by the [[System V]] Release 4.x and [[OSF/1]] systems in the 1990s, in recent years modified [[open source]] versions of the codebase have seen increasing use and development. ==History== [[Image:Unix history-simple.png|thumb|[[Unix]], filiation on Unix systems.]] ===PDP-11 beginnings=== The earliest distributions of Unix from [[Bell Labs]] in the [[1970s]] included the [[source code]] to the operating system, allowing researchers at [[university|universities]] to modify and extend Unix. The first Unix system at Berkeley was a [[PDP-11]] installed in [[1974]], and the [[computer science]] department used it for extensive research thereafter. Other universities became interested in the software at Berkeley, and so in [[1977]] [[Bill Joy]], then a graduate student at Berkeley, assembled and sent out tapes of the '''first Berkeley Software Distribution''' ('''1BSD'''). 1BSD was an add-on to [[Sixth Edition Unix]] rather than a complete operating system in its own right; its main components were a [[Pascal programming language|Pascal]] [[compiler]] and Joy's [[ex (editor)|ex]] [[line editor]]. The '''Second Berkeley Software Distribution''' ('''2BSD'''), released in [[1978]], included updated versions of the 1BSD software as well as two new programs by Joy that persist on Unix systems to this day: the [[vi]] text editor (a [[visual editor|visual]] version of ex) and the [[C shell]]. Later releases of 2BSD contained ports of changes to the [[VAX]]-based releases of BSD back to the PDP-11 architecture. 2.9BSD from [[1983]] included code from 4.1cBSD, and was the first release that was a full OS (a modified [[Version 7 Unix]]) rather than a set of applications and patches. The most recent release, '''2.11BSD''', was first released in [[1992]], with maintenance updates from volunteers continuing unt
a&lt;br&gt; PPM&lt;br&gt; PPN&lt;br&gt; PPP&lt;br&gt; P-Prolog&lt;br&gt; PPTP&lt;br&gt; PQS&lt;br&gt; PR&lt;br&gt; pr&lt;br&gt; pr0n&lt;br&gt; PRA&lt;br&gt; pragma&lt;br&gt; PRAM&lt;br&gt; Praxis Critical Systems&lt;br&gt; pre ox&lt;br&gt; PRE-CC&lt;br&gt; PRECCX&lt;br&gt; precedence lossage&lt;br&gt; precharge&lt;br&gt; precision&lt;br&gt; predecessor&lt;br&gt; predicate calculus&lt;br&gt; predomain&lt;br&gt; pre-emptive multitasking&lt;br&gt; prefetch&lt;br&gt; prefix '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; prefix notation&lt;br&gt; prefix syntax&lt;br&gt; pre-order&lt;br&gt; pre-order traversal&lt;br&gt; PREP&lt;br&gt; prepaging&lt;br&gt; prepend&lt;br&gt; preprocessor&lt;br&gt; presence detect&lt;br&gt; presentation layer&lt;br&gt; Presentation Manager&lt;br&gt; prestidigitization&lt;br&gt; PRESTO&lt;br&gt; Pretty Amazing New Stuff&lt;br&gt; Pretty Good Privacy&lt;br&gt; pretty pictures&lt;br&gt; prettyprint&lt;br&gt; pretzel key&lt;br&gt; preventive maintenance&lt;br&gt; PRI&lt;br&gt; primary cache&lt;br&gt; primary key&lt;br&gt; primary management domain&lt;br&gt; Primary Rate Interface&lt;br&gt; Prime Computer&lt;br&gt; Primenet, Inc.&lt;br&gt; prime number theorem&lt;br&gt; prime time&lt;br&gt; primitive&lt;br&gt; Princeton University&lt;br&gt; principal type&lt;br&gt; PRINT&lt;br&gt; printed circuit board&lt;br&gt; printer&lt;br&gt; Printer Access Protocol&lt;br&gt; printer port&lt;br&gt; printf&lt;br&gt; PRINT I&lt;br&gt; printing discussion&lt;br&gt; print server&lt;br&gt; Print Services Facility&lt;br&gt; priority interrupt&lt;br&gt; priority inversion&lt;br&gt; priority queue&lt;br&gt; priority scheduling&lt;br&gt; PRISM&lt;br&gt; Prisoner of Bill&lt;br&gt; privacy&lt;br&gt; Privacy Enhanced Mail&lt;br&gt; Private Automatic Branch eXchange&lt;br&gt; Private Branch Exchange&lt;br&gt; Private Manual Branch eXchange&lt;br&gt; privileged instruction&lt;br&gt; PRL&lt;br&gt; PRMD&lt;br&gt; [[PRML]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; probabilistic&lt;br&gt; probabilistic automaton&lt;br&gt; Probe&lt;br&gt; problem state&lt;br&gt; PROC&lt;br&gt; procedural language&lt;br&gt; Procedural Language/SQL&lt;br&gt; procedure&lt;br&gt; process&lt;br&gt; Process and Experiment Automation Real-Time Language&lt;br&gt; Process Design Language 2&lt;br&gt; process ID&lt;br&gt; [[process identifier]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; processor&lt;br&gt; Processor Direct Slot&lt;br&gt; processor farm&lt;br&gt; processor time&lt;br&gt; process scheduling&lt;br&gt; process table&lt;br&gt; PROCOL&lt;br&gt; Procomm&lt;br&gt; Procrustean string&lt;br&gt; Prodigy&lt;br&gt; ProDoc&lt;br&gt; product&lt;br&gt; production system&lt;br&gt; Professional Graphics Adapter&lt;br&gt; Professional Office System&lt;br&gt; professional programming&lt;br&gt; PROFILE&lt;br&gt; profile&lt;br&gt; PROFS&lt;br&gt; PROGENY&lt;br&gt; proglet&lt;br&gt; program&lt;br&gt; Program Composition Notation&lt;br&gt; program counter&lt;br&gt; Program Design Language&lt;br&gt; Program Evaluation and Review Technique&lt;br&gt; Program Information File&lt;br&gt; Programmable Airline Reservation System&lt;br&gt; Programmable Array Logic&lt;br&gt; Programmable Logic Controller&lt;br&gt; Programmable Read-Only Memory&lt;br&gt; Programmed Data Processor&lt;br&gt; PROgrammed Graph REwriting Systems&lt;br&gt; programmer&lt;br&gt; Programmer Brain Damage&lt;br&gt; Programmer's Cheer&lt;br&gt; Programmers Hierarchical Interactive Graphics System&lt;br&gt; PROgrammer's Microapplication Language&lt;br&gt; Programmer's Switch&lt;br&gt; programming&lt;br&gt; programming fluid&lt;br&gt; programming language&lt;br&gt; Programming Language/Cornell&lt;br&gt; Programming Language/Systems&lt;br&gt; Program Temporary Fix&lt;br&gt; program transformation&lt;br&gt; [[Prograph]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; PROGRES&lt;br&gt; progressive coding&lt;br&gt; Progressive JPEG&lt;br&gt; progressive/sequential coding&lt;br&gt; PROJECT&lt;br&gt; project assurance&lt;br&gt; Project Athena&lt;br&gt; Project Guardian&lt;br&gt; projection&lt;br&gt; projective plane&lt;br&gt; Project MAC&lt;br&gt; project management&lt;br&gt; project planning&lt;br&gt; Prolog&lt;br&gt; Prolog++&lt;br&gt; Prolog-2&lt;br&gt; Prolog-D-Linda&lt;br&gt; Prolog-II&lt;br&gt; Prolog-III&lt;br&gt; Prolog-Linda&lt;br&gt; Prolog/Mali&lt;br&gt; PROM&lt;br&gt; PROMAL&lt;br&gt; Prometheus&lt;br&gt; promiscuous mode&lt;br&gt; PROM monitor&lt;br&gt; pron&lt;br&gt; Pronet&lt;br&gt; Pronunciation&lt;br&gt; proof&lt;br&gt; PROOF/L&lt;br&gt; proof theory&lt;br&gt; propeller head&lt;br&gt; propeller key&lt;br&gt; Proposal Writing&lt;br&gt; propositional calculus&lt;br&gt; proprietary&lt;br&gt; PROSE&lt;br&gt; ProSet&lt;br&gt; PROSPER&lt;br&gt; Prospero&lt;br&gt; ProTalk&lt;br&gt; protected mode&lt;br&gt; PROTEUS&lt;br&gt; protocal&lt;br&gt; protocol&lt;br&gt; protocol analyser&lt;br&gt; protocol converter&lt;br&gt; Protocol Data Unit&lt;br&gt; protocol layer&lt;br&gt; protocol stack&lt;br&gt; PROTON&lt;br&gt; Protosynthex&lt;br&gt; Prototyper&lt;br&gt; prototyping&lt;br&gt; provably difficult&lt;br&gt; provably unsolvable&lt;br&gt; provider&lt;br&gt; provocative maintenance&lt;br&gt; prowler&lt;br&gt; proxy ARP&lt;br&gt; proxy gateway&lt;br&gt; Proxy Server&lt;br&gt; proxy server&lt;br&gt; PS&lt;br&gt; PS/2 '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; PS 440&lt;br&gt; PSA&lt;br&gt; PS-ALGOL&lt;br&gt; pSather&lt;br&gt; PSD&lt;br&gt; PSDN&lt;br&gt; pseudo&lt;br&gt; Pseudocode&lt;br&gt; pseudoprime&lt;br&gt; pseudo-random number&lt;br&gt; PseudoScheme&lt;br&gt; pseudosuit&lt;br&gt; pseudo-tty&lt;br&gt; PSF&lt;br&gt; PSI&lt;br&gt; Psion Organiser&lt;br&gt; PSK&lt;br&gt; PSL&lt;br&gt; PSL/PSA&lt;br&gt; PSML&lt;br&gt; PSN&lt;br&gt; PSTN&lt;br&gt; psychedelicware&lt;br&gt; psyton&lt;br&gt; pt&lt;br&gt; P-TAC&lt;br&gt; ptc&lt;br&gt; PTF&lt;br&gt; Pthreads&lt;br&gt; PTI&lt;br&gt; PTN&lt;br&gt; Ptolemy&lt;br&gt; PTT&lt;br&gt; PUB&lt;br&gt; public directory&lt;br&gt; public domain&lt;br&gt; public domain software&lt;br&gt; public-key cryptography&lt;br&gt; Public-Key Cryptography Standards&lt;br&gt; public-key encryption&lt;br&gt; Public Key Infrastructure&lt;br&gt; Public Switched Telephone Network&lt;br&gt; puff&lt;br&gt; PUFFT&lt;br&gt; pull&lt;br&gt; pull-down list&lt;br&gt; pull-down menu&lt;br&gt; pull media&lt;br&gt; Pulse Code Modulation&lt;br&gt; pumpkin&lt;br&gt; pumpkineer&lt;br&gt; pumpking&lt;br&gt; punch card&lt;br&gt; punched card&lt;br&gt; punt&lt;br&gt; Purdue Compiler-Construction Tool Set&lt;br&gt; Purdue University&lt;br&gt; pure functional language&lt;br&gt; pure lambda-calculus&lt;br&gt; PureLink&lt;br&gt; Pure Lisp&lt;br&gt; purely functional language&lt;br&gt; Purify&lt;br&gt; Purple Book&lt;br&gt; purple wire&lt;br&gt; Purveyor&lt;br&gt; push&lt;br&gt; push-button&lt;br&gt; Push Down List&lt;br&gt; push media&lt;br&gt; PVC&lt;br&gt; [[PVM]]&lt;br&gt; PV-WAVE&lt;br&gt; pw&lt;br&gt; py&lt;br&gt; Python&lt;br&gt; Q&lt;br&gt; QA&lt;br&gt; qa&lt;br&gt; QA4&lt;br&gt; QAM&lt;br&gt; Qbasic&lt;br&gt; QBE&lt;br&gt; QCA&lt;br&gt; qdjanus&lt;br&gt; QDOS&lt;br&gt; QEMM386&lt;br&gt; QIC&lt;br&gt; QL&lt;br&gt; Qlambda&lt;br&gt; QLISP&lt;br&gt; QLOG&lt;br&gt; QMW&lt;br&gt; Q'NIAL&lt;br&gt; [[QNX]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; QoS&lt;br&gt; QPE&lt;br&gt; QT-OBJECTS&lt;br&gt; QTRADER&lt;br&gt; quad&lt;br&gt; Quadralay Corporation&lt;br&gt; Quadrature Amplitude Modulation&lt;br&gt; quadruple bucky&lt;br&gt; quadruplex&lt;br&gt; Quake&lt;br&gt; Qualcomm&lt;br&gt; quality&lt;br&gt; quality assurance&lt;br&gt; quality control&lt;br&gt; quality of service&lt;br&gt; Quality Systems &amp;amp&lt;br&gt; Software Ltd.&lt;br&gt; quantifier&lt;br&gt; Quantify&lt;br&gt; quantum&lt;br&gt; quantum bogodynamics&lt;br&gt; quantum cell&lt;br&gt; quantum cell wire&lt;br&gt; quantum computer&lt;br&gt; quantum computing&lt;br&gt; quantum dot&lt;br&gt; Quantum-dot Cellular Automata&lt;br&gt; quarter&lt;br&gt; Quarter Inch Cartridge&lt;br&gt; Quay Financial Software&lt;br&gt; QUEASY&lt;br&gt; Queen Mary and Westfield College&lt;br&gt; Queens Problem&lt;br&gt; Queens Puzzle&lt;br&gt; Queen's University&lt;br&gt; QUEL&lt;br&gt; query&lt;br&gt; Query By Example&lt;br&gt; query expansion&lt;br&gt; ques&lt;br&gt; Quest&lt;br&gt; question mark&lt;br&gt; queue&lt;br&gt; QUICK&lt;br&gt; quick-and-dirty&lt;br&gt; QuickDraw&lt;br&gt; Quicksilver&lt;br&gt; Quicksort&lt;br&gt; Quicktime&lt;br&gt; quiesce&lt;br&gt; quiesce time&lt;br&gt; QUIKSCRIPT&lt;br&gt; QUIKTRAN&lt;br&gt; QUIN&lt;br&gt; quine&lt;br&gt; Quintec-Objects&lt;br&gt; quintillion&lt;br&gt; Quintus Prolog&lt;br&gt; quote chapter and verse&lt;br&gt; quotient&lt;br&gt; Qu-Prolog&lt;br&gt; Quty&lt;br&gt; quux&lt;br&gt; qux&lt;br&gt; [[QWERTY]]&lt;br&gt; QX&lt;br&gt; :''See also :'' [[Free On-line Dictionary of Computing]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Wikipedia:Free On-line Dictionary of Computing/X - Z</title> <id>11335</id> <revision> <id>24243599</id> <timestamp>2005-09-28T16:46:58Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>CambridgeBayWeather</username> <id>294180</id> </contributor> <comment>Fixing link</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''See also :'' [[Free On-line Dictionary of Computing]] [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/symbols - B|symbols - B]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/C - D|C - D]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/E - H|E - H]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/I - K|I - K]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/L - N|L - N]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/O - Q|O - Q]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/R - S|R - S]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/T - W|T - W]] -- '''X - Z''' -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/Status|FOLDOC Status Page]] X '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; X-1 '''NO IMPORT''' - insignificant&lt;br&gt; X11R4 '''NO IMPORT''' - insignificant&lt;br&gt; X11R5 '''NO IMPORT''' - insignificant&lt;br&gt; X11R6 '''NO IMPORT''' - insignificant&lt;br&gt; [[Electronic Data Interchange|X.12]] '''NO IMPORT''' - insignificant&lt;br&g
quot; - using [[film editing]] to alternate between different events occurring at the same time - in order to build [[suspense]]. That being said, he still used many elements from the &quot;primitive&quot; style of movie-making that predated [[Classical Hollywood cinema|classical Hollywood]]'s continuity system, such as frontal staging, exaggerated gestures, minimal camera movement, and an absence of [[point of view shot]]s. Some claim, too, that he &quot;invented&quot; the [[close-up]] shot. Credit for Griffith's cinematic innovations must be shared with his cameraman of many years, [[Billy Bitzer]]. In addition, he himself credited the legendary silent star [[Lillian Gish]], who appeared in several of his films, with creating a new style of acting for the cinema. [[Image:wiki_dwgriffith.JPG|thumb|left|Stamp issued by the [[United States Postal Service]] commemorating D. W. Griffith.]] ==Controversy== Griffith was a highly controversial figure. Immensely popular at the time of its release, his film ''[[The Birth of a Nation]]'' (1915), based on the novel ''[[The Clansman]]'', is widely considered responsible for the resurgence of the [[Ku Klux Klan]] in the United States. The [[NAACP]] attempted to have ''The Birth of a Nation'' banned. After that effort failed, they then attempted to have some of the film's scenes censored. ==Legacy== Motion picture legend [[Charles Chaplin]] called Griffith &quot;The Teacher Of Us All&quot;. This sentiment was widely shared. Filmmakers as diverse as [[John Ford]] and [[Orson Welles]] have spoken of their respect for the director of ''[[Intolerance]]''. Whether he actually invented new techniques in film grammar, he seems to have been among the first to understand how these techniques could be used to create an expressive language. In early shorts such as Biograph's ''[[The Musketeers of Pig Alley]]'' (1912) which was the first &quot;Gangster film&quot;, we can see how Griffith's attention to camera placement and lighting heighten mood and tension. In making ''[[Intolerance]]'' the director opened up new possibilities for the medium, creating a form that seems to owe more to music than to traditonal narrative. Griffith was honored on a 10-cent postage stamp by the [[United States]] issued [[May 5]], [[1975]]. In [[1953]], the [[Directors Guild of America]] instituted the [[D.W. Griffith Award]], its Guild's highest honor. Its recipients included [[Stanley Kubrick]], [[David Lean]], [[John Huston]], [[Woody Allen]], [[Akira Kurosawa]], [[John Ford]], [[Ingmar Bergman]], [[Alfred Hitchcock]] and Griffith's friend [[Cecil B. DeMille]]. On [[15 December]], [[1999]], however, DGA President Jack Shea and the DGA National Board - without membership consultation (though unecessary according to DGA's regulations)- announced that the award would be renamed the [[DGA Lifetime Achievement Award]] because Griffith's film ''[[Birth of a Nation]]'' had &quot;helped foster intolerable racial stereotypes&quot;. The following living recipients of the award agreed with the guild's decision: [[Francis Ford Coppola]], [[Robert Altman]], [[Sidney Lumet]] and [[Robert Wise]]. ==Selected filmography== *''[[The Birth of a Nation]]'' ([[1915]]) *''[[Intolerance (film)|Intolerance]]'' ([[1916]]) *''[[Broken Blossoms]]'' ([[1919]]) *''[[Way Down East]]'' ([[1920]]) *''[[Orphans Of The Storm]]'' ([[1921]]) *''[[America (1924 movie)|America]]'' ([[1924]]) ==External links== * {{imdb name|id=0000428|name=D.W. Griffith}} [[Category:1875 births|Griffith, D. W.]] [[Category:1948 deaths|Griffith, D. W.]] [[Category:English Americans|Griffith, D.W.]] [[Category:Methodists|Griffith, D.W.]] [[Category:People from Kentucky|Griffith, D. W.]] [[Category:Welsh-Americans|Griffith, D.W.]] [[Category:American film directors|Griffith, D.W.]] [[bg:Дейвид Уорк Грифит]] [[da:D.W. Griffith]] [[de:David Griffith]] [[es:David Wark Griffith]] [[fr:David Wark Griffith]] [[it:David Wark Griffith]] [[he:דיוויד לוולין וורק גריפית']] [[hu:D. W. Griffith]] [[nl:D.W. Griffith]] [[ja:D・W・グリフィス]] [[fi:D. W. Griffith]] [[sv:D.W. Griffith]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Direct realism</title> <id>7889</id> <revision> <id>39530248</id> <timestamp>2006-02-14T02:52:44Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Nahallac Silverwinds</username> <id>301479</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages maintenance|You can help!]])</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Direct realism''' is a theory of [[perception]] that claims that the [[senses]] provide us with direct [[awareness]] of the [[external world]]. In contrast, [[indirect realism]] and [[representationalism]] claim that we are directly aware only of internal representations of the external world. Direct realists sometimes claim that indirect realists are confused about conventional [[idiom]]s of perceptions. Perception is an exemplar of direct contact with something. Examples of indirect perception might be seeing something in a photograph, or hearing a recording of a voice. Direct realists often argue, contra representationalists, that the fact that one becomes aware of a tree in perception through a complex neurophysical process does not argue in favour of indirect perception. It merely establishes the method, undoubtedly complex, by which direct awareness of the world is secured. Arguing that perceiving a tree directly requires a [[magic (paranormal)|magic]]al, [[causality|acausal]] mirroring of the tree in the mind is akin to arguing that traveling directly to grandmother's requires that one magically appear at her doorstep. The inference from the fact of a complex route to indirectness may be an instance of the [[genetic fallacy]]. Direct realism proposes no physical theory of experience and does not identify experience with the [[quantum mechanics|quantum]] phenomena that are things in themselves or even with the twin [[retina]]l images. This lack of [[supervenience]] of experience on the physical world means that direct realism is not a physical theory. ==Examples of the direct realist approach== [[Scottish people|Scottish]] philosopher [[Thomas Reid]] lived at the same time as [[David Hume]]. Reid argued strenuously against the notion that ideas, or sense-data, are the immediate objects of perception at all -- he rejected representationalism. One of Reid's arguments was very simple, and went like this: If representationalism is correct, then we are forced to either [[skepticism]] or [[phenomenalism]]. But skepticism and phenomenalism are both [[absurd]]; there surely is an external world, and we surely do have [[knowledge]] of it. So, by ''[[reductio ad absurdum]]'', we must reject any [[theory]] that would force us to accept either skepticism or phenomenalism. So, we must reject representationalism. What would it mean to reject representationalism? It would mean accepting that we do not perceive [[sense data]] at all. When I look at my hand, I do not immediately perceive a bundle or series of hand sense data which represent my actual hand. No, I immediately perceive my hand. I do not perceive any hand sense-data at all. So the view up for consideration now is that we immediately, directly perceive the external world. This view is called ''direct realism'', which Reid championed brilliantly:&lt;blockquote&gt;Direct realism is the view that the immediate (direct) objects of perception are external [[objects]], [[qualities]], and [[events]].&lt;/blockquote&gt;Do not confuse direct realism with the more naïve view discussed earlier, that the world is exactly as we perceive it to be. Obviously, sometimes we misperceive the world. The direct realist does not deny that there are perceptual illusions. The claim is, rather, simply that when we do perceive something, what we directly perceive, the immediate object of perception, is in the external world, not in the mind. Nonetheless, the argument from illusion can be taken as an argument against direct realism because the argument from illusion shows the need to posit sense-data as the immediate objects of perception. How might direct realism answer the argument from illusion? One strategy is to show how all those different cases of misperception, failed perception, and perceptual relativity -- all those hard cases -- do not really make it necessary to suppose that there are sense-data. Those cases might be explained without having to talk about sense-data. Take first the case of the stick that looks bent in the water. Direct realism doesn't say that the stick actually is bent; it says, rather, that the stick, which is straight, can, in some unusual circumstances, look bent. And to say that it looks bent is just to say that the light, which is reflected from the stick, arrives at our eyes in a crooked pattern. So the stick can have more than one appearance. But the appearance of a stick isn't a sense-datum in my mind. It's a pattern of light, the sort of things that physicists can study, that arrives at my eye. What's mysterious about that? A similar sort of thing can be said about the bluish color of the hills in the distance. Hills, and everything else, can appear with all sorts of different colors; but the color is simply the wavelength of light as it reaches my eye. If the light from the green hills has to traverse many miles, then it may be bluish when it arrives at my eyes. There's no need to suppose I am seeing bluish sense-data: nope, what I'm seeing is bluish light, which comes from the hills. The hills would reflect green light to my eyes if I were closer to them. Now the case of pressing on my eyeball, and getting a double image. Well, it's undeniable that, when I cross my eyes and seem to see two fingers, there are two of something. But of what? Why say there are two sense-data? Why not, instead, say that I have two eyes, and each eye gives me a different
ve per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --&gt; |percent_water = 0.65 |population_estimate = 186,112,794 |population_estimate_rank = 5th |population_estimate_year = 2004 |population_census = |population_census_year = |population_density = 22 |population_densitymi² = 57 &lt;!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --&gt; |population_density_rank = 150th |GDP_PPP = $1.580 trillion |GDP_PPP_rank = 9th &lt;!-- World Bank (2004) --&gt; |GDP_PPP_year= 2005 est. |GDP_PPP_per_capita = $8,049 &lt;!-- World Bank (2004) cia.gov has a different amount; $8,500 --&gt; |GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 70th |sovereignty_type = Independence |established_events = From [[Portugal]] |established_dates = Declared:&amp;nbsp;[[September 7]] [[1822]]&lt;br /&gt;Recognized:&amp;nbsp;[[August 29]] [[1825]] |HDI = 0.792 |HDI_rank = 63rd |HDI_year = 2003 |HDI_category = &lt;font color=&quot;#FFCC00&quot;&gt;medium&lt;/font&gt; |currency = [[Brazilian real|Real]] |currency_code = BRL |country_code = |time_zone = |utc_offset = -2 to -5 (Official: -3) |time_zone_DST = |utc_offset_DST = |cctld = .br |calling_code = 55 |footnotes = }} {{portal}} The '''Federative Republic of Brazil''' ([[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]: ''República Federativa do Brasil'', [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: {{IPA|[ʁe'publikɐ fedeɾa'tʃivɐ du bɾa'ziw]}}{{ref|pronunciation}}) is the largest and [[List of countries by population|most populous country]] in [[Latin America]], and fifth largest in the world. Spanning a vast area between central [[South America]] and the [[Atlantic Ocean]], it is the easternmost country of the [[Americas]] and it borders [[Uruguay]], [[Argentina]], [[Paraguay]], [[Bolivia]], [[Peru]], [[Colombia]], [[Venezuela]], [[Guyana]], [[Suriname]] and the French department of [[French Guiana]]—every South American nation except for [[Ecuador]] and [[Chile]]. Named after [[brazilwood]] (''pau-brasil''), a tree highly valued by early colonists, Brazil is home to both extensive [[agriculture|agricultural]] lands and [[rain forest]]s. Exploiting vast natural resources and a large labor pool, it is South America's leading economic power and a regional leader. As a former [[colony]] of [[Portugal]], Portuguese is its [[official language]]. ==History== {{main|History of Brazil}} Brazil is thought to have been inhabited for at least 10,000 years by semi-nomadic populations when the first [[Portugal|Portuguese]] explorers, led by [[Pedro Álvares Cabral]], disembarked in 1500. Over the next three centuries, it was resettled by the Portuguese and exploited mainly for [[brazilwood]] (Pau-Brasil) at first, and later for [[sugarcane]] (Cana-de-Açúcar) agriculture and [[gold mining]]. The colony's source of manpower was initially on [[Slavery#Slavery in Brazil|enslaved]] [[Indigenous peoples in Brazil|Amerindians]], and after 1550, mainly [[African]] slaves. In 1808, Queen [[Maria I of Portugal]] and her son and regent, the future [[John VI of Portugal|João VI of Portugal]], fleeing from [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]], relocated to Brazil with the royal family, nobles and government. Though they returned to Portugal in 1821, the interlude led to the opening of commercial ports to the [[United Kingdom]] &amp;mdash; at the time isolated from most European ports by Napoleon &amp;mdash; and to the elevation of Brazil to the status of a united kingdom with Portugal's Crown. Then prince regent [[Peter I of Brazil|Dom Pedro I]] (later Pedro IV of Portugal) declared independence on [[7 September]] [[1822]], establishing the independent [[Empire of Brazil]]. As the crown remained in the hands of the [[House of Braganza|house of Bragança]], this was more the severance of the Portuguese empire in two, than an independence movement as seen elsewhere in the Americas. [[Image:Ouro_Preto.jpg|thumb|200px|left|[[Ouro Preto]], Historical city of [[XVIII century]].]] The Brazilian Empire was theoretically a democracy in the [[Westminster system|British style]], although in practice, the emperor-premier-parliament balance of power more closely resembled the autocratic [[Austrian Empire]]. Slavery was abolished in 1888, and intensive European immigration created the basis for industrialization. Pedro I was succeeded by his son, [[Pedro II of Brazil|Pedro II]] &amp;mdash; who in old age was caught by a political dispute between the Army and the Cabinet, a crisis arising from the [[War of the Triple Alliance|Paraguay War]]. In order to avoid a civil war between Army and Navy, Pedro II renounced the throne on [[15 November]] [[1889]], when a [[federal republic]] was established by [[Marechal Deodoro da Fonseca|Field Marshal Deodoro da Fonseca]]. In the late [[19th century|19th]] and early [[20th century|20th]] centuries, Brazil attracted over 5 million [[Europe]]an and [[Japanese people|Japanese]] immigrants. That period also saw Brazil industrialize, further colonize, and develop its interior. Brazilian democracy was replaced by [[dictatorship]]s three times &amp;mdash; 1930&amp;ndash;1934 and 1937&amp;ndash;1945 under [[Getúlio Vargas]], and 1964&amp;ndash;1985, under a succession of generals appointed by the military. Today, Brazil is internationally considered a [[democracy]] since 1985, specifically a [[president]]ial democracy, which was kept after a [[plebiscite]] in 1993 where voters had to choose between a presidential or [[parliamentary system]]s, whilst also choosing if Brazil should reinstate its [[constitutional monarchy]]. ==Politics== [[Image:Bras%C3%ADlia_-_Pra%C3%A7a_dos_tr%C3%AAs_poderes.jpeg|thumb|left|[[National Congress of Brazil]].]] {{main|Politics of Brazil}} The 1988 [[constitution]] grants broad powers to the federal government. The [[President of Brazil|President]] has extensive [[executive (government)|executive]] powers; he appoints the [[Cabinet of Brazil|Cabinet]], and he is also both [[head of state]] and [[head of government]]. The [[Presidents of Brazil|President]] and Vice-President are elected on the same ticket by popular vote for four-year terms. The Brazilian [[legislature]], the bicameral National Congress or [[National Congress of Brazil|''Congresso Nacional'']], includes the Federal [[Senate]] or [[Federal Senate of Brazil|''Senado Federal'']] of 81 seats, of which three members from each state or federal district are elected according to the principle of majority to serve eight-year terms; one-third elected after a four-year period, two-thirds elected after the next four-year period. Beside the Senate there is the [[Chamber of Deputies]] or [[Chamber of Deputies of Brazil|''Câmara dos Deputados'']] of 513 seats, whose members are elected by [[proportional representation]] to serve four-year terms. ==Regions and States== {{main|States of Brazil}} Brazil consists of 26 states (''estados'', singular ''estado'') and 1 federal district (''distrito federal''): [[Image:Br-map.png|thumb|200px|Map of Brazil]] Brazil and its 26 states and Federal District are divided by [[IBGE]] into 5 distinctive [[region]]s: [[North Region, Brazil|North]], [[Northeast Region, Brazil|Northeast]], [[Center-West Region, Brazil|Center-West]], [[Southeast Region, Brazil|Southeast]] and [[South Region, Brazil|South]] ([[Regions of Brazil|Division by Regions]]). *North: [[Acre (state)|Acre]], [[Amapá]], [[Amazonas]], [[Pará]], [[Rondônia]], [[Roraima]] and [[Tocantins (state)|Tocantins]]. The North constitutes 45.27% of the surface of Brazil and it is simultaneously the region with the lowest number of inhabitants. It is a fairly unindustrialized and undeveloped region, but it accommodates the largest rainforest of the world, the [[Amazon Rainforest|Amazon]], and many [[indigenous peoples of Brazil|indigenous]] tribes. [[Image:Praia_de_Fortaleza.jpg|thumb|180px|left|[[Fortaleza]] the State capital of [[Ceará]], located in northeastern Brazil.]] *Northeast: [[Alagoas]], [[Bahia]], [[Ceará]], [[Maranhão]], [[Paraíba]], [[Pernambuco]], [[Piauí]], [[Rio Grande do Norte]] and [[Sergipe]]. The Northeast has 1/3 of Brazil's population. The region is culturally diverse, with roots from the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] colonial period, [[Afro-Brazilian]] culture and some [[Indigenous peoples in Brazil|Brazilian Indian]] influence. It is also the poorest region of Brazil, with long periods of [[dry]] [[climate]]. It is well-known for its beautiful [[coast]]. *Central-West: [[Goiás]], [[Mato Grosso]], [[Mato Grosso do Sul]] and [[Brazilian Federal District|Federal District]]. The Central-West is the second largest region of Brazil, but has a low demographic density, since most of the population is concentrated in large cities. It is where the capital of Brazil, [[Brasília]], is located. The region also accommodates the [[Pantanal]], the world’s largest wetland area. [[Image:BH11.jpg|thumb|180px|left|[[Belo Horizonte]] capital of [[Minas Gerais]] in Southeast region.]] *Southeast: [[Rio de Janeiro (state)|Rio de Janeiro]], [[Espírito Santo]], [[Minas Gerais]] and [[São Paulo (state)|São Paulo]] The Southeast is the richest and most populated region of Brazil. It has more inhabitants than any other South American country, with two of the largest [[megalopolis |megalopolises]] of the world: [[São Paulo]] and [[Rio de Janeiro]], the largest producer of oil and gas in Brazil. The region is very diverse, including the major business center of São Paulo, the [[Historical]] cities of Minas Gerais, the world famous beaches of Rio de Janeiro, and the Espírito Santo beautiful coast. [[Image:Blumenau2.JPG|thumb|200px|right|Strong influence from [[German people|German]] immigrants in [[Blumenau]], Southern region]] *South: [[Paraná]], [[Santa Catarina (state)|Santa Catarina]] and [[Rio Grande do Sul]] The South is the wealthiest per capita region of Brazil, with the highest [[standard of living]] in the country. It is also the [[temperature|coldest]] part of Brazil, with occasional occurrences of [[frost|frosts]] and [[snowstorms]]. The region has been heavily settled by [[European]]
]], [[High Energy Liquid Laser Area Defense System]], [[WolfPack]], [[FALCON (DARPA)|FALCON]], [[DARPA XG]] * '''Past Projects:''' [[AGILE (DARPA)|AGILE]], [[Aspen Movie Map]], [[ARPANET]], [[DAML]], [[DARPA Grand Challenge]], [[DEFENDER (DARPA)|DEFENDER]], [[History of the Internet]], [[Hypersonic Research Program (DARPA)|Hypersonic Research Program]], [[LIGHTSAT (DARPA)|LIGHTSAT]], [[Multics]], [[NLS (computer system)|NLS Computer System]], [[Onion Routing]], [[Passive radar]], [[Policy Analysis Market]], [[Project MAC]], [[RQ-1 Predator]], [[Project Vela]], [[Sea Shadow]], [[Strategic Computing Program (DARPA)|Strategic Computing Program]], [[SURAN]], [[Thinking Machines]] * '''Offices:''' [[Information Awareness Office]] * '''People:''' [[Barry Boehm]], [[Vint Cerf]], [[Robert Fano]], [[James Hendler]], [[Bob Kahn]], [[JCR Licklider]], [[Robert Sproull]], [[John Poindexter]], [[Douglas Engelbart]], [[Anthony J. Tether]]Video game series : Splinter Cell has DARPA in it == References == {{FOLDOC}} ==External links== * [http://www.darpa.mil/ DARPA - DARPA Home Page] * [http://www.darpa.mil/body/pdf/transition.pdf DARPA Technology Transition] Lengthy presentation of DARPA technology successes * [http://astachine.narod.ru/darpa_russ.htm DARPA-Russian Technological Concept Dictionary] * [http://www.darpa.mil/grandchallenge Grand Challenge ][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence] powered grand challenge for autonomous vehicles. [[Category:DARPA| ]] [[ar:داربا]] [[ca:Agència d'Investigacions de Projectes Avançats de Defensa]] [[de:DARPA]] [[es:Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency]] [[fr:Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency]] [[hu:DARPA]] [[nl:Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency]] [[ja:防衛高等研究計画局]] [[no:Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency]] [[pl:Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency]] [[ru:DARPA]] [[sl:Agencija za napredne obrambne analize ZDA]] [[sv:DARPA]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Dunstan</title> <id>8958</id> <revision> <id>40363051</id> <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:47:33Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rich Farmbrough</username> <id>82835</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>External links per MoS.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">''Dunstan is also a village in Northumberland, and a [[Lake Dunstan|lake in New Zealand]]'' [[Image:Dunstan and the Devil - Project Gutenberg eText 13978.png|thumbnail|250px|right|Dunstan shoeing the Devil's hoof, as illustrated by [[George Cruikshank]]]] '''Dunstan''' ([[909]]&amp;ndash;[[May 19]] [[988]]) was an [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] ([[961]]&amp;ndash;[[988]]) who was later [[canonization|canonized]] as a [[saint]]. He gained fame for the many stories told about his cunning in dealing with the [[Devil]]. He began his career at [[Glastonbury]], becoming abbot in [[945]]. The abbey flourished under his administration, with a substantial extension of the irrigation system on the surrounding [[Somerset Levels]]. Following the accession of King [[Edwy of England]], he became less influential and went overseas to [[Flanders]]. On his return, in [[957]], he imported [[Benedictine]] customs, becoming bishop of [[Worcester, England|Worcester]] and [[London]] in [[959]], and in [[961]] became Archbishop of Canterbury, under King [[Edgar of England]]. Having crowned Edgar in [[973]], he performed the same service for his successor, [[Edward the Martyr]], and later for [[Ethelred the Unready]]. The service is still used as the basis for contemporary [[United Kingdom|British]] coronations. He died in [[988]] and was canonized in [[1029]]. He functions as the [[patron saint]] of [[goldsmith]]s, and himself worked as a [[blacksmith]], [[painter]], and [[jeweller]]. [[English literature]] contains many references to him, for example in [[A Christmas Carol]] by [[Charles Dickens]], and in this folk rhyme: :St Dunstan, as the story goes, :Once pull'd the devil by the nose :With red-hot tongs, which made him roar, :That he was heard three miles or more. From this the tongs have become a symbol of St Dunstan and are featured in the arms of [[Tower Hamlets]]. Another story relates how Dunstan nailed a horseshoe to the Devil's hoof when he was asked to reshod the Devil's horse. This caused the Devil great pain, and Dunstan only agreed to remove the shoe and release the Devil after he promised never to enter a place where a horseshoe is over the door. This is claimed as the origin of the lucky horseshoe. The Church marks his [[feast day]] on [[May 19]]. ==Churches dedicated to St Dunstan== * [[St Dunstan's, Mayfield]] * [[St Dunstan's, Stepney]] * St. Dunstan's, Auburn, AL * [http://st-dunstans-episcopal.us St. Dunstan's Church of the Highlands Parish, Shoreline, Washington] &lt;center&gt; &lt;table border=&quot;2&quot;&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;Preceded by:&lt;br /&gt; '''[[Coenweld ]]'''&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td width=&quot;40%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;'''[[Bishop of Worcester]]'''&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;Followed by:&lt;br /&gt; '''[[St. Oswald]]'''&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;td width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;Preceded by:&lt;br /&gt; '''[[Byrrthelm]]'''&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td width=&quot;40%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;'''[[Bishop of London]]'''&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;Followed by:&lt;br /&gt; '''[[Aelstan]]'''&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;td width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;Preceded by:&lt;br /&gt; '''[[Aelfsige]]'''&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td width=&quot;40%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;'''[[Archbishop of Canterbury]]'''&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;Followed by:&lt;br /&gt; '''[[Æthelgar]]'''&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;/table&gt; &lt;/center&gt; ==Popular culture== * In the [[Dark Horse Comics]] series [[Hellboy]] by [[Mike Mignola]], the legend of St. Dunstan is referenced in the story ''Box Full of Evil'' (a two-issue tale included in the graphic novel ''The Right Hand of Doom''). The story is embellished upon so that not only did St. Dunstan pinch the devil's nose with tongs, he also hammered the devil's head on an anvil before sealing him away in a box. A thousand years later, in the present day, the box and its key are recovered by the scam artist Igor Bromhead, who opens it. In doing so he unleashes its captive devil Ualac, a minor demon of Hell who covets Hellboy's Crown of the Apocalypse. *In [[Robertson Davies|Robertson Davies']] acclaimed novel ''[[Fifth Business]]'', at the prompting of his lover, the protagonist changes his name from Dunstable to [[Dunstan Ramsay]] based on the saint's life and personality. Ramsay is meant to personify Saint Dunstan in the novel, especially considering the saint's meeting with the [[Devil]]. * [[Manly Wade Wellman]] often made reference to St. Dunstan in his stories. His [[occult detective]] character [[Judge Pursuivant]] carried a [[sword cane]] with a silver blade forged by the saint. A later character, [[John Thunstone]] had even closer connections to the character. The name &quot;Thunstone&quot; was meant to evoke &quot;Dunstan.&quot; ==External links== *[http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/13978 The True Legend of St. Dunstan and the Devil], by Edward G. Flight, Illustrated by [[George Cruikshank]], published in 1871, and available from [[Project Gutenberg]] &lt;!--Categories--&gt; [[Category:909 births]] [[Category:988 deaths]] [[Category:Anglo-Saxon saints]] [[Category:Benedictines]] [[Category:Archbishops of Canterbury]] [[Category:English folklore]] [[Category:Blacksmiths]] [[ang:Dūnstān]] [[de:Dunstan von Canterbury]] [[fr:Dunstan]] [[ja:ドゥンスタン]] [[pl:Święty Dunstan]] [[fi:Dunstan]] [[sv:Dunstan av Canterbury]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Deprogramming</title> <id>8960</id> <revision> <id>35432343</id> <timestamp>2006-01-16T19:11:14Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Deltabeignet</username> <id>195366</id> </contributor> <comment>merged part of lead</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Deprogramming''' refers to actions to force a person to abandon allegiance to a religious group. Most deprogrammings in the U.S. and Japan are commissioned by parents of adult children, which has lead to controversies over [[freedom of religion]] and [[civil rights]]. Supporters of deprogramming portray the practice as an antidote to illegitimate or deceptive [[religious conversion]] practices by &quot;[[cult]]s&quot;, variously called [[mind control]], [[brainwashing]], [[thought reform]], or [[coercive persuasion]]. They describe it as a last resort for families who feel that their loved ones have been taken away from them. The validity and legality of deprogramming has been attacked by members of [[new religious movement]]s (NRM), by professor [[Eileen Barker]], and other scholars. Their common argument asserts that it is dangerous and illegal to [[kidnap]] someone from any organization in which they voluntarily participate. Barker further argues that if the deprogramming fails then it will only widen the rift between the member of the NRM and his or her family. Sometimes the word ''deprogramming'' is used in a wider sense, to mean the freeing of someone (often oneself) from any previously uncritically assimilated [[idea]]. == Deprogramming procedures == There has never been any &quot;standard&quot; deprogramming procedure and the descriptions vary greatly. There are many anecdotal reports and studies involving interviews of former deprogrammees. [[Steve Dubrow-Eichel]] did a professional study and analysis of the deprogramming of an [[ISKCON]] member which he accompagnied and taped to a great part (with voluntary consent of all participants). Deprogrammers generally operate on the assumption
ng seats and perambulatory areas, were completely absent from Concorde. The only video entertainment was a plasma display at the front of the cabin showing either the altitude, the air temperature or current speed in [[mach number]]. With almost no room for overhead storage, even carry on luggage was severely restricted. The ratio of cabin crew and lavatories per passenger was also considerably lower than typical for a first class cabin. These privations were offset by the much shorter flight time (typically three and a half hours to New York from London), making the Concorde attractive to business executives. To make up for these missing features, service on the Concorde was to be &quot;first class&quot; in every sense of the word. Orders for drinks or other needs were met instantly and served with a flourish. Meals were served using specially designed compact [[Wedgwood]] crockery with short silver cutlery. The unique experience of passing through the [[sound barrier]] was less dramatic than would be expected. The moment would be announced by one of the pilots, and could be seen on the cabin display, otherwise the slight surge in acceleration could easily be missed. At twice the normal cruising altitude, turbulence was rare and the view from the windows clearly showed the curvature of the Earth. During the supersonic cruise, although the outside air temperature was typically -60 °C, air friction would heat the external skin at the front of the plane to around +120 °C making the windows warm to the touch and producing a noticeable temperature gradient along the length of the cabin causing the plane to expand during flight in length by up to thirty centimetres (twelve inches). Most remarkably Concorde was able to overtake the [[terminator (solar)|terminator]], on routes where subsonic airliners fell behind. On certain early evening transatlantic flights departing from Heathrow or Paris, it was possible to take off at night and catch up with the sun, landing in daylight; from the cockpit you could see the sun rising from the horizon in the west. &lt;br clear=&quot;both&quot;&gt; ==Paris crash== [[Image:Concorde crash.jpg|thumb|[[Air France]] Flight 4590 in flames, prior to the crash]] On [[25 July]] [[2000]] [[Air France Flight 4590]] crashed in [[Gonesse]], [[France]]. All of the people (100 passengers and 9 crew) on board the flight perished, as well as four people on the ground. As the plane was on its take-off run from [[Charles de Gaulle Airport]], a metal piece punctured the tyres which then burst, puncturing the fuel tanks, possibly by a hydrodynamic pressure surge. Leaking fuel was ignited by an electric arc in the landing gear bay or through contact with the hot parts of the engine. A large plume of flame developed, and power was lost on engines 1 and 2 when the crew shut them down in response to warnings. Airspeed decayed, and the undercarriage could not be retracted. Eventually the crew lost control of the aircraft while trying to divert to nearby [[Le Bourget Airport]], leading to the loss of the aircraft as it crashed into a hotel. [http://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=20000725-0] The report of the investigation was published on [[14 December]] [[2004]], attributing the crash to [[FOD|foreign object damage]] from a [[titanium]] strip that fell from another aircraft, a [[Continental Airlines]] [[DC-10]] which had taken off four minutes before. According to the report, the piece had not been approved by the US [[Federal Aviation Administration]]. However, Continental maintains that FAA regulations do allow the use of the titanium strip and added that this metal is more wear-resistant than the original part. British and former French Concorde pilots looked at several other possibilities that the report ignored, including an unbalanced weight distribution in the fuel tanks and loose landing gear, which hinted at the Concorde veering off course on the runway, reducing take-off speed below the crucial minimum. The aircraft had veered very close to a Boeing 747 known to be carrying French President [[Jacques Chirac]]. The Concorde had been the safest working passenger airliner in the world according to passenger deaths per distance travelled, although the [[Boeing 737]] fleet acquires more passenger miles and service hours in one week than the Concorde fleet acquired in the course of its entire service career. The crash of the Concorde was the beginning of the end of its career. The accident would make way for modifications to be made to Concorde, including more secure electrical controls, [[Kevlar]] lining to the fuel tanks, and specially developed, burst-resistant tyres. The new-style tyres would be yet another contribution from the Concorde programme to future aircraft development. On [[March 10]] [[2005]] French authorities began a criminal investigation of Continental Airlines.[http://www.usatoday.com/travel/news/2005-03-10-continental-concorde_x.htm] As of [[October 2005]], Jacques Herubel, a former [[Aerospatiale]] engineer, is under investigation for negligence leading to the crash. A report stated that the company had more than 70 incidents involving Concorde tyres between 1979 and 2000, but had failed to take appropriate steps based upon these incidents.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4285832.stm] ==Withdrawal from service== [[Image:Concorde_Flight_Deck.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Chief Pilot [[Mike Bannister]] (left) and other pilots on flight deck of BA002 30th August 2002]] The first test-flight of the newly-improved Concorde flew from Heathrow Airport to the mid-Atlantic and back in preparation for a return to full scheduled service that week. The flight took place on [[September 11]] [[2001]], and was in the air when the [[September 11, 2001 attacks|attacks on the World Trade Center]] were taking place. On [[April 10]] [[2003]] British Airways and Air France simultaneously announced that they would retire the Concorde later that year. They cited low passenger numbers following the [[July 25]] [[2000]] crash, the slump in air travel following 9/11, and rising maintenance costs. That same day [[Richard Branson|Sir Richard Branson]] offered to buy British Airways' Concordes at their original price of £1 for service with his [[Virgin Atlantic Airways]]. Branson claimed this to be the same token price that British Airways had paid the British Government, but BA denied this- and refused the offer. Indeed, after posting large losses on their Concorde flights in the 1980s, British Airways had paid a flat sum to the UK government to buy their Concordes outright. After doing a market survey and discovering that their target customers thought that Concorde was more expensive than it actually was; BA then raised prices to match. It may be that BA then ran Concorde at net profit, unlike their French counterparts, although BA refused to open the accounts. Branson later wrote to ''[[The Economist]]'' ([[23 October]] [[2003]]) that his final offer was &quot;over £5 million&quot; and that he had intended to operate the fleet &quot;for many years to come&quot;. Any hope of Concorde remaining in service was further thwarted by Airbus' unwillingness to provide maintenance support for the aging airframes. ===Air France=== Air France made its final Concorde landing in the [[United States]] in [[New York City]] from [[Paris]] on [[May 30]] [[2003]]. Firetrucks sprayed the traditional arcs of water above the aircraft on the tarmac of John F. Kennedy airport. It made its final commercial flight back to Paris the following day. The end of Air France's Concorde services was also marked by a charter around the [[Bay of Biscay]]. An [[auction]] of Concorde parts and memorabilia for Air France was held at [[Christie's]] in Paris, on [[November 15]] [[2003]]. One thousand three hundred people attended, and several lots exceeded their predicted values by a factor of ten or more. ===British Airways=== [[Image:Golden Jubilee Palace 43.JPG|thumb|right|A special fly-past of Concorde and the Red Arrows for the Queen's Golden Jubilee celebrations.]] BA's last Concorde departure from the [[Grantley Adams International Airport]] in [[Barbados]] was on [[August 30]] [[2003]]. G-BOAG visited [[Toronto Pearson International Airport]] on [[October 1]] [[2003]]. A final week of farewell flights saw Concorde visiting [[Birmingham]] on [[October 20]], [[Belfast]] on [[October 21]], [[Manchester]] on [[October 22]], [[Cardiff]] on [[October 23]], and [[Edinburgh]] on [[October 24]]. Each day the aircraft made a return flight out and back into [[Heathrow]] to the cities concerned, often overflying those cities at low altitude. Over 650 competition winners and 350 special guests were carried. On the evening of [[October 23]] [[2003]], [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|the Queen]] consented to the illumination of [[Windsor Castle]], as Concorde's last ever west-bound commercial flight departed London, and flew overhead. This is an honour normally restricted to major state events and visiting dignitaries. British Airways retired its aircraft the next day, [[October 24]]. One Concorde left New York to a fanfare similar to its Air France predecessor's, while two more made round-trips, one over the Bay of Biscay, carrying VIP guests including many former Concorde pilots, and one to Edinburgh. The three aircraft then circled over London, having received special permission to fly at low altitude, before landing in sequence at Heathrow. The two round-trip Concordes landed at 4:01 and 4:03 PM [[British Summer Time|BST]], followed at 4:05 by the one from New York. All three aircraft then spent 45 minutes taxiing around the airport before finally disembarking the last supersonic fare-paying passengers. The pilot of the New York to London flight was [[Mike Bannister]]. Passengers on the final transatlantic flight included: *Poet [[Maya Angelou]] *[[Tony Benn]] *Former US model [[Christie Brinkley]]
uwayhid|Buyyids]], 932–1056=== ====Diylamids of Fars ==== * Emad o-dowleh Abol Hasan, Emir [[932]]–[[939]] * Azad o-dowleh, [[939]]–[[982]] * Sharaf o-dowleh, [[982]]–[[989]] * Samsam o-dowleh, [[989]]–[[998]] * Baha o-dowleh, [[998]]–[[1012]] * Soltan o-dowleh, [[1012]]–[[1024]] * Emad o-dowleh Abu Kalijar, [[1024]]–[[1048]] * Malek Rahim Abu Nasr Khosrow Firuz, [[1048]]–[[1055]] ====Diylamids of Khuzestan and Kerman==== * Mo'ez o-dowleh, [[932]]–[[966]] * Azad o-dowleh, Bakhtiar [[966]]–[[977]] * Azado o-dowleh Abu Shoja', [[977]]–[[982]] * Baha o-dowleh, [[989]]–[[1012]] * Soltan o-dowleh, [[1012]]–[[1021]] * Abu Kalijar Marzban, [[1043]]–[[1048]] * Ghavam o-dowleh, [[1012]]–[[1028]] * Abu Mansur Fulad sotoon, [[1048]]–[[1056]] ====Diylamids of Rey, Isfahan, and Hamedan==== * Rokn o-dowleh, Sultan [[932]]–[[976]] * Mo'ayyed o-dowleh, [[976]]–[[983]] * Fakhr o-dowleh, [[976]]–[[997]] * Majd o-dowleh, [[997]]–[[1029]] * Shams o-dowleh, [[997]]–[[1021]] * Sama o-dowleh, [[1021]]–[[1023]] ===Saffarids in Seistan and beyond, 861–1002, === * Yagub Leith Saffar * Abu Yusef Yaqub ebne Lais, surnamed &quot;the coppersmith&quot;, Emir [[861]]–[[878]] * Amr o ebne Lais, [[878]]–[[900]] * Abol Hasan Taher ebne Mohammad ebne Amro ebne Lais, [[900]]–[[908]] * Lais ebne Ali ebne Lais, [[908]]–[[910]] * Abu Ali Mohammad ebne Ali ebne Lais, [[910]]–[[910]] * Abu Jafar Ahmad ebne Mohammad ebne Khalf, [[923]]–[[963]] * Abu Ahmad Khalf ebne Ahmad, [[963]]–[[1002]] ===[[Samanid|Samanids]] (Proto-[[Tajiks]]), 892–998=== * Adel; Amir Mazi Abyu Ebrahim Esmail ebne Ahmad, Emir [[892]]–[[907]] * Shaheed; Abu Nasr Ahmad ebne Esmail, [[907]]–[[913]] * Saeed; Abol Hasan Nasr ebne Ahmad, [[913]]–[[942]] * Hamid; Abu Mohammad Nuh ebne Nasr, [[942]]–[[954]] * Rashid; Abul Foares Abdolmaleh ebne Nuh, [[954]]–[[961]] * Mo'ayyed; Amir Sadeed Abu Saleh Mansur ebne Nuh, [[961]]–[[976]] * Radhi; Shahanshah Abolqasem Nuh ebne Mansur, [[976]]–[[996]] * Abol Hareth; Mansur ebne Nuh, [[996]]–[[998]] * Abol Foares; AbdolMalek ebne Nuh, [[998]]–[[998]] ===[[Ghaznavid Empire|Ghaznavids]], 997–1186=== * [[Mahmud of Ghazni|Yameen o-dowleh AbolQasem Mahmud ebne Saboktekeen]], Sultan [[997]]–[[1030]] * Jalal o-dowleh Abu Ahmad Mohammad ebne Mahmud, [[1030]]–[[1030]] * Shahab o-dowleh Abu Sa'd Masud ebne Mahmud, [[1030]]–[[1040]] * Shahab o-dowleh Abolfath Modud ebne Masud, [[1040]]–[[1049]] * Baha o-dowleh Abol Hasan Ali ebne Masud, [[1049]]–[[1049]] * Azad o-dowleh Abu Mansur Abdol Rashid ebne Mahmud ebne Saboktekeen, [[1049]]–[[1052]] * Jamal o-dowleh Abolfazl Farrokhzaad ebne Masud ebne Mahmud, [[1052]]–[[1059]] * Zaheer o-dowleh Abol Mozaffar Ebrahim, [[1059]]–[[1098]] * Ala o-dowleh Abu Saeed Masud ebne Ebrahim, [[1098]]–[[1115]] * Soltan o-dowleh Abol-fath Arsalan Shah, [[1115]]–[[1117]] * Yameen o-dowleh Abol Mozaffar Baharm Shah ebne Masud, [[1117]]–[[1153]] * Taj o-dowleh Abol Shoja Khosro Shah ebne Bahram Shah, [[1153]]–[[1160]] * Saraj o-dowleh Abolmolook Khosrow Malek ebne Khosro Shah, [[1160]]–[[1186]] ===[[Seljuk Turk|Seljuk Turks]], 1029–1194=== * [[Toghrül|To&amp;#x11F;rül]] bin Mikail (Tughril Beg), Sultan [[1037]]–[[1063]] * [[Alp Arslan]] bin Chaghri [[1063]]–[[1072]] * Jalal ad-Dawlah [[Malik Shah I]] [[1072]]–[[1092]] * Nasir ad-Din [[Mahmud I of Great Seljuk|Mahmud I]] [[1092]]–[[1094]] * Rukn ad-Din [[Barkiyaruq]] [[1094]]–[[1105]] * Mu'izz ad-Din [[Malik Shah II]] [[1105]] * Ghiyath ad-Din [[Mehmed I of Great Seljuk|Mehmed I]] Tapar (Muhammad) [[1105]]–[[1118]] * Mu'izz ad-Din [[Ahmed Sanjar]] [[1097]]–[[1157]] * [[Mahmud II of Great Seljuk|Mahmud II]] [[1118]]–[[1131]] * [[Dawud of Great Seljuk|Dawud]] (David) [[1131]]–[[1132]] * [[Toghrül II|To&amp;#x11F;rül II]] (Tughril Beg) [[1132]]–[[1134]] * [[Mas'ud]] [[1134]]–[[1152]] * [[Malik Shah III]] [[1152]]–[[1153]] * [[Mehmed II of Great Seljuk|Mehmed II]] (Muhammad II) [[1153]]–[[1160]] * [[Süleyman of Great Seljuk|Süleyman Shah]] (Sulaiman Shah) [[1160]]–[[1161]] * [[Arslan Shah]] [[1161]]–[[1176]] * [[Tohrül III|To&amp;#x11F;rül III]] (Tughril Beg III) [[1176]]–[[1194]] ''divided, 1194–1256'' ===[[Khwarezmid Empire|Khwarazmids]], 1096–1230=== An empire built from Azerbaidjan, covering part of Iran and neighbouring Central Asia. * Ghotbedeen Mohammad ebne Anushtekeen Gharajeh, Shah [[1096]]–[[1128]] * Alaodeen Abol Mozaffar ebne Ghotbedeen ebne Mohammad [[1128]]–[[1156]] * Tajedeen Abolfath Il Arsalan [[1156]]–[[1171]] * Jalaledeen Mahmud Soltanshah ebne Il Arsalan [[1171]]–[[1172]] * Aladdin Takesh ebne Il Arsalan [[1172]]–[[1199]] * Soltan Jalaledeen Mohammad ebne Aladdin Takesh[[1199]]–[[1220]] * Jalaledeen ebne Aladdin Mohammad [[1220]]–[[1230]] Eliminated for good by the Mongol horde ===[[Ilkhanate|Ilkhans]], 1256–1380=== ''The preceding era of disunity, also called '''First era of fragmentation''', was ended through conquest by the Ilkhans, a pagan Mongol horde, nominally subject to the Great Khan. (''Ilkhan'' means governor of an ''il'', i.e. province).'' *[[Hülëgü]] Khan ebne Tulay ebne Genghis, Ilkhan [[1256]]–[[1265]] *[[Abaqa]] Khan ebne Hulegu, [[1265]]–[[1282]] *Sultan Ahmad [[Tekuder]] ebne Hulegu, [[1282]]–[[1284]] *[[Arghun]] Khan ebne Abaqa, [[1284]]–[[1291]] *Gaikhatu ebne Abaqa, [[1291]]–[[1295]] *Baidukhan ebne Toghay ebne Hulegu, [[1295]] *[[Ghazan]] Khan ebne Arghun, [[1295]]–[[1304]] *[[Öljeitü]] Khoda bandeh ebne Arghun, [[1304]]–[[1316]] *[[Abu Sa'id]] Bahador Khan ebne Oljeitu, [[1316]]–[[1335]] (last of Chinggisid il-khans) *[[Arpa Ke'un]], [[1335]]–[[1336]] *Musa Khan ebne Ali, [[1336]]–[[1353]] *Muhammad Khan ebne Mangu, [[1337]]–[[1338]] *Sati beg, dauther of Oljeitu, [[1338]]–[[1340]] *Shah Jahan Teimoor ebne Alafarang, [[1338]]–[[1339]] *[[Soleiman Khan]], [[1340]]–[[1344]] *Togha Teimoor Khan, [[1335]]–[[1352]] *Anushiravan e Adel, [[1343]]–[[1355]] ''The '''Second era of fragmentation''' begins in [[1343]], as remnants of the Hordes competed with local dynasts for authority. This era ends with the conquests by [[Timur]], around [[1380]]'' ===[[Muzaffarids|Muzaffarid Dynasty]], 1314–1393=== * Mubariz ad-Din Muhammad ibn al-Muzaffar, Emir 1314–1358 * Abu'l Fawaris Djamal ad-Din Shah Shuja (at Yazd, 1353 at Shiraz ), 1335–1364 with... * Qutb Al-Din Shah Mahmud (at Isfahan) ( d. 1375), 1358–1366 * Abu'l Fawaris Djamal ad-Din Shah Shuja (at Yazd, 1353 at Shiraz ), 1366–1384 * Mujahid ad-Din Zain Al-Abidin 'Ali, 1384–1387 In [[1387]] [[Timur]] captured [[Isfahan]]. *Imad ad-Din Sultan Ahmad (at Kerman), 1387–1391 with... *Mubariz ad-Din Shah Yahya (at Shiraz), 1387–1391 and... *Sultan Abu Ishaq (in Sirajan), 1387–1391 *Shah Mansur (at Isfahan), 1391–1393 ===[[Timurid dynasty]], 1380–1507=== *[[Timur]] (&quot;Tamerlane&quot;), 1369–1405, nominally under the authority of the [[Chagatai Khanate]] The '''third era of fragmentation''' follows, as Timur's Empire loses cohesion and local rulers strive against each other. *Pir Muhammad, grandson of Timur, 1405–1407, effectively ruled in [[Fars]] *[[Miran Shah|Djalal Ud-Din Miran Shah]], son of Timur, 1405–1408, ruled [[Azerbaijan]] *Rustam, 1405–1409, ruled [[Arabistan]] *[[Khalil Sultan (Timurid dynasty)]], son of Miran Shah, 1405–1409, ruled in [[Samarkand]], surrendered to [[Shah Rukh (Timurid dynasty)|Shah Rukh]], became governor of Rayy until his death in 1411 *[[Shah Rukh (Timurid dynasty)|Shah Rukh]], son of Timur, 1405–1447, ruled first in [[Transoxiana]] **Ayyal, 1414, opposed Shah Rukh **Ailankar, 1414–1415, opposed Shah Rukh *Bayqara, 1409–1412, ruled in Fars *Iskandar, 1412–1414, ruled first in Fars, then Azerbaijan &amp; Arabistan In [[1410]] the Turcoman horde [[Kara Koyunlu]] (Black Sheep) captured Baghdad and their [[Rulers of Kara Koyunlu|leaders]] ruled the western parts of the Timurid realm. In the East however, [[Shah Rukh (Timurid dynasty)|Shah Rukh]] was able to secure his rule in [[Transoxiana]] and Fars. *[[Ulugh Beg]], son of Shah Rukh, 1447–1449 '''Rulers in [[Transoxiana]]''': *[['Abd al-Latif]], son of Ulugh Beg, 1449–1450 *[['Abd-Allah|Abd-Allah Mirza]], grandson of Shah Rukh, 1450–1451 *[[Abu Sa'id (Timurid dynasty)|Abu Sa'id ibn Muhammad]], grandson of Miran Shah, 1451–1469, conquered [[Khurasan]] in 1459 '''Rulers in [[Khurasan]]''': *[[Babur Ibn-Baysunkur]], grandson of Shah Rukh, 1449–1457 *[[Mahmud (Timurid Dynasty)|Shah Mahmud]], son of Babur, 1457 *[[Ibrahim (Timurid Dynasty)|Ibrahim]], 1457 *[[Jahan Shah]], leader of the [[Kara Koyunlu|Black Sheep Turcomans]], 1457–1458 ''[[Abu Sa'id (Timurid dynasty)|Abu Sa'id]], agreed to divide Iran with the [[Kara Koyunlu|Black Sheep Turcomans]] under [[Jahan Shah]], but the [[Ak Koyunlu|White Sheep Turcomans]] under [[Uzun Hassan]] defeated and killed first Jahan Shah and then Abu Sa'id.'' ''After Abu Sa'id's death a '''fourth era of fragmentation''' follows. While the [[Rulers of Ak Koyunlu|White Sheep Turcomans]] dominated in the western parts until the ascent of the [[Safavid]] dynasty, the Timurides could maintain their rule in [[Samarkand]] and [[Herat]].'' '''Rulers in Samarkand''': *[[Sultan Ahmad]], son Abu Sa'id, 1469–1494 *[[Sultan Mahmud]], son of Abu Sa'id, 1494–1495 *Masud, 1495 *Sultan Baysunghur, 1495–1497 *Sultan Ali Mirza 1495–1500 ''conquered by the [[Uzbeks]]'' '''Rulers in Herat''': *[[Sultan Mahmud]], son of Abu Sa'id, 1469 *[[Husayn Bayqarah]], 1469–1506 *[[Badi' al-Zaman]], son of Husayn, 1506–1507, fled to the court of [[Ismail I]] ''conquered by the [[Uzbeks]], later recaptured by the [[Safavids]]'' ==[[Shah|Shahs]] of modern Iran== The modern Iranian monarchy was established in [[1502]] after the [[Safavid]] Dynasty came to power under Shah [[Ismail I]], and ended the so-called &quot;fourth era&quot; of political fragmentation. ===[[Safavid dynasty]], [[1502]]–[[1736]]=== *[[Ismail I]], [[1502]]–[[1524]] *[[Tahmasp I]], [[1524]]–[[1576]] *[[Ismail II]], [[1576]]–[[1578]] *[[Mohammad I Khodabanda]], [[1578]]–[[1587]] or [[1588]] *[[Abbas I of Safavid|Abbas I the Gre
ianist and student of Beethoven, [[Rudolph of Austria (Cardinal)|Archduke Rudolph of Austria]] (hence the name). Opus 97 - Piano Trio (''Klaviertrio'') No. 7 in B flat major &quot;Archduke&quot; * [[Allegro (music)|Allegro]] moderato * [[Scherzo]]. [[Allegro (music)|Allegro]] * [[Andante]] cantabile, ma con moto * [[Allegro (music)|Allegro]] moderato {{classical-composition-stub}} [[Category:Compositions by Ludwig van Beethoven]] [[Category:Piano trios|Beethoven 7]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Violin Sonata No. 5 (Beethoven)</title> <id>3441</id> <revision> <id>40358313</id> <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:09:42Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rich Farmbrough</username> <id>82835</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Ced.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''''Violin Sonata No. 5''''', opus 24, is a [[violin sonata]] by [[Ludwig van Beethoven]]. It is often known as the ''Spring'' sonata, and was published in [[1801]]. Its dedicatee was Count [[Moritz von Fries]], a patron{{ref|fries}} to whom the [[Violin Sonata No. 4 (Beethoven)|4&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; violin sonata]], the [[String Quintet (Beethoven)|string quintet]] of the same year, and the [[Symphony No. 7 (Beethoven)|seventh symphony]] were also dedicated. The work is in four movements: * [[Allegro (music)|Allegro]] * [[Adagio (music)|Adagio]] molto espressivo * [[Scherzo]]. [[Allegro (music)|Allegro]] molto * [[Rondo|Rondò]]. [[Allegro (music)|Allegro]] ma non troppo The Scherzo and its trio are particularly brief (and as pointed out [http://www.musicweb.uk.net/classrev/2003/Apr03/Beethoven_sonatas_Kreisler.htm here] the scherzo is [[canon (music)|canon]]ic). ==Notes== # {{note|fries}} Fries was also a travelling companion to [[Giovanni Battista Casti]], a playwright and rival of [[Lorenzo da Ponte]], and an influence on Mozart at a pivotal point in his operatic work, according to [[Alfred Einstein]]'s ''Mozart: His Character, His Work''. ==External links== [http://www.lvbeethoven.com/Oeuvres/ListOpus.html List of works and their dedicatees] [[Category:Compositions by Ludwig van Beethoven]] [[Category:Violin sonatas|Beethoven Violin Sonata 5]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Basil Liddell Hart</title> <id>3442</id> <revision> <id>40565109</id> <timestamp>2006-02-21T13:43:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Bastin8</username> <id>154626</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>United Kingdom</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:LiddelHart.jpg|right|thumb|The military historian Basil Liddell Hart.]] '''Basil Henry Liddell Hart''' ([[October 31]], [[1895]] - [[January 29]], [[1970]]) was a military historian who is considered to have greatly influenced the development of [[armoured warfare]] in the [[20th century]], and strategic theory. Liddell Hart served as an officer in the [[British Army]] during [[World War I]], where he witnessed [[trench warfare]]. He set out in the following years to discover why the casualty rate had been so terribly high during the war and arrived at a set of principles that he considered the basis of all good [[military strategy|strategy]]; principles which, he claimed, were ignored by nearly all commanders in [[World War I]]. He reduced this set of principles to a single phrase, ''the [[indirect approach]]'', and two fundamentals: *Direct attacks against an enemy firmly in position almost never work and should never be attempted *To defeat the enemy one must first upset his equilibrium, which is not accomplished by the main attack, but must be done before the main attack can succeed. In Liddell Hart's words, &lt;blockquote&gt; ''In strategy the longest way round is often the shortest way there; a direct approach to the object exhausts the attacker and hardens the resistance by compression, whereas an indirect approach loosens the defender's hold by upsetting his balance.'' &lt;/blockquote&gt; He also claimed that &lt;blockquote&gt; ''The profoundest truth of war is that the issue of battle is usually decided in the minds of the opposing commanders, not in the bodies of their men.'' &lt;/blockquote&gt; This argues that one succeeds by keeping one's enemy uncertain about the situation and one's intentions, and by delivering what he does not expect and is therefore not prepared for. Hart explains that one should not employ a rigid strategy revolving around powerful direct attacks nor fixed defensive positions. Instead, he prefers a more fluid ''elastic defence'' where a mobile contingent can move as necessary in order to satisfy the conditions for the ''indirect approach''. He cited [[Erwin Rommel]]'s Northern Africa campaign as a classical example of his theory. He arrived at his conclusions after studying the great strategists of history (especially [[Sun Tzu]], [[Napoleon]], and [[Belisarius]]) and their victories. He believed the indirect approach was the common element in the men he studied. He also claimed the indirect approach was a valid strategy in other fields of endeavor, such as business, romance, etc. Liddell Hart began publishing his theories during the 1920s in the popular press. Paradoxically, Liddell Hart saw theories similar to his own adopted by [[Germany]] and used against the [[United Kingdom]] and its allies during World War II. He retired from the British Army as a Captain in 1927 (after being invalided out and placed on halfpay because of the long term effects of [[Chemical Warfare|gassing]] which he suffered during World War I), and spent the rest of his career as a writer. He was initially a military and tennis analyst for various British newspapers. Later he began publishing military histories and biographies of great commanders who, he thought, were great because they illustrated the principles of good strategy. Among these were [[Scipio Africanus Major]], [[William Tecumseh Sherman]], and [[T.E. Lawrence]]. Shortly after World War II he interviewed/debriefed many of the highest ranking German generals and published their accounts as ''The Other Side of the Hill'' (UK Edition) and ''German Generals Talk'' (condensed US Edition). Later Hart was able to convince the Rommel family to allow him to edit the surviving papers of the German Field Marshal into a form which was published in 1953 as the pseudo-memoir, ''The Rommel Papers''. The principal posthumous biography of Liddell Hart, Alex Danchev's ''Alchemist of War: The Life of Basil Liddell Hart'', written with the cooperation of Liddell Hart's widow, is startling for its candor. Among its revelations are that Liddell Hart connived at the planting of an endorsement of his own work in the English language version of ''Panzer Leader'', the autobiography of [[Heinz Guderian]]. Although Guderian greatly admired Liddell Hart's work, and avidly read his newspaper columns, the German language edition of Guderian's autobiography gives Liddell Hart's work no greater preference than that of his contemporary, [[J.F.C. Fuller]] whom Guderian also admired. Liddell Hart's personal library is now ensconced within the [[Liddell Hart Centre for Military Archives]] at [[King's College London]]. ==Partial bibliography== *B. H. Liddell Hart, ''A Greater Than Napoleon: Scipio Africanus'' (W Blackwood and Sons, London, 1926; Biblio and Tannen, New York, 1976) *B. H. Liddell Hart, ''Great Captains Unveiled'' (W. Blackwood and Sons, London, 1927; Greenhill, London, 1989) *B. H. Liddell Hart, ''Reputations 10 Years After'' (Little, Brown, Boston, 1928) *B. H. Liddell Hart, ''The decisive wars of history'' (1929) (This is the first part of the later: ''Strategy: the indirect approach'') *B. H. Liddell Hart, ''Sherman: Soldier, Realist, American'' (Dodd, Mead and Co, New York, 1929; Frederick A. Praeger, New York, 1960) *B. H. Liddell Hart, ''The Ghost of Napoleon'' (Yale University, New Haven, 1934) *B. H. Liddell Hart, ''The Defence of Britain'' (Faber and Faber, London, 1939; Greenwood, Westport, 1980) *B. H. Liddell Hart, ''The strategy of indirect approach'' (1941, reprinted in 1942 under the title: ''The way to win wars'') *B. H. Liddell Hart, ''The way to win wars'' (1942) *B. H. Liddell Hart, ''Strategy: the indirect approach'', second revised edition *B. H. Liddell Hart, ''Strategy: the indirect approach'', third revised edition and further enlarged London: Faber and Faber, reprint: Dehra Dun, India: Natraj Publishers, 2003 *B. H. Liddell Hart, ''The Tanks - A History of the Royal Tank Regiment and its Predecessors: Volumes I and II'' (Praeger, New York, 1959) *B. H. Liddell Hart, ''The Memoirs of Captain Liddell Hart: Volumes I and II'' (Cassell, London, 1965) *B. H. Liddell Hart, [http://www.nmt.edu/~shipman/reading/liddell/ ''Why don't we learn from history?''] (Hawthorn Books, New York, 1971) ==Further reading== *Brian Bond, ''Liddell Hart: A Study of his Military Thought'' (Cassell, London, 1977) *Alex Danchev, ''Alchemist of War: The Life of Basil Liddell Hart'' *[[John Mearsheimer]], ''Liddell Hart and the Weight of History'' ==External links== *[http://www.kcl.ac.uk/lhcma/cats/liddell/li0.htm Catalogue of Liddell Hart papers] at the [[Liddell Hart Centre for Military Archives]], King's College London [[Category:1895 births|Hart, B.H. Liddell]] [[Category:1970 deaths|Hart, B.H. Liddell]] [[Category:Alumni of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge|Hart, B.H. Liddell]] [[Category:British Army officers|Hart, B.H. Liddell]] [[Category:Military historians|Hart, B.H. Liddell]] [[Category:British historians|Hart, Basil Liddell]] [[de:Basil Liddell Hart]] [[he:לידל הארט]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Barratry</title> <id>3443</id> <revision> <id>29905383</id> <timestamp>2005-12-02T12:41:17Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Alexander 007</username> <id>493689</id>
oatofArms.png | Map = Alberta-map.png | Motto = Fortis et Liber ([[Latin]]: Strong and free) | OfficialLang = [[English language|English]] | Capital = [[Edmonton, Alberta|Edmonton]] | LargestCity = [[Calgary, Alberta|Calgary]] | Flower = [[Wild Rose (also known as prickly rose]] | Premier = [[Ralph Klein]] | PremierParty = [[Alberta Progressive Conservatives|PC]] | Viceroy = [[Norman Kwong]] | ViceroyType = Lieutenant-Governor | PostalAbbreviation = AB | PostalCodePrefix = [[List of T Postal Codes of Canada|T]] | AreaRank = 6&lt;sup&gt;th (provinces and territories)&lt;/sup&gt; | TotalArea = 661,848 | LandArea = 642,317 | WaterArea = 19,531 | PercentWater = 2.95 | PopulationRank = 4&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; | Population = 3,223,400 | PopulationYear = 2005| DensityRank = 6&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; | Density = 4.63 | AdmittanceOrder = 8&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; (province)| AdmittanceDate = [[September 1]], [[1905]] (split from [[Northwest Territories]]) | TimeZone = [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]-7 | HouseSeats = 28 | SenateSeats = 6 | ISOCode = CA-AB | Website = www.gov.ab.ca }} '''Alberta''' is one of [[Canada|Canada's]] [[Provinces of Canada|provinces]]. It celebrated 100 years as a province on [[September 1]], [[2005]]. Alberta is located in western Canada. It is bounded on the west by the province of British Columbia, on the north by the Northwest Territories, on the east by the province of Saskatchewan, and on the south by the United States of America (State of Montana). Alberta's capital is the city of [[Edmonton, Alberta|Edmonton]], located just south of the centre of the province. The most populous city and metropolitan area is [[Calgary, Alberta|Calgary]]. Calgary is also the province's busiest transportation hub (for road, air, and rail) and is one of Canada's major commerce centres. Other major municipalities include [[Red Deer, Alberta|Red Deer]], [[Lethbridge, Alberta|Lethbridge]], [[Medicine Hat, Alberta|Medicine Hat]], [[Fort McMurray, Alberta|Fort McMurray]], [[Grande Prairie, Alberta|Grande Prairie]], [[Camrose, Alberta|Camrose]], [[Lloydminster, Alberta|Lloydminster]], [[Wetaskiwin, Alberta|Wetaskiwin]], [[Banff, Alberta|Banff]], and [[Jasper, Alberta|Jasper]]. See also: [[List of communities in Alberta]]. The [[Premier (Canada)|Premier]] of the province is Hon. [[Ralph Klein]], Progressive Conservative. See also [[List of Alberta Premiers]]. Alberta is named after [[Princess Louise, Duchess of Argyll|Princess Louise Caroline Alberta]] (1848-1939), the fourth daughter of Queen [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Victoria]]. Princess Louise was also the wife of [[John Douglas Sutherland Campbell, 9th Duke of Argyll|Sir John Campbell]], who was the [[Governor General of Canada]] from 1878-1883. [[Lake Louise]] was also named in honour of Princess Louise. ==Geography== :''Main article: [[Geography of Alberta]]'' Alberta is in [[western Canada]], and covers an area of 661,190 km² (255,287 mi²). To the south, it borders the US state of [[Montana]] at a latitude of 49°N, or the [[49th parallel north|49th Parallel]]. To the east at a longitude of 110°W, it borders the province of [[Saskatchewan]]. At 60°N, it is bordered by the [[Northwest Territories]]. To the west, its border with [[British Columbia]] follows the line of peaks of the [[Rocky Mountains]] range along the [[Continental Divide]], which runs northwesterly until it reaches 120° W, at which point the border follows this meridian to 60°N. With the exception of the southeastern section, the province is well watered. Alberta contains dozens of rivers and lakes ideal for [[swimming]], [[water skiing]], [[fishing]] and a full range of other [[water sports]]. There are a multitude of fresh-water lakes, each less than 260&amp;nbsp;km² situated in Alberta, and three of more considerable size. These three larger lakes are [[Lake Athabasca]] (7898&amp;nbsp;km²), part of which lies in the province of Saskatchewan, [[Lake Claire (Albertan lake)|Lake Claire]] (1436&amp;nbsp;km²), which lies just west of Lake Athabasca in [[Wood Bufflao National Park]], and [[Lesser Slave Lake]] (1168&amp;nbsp;km²), which is well northwest of [[Edmonton]]. As Alberta extends for 1200&amp;nbsp;km from north to south, and about 600&amp;nbsp;km wide at its greatest east-west extent, it is natural that the climate should vary considerably between the 49th and 60th parallels. It is also further influenced by altitude, especially in the southwestern part of the province within the [[Canadian Rockies]] and adjacent areas directly to the east. [[Image:Canada 35 bg 061904.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Banff National Park]] Northern Alberta is mostly covered by [[taiga|boreal forest]] and has fewer frost-free days than southern Alberta, which is often semi-arid due to the summer heat and much lower rainfall. Western Alberta is protected by the mountains, and enjoys the warmth brought by winter [[chinook wind]]s, while southeastern Alberta is flat, dry prairie, where temperatures can range from very cold (&amp;minus;35°C (&amp;minus;31°F) in the winter) to very hot (35°C (95°F) or higher in the summer). Central and parts of northwestern Alberta in the Peace River region are largely [[aspen parkland]], a [[biome]] transitional between [[prairie]] to the south and [[taiga|boreal forest]] to the north. After southern [[Ontario]], Central Alberta is the most likely region in [[Canada]] to experience [[tornadoe]]s. [[Thunderstorm]]s, some of them severe, are frequent in the summer, especially in central and southern Alberta. The region surrounding the [[Calgary-Edmonton Corridor]] is notable for having the highest frequency of [[hail]] in Canada. Overall, Alberta has cold winters, with a daytime average of about &amp;minus;10°C (14°F) in the south to &amp;minus;24°C (&amp;minus;12°F) in the north. In the summer, the daytime temperature averages from about 13°C (55°F) in the Rocky Mountains to 19°C (67°F) in the dry prairie to the south-east. The northern and western parts of the province experience higher rainfall and lower evaporation rates caused by cooler summer temperatures. Alberta's capital city, [[Edmonton]], is located almost in the geographic centre of the province, and most of Alberta's oil is [[refinery|refined]] here. Southern Alberta, where [[Calgary]] is located, is known for its [[ranching]]. Much of the unforested part of Alberta is given over either to grain or to [[dairy farming]], with ranching predominantly a southern Alberta industry. &lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Dinosaurparkalberta.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Badlands]] terrain at the Dinosaur Provincial Park]] --&gt; In southeastern Alberta, where the [[Red Deer River]] traverses the flat prairie and farmland, are the Alberta [[badlands]] with deep [[gorge|gorges]] and striking landforms. [[Dinosaur Provincial Park]], near [[Drumheller, Alberta]], showcases the badlands terrain, [[desert]] [[flora (plants)|flora]], and remnants from Alberta's past when [[dinosaurs]] roamed the then lush landscape. Alberta is one of only two Canadian provinces to have no maritime coast (the other being the neighbouring province of Saskatchewan.) ===Largest municipalities and metro areas by population=== [[Image:dwalberta.png|thumb|250px|right|Major municipalities of Alberta]] &lt;table border=0 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=2 width=50%&gt; &lt;th&gt; Municipality &lt;th&gt; 2005 &lt;th&gt; 2001 &lt;th&gt; 1996 &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''[[Census Metropolitan Area|Census Metropolitan Areas]]:''' &lt;tr bgcolor=#d3d3d3&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Calgary Region|Calgary CMA]]&lt;td&gt;1,060,300**&lt;td&gt;951,395&lt;td&gt;821,628 &lt;tr bgcolor=#d3d3d3&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Edmonton Capital Region|Edmonton CMA]]&lt;td&gt;1,016,000**&lt;td&gt;937,845&lt;td&gt;862,597 &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Cities (10 Largest):''' &lt;tr bgcolor=#d3d3d3&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Calgary, Alberta|Calgary]]&lt;td&gt;956,078&lt;td&gt;878,866&lt;td&gt;768,082 &lt;tr bgcolor=#d3d3d3&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Edmonton, Alberta|Edmonton]]&lt;td&gt;712,391&lt;td&gt;666,104&lt;td&gt;616,306 &lt;tr bgcolor=#d3d3d3&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Red Deer, Alberta|Red Deer]]&lt;td&gt;79,082&lt;td&gt;67,707&lt;td&gt;60,080 &lt;tr bgcolor=#d3d3d3&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Lethbridge, Alberta|Lethbridge]]&lt;td&gt;77,202&lt;td&gt;67,374&lt;td&gt;63,053 &lt;tr bgcolor=#d3d3d3&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[St. Albert, Alberta|St. Albert]] &lt;small&gt;(included in Edmonton CMA)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;td&gt;56,318&lt;td&gt;53,081&lt;td&gt;46,888 &lt;tr bgcolor=#d3d3d3&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Medicine Hat, Alberta|Medicine Hat]]&lt;td&gt;56,048&lt;td&gt;51,249&lt;td&gt;46,783 &lt;tr bgcolor=#d3d3d3&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Grande Prairie, Alberta|Grande Prairie]]&lt;td&gt;44,631&lt;td&gt;36,983&lt;td&gt;31,353 &lt;tr bgcolor=#d3d3d3&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Airdrie, Alberta|Airdrie]] &lt;small&gt;(included in Calgary CMA)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;td&gt;27,069&lt;td&gt;20,382&lt;td&gt;15,946 &lt;tr bgcolor=#d3d3d3&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Spruce Grove, Alberta|Spruce Grove]] &lt;small&gt;(included in Edmonton CMA)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;td&gt;18,405&lt;td&gt;15,983&lt;td&gt;14,271 &lt;tr bgcolor=#d3d3d3&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Camrose, Alberta|Camrose]]&lt;td&gt;15,850&lt;td&gt;14,854&lt;td&gt;13,728 &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Districts (3 Largest):''' &lt;tr bgcolor=#d3d3d3&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Strathcona County, Alberta|Strathcona County]] &lt;small&gt;(included in Edmonton CMA)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;td&gt;80,232&lt;td&gt;71,986&lt;td&gt;64,176 &lt;tr bgcolor=#d3d3d3&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Wood Buffalo, Alberta|Regional Municipality of Wood Buffalo]]&lt;td&gt;73,176&lt;td&gt;41,466&lt;td&gt;35,213 &lt;tr bgcolor=#d3d3d3&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Rocky View No. 44, Alberta|Municipality of Rocky View]] &lt;small&gt;(included in Calgary CMA)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;td&gt;30,688*&lt;td&gt;28,441&lt;td&gt;23,326 &lt;/b&gt; &lt;/table&gt; [[I
resenting Professional Homeopaths] * [http://www.holisticmed.com/www/homeopathy.html Homeopathy Links from The Holistic Medicine Resource Center] * [http://www.arnica.com/homeo/homeo.html Introduction and Information on Homeopathy] * [http://www.homeocurecenter.com/ Homeo Cure Center] - Forum discussing health issues, homeopathic remedies, and veterinary homeopathy. * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/health/healthy_living/complementary_medicine/therapies_homeopathy.shtml Complementary Medicine - Therapies: Homeopathy] BBC's &quot;Complementary Medicine&quot; article on Homeopathy *[http://www.homeopathy-cures.com/html/referrals_to_homeopaths.html Referrals to Certified Classical Homeopaths] * [http://www.a-r-h.org Alliance of Registered Homeopaths] * [http://www.homeoint.org/english/index.htm Homéopathe International] &amp;mdash; The English language version of ''Homéopathe International'' * [http://www.wholehealthnow.com/homeopathy_pro/homeopathy_1825_1849.html Homeopathy Timeline] with a wealth of historical and biographical information * Adjuvant homeopathic treatment in Breastcancer, a pilot study [http://www.thieme-connect.de/ejournals/abstract/ahz/doi/10.1055/s-2005-862573] (in German) === Critical === * [http://www.randi.org/jr/02-02-2001.html A skeptic's view of homeopathy] * [http://www.csicop.org/si/2001-11/alternative.html Magical Thinking in Complementary and Alternative Medicine] * [http://www.quackwatch.org/01QuackeryRelatedTopics/homeo.html Homeopathy: The Ultimate Fake] - [[Stephen Barrett]], M.D. * [http://www.homeowatch.org/ HomeoWatch (Homeopathy Watch)] &amp;mdash; A Skeptical Guide to Homeopathic History, Theories, and Current Practices, operated by [[Stephen Barrett]], M.D. (founder of [[Quackwatch]]) * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/alabaster/A954740 H2G2 entry on homeopathy]. * [http://www.skepdic.com/homeo.html The Skeptics Dictionary] * [http://www.acsh.org/search/txtQuickSearch.homeopathy/health_result.asp &quot;The Scientific Evidence on Homeopathy&quot;] - American Council on Science and Health *[http://www.skepticreport.com/health/hahnemann.htm A close look at homeopathy] *[http://www.skepticreport.com/health/dilutiondelusion.htm Dilution or Delusion?] *[http://www.ncahf.org/pp/homeop.html National Council Against Health Fraud Position Paper on Homeopathy] [[Category:Alternative medicine]] [[Category:Homeopathy|*]] [[Category:Pseudoscience]] [[Category:Quackery]] [[bg:Хомеопатия]] [[ca:Homeopatia]] [[de:Homöopathie]] [[el:Ομοιοπαθητική]] [[eo:Homeopatio]] [[es:Homeopatía]] [[fi:Homeopatia]] [[fr:Homéopathie]] [[he:הומאופתיה]] [[hr:Homeopatija]] [[it:Omeopatia]] [[ja:ホメオパシー]] [[lt:Homeopatija]] [[nl:Homeopathie]] [[no:Homøopati]] [[pl:Homeopatia]] [[pt:Homeopatia]] [[ro:Homeopatie]] [[ru:Гомеопатия]] [[sv:Homeopati]] [[zh:顺势疗法]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hurricane</title> <id>14230</id> <revision> <id>15911798</id> <timestamp>2004-02-24T22:19:50Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>William M. Connolley</username> <id>8072</id> </contributor> <comment>Make into redirect to trop cyc</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Tropical cyclone]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hairpin</title> <id>14231</id> <revision> <id>39869806</id> <timestamp>2006-02-16T12:36:41Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>81.151.189.222</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}} [[Image:Hair pins old.jpg|thumb|right|Hairpins (around 600 b.c.)]] A '''Hairpin''' is a [[needle]]-like device used to hold a person's hair in place. Also used as an adjective to describe a particularly tight 180 degree turn in a road, especially in the context of [[motor racing]]: 'a '''[[hairpin turn]]' ''' {{tool-stub}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hz</title> <id>14232</id> <revision> <id>32818690</id> <timestamp>2005-12-27T00:40:40Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>84.90.67.66</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Hz''' or '''hz''' may mean: *[[Herero language]] ([[ISO 639]] alpha-2, '''hz''') *[[Hertz]], unit of frequency {{disambig}} [[it:Hz]] [[pt:Hz]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hate speech</title> <id>14233</id> <revision> <id>41922308</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T17:14:41Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>128.143.245.138</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Differing concepts of what is offensive */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{abuse}} '''Hate speech''' is a [[controversy|controversial]] term for speech intended to degrade, intimidate, or incite violence or prejudicial action against a group of people based on their [[race]], [[ethnicity]], [[national origin]], [[religion]], [[sexual orientation]], or [[disability]]. The term covers written as well as oral communication. ==Controversy== There is considerable debate over how or whether ''hate speech'' can be defined; whether speech thus labeled ought to be regulated; and if so, how and by whom. Many courts cannot even decide the definition of hate speech. The aforementioned debates center on three critical questions: First, what is the force of speech? Is it the expression of personal thoughts, or is it a form of action that affects and can harm others? Second, is the free expression of ideas which some perceive as hateful necessary for healthy public debate, or is it harmful to public debate? Third, should [[government]]al [[policy|policies]] be founded upon the protection of interests and [[right]]s of individuals, or identifiable groups, such as [[homosexuality|homosexuals]] and [[race|racial minorities]]? ==Legal aspects in the United States and elsewhere== In the [[United States]], government is broadly forbidden by the [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution|First Amendment]] of the [[United States Constitution|Constitution]] from restricting speech. [[Jurist]]s generally understand this to mean that the government cannot regulate the content of speech, but that it can sanction the harmful effects of speech through laws such as those against [[defamation]] or incitement to [[riot]]. Indeed, the term &quot;hate speech&quot; and its surrounding discussion (whether and to what extent speech should be regulated) is something restricted to American legal discourse. For example, the [[Grundgesetz|German constitution]] is subtly more restrictive, guaranteeing 'freedom of voicing one's opinion' and elsewhere restricts its misuse against the public peace. The [[German Criminal Code]] specifically forbids inciting hatred against ethnic groups. Since such laws often apply only to the [[victimization]] of specific individuals, some argue that hate speech must be regulated to protect members of groups. Others argue that hate speech limits the free development of political discourse and ought to be regulated, but by [[volunteer|voluntaristic]] communities and not by the state. Still others claim that it is not possible to legislate a boundary between legitimate controversial speech and hate speech in such a way which is just to those with controversial political or social views. ==Speech codes== Various institutions in the United States and [[Europe]] began developing codes to limit or punish hate speech in the 1990s, on the grounds that such speech amounts to [[discrimination]]. Thus, such codes prohibit words or phrases deemed to express, either deliberately or unknowingly, hatred or contempt towards a group of people, based on areas such as their ethnic, cultural, religious or sexual identity, or with reference to [[physical health|physical]] or [[mental health]]. It may also in some contexts challenge the rights of individuals based on any or all of the above criteria. In addition to legal prohibition in many jurisdictions, prohibition of the use of hate speech has been written into the bylaws of some governmental and non-governmental institutions such as public [[university|universities]], [[trade union]]s and other organizations (see below), though the use of [[speech code|speech codes]] in public universities in the United States is blatantly illegal. Its use is also frowned upon by many [[publishing house]]s, [[broadcasting]] organizations and [[newspaper]] groups. ==Laws against hate speech == In many countries, deliberate use of hate speech is a [[criminal offence]] prohibited under ''incitement to hatred'' legislation. Such prohibitions have parallels with earlier prohibitions on such issues as [[obscenity]] and [[blasphemy]], which are or were also prosecutable offences. Some examples: *[[Holocaust denial]] is outlawed in seven European countries as a form of hate speech, while the [[Council of Europe]] has passed laws against any type of [[historical revisionism (political)|revisionism]], defined as denial or downgrading [[genocide]]s or [[crimes against humanity]]. * In the [[United Kingdom]], [[incitement to racial hatred]] is an offence under the [[Public Order Act 1986]] with a maximum sentence of up to seven years imprisonment. * In [[Canada]], advocating genocide or inciting hatred against any 'identifiable group' is an indictable offense under the [[Canadian Criminal Code]] with maximum terms of two to fourteen years. An 'identifiable group' is defined as 'any section of the public distinguished by colour, race, religion, ethnic origin or sexual orientation.' It makes exceptions for cases of statements of truth, and subjects of public debate and religious doctrine. * [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]], [[Australia]] has enacted the [[Racial and Religious Tolerance Act 2001]], which prohibits conduct that incites hatred against or serious contempt for, or involves revulsion or severe ridicule of another on the grounds of his race or religious beliefs. ===Justification for laws controlling or prohibiting
rvative Party in Britain was a staunch defender of the [[British Empire]], and was responsible for initial brutal repression of African [[decolonisation]]. It is the degree of political taboo, rather than inherent ideological incompatibility, that determines the overlap between 'respectable' conservatives and the right. In European parliamentary systems, conservatives currently ally with centrist groups, or even some on the left, rather than with the xenophobic-populist right, although critics have contended that the conservatives are taking in far-right ideas. For example, in December 2005, ''[[Le Canard Enchaîné]]'' claimed that [[Nicolas Sarkozy]] had implemented almost all of the far-right ''[[Front National]]'' (FN) measures proposed in its election program. All mainstream parties in [[Belgium]] cooperated to exclude the Flemish-[[separatist]] and xenophobic ''[[Vlaams Belang]]'', although some politicians wish to break this 'cordon sanitaire', and the mainstream parties in France sometimes support each others candidates in run-off elections, where that is necessary to exclude the ''Front National'' party. However, in March [[1977]], and then in [[March 1983]], FN was present on [[RPR]]-[[UDF]] lists at municipal elections; in [[1988]], [[RPR]] and [[UDF]] right-wing conservative parties allies with the [[Front National|FN]] in the [[Bouches-du-Rhône]] and [[Var]] regions. In [[March 1989]], they had common lists in at least 28 cities of more than 9 000 inhabitants. Those alliances were condemned in [[1991]], but a dozen conservative deputies gained FN's support in [[1997]]. ===North America=== See [[American conservatism]] for information on conservatism in the [[United States]], and [[Canadian Conservatism]] for information on conservatism in [[Canada]]. === Europe === [[Edmund Burke]] is often considered the ''father of conservatism'' in Anglo-American circles. In the [[United Kingdom]], Burkean conservatism continues on, but its influence tended to leave its indelible mark on Anglo-American conservatism more so than British conservatism. There is no organisational continuity amongst Burkean conservatives which clearly connect them to contemporary conservatives in Britain. An Old Whig, Burke certainly was not the 'founder of the Conservative Party'. Contemporary British conservatives may trace their roots to both the [[Tories]] of Canning and the early [[Whigs]] (who opposed the [[British monarchy|monarchy]]). The Tories, who continued to represent the interests of the aristocracy, in contrast to the Whiggish mercantile class, dominated British politics from the [[1770s]] and the [[1830s]]. Burke, the so-called &quot;Father of Modern Conservatism,&quot; articulated a ''progressive'' conservative position through the [[Whig]] party, and was against the entrenched system of patronage and government favor for the wealthy classes. Nominally, the modern British [[Conservative party (UK)|Conservative Party]] was founded out of the Tory party by Sir [[Robert Peel]] in the [[1840s]], splitting almost immediately, over the issue of [[protectionism]]. The anti-protectionist faction joined with some Whigs and radicals to form the [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal]] coalition, which was to dominate politics for much of the rest of the [[nineteenth century]]. A Liberal-Conservative coalition during the [[world War I|first World War]] coupled with the assent of the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]], hastened the collapse of the Liberals in the 1920s. After the [[world War II|second World War]], the Conservative party made concessions to the socialist policies of the Left. This compromise was a pragmatic measure to regain power, but also the result of the early successes of [[central planning]] and state-ownership forming a cross-party consensus. However, in the 1980s, under the leadership of [[Margaret Thatcher]], the party returned to [[classical liberalism|classical liberal]] economic ideas, and [[privatization]] of many state enterprises was ordained. For more detail, see [[History of the Conservative Party]]. In other parts of Europe, mainstream conservatism is often represented by the [[Christian Democracy|Christian-democratic]] parties. They form the bulk of the [[European Peoples Party]] fraction in the [[European Parliament]]. The origin of these parties is usually in Catholic parties of the late 19th and early 20th century, and [[Rerum Novarum|Catholic social doctrine]] was their original inspiration. Over the years, conservatism gradually became their main ideological inspiration, and they generally became less Catholic. The German [[CDU]], its Bavarian sister party [[Christian Social Union|CSU]], and the Dutch [[Christian Democratic Appeal|CDA]] are Protestant-Catholic parties. In the [[Nordic countries]], conservatism has been represented in [[Liberal conservatism|liberal conservative]] parties like the [[Moderate Party]] in Sweden and the [[Conservative People's Party]] in Denmark. Domestically, these parties generally support market-oriented policies, and usually gain support from the business community and white-collar professionals. Internatially they generally support the [[European Union]] and a strong defense. Their views on social issues tend to be more liberal than for example the U.S. Republican Party. Social conservatism in the Nordic coutries are often found in their [[Christian Democratic]] parties. In several of the Nordic countries, right-wing populist parties have gained some support since the 70's. Their policies have often been focuesd on tax cuts, reduced immigration, and tougher law and order policies. Generally, one could claim that European conservatives tend to be more moderate on many social and economic issues, compared to American conservatives. They tend to be quite friendly to the aims of the welfare state, although concerned about a healthy business environment. Some groups, however, have been more supportive of a stricter libertarian or laissez-faire agenda, especially under influence from Thatcherism. European conservative groups often see themselves as guardians of prudence, moderation, history and tried experience, as opposed to radicalism and social experiments. Appraisal of [[high culture]] and established political institutions like the monarchy is often found in European conservatism. Mainstream conservative groups are often staunch supportes of the European Union. However, one might also found elements of nationalism in many countries. *[[One Nation]] *[[Thatcherism]] *[[Gaullism]] === China === Chinese conservatism is based on the teachings of [[Confucius|Kung Fu Tze]] (Confucius). Confucius who was living in a time of chaos and warring kingdoms, wrote extensively about the importance of the family, of social stability, and of obedience to just authority. His ideas continue to permeate Chinese society. Traditional Chinese conservatism imbued with Confucian thought have been resurgent in recent years, despite more than a half-century of authoritarian Marxist-Leninist rule. After Mao's death in [[1976]], three factions wrestled to succeed him: the hardline [[Maoists]], who wanted to continue the revolutionary mobilization; restorationists, who advocated a return to the [[Soviet]] model of communism; and reformers, led by [[Deng Xiaoping]], who hoped to reduce the role of ideology in government and overhaul the economy. Traditional Chinese values have surged, rather assertively, in spite of the longstanding revolutionary communist regime. Today, the [[Chinese Communist Party]] is run by technocrats, who seek stability and economic progress, while suppressing free speech and religion. The Party is seen by some as the recipient of the [[Mandate of Heaven]], a traditional Chinese idea. The Communist Party is taming itself and no longer consistently advocates Marxist revolutionary theory, adhering instead to a certain ideological flexibility consistent with the dictum of [[Deng Xiaoping]], that is ''seek truth from facts''. Love of country and national pride has been resurgent as well as traditionalism. Chinese nationalism tends to speak highly of a centralized, powerful Chinese state. The government is attempting to win and maintain the loyalty of both its own citizens as well as that of recently departed overseas Chinese. Recent bestseller ''[[China Can Say No]]'' expresses a sentiment in favor of a uniquely Chinese path that, tellingly, does not have to involve American norms, such as individualism and Western liberalism. Moreover, the tide may still be coming in for Chinese nationalism, as the next [[Generations of Chinese leadership | generation of Chinese leaders]] will have grown up in an environment imbued with nationalism. Since the [[1990s]], there has been a [[Neoconservatism in China|neoconservative]] movement in China (not connected with the US [[neoconservative]] movement). ==References== ===See Also=== &lt;table border=&quot;0&quot;&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt; *[[Bioconservatism]] *[[Conservative extension]] (Mathematical logic) *[[Conservative Party (UK)]] *[[Conservative Political Parties]] *[[Constitutional Conservatism]] *[[Christian Democratic Union of Germany]] *[[Conservative Revolutionary movement]] *[[Culture war speech]] *[[fiscal conservatism]] *[[Libertarianism]] &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt; *[[New Right]] *[[Old Right]] *[[Paleoconservatism]] *[[Reactionary]] *[[Religious right]] *[[Republitarianism]] *[[Right-wing politics]] *[[Traditional Catholic]] *[[Fundamentalism]] &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt; ===End Notes=== #{{note|Burke}} &quot;A disposition to preserve, and an ability to improve, taken together, would be my standard of a statesman.&quot; - Edmund Burke #{{note|White}} As part of introduction to ''The Conservative Tradition'', ed. R.J. White (London: Nicholas Kaye, 1950) ===Further Reading=== *[[Edmund Burke]]. ''Reflections on the Revolution in France'', Hackett Publishin
ticular Meter; a six-line stanza of which the first, second, fourth and fifth lines are iambic trimeter, and the third and sixth lines are iambic tertameter (6/6/8/6/6/8). *'''8s.''' - Eights; used to distinguish an eight syllable quatrain that does not contain the iambic stress pattern characteristic of ''Long Meter'' (8/8/8/8). *'''8s.7s.''' - Eights and sevens; a trochaic quatrain with alternating lines of four feet and three and one-half feet, which rhymes in the second and fourth lines and sometimes in the first and third (8/7/8/7); also called Psalm Meter. *'''7s.6s.''' - Sevens and sixes; a quatrain with alternating lines of three and one-half feet and three feet, which rhymes in the second and fourth lines and sometimes in the first and third (7/6/7/6). ==Media== {{multi-listen start}} {{multi-listen item|filename=Amazing grace.ogg|title=Amazing Grace|description=[[Amazing Grace]], a common [[Meter (poetry)#Metrical_symbols|meter]] hymn from the Library of Congress' ''John and Ruby Lomax 1939 Southern States Recording Trip''; performed by Mr. and Mrs. N.V. Braley on May 5, 1939 at the home of Beal D. Taylor near [[Medina, Texas]]|format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen item|filename=Amazing Grace-organ.ogg|title=Amazing Grace|description=[[Amazing Grace]], organ solo|format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen item|filename=Woodworth.ogg|title=Just as I am|description=[[Just As I Am (hymn)|Just as I Am]], organ solo|format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen item|filename=Toplady.ogg|title=Rock of Ages|description=[[Rock of Ages]], organ solo|format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen item|filename=Eventide.ogg|title=Abide with Me|description=[[Abide with Me]], organ solo|format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen item|filename=Ein' Feste Burg.ogg|title=Ein' Feste Burg sung in German|description=The [[German language|German]] text of ''Ein' Feste Burg'' (''A Mighty Fortress'') sung to its traditional melody|format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen end}} ==See also== *[[Carol (music)|Carol]] *[[Chorale]] *[[Doxology]] *[[Metrical psalter]] *[[Praise song]] *[[Psalm]] *[[Worship music]] ==External links== * [http://www.anngriffiths.cardiff.ac.uk Ann Griffiths Website] * [http://st-takla.org/Multimedia/_Multimedia-index.html Examples of Coptic Orthodox Music of Egypt at Saint Takla Haymanout the Ethiopian Church, Alexandria - Egypt] * [http://myweb.hinet.net/home9/jacoblee/MID/HYMN/HYMNE.HTM Hymn] (hymn of [http://www.pct.org.tw/indexe.html Presbyterian Church in] [[Taiwan]], 1964 edition. * [http://www.hymnsite.com/ HymnSite.com] (the [[United Methodist]] Hymnal online) * [http://one.fsphost.com/cherokeehymns/ Hymns in Cherokee] * [http://www.lds.org/cm LDS Church Music] (the [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|LDS Church]] hymnal and children's music online) * [http://www.midiforworship.com/ Online resource for Christian worship music] * [http://www.cyberhymnal.org The Cyber Hymnal] * [http://www.fasola.org] * [http://www.merrysoul.com The Psalter] (Singing Biblical Hymns) * [http://www.wikichristian.org/index.php?title=Christian_art%2C_literature_and_music Christian music lyrics and song information] [[Category:Religious music]] [[Category:Christian music]] [[Category:Songs]] [[Category:Song forms]] [[da:Hymne]] [[de:Geistliches Lied]] [[es:Himno]] [[eo:Himno]] [[fr:Hymne]] [[la:Hymnus]] [[nl:Hymne]] [[ja:賛美歌]] [[pl:Hymn]] [[ru:Гимн]] [[fi:Virsi]] [[sv:Hymn]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hymnist</title> <id>13757</id> <revision> <id>15911349</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hymn]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>History of physics</title> <id>13758</id> <revision> <id>41350792</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T19:54:42Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>200.184.17.211</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{histOfScience}} The growth of [[physics]] has brought not only fundamental changes in ideas about the [[nature|material world]], [[mathematics]] and [[philosophy]], but also, through [[technology]], a transformation of [[society]]. Physics is considered both a body of knowledge and the practice that makes and transmits it. The [[scientific revolution]], beginning about year [[1600]], is a convenient boundary between ancient thought and classical physics. Year [[1900]] marks the beginnings of a more modern physics; today, the [[science]] shows no sign of completion, as more issues are raised, with questions rising from the [[age of the universe]], to the nature of the [[vacuum]], to the ultimate nature of the properties of [[subatomic particle]]s. [[laws of physics|Partial theories]] are currently the best that physics has to offer, at the present time. The list of [[unsolved problems in physics]] is large; however, :''&quot;Outside the nucleus, we seem to know it all.&quot;'' -- [[Richard Feynman]]. == Antiquity == Since antiquity, people have tried to understand the behavior of matter: why unsupported objects drop to the ground, why different materials have different properties, and so forth. Also a mystery was the character of the [[universe]], such as the form of the [[Earth]] and the behavior of celestial objects such as the [[Sun]] and the [[Moon]]. Several theories were proposed; most of them were wrong, but this is part of the nature of the scientific enterprise, and even modern theories of [[quantum mechanics]] and [[theory of relativity|relativity]] are merely considered &quot;theories that haven't broken yet&quot;. Physical theories in antiquity were largely couched in [[philosophy|philosophical]] terms, and rarely verified by systematic experimental testing. === Greek contributions to physics === Typically the behavior and nature of the world was explained by invoking the actions of [[gods]]. Around [[200 BC]], many [[Hellenic civilization|Greek]] philosophers began to propose that the world could be understood as the result of [[nature|natural]] [[process]]es. Many also challenged traditional ideas presented in mythology, such as the origin of the human species (anticipating the ideas of [[Charles Darwin]]), although this falls into the history of [[biology]], not physics. The [[atomism|atomist]]s attempted to characterize the nature of matter, which anticipated work in our present day. Due to the absence of advanced experimental equipment such as [[telescope]]s and accurate time-keeping devices, experimental testing of many such ideas was impossible or impractical. There were exceptions and there are [[anachronism]]s: for example, the [[Hellenic civilization|Greek]] thinker [[Archimedes]] derived many correct quantitative descriptions of mechanics and also hydrostatics when, so the story goes, he noticed that his own body displaced a volume of water while he was getting into a bath one day. Another remarkable example was that of [[Eratosthenes]], who deduced that the [[Earth]] was a sphere, and accurately calculated its circumference using the shadows of vertical sticks to measure the angle between two widely separated points on the Earth's surface. Greek mathematicians also proposed calculating the volume of objects like [[sphere]]s and [[cone (solid)|cones]] by dividing them into very thin disks and adding up the volume of each disk - anticipating the invention of [[integral calculus]] by almost two millennia. Modern knowledge of these early ideas in physics, and the extent to which they were experimentally tested, is sketchy. Almost all direct record of these ideas was lost when the [[Library of Alexandria]] was destroyed, around [[400]] AD. Perhaps the most remarkable idea we know of from this era was the deduction by [[Aristarchus of Samos]] that the Earth was a planet that traveled around the Sun once a year, and rotated on its axis once a day (accounting for the seasons and the cycle of day and night), and that the stars were other, very distant suns which also had their own accompanying planets (and possibly, lifeforms upon those planets). The discovery of the [[Antikythera mechanism]] points to a detailed understanding of movements of these astronomical objects, as well as a use of [[gear]]-trains that pre-dates any other known civilization's use of gears. An early version of the steam engine, [[Hero of Alexandria|Hero]]'s [[aeolipile]] was only a curiosity which did not solve the problem of transforming its rotational energy into a more usable form, not even by gears. The [[Archimedes screw]] is still in use today, to lift water from rivers onto irrigated farmland. The simple machines were unremarked, with the exception (at least) of Archimedes' elegant proof of the law of the [[lever]]. Ramps were in use several millennia before Archimedes, to build the Pyramids. Regrettably, this period of inquiry into the nature of the world was eventually stifled by a tendency to accept the ideas of eminent philosophers, rather than to question and test those ideas. [[Pythagoras]] himself is said to have tried to suppress knowledge of the existence of [[irrational numbers]], discovered by his own school, because they did not fit his number mysticism. For one thousand years following the destruction of the [[Library of Alexandria]], [[Ptolemy]]'s (not to be confused with the [[Egyptian Ptolemies]]) model of an Earth-centred universe in which the [[planet]]s are assumed to each move in a small circle, called an '''[[epicycle]]''', which in turn moves along a larger circle called a '''[[deferent]]''', was accepted as absolute truth. ===Persian contributions to physics === Civilization eclipsed by the [[Roman Empire]], many Greek doctors began to practice medicine for the Roman elite, but sadly the physical sciences were not so well supported. Following the collapse of the Roman Empire, Europe saw a decline in intere
'domestic:'' combination of microwave radio relay, open-wire lines, radiotelephone, and cellular communications &lt;br&gt;''international:'' NA '''[[Radio]] [[broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:''' [[AM radio|AM]] 1, [[FM]] 2, [[shortwave]] 0 (1998) '''Radios:''' 49,000 (1997) '''[[Television]] broadcast stations:''' 2 (1997) '''Televisions:''' NA '''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):''' NA '''[[Country code]] (Top-level domain):''' GW :''See also :'' [[Guinea-Bissau]] [[Category:Communications by country|Guinea-Bissau]] [[Category:Guinea-Bissau]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Transport in Guinea-Bissau</title> <id>12193</id> <revision> <id>37833168</id> <timestamp>2006-02-02T12:01:55Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Warofdreams</username> <id>20855</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>moved [[Transportation in Guinea-Bissau]] to [[Transport in Guinea-Bissau]]: part of a series</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}} '''[[Railway]]s:''' 0 km '''[[Highway]]s:''' &lt;br&gt;''total:'' 4,400 km &lt;br&gt;''paved:'' 453 km &lt;br&gt;''unpaved:'' 3,947 km (1996 est.) '''Waterways:''' several rivers are accessible to coastal shipping '''[[Seaport]]s and [[harbor]]s:''' [[Bissau]], [[Buba]], [[Cacheu]], [[Farim]] '''[[Merchant marine]]:''' none (1999 est.) '''[[Airport]]s:''' 30 (1999 est.) '''Airports - with paved runways:''' &lt;br&gt;''total:'' 3 &lt;br&gt;''over 3,047 m:'' 1 &lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:'' 1 &lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:'' 1 (1999 est.) '''Airports - with unpaved runways:''' &lt;br&gt;''total:'' 27 &lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:'' 1 &lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:'' 4 &lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:'' 22 (1999 est.) :''See also :'' [[Guinea-Bissau]] {{Africa in topic|Transport in}} [[Category:Transportation in Guinea-Bissau| ]] {{Africa-stub}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Military of Guinea-Bissau</title> <id>12194</id> <revision> <id>15909897</id> <timestamp>2004-09-20T02:13:35Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ingoolemo</username> <id>71699</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>categorisation</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Military branches:''' People's Revolutionary Armed Force (FARP; includes Army, Navy, and Air Force), paramilitary force '''Military manpower - availability:''' &lt;br&gt;''males age 15-49:'' 296,482 (2000 est.) '''Military manpower - fit for military service:''' &lt;br&gt;''males age 15-49:'' 168,930 (2000 est.) '''Military expenditures - dollar figure:''' $8 million (FY96) '''Military expenditures - percent of GDP:''' 2.8% (FY96) ==References and Links== *[[Guinea-Bissau]] [[Category:Guinea-Bissau]] [[Category:Militaries|Guinea-Bissau]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Guyana/History</title> <id>12196</id> <revision> <id>15909898</id> <timestamp>2002-06-13T22:15:06Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Danny</username> <id>584</id> </contributor> <comment>*</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Guyana]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Guyana/Geography</title> <id>12197</id> <revision> <id>15909899</id> <timestamp>2002-06-13T22:13:43Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Danny</username> <id>584</id> </contributor> <comment>*</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Geography of Guyana]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Guyana/People</title> <id>12198</id> <revision> <id>15909900</id> <timestamp>2002-08-20T15:41:30Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username> <id>90</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Demographics of Guyana]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Politics of Guyana</title> <id>12199</id> <revision> <id>35995794</id> <timestamp>2006-01-20T20:04:45Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Darwinek</username> <id>107928</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Guyana}} [[Legislative]] power of [[Guyana]] rests in a [[unicameral]] National Assembly, with 53 members chosen on the basis of proportional representation from national lists named by the [[political]] parties. An additional 12 members are elected by regional councils at the same time as the National Assembly. The elections system was revised for the [[2001]] elections. The [[president]] may dissolve the assembly and call new elections at any time, but no later than 5 years from its first sitting. [[Executive (government)|Executive]] authority is exercised by the president, who appoints and supervises the [[prime minister]] and other [[political minister|minister]]s. The president is not directly elected; each party presenting a slate of candidates for the assembly must designate in advance a leader who will become president if that party receives the largest number of votes. Any [[dissolution]] of the assembly and election of a new assembly can lead to a change in the assembly majority and consequently a change in the presidency. Only the prime minister is required to be a member of the assembly. In practice, most other ministers also are members. Those who are not serve as nonelected members, which permits them to debate but not to vote. The highest [[judicial]] body is the [[Court]] of Appeal, headed by a chancellor of the [[judiciary]]. The second level is the [[High Court (Guyana)]], presided over by a [[chief justice]]. The chancellor and the chief justice are appointed by the president. For administrative purposes, Guyana is divided into 10 regions, each headed by a chairman who presides over a regional democratic council. Local communities are administered by village or city councils. '''Political conditions'''&lt;br&gt; [[Race]] and [[ideology]] have been the dominant political influences in Guyana. Since the split of the multiracial PPP in [[1955]], politics has been based more on [[ethnicity]] than on [[ideology]]. From [[1964]] to [[1992]], the PNC dominated Guyana's politics. The PNC draws its support primarily from [[urban area | urban]] [[Black]]s, and for many years declared itself a [[socialist]] party whose purpose was to make Guyana a nonaligned socialist state, in which the party, as in [[communist]] countries, was above all other institutions. The overwhelming majority of Guyanese of East Indian extraction traditionally have backed the People's Progressive Party, headed by the Jagans. [[Rice]] [[farmer]]s and [[sugar]] [[worker]]s in the [[rural]] areas form the bulk of PPP's support, but Indo-Guyanese who dominate the country's urban [[business]] community also have provided important support. Following independence, and with the help of substantial foreign aid, social benefits were provided to a broader section of the [[population]], specifically in [[health]], [[education]], [[housing]], [[road]] and bridge building, [[agriculture]], and rural development. However, during Forbes Burnham's last years, the government's attempts to build a socialist society caused a massive emigration of skilled workers, and, along with other economic factors, led to a significant decline in the overall quality of life in Guyana. After Burnham's death in [[1985]], President Hoyte took steps to stem the economic decline, including strengthening financial controls over the parastatal corporations and supporting the private sector. In August [[1987]], at a PNC Congress, Hoyte announced that the PNC rejected orthodox communism and the one-party state. As the elections scheduled for [[1990]] approached, Hoyte, under increasing pressure from inside and outside Guyana, gradually opened the political system. After a visit to Guyana by former U.S. President [[Jimmy Carter]] in [[1990]], Hoyte made changes in the electoral rules, appointed a new chairman of the Elections Commission, and endorsed putting together new voters' lists, thus delaying the election. The elections, which finally took place in [[1992]], were witnessed by 100 international observers, including a group headed by Mr. Carter and another from the [[commonwealth]] of nations. Both groups issued reports saying that the elections had been free and fair, despite violent attacks on the Elections Commission building on election day and other irregularities. Cheddi Jagan served as Premier ([[1957]]-[[1964]]) and then minority leader in Parliament until his election as President in [[1992]]. One of the [[Caribbean]]'s most charismatic and famous leaders, Jagan was a founder of the PPP which led Guyana's struggle for independence. Over the years, he moderated his [[Marxism-Leninism|Marxist-Leninist]] [[ideology]]. After his election as President, Jagan demonstrated a commitment to democracy, followed a pro-Western foreign policy, adopted [[free market]] policies, and pursued sustainable development for Guyana's environment. Nonetheless, he continued to press for debt relief and a new global human order in which developed countries would increase assistance to less developed nations. Jagan died on [[6 March]], [[1997]], and was succeeded by Samuel A. Hinds, whom he had appointed Prime Minister. President Hinds then appointed Janet Jagan, [[widow]] of the late President, to serve as Prime Minister. In national elections on [[15 December]], [[1997]], Janet Jagan was elected President, and her PPP party won a 55% majority of seats in Parliament. She was sworn in on [[19 December]]. Mrs. Jagan is a founding member of the PPP and was very active in party politics. She was Guyana's first female prime minister and vice president, two roles she performed concurrently before being elected to the presidency. She was also unique in being whit
die''' at noon,&quot; or &quot;&lt;nowiki&gt;[In order]&lt;/nowiki&gt; '''to meditate''', one must free one's mind.&quot; *In either of the above uses, it can often be given a subject using the preposition ''for'': &quot;'''For him to fail now''' would be a great disappointment&quot;; &quot;&lt;nowiki&gt;[In order]&lt;/nowiki&gt; '''for you to get there on time''', you'll need to leave now.&quot; (The former sentence could also be written, &quot;His failing now would be a great disappointment.&quot;) *It can be used after many intransitive verbs; in this case, it generally has the subject of the main verb as its implicit subject. So, &quot;I agreed '''to leave''',&quot; or &quot;He failed '''to make''' his case.&quot; (This may be considered a special case of the noun use above.) *It can be used after the direct objects of many transitive verbs; in this case, it generally has the direct object of the main verb as its implicit subject. So, &quot;I convinced him '''to leave''' with me,&quot; or &quot;He asked her '''to make''' his case on his behalf.&quot; *As a special case of the above, it can often be used after an intransitive verb, together with a subject using the preposition ''for'': &quot;I arranged '''for him to accompany''' me,&quot; or &quot;I waited '''for summer to arrive'''.&quot; When the verb is implied, some dialects will reduce the to-infinitive to simply ''to'': &quot;Do I have '''to'''?&quot; ===The infinitive with auxiliary verbs=== The auxiliary verb ''do'' is not used with the infinitive - even though ''do'' is also a main verb and in that sense is often used in the infinitive. One does not say *''I asked to do not have to'', but rather, either ''I asked not to have to'' or ''I asked to not have to'' (but ''see'' [[split infinitive]]). Similarly, one cannot emphasize an infinitive using ''do''; one cannot say, &quot;I hear him do say it all the time.&quot; Nonetheless, the auxiliary verbs ''have'' (used to form the [[perfect aspect]]) and ''be'' (used to form the [[passive voice]] and [[continuous aspect]]) both commonly appear in the infinitive: &quot;It's thought '''to have''' been a ceremonial site,&quot; or &quot;I want '''to be''' doing it already.&quot; ===Defective verbs=== The [[modal auxiliary verb]]s, ''can'', ''may'', ''shall'', ''will'' and ''must'' are [[defective verb|defective]] in that they do not have infinitives; so, one cannot say, *''I want him to can do it'', but rather must say, ''I want him to be able to do it''. The circumlocutions ''to be able to'', ''to have to'' and ''to be going to'' are generally used in these cases. == Germanic languages == The original Germanic suffix of the infinitive was ''-an'', with verbs derived from other words ending in ''-jan'' or ''-janan''. In [[German language|German]] it is ''-en'' (&quot;sagen&quot;), with ''-eln'' or ''-ern'' endings on a few words based on -l or -r roots (&quot;segeln&quot;, &quot;ändern&quot;); the use of ''zu'' with infinitives is less frequent than ''to'' in English. They can function as nouns, often expressing abstractions of the action, in which case they are of neuter gender: &quot;das Essen&quot; means the &quot;the eating&quot;, but also &quot;the food&quot;. In [[Dutch language|Dutch]] infinitives also end in ''-en'' (&quot;zeggen&quot; - to say), sometimes used with 'te' similar to English ''to'', e.g. &quot;Het is niet moeilijk te begrijpen&quot; -&gt; &quot;It is not difficult to understand&quot;. The few verbs with stems ending in -a have infinitives in -n (&quot;gaan&quot; - to go, &quot;slaan&quot; - to hit). In Scandinavian languages the ''n'' has dropped out and the infinitive suffix has been reduced to ''-e'' or ''-a''. == Romance languages == Romance infinitives can be used in much the same way as the infinitive is used in English, and they can also sometimes function as masculine nouns. In [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], infinitives mostly end in ''-ar'', ''-er'', or ''-ir''. A similar phenomenon also exists in [[French language|French]]: infinitives of verbs have the suffixes ''-er'', ''-ir'', ''-re'' or ''-oir''. [[Italian language|Italian]] follows a similar pattern, with its infinitives ending in ''-are'', ''-ere'', ''-ire'' or ''-urre''. Formation of the infinitive in Romance languages reflects that of their ancestor, [[Latin]], in which a significant majority of verbs had an infinitive ending with ''-re'' (with a varying vowel, called the ''thematical'', preceding it). Portuguese (and its sister language, [[Galician language|Galician]]) is the only [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European language]] with a personal infinitive, which helps to make infinitive clauses very common. English finite sentences as ''so that you/she/we have/has/have...'' would be translated to ''para teres/ela ter/termos...'' (the [[Subject (grammar)|subject]] is dropped very often). Portuguese personal infinitive has only two proper tenses (present and perfect), but other tenses are replaced by [[periphrasis|periphrastic]] structures. For instance, ''although you sing/sang/will sing'' could be translated to ''apesar de cantares/teres cantado/ires cantar''. == Slavic languages == The infinitive in [[Russian language|Russian]] usually ends in ''-t&amp;#39;'' (&amp;#1090;&amp;#1100;) preceded by a [[thematic vowel]]; some verbs have a stem ending in a consonant and change the ''t'' to ''ch'', such as *&amp;#1084;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1075;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1100; &amp;rarr; &amp;#1084;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1095;&amp;#1100; &quot;can&quot;. Some other [[Slavic languages]] have the infinitive typically ending in -&amp;#263;. However, Bulgarian and Macedonian have lost the infinitive. Serbo-Croatian officially retains it but the infinitive is dying out in Serbia. == Hebrew language == [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] has ''two'' infinitives, the infinitive absolute and the infinitive construct. The infinitive construct is used after prepositions and is inflected with pronominal endings to indicate its subject or object: ''bikht&amp;#333;bh hass&amp;#333;ph&amp;#275;r'' &quot;when the scribe wrote&quot;, ''ahare lekht&amp;#333;'' &quot;after his going&quot;. When the infinitive construct is preceded by &amp;#1500; (''l&amp;#601;-'', ''li-'', ''l&amp;#257;-'') &quot;to&quot;, it is identical in its meaning to the English ''to''-infinitive, and this is its most frequent use in Modern Hebrew. The infinitive absolute is used to add emphasis or certainty to the verb, as in &amp;#1502;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1514; &amp;#1497;&amp;#1502;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1514; ''m&amp;#333;th y&amp;#257;m&amp;#363;th'' (literally &quot;die he will die&quot;; figuratively, &quot;he shall indeed die&quot;). This construction is analogous to such English pleonasms as in &quot;he slept a sleep of peace.&quot; This usage is commonplace in the Bible, but in Modern Hebrew it is restricted to high-flown literary works. Note, however, that the ''to''-infinitive of Hebrew is not the dictionary form; that is the third person singular past tense. == Finnish language == To form the first infinitive, the strong form of the root (without [[consonant gradation]] or epenthetic 'e') is used, and these changes occur: # the root is suffixed with ''-ta/-tä'' according to [[vowel harmony]] # consonant elision takes place if applicable, e.g. ''juoks+ta'' &amp;rarr; ''juosta'' # assimilation of clusters violating sonority hierarchy if applicable, e.g. ''nuol+ta'' &amp;rarr; ''nuolla'', ''sur+ta'' &amp;rarr; ''surra'' # 't' weakens to 'd' after diphthongs, e.g. ''juo+ta'' &amp;rarr; ''juoda'' # 't' elides if intervocalic, e.g. ''kirjoitta+ta'' &amp;rarr; ''kirjoittaa'' As such, it is inconvenient for dictionary use, because the imperative would be closer to the root word. Nevertheless, dictionaries use the first infinitive. There are four other infinitives, which create a noun-, or adverb-like word from the verb. For example, the third infinitive is ''-ma/-mä'', which creates an adjective-like word like &quot;written&quot; from &quot;write&quot;: ''kirjoita-'' becomes ''kirjoittama''. ==Translation to languages without an infinitive== In languages without an infinitive, the infinitive is translated either as a ''that''-clause or as a [[verbal noun]]. For example, in Literary Arabic the phrase &quot;I want to write a book&quot; is translated as either ''ur&amp;#299;du an aktuba kit&amp;#257;ban'' (literally &quot;I want that I should write a book&quot;, with a verb in the [[subjunctive mood|subjunctive]]) or ''ur&amp;#299;du kit&amp;#257;bata kit&amp;#257;bin'' (literally &quot;I want the writing of a book&quot;, with the ''masdar'' or verbal noun), and in Demotic Arabic ''biddi aktob ikt&amp;#257;b'' (subordinate clause with verb in subjunctive). Similarly, the modern Greek for &quot;I want to write&quot;, as opposed to the ancient Greek &lt;span style=&quot;font-family: 'Palatino Linotype', Athena;&quot;&gt;&amp;#952;&amp;#8051;&amp;#955;&amp;#969; &amp;#947;&amp;#961;&amp;#945;&amp;#966;&amp;#949;&amp;#8150;&amp;#957;&lt;/span&gt; with the infinitive, is &amp;#952;&amp;#941;&amp;#955;&amp;#969; &amp;#957;&amp;#945; &amp;#947;&amp;#961;&amp;#940;&amp;#968;&amp;#969;, which is literally &quot;I want that I should write&quot;. == See also == *[[Auxiliary verb]] *[[Finite verb]] *[[Gerund]] *[[Split infinitive]] *[[Verbal noun]] [[Category:Parts of speech]] [[cv:Инфинитив]] [[da:Infinitiv]] [[de:Infinitiv]] [[eo:Infinitivo]] [[fr:Infinitif]] [[nl:Infinitief]] [[ja:不定詞]] [[no:Infinitiv]] [[nn:Infinitiv]] [[pl:Bezokolicznik]] [[ru:Инфинитив]] [[fi:Infinitiivi]] [[sv:Infinitiv]] [[zh:动词不定式]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Intellectual Property law</title> <id>15255</id> <revision> <id>15912738</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:
European flag] [[Category:International flags]] [[Category:Council of Europe|Flag]] [[category:European Union|Flag]] [[an:Bandera europeya]] [[ca:Bandera de la Unió Europea]] [[de:Europaflagge]] [[et:Euroopa Liidu lipp]] [[el:Ευρωπαϊκή σημαία]] [[es:Bandera de la Unión Europea]] [[eo:Eŭropunia flago]] [[fr:Drapeau européen]] [[is:Evrópufáninn]] [[it:Bandiera europea]] [[he:דגל האיחוד האירופי]] [[ka:ევროკავშირის დროშა]] [[lb:Europafändel]] [[hu:Európai zászló]] [[nl:Vlag van Europa]] [[ja:欧州連合の旗]] [[pl:Flaga Unii Europejskiej]] [[pt:Bandeira europeia]] [[ru:Флаг Европы]] [[sl:Evropska zastava]] [[sr:Застава Европске уније]] [[wa:Drapea di l' Union Uropeyinne]] [[zh:欧盟旗帜]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>European anthem</title> <id>10026</id> <revision> <id>15907870</id> <timestamp>2004-09-18T04:07:42Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Aris Katsaris</username> <id>85484</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>redirect to Ode to Joy instead</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ode to Joy]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Eugene Paul Wigner</title> <id>10027</id> <revision> <id>15907871</id> <timestamp>2002-09-06T16:23:57Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>64.26.98.90</ip> </contributor> <comment>We really do not need separate aretcles &quot;Eugene Paul Wigner&quot; and &quot;Eugene Wigner.&quot; Made this a redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Eugene Wigner]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Timeline of evolution</title> <id>10029</id> <revision> <id>42038339</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T10:54:51Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>OpenToppedBus</username> <id>252600</id> </contributor> <comment>Major copyedit. Remove info on mesonychid (now proven incorrect) and lemurs (which don't appear to have evolved by 64MYA).</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the history of evolutionary biology, see [[history of evolutionary thought]].'' [[Image:The Earth seen from Apollo 17.jpg|right|160px]] This '''timeline of evolution of life''' outlines the major events in the development of [[life]] on the planet [[Earth]]. For context, see [[biology]], [[evolution]], the [[geologic time scale]], and the [[history of Earth]]. Dates given are estimates based on scientific evidence. The table uses the abbreviations &quot;[[Mya (unit)|MYA]] &quot; for &quot;million years ago&quot; and &quot;[[TYA|kYA]]&quot; for &quot;thousand years ago.&quot; In [[biology]], '''evolution''' is the process by which populations of organisms acquire and pass on novel [[Trait (biological)|trait]]s from generation to generation. Its action over large stretches of time explains the origin of [[speciation|new species]] and ultimately the vast diversity of the biological world. Contemporary species are related to each other through [[Common descent|common descent]], products of evolution and speciation over billions of years. {{clear}} {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |- ! Date ! Event |- valign=&quot;top&quot; | align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 4600 MYA | The planet [[Earth]] [[Accretion theory|forms]] from the [[accretion disk]] revolving around the young [[Sun]]. |- valign=&quot;TOP&quot; | align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 4100 MYA | The surface of the Earth cools enough for the [[Earth's_crust|crust]] to solidify. The [[atmosphere]] and the [[oceans]] form&lt;ref&gt;&quot;&lt;cite&gt;However, once the Earth cooled sufficiently, sometime in the first 700 million years of its existence, clouds began to form in the atmosphere, and the Earth entered a new phase of development.&lt;/cite&gt;&quot; [http://www.oceansonline.com/ocean_form.htm How the Oceans Formed] (URL accessed on [[January 9]], [[2005]])&lt;/ref&gt;. |- valign=&quot;TOP&quot; | align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 4000 MYA | [[Origin_of_life|Life appears]], possibly derived from [[RNA world hypothesis|self-reproducing]] [[RNA]] molecules. These molecules copying/reproducing/replicating requires resources like energy, space and smaller building blocks, which soon become limited, resulting in competition. [[Natural_selection|Natural selection]] favors those molecules which are more efficient at replication. The atmosphere does not contain any free [[oxygen]]. |- valign=&quot;TOP&quot; | align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 3900 MYA | [[Late Heavy Bombardment]]: peak rate of [[Impact_event|impact events]] upon the Earth, Moon, [[Mars]] and [[Venus (planet)|Venus]] by [[asteroids]] and [[comets]] ([[planetesimals]]); this constant [[disturbance (ecology)|disturbance]] may encourage life to evolve (See: [[Panspermia]]). It is thought these impacts cause the oceans to boil away completely, more than once; yet life persists&lt;ref&gt;&quot;&lt;cite&gt; Between about 3.8 billion and 4.5 billion years ago, no place in the solar system was safe from the huge arsenal of asteroids and comets left over from the formation of the planets. Sleep and Zahnle calculate that Earth was probably hit repeatedly by objects up to 500 kilometers across&lt;/cite&gt;&quot; [http://news-service.stanford.edu/news/1998/december2/marsunder122.html Geophysicist Sleep: Martian underground may have harbored early life] (URL accessed on [[January 9]], [[2005]])&lt;/ref&gt;. [[Cell (biology)|Cells]] resembling [[prokaryote]]s appear. These first organisms are [[chemoautotroph]]s: they use [[carbon dioxide]] as a [[carbon]] source and [[oxidation|oxidize]] inorganic materials to extract energy. Later, prokaryotes evolve [[glycolysis]], a set of chemical reactions that free the energy of organic molecules such as [[glucose]]. Glycolysis generates [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]] molecules as short term energy currency and is used in almost all organisms unchanged to this day. Lifetime of the [[last universal ancestor]]; the split between the [[bacterium|bacteria]] and the [[archaea]] occurs. |- valign=&quot;TOP&quot; | align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 3500 MYA | Bacteria develop primitive forms of [[photosynthesis]] which at first do not produce [[oxygen]]. These organisms generate [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]] by exploiting a [[proton gradient]], a mechanism still used in virtually all organisms. |- valign=&quot;TOP&quot; | align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 3000 MYA | Photosynthesizing [[cyanobacteria]] evolve; they use water as [[reductant]], thereby producing oxygen as waste product. The oxygen initially oxidizes dissolved iron in the oceans, creating iron ore. Then the oxygen concentration in the atmosphere rises, acting as a poison for many bacteria. |- valign=&quot;TOP&quot; | align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 2500 MYA | Some bacteria evolve the ability to utilize oxygen to more efficiently use the energy from organic molecules such as glucose. Virtually all organisms using oxygen employ the same set of reactions, the [[citric acid cycle]] and [[oxidative phosphorylation]]. The &quot;runaway icehouse&quot; effect&lt;ref&gt;Walker, Gabrielle, (2003) &quot;Snowball Earth: The Story of the Great Global Catastrophe that Spawned Life as we know it&quot; Bloomsbury ISBN 0747654337&lt;/ref&gt; results in the [[Huronian]] glaciation (2,500 million-2,100 mya)&lt;ref&gt;John, Brian (Ed)(1979) &quot;The Winters of the World: Earth under the Ice Ages&quot; Jacaranda Press ISBN 047026844-1&lt;/ref&gt;. |- valign=&quot;TOP&quot; | align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 2100 MYA | More complex cells appear: the [[eukaryote]]s, which contain various [[organelle]]s. The closest relatives of these are probably the [[Archaea]]. Most have organelles which are probably derived from symbiotic bacteria: [[mitochondrion|mitochondria]], which use oxygen to extract energy from organic molecules and appear similar to today's [[Rickettsia]], and often [[chloroplast]]s, which derive energy from light and synthesize organic molecules and originated from cyanobacteria and similar forms. This is an example of [[co-evolution]]. |- valign=&quot;TOP&quot; | align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 1200 MYA | [[Sexual_reproduction#Origin_of_Reproduction|Sexual reproduction]] evolves and leads to faster evolution &lt;ref&gt;&quot;'Experiments with sex have been very hard to conduct,' Goddard said. 'In an experiment, one needs to hold all else constant, apart from the aspect of interest. This means that no higher organisms can be used, since they have to have sex to reproduce and therefore provide no asexual control.'&lt;br /&gt;Goddard and colleagues instead turned to a single-celled organism, yeast, to test the idea that sex allows populations to adapt to new conditions more rapidly than asexual populations.&lt;cite&gt;&lt;/cite&gt;&quot; [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/03/0330_050330_sexevolution.html Sex Speeds Up Evolution, Study Finds] (URL accessed on [[January 9]], [[2005]])&lt;/ref&gt;. While most life occurs in oceans and lakes, some cyanobacteria may already live in moist soil by this time. |- valign=&quot;TOP&quot; | align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 1000 MYA | [[Multicellular_organism|Multicellular organisms]] appear: initially colonial [[alga]]e and later, [[seaweed]]s, living in the oceans.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;&lt;cite&gt; What, then, was the selective advantage that led to the evolution of multicellular organisms?&lt;/cite&gt;&quot; [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?db=Books&amp;rid=cell.section.61 From Single Cells to Multicellular Organisms] (URL accessed on [[January 9]], [[2005]])&lt;/ref&gt; |- valign=&quot;TOP&quot; | align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 1000-750 MYA | The first known supercontinent, [[Rodinia]], forms and then breaks apart again. |- valign=&quot;TOP&quot; | align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 950-780 MYA | [[Sturtian]] [[Ice Age]]. This is a time of multiple near-global glaciation with periods oscillating between a [[Snowball Earth]] and a [[greenhouse
Physics]] in [[1979]]. ==See also== *[[Fundamental force]]s *[[Standard model (basic details)|Formulation of the standard model]] &lt;!--Categories--&gt; [[Category:Particle physics]] [[Category:Electroweak theory]] &lt;!--Interwiki--&gt; [[ca:Interacció electrodèbil]] [[da:Elektrosvag kraft]] [[de:Elektroschwache Wechselwirkung]] [[es:Modelo electrodébil]] [[fr:Interaction électrofaible]] [[it:Interazione elettrodebole]] [[he:הכוח האלקטרו-חלש]] [[hu:Elektrogyenge kölcsönhatás]] [[pl:Teoria oddziaływań elektrosłabych]] [[sl:Elektrošibka interakcija]] {{particle-stub}} {{quantum-stub}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Elara</title> <id>10104</id> <revision> <id>40485522</id> <timestamp>2006-02-20T22:39:00Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>212.2.166.86</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Elara''' is the name of more than one entity: *[[Elara (moon)|Elara]] is a [[natural satellite|moon]] of [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]]. *In [[Greek mythology]], [[Elara (mythology)|Elara]] was the mother of [[Tityas]]. *[http://www.elara.ie Elara] is also the name of a major [[Ireland|Irish]] [[computer hardware]] vendor. {{disambig}} [[hr:Elara]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Erasmus Reinhold</title> <id>10105</id> <revision> <id>40377842</id> <timestamp>2006-02-20T03:49:34Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>24.23.39.36</ip> </contributor> <comment>link</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Erasmus Reinhold''' ([[October 22]], [[1511]] &amp;ndash; [[February 19]], [[1553]]) was a [[Germany|German]] [[astronomer]] and [[mathematician]]. He was born and died in [[Saalfeld]], [[Thuringia]], [[Germany]]. He was educated at the [[University of Wittenberg]], where he was first elected dean and later became rector. In [[1536]] he was appointed professor of mathematics by [[Philipp Melanchthon]]. Reinhold identified and catalogued a large number of stars. Duke [[Albert of Brandenburg Prussia]] supported Reinhold and financed the printing of Reinhold's [[Prutenicae Tabulae]], or &quot;Prussian Tables.&quot; These astronomical tables helped to disseminate [[Copernican principle]] throughout the Empire. Both Reinholds's Prussian Tables and Copernicus' studies were the foundation for the [[Calendar Reform]] by [[Pope Gregory XIII]] in 1582. {{sci-hist-stub}} [[Category:1511 births|Reinhold, Erasmus]] [[Category:1553 deaths|Reinhold, Erasmus]] [[Category:German astronomers|Reinhold, Erasmus]] [[Category:German mathematicians|Reinhold, Erasmus]] [[Category:16th century mathematicians|Reinhold, Erasmus]] [[Category:History of astronomy|Reinhold, Erasmus]] [[de:Erasmus Reinhold]] [[sl:Erasmus Reinhold]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Earthquake</title> <id>10106</id> <revision> <id>42016110</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T06:01:33Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Can't sleep, clown will eat me</username> <id>603177</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.6.141.45|24.6.141.45]] to last version by Vsmith</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:{{dablink|For other senses of this word, see [[earthquake (disambiguation)]].}} [[Image:Quake epicenters 1963-98.png|thumb|350px|Global earthquake [[epicenter]]s, 1963&amp;ndash;1998]] An '''earthquake''' is a sudden and sometimes catastrophic movement of a part of the [[Earth]]'s surface. Earthquakes result from the dynamic release of elastic strain energy that radiates [[seismic wave]]s. Earthquakes typically result from the movement of [[Geologic fault|fault]]s, planar zones of deformation within the Earth's upper [[Crust (geology)|crust]]. The word earthquake is also widely used to indicate the source region itself. The Earth's [[lithosphere]] is a patch work of plates in slow but constant motion (see [[plate tectonics]]). Earthquakes occur where the [[Stress (physics)|stress]] resulting from the differential motion of these plates exceeds the strength of the crust. The highest stress (and possible weakest zones) are most often found at the boundaries of the [[tectonic plates]] and hence these locations are where the majority of earthquakes occur. Events located at plate boundaries are called [[interplate earthquake]]s; the less frequent events that occur in the interior of the lithospheric plates are called [[intraplate earthquake]]s (see, for example, [[New Madrid Seismic Zone]]). Earthquakes related to plate tectonics are called tectonic earthquakes. Most earthquakes are tectonic, but they also occur in [[volcanic]] regions and as the result of a number of anthropogenic sources, such as reservoir induced seismicity, mining and the removal or injection of fluids into the crust. Seismic waves including some strong enough to be felt by [[humans]] can also be caused by explosions (chemical or nuclear), landslides, and collapse of old mine shafts, though these sources are not strictly earthquakes. These sources will also show a different seismogram than earthquakes == Characteristics == Large numbers of earthquakes occur on a daily basis on Earth, but the majority of them are detected only by [[seismometers]] and cause no damage . Most earthquakes occur in narrow regions around plate boundaries down to depths of a few tens of kilometres where the [[Crust (geology)|crust]] is rigid enough to support the elastic strain. Where the crust is thicker and colder they will occur at greater depths and the opposite in areas that are hot. At [[subduction zones]] where plates descend into the [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]], earthquakes have been recorded to a depth of 600 km, although these deep earthquakes are caused by different mechanisms than the more common shallow events. Some deep earthquakes may be due to the transition of [[olivine]] to [[spinel]], which is more stable in the deep mantle. Large earthquakes can cause serious destruction and massive loss of life through a variety of agents of damage, including fault rupture, vibratory ground motion (i.e., shaking), inundation (e.g., [[tsunami]], [[seiche]], dam failure), various kinds of permanent ground failure (e.g. [[earthquake liquefaction|liquefaction]], [[landslide]]), and [[fire]] or a release of [[hazardous material]]s. In a particular earthquake, any of these agents of damage can dominate, and historically each has caused major damage and great loss of life, but for most of the earthquakes shaking is the dominant and most widespread cause of damage. There are four types of [[seismic wave]]s that are all generated simultaneously and can be felt on the ground. [[S-wave]]s (secondary or shear waves) and the two types of surfaces waves ([[Love waves]] and [[Rayleigh waves]]) are responsible for the shaking hazard. [[Image:SanFranHouses06.JPG|thumb|200px|Damage from the [[1906 San Francisco earthquake]].]] [[image:EarthquakeFreewayCa1989.jpg|thumb|200px|Section of collapsed freeway after the 1989 [[Loma Prieta earthquake]].]] Most large earthquakes are accompanied by other, smaller ones, that can occur either before or after the principal quake &amp;mdash; these are known as [[foreshock]]s or [[aftershock]]s, respectively. While almost all earthquakes have aftershocks, foreshocks are far less common occurring in only about 10% of events. The power of an earthquake is distributed over a significant area, but in the case of large earthquakes, it can spread over the entire planet. Ground motions caused by very distant earthquakes are called [[teleseism]]s. The [[Rayleigh waves]] from the [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake|Sumatra-Andaman Earthquake of 2004]] caused ground motion of over 1 cm even at the [[seismometers]] that were located far from it, although this displacement was abnormally large. Using such ground motion records from around the world it is possible to identify a point from which the earthquake's [[seismic wave]]s appear to originate. That point is called its &quot;focus&quot; or &quot;[[hypocenter]]&quot; and usually proves to be the point at which the fault slip was initiated. The location on the surface directly above the hypocenter is known as the &quot;[[epicenter]]&quot;. The total size of the fault that slips, the rupture zone, can be as large as 1000 km, for the biggest earthquakes. Just as a large [[loudspeaker]] can produce a greater volume of sound than a smaller one, large faults are capable of higher magnitude earthquakes than smaller faults are. Earthquakes that occur below sea level and have large vertical displacements can give rise to [[tsunami]]s, either as a direct result of the deformation of the sea bed due to the earthquake or as a result of submarine landslips or &quot;slides&quot; directly or indirectly triggered by it. == Earthquake Size == The first method of quantifying earthquakes was intensity scales. In the United States the [[Mercalli Intensity Scale|Mercalli (or Modified Mercalli, MM) scale]] is commonly used, while Japan ([[Japan Meteorological Agency seismic intensity scale|shindo]]) and the EU ([[European Macroseismic Scale]]) each have their own scales. These assign a numeric value (different for each scale) to a location based on the size of the shaking experienced there. The value 6 (normally denoted &quot;VI&quot;) in the MM scale for example is: ''Everyone feels movement. People have trouble walking. Objects fall from shelves. Pictures fall off walls. Furniture moves. Plaster in walls might crack. Trees and bushes shake. Damage is slight in poorly built buildings. No structural damage.'' [[image:Nisqually_Earthquake_ShakeMAp_Mon_13_2003.jpg|thumb|200px|Right|A Shakemap recorded by the [[Pacific Northwest Seismograph Network]] that shows the instrument recorded intensity of the shaking of the [[Nisqually earthquake]] on [[February 28]] [[2001]].]] [[image:Nisqually_Community_Internet_Intensity_Map_for_t
ly due to poor marketing. Mass-market Amigas were then considerably cheaper than PCs and Macs at the time. This factor helped to boost sales in the more price-conscious European markets, but it also led to Commodore being viewed in U.S. markets as a producer of cheap &quot;game machines&quot;. This perception was furthered by the fact that most Commodore retail outlets were toy stores, and marketing campaigns were woefully mismatched with the status-conscious American public. Overall, the Amiga was very successful in [[Europe]], but it sold less than a million units in the [[United States|U.S.]]. In [[1992]], Commodore released their last Amiga computer models, the [[A1200]] and the [[A4000]]: Each featured the new [[Advanced Graphics Architecture|AGA]] chipset and the third release of [[AmigaOS]]. In [[1993]], menaced by console giants [[Sega]] and [[Nintendo]], Commodore marketed the [[Amiga CD32|CD32]] in a desperate attempt to save their business. The CD32 was one of the earliest [[Compact Disc|CD]]-based consoles and was also the world's first 32-bit game machine, with specifications similar to the A1200. [[Image:Amiga-Computer.jpg|thumb|left|250px|An Amiga A500 computer, photographed in the early [[1990s]].]] ===Bankruptcy=== In [[1994]], Commodore filed for bankruptcy and its assets were purchased by [[Escom]], a German PC manufacturer, who created the [[subsidiary]] company [[Amiga Technologies]]. However, Escom in turn went bankrupt in [[1997]]. The Amiga brand was then sold to another PC manufacturer, [[Gateway 2000]], which had announced grand plans for it. However, in 2000, Gateway dropped the Amiga brand. This is rumored to be due to pressure by [[Microsoft]]; however, the real reason for the sale is unknown. ===Amiga, Inc.=== The current owner of the trademark, [[Amiga, Inc.]], has licensed the rights to make hardware using the Amiga brand to a U.K. computer vendor, [http://www.eyetech.co.uk Eyetech Group, Ltd], which was founded by some former UK employees of [[Commodore International]]. They are currently selling the [[AmigaOne]] via an international dealer network. The AmigaOne is a [[PowerPC]] computer designed to run the last remnants of [[AmigaOS]], which was itself licensed to a Belgian-German company, [http://www.hyperion-entertainment.biz Hyperion Entertainment]. Only a very few Amiga [[Clone (computer science)|clone]]s were ever produced, as both Commodore and subsequent owners of the trademark refused to license the Amiga technology to third-party manufacturers. Today, Amigas running AmigaOS version 3.9 and earlier are now considered &quot;Classic&quot; Amigas, as opposed to the new Amiga Inc./Eyetech/Hyperion models. Due to its popularity as a gaming platform, many people incorrectly refer to the Amiga as a games console (even though it is a fully-featured computer). However, there are many &quot;Classic&quot; Amigas still in use around the world. A popular use for the classic Amiga is as an automated readerboard for local community-access TV stations. ==Technical features== For its time, the Amiga was quite an advanced computer for the home market. It provided impressive sound and graphics for games, and it was also popular in business environments until around the mid-1990s, aiding users in video editing and 3D graphics. The very first model, the [[Amiga 1000]], had a 7.14 MHz CPU, designed to work directly with [[NTSC]] video. The CPU clock frequency was precisely double the 3.57 MHz color carrier frequency. The A1000 had a built-in composite video output, which allowed the computer to be hooked up directly to a TV or VCR. However, the output signal was considered too &quot;hot&quot; (strong) by many to be useful for anything other than home use (however, this could be remedied by running the A1000's composite output through a video processing amplifier, or &quot;proc amp&quot;, to bring the video levels down to a suitable amount). The [[Original Amiga chipset]], or OCS, was more advanced than other architectures of its time: it had dedicated chips for real-time video effects, allowing users to easily work with [[genlock]]s to overlay graphics atop live video. The Amiga's unique [[overscan]] feature, the ability to run at custom, user-defined resolutions, allowed it to draw images past the visible borders of a television screen, allowing seamless fly-ins and scrolling from off-frame. Today, many TV stations and broadcast corporations are still using [[A3000]]s and [[A4000]]s for their real-time video effects. Many programs were also written for creating &quot;[[fansub]]s&quot; of foreign films and [[Japanese animation]]. Many competing products were created for the Amiga's video capabilities ranging from simple genlocks that allowed you to simply switch the RGB overlay feed on and off, to more advanced devices like the Supergen which had faders, and the ultimate expression of the Amiga's native power, the Newtek [[Video Toaster]]. Other interesting products that used the genlock capability enabled users to do motion tracking and interactivity, 20 years before similar products like the Sony EyeToy for the Playstation 2 video-game console. Due to its ability to genlock, that is, adjust its own screen refresh timing to match the signal from a VCR, the Amiga also had a niche market among biologists analyzing video of organisms in motion at a time when other systems capable of doing similar tasks cost an order of magnitude more. At the time, several video boards for IBM-compatible systems could overlay computer-generated graphics on top of the signal from a video camera, but these boards required the camera to accept a sync pulse from the computer, so were useless for overlaying graphics on VCR output. In the late 1980s the Amiga was for some biologists working on limited budgets the only affordable way to do kinematic analysis of video captured by a VCR. Another unique feature provided by the Amiga was the ability to change display resolutions ''on the fly'' &amp;mdash; the computer could display different scan lines at different resolutions, allowing for multiple screens of information at different resolutions that could overlap one another without interfering with each other. The chipset also included a [[blitter]], which could copy and manipulate large amounts of graphics data at once (making the Amiga well-suited to arcade action games), and accelerated line-drawing and area-filling functions, which helped advance the popularity of real-time [[3D computer graphics|3D graphics]] and games. However, the Amiga would later become disadvantaged with the advent of [[first-person shooter]] games such as the PC game [[Doom]]. This was partly because the Amiga's [[planar]] graphics chipsets were less well suited to this type of 3D graphics, compared to the [[chunky]] graphics chipsets found on PC and [[Macintosh]] computers. ==Operating systems== [[Image:Amiga_kick34.5_askforwb1.3.png|right|frame|After powering up or rebooting an Amiga 500 this screen display is seen, meaning the OS started and asking the user to insert a bootable floppy disk. The displayed OS is [[Kickstart]] 1.3.]] The operating system, [[AmigaOS]], was also quite sophisticated for its time, combining an intuitive [[graphical user interface]] (GUI) like that of the [[Apple Macintosh]] together with an elegant [[Command Line Interface]] (CLI) which then eventually evolved into a very powerful Shell. This gives the user of Amiga some of the flexibility of [[Unix|UNIX]] while retaining a simplicity that made maintenance rather easy. While its [[AmigaOS|operating system]] was the only [[preemptive multitasking]] platform with an efficient message-passing kernel in the consumer marketplace for several years with an efficient [[memory management]], [[robustness]] left something to be desired, mainly due to the absence of [[protected memory]], resulting in the famous &quot;[[Guru Meditation]]&quot; errors. The Amiga operating system was resurrected in [[2000]] as [[AmigaOS#AmigaOS 4|AmigaOS 4]], which currently runs only on [[AmigaOne]] computers and on [[A1200]]s and [[A4000]]s with a [[PowerPC]] accelerator card. Other, still maintained, operating systems are available for the classic Amiga platform, including [[Linux]] and [[NetBSD]]. Older versions of [[OpenBSD]] can also be run - the last Amiga release was 3.2. [[Commodore Amiga Unix]] (based on AT&amp;T System V Rel. 4) was available only for the [[A2500]] and [[A3000]]. ===MS-DOS on Amiga via Sidecar or Bridgeboard=== [[MS-DOS]] compatibility was a major issue during the early years of the Amiga's lifespan in order to promote the machine as a serious business machine. In order to run the MS-DOS operating system, Commodore released the 'Sidecar' for Amiga 1000, basically a [[8086]] board in a closed case that connected to the side of the Amiga. Clever programming (a library named Janus, after the two-faced [[Janus (mythology)|Roman god]] of doorways) made it possible to run PC software in an Amiga window without use of [[emulation]]. At the introduction of the Sidecar the crowd was stunned to see the MS-DOS version of ''[[Microsoft Flight Simulator]]'' running at full speed in an Amiga window on the [[AmigaOS#workbench|Workbench]]. Later the Sidecar was implemented on an expansion card named 'Bridgeboard' for Amiga 2000+ models. Bridgeboard cards appeared up to [[Intel 80486|486 processor]] variants. The Bridgeboard card and the Janus library made the use of PC expansion cards and harddisk/floppydisk drives possible. The bridgeboard card was manufactured by Commodore, later third party cards also appeared for the A500/1200 expansion slot such as the KCS Powerboard. Eventually, full-software emulators, such as PC-Task allowed Amigas to run MS-DOS programs, including Microsoft Windows, without additional hardware, at the costs of speed and compatibility. ===Mac OS on Amiga=== Also introduced for the Amiga were two products, A-Max (both internal an
&amp;nbsp; |- |[[Duško Knežević]] |Serb |indicted in Omarska Camp case |- |[[Dario Kordić]] |Croat | |sentenced to 25 years for offensives in the Lašva Valley, Bosnia |- |[[Radomir Kovač]] |Serb |&amp;nbsp; |convicted |- |[[Momčilo Krajišnik]] |Bosnian Serb prime minister of Republika Srpska |&amp;nbsp; |- |[[Milorad Krnojelac]] |Bosnian Serb, Bosnian Serb prison commander | |Sentenced to fifteen years for the Foca prison camp |- |[[Radislav Krstić]] |Bosnian Serb, Bosnian Serb Army general |Genocide, Crimes against humanity &amp; Violations of the laws or customs of war |Sentenced to thirty five years (Originally forty six years) |- |[[Dragoljub Kunarac]] |Serb |&amp;nbsp; |convicted |- |[[Esad Lanzo]] |Bosnian Muslim |convicted |- |[[Vladimir Lazarevic]] |Serb army general |&amp;nbsp; |- |[[Fatmir Limaj]] |Albanian |&amp;nbsp; |Acquitted |- |[[Sreten Lukić]] |Serb Serbian police general |&amp;nbsp; |- |[[Gruban Malić]] |Serbian [[fictional character]] |Indicted for forced sexual intercourse, violation of the laws or customs of war, crime against humanity |Charges dropped |- |[[Mladen Markač]] |Serb |&amp;nbsp; |awaiting trial |- |[[Milan Martić]] |Serb prime minster of Republika Srpska Krajina |&amp;nbsp; |- |[[Željko Meakić]] |Bosnian Serb |indicted in Omarska Camp case |- |[[Radivoj Miletić]] |Bosnian Serb |indicted for Srebrenica |- |[[Milan Milutinović]] |Serb [[President of Serbia]] |indicted for incidents while in authority during [[Kosovo War]] |- |[[Dragomir Milošević]], |Bosnian Serb |indicted for command of [[siege of Sarajevo]] |- |[[Slobodan Milošević]] |Serb president of Serbia, president of Yugoslavia |indicted for incidents while in authority during [[Kosovo War]] |- |[[Ratko Mladić]] |Bosnian Serb, Bosnian Serb Army Commander of the Main Staff |Genocide, Complicity in Genocide, Crimes against Humanity &amp; Violations of the laws &amp; customs/war |&amp;nbsp; | |- |[[Darko Mrđa]] |Bosnian Serb, Bosnian Serb police unit commander |&amp;nbsp; |Sentenced to 17 years |- |[[Mile Mrkšić]] |Croatian Serb, Yugoslav Army Colonel, Later [[Republika Srpska Krajina]] Army Commander |Indictment in relation to [[Vukovar]] |- |[[Isak Musliu]] |Kosovo Albanian, Kosovo Liberation Army commander |&amp;nbsp; |Acquitted |- |[[Mladen Naletilić|Mladen ''Tuta'' Naletilić]] |Bosnian Croat, Bosnian Croat paramilitary |&amp;nbsp; | |- |[[Dragan Nikolić]] |Serb, Bosnian Serb Prison Commander |Indicted in the Susica Camp case |Sentenced to twenty years |- |[[Drago Nikolić]] |Bosnian Serb, Bosnian Serb Army Officer |indicted in the Srebrenica case | |- |[[Dragan Obrenović]] |Bosnian Serb, Bosnian Serb Army Lieuttenant-Colonel | |Sentenced to seventeen years |- |[[Dragoljub Ojdanić]] |Serb, Yugoslav Army Chief of Staff |indicted for incidents while in authority during [[Kosovo War]] | |- |[[Naser Orić]] |Bosnian Muslim, Bosnian Muslim Army commander of Srebrenica |Violations of the laws or customs of war | |- |[[Vinko Pandurević]] |Bosnian Serb, Bosnian Serb Army general |indicted in the Srebrenica case | |- |[[Nebojša Pavković]] |Serb, former Yugoslav Army chief of staff |indicted for incidents while in authority during [[Kosovo War]] | |- |[[Biljana Plavšić]] |Bosnian Serb, former President of [[Republika Srpska]] | |plead guilty, Sentenced to eleven years |- |[[Vujadin Popović]] |Bosnian Serb, Bosnian Serb Army Lieutenant colonel |indicted in the Srebrenica case |- |[[Miroslav Radić]] |Serb, Yugoslav Army captain |&amp;nbsp; |&amp;nbsp; |- |[[Mitar Rašević]] |Serb |&amp;nbsp; |&amp;nbsp; |- |[[Nikola Šainović]] |Serb, Former deputy prime minister of Yugoslavia |indicted for incidents while in authority during [[Kosovo War]] | |- |[[Vladimir Šantić]], |Bosnian Croat | |Freed on appeal |- |[[Vojislav Šešelj]] |Serb, President of the Serbian Radical Party (SRS) | |&amp;nbsp; |- |[[Duško Sikirica]] |Bosnian Serb, Bosnian Serb prison commander |&amp;nbsp; |Sentenced to fifteen years |- |[[Veselin Šljivančanin]] |Montenegrin, Yugoslav army battalion commander |related to [[Vukovar]] | |- |[[Mićo Stanišić]] |Bosnian Serb, Former Bosnian Serb interior minister |Crimes against humanity and Violations of the laws or customs of war | |- |[[Vlajko Stojiljković]] |Serb, Former Serbian interior minister |Indicted with [[Slobodan Milosevic]] |Committed suicide before trial |- |[[Pavle Strugar]] |Montenegrin, Yugoslav Army general | |sentenced to eight years for command authority in bombing of [[Dubrovnik]] |- |[[Duško Tadić]] |Bosnian Serb, [[Serbian Democratic Party]] leader in Kozarac and member of paramilitary force | |Sentenced to twenty five years |- |[[Miroslav Tadić]] |Bosnian Serb, Chairman of Bosanki Samac 'Exchange commission' |&amp;nbsp; |sentenced to eight years in the Bosanski Šamac case, given early release |- |[[Johan Tarculovski]] |Macedonian, Macedonian police officer |for [[Ljuboten]] attack | |- |[[Stevan Todorović]] |Bosnian Serb, Bosnian Serb police head for the municipalty of Bosanki Samac |&amp;nbsp; |Sentenced to ten years |- |[[Savo Todović]] |Bosnian Serb, Bosnian Serb prison commander |&amp;nbsp; |&amp;nbsp; |- |[[Zdravko Tolimir]] |Bosnian Serb, Bosnian Serb Army assistant commander |Crimes against humanity and Violations of the laws or customs of war | |- |[[Mitar Vasiljević]] |Bosnian Serb, Bosnian Serb paramilitary | |Sentenced to twenty years, Found guilty of crimes against humanity |- |[[Zoran Vuković]] |Bosnian Serb, Bosnian Serb Army soldier | |Sentenced to twelve years, Found guilty of rape &amp; torture |} ==See also== * [[Command responsibility]] * [[Historical revisionism (political)|Historical revisionism]] * [[International Criminal Court]] * [[International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda]] * [[State Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina]] ==External links== * [http://www.un.org/icty/ Official website of ICTY] * [http://www.ohr.int/print/?content_id=7117 UN Security Council resolution 827 (1993)] * [http://www.icdsmireland.org/resources/trial/2003/illegal.htm Illegal Tribunal - Illegal Indictment] * [http://www.un.org/icty/glance/index.htm] - KEY FIGURES OF ICTY CASES includes complete list of indictees and disposition of cases (to February 2005). * [http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/issue_milo_discuss.php Jurist Milosevic Trial discussion] * [http://www.icdsm.org/ International Committee to Defend Slobodan Milosevic] * [http://www.balkanstudies.org/wordfiles/Byronica/Hague.htm: Raymond K. Kent: The Hague and Serb history] *[http://www.srpska-mreza.com/library/facts/Kent-summary.html Raymond K. Kent: The Hague Tribunal and the Serbs] * [http://www.icdsmireland.org/resources/trial/trial-index.htm Milosevic on trial] * [http://www.un.org/icty/pressreal/nato061300.htm Report to the Prosecutor by the Committee Established to Review the NATO Bombing] * [http://findingkaradzic.blogspot.com Finding Karadzic blog] [[Category:Human rights bodies]] [[Category:International courts]] [[Category:International criminal law]] [[Category:United Nations tribunals]] [[Category:History of Bosnia and Herzegovina]] [[de:Internationaler Strafgerichtshof für das ehemalige Jugoslawien]] [[es:Tribunal Penal Internacional para la ex-Yugoslavia]] [[fr:Tribunal pénal international pour l'ex-Yougoslavie]] [[hr:Međunarodni sud za ratne zločine počinjene na području bivše Jugoslavije]] [[id:Pengadilan Internasional untuk Bekas Yugoslavia]] [[ja:旧ユーゴスラヴィア国際戦犯法廷]] [[no:Det internasjonale krigsforbrytertribunalet for det tidligere Jugoslavia]] [[pl:Międzynarodowy Trybunał Karny dla byłej Jugosławii]] [[sr:Хашки трибунал]] [[fi:ICTY]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>ISO 216</title> <id>15275</id> <revision> <id>38643232</id> <timestamp>2006-02-07T18:19:08Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>82.71.26.206</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* A series */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float:right; margin-left: 0.5em; text-align: '×';&quot; |+ '''ISO 216 sizes'''&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[millimeter|mm × mm]])&lt;/small&gt; |- !colspan=&quot;2&quot;| A Series |- | A0 || 841 × 1189 |- | A1 || 594 × 841 |- | A2 || 420 × 594 |- | A3 || 297 × 420 |- | A4 || 210 × 297 |- | A5 || 148 × 210 |- | A6 || 105 × 148 |- | A7 || 74 × 105 |- | A8 || 52 × 74 |- | A9 || 37 × 52 |- | A10|| 26 × 37 |- !colspan=&quot;2&quot;| B Series |- | B0 ||1000 × 1414 |- | B1 || 707 × 1000 |- | B2 || 500 × 707 |- | B3 || 353 × 500 |- | B4 || 250 × 353 |- | B5 || 176 × 250 |- | B6 || 125 × 176 |- | B7 || 88 × 125 |- | B8 || 62 × 88 |- | B9 || 44 × 62 |- | B10|| 31 × 44 |- !colspan=&quot;2&quot;| C Series |- | C0 || 917 × 1297 |- | C1 || 648 × 917 |- | C2 || 458 × 648 |- | C3 || 324 × 458 |- | C4 || 229 × 324 |- | C5 || 162 × 229 |- | C6 || 114 × 162 |- | C7/6|| 81 × 162 |- | C7 || 81 × 114 |- | C8 || 57 × 81 |- | C9 || 40 × 57 |- | C10|| 28 × 40 |- | DL || 110 × 220 |} '''ISO 216''' specifies [[International Organization for Standardization|international standard]] (ISO) [[paper size]]s, used in most countries in the world today. It is the standard which defines the well-known [[A4 paper size]]. [[Image:A size illustration.png|thumb|300px|left|A comparison of different A paper sizes]] The standard was originally adopted by [[DIN]] (as '''DIN 476''') in [[Germany]] in [[1922]], although some of the formats contained therein were independently invented in [[France]] during its revolution and later forgotten. ISO 216 defines two series of paper sizes: A and B. There is also a C series for envelopes, defined in [[ISO 269]]. ==A series== Paper in the A series format has a 1:&amp;radic;2 aspect ratio, though this is rounded to the nearest millimetre. A0 is defined so that it has an area of 1 [[square metre|m²]], prior to the above mentioned rounding. Successive paper sizes in the series A1, A2, A3, etc., are defined by halving the preceding paper size parallel to its shorter side, again prior t
blackshirts in 1936. Sympathy for the organization evaporated rapidly as war with the Axis approached. The BUF was banned in 1940 and Mosely was jailed for the duration of the war. In the [[United States]], monied-interests attempted to organize a coup to overthrow the federal government headed by FDR to make way for a fascist government in 1933. ([[Business Plot]]). The [[Ku Klux Klan]] achieved widespread political power in several states before collapsing due to internal disputes and corruption charges against many of its leaders. ==Fascism and Sexuality== There has also been a revival of interest in recent times, among many academic historians, with regard to the profound ''cult of masculinity'' that permeated fascism, the attempts to systematically control female sexuality and reproductive behavior for the ends of the State. According to Anson Rabinbach and Jessica Benjamin, &quot;The crucial element of fascism is its explicit sexual language, what Theweleit calls 'the conscious coding' or the 'over-explicitness of the fascist language of symbol.' This fascist symbolization creates a particular kind of psychic economy which places sexuality in the service of destruction. Despite its sexually charged politics, fascism is an anti-eros, 'the core of all fascist propaganda is a battle against everything that constitutes enjoyment and pleasure'… He shows that in this world of war the repudiation of one's own body, of femininity, becomes a psychic compulsion which associates masculinity with hardness, destruction, and self-denial.&quot; {{ref|Rabinbach-Benjamin}} ==Neo-Fascism== {{main|Neo-fascism}} Contemporary, meaning after World War II, fascist movements and allegations of neofascism are covered in a number of other articles: *See: [[Neo-Fascism]]; [[Neo-Nazism]]; [[Neofascism and religion]]; [[Fascism and ideology]];[[Christian Identity]]; [[Creativity Movement]]; [[Ku Klux Klan]] ; [[National Alliance]]; [[Nouvelle Droite]]; [[American Nazi Party]]; [[Alain de Benoist]]; [[William Luther Pierce]]; [[George Lincoln Rockwell]]; [[Producerism]]. ==Fascist mottos and sayings== * ''Me ne frego'', literally &quot;I rub myself about it,&quot; closer, in meaning, to &quot;I don't give a damn&quot;: the Italian Fascist [[motto]]. * ''Libro e moschetto - fascista perfetto'', &quot;The book and the musket - make the perfect Fascist.&quot; * ''Viva la Morte'', &quot;Long live death (sacrifice).&quot; * The above mentioned ''Tutto nello Stato, niente al di fuori dello Stato, nulla contro lo Stato'', &quot;Everything in the State, nothing outside the State, nothing against the State.&quot; * ''Credere, Obbedire, Combattere'' (&quot;Believe, Obey, Fight&quot;) ==See also== * [[George Seldes]], early reporter of US fascism. * [[Horst Wessel Lied]], a German song that encapsulates much of Fascist ideology. * [[Japanese nationalism]], Japanese Radical Right-Nationalist Local Ideology from the [[World War II]] times to the present day. * [[The Great Scandal]] * [[Economic fascism]] * [[Green-Fascism]] * [[Grand Council of Fascism]] ==Notes== #{{note|PSDF-Mus}} {{cite book | first=Benito | last=Mussolini | year=1933 | title=The Political and Social Doctrine of Fascism | publisher=Hogarth Press}} #{{note|MW}} {{cite web | title=Fascism | work=Merrian-Webster Online Dictionary | url=http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/fascism | accessdate=November 17 | accessyear=2005}} #{{note|AHD}} {{cite book | author=AHD Editorial Board | title=American Heritage Dictionary | publisher=Houghton Mifflin | year=1983}} #{{note|Payne}} {{cite book | author=Payne, Stanley | title=Fascism: Comparison and Definition | publisher=University of Wisconsin Press | year=1980 | pages = 7}} #{{note|Eco}} {{cite journal | author=Umberto Eco | title=Eternal Fascism Fourteen Ways of Looking at a Blackshirt | journal=New York Review of Books | year=1995 | issue=June 22 | pages= 12–15 | url=http://www.themodernword.com/eco/eco_blackshirt.html }} #{{note|Griffin}} {{cite book | first=Roger | last=Griffin | year=1995 | title=Fascism | publisher=Oxford University Press | url=http://www.brookes.ac.uk/schools/humanities/staff/FAECRG2.htm}} #{{note|Arendt}} {{cite book | first=Hannah | last=Arendt | year=1973 | title=The Origins of Totalitarianism | publisher=Harvest Books | id=ISBN 0156701537 | authorlink=Hannah Arendt }} #{{note|Watkins}} {{cite web | title=The Economic System of Corporatism | work=Applet-magic.com | url=http://www2.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/corporatism.htm | accessdate=November 17 | accessyear=2005}} #{{note|Gentile}} 1932 ''Enciclopedia Italiana'' #{{note|Gentile}} 1932 ''Enciclopedia Italiana'' #{{note|Mussolini}} Benito Mussolini, 1935, &quot;The Doctrine of Fascism,&quot; Firenze: Vallecchi Editore. #{{note|Rerum}} {{cite web | title=Rerum Novarum | work=papalencyclicals.net | url=http://www.papalencyclicals.net/Leo13/l13rerum.htm | accessdate=November 17 | accessyear=2005}} #{{note|Corner}} {{cite web | title=Fascist Italy | work=The Corner | url=http://www.thecorner.org/hists/total/f-italy.htm | accessdate=November 17 | accessyear=2005}} &lt;!-- surely we can get a better reference than this --&gt; #{{note|Quadragesimo}} {{cite web | title=Rerum Novarum | work=papalencyclicals.net | url=http://www.papalencyclicals.net/Pius11/P11QUADR.HTM | accessdate=November 17 | accessyear=2005}} #{{note|Cephas}} {{cite web | title=Italy, the Vatican and Fascism | work=The Vatican in World Politics | url=http://www.cephas-library.com/catholic/catholic_vatican_in_world_politics_chpt_9.html | accessdate=November 17 | accessyear=2005}} # {{note|Rabinbach-Benjamin}} Anson Rabinbach and Jessica Benjamin in the foreword to Vol II. Klaus Theweleit, Male Fantasies. ppg. xii-xiii. University of Minnesota Press. ISBN: 0816614512. #{{note|Candeloro}} {{cite book | author=Giorgio Candeloro | title=Storia dell'Italia Moderna | publisher=Feltrinelli | year=1981}} #{{note|Del}} {{cite book | author=Angelo Del Bocca and Giorgio Rohat | title=I gas di Mussolini | publisher=Editori Riuniti | id = ISBN=8835940915 | year=1996}} ==References== * [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler, Adolf]]. ''[[Mein Kampf]]'' (1992). London: Pimlico. ISBN 071265254X *&quot;Labor Charter&quot; (1927-1934) * [[Benito Mussolini|Mussolini, Benito]]. ''[[Doctrine of Fascism]]'' which was published as part of the entry for ''fascismo'' in the ''Enciclopedia Italiana'' 1932. * [[Georges Sorel|Sorel, Georges]]. ''Reflections on Violence''. ==Further reading== ===General=== * [[Renzo De Felice|De Felice, Renzo]] ''Interpretations of Fascism'', translated by Brenda Huff Everett, Cambridge ; London : Harvard University Press, 1977 ISBN 0674459628. *Eatwell, Roger. 1996. ''Fascism: A History.'' New York: Allen Lane. *Hughes, H. Stuart. 1953. ''The United States and Italy.'' Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. *Mises, Ludwig von. 1944. [http://www.mises.org/etexts/mises/og.asp ''Omnipotent Government: The Rise of the Total State and Total War'']. Grove City: Libertarian Press. *Paxton, Robert O. 2004. ''The Anatomy of Fascism''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, ISBN 1400040949 *Payne, Stanley G. 1995. ''A History of Fascism, 1914-45''. Madison, Wisc.: University of Wisconsin Press ISBN 0299148742 *Reich, Wilhelm. 1970. ''The Mass Psychology of Fascism''. New York: Farrar, Straus &amp; Giroux. *Seldes, George. 1935. ''Sawdust Caesar: The Untold History of Mussolini and Fascism''. New York and London: Harper and Brothers. * [[Alfred Sohn-Rethel]] ''Economy and Class Structure of German Fascism'',London, CSE Bks, 1978 ISBN 0906336007 ===Fascist ideology=== * [[Renzo De Felice|De Felice, Renzo]] ''Fascism : an informal introduction to its theory and practice, an interview with [[Michael Ledeen]]'', New Brunswick, N.J. : Transaction Books, 1976 ISBN 0878551905. *Fritzsche, Peter. 1990. ''Rehearsals for Fascism: Populism and Political Mobilization in Weimar Germany''. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195057805 * [[Roger Griffin|Griffin, Roger]]. 2000. &quot;Revolution from the Right: Fascism,&quot; chapter in David Parker (ed.) ''Revolutions and the Revolutionary Tradition in the West 1560-1991'', Routledge, London. * [[Walter Laqueur|Laqueur, Walter]]. 1966. ''Fascism: Past, Present, Future,'' New York: Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997. * [[J. Salwyn Schapiro|Schapiro, J. Salwyn]]. 1949. ''Liberalism and The Challenge of Fascism, Social Forces in England and France (1815-1870).'' New York: McGraw-Hill. *Laclau, Ernesto. 1977. ''Politics and Ideology in Marxist Theory: Capitalism, Fascism, Populism.'' London: NLB/Atlantic Highlands Humanities Press. * [[Zeev Sternhell|Sternhell, Zeev]] with Mario Sznajder and Maia Asheri. [1989] 1994. ''The Birth of Fascist Ideology, From Cultural Rebellion to Political Revolution.'', Trans. David Maisei. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ===International fascism=== * [[Kevin Coogan|Coogan, Kevin]]. 1999. ''Dreamer of the Day: Francis Parker Yockey and the Postwar Fascist International''. Brooklyn, N.Y.: Autonomedia. * Griffin, Roger. 1991. ''The Nature of Fascism''. New York: St. Martin’s Press. * Paxton, Robert O. 2004. ''The Anatomy of Fascism''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. * [[Eugen Weber|Weber, Eugen]]. [1964] 1985. ''Varieties of Fascism: Doctrines of Revolution in the Twentieth Century,'' New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, (Contains chapters on fascist movements in different countries.) * Wallace, Henry. [http://newdeal.feri.org/wallace/haw23.htm &quot;The Dangers of American Fascism&quot;]. ''[[The New York Times]]'', Sunday, [[9 April]] [[1944]]. ==External links== {{wiktionary}} {{wikiquote}} * [http://www.mises.org/story/1957 Liberalism vs. Fascism] by Roderick T. Long * [http://www.mises.org/upcomingstory.aspx?control=75 The Economics of Fascism], Supporters Summit 2005, [[October 7]]-8, 2005, Mises Institute, Auburn, Alabama. * [http://www.lewrockwell.com/dilorenzo/dilorenzo85.html Economic Fascism] by Thomas DiLorenzo * [http://www.eco
*''[[Sunshine Dream]]'' (1982) US #180 *''[[Made in U.S.A.]]'' (1986) US #96 *''[[Ultimate Christmas]]'' (1998) *''[[The Greatest Hits - Volume 1: 20 Good Vibrations]]'' (1999) #95 US *''[[The Greatest Hits - Volume 2: 20 More Good Vibrations]]'' (1999) #192 US *''[[Greatest Hits Volume Three: Best of the Brother Years 1970-1986]]'' (2000) *''[[Classics selected by Brian Wilson]]'' (2002) #159 US *''[[Sounds of Summer: The Very Best of The Beach Boys]]'' (2003) #16 US ===Anthologies=== *''[[Endless Harmony Soundtrack]]'' (1998, reissued 2000) *''[[Hawthorne, CA (album)|Hawthorne, CA]]'' (2001) ===Boxed sets=== *''[[Good Vibrations: Thirty Years of The Beach Boys]]'' (1993) *''[[The Pet Sounds Sessions]]'' (1997) ===Singles=== # Surfin’/Luau (X-301/[[8 December]] [[1961]]) '''US: 75''' # 409/Surfin’ Safari (Capitol 4777/[[4 June]] [[1962]]) '''US: 14''' # Ten Little Indians/County Fair (Capitol 4880/[[19 November]] [[1962]]) '''US: 49''' # Surfin’ U.S.A./Shut Down (Capitol 4932/[[4 March]] [[1963]]) '''US: 3'''; '''UK: 34''' # Surfer Girl/Little Deuce Coupe (Capitol 5009/[[22 July]] [[1963]]) '''US: 7''' # Be True To Your School/In My Room (Capitol 5069/[[14 October]] [[1963]]) '''US: 6''' # Little Saint Nick/The Lord’s Prayer (Capitol 5096/[[2 December]] [[1963]]) '''US: 3 (x-mas)''' # Fun, Fun, Fun/Why Do Fools Fall In Love (Capitol 5118/[[3 February]] [[1964]]) '''US: 5''' # I Get Around/Don’t Worry Baby (Capitol 5174/[[11 May]] [[1964]]) '''US: 1'''; '''UK: 7''' # When I Grow Up/She Knows Me Too Well (Capitol 5245/[[17 August]] [[1964]]) '''US: 9'''; '''UK: 27''' # Dance, Dance, Dance/The Warmth Of The Sun (Capitol 5306/[[26 October]] [[1964]]) '''US: 8'''; '''UK: 24''' # The Man With All The Toys/Blue Christmas (Capitol 5312/[[16 November]] [[1964]]) '''US: 3 (x-mas)''' # Do You Wanna Dance/Please Let Me Wonder (Capitol 5372/[[8 February]] [[1965]]) '''US: 12''' # Help Me, Rhonda/Kiss Me, Baby (Capitol 5395/[[5 April]] [[1965]]) '''US: 1'''; '''UK: 27''' # California Girls/Let Him Run Wild (Capitol 5464/[[12 July]] [[1965]]) '''US: 3'''; '''UK: 26''' # The Little Girl I Once Knew/There’s No Other (Like My Baby) (Capitol 5540/[[8 November]] [[1965]]) '''US: 20''' # Barbara Ann/Girl Don’t Tell Me (Capitol 5561/[[20 December]] [[1965]]) '''US: 2''';'''UK: 3''' # Caroline, No/Summer Means New Love (Capitol 5610/[[7 March]] [[1966]]) '''US: 32''' '''credited to Brian Wilson''' # Sloop John B/You’re So Good To Me (Capitol 5602/[[21 March]] [[1966]]) '''US: 3'''; '''UK: 2''' # Wouldn’t It Be Nice/God Only Knows (Capitol 5706/[[11 July]] [[1966]]) '''US: 8'''; '''UK: 2''' # Good Vibrations/Let’s Go Away For Awhile (Capitol 5676/[[10 October]] [[1966]]) '''US: 1'''; '''UK: 1''' # Then I Kissed Her (written by Phil Spector/E. Greenwich/J. Barry) (Capitol HF 298/[[ May]][[1967]]) '''UK: 5''' # Heroes and Villains/You’re Welcome (Brother 1001/[[24 July]] [[1967]]) '''US: 12'''; '''UK: 8''' # Gettin’ Hungry/Devoted To You (Brother 1002/[[28 August]] [[1967]]) '''credited to Brian and Mike''' # Wild Honey/Wind Chimes (Capitol 2028/[[23 October]] [[1967]]) '''US: 31'''; '''UK: 29''' # Darlin’/Here Today (Capitol 2068/[[11 December]] [[1967]]) '''US: 19'''; '''UK: 11''' # Friends/Little Bird (Capitol 2160/[[8 April]] [[1968]]) '''US: 47'''; '''UK: 25''' # Do It Again/Wake The World (Capitol 2239/[[15 July]] [[1968]]) '''US: 20'''; '''UK: 1''' # Bluebirds Over The Mountain/Never Learn Not To Love (Capitol 2360/[[2 December]] [[1968]]) '''US: 61'''; '''UK: 33''' # I Can Hear Music/All I Want To Do (Capitol 2432/[[24 February]] [[1969]]) '''US: 24'''; '''UK: 10''' # Break Away/Celebrate The News (Capitol 2560/[[23 June]] [[1969]]) '''US: 63'''; '''UK: 6''' # Add Some Music To Your Day/Susie Cincinnati (Brother 0894/[[23 February]] [[1970]]) '''US: 64''' # Cottonfields/The Nearest Faraway Place (Capitol 2765/[[20 April]] [[1970]]) '''US: 103'''; '''UK: 5''' # Slip On Through/This Whole World (Brother 0929/[[29 June]] [[1970]]) # Tears In The Morning/It’s About Time (Brother 0957/November 1970) # Cool, Cool Water/Forever (Brother 0998/February 1971) # Wouldn't It Be Nice (Live from The Big Sur Folk Festival) b/w &quot;The Times They Are A-Changin'&quot; (B-side by Merry Clayton) (Ode 66016 /April 1971) # Long Promised Road/Deidre (Brother 1015/[[24 May]] [[1971]]) # Long Promised Road/Til I Die (Brother 1047/[[11 October]] [[1971]]) '''US: 89''' # Surf’s Up/Don’t Go Near The Water (Brother 1058/[[8 November]] [[1971]]) # You Need A Mess Of Help To Stand Alone/Cuddle Up (Brother 1091/[[15 May]] [[1972]]) # Marcella/Hold On Dear Brother (Brother 1101/[[26 June]] [[1972]]) '''US: 110''' # Sail On, Sailor/Only With You (Brother 1138/[[29 January]] [[1973]]) '''US: 79''' # California Saga (On My Way To Sunny Californ-i-a)/Funky Pretty (Brother 1156/[[16 April]] [[1973]]) '''US: 84'''; '''UK: 37''' # Child Of Winter (Christmas Song)/Susie Cincinnati (Brother 1321/[[23 December]] [[1974]]) # Sail On, Sailor/Only With You (Brother 1325/[[10 March]] [[1975]]) '''US: 49''' # Rock And Roll Music/The TM Song (Brother 1354/[[24 May]] [[1976]]) '''US: 5'''; '''UK: 36''' # It’s O.K./Had To Phone Ya (Brother 1368/[[9 August]] [[1976]]) '''US: 29''' # Everyone’s In Love With You/Susie Cincinnati (Brother 1375/[[1 November]] [[1976]]) # Honkin’ Down The Highway/Solar System (Brother 1389/[[30 May]] [[1977]]) # Peggy Sue/Hey Little Tomboy (Brother 1394/[[28 August]] [[1978]]) '''US: 59''' # Here Comes The Night/Baby Blue (Caribou ZS9 9026/[[19 February]] [[1979]]) '''US: 44'''; '''UK: 37''' # Good Timin’/Love Surrounds Me (Caribou ZS9 9029/[[16 April]] [[1979]]) '''US: 40''' # Lady Lynda/Full Sail (Caribou ZS9 9030/June 1979) '''UK: 7''' # It’s A Beautiful Day/Sumahama (Caribou ZS9 9031/September 1979) '''UK: 45''' # Goin’ On/Endless Harmony (Caribou ZS9 9032/[[11 March]] [[1980]]) '''US: 83''' # Livin’ With A Heartache/Santa Ana Winds (Caribou ZS9 9033/[[20 May]] [[1980]]) # Beach Boys Medley (October 1981) '''US: 12''' # Come Go With Me/Don’t Go Near The Water (Caribou ZS4 02633/[[2 November]] [[1981]]) '''US: 18''' # Chasin' The Sky (1984) # Getcha Back/Male Ego (Caribou ZS4 04913/[[8 May]] [[1985]]) '''US: 26''' # It’s Gettin’ Late/It’s O.K. (Caribou ZS4 05433/[[17 July]] [[1985]]) '''US: 82''' # She Believes In Love Again/It’s Just A Matter Of Time (Caribou ZS4 05624/[[2 October]] [[1985]]) # Rock’n’Roll To The Rescue/Good Vibrations (Live In London) (Capitol 5595/[[9 June]] [[1986]]) '''US: 68''' # California Dreamin’/Lady Liberty (Capitol 5630/[[1 September]] [[1986]]) '''US: 57''' # Happy Endings ('''with Little Richard''')/California Girls (Critique 99392/November 1987) - # Kokomo/Tutti Frutti ('''Little Richard''') (Elektra 69385/[[18 July]] [[1988]]) '''US: 1'''; '''UK: 25''' # Still Cruisin’/Kokomo (Capitol 44445/[[7 August]] [[1989]]) '''US: 93''' # Somewhere Near Japan/Kokomo (Capitol 44475/January 1990) # Problem Child/Tutti Frutti ('''Little Richard''') (RCA 2646/July 1990) # Crocodile Rock (1991) # Hot Fun In The Summertime/Summer Of Love (Brother 5247/July 1992) # Under The Boardwalk (1994 - Promo Only) # Summer Of Love/I'm Always Here (other artist) (1995) # Little Deuce Coupe ('''with James House''') (1996) '''US Country Chart: 69''' # I Can Hear Music ('''with Kathy Troccoli''') (River North 3011/August 1996) '''US Country Chart: 73''' # Long Tall Texan ('''with Doug Supernaw''') (1996-Promo only) '''US Country Chart: 69''' # Fun, Fun, Fun ('''with Status Quo''') (1997) ===EPs=== # Four By the Beach Boys (Capitol R 5267/[[21 September]] [[1964]]) '''US: 44''' :*A: Little Honda; Wendy :*B: Don’t Back Down; Hushabye == Album availability == * With the exception of ''Pet Sounds'', ''The Beach Boys' Christmas Album'', and the three albums since 1989, all the Beach Boys albums are available in a two-[[Vinyl record|LP]]-on-one-[[CD]] format. The rereleases of the 1960s albums also include bonus tracks. * ''Pet Sounds'' is available on both CD and [[DVD-Audio]]. A four-disc box set including numerous outtakes and alternate versions is also available. One CD release has both the stereo and mono mixes of the classic album as well as an alternate session outtake entitled ''Hang Onto Your Ego '' * ''The Beach Boys' Christmas Album'' is available both on its own and as part of the ''Ultimate Christmas'' album, which includes tracks from an aborted 1977 [[Christmas]] album. * ''Still Cruisin''', ''Summer in Paradise'', and ''Stars and Stripes Vol. 1'' are currently out of print, but can be found used on CD. * The 1993 box set ''[[Good Vibrations: Thirty Years of The Beach Boys]]'' presents a comprehensive review of the group's career plus a number of rare tracks, including some from the legendary ''Smile'' sessions. Three albums have been released since the group's split. *''[[Endless Harmony Soundtrack]]'' is a compilation of otherwise unreleased tracks together with remixes of better-known tracks; a good introduction to the band, containing no duplications of earlier releases except the title track. *''[[Hawthorne, CA (album)|Hawthorne, CA]]'' is a less successful, two-CD set along the same lines. *''[[Good Timin': Live at Knebworth England 1980]]'' is a studio-enhanced concert recording. ==References== Whitburn, Joel, ''The Billboard Book of Top 40 Hits'', 1992&lt;br/&gt; Wilson, Brian (with Todd Gold), ''Wouldn't It Be Nice, My Own Story'', 1991 ==See also== *[[Best selling music artists]] == External links == *[http://thebeachboys.com/ Official site] *[http://BeachBoys.com/ www.BeachBoys.com] *[http://www.beachboysfanclub.com/ The Beach Boys Fan Club] *[http://angelfire.com/la/Beachboysbritain Beach Boys Britain] *[http://www.soundtrackinfo.com/search.asp?q=The+Beach+Boys&amp;pos=2 The Beach Boys @ the SoundtrackINFO project] *[http://www.vghf.com/Inductees/beach_boys.htm Vocal Group Hall of Fame page on The Beach Boys] *[ht
a failure after only a third of callers favoured it. ==Presenters== Current presenters on this station include [[Steve Lamacq]], [[Zane Lowe]], [[Mary Anne Hobbs]], and [[Mike Davies]], who all host their own respective rock and indie oriented shows. Also in the station's stable are [[rhythm and blues|R&amp;B]], [[UK garage|garage]] and rap supremos such as [[Tim Westwood]] and [[Trevor Nelson]]. Club [[DJ|DJs]] include [[Pete Tong]], [[Fergie]] and [[Judge Jules]]. An alphebetical list of present presenters is below '''Daytime''' *[[Edith Bowman]] ([[Colin and Edith]]) *[[Mark Chapman]] ([[Chappers and Dave]]) *[[Sara Cox]] *[[Vernon Kay]] *Jason King ([[JK and Joel]]) *[[Scott Mills]] *[[Chris Moyles]] ([[The Chris Moyles Show]]) *[[Colin Murray]] ([[Colin and Edith]]) *[[Trevor Nelson]] *Joel Ross ([[JK and Joel]]) *Spoony *[[Comedy Dave]] Vitty ([[Chappers and Dave]]) / ([[The Chris Moyles Show]]) *[[Jo Whiley]] ==Regionalisation== Since [[1999]], Radio 1 has split the nations on a Thursday night with [[Scotland]], [[Wales]] and [[Northern Ireland]] broadcasting their own shows showcasing regional talent with Zane Lowe still being heard in [[England]]. Scotland's show is presented by [[Vic Galloway]] who has presented the show on his own since [[2004]] after original co-host [[Gill Mills]] departed. Wales's show is hosted by One Music's [[Huw Stephens]] and [[Bethan Elfyn]], whilst [[Rory McConnell]] presents the Northern Irish programme, taking over from [[Donna Legge]] who continues to present [[Across the Line (BBC Radio Ulster)]]. They originally went out from 20.00-22.00 on the Evening Session's time slot but now broadcasts from 19.30-21.00 with the first half hour of Zane Lowe going out across the whole of the UK before going their separate ways. ==Current schedule== ===Monday-Thursday=== 04.00-07.00 [[JK and Joel]] &lt;br&gt; 07.00-10.00 [[Chris Moyles]] ''[[The Chris Moyles Show]]'' &lt;br&gt; 10.00-12.45 [[Jo Whiley]] &lt;br&gt; 12.45-13.00 [[Newsbeat]] &lt;br&gt; 13.00-16.00 [[Colin Murray|Colin]] and [[Edith Bowman|Edith]] &lt;br&gt; 16.00-17:45 [[Scott Mills]] ''[[The Scott Mills Show]]''&lt;br&gt; 17.45-18.00 Newsbeat &lt;br&gt; 18.00-19.00 Scott Mills ''The Scott Mills Show'' &lt;br&gt; 19.00-21.00 [[Zane Lowe]] &lt;br&gt; 21.00-03.00 Specialist programmes (see below) &lt;br&gt; 03.00-04.00 Oneclick (see below) &lt;br&gt; ====Mondays==== 21.00-01.00 [[Steve Lamacq]] ''Lamacq Live'' &lt;br&gt; 01.00-03.00 [[Mary Anne Hobbs]] ''The Breezeblock'' &lt;br&gt; 03.00-04.00 Oneclick/Magazine &lt;br&gt; ====Tuesdays==== 21.00-23.00 [[Mike Davies]] ''The Lock Up''&lt;br&gt; 23.00-01.00 [[Huw Stephens]] ''OneMusic''&lt;br&gt; 01.00-03.00 [[Mike Davies]] ''Radio 1 Rock Show''&lt;br&gt; 03.00-04.00 Oneclick/Future &lt;br&gt; ====Wednesdays==== 21.00-23.00 [[Bobby Friction]] &amp; [[Nihal]] &lt;br&gt; 23.00-01.00 [[Ras Kwame]] ''OneMusic'' &lt;br&gt; 01.00-03.00 [[Trevor Nelson]] ''Soul Nation'' &lt;br&gt; 03.00-04.00 Oneclick/Film &lt;br&gt; ====Thursdays==== 21.00-23.00 [[Annie Mac]] &lt;br&gt; 23.00-01.00 [[Rob Da Bank]] ''One Music'' &lt;br&gt; 01.00-03.00 [[Annie Nightingale]] &lt;br&gt; 03.00-04.00 Oneclick/Comedy &lt;br&gt; ===Fridays=== 4.00-7.00 [[Fearne Cotton]] &amp; [[Reggie Yates]] ''Fearne &amp; Reggie'' &lt;br&gt; 7.00-18.00 ''As Monday-Thursday'' &lt;br&gt; 18.00-21.00 [[Pete Tong]] ''The Essential Selection'' &lt;br&gt; 21.00-23.00 [[Tim Westwood]] ''Radio 1 Rap Show'' &lt;br&gt; 23.00-01.00 [[Chris Goldfinger]] ''Reggae Dancehall Nite'' &lt;br&gt; 01.00-03.00 [[Fabio]] &amp; [[Grooverider]] &lt;br&gt; 03.00-05.00 [[1Xtra]] Presents &lt;br&gt; ===Saturdays=== 5.00-7.00 [[Chris Coco]]/[[Rob Da Bank]] ''The Blue Room'' &lt;br&gt; 7.00-10.00 [[Spoony]] ''Weekend Breakfast'' &lt;br&gt; 10.00-13.00 [[Vernon Kay]] &lt;br&gt; 13.00-16.00 [[Sara Cox]] &lt;br&gt; 16.00-19.00 [[Trevor Nelson]] &quot;The Lowdown&quot; &lt;br&gt; 19.00-21.00 [[Judge Jules]] &lt;br&gt; 21.00-23.00 [[Tim Westwood]] ''Radio 1 Rap Show'' &lt;br&gt; 23.00-01.00 [[Fergie]] &lt;br&gt; 01.00-03.00 Essential Mix &lt;br&gt; 03.00-05.00 The Residency &lt;br&gt; ===Sundays=== 5.00-7.00 [[Chris Coco]]/[[Rob Da Bank]] ''The Blue Room'' &lt;br&gt; 7.00-10.00 [[Spoony]] ''Weekend Breakfast'' &lt;br&gt; 10.00-13.00 [[Vernon Kay]] &lt;br&gt; 13.00-16.00 [[Sara Cox]] &lt;br&gt; 16.00-19.00 [[JK and Joel]] ''[[UK Singles Chart|The Official Chart Show]]'' &lt;br&gt; 19.00-21.00 [[Dave Pearce]] ''Dance Anthems'' &lt;br&gt; 21.00-23.00 [[Dr Mark Hamilton]] &amp; [[Letitia]] ''Sunday Surgery'' &lt;br&gt; 23.00-01.00 [[Gilles Peterson]] ''Worldwide'' &lt;br&gt; 01.00-03.00 One World &lt;br&gt; 03.00-04.00 Oneclick/Playlist &lt;br&gt; Following the untimely death of [[John Peel]] in October 2004, [[Annie Nightingale]] is now the longest serving presenter at the station having worked there since [[1969]]. Her show can be heard Thursdays (01.00–03.00). == Controllers of BBC Radio 1 == *1967&amp;ndash;1968: [[Robin Scott]] *1968&amp;ndash;1975: [[Douglas Muggeridge]] *1975&amp;ndash;1978: [[Charles McLelland]] *1978&amp;ndash;1985: [[Derek Chinnery]] *1985&amp;ndash;1993: [[Johnny Beerling]] *1993&amp;ndash;1998: [[Matthew Bannister]] *1998&amp;ndash;present: [[Andy Parfitt]] == Official Logos == &lt;gallery&gt; Image:BBC Radio 1logo 1967.gif|1967-1970 Image:BBC Radio 1logo 1970.gif|1970-1974 Image:BBC Radio 1logo 1974.gif|1974-1975 Image:BBC Radio 1logo 1975.gif|1975-1987 Image:BBC Radio 1logo 1988.gif|1988-1990 Image:BBC Radio 1logo 1991.gif|1991-1994 Image:BBC Radio 1logo 1994.gif|1994-1997 Image:BBC Radio 1logo 1998.gif|1997-2001 Image:BBC Radio 1logo 2001.gif|2001-present day &lt;/gallery&gt; Logo images from Radio Rewind ==See also== *[[List of BBC radio stations]] *[[Egton House]] *[[Yalding House]] {{BBC Radio}} == External links == *[http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio1/ BBC Radio 1] *[http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio/aod/radio1.shtml?listen BBC Radio 1 live streaming] &lt;!--*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio1/realaudio/media/r1live.ram BBC Radio 1 live streaming]--&gt; *[http://www.theofficialcharts.com/ The Official UK Charts Company] *[http://www.radiorewind.co.uk/ Radio Rewind's BBC Radio 1 historic website] [[Category:BBC national radio stations|1]] [[Category:BBC Radio 1]] [[Category:Sirius Satellite Radio channels]] [[de:BBC Radio 1]] [[fr:BBC Radio 1]] [[gl:BBC Radio 1]] [[simple:BBC Radio 1]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>BBCi</title> <id>4349</id> <revision> <id>37653809</id> <timestamp>2006-02-01T09:41:48Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Tghe-retford</username> <id>544056</id> </contributor> <comment>Added BBC Text (before name change to BBCi information and link)</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:BBCi (logo).gif|right|The newest BBCi logo]] '''BBCi ''' is the brand name for the [[BBC]]'s [[interactive television]] services. The name was introduced in [[November 2001]] and originally encompassed the corporation's online services, which were renamed to [[bbc.co.uk]], from [[May 6]] [[2004]]. The services are broadcast on [[digital cable]], digital [[satellite television|satellite]] and [[digital terrestrial television]] (''[[Freeview]]''). They include text and video based services, and enhanced television programmes which offer extra information, video or quizzes. BBCi, the new Digital Teletext Service for the BBC, replaces most of [[CEEFAX]], the oldest [[teletext]] service in the world. However, CEEFAX can still be received via analogue broadcasts. Additionally on Freeview it provides a service allowing viewers to access a quarter sized video of [[BBC Parliament]]. Initially launched in 1999, the BBCi digital text service (also formerly known as BBC Text) has been criticised for taking a long time to load and being hard to navigate. Navigating to lottery results requires navigating through many submenus, whilst on CEEFAX users could enter simply enter the page number 555. The BBC has attempted to rectify these problems by reintroducing page numbers - on [[November 10]] [[2004]] they introduced CEEFAX-style page numbers on Digital Satellite and page numbers on the Freeview service were introduced in [[December]] [[2004]]. The page numbers used are the same as those of CEEFAX, although BBCi exclusive pages are given a 4 digit number. The BBC services were delayed somewhat by the requirement by BSkyB to give their approval to any interactive software that uses the modified [[OpenTV]] interpreter in their [[Sky Digibox|proprietary set top box]]. In September 2005, BBCi launched an update to the interactivity available from the BBC's Radio channels on Freeview. Originally only Radiotext was available. After the update, users could access information about the programme, schedules, news, sport and weather. The same team behind the BBC's digital text service also launched the early incarnations of the BBC's Interactive Wimbledon and Interactive Open Golf services in 2000, which were awarded an Interactive Bafta that year. == See also == * [[MHEG|MHEG 5]] Programming Language for Freeview * [[OpenTV]] C-based programming Language for digital satellite * [[Liberate Technologies]] HTML-based programming language for digital cable. == External links == * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/digital/tv/missing.shtml Guide to BBCi] * [http://teletext.mb21.co.uk/gallery/digital/bbc-main.shtml BBC Text screenshots before its change to BBCi] {{BBC}} [[Category:BBC]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Backplane</title> <id>4352</id> <revision> <id>41284522</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T07:26:32Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Lightdarkness</username> <id>130135</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">A '''backplane''' is a circuit
]] and [[counter-culture]] gatherings. It was also home to many [[nightclub]]s, including Tacheles, [[Techno music|Techno]] clubs ''[[Tresor]]'', ''WMF'', ''Ufo'' and ''E-Werk''. [[Image:Loveparade_big_digital_art.jpg|thumb|left|340px|Digital art inspired by Berlin's Loveparade]]Berlin's annual [[Karneval der Kulturen|Carnival of Cultures]], a multi-ethnic street parade, and [[Gay Pride|Chistopher Street Day]] celebrations, Central Europe's largest gay-lesbian pride event, are openly supported by the city's government.*[http://www.berlin-tourist-information.de/english/unterwegs/e_uw_berlinprogramm_gay.html]**[http://www.berlin-tourist-information.de/english/zielgruppen/e_zg_gay_bezirke.php]. Berlin is also well-known for the [[Techno music|techno]] carnival [[Loveparade]]. Berlin has a rich [[art]] scene, and it is home to hundreds of [[art galleries]]. The city is host to the Art Forum annual international art fair. Despite the city's high [[unemployment]] levels, many young Germans and artists continue to settle in the city, and Berlin has established itself as an important centre of [[youth]] and [[pop culture]] in Europe. Signs of this expanding role were the 2003 announcement that the annual [[Popkomm]], Europe's largest [[music industry]] [[convention]], would move to Berlin after 15 years in [[Cologne]]. Shortly thereafter, [[German (language)|German]] [[MTV]] also decided to move its headquarters and main studios from Munich to Berlin. [[Universal Music]] opened its European headquarters on the banks of the River [[Spree]] in an area known as the [http://www.mediaspree.de mediaspree]. ===Media=== Berlin is the headquarters of many regional and national broadcasters. In addition to several television stations, there are a large number of private radio stations. The public broadcasters RBB and Deutsche Welle TV also have their headquarters in Berlin. Most national broadcasters account for Berlin's political role as capital with a broadcasting studio in the city. Berlin has Germany's largest number of daily newspapers, with three major local broadsheets and three major tabloids, as well as national dailies of varying sizes, each with different political affiliations. In addition, several weekly papers publish ads, and Berlin has three alternative weeklies focusing on culture and entertainment. Berlin is also the headquarters of two major German-language publishing houses: Walter de Gruyter and Springer, each of which publishes books, periodicals, and multimedia products. ===Film industry and films about Berlin=== Berlin is the centre of the [[Cinema of Germany|German film industry]], partly due to the existence of the [[Babelsberg Studios]] and many important film and TV production companies like [[UFA]], [[Senator Film]], [[Goldkind]] etc. Many international movies and European co-productions have been filmed there. Berlin is also home of the [[European Film Academy]], the [[German Film Academy]] and host of the [[Berlinale]] film festival. There are many [[film|films]] that were set in or portray the special &quot;Berlin-Atmosphere&quot; from different eras, among them are: * ''[[:de: Berlin: Die Sinfonie der Großstadt|Die Sinfonie der Großstadt]]'' - 1927 Documentary Type Film ''&quot;[[1920s Berlin|Day in the life of Berlin]]&quot;'' &lt;!-- [http://german.imdb.com/title/tt0017668/] --&gt; * ''[[Berlin Alexanderplatz]]'' - [[1920s Berlin]] * ''[[M (1931 movie)|M]]'' - Early 1930s Berlin * ''[[The Testament of Dr. Mabuse]]'' - 1933 Berlin * ''[[Germany, Year Zero]]'' - Shows the nightmarishly dilapidated remains of 1945 Berlin, post WWII * ''[[One, Two, Three]]'' - Cold War before the Wall 1961 * ''[[Funeral in Berlin]]'' 1966 [[Cold War]] [[Thriller]] - A bit dated, filmed in Berlin with some nice scenes in Kreuzberg * ''[[Cabaret (film)|Cabaret]]'' - Filmed in 1972, set in the early 1930s * ''[[Christiane F.]] - Wir Kinder vom Bahnhof Zoo'' - 1970s * ''[[Sonnenallee]]'' - A teen comedy set in East Berlin in the 1970s * ''[[Taxi zum Klo]]'' - A gritty and groundbreaking 1981 film documenting gay sex and culture in West Berlin * ''[[Linie 1]]'' - 1988 Film of the 1986 [[Musical theater|Musical]] about [[Berlin U-Bahn|U-Bahn]] [[U1 (Berlin U-Bahn)|Line 1]] in West Berlin * ''[[Coming Out]]'' - East Germany's first and only gay film, a love story set in East Berlin, which premiered, coincidentally, on the evening in 1989 when the Berlin Wall came down * ''[[Good bye, Lenin!]]'' - Set in East Berlin in 1989 * ''[[Der Himmel über Berlin]]'' ([[Wings of Desire]]) - A [[cult film]] about divided city by ''[[Wim Wenders]]'' from 1987 * ''[[Run Lola Run]]'' - Filmed 1998 in post-reunification Berlin * ''[[Hedwig and the Angry Inch]]'' - A [[cult film]] and [[Musical film|musical]] about a German singer-transvestite who escapes East Berlin in 1989 (2001) * ''[[Der Untergang]]'' ([[Downfall]]) - 2004 German film portraying the final days of the [[Third Reich]] in [[Führerbunker|Hitler's bunker]] ===Museums=== [[Image:Bodemuseum.jpg|thumb|400px|The Bode Museum at the northern tip of the Spree Island]]Berlin has a large number of museums. As early as 1841, the [[Museum Island]]—in the northern part of the Spree Island between the Spree and the Kupfergraben—was designated a “district dedicated to art and antiquities” by a royal decree. Subsequently, several museum buildings were constructed there. These were the Altes Museum (Old Museum) in the Lustgarten, and the Neues Museum (New Museum), Alte Nationalgalerie (Old National Gallery), Pergamon Museum, and Bode Museum at the far northern end of the island. While these buildings once housed distinct collections, the names of the buildings no longer necessarily correspond to the names of the collections they house. For example, the Altes Museum and the Pergamon Museum together house the Collection of Classical Antiquities, [http://www.museen-berlin.de/smb/sammlungen/details.php?lang=en&amp;objectId=3&amp;n=1&amp;r=3] a collection of ancient art and artifacts. The Pergamon Museum also houses the world-renowned Museum of the Ancient Near East [http://www.museen-berlin.de/smb/sammlungen/details.php?lang=en&amp;objectId=23&amp;n=1&amp;r=21] and the Museum of Islamic Art [http://www.smb.spk-berlin.de/smb/sammlungen/details.php?objID=12&amp;lang=en]. The Egyptian Museum and Paypyrus Collection [http://www.smb.spk-berlin.de/smb/sammlungen/details.php?lang=en&amp;objectId=2&amp;n=1&amp;r=1] is currently situated and on show on the upper floor of the Altes Museum, beside the Berliner Dom. The Museum for Pre-and Early History remains at the Charlottenburg Palace until the Neues Museum is renovated. In the case of the Alte Nationalgalerie, [http://www.smpk.de/ang/e/s.html] its collection of 19th-century painting and sculpture carries the same name as the building that houses it. However, the Bodemuseum, which underwent extensive renovation during the early 2000s, will house the Sculpture Collection and Museum of Byzantine Art [http://www.smb.spk-berlin.de/smb/sammlungen/details.php?lang=en&amp;objectId=14&amp;n=1&amp;r=20] and the Numismatic Collection [http://www.smb.spk-berlin.de/smb/sammlungen/details.php?lang=en&amp;objectId=9&amp;n=1&amp;r=11] when it reopens in 2006. Outside of the Museum Island, there is a wide variety of museums. The [[Gemäldegalerie (Berlin)|Gemäldegalerie]][http://www.museen-berlin.de/gg/e/s.html] (Painting Gallery) focuses on the paintings of the &quot;old masters&quot; from the 13th to the 18th centuries, while the Neue Nationalgalerie [http://www.smb.spk-berlin.de/smb/sammlungen/details.php?lang=en&amp;objectId=20&amp;n=1&amp;r=19] (New National Gallery, built by [[Ludwig Mies van der Rohe]]) specialises in 20th-century European painting. The Bauhaus Archive [http://www.bauhaus-archiv.de/english/index.htm] is an architecture museum. The [[Jewish Museum Berlin]] [http://www.juedisches-museum-berlin.de/site/EN/homepage.php?meta=TRUE] has a standing exhibition on 2,000 years of German-Jewish history. The Grunewald Hunting Lodge ''(Jagdschloss Grunewald)'' [http://www.spsg.de/index.php?id=140] contains a carefully chosen collection of paintings from the 15th to the 19th centuries. In Dahlem, there are several museums of world art and culture, such as the Museum of Indian Art [http://www.smb.spk-berlin.de/smb/sammlungen/details.php?lang=en&amp;objectId=11&amp;n=1&amp;r=15], the Museum of East Asian Art [http://www.smb.spk-berlin.de/smb/sammlungen/details.php?lang=en&amp;objectId=13&amp;n=1&amp;r=17], the Ethnological Museum [http://www.smb.spk-berlin.de/smb/sammlungen/details.php?lang=en&amp;objectId=56&amp;n=1&amp;r=4], the Museum of European Cultures [http://www.museen-berlin.de/mek/e/s.html], as well as the Allied Museum [http://www.alliiertenmuseum.de/en/0.php] (a museum of the Cold War), the Brücke Museum [http://www.bruecke-museum.de/themuseum.htm] (an art museum), and the Domäne Dahlem http://www.domaene-dahlem.de/index2_e.htm (an open-air agricultural museum. In Lichtenberg, on the grounds of the former East German Ministry for State Security ''(Stasi)'', stands the Stasi Museum [http://www.stasi-museum.de/index.htm German website]. The Wall Museum, also known as Museum at Checkpoint Charlie [http://www.mauermuseum.de/index.htm], shows moments from the history of the divided Berlin. Other museums in Berlin include the following: *Archenhold Observatory (Archenhold-Sternwarte) [http://www.astw.de] *The Berggruen Collection (Picasso and his times) [http://www.smb.spk-berlin.de/shb/e/s.html] *Berlin State Gallery [http://www.berlinischegalerie.de/en/71-1-1_0.htm] * Berlin Underground Society, offering tours and documentation of Berlin's subterranean structures [http://www.berliner-unterwelten.de ] *Berlin Wall Documentation Center [http://www.berliner-mauer-dokumentationszentrum.de/index_e.html] *Broehan Museum [http://www.broehan-museum.de/home1.htm] *Deutsche Guggenheim Museum [http://www.deutsche-bank-kunst.com/guggenheim/e/] *G
h = 200px | image_caption = Flowers | regnum = [[Plant]]ae | divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]] | classis = [[Liliopsida]] | ordo = [[Asparagales]] | familia = [[Alliaceae]] | genus = '''''[[Agapanthus]]''''' | species = '''''A. umbellatus''''' | binomial = ''Agapanthus umbellatus'' | binomial_authority = [[Charles Louis L'Héritier de Brutelle|L'Hér.]] }} The '''African lily''' (''Agapanthus umbellatus'') is a member of the [[family (biology)|family]] [[Alliaceae]] and a native of the [[Cape of Good Hope]], from where it was introduced to [[Europe]] at the close of the [[17th century]]. == Description == The African lily has a short stem bearing a tuft of long, narrow, arching leaves 1/2 to 2 ft. long and a central flower stalk 2 to 3 ft. high, ending in an umbel of bright blue, funnel-shaped flowers. Several cultivars are known, such as albidus (white flowers), aureus (leaves striped with yellow), and variegatus (leaves almost entirely white with a few green bands). There are also double-flowered and larger- and smaller-flowered forms. == Cultivation == The African lily is a handsome greenhouse plant and is hardy in the south of [[England]] and [[Ireland]] if protected from severe frosts. The plants are easy to cultivate and (in areas that have winter) are generally grown in large pots or tubs that can be protected from frost. During the summer they require plenty of water and are very effective on the margins of lakes or by running streams, where they thrive. == Propagation == They may be propagated from offsets or by dividing the rootstock in early spring or autumn. ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:Flowers]] [[Category:Asparagales]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Agamemnon</title> <id>1544</id> <revision> <id>42055639</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:21:46Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Haiduc</username> <id>80885</id> </contributor> <comment>rev. blanking to last version by Haiduc</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{OtherUses|a character in Greek mythology}} [[Image:MaskeAgamemnon.JPG|thumb|250px|right|The so-called '[[Mask of Agamemnon]]'. Discovered by [[Heinrich Schliemann]] in [[1876]] at [[Mycenae]].]] '''Agamémnon''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: '''{{polytonic|Ἀγαμέμνων}}''') (&quot;very resolute&quot;), one of the most distinguished heroes of [[Greek mythology]], was the son of King [[Atreus]] of [[Mycenae]] (or [[Argos]]) and Queen [[Aerope]], and brother of [[Menelaus]]. ==Early life== Agamemnon's father Atreus was murdered by [[Aegisthus]], who took possession of the throne of Mycenae and ruled jointly with his father [[Thyestes]]. During this period Agamemnon and Menelaus took refuge with [[Tyndareus]], king of [[Sparta]]. There they respectively married Tyndareus' daughters [[Clytemnestra]] and [[Helen]]. Agamemnon and Clytemnestra had four children: three daughters, [[Iphigeneia]], [[Electra]], and [[Chrysothemis]], and one son, [[Orestes (mythology)|Orestes]]. Menelaus succeeded Tyndareus in Sparta, while Agamemnon, with his brother's assistance, drove out Aegisthus and Thyestes to recover his father's kingdom. He extended his dominion by conquest and became the most powerful prince in Greece. However, Agamemnon's family history, dating back to legendary king [[Pelops]], had been marred by [[rape|pederastic rape]], [[murder]], [[incest]], and [[treachery]]. The Greeks believed this violent past brought misfortune upon the entire [[House of Atreus]]. ==The Trojan War== [[Image:300px-Iphigenia.jpg|thumb|right|150px|The sacrifice of [[Iphigenia]].]] Agamemnon gathered together the Greek forces to sail for Troy. Preparing to depart from [[Aulis]], a port in [[Boeotia]], Agamemnon's army incurred the wrath of the goddess [[Artemis]] by slaying an animal sacred to her, and by Agamemnon boasting that he was Artemis' equal in hunting. Misfortunes including a plague and a lack of wind prevented the army from sailing; finally, the prophet [[Calchas]] announced that the wrath of the goddess could only be propitiated by the sacrifice of [[Iphigeneia]] (daughter of Agamemnon). Classical dramatizations differ on how willing either father or daughter were to this fate, but Agamemnon did eventually sacrifice Iphigenia. Her death appeased Artemis and the Greek army set out for Troy. Several alternatives to the human sacrifice have been presented in Greek mythology. Other sources claim Agamemnon was prepared to kill his daughter, but Artemis accepted a deer in place of Iphigenia, and whisked her to Taurus in the [[Crimea]]. [[Hesiod]] said she became the goddess [[Hecate]]. Agamemnon was the commander-in-chief of the Greeks during the [[Trojan War]]. During the fighting, Agamemnon killed [[Antiphus]]. Agamemnon's teamster, [[Halaesus]], later fought with [[Aeneas]] in [[Italy]]. The ''[[Iliad]]'' tells the story of the quarrel between Agamemnon and [[Achilles]] in the final year of the war. Agamemnon took an attractive slave and spoil of war [[Briseis]] from Achilles. [[Achilles]], the greatest warrior of the age, withdrew from battle in revenge and nearly cost the Greek armies the war. Although not the equal of [[Achilles]] in bravery, Agamemnon was a dignified representative of kingly authority. As commander-in-chief, he summoned the princes to the council and led the army in battle. He took the field himself, and performed many heroic deeds until he was wounded and forced to withdraw to his tent. His chief fault was his overweening [[haughtiness]]. An over-exalted opinion of his position led him to insult [[Chryses]] and [[Achilles]], thereby bringing great disaster upon the Greeks. After the capture of Troy, [[Cassandra]], doomed prophetess and daughter of [[Priam]], fell to his lot in the distribution of the prizes of war. ==Return to Greece== [[Image:The Return Of Agamemnon - Project Gutenberg eText 14994.png|thumbnail|right|300px|The return of Agamemnon, from an [[1879]] illustration from ''Stories from the Greek Tragedians'' by [[Alfred Church]].]] [[Image:The Murder Of Agamemnon - Project Gutenberg eText 14994.png|thumbnail|right|300px|The murder of Agamemnon, from an 1879 illustration from ''Stories from the Greek Tragedians'' by Alfred Church]] After a stormy voyage, Agamemnon and Cassandra landed in [[Argolis]] or were blown off course and landed in Aegisthus' country. Aegisthus, who in the interval had seduced Clytemnestra, invited him to a banquet at which he was treacherously slain. According to the account given by [[Pindar]] and the tragedians, Agamemnon was slain by his wife alone in a bath, a piece of cloth or a net having first been thrown over him to prevent resistance. Clytemnestra also killed Cassandra. Her wrath at the sacrifice of Iphigenia, and her jealousy of Cassandra, are said to have been the motives of her crime. Aegisthus and Clytemnestra then ruled Agamemnon's kingdom for a time, but the murder of Agamemnon was eventually avenged by his son [[Orestes (mythology)|Orestes]] (possibly with the help of Electra). 69 ==Other stories== [[Athenaeus]] tells a story of [[Argynnus]], an [[eromenos]] of Agamemnon: &quot;Agamemnon loved Argynnus, so the story goes, having seen him swimming in the [[Cephisus]] river; in which, in fact, he lost his life (for he constantly bathed in this river), and Agamemnon buried him and founded there a temple of [[Aphrodite]] Argynnis.&quot; (The Deipnosophists of Athenaeus of Naucratis; Book XIII Concerning Women, p.3) This episode is also found in [[Clement of Alexandria]] (Protrepticus II.38.2) and in [[Stephen of Byzantium]] ''(Kopai'' and ''Argunnos),'' with minor variations. The fortunes of Agamemnon have formed the subject of numerous [[tragedy|tragedies]], ancient and modern, the most famous being the [[Oresteia]] of [[Aeschylus]]. In the legends of the [[Peloponnesus]], Agamemnon was regarded as the highest type of a powerful monarch, and in [[Sparta]] he was worshipped under the title of ''Zeus Agamemnon''. His tomb was pointed out among the ruins of [[Mycenae]] and at [[Amyclae]]. Another account makes him the son of [[Pleisthenes]] (the son or father of [[Atreus]]), who is said to have been Aerope's first husband. In works of art there is considerable resemblance between the representations of [[Zeus]], king of the gods, and Agamemnon, king of men. He is generally characterized by the [[sceptre]] and [[diadem]], the usual attributes of kings. ==Agamemnon in modern fiction and film== Modern writers of time travel and historical novels often attempt to show the Trojan War &quot;as it really happened&quot;, based on the archeological evidence of [[Mycenaean]] civilization. Such authors frequently use Agamemnon as the archetypical Mycenaean king, bringing life to old artifacts by dressing a familiar face in them. Of particular interest is [[S. M. Stirling]]'s time-travel trilogy ''[[Island in the Sea of Time]]'', ''[[Against the Tide of Years]]'' and ''[[On the Oceans of Eternity]]'', where the fate that befalls the House of Atreus is every bit as horrific as that portrayed in traditional myth. The horror is arranged by a time-travelling villain who is very well aware of the mythology. Agamemnon is also said to have been the ancient [[ancestor]] or relative of the [[nobility|noble]] [[family]] the [[Atreides]] of the [[classic]] [[science fiction]] series ''[[Dune (novel)|Dune]]'' by [[Frank Herbert]] (Note that the surname, [[Atreides]] is derived from Agamemnon's father's name, ''[[Atreus]]''). There are many [[parallels]] with the story of Agamemnon and in Dune, such as with the [[protagonist]] [[Paul Atreides]] in that both are [[Tragic hero|tragic heroes]]. Agamemnon makes an appearance in the film ''[[Time Bandits]]'', played by [[Sean Connery]], although his depiction in the film seems more reminiscent of [[Odysseus]]. He also appeared in the 2004 film ''[[Troy (movie)|Troy]]'', played by [[Scotl
face the opposite site. It is certainly not impossible to twist a double bond. In fact a 90° twist requires an energy approximately equal to half the strength of a [[pi bond]]. The misalignment of the [[p orbital]]s is less than expected because [[pyridalization]] takes place. [[cyclooctene|Trans-cyclooctene]] is a stable strained alkene and the orbital misalignment is only 19° with a [[dihedral angle]] of 137° (normal 120°) and a degree of pyramidalization of 18°. This explains the [[dipole]] moment of 0.8 [[debye|D]] for this compound ([[cis-isomer]] 0.4 D) where a value of zero is expected {{Ref|Barrows}}. The trans isomer of [[cycloheptene]] is only stable at low temperatures. ==Physical properties== The physical properties of alkenes are comparable with [[alkane]]s. The [[Physical state]] depends on [[molecular mass]]. The simplest alkenes, [[ethylene]], [[propylene]] and [[butylene]] are gases. ==Chemical properties== Alkenes are relatively stable compounds, but are more reactive than [[alkane]]s. This is compatible with the idea that the carbon-carbon double bond (in alkenes) is stronger than the carbon-carbon single bond (in alkanes), however, as the majority of the reactions of alkenes involve the rupture of this bond to form two new [[sigma bond|single bonds]]. ==Synthesis== *The most common industrial synthesis path for alkenes is [[cracking (chemistry) | cracking]] of [[petroleum]]. *Alkenes can be synthesized from [[alcohol]]s via an [[Elimination reaction|elimination]] reaction that removes one water molecule:&lt;BR&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;C-CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;-OH + H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;SO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;rarr; H&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;C-CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;-O-SO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H + H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O &amp;rarr; H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;C=CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;SO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; * An [[Elimination reaction]] from an [[amine]] occurs in the [[Hofmann elimination]] and the [[Cope reaction]] *[[Catalytic]] synthesis of higher &amp;alpha;-alkenes can be achieved by a reaction of [[Ethylene|ethene]] with triethylaluminium, an [[organometallic]] compound in the presence of [[nickel]], [[cobalt]] or [[platinum]]. *Alkenes scramble in an [[olefin metathesis]] *Alkenes are generated from a [[ketone]] and an [[alkyl halide]] in the [[Wittig reaction]], from two different ketones in the [[Barton-Kellogg reaction]] and from coupling of one ketone in the [[Bamford-Stevens reaction]] or the [[Shapiro reaction]]. *Alkenes are generated from a [[coupling reaction]] of [[vinyl]] [[halide]]s *Alkenes are generated from selective reduction of [[alkyne]]s *Alkenes [[rearrangement reaction|rearrange]] in a [[Diels-Alder reaction]] and an [[Ene reaction]] == Reactions == ===Addition reactions=== Alkenes reacts in many [[addition reaction]]s. * [[Catalytic addition of hydrogen]]: [[Catalytic]] hydrogenation of '''alkenes''' produce the corresponding [[alkane]]s. The reaction is carried out under pressure in the presence of a metallic [[catalyst]]. Common industrial catalysts are based on [[platinum]], [[nickel]] or [[palladium]], for laboratory syntheses, [[Raney's nickel]] is often employed. This is an [[alloy]] of [[nickel]] and [[aluminium]]. This is the catalytic hydrogenation of [[ethylene]] to yield [[ethane]]: CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;=CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;rarr; CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;-CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; * [[Electrophilic addition]]: Most addition reactions to [[alkenes]] follow the mechanism of [[electrophilic addition]]. An example is the [[Prins reaction]] where the electrophile is a [[carbonyl]] group. *[[Halogenation]]: Addition of elementary [[bromine]] or [[chlorine]] to [[alkenes]] yield [[vicinal (chemistry)|vicinal]] dibromo- and dichloroalkanes, respectively. The decoloration of a solution of bromine in water is an analytical test for the presence of alkenes: :CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;=CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + Br&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;rarr; BrCH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;-CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;Br :This is the mechanism for the reaction: :[[image:AlkeneAndBr2Reaction.png|600px]] :The reaction works because the high electron density at the double bond causes a temporary shift of electrons in the Br-Br bond causing a temporary induced dipole. This makes the Br closest to the double bond slightly positive and therefore an electrophile. *Hydrohalogenation: Addition of [[hydrohalic acids]] like [[hydrogen chloride|HCl]] or HBr to alkenes yield the corresponding [[haloalkane]]s.&lt;BR&gt; CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;-CH=CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + HBr &amp;rarr; CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;-CH'''Br'''-CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;BR&gt; If the two carbon atoms at the double bond are linked to a different number of hydrogen atoms, the halogen is found preferentially at the carbon with less hydrogen substituents ([[Markovnikov's rule]]). :This is the reaction mechanism for Hydrohalogenation: :[[image:AlkeneAndHBrReaction.png|600px]] *Addition of a [[carbene]] or [[carbenoid]] yields the corresponding [[cyclopropane]] === Oxidation === Alkenes are [[organic oxidation|oxidized]] with a large number of [[oxidizing agent]]s. *In the presence of [[oxygen]], [[alkenes]] burn with a bright flame to [[carbon dioxide]] and water. *[[Catalytic]] oxidation with oxygen or the reaction with [[percarboxylic]] acids yields [[epoxide]]s *Reaction with ozone in [[ozonolysis]] leads to the breaking of the double bond, yielding two [[aldehyde]]s or [[ketone]]s&lt;BR&gt; R&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;-CH=CH-R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + O&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;rarr; R&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;-CHO + R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;-CHO + H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;BR&gt; This reaction can be used to determine the position of a double bond in an unknown [[alkene]]. ===Polymerisation=== [[Polymerization]] of [[alkene]]s is an economically important reaction which yields [[polymer]]s of high industrial value, such as the plastics [[polyethylene]] and [[polypropylene]]. Polymerization can either proceed via a free-[[Radical (chemistry)|radical]] or an ionic mechanism. ==Nomenclature of Alkenes== ===IUPAC Names=== To form the root of the [[IUPAC nomenclature|IUPAC]] names for alkenes, simply change the -an- infix of the parent to -en-. For example, '''CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;-CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;''' is the [[alkane]] ''ethANe''. The name of '''CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;=CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;''' is therefore ''ethENe''. In higher alkenes, where [[isomers]] exist that differ in location of the double bond, the following numbering system is used: #Number the longest carbon chain that contains the double bond in the direction that gives the carbon atoms of the double bond the lowest possible numbers. #Indicate the location of the double bond by the location of its first carbon #Name branched or substituted alkenes in a manner similar to [[alkane]]s. #Number the carbon atoms, locate and name substituent groups, locate the double bond, and name the main chain {| align=&quot;center&quot; cellspacing=&quot;10&quot; cellpadding=&quot;10&quot; |- align=&quot;bottom&quot; | &lt;tt&gt; CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH==CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/br&gt; &lt;font color=&quot;red&quot;&gt;6&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;5&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;4&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;3&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;2&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;1&lt;/font&gt; &lt;/tt&gt;&lt;/br&gt; &lt;center&gt;'''1-Hexene'''&lt;/center&gt; | &lt;tt&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/br&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;|&lt;/br&gt; CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CHCH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH==CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/br&gt; &lt;font color=&quot;red&quot;&gt;6&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;5&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;4&amp;nbsp;3&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;2&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;1&lt;/font&gt; &lt;/tt&gt;&lt;/br&gt; &lt;center&gt;'''4-Methyl-1-hexene'''&lt;/center&gt; | &lt;tt&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/br&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;|&lt;/br&gt; CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CHCH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;C==CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/br&gt; &lt;font color=&quot;red&quot;&gt;6&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;5&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;4&amp;nbsp;3&amp;nbsp;&lt;sub&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/font&gt;|&lt;font color=&quot;red&quot;&gt;2&amp;nbsp;1&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/br&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/tt&gt;&lt;/br&gt; &lt;center&gt;'''2-Ethyl-4-methyl-1-hexene'''&lt;/center&gt; |} === Common Names === Despite the precision and universal acceptance of the IUPAC naming system, some alkenes are known almost exclusively by their common names: {| cellspacing=&quot;5&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; |- | || CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;=&quot;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&quot; || CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH=&quot;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&quot; | CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;C(CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)=&quot;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&quot; |- | align=&quot;right&quot; | '''IUPAC name:''' || Ethene | Propene || 2-Methylpropene |- | align=&quot;right&quot; | '''Common name:''' || Ethylene | Propylene || Isobutylene |} ==See also== * [[hydrocarbon]]s with increasing [[bond order]]:[[Alkane]]s, alkenes and [[alkynes]]. * [[Aromatic hydrocarbon|Arene]]s are also alkenes but have very different properties due to [[aromaticity]] == References == # {{Note|1}} ''Understanding Rotation about a C=C Double Bond'' Barrows, Susan E.; Eberlein, Thomas H. J. Chem. Educ. '''2005''' 82 1329 [http://jchemed.chem.wisc.edu/Journal/Issues/2005/Sep/abs1329.htm
further subdivided into 16 ounces (fl.oz.), whereas the Imperial one holds 20 fl.oz. A gallon can also be subdivided into four [[quart]]s; the US holding 32 fl.oz. and the Imperial quart being 40 fl. oz. Therefore a US fl oz is ca. 29.6&amp;nbsp;ml and an Imp.fl.oz. is ca. 28.4&amp;nbsp;ml. Thus the US fluid ounce and all its subdivisions are bigger than their Imperial equivalents, but all the other, larger US liquid measures, including the gallon, are smaller than their Imperial counterparts. ''See also:'' [[Comparison of the Imperial and US customary systems]] == History == At one time, the volume of a gallon depended on what was being measured, and where it was being measured. But, by the end of the [[18th century]], three definitions were in common use: * The '''corn gallon''', or “Winchester gallon”, of about 268.8 in³ (4.405 L), * the '''wine gallon''', or “Queen Anne’s gallon”, which was 231 in³ (3.79 L), and * the '''ale gallon''' of 282 in³ (4.62 L). The ''corn'' or ''dry gallon'' was used in the United States until recently for grain and other dry commodities. It is one eighth of the [[bushel|(Winchester) bushel]], originally a cylindrical measure of 18½ [[inch]]es in diameter and 8 inches depth. That made the dry gallon 9¼²·[[Pi|&amp;pi;]] in³ = 268.80252 in³. The bushel, which like dry [[quart]] and pint still sees some use, was later defined to be 2150.42 in³ exactly, making its gallon 268.8025 in³ exactly ([[1 E-3 m³|4.404 842 803 2 L]]). In previous centuries there had been a corn gallon of around 271 to 272 cubic inches, too. The ''wine'', ''fluid'' or ''liquid gallon'' is the standard US gallon since the early 19th century. The wine gallon, which some sources relate to the volume occupied by eight medieval [[English unit#Weight|merchant pound]]s of wine, was at one time defined as the volume of a cylinder six inches deep and seven inches in diameter, i.e. 6·3½²·&amp;pi; = 230.90706 in³. It had been redefined during the reign of [[Anne of Great Britain|Queen Anne]], in [[1706]], as 231 in³ exactly (3 × 7 × 11 in³), which is the result of the earlier definition with &amp;pi; approximated to &lt;sup&gt;22&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;frasl;&lt;sub&gt;7&lt;/sub&gt;. Although the wine gallon had been used for centuries for import duty purposes there was no legal standard of it in the [[Exchequer]] and a smaller gallon (224 in³) was actually in use, so this statute became necessary. It remains the U.S. definition today. The original ratio between corn and wine gallon is 9¼²:6·3½² = 1369:1176, but 268.8:231 &lt;!--= 2&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;·3·5&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt;·7:3·7·11--&gt; is exactly 64:55&lt;!-- = 1.1(63)--&gt; or ca. 13:11. This approximation is still applicable, although the ratio of 1.164 115 646 slightly changed to 1.163 647 186 with current definitions (268.8025:231 = 107521:92400 ~= 1344:1165). In some contexts it is or was necessary to disambiguate between those two US gallons, so “liquid” or “fluid” and “dry” respectively are then added to the name. In [[1824]], Great Britain adopted a close approximation to the ''ale gallon'' known as the ''Imperial gallon'' and abolished all other gallons in favour of it. Inspired by the [[kilogram]]–litre relationship, the Imperial gallon was based on the volume of 10 [[Pound (weight)|lb.]] of distilled water weighed in air with brass weights with the barometer standing at 30 [[inch of mercury|inches of mercury]] and at a temperature of 62 [[Fahrenheit|°F]]. In [[1963]], this definition was refined as the space occupied by 10 lb of distilled water of density 0.998 859 g/mL weighed in air of density 0.001 217 g/mL against weights of density 8.136 g/mL. This works out at approximately 4.546&amp;nbsp;090&amp;nbsp;3 L (277.441&amp;nbsp;6 in³). The metric definition of exactly 4.546&amp;nbsp;09 dm³ (also 4.546&amp;nbsp;09 L after the litre was redefined in 1964, ca. 277.419&amp;nbsp;433 in³) was adopted shortly afterward in Canada; for several years, the conventional value of 4.546&amp;nbsp;092 L was used in the UK, until the Canadian convention was adopted in 1985. Before and into the 19th century there were also several other gallons in use. Examples: ; 224 in³ : standard wine gallon preserved at the [[Guildhall]] ; 231 in³ : statute of 5th of Queen Anne ; 264.8 in³ : ancient Rumford quart ([[1228]]) ; 265.5 in³ : Exchequer ([[Henry VII]]., [[1091]], with rim) ; 266.25 in³ : ancient Rumford ([[1228]]) ; 268.75 in³ : Winchester, statute 13 + 14 by [[William III of England|William III]]. ; 271 in³ &amp;minus; 2 spoonfuls : Exchequer (Henry VII., [[1601]], ''E.E.'') ; 271 in³ : Exchequer ([[1601]], ''E.''), ''corn'' ; 272 in³ : corn ([[1688]]) ; 277.18 in³ : coal, statute 12 of Anne ; 278 in³ : Exchequer (Henry VII., with copper rim) ; 278.4 in³ : Exchequer ([[1601]] and [[1602]] pints) ; 280 in³ : Exchequer ([[1601]] quart) ; 282 in³ : Treasury (gallon for beer and ale) [[Category:Units of volume]] [[Category:Imperial units]] [[Category:Customary units in the United States]] [[bg:Галон]] [[cs:Galon]] [[da:Gallon]] [[de:Gallone]] [[es:Galón (unidad)]] [[eo:Galjono]] [[fr:Gallon]] [[it:Gallone]] [[he:גלון]] [[nl:Gallon]] [[ja:ガロン]] [[pl:Galon (miara)]] [[ru:Галлон]] [[simple:Gallon]] [[sl:Galona]] [[sv:Gallon]] [[zh:加仑]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gini coefficient</title> <id>12883</id> <revision> <id>39214753</id> <timestamp>2006-02-11T15:44:14Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Marcika</username> <id>42989</id> </contributor> <comment>added footnote</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Gini coefficient''' is a measure of inequality developed by the [[Italy|Italian]] [[statistics|statistician]] [[Corrado Gini]] and published in his [[1912]] paper &quot;Variabilità e mutabilità&quot;. It is usually used to measure [[income]] inequality, but can be used to measure any form of uneven distribution. The Gini [[coefficient]] is a [[number]] between 0 and 1, where 0 corresponds with perfect equality (where everyone has the same income) and 1 corresponds with perfect inequality (where one person has all the income, and everyone else has zero income). The '''Gini index''' is the Gini coefficient expressed in [[percentage]] form, and is equal to the Gini coefficient multiplied by 100. While the Gini coefficient is mostly used to measure income inequality, it can also be used to measure [[wealth]] [[Wealth condensation|inequality.]] This use requires that no one has a negative net wealth. == Calculation == [[Image:Economics_Gini_coefficient.png|frame|right|Graphical representation of the Gini coefficient]] The Gini coefficient is calculated as a [[ratio]] of the areas on the [[Lorenz curve]] diagram. If the area between the line of perfect equality and Lorenz curve is A, and the area underneath the Lorenz curve is B, then the Gini coefficient is A/(A+B). This ratio is expressed as a percentage or as the numerical equivalent of that percentage, which is always a number between 0 and 1. The Gini coefficient is often calculated with the more practical Brown Formula shown below: &lt;math&gt;G = | 1 - \sum_{k=1}^{n} (X_{k} - X_{k-1}) (Y_{k} + Y_{k-1}) |&lt;/math&gt; G: Gini coefficient&lt;br&gt; X&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt;: cumulated proportion of the population variable, for k = 0,...,n, with X&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0, X&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt; = 1&lt;br&gt; Y&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt;: cumulated proportion of the income variable, for k = 0,...,n, with Y&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0, Y&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt; = 1&lt;br&gt; &lt;br clear=&quot;both&quot; /&gt; The small sample variance properties of G are not known, and large sample approximations to the variance of G are poor. In order for G to be an unbiased estimate of the true population value, it should be multiplied by n/(n-1). == Gini coefficients in the world == See complete listing in [[list of countries by income equality]]. [[Image:World_Map_Gini_coefficient.png|thumb|left|600px|Gini coefficient, by countries]] [[Image:World_Map_Gini_coefficient_Legend.png|thumb|right|160px]] &lt;br clear=&quot;both&quot; /&gt; While most developed European nations tend to have Gini coefficients between 0.24 and 0.36, the United States Gini coefficient is above 0.4, indicating that the United States has greater inequality. Using the Gini can help quantify differences in [[welfare]] and [[living wage|compensation]] policies and philosophies. However it should be borne in mind that the Gini coefficient can be misleading when used to make political comparisons between large and small countries (see [[Gini coefficient#Disadvantages of the Gini coefficient as a measure of inequality|criticisms]] section). [[Image:Gini_since_WWII.gif|thumb|right|600px|Gini coefficients over time for selected countries]] === Development of Gini coefficients in the US over time === Gini coefficients for the [[United States of America|United States]] at various times, according to the [[United States Census Bureau|US Census Bureau]]: *[[1970]]: 0.394 *[[1980]]: 0.403 *[[1990]]: 0.428 *[[2000]]: 0.462 {{ref|USAginicalc}} ==Advantages of the Gini coefficient as a measure of inequality== * The Gini coefficient's main advantage is that it is a measure of inequality, not a measure of average income or some other variable which is unrepresentative of most of the population, such as [[gross domestic product]]. * Gini coefficients can be used to compare income distributions across different population sectors as well as countries, for example the Gini coefficient for urban areas differs from that of rural areas in many countries (though the United States' urban and rural Gini coefficients are nearly identical). * The Gini coefficient is sufficiently simple that it can be compared across countries and be easily interpreted. GDP statistics are often criticised as they do not represent changes for the whole population, the
roglyphic]] scripts from [[Aleppo]] and [[Hamath]] in Northern Syria. In [[1887]], excavations at Tell El-[[Amarna]] in Egypt uncovered the diplomatic correspondence of Pharaoh [[Amenhotep III]] and his son [[Akhenaton]]. Two of the letters from a &quot;kingdom of ''Kheta''&quot; -- apparently located in the same general region as the Mesopotamian references to &quot;land of ''Hatti''&quot; -- were written in standard [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] [[cuneiform script]], but in an unknown language; although scholars could read it, no one could understand it. Shortly after this, [[Archibald Sayce]] proposed that ''Hatti'' or ''Khatti'' in Anatolia was identical with the &quot;kingdom of ''Kheta''&quot; mentioned in these [[Egypt]]ian texts, as well as with the biblical Hittites. Sayce's identification came to be widely accepted over the course of the early 20th century; and the name &quot;Hittite&quot; has become attached to the civilization uncovered at Boğazköy. During sporadic excavations at Boğazköy (Hattusa) that began in [[1905]], the archaeologist [[Hugo Winckler]] found a royal archive with 10,000 tablets, inscribed in cuneiform Akkadian and the same unknown language as the Egyptian letters from ''Kheta'' &amp;mdash; thus confirming the identity of the two names. He also proved that the ruins at Boğazköy were the remains of the capital of a mighty empire that at one point controlled northern Syria. The language of the Hattusa tablets was eventually deciphered by a [[Czech Republic|Czech]] linguist, [[Bedrich Hrozny|Bedřich Hrozný]] ([[1879]]&amp;ndash;[[1952]]), who on [[24 November]] [[1915]] announced his results in a lecture at the Near Eastern Society of Berlin. His book about his discovery was printed in [[Leipzig]] in [[1917]], with the title ''The Language of the Hittites; Its Structure and Its Membership in the Indo-European Linguistic Family''. The preface of the book begins with: :''The present work undertakes to establish the nature and structure of the hitherto mysterious language of the Hittites, and to decipher this language [...] It will be shown that Hittite is in the main an Indo-European language.'' For this reason, the language came to be known as the [[Hittite language]], even though that was not what its speakers had called it. The Hittites themselves apparently called their language and people &quot;Neshili&quot; and hence it has been suggested that the more technically correct term, &quot;Neshite&quot;, be used instead. Nonetheless, convention continues and &quot;Hittite&quot; remains the standard term used. Under the direction of the [[German Archaeological Institute]], excavations at Hattusa have been underway since [[1932]], with wartime interruptions. Kültepe has been successfully excavated by late Professor [[Tahsin Özgüç]] (died in 2005) since 1948. ==History== {{History_of_Hittites_Series}} {{Main|History of the Hittites}} '''Conventional chronology:''' *Old Hittite Kingdom ([[1750 BC|1750]] - [[1500 BC]]) Hattusa becomes the capital *Middle Hittite Kingdom (1500 - [[1450 BC]]) *New Hittite Kingdom (Empire) (1450 - [[1180 BC]]): [[Suppiluliumas I]] conquers [[Syria]]; [[Muwatalli]] attacks Egyptians (Kadesh) ==The Biblical Hittites== References to a people whose name is transcribed into English as &quot;Hittites&quot; (or sometimes &quot;Hettites&quot;) are found throughout the [[Hebrew Bible]]. These [[Hittites in the Bible|Biblical references to the Hittites]] are summarized below. It should be noted that the corpus of the Hebrew Bible was probably compiled in its near-final form between the 7th and 5th centuries BC, during or after the Babylonian exile, as related in the [[Book of Ezra]], with a further revision in the [[Masoretic]] text occurring some time between ca. 200 BC and 100 AD, as inferred from [[Higher criticism|textual analysis]] of the [[Septuagint]], [[Dead Sea Scrolls]], and other sources. ===The references=== The first reference to the Hittites is in [[Genesis]] 23:10, where [[Abraham]] bought the family burial cave at [[Machpelah]] from &quot;Ephron the Hittite&quot; (עפרון החתי, ''{{IPA|&amp;#661;}}FRVN HĦTY''). Later, in Genesis 26&amp;ndash;36, two of [[Esau]]'s wives are labeled as Hittites. In these accounts, the Hittites are mostly called &quot;The Children of Heth&quot; (בני-חת, ''BNY-HT'') and described as a branch of the [[Canaanites]], living in the [[Hebron]] area; indeed [[Heth]] (חת, ''HT'') is listed in Genesis 10 as a son of [[Canaan]], son of [[Ham, son of Noah|Ham]]. Starting with the conquest of Canaan, the Hittites &amp;mdash; from now on always called חתי, ''HTY'' &amp;mdash; are listed on a par with the Canaanites, as one of the seven mighty peoples living in the region. Later they are cited among the four nations whom the Israelites were not able to destroy completely. Indeed, some centuries later, two of [[King David]]'s generals are labeled as Hittites: [[Ahimelech]] ([[Books of Samuel|1 Samuel]] 26:6) and [[Uriah]] ([[Books of Samuel|2 Samuel]] 11:3); David had the latter deliberately slain in battle for the sake of his wife [[Bathsheba]]. [[King Solomon]] also had Hittite wives ([[Books of Kings|1 Kings]] 11:7), and traded with (or received tribute from) the kings of the Hittites, of Syria, and of Egypt ([[Books of Chronicles|2 Chronicles]] 1:17). An episode in the time of [[Elisha]] ([[Books of Kings|2 Kings]] 7:6) mentions &quot;the kings of Hittites and the kings of the Egyptians&quot; as mighty powers. The Hittites are last mentioned by Ezra, on his return from [[Babylonian captivity]] (Ezra 9:1; around 450 BC, long after the demise of the Anatolian Hittite empire). They are one of the peoples with whom the local Hebrew leaders, who had remained in Palestine during the captivity, had intermarried. ===The traditional view=== Given the casual tone in which the Hittites are mentioned in most of these references, Biblical scholars before the age of [[archaeology]] traditionally regarded them as a smaller tribe, living in the hills of Canaan during the era of the Patriarchs. This picture was completely changed by the archaeological finds that placed the center of the Hatti/Hattusas civilization far to the north, in modern-day Turkey. Because of this perceived discrepancy and other reasons, some Biblical scholars reject Sayce's identification of the two people, and believe that the similarity in names is only a coincidence. In order to stress this distinction, [[E. A. Speiser]] called the Biblical Hittites ''Hethites'' in his translation of the Book of [[Genesis (Old Testament)|Genesis]] for the ''[[Anchor Bible Series]]''. === The mainstream view === On the other hand, the view that the Biblical Hittites are related to the Anatolian Hittites is popular. Apart from the coincidence in names, the latter were a powerful political entity in the region before the collapse of their empire in the 14th-12th centuries BC, so one would expect them to be mentioned in the Bible, just in the way that the ''HTY'' post-Exodus are. A stone [[lion]] relief found a [[Beth Shan]], near the [[Sea of Galilee]] (now at the [[Israel Museum]]), dated to about 1700 BC, has been interpreted as confirming this identification, since lions are often pictured in Hittite art. [http://www.knls.org/English/trascripts/humble03.htm]. Moreover, in the account of the conquest of Canaan, the Hittites are said to dwell &quot;in the mountains&quot; and &quot;towards the north&quot; of Canaan &amp;mdash; a description that matches the general direction and geography of the Anatolian Hittite empire, if not the distance. Modern linguistic academics therefore propose, based on much [[onomastic]] and archaeological evidence, that Anatolian populations moved south into Canaan as part of the waves of [[Sea Peoples]] who were migrating along the Mediterranean coastline at the time in question. Many kings of local city-states are shown to have had Hittite and [[Luwian]] names in the Late Bronze - Early Iron transition period. Indeed, even the name of Mount [[Zion]] may be Hittite in origin. === Other views=== Some people have conjectured that the Biblical Hittites could actually be [[Hurrians|Hurrian]] tribes living in Palestine, and that the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] word for the Hurrians (''HRY'' in consonant-only script) became the name of the Hittites (''HTY'') due to a scribal error. Others have proposed that the Biblical Hittites were a group of [[Kurushtameans]]. These hypotheses are not widely accepted, however. It is also possible that the Biblical ''HTY'' refers to two distinct people at different times; e.g. a local tribe before Exodus, and the Anatolian empire after Exodus. ==See also== * [[:Category:Hittite deities|Hittite pantheon]] * [[Tahsin Özgüç]] ==Literature== *[[Trevor Bryce]], &quot;Life and Society in the Hittite World,&quot; Oxford (2002). *[[Trevor Bryce]], ''The Kingdom of the Hittites,'' Oxford (1999). *[[C. W. Ceram]], ''The Secret of the Hittites: The Discovery of an Ancient Empire''. Phoenix Press (2001), ISBN 1842122959. *[[Hans Gustav Güterbock]], ''Hittite Historiography: A Survey,'' in [[H. Tadmor]] and [[M. Weinfeld]] eds. ''History, Historiography and Interpretation: Studies in Biblical and Cuneiform Literatures'', Magnes Press, Hebrew University (1983) pp. 21-35. *[[J. G. Macqueen]], ''The Hittites, and Their Contemporaries in Asia Minor'', revised and enlarged, Thames and Hudson (1975, 1986). (Series: Ancient Peoples and Places, Ed. G. Daniel.) *[[George E. Mendenhall]], ''The Tenth Generation: The Origins of the Biblical Tradition'', The Johns Hopkins University Press (1973), ISBN 0-8018-1654-8. *[[Erich Neu]], ''Der Anitta Text'', ''(StBoT 18)'', Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden (1974). *[[Louis L. Orlin]], ''Assyrian Colonies in Cappadocia'', Mouton, The Hague (1970). *''The Hittites and Hurrians'' in [[D. J. Wiseman]] ''Peoples of the Old Testament Times'', Clarendon Press, Oxford (1973). == External links =
{{note|ThornMiracle}} Sainte-Beuve, ''Port-Royal'', III, 173f.; Beard, Charles, ''Port-Royal'', I 84. # {{note|peity}} Pascal, ''[[Pensées]]'', Introduction, p. ''xxviii''; Mesnard, ''Pascal'', 137-138. # {{note|finest}} Sainte-Beuve, ''Seventeenth Century'', 174. # {{note|eloquent}} Durant, ''The Age of Louis XIV'', 66. # {{note|M104-}} Muir, 104. # {{note|M104}} Muir, 104. # {{note|M103}} Muir, 103. ==See also== * [[Pascal's Wager]] * [[Pascal's triangle]] * [[Pascal's theorem]] * [[Pascal programming language]] * [[pascal (unit)]] * [[Pascal's calculator]] * [[Pascal's law]] ==External links== {{wikiquote}} [http://www.romancatholicism.org JANSENISM RESOURCES: features various primary texts and discussions relating to the theology and history of Pascal and Jansenism] * {{MacTutor Biography|id=Pascal}} * [http://www.nndb.com/people/976/000024904/ Biography] at NNDB. * Etext of Pascal's ''[http://www.ccel.org/p/pascal/pensees/pensees.htm Pensées]'' (English, in various formats) * Etext of Pascal's ''[http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/phl302/texts/pascal/letters-a.html Lettres Provinciales]'' (English) * Etext of a number of Pascal's [http://www.bartleby.com/48/3/ minor works] (English translation) including, among others, ''De l'Esprit géométrique'' and ''De l'Art de persuader''. * [http://www.nature.com/embor/journal/v5/n1s/full/7400229.html &quot;Pascal's Legacy&quot;], an article by John Ross on the influence of Pascal's probability theory. * [http://fermatslasttheorem.blogspot.com/2005/09/blaise-pascal.html Blaise Pascal], An article from the Fermat's Last Theorem Blog. * [http://www.biblioweb.org/-PASCAL-Blaise-.html Biography, Bibliography.] (in French) * [http://www.eucliduniversity.org/euclid/en/school-bp.asp The Blaise Pascal School of Computing Sciences at Euclid University] [[Category:1623 births|Pascal, Blaise]] [[Category:1662 deaths|Pascal, Blaise]] [[Category:17th century mathematicians|Pascal, Blaise]] {{featured article}} [[Category:Christian philosophers|Pascal, Blaise]] [[Category:Christians in science|Pascal]] [[Category:Computer pioneers|Pascal, Blaise]] [[Category:French mathematicians|Pascal, Blaise]] [[Category:French philosophers|Pascal, Blaise]] [[Category:French physicists|Pascal, Blaise]] [[Category:French theologians|Pascal, Blaise]] [[Category:French writers|Pascal, Blaise]] [[Category:Jansenism|Pascal, Blaise]] [[Category:Natives of Auvergne|Pascal, Blaise]] [[Category:Polymaths]] [[ar:بليز باسكال]] [[bg:Блез Паскал]] [[ca:Blaise Pascal]] [[cs:Blaise Pascal]] [[cy:Blaise Pascal]] [[da:Blaise Pascal]] [[de:Blaise Pascal]] [[et:Blaise Pascal]] [[es:Blaise Pascal]] [[eo:Blaise PASCAL]] [[fa:بلز پاسکال]] [[fr:Blaise Pascal]] [[ko:블레즈 파스칼]] [[io:Blaise Pascal]] [[id:Blaise Pascal]] [[ia:Blaise Pascal]] [[it:Blaise Pascal]] [[he:בלז פסקל]] [[la:Blasius Pascalis]] [[lt:Blezas Paskalis]] [[hu:Blaise Pascal]] [[nl:Blaise Pascal]] [[ja:ブレーズ・パスカル]] [[no:Blaise Pascal]] [[nn:Blaise Pascal]] [[pl:Blaise Pascal]] [[pt:Blaise Pascal]] [[ro:Blaise Pascal]] [[ru:Паскаль, Блез]] [[scn:Blaise Pascal]] [[sk:Blaise Pascal]] [[sl:Blaise Pascal]] [[fi:Blaise Pascal]] [[sv:Blaise Pascal]] [[th:แบลส ปาสกาล]] [[tr:Blaise Pascal]] [[zh:布莱士·帕斯卡]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Brythonic languages</title> <id>4069</id> <revision> <id>40599357</id> <timestamp>2006-02-21T19:05:42Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Bastin8</username> <id>154626</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Great Britain</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language family |name=Brythonic |altname=Brittonic |region=[[Great Britain]] and [[Brittany]] |familycolor=Indo-European |fam1=[[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] |fam2=[[Celtic languages|Celtic]] |fam3=[[Insular Celtic languages|Insular Celtic]] |child1=[[Picts#Pictish language|Pictish]] (possibly) |child2=[[Cumbric language|Cumbric]] |child3=[[Welsh language|Welsh]] |child4=[[Breton language|Breton]] |child5=[[Cornish language|Cornish]] }} The '''Brythonic languages''' (or ''Brittonic languages'') form one of the two branches of the [[Insular Celtic languages|Insular Celtic]] language family. The name ''Brythonic'' is derived from the [[Welsh language | Welsh]] word ''[[Brython]]'', meaning an indigenous [[British_Isles|Briton]] as opposed to an [[Anglo-Saxon]] or [[Gaels|Gael]]. The Brythonic branch is also referred to as '''P-Celtic''' because the Brythonic reflex of the Proto-Indo-European phoneme *''k&lt;sup&gt;w&lt;/sup&gt;'' is ''p'' as opposed to the [[Goidelic]] ''c''. Such nomenclature usually implies an acceptance of the P-Celtic hypothesis rather than the Insular Celtic hypothesis (for a discussion, see [[Celtic languages]]). The major Brythonic languages are [[Welsh language|Welsh]] and [[Breton language|Breton]], both of which survive as community languages today. The [[Cornish language]] died out at the end of the eighteenth century, but attempts at reviving it started in the [[20th century|20th]] century and are ongoing. Also notable are the extinct language [[Cumbric language|Cumbric]], and possibly the extinct [[Pictish language|Pictish]] (although the late [[Kenneth H. Jackson]] argued during the [[1950s]], from some of the few remaining examples of Pictish, that Pictish was a non-[[Indo-European]] language, the majority of modern scholars of Pictish do not agree). ==Classification== The family tree of the Brythonic languages is as follows: *Brythonic **[[Picts#Pictish language|Pictish]] (possibly) **[[Ivernic]] (possibly} **[[British (language)|British]], ancestral to: ***[[Western Brythonic language]], ancestral to: ****[[Cumbric]] ****[[Welsh language|Welsh]] ***[[Southwestern Brythonic language|Southwestern Brythonic]], ancestral to: ****[[Breton language|Breton]] ****[[Cornish language|Cornish]] ==History and origins== The modern Brythonic languages all derive from a common ancestral language termed ''British'', ''Common Brythonic'', ''Old Brythonic'' or ''Proto-Brythonic'', which is thought to have developed from the [[Proto-Celtic]] [[language]] which was introduced to [[Great Britain]] from the [[1500 BC|middle second millennium BC]] (Hawkes, 1973). Brythonic languages were then spoken at least in the whole of Great Britain south of the rivers [[River Forth |Forth]] and [[River Clyde|Clyde]], presumably also including the [[Isle of Man]]. The theory has been advanced (notably by R. F. O'Rahilly) that Ireland was populated by speakers of Brythonic before being displaced by speakers of a Q-Celtic language (possibly from the Quarietii tribe of southern [[France]]), although the linguists Dillon and Chadwick reject this theory as being implausible. During the period of the Roman occupation of Great Britain (AD 43 to c. 410), Common Brythonic borrowed a large stock of [[Latin]] words, both for concepts unfamiliar in the pre-urban society of Celtic Great Britain such as tactics of warfare and urbanisation and rather more mundane words which displaced native terms (most notably, the word for &quot;fish&quot; in all the Brythonic languages derives from the Latin ''piscis'' rather the native *''ēskos''). Approximately eight hundred of these Latin loan-words have survived in the three modern Brythonic languages. It is probable that during this period Common Brythonic was differentiated into at least two major dialect groups - Southwestern and Western (in addition we may posit additional dialects spoken in what is now England which have left little or no evidence). Between the end of the Roman occupation and the mid sixth century the two dialects began to diverge into recognisably separate languages, the Western into Cumbric and Welsh and the Southwestern into [[Cornish_language|Cornish]] and its closely related sister language [[Breton language|Breton]], which was carried from the south of Great Britain to continental [[Armorica]] by refugees fleeing the [[Anglo-Saxon|Saxon]] invaders. The Brythonic languages spoken in [[Scotland]], the [[Isle of Man]] and [[England]] were displaced at the same time by [[Goidelic]] and [[Old English language|Old English]] speaking invaders. For the later history of the neo-Brythonic languages see under their own respective articles. ==Remnants in England and Scotland== The principal legacy left behind in those territories from which the Brythonic languages were displaced is that of toponyms. Many of the place-names in England and to a lesser extent Scotland are derived (sometimes indirectly) from the Brythonic names, including [[London]], [[Penicuik]], [[Perth, Scotland|Perth]], [[York]], [[Dorchester]], [[Dover]] and [[Colchester]]. Several place-name elements are thought to be wholly or partly Brythonic in origin, particularly ''bre-'', ''bal-'', and ''-dun'' for hills, [[carr]] for a high rocky place, [[coomb]] for a small deep valley. Others reflect the presence of Brythons, such as [[Dumbarton]] - from the [[Scottish Gaelic]] ''Dùn Breatann'' meaning &quot;Fort of the Britons&quot;. Until recently it has been believed that those areas settled by the Anglo-Saxons were uninhabited at the time or the Britons had fled before them. However, [[Anglo-Saxons#Y_chromosome_analysis|genetic studies]] show that the British were not pushed out to the Celtic fringes – many tribes remained in what was to become England{{ref|capelli}}. These findings strengthen the research of Steven Bassett of the [[University of Birmingham]]; his work during the 1990s suggests that much of the [[West Midlands (region)|West Midlands]] was only very lightly colonised with Anglian and Saxon settlements. It is generally accepted that linguistic effects on English were lexically rather poor aside from toponyms, consisting of a few domestic words, which may include hubbub, [[peat]], [[bucket]], crock, noggin, gob (c.f. Gaelic ''gob''), nook; and the dialectal term for a [[badger]], i.e. ''brock'' (c.f. Welsh ''broc
w.emmys.tv/downloads/images/2005emmys/2005factsfigs.doc MS Word Document]&lt;/ref&gt; These nominations resulted in a total of 26 Emmy wins. In addition, ''Cheers'' has earned 31 [[Golden Globe Award|Golden Globe]] nominations with a total of 6 wins. All ten of the actors who were regulars on the series received Emmy nominations for their roles. ''Cheers'' won the Golden Globe for &quot;Best TV-Series - Comedy/Musical&quot; in 1991 and the Emmy for &quot;Outstanding Comedy Series&quot; in 1983, 1984, 1989, 1991, and 1992. The following table summarizes awards won by the ''Cheers'' cast and crew.&lt;ref name=&quot;awards1&quot;/&gt; {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |+ ! Winner ! Award |- | rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |Kirstie Alley |Emmy, Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series (1991) |- |Golden Globe, Best Performance by an Actress in a TV-Series - Comedy/Musical (1991) |- | rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |Ted Danson |Emmy, Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series (1990, 1993) |- |Golden Globe, Best Performance by an Actor in a TV-Series - Comedy/Musical (1990, 1991) |- |Woody Harrelson |Emmy, Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series (1989) |- | rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |Shelley Long |Emmy, Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series (1983) |- |Golden Globe, Best Performance by an Actress in a TV-Series - Comedy/Musical (1985) |- |Golden Globe, Best Performance by an Actress in a Supporting Role in a Series, Mini-Series or Motion Picture Made for TV (1983) |- |Bebe Neuwirth |Emmy, Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series (1990, 1993) |- |Rhea Perlman |Emmy, Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series (1984, 1985, 1986, 1989) |- | rowspan=&quot;5&quot; |'''''Production Awards''''' |Emmy, Outstanding Directing in a Comedy Series (1983, 1991) |- |Emmy, Outstanding Writing in a Comedy Series (1983, 1984) |- |Emmy, Outstanding Individual Achievement in Graphic Design and Title Sequences (1983) |- |Emmy, Outstanding Film Editing for a Series (1984)&lt;br&gt;Emmy, Outstanding Editing for a Series - Multi-Camera Production (1988, 1993) |- |Emmy, Outstanding Live and Tape Sound Mixing and Sound Effects for a Series (1985)&lt;br&gt;Emmy, Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Comedy Series or a Special (1986, 1987, 1990) |} ==Plot== :''For the full list of episodes, see [[List of Cheers episodes]]'' Nearly all of ''Cheers'' took place in the front room of the bar, only occasionally stepping into the rear pool room or Sam's office. In fact, ''Cheers'' didn't show any action [[Cheers#Outside the bar|outside the bar]] until later into the series. ''Cheers'' had some [[Running gag|running gags]], such as Norm arriving in the bar greeted by a loud &quot;Norm!&quot; Early episodes generally followed Sam's antics with his various women, following a variety of [[Romantic comedy film|romantic comedy]] [[List of movie clichés by genre#Romance|clichés]] to get out of whatever relationship troubles he was in that particular episode. As the show progressed and Sam got into more serious relationships the general tone switched to comedy on Sam settling down into a more [[Monogamy|monogamous]] lifestyle. Throughout the series, larger [[story arc|story arcs]] began to develop that spanned multiple episodes or seasons interspersed with smaller themes and one-off episodes. ===Romance=== [[Image:Cheers sam diane kiss.jpg|150px|thumb|Sam and Diane kiss]] The show's main theme in its early seasons was the stormy romance between upper-class, overeducated server Diane Chambers and earthy ex-[[Pitcher|baseball pitcher]] and bar owner Sam Malone.&lt;ref&gt;Television Heaven (2002)(2006). [http://www.televisionheaven.co.uk/cheers.htm ''Cheers''|A Television Heaven Review]&lt;/ref&gt; In later episodes the focus shifted to Sam's new relationship with neurotic corporate executive Rebecca. Both romances stretched to fill the entire show with varying levels to the relationship, from Sam and Diane/Rebecca hating one another to dating and intimacy. Both relationships were characterized as &quot;will they or won't they&quot; relationships with [[sexual tension]] between two main characters that draw viewers in to see if the tension is resolved.&lt;ref&gt;TV Tropes (2006). [http://www.tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/WillTheyOrWontThey Will They or Won't They?]&lt;/ref&gt; In both relationships the tension grew when Sam wanted to date the woman but she continually refused. Diane refused as she believed Sam was immoral with women and below her, the tension coming to a head at the end of the first season when she wants to date Sam's brother. Rebecca is at first only interested in dating executives at her company who might promote her, so she resists Sam's courting. ===Social issues=== Many ''Cheers'' scripts centered around or were improved with a variety of social issues. As ''Toasting Cheers'' puts it:&lt;ref name=&quot;toastingcheers&quot;/&gt; :''&quot;...the script was further strengthened by the writers' boldness in successfully tackling controversial issues such as alcoholism, homosexuality, and adultery.&quot;'' [[Social class]] was a strong subtext of the show. The &quot;upper class&quot;, represented by characters like Diane Chambers, Frasier Crane, Lilith Sternin and (initially) Rebecca Howe, rubbed shoulders with middle- and working-class characters, like Sam Malone, Carla Tortelli, Norm Peterson and Cliff Clavin. An extreme example of this is the relationship between farmboy Woody Boyd and millionaire's daughter Kelly Gaines. Strong comedic support came from the bar staff, including waitress Carla Tortelli and sometimes-befuddled assistant [[bartender]] Ernie 'Coach' Pantusso ([[Nicholas Colasanto]]). Following Colasanto's death in 1985, the assistant bartender role was filled by another naïve character, Woody Boyd. Many viewers enjoyed ''Cheers'' in part because of this heavy focus on character development.&lt;ref name=&quot;chardevelop&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;toastingcheers&quot;/&gt; [[Feminism]] and the role of women were also recurring themes throughout the show, with some seeing each of the major female characters as a flawed feminist in her own way.&lt;ref&gt;Dr. Caren Deming. &quot;Talk: Gender Discourse in ''Cheers''!&quot; in ''Television Criticism: Approaches and Applications'' edited by Leah R. Vande Berg and Lawrence A Wenner. White Plains, NY: Longman, 1991. 47-57. The essay is co-authored by Mercilee M. Jenkins, who teaches at San Francisco State University.&lt;/ref&gt; Diane was a very vocal feminist, but Sam was the [[epitome]] of everything she hated: a [[womanizer]] and a [[Male chauvinism|male chauvinist]]. Their relationship led Diane to several diatribes on Sam's promiscuity, while Carla merely insulted people.&lt;ref name=&quot;toastingcheers&quot;/&gt; Carla was respected because of her power, while Diane was ignored as she commanded little respect. Finally, Rebecca was a stereotypical ambitious and [[Age disparity in sexual relationships|golddigging]] woman, seeking relationships with her superiors at the Lillian Corporation, most notably, [[Robin Colcord]], to gain promotions or raises. However, she encountered a [[glass ceiling]] and ended the show by marrying a plumber rather than the one of the rich businessmen she originally flirted with. [[Homosexuality]] was dealt with from the very first season, a rare move for American network television in the 1980s. In the first season episode &quot;The Boys In The Bar&quot; (after the 1970s film ''[[The Boys in the Band]]'') a college friend and fellow teammate of Sam [[Coming out|comes out]] in his [[autobiography]], some of the male regulars pressure Sam to take action to ensure that Cheers does not became a gay bar. The episode won a [[Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation|GLAAD]] [[GLAAD Media Awards|Media Award]],&lt;ref&gt;IMDb (2006). [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0083399/trivia IMDb Trivia for Cheers]&lt;/ref&gt; and the script's writers, Ken Levine &amp; David Isaacs, both won an Emmy Award for their writing.&lt;ref name=&quot;awards1&quot;/&gt; [[Harvey Fierstein]] would later appear in the 1990s as &quot;Mark Newberger&quot;, Rebecca's old high school sweetheart who is gay. Finally, the finale episode included a gay man who gets into trouble with his boyfriend after agreeing to pose as Diane's husband. [[Addiction]] also plays a role in ''Cheers'', almost exclusively through Sam, although some critics believed the issue was never really developed.&lt;ref&gt;The Bemusement Park (May 7th, 2004) (2006). [http://markhasty.com/archives/2004/05/07/the-situation-of-comedy/ The Situation of Comedy]&lt;/ref&gt; Sam was a recovering [[alcoholism|alcoholic]] who ended up buying a bar after his baseball career was ruined by his drinking.&lt;ref&gt;IMDb (2006). [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0083399/plotsummary IMDb Plot Summary of Cheers]&lt;/ref&gt; Frasier also has a notable bout of drinking in the fourth season episode &quot;The Triangle&quot;, although Sam is the primary alcoholic figure on the show. Some critics believe Sam was a generally [[Addiction|addictive personality]] who had largely conquered his alcoholism but was still a [[Sexual addiction|sexual addict]], shown through his womanizing.&lt;ref&gt;The National Association for Christian Recovery (2006). [http://www.nacronline.com/dox/library/daler/addictio.shtml On Addiction] from: STEPS Volume 2, Issue 1, Winter 1990.&lt;/ref&gt; {{spoiler}} ===''Cheers'' owners=== [[Image:Cheers_sign.jpg|thumb|right|175px|The ''Cheers'' sign]] Cheers obviously had several owners before Sam, as the bar was opened in 1889 (The &quot;Est. 1895&quot; on the bar's sign is a made-up date chosen by Carla for [[numerology|numerological]] purposes as revealed in the 8th season episode &quot;The Stork Brings a Crane&quot;). In the second episode, &quot;Sam's Women&quot;, Norm tells a customer looking for the owner of Cheers that the man he thought was the owner has been replaced, and his replacement replace
rgulis|Margulis]] | date = 1978}} {{Taxobox_end_placement}} {{Taxobox_section_subdivision | color = #e0d0b0 | plural_taxon = [[Kingdom (biology)|Kingdoms]]}} |- | style = &quot;background: pink; padding: 4px;&quot; | [[Animal]]ia - Animals |- | style = &quot;background: lightblue; padding: 4px;&quot; | [[Fungus|Fungi]] |- | style = &quot;background: lightgreen; padding: 4px;&quot; | [[Plant]]ae - Plants |- | style = &quot;background: khaki; padding: 4px;&quot; | [[Protist]]a {{Taxobox_end}} A '''eukaryote''' ({{IPA2|juːˌkarɪəʊt}}), also spelled '''eucaryote''', is an [[organism]] with a complex cell or [[Cell (biology)|cell]]s, in which the [[genetic material]] is organized into [[membrane]]-bound [[Cell nucleus|nucleus]]/[[Cell nucleus|nuclei]]. Eukaryotes comprise [[animal]]s, [[plant]]s, and [[Fungus|fungi]]&amp;mdash;which are mostly [[multicellular]]&amp;mdash;as well as various other groups that are collectively classified as [[protist]]s (many of which are [[unicellular]]). In contrast, other organisms, such as [[bacteria]], lack nuclei and other complex cell structures; such organisms are called [[prokaryote]]s. The eukaryotes share a common origin, and are often treated formally as a [[Domain (biology)|superkingdom]], [[Domain (biology)|empire]], or [[Three-domain system|domain]]. The name comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''eu'' (meaning ''good'') and ''karyon'' (meaning ''nut'', referring to the [[cell nucleus]]). ==Structure== Eukaryotic cells are generally much larger than prokaryotes, typically a thousand times by volume. They have a variety of internal membranes and structures, called [[organelle]]s, and a [[cytoskeleton]] composed of [[microtubule]]s and [[microfilament]]s, which play an important role in defining the cell's organization. Eukaryotic DNA is divided into several bundles called [[chromosome]]s, which are separated by a microtubular spindle during nuclear division. In addition to asexual cell division, most eukaryotes have some process of [[sexual reproduction]] via cell fusion, which is not found among prokaryotes. [[Image:Biological cell.png|thumb|A typical animal cell]] ===Internal membranes=== Eukaryotic cells include a variety of membrane-bound structures, collectively referred to as the [[endomembrane system]]. Simple compartments, called [[vesicle (biology)|vesicle]]s or [[vacuole]]s, can form by budding off other membranes. Many cells ingest food and other materials through a process of [[endocytosis]], where the outer membrane invaginates and then pinches off to form a vesicle. It is probable that most other membrane-bound organelles are ultimately derived from such vesicles. The nucleus is surrounded by a double membrane, with pores that allow material to move in and out. Various tube- and sheet-like extensions of the nuclear membrane form what is called the [[endoplasmic reticulum]] or ER, which is involved in protein transport. It includes the Rough ER where [[ribosome]]s are attached, and the proteins they synthesize enter the interior space or lumen. Subsequently, they generally enter vesicles, which bud off from the Smooth ER. In most eukaryotes, the proteins may be further modified in stacks of flattened vesicles, called [[Golgi apparatus|Golgi bodies]] or dictyosomes. Vesicles may be specialized for various purposes. For instance, [[lysosome]]s contain enzymes that break down the contents of food vacuoles, and [[peroxisome]]s are used to break down [[peroxide]] which is toxic otherwise. Many protozoa have contractile vacuoles, which collect and expel excess water, and [[extrusome]]s, which expel material used to deflect predators or capture prey. In multicellular organisms, [[hormone]]s are often produced in vesicles. In higher plants, most of a cell's volume is taken up by a central vacuole or tonoplast, which maintains its osmotic pressure. ===Mitochondria and plastids=== [[Mitochondrion|Mitochondria]] are organelles found in nearly all eukaryotes. They are surrounded by double membranes, the inner of which is folded into invaginations called cristae, where [[aerobic respiration]] takes place. They contain their own DNA and are only formed by the fission of other mitochondria. They are now generally held to have developed from [[endosymbiosis|endosymbiotic]] prokaryotes, probably [[proteobacteria]]. The few protozoa that lack mitochondria have been found to contain mitochondrion-derived organelles, such as [[hydrogenosome]]s and [[mitosome]]s. Plants and various groups of [[alga]]e also have [[plastid]]s. Again, these have their own DNA and developed from endosymbiotes, in this case [[cyanobacteria]]. They usually take the form of [[chloroplast]]s, which like cyanobacteria contain [[chlorophyll]] and produce energy through [[photosynthesis]]. Others are involved in storing food. Although plastids likely had a single origin, not all plastid-containing groups are closely related. Instead, some eukaryotes have obtained them from others through secondary endosymbiosis or ingestion. Endosymbiotic origins have also been proposed for the nucleus and eukaryotic [[flagellum|flagella]], but this is not generally accepted, both from a lack of cytological evidence and difficulty in reconciling this with cellular reproduction. ===Cytoskeletal structures=== Many eukaryotes have slender motile projections, usually called [[flagellum|flagella]] when long and [[cilium|cilia]] when short, that are variously involved in movement, feeding, and sensation. These are entirely distinct from prokaryotic flagella. They are supported by a bundle of microtubules arising from a basal body, also called a kinetosome or centriole, characteristically arranged as nine doublets surrounding two singlets. Flagella also may have hairs or mastigonemes, scales, connecting membranes and internal rods. Their interior is continuous with the cell's cytoplasm. Centrioles are often present even in cells and groups that do not have flagella. They generally occur in groups of one or two, called kinetids, that give rise to various microtubular roots. These form a primary component of the cytoskeletal structure, and are often assembled over the course of several cell divisions, with one flagellum retained from the parent and the other derived from it. Centrioles may also be associated in the formation of a spindle during nuclear division. Some protists have various other microtubule-supported organelles. These include the [[radiolaria]] and [[heliozoa]], which produce axopodia used in flotation or to capture prey, and the [[haptophyte]]s, which have a peculiar flagellum-like organelle called the haptonema. ==Reproduction == Nuclear division is often coordinated with [[cell division]]. This generally takes place by [[mitosis]], a process which allows each daughter nucleus to receive one copy of each chromosome. In most eukaryotes there is also a process of sexual reproduction, typically involving an alternation between [[haploid]] generations, where only one copy of each chromosome is present, and [[diploid]] generations, where two are present, occurring through nuclear fusion (syngamy) and [[meiosis]]. There is considerable variation in this pattern, however. Eukaryotes have a smaller surface to volume area ratio than prokaryotes, and thus have lower metabolic rates and longer generation times. In some multicellular organisms, cells specialized for metabolism will have enlarged surface areas, such as intestinal vili. ==Origin and evolution== The origin of the eukaryotic cell was a milestone in the evolution of life, since they include all complex cells and multi-cellular organisms. The timing of this series of events is hard to determine; Knoll (1992) suggests they developed approximately 1.6 - 2.1 billion years ago. Fossils that are clearly related to modern groups start appearing around 800 million years ago. [[rRNA]] trees constructed during the 1980s and 1990s left most eukaryotes in an unresolved &quot;crown&quot; group (not technically a true [[crown group|crown]]), which was usually divided by the form of the mitochondrial cristae. The few groups that lack mitochondria branched separately and so the absence was believed to be primitive, but this is now considered an artifact of [[long branch attraction]] and they are known to have lost them secondarily. Trees based on [[actin]] and other genes have painted a different and more complete picture. Most eukaryotes are now included in several supergroups: {| width=&quot;100%&quot; cellspacing=0 | [[Opisthokont]]s || [[Animal]]s, [[fungus|fungi]], [[choanoflagellate]]s, etc. |- | [[Amoebozoa]] || Most lobose [[amoeba]]e and [[slime mould]]s |- | [[Rhizaria]] || Various [[amoeboid]] protozoa |- | [[Excavate]]s || Various [[flagellate]] protozoa |- | [[Archaeplastida]] || [[Embryophyte|Land plant]]s, [[green alga|green]] and [[red alga]]e |- | [[Heterokont]]s || [[Brown alga]]e, [[diatom]]s, [[water mold]]s, etc. |- | [[Alveolate]]s || [[Ciliate]]s, [[Apicomplexa]], [[dinoflagellate]]s, etc. |} The heterokonts and alveolates may be part of a larger group that is ancestrally photosynthetic, called the [[chromalveolate]]s, but this remains contentious. Otherwise the relationships between the different supergroups are mostly uncertain, and in particular there is dispute about where the root of the evolutionary tree belongs, and as a result what the earliest eukaryotes were like. A few small protist groups have not been related to any of the major supergroups, notably the [[centrohelid]]s, [[apusozoa]]ns, and [[ebriid]]s. Eukaryotes are closely related to [[archaea]], at least in terms of nuclear DNA and genetic machinery. In other respects, such as membrane composition, they are similar to [[Bacteria|eubacteria]]. Three main explanations for this have been proposed: * Eukaryotes resulted from the complete fusion of two or more cells, the cytoplasm forming from a eubacterium and the nucleus from an archa
<contributor> <username>Timwi</username> <id>13051</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fix double-redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Violin]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>FinlanD</title> <id>10536</id> <revision> <id>21403834</id> <timestamp>2005-08-20T01:31:31Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jnc</username> <id>18024</id> </contributor> <comment>Keep, per RfD</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Finland]].</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>FiLm</title> <id>10537</id> <revision> <id>15908342</id> <timestamp>2004-03-13T08:07:52Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Timwi</username> <id>13051</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fix double-redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Film]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>FilmCriticism</title> <id>10538</id> <revision> <id>15908343</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> 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[[France]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>FriendsofGlobalProgress</title> <id>10546</id> <revision> <id>15908350</id> <timestamp>2003-03-21T14:06:32Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ams80</username> <id>7543</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>FermatsLastTheorem</title> <id>10547</id> <revision> <id>15908351</id> <timestamp>2002-10-10T10:00:46Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Magnus Manske</username> <id>4</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>#redirect [[Fermat's last theorem]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Fermat's last theorem]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>FederalisM</title> <id>10548</id> <revision> <id>15908352</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Federalism]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>FilmEditing</title> <id>10549</id> <revision> <id>15908353</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Film editing]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>FaithAndRationality</title> <id>10550</id> <revision> <id>15908354</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Faith and rationality]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>FreeWillAndDeterminism</title> <id>10551</id> <revision> <id>15908355</id> <timestamp>2003-11-08T10:51:59Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Minesweeper</username> <id>7279</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fix double redir</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Free will]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>FoundationTrilogy</title> <id>10552</id> <revision> <id>15908356</id> <timestamp>2003-09-30T07:53:43Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Raul654</username> <id>21013</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[The Foundation Series]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Flute</title> <id>10553</id> <revision> <id>41897319</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T13:21:42Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Myrtone (the strict Australian wikipedian)</username> <id>960405</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the musical instrument. For the sailing ship, see [[Fluyt]]. For the drinkware, see [[Champagne flute]].'' The '''flute''' is a [[musical instrument]] of the [[woodwind]] family. Unlike other woodwind instruments, a flute produces its sound from the flow of air against an edge, instead of using a [[Reed (music)|reed]]. A [[musician]] who plays the flute is generally referred to as either a [[flautist|''flautist'']] or a ''flutist''. Flute tones are sweet in character and blend well with other instruments. The flute's pitch, and various aspects of its [[timbre]] are flexible, allowing a very high degree of instantaneous expressive control. [[Image:flute.jpg]] ==Categories of flutes== The flute has appeared in many different forms in many different locations around the world. A flute made from a [[mammoth]] tusk, found in the [[Swabian Alb]] and dated to 30,000 to 37,000 years ago [http://www.cbc.ca/story/arts/national/2004/12/30/Arts/flute-prehistoric041230.html]; one seven-hole flute made from a swan's bone in the Geissenklosterle Cave in Germany to circa 36,000 years ago [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb3284/is_200412/ai_n15038469]; and another made from the bone of a juvenile [[cave bear]] found in [[Slovenia]] and dated to about 50,000 years ago [http://whyfiles.org/114music/4.html], are among the oldest known musical instruments. At its most basic, a flute can be an open tube which is blown like a bottle. Over time, the increasing demands of musical performance have led to the development of what many people consider ''the'' flute, the [[Western concert flute]], which has a complex array of keys and holes. There are several broad classes of flutes. With most flutes, the musician blows directly onto the edge of the flute. However, some flutes, such as the [[recorder]], [[tin whistle]], [[whistle]], [[fujara]], and [[ocarina]] have a duct that directs the air onto the edge (an arrangement that is termed a &quot;[[fipple]]&quot;). This makes the instrument easier to play, but takes a degree of control away from the musician. Usually, fipple flutes are not referred to as flutes, even though the physics, technique and sound are similar. Another division is between '''side-blown''' (or '''transverse''') flutes, such as the Western concert flute, [[piccolo]], [[fife (musical instrument)|fife]], [[di zi]], and [[bansuri]]; and [[end-blown flute]]s, such as the [[recorder]], [[ney]], [[kaval]], [[quena]], [[shakuhachi]] and [[tonette]]. The player of a side-blown flute uses a hole on the side of the tube to produce a tone, instead of blowing on an end of the tube. The earliest transverse flute is a chi flute discovered in the [[Tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng]] at the [[Suizhou]] site, [[Hubei]] province, [[China]]. It dates from [[433 BC]], of the later [[Zhou Dynasty]]. It is of lacquered bamboo with closed ends. It has five stops that are at the flute's side instead of top. Chi flutes are mentioned in [[Shi Jing]], compiled and edited by [[Confucius]]. ===Members of the concert flute family=== From high to low, the members of the concert flute family include: *[[Picc
* [http://www.weisbord.org/conquest8.htm ''I. Liberal-Anarchism VIII. Libertarianism''] from ''The Conquest of Power'', by Albert Weisbord[http://www.weisbord.org/] discusses individualism of Godwin and Stirner * [http://www.weisbord.org/conquest10.htm American Liberal-Anarchism] from ''The Conquest of Power'', by Albert Weisbord[http://www.weisbord.org/] * [http://www.independent.org/issues/article.asp?id=10 ''American Anarchism'' by Wendy McElroy] 19th Century Individualist Anarchism in America * [http://libcom.org/library/social-anarchism--lifestyle-anarchism-murray-bookchin A critique of Individualist Anarchism by Murray Bookchin] * [http://world.std.com/~bbrigade/ Bad Press] Contemporary Individualist Anarchist Publications * [http://www.spaz.org/~dan/individualist-anarchist/ Individualist-Anarchist.Net] * [http://www.zetetics.com/mac/articles/jlsorg.html ''The Schism Between Individualist and Communist Anarchism''] * [http://flag.blackened.net/liberty/proudanar.html Proudhon and Anarchism] by Larry Gambone * [http://www.spaz.org/~dan/ias/index.html Individualist Anarchist Society at UC Berkeley] [[Category:Political theories]] [[Category:Anarchism]] [[de:Individualistischer Anarchismus]] [[es:Anarquismo individualista]] [[fr:Anarchisme individualiste]] [[he:אנרכיזם אינדיבידואליסטי]] [[sv:Individualanarkism]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Italo Calvino</title> <id>14937</id> <revision> <id>41614878</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T15:03:27Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ugur Basak Bot</username> <id>735354</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Adding: pt</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Italo Calvino''' ([[October 15]],[[1923]] &amp;ndash; [[September 19]], [[1985]]) was an [[Italy|Italian]] [[writer]] and [[novelist]]. Born in [[Santiago de Las Vegas]], [[Cuba]], to botanists Mario Calvino and Evelina Mameli (a descendant of [[Goffredo Mameli]]) and brother of [[Floriano Calvino]], a famous [[geologist]], he soon moved to his family's homeland of [[Italy]], where he lived most of his life. [[Image:calvino-italo.jpg|thumb|Italo Calvino]] ==Timeline== He stayed in [[San Remo, Italy|San Remo]], on the [[Italian Riviera]], for some 20 years, and enrolled in the ''Avanguardisti'' (a [[fascism|fascist]] youth organisation to which membership was practically compulsory) with whom he took part in the occupation of the [[French Riviera]]. He suffered some religious troubles, his relatives being followers of the [[Waldensian]] Protestant Church. He met [[Eugenio Scalfari]] (later a politician and the founder of the major newspaper ''La Repubblica''), with whom he would remain a close friend. In [[1941]] he moved to [[Turin]], after a long hesitation over living in this town or [[Milan]]. He often humorously described this choice, and used to define Turin as &quot;a city that is serious but sad.&quot; In [[1943]], he joined the Partisans in the Italian Resistance, in the [[Giuseppe Garibaldi|Garibaldi]] brigade, with the battlename of ''Santiago'', and with Scalfari he created the MUL (liberal universitarian movement). He then entered the (still clandestine) [[Italian Communist Party]]. In [[1947]], Calvino graduated from Turin's [[university]] with a thesis on [[Joseph Conrad]] and started working with the official Communist paper ''L'Unità''; he also had a short relationship with the [[Einaudi]] publishing house, which put him in contact with [[Norberto Bobbio]], [[Natalia Ginzburg]], [[Cesare Pavese]] and [[Elio Vittorini]]. With Vittorini he wrote for the weekly ''Il Politecnico'' (a cultural magazine associated with the university). He then left Einaudi to work mainly with L'Unità and the newborn communist weekly political magazine ''Rinascita''. In [[1950]], he worked again for the Einaudi house, where he became responsible for the literary volumes. The following year, presumably in order to verify a possibility of advancement in the communist party, he visited the [[Soviet Union]]. The reports and correspondence he produced from this visit were later collected and earned him literary prizes. In [[1952]] Calvino wrote with [[Giorgio Bassani]] for ''[[Botteghe Oscure]]'', a magazine named after the popular name of the party's head-offices, and worked for ''Il Contemporaneo'', a [[marxism|Marxist]] weekly. It was in [[1957]] that Calvino unexpectedly left the Communist party, and his letter of resignation (soon famous) was published in ''L'Unità''. He found new spaces for his periodic writings in the magazines ''Passato e Presente'' and ''Italia Domani''. Together with Vittorini he became a co-editor of ''Il Menabò di letteratura'', a position that he held for many years. Despite the previously severe restrictions for foreigners holding communist views, he was allowed to visit the [[United States]], where he stayed six months (four of which he spent in [[New York]]), after an invitation by the [[Ford Foundation]]. Calvino was particularly impressed by the &quot;New World&quot;: &quot;Naturally I visited the South and also California, but I always felt a New Yorker. My city is New York.&quot; In the States he also met Esther Judith Singer, whom he married a few years later in [[Havana]], during a trip in which he visited his birthplace and met [[Ernesto Che Guevara]]. Back in Italy, and once again working for Einaudi, he started publishing some of his ''cosmicomics'' in ''Il Caffè'', a literary magazine. Vittorini's death in [[1966]] had a heavy influence on Calvino and caused him to experience what has been defined as an &quot;intellectual depression&quot;, which the writer himself described as an important passage in his life: &quot;...I ceased to be young. Perhaps it's a metabolic process, something that comes with age, I'd been young for a long time, perhaps too long, suddenly I felt that I had to begin my old age, yes, old age, perhaps with the hope of prolonging it by beginning it early&quot;. He then started to frequent [[Paris]] (where he was nicknamed ''L'ironique amusé''). Here he soon joined some important circles like the [[Oulipo]] (''Ouvroir de littérature potentielle'') and met [[Roland Barthes]] and [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]], in the fermenting atmosphere that was going to evolve into the [[1968]]'s cultural revolution (the [[French May]]); in his French experience he also became fond of [[Raymond Queneau]]'s works, which would sensibly influence his later production. Calvino also had more intense contacts with the academic world, with notable experiences at the [[University of Paris|Sorbonne]] (with Barthes) and at [[Urbino]]'s [[university]]. His interests included classical studies ([[Honoré de Balzac]], [[Ludovico Ariosto]], [[Dante Alighieri|Dante]], [[Ignacio de Loyola]], [[Miguel de Cervantes|Cervantes]], [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]], [[Cyrano de Bergerac|Cyrano de Bergérac]], [[Giacomo Leopardi]]) while at the same time, not without a certain surprise from the Italian intellectual circles, he wrote [[novel]]s for [[Playboy]]'s Italian edition ([[1973]]). He became a regular contributor to the important Italian newspaper ([[Corriere della Sera]]). In [[1975]] he was made Honorary Member of the [[American Academy]], the following year he was awarded the Austrian State Prize for European Literature. He visited [[Japan]] and [[Mexico]] and gave lectures in several American towns. In [[1981]] he was awarded the prestigious French [[Légion d'Honneur]]. In [[1985]] he died in [[Siena, Italy|Siena]] at the ancient [[hospital]] of ''Santa Maria della Scala'' of a [[cerebral hemorrhage]]. ==[[If On a Winter's Night a Traveler]]== Perhaps Calvino's most famous novel, this begins with the words, &quot;You are about to begin reading Italo Calvino's new novel, ''If on a winter's night a traveller''.&quot; It's a novel therefore in which the reader plays a starring role. The reader gets a love interest, the Other Reader, and obstacles thrown in his way. In particular, the first story runs out after only a chapter. A pattern is quickly set up with single chapters of novels being cut off in their prime. Interspersed with these are chapters in which the reader's story, the pursuit of the end of these intriguing novels, and the pursuit of the Other Reader, is played out. Each chapter is written in the style of a different genre of work. The central concept of this novel is the quest to find a complete and coherent narrative: a quest being undertaken by the actual reader and the Reader as character, struggling to hunt down the ever-elusive Chapters. In fact Calvino does hide a short, elegant story in the book (more of a vignette, really), and with a magician's flair he hides it in plain sight in a part of the book to which most readers give cursory attention. == Bibliography == ''(dates are of original publication)'' * 1947 [[The Path to the Nest of Spiders]] - ''Il sentiero dei nidi di ragno'' * 1949 ''Ultimo viene il corvo'' * 1951 ''I giovani del Po'' * 1951, 1959 [[The Nonexistent Knight The Cloven Viscount|The Nonexistent Knight &amp; The Cloven Viscount]] - ''Il cavaliere inesistente'', ''Il Visconte dimezzato'' - (two novellas) * 1952 The Argentine Ant - ''La formica argentina'' * 1954 ''L'entrata in Guerra'' * 1956 [[Italian Folktales]] - ''Fiabe Italiane'' - (retelling of traditional stories) * 1956 [[libretto]] for ''La panchina'', [[opera]] by [[Sergio Liberovici]] * 1958 ''I racconti'' * 1957 [[The Baron in the Trees]] - ''Il barone rampante'' * 1959 [[Our Ancestors]] - ''I nostri antenati'' (a single edition containing &quot;Il cavaliere inesistente&quot;, &quot;Il Visconte dimezzato&quot;, and &quot;Il barone rampante&quot;) * 1963 [[Marcovaldo]] * 1963 The Watcher - ''La Giornata di Uno Scrutatore'' * 1963 [[La speculazione edilizia]] * 1965 [[Cosmicomics]] - ''Cosmicomiche'' * 1967 [[T Zero]] - ''Ti con zero'' * 1969 [[The Castle of Crossed Destinies]]
a desire to maintain friendly relations. Also, a jurisdiction may be formally affiliated with one tradition, while maintaining informal ties with the other. For all these reasons, labels must be taken only as rough indicators, not as clear designations. {{see also| Regular Masonic jurisdictions}} ===The Masonic Lodge === {{main|Masonic Lodge}} A '''Lodge''', often termed a ''Private Lodge'' or ''Constituent Lodge'' in Constitutions, is the basic organisation of Freemasonry. Every new Lodge must be warranted by a Grand Lodge, but is subject to its direction only in enforcing the published Constitution of the jurisdiction. A Master Freemason is generally entitled to visit any Lodge - in any jurisdiction in amity with his own. He is first usually required to check, and certify, the regularity of the relationship of the Lodge - and be able to satisfy that Lodge of his regularity of membership. Contrary to popular belief, Freemasons meet as a [[Masonic Lodge|Lodge]] and not in a Lodge. Lodge buildings have for many years been known as ''Temples'', (&quot;of Philosophy and the Arts&quot;), but in many countries ''Masonic Centre'' or ''Hall'' has now replaced this term - to settle modern scruples. Several different Lodges often use the same premises - each on published dates. According to Masonic myth (see [[Freemasonry#History_of_Freemasonry|below]]), the ''operative lodges'' (the Medieval lodges of actual stonemasons) constructed a lodge building adjacent to their work site where the masons could meet for shelter, instruction and social contact. Normally this was on the southern side of the site (in Europe, the side with the sun warming the stones during the day). Hence the social gathering, (the ''Festive'' or ''Social Board''), of the lodge is sometimes also called ''the South''. An early ''Speculative Lodge'', (including members not actually stonemasons), would meet in a [[tavern]] or other convenient meeting place with a private annex. The word Freemason may refer to these masons being &quot;free&quot; from work - as they met to talk about Masonic theory rather than practice - or it could relate to the liberal or &quot;free&quot; arts upon which much of freemasonry is based. It may simply refer to the superior grade of masons working in freestone, as used in early English statutes. Many Lodges are formed by Masons living within a given town or neighborhood. Other Lodges, particularly in urban areas where there are many Lodges close together, are formed by persons who share a particular interest, particular profession or background - certain schools, universities or military units. There are also specialist lodges of &quot;Research and Instruction&quot; (R&amp;I). Membership in these R&amp;I lodges is typically open to interested Master Masons of other lodges - as R&amp;I lodges usually do not initiate new candidates to Freemasonry. === Prince Hall Freemasonry === {{main|Prince Hall Freemasonry}} In 1775, an [[African American]] named [[Prince Hall]]&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.mindspring.com/~johnsonx/whoisph.htm Who is Prince Hall?], accessed [[November 14]] [[2005]].&lt;/ref&gt; was initiated into an Irish Constitution Military Lodge then in Boston, Massachusetts, along with fourteen other African Americans, all of whom were free born. When the Military Lodge left the [[North America]], the African Americans were given the authority to meet as a lodge, form Processions on the days of the Saints John, and conduct Masonic funerals, but not to confer degrees, nor to do other Masonic Work. In 1784 these individuals applied for, and obtained, a Lodge Warrant from the Premier Grand Lodge of England and formed African Lodge, Number 459 (Premier Grand Lodge of England). When the United Grand Lodge of England (UGLE) was formed in 1813, all U.S. based lodges were stricken from their rolls – due largely to the [[War of 1812| U.S. and British War, 1812 to 1815]]. Thus, separated from both UGLE and any concordantly recognised U.S. Grand Lodge, African Lodge re-titled itself as the African Lodge, Number 1 - and became a ''de facto'' &quot;Grand Lodge&quot;. (This Lodge is not to be confused with the various Grand Lodges on the Continent of [[Africa]]). These events led to a tradition of separate and predominantly African American Freemasonry in North America, known as '''Prince Hall Freemasonry'''. As with the rest of U.S. Freemasonry, Prince Hall Freemasonry soon grew, and organised on a Grand Lodge system for each State. Prince Hall Masonry has always been ''regular'' in all respects except constitutional separation. Widespread [[racism]] and [[Racial segregation|segregation]], in the 19th and early 20th century North America, made it impossible for African Americans to join lodges outside of Prince Hall jurisdictions - and impossible for inter-jurisdiction recognition between the parallel U.S. Masonic authorities. Prince Hall Grand Lodges are, presently, recognized by some UGLE Concordant Grand Lodges and not by others, but appears to be working its way toward full recognition &lt;ref&gt;[http://bessel.org/masrec/phamapshistorical.htm Prince Hall Masonry Recognition details], Paul M. Bessel, accessed [[November 14]] [[2005]]&lt;/ref&gt;. It is now quite usual for non-Prince Hall lodges to have ethnically diverse membership. The majority of Masonic Grand Lodges in the United States now grant at least some degree of recognition to Prince Hall Grand Lodges. In 2005, Prince Hall Lodge became formally recognized by the Grand Lodge of Maryland in Cockysville. All Prince Hall Lodge members are now recognized and allowed to attend all other recognized lodge's meetings. {{see also| Regular Masonic jurisdictions}} ===Other degrees, orders and bodies=== There is no degree in Freemasonry higher than that of Master Mason&lt;ref&gt;http://www.grandlodge-england.org/pdf/cr-rule-update2-141205.pdf Aims and Relationships of the Craft&lt;/ref&gt;. A number of organisations exist which require one to be a Master Mason as a prerequisite for membership,&lt;ref&gt; Beyond the Craft: The Indispensable Guide to Masonic Orders Practised in England and Wales, Keith B Jackson, ISBN 0853182485, Pub 2005&lt;/ref&gt; none of which are considered to have any authority over the craft&lt;ref&gt;http://www.grandlodge-england.org/pdf/cr-rule-update2-141205.pdf Aims and Relationships of the Craft&lt;/ref&gt;. These organisations are considered as additional or appendant, membership being discretionary in order to provide a different perspective on some of the allegorical, moral and philosophical content within Freemasonry. These appendant bodies are administered separately from Freemasonry and within each there is a system of offices which confer rank within that order alone, although frequently these bodies style themselves as Masonic due to the membership requirement that one hold the Master Mason degree. Examples of these appendant orders include: *Ancient and Accepted [[Scottish Rite]] (also known as Antient and Accepted Rite), a system of degrees developed in Continental Europe, particularly in France. *[[York Rite]], Predominantly in the United States of America; a system of degrees which includes three distinct sovereign rites: the Holy Royal Arch, Royal and Select Masters (Cryptic Masonry), and [[Masonic Knights Templar| (Masonic) Knights Templar]]. These orders are wholly distinct elsewhere. *[[Royal Order of Scotland]] *Societas Rosecruciana *Ancient Arabic Order of the Nobles of the Mystic Shrine, commonly known as ([[Shriners]]) *Mystic Order of Veiled Prophets of the Enchanted Realm (Grotto) *[[Tall Cedars of Lebanon]]. The Shrine and Grotto, which are mostly located in North America, tend to emphasize fun and philanthropy. Different Freemasonic jurisdictions vary in their relationships with such bodies, if at all. Some offer formal recognition, while others consider them wholly outside of Freemasonry. This leads to some such bodies not being universally considered as ''appendant bodies'', some being simply as separate organizations that happen to require Masonic affiliation for membership. Some of these organizations have additional religious requirements, beyond &quot;Craft Masonry&quot;, since they approach Masonic teachings from a particular, Christian, perspective. A number of youth organizations exist, mainly North American, which are associated with Freemasonry, but are not Masonic in their content. These include: *[[DeMolay International]], for boys aged 12&amp;ndash;21; *[[Job's Daughters International]], for girls aged 10-20 with a Masonic family relationship *[[International Order of the Rainbow for Girls]], for girls who have Masonic sponsorship. There are some organisations which are commonly perceived as being related to Freemasonry, such as the [[Boy Scouts of America]], which is incorrect, however some of these benefit from charitable support by Masonic or appendant bodies.{{fact}} A number of bodies style themselves along Masonic lines, using similar regalia and ritual however they are not accorded recognition. ==Membership requirements== A candidate for Freemasonry must apply to a ''Private'' (or ''Constituent'') Lodge in his community, obtaining an introduction by asking an existing member. After enquiries are made, he must be freely elected by secret ballot in open Lodge. Members approving his candidacy will vote with &quot;white balls&quot; in the voting box. Adverse votes by &quot;black balls&quot; will exclude a candidate. The number of adverse votes necessary to reject a candidate, which in some jurisdictions is as few as one, is set out in the governing Constitution. Lodges conduct these elections in a number of different ways; a wholly secret ballot where every member is given the means to vote either way, or semi public where members who choose to vote go to the ballot box and cast a secret vote. ===General requirements=== Generally to be a Freemason, one must&lt;ref&gt;http://www.g
s and Collegetown]] ==Population and income figures== For census and income data on the two municipalities called &quot;Ithaca&quot; see [[Ithaca (city), New York]] and [[Ithaca (town), New York]]. ==Transportation== [[Image:LocationOfIthacaNewYork.gif|right|299 px|Location of Ithaca within New York State]] Ithaca is in the rural [[Finger Lakes]] region about 250 miles to the northwest of [[New York City]]; the nearest larger cities, [[Binghamton, New York|Binghamton]] and [[Syracuse, New York|Syracuse]], are an hour's drive away by car. Ithaca is served by [[Ithaca Tompkins Regional Airport]], located about three miles to the northeast of the city center. [[US Airways Express]] offers flights to [[LaGuardia Airport|New York LaGuardia]] and [[Philadelphia]] using a mixture of small jets and propeller craft. [[Northwest Airlink]] provides twice-daily service to [[Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County Airport|Detroit Metro]] airport. Many residents travel to [[Syracuse Hancock International Airport]], [[Greater Binghamton Airport]], [[Elmira-Corning Regional Airport]] or [[Greater Rochester International Airport]] for more service options. Ithaca lies at over a half hour's drive from any [[interstate highway]], and all car trips to Ithaca involve at least some driving on two-lane state rural highways. The city is at the convergence of many regional two-lane state highways: Routes [[New York State Highway 13|13]], 13A, 34, 79, 89, 96, 96B, and 366. These are usually not congested except in Ithaca proper. There is frequent intercity bus service by Greyhound, Adirondack Trailways, and Shortline (First Transit), particularly to[[Binghamton, New York|Binghamton]])and [[New York City]], with limited service to [[Rochester, New York|Rochester]], [[Buffalo, New York|Buffalo]] and [[Syracuse, New York|Syracuse]], and (via connections in [[Binghamton, New York|Binghamton]]) to Utica and Albany. Ithaca is the center of an extensive bus public transportation system — [http://www.tcatbus.com Tompkins Consolidated Area Transit] (TCAT) — which carried 3.1 million passengers in 2005. TCAT was reorganized as a non-profit corporation in 2004 and is primarily supported locally by Cornell University, the City of Ithaca and Tompkins County. TCAT operates thirty nine routes, many run seven days a week. It has frequent service to Cornell, Pyramid Mall, and downtown, but less frequent service to many residental and rural areas, including [[Trumansburg, New York|Trumansburg]] and [[Newfield, New York|Newfield]]. [[Chemung County Transit]] runs weekday commuter routes into [[Schuyler County, New York|Schuyler]] and [[Chemung County, New York|Chemung]] counties, primarily to serve Cornell employees who prefer to live in these rural counties, or are forced to by the high house prices near Ithaca. GADABOUT Transportation Services, Inc. provides demand -response paratransit service for seniors over 60 and people with disabilities. [http://www.ithacataxi.biz/ Ithaca Dispatch] and Finger Lakes Taxi provide local and regional taxi service. Ithaca Airline Limousine connects to the airport. Regional short haul freight trains reach Ithaca from Sayre, PA, mainly to deliver coal to the Milliken Power Station halfway up Cayuga Lake. There is no passenger rail service, although from the 1870's through the 1930's there was service to Buffalo via Geneva, New York City via Wilkes-Barre ([[Lehigh Valley Railroad]]) and Scranton ([[Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad|DL&amp;W]]), Auburn, and the northeast via Cortland; service to Buffalo and New York lasted until 1961. ==Local transportation issues: growing pains== As a growing urban area, Ithaca is facing steady increases in levels of vehicular traffic on the city grid and on the state highways. Outlying areas have limited bus service, and many people consider a car essential. However, Ithaca is a walkable and bikeable community for others. One positive trend for the health of downtown Ithaca is the new wave of increasing urban density in and around the Ithaca Commons. But as multi-story mixed-use projects (of offices, hotels, shops, parking and residences) are built, traffic congestion around the Commons will progressively increase. Unlike most small (or large) urbanized areas in the United States, Ithaca does not have direct access to the [[Interstate highway]] system. In 1968, it was proposed to convert Route 13 from Horseheads to Cortland through Ithaca into a limited access highway (it is currently such for three miles heading north from Ithaca), but the plan lost local and State support. The City's current emphasis is on traffic management and better using the existing road capacity rather than building new roads. New road-building in any of the congested areas would require substantial condemnation of private property. Some pro-highway critics have argued that this is an ineffective means of dealing with increasing traffic congestion, especially in the City's West end. The [http://www.tompkins-co.org/itctc/ Ithaca-Tompkins County Transportation Council] is the coordinating body for federal and state funded transportation projects covering Ithaca. Retail development trends in the city have created traffic pressure in neighborhoods. In the late 1990's, the City decided to encourage &quot;big box&quot; retail development in an area known as the Southwest. The near-disappearance of grocery stores from neighborhood areas (replaced by larger stores in the commercial strips) has made it harder for Ithacans without cars to shop for food. To influence traffic traveling through neighborhoods, the [http://ithaca.govoffice.com/index.asp?Type=NONE&amp;SEC={A32743F9-A812-49AA-8CC6-5BAA46CFF96C} City Government] adopted traffic plans to introduce traffic calming elements on City roads including, traffic tables at intersections, mini traffic circles, traffic humps, and a traffic rotary. The City also rebuilt a long-absent road bridge over Six Mile Creek. In 2005, Mayor Peterson emphasized pedestrian and bicycle circulation, safety education and traffic enforcement. Highly publicized pedestrian-vehicle and bicycle-vehicle accidents have focused attention on these traffic conflicts. Underfunding of sidewalk construction and maintenance are basic pedestrian infrastructure issues facing the City. Critics argue that Ithaca's recent traffic projects and policies, and its emphasis on alternative transportation, have funneled money away from badly needed repairs, resurfacing, and winter maintenance for existing roads. The recently constructed “traffic calming devices” are unpopular among many drivers from Ithaca and the surrounding areas, and are a local subject of criticism and satire. Some also assert that recent changes and policies have actually worsened, rather than improved, the traffic congestion situation, and fear that future proposals will do the same. ==Other recent changes and trends== For decades, the [[Ithaca Gun Company]] tested their shotguns behind the plant on Lake St.; the shot fell into Fall Creek (a tributary of Cayuga Lake) right at the base of Ithaca Falls. A major clean-up effort sponsored by the United States [[Superfund]] took place from 2002 to 2004. There have been recent significant increases in property values in the City. House shopping is very competitive. ==&quot;Most Enlightened Town in America&quot;== Ithaca is commonly listed among the most culturally liberal (or, more controversially and presumptuously, &quot;enlightened&quot;) of American small cities. It also sometimes receives accolades for having a high overall quality of life. In 2004, ''Cities Ranked and Rated'' named Ithaca the best &quot;emerging city&quot; to live in the United States. The ''[[Utne Reader]]'' named Ithaca &quot;America's most enlightened town&quot; in 1997 [http://cafeutne.org/towns/ithaca.html]. These designations have at times polarized some local residents: some note the recognition with pride, some see it as an indication of decadence, and others feel that it is a narrow view of the community. Some, particularly conservatives, note that the positive press often appears in left-leaning publications, or have more general questions about the methodologies used in determining the designations. ==&quot;Sin City&quot;== [[Image:ithaca_sodom_road_sign_sm.jpg|frame|Sodom Road, Ithaca NY]] Displeased with Ithaca's liberal reputation, members of the far-right [[Free Republic]] web discussion group started a satirical campaign to dub Ithaca the &quot;City of Evil&quot; in the early 21st century. The campaign pointed to some of the following facts: in its earliest years during frontier days, Ithaca had a less savory reputation. In addition to the more innocuous name &quot;The Flats,&quot; Ithaca was known as [http://www.wlcj.org/nys/ERIE/ithaca.html &quot;Sin City&quot;] and [http://www.epodunk.com/cgi-bin/genInfo.php?locIndex=922 &quot;Sodom&quot;], the name of the Biblical city of sin, due to its reputation as a town of readily-available loose pleasures. These names did not last long; Simeon Dewitt renamed the town Ithaca in the early 1800s. Nevertheless, in a few instances the old names may have lingered to this day. One of the many nearby waterfalls is known as Lucifer Falls. A dead-end road at the top of Snyder Hill a few miles east of Ithaca is named [http://maps.yahoo.com/maps_result?addr=sodom+rd&amp;csz=ithaca%2C+ny&amp;country=us&amp;new=1&amp;name=&amp;qty= &quot;Sodom Road&quot;], although according to the recent reissue of &quot;Place Names in Tompkins County&quot; this road was actually named for a family with the surname &quot;Sodom&quot; sometime in the 1930's. *[http://www.wlcj.org/nys/ERIE/ithaca.html Sodom, Sin City] (Women's League for Conservative Judaism) *[http://www.usgennet.org/usa/ny/state/his/bk7/ch7.html Sodom, The Flats, The City] (History of NY State, Tompkins Cty) *[http://www.epodunk.com/cgi-bin/genInfo.php?locIndex=922
ackground story for them having been compiled. He also indulges the air of mystery far better than is executed in ''Carmilla'', by allowing the characters to solve the enigma of the vampire along with the reader. The descriptons of Carmilla and the character of Lucy in ''Dracula'' are similar, and have typified the now-stereotypical appearance of the waif-like victims and seducers in vampire stories as being tall, slender, languid, and with large eyes, full lips and soft voices. Both women also [[sleepwalk]], and Carmilla was described as a suicide. Stoker's Dr. [[Abraham Van Helsing]] is a direct parallel to Le Fanu's Dr. Hesselius and Baron Vordenburg are also parallel characters, used to investigate and catalyse actions in opposition to the vampire, and symbolically represent knowledge of the unknown and stability of mind in the onslaught of chaos and death. (Baron Vordenburg also influenced ''Dracula's'' Lord Godlming.) ==Film and book adaptations== ''Carmilla'' has been the subject of a number of films. *Danish Director [[Carl Dreyer]] loosely adapted ''Carmilla'' for his [[1932]] film ''[[Vampyr]]''. *French director [[Roger Vadim]]'s ''[[Et mourir de plaisir]]'' (literally &quot;And to die of pleasure&quot;, but actually shown in England as &quot;Blood and Roses&quot;) is based on ''Carmilla'' and is considered one of the greatest of the vampire genre. The Vadim film thoroughly explores the lesbian implications behind Carmilla's selection of victims, and boasts cinematography by [[Claude Renoir]]. *The British [[Hammer Film Productions]] also produced loose adaptations of ''Carmilla'' with its trilogy ''[[Lust for a Vampire]]'', ''[[Twins of Evil]]'' and ''[[The Vampire Lovers]]''. [[Ingrid Pitt]] appeared in these as the anagrammatically renamed ''Mircalla''. *In [[1974]] [[José Ramón Larraz]] created ''Vampyres'', which explored not only the erotic lesbian activity of the vampires, but the brutal, bloody vampire activity itself, which was usually not touched upon so heavily. As such the film was less Gothic and more of an horror film, extending the tale beyond the spectrum of the book. The characters Fran and Miriam (presumably named for 'Millarca') are similar to Laura and Carmilla. *The animated film ''[[Vampire Hunter D|Vampire Hunter 'D': Bloodlust]]'' includes a character named Carmilla who is the lingering spirit of a long-dead yet very powerful vampire countess who continues to rule her castle. *In [[1998]] ''Carmilla'' was updated to present-day [[Long Island]], [[New York]] in a film of the same name. The film is the brainchild of Jay Lind, the writer, director, and producer for the film. Starring Maria Pechukas, Heather Warr and Andy Gorkey, and co-produced by Jeff Schelenker, Carmilla is a horrific, gory, erotic counterpart to the Gothic novel. While the film is in no way Gothic or romantic, it shows a different side of the story presented in the book. *Though ''Carmilla'' was a seminal work for the genre of [[vampire fiction]], there is also a modern tale that directly incorporates Le Fanu's character. ''Carmilla: The Return'', written in [[1999]] by Kyle Marffin, begins in [[19th century|19th-century]] Austria but follows Carmilla's life into [[1990s]] [[Michigan]]. *Carmilla appears as the bride of Dracula in the direct-to-DVD animated movie [[The Batman Vs. Dracula]]. ==External links== *{{gutenberg|no=10007|name=Carmilla}} * ''Carmilla: The Return'' by Kyle Marffin: ISBN 1891946021 [[category:1872 books]] [[Category:Vampires in written fiction]] [[Category:Gothic novels|Gothic novels]] [[Category:Fictional vampires]] [[de:Carmilla]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Clitoridectomy</title> <id>6922</id> <revision> <id>22360594</id> <timestamp>2005-09-01T23:05:26Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Wouterstomp</username> <id>126881</id> </contributor> <comment>changed to redirect to Female genital cutting</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Female genital cutting]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cabala</title> <id>6923</id> <revision> <id>41993018</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T02:24:18Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Shotgun mario</username> <id>1020884</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Cabala''' is also a Led Zeppelin Bootleg containing a vast amount of rarities and outakes. It is made of 4 albums, each containing two disks for a total of eight. ==Disc 1== #I’m Confused #Train Kept A Rollin’ #She Just Satisfies #Keep Movin’ #You Better Run #Everybody’s Gonna Say #Our Song #Long Time Coming #I’ve Got A Secret #Goodnight Sweet Josephine #Think About It #Hey Hey What Can I Do #Psychodasies #Happenings Ten Years Times Ago #Stroll On #My Babe Left Me #A Certain Girl #Leave My Kitten Alone #Surprise Surprise #How Do You Feel #Jim’s Blues #Traveling Riverside Blues #You Shook Me #The Girl I Love ==Disc 2== #Whole Lotta Love #Something Else #You Can’t Judge a Book By the Cover (Killing Floor) #Babe I’m Gonna Leave You #Pat’s Delight #How Many More Times Jam #Communication Breakdown #As Long As I Have You Jam ==Disc 3== #Organ Solo/Thank You #Bring It On Home #Friends #Friends #That’s The Way #Friends #Hey Hey What Can I Do #Instrumental Jam #Immigrant Song #Heartbreaker #Black Dog #Stairway to Heaven #Goin’ To California ==Disc 4== #That’s The Way #What Is and What Should Never Be #That’s the Way #Blues Medley #Since I’ve Been Loving You #That’s the Way #Blues Medley #Since I’ve Been Loving You #No Quarter instrumental rehearsal #No Quarter #Dazed and Confused #Celebration Day ==Disc 5== #Whole Lotta Love #Dancing Days #The Song Remains The Same #Rain Song #The Light Bearer #Take Two #Take Three #Take Four #Take Five #Take Six #Take Seven #Take Eight ==Disc 6== #Schooldays #Nadine #Around and Around #Move on Down the Line #Love Me Like a Hurricane #Move It #Dynamite #Shakin’ All Over #Hungry For Love #I’ll Never Get Over You #Reelin’ and Rockin’ #Strawberry Jam I #Strawberry Jam II #Wanton Song #The Rover I #The Rover II #Night Flight I #Night Flight II #Night Flight III #Rock and Roll #Sick Again #Over the Hills and Far Away #In My Time of Dying ==Disc 7== #All My Love #Since I’ve Been Loving You #Ten Years Gone #Black Country Woman #Bron-Y-Aur Stomp #White Summer #Kashmir #Trampled Underfoot #Achilles Last Stand #Money #Hot Dog #Train Kept-A-Rollin’ #Nobody’s Fault But Mine ==Disc 8== #Whole Lotta Love #Kashmir #Heartbreaker #Whole Lotta Love #Misty Mountain Hop #Stairway to Heaven #Black Dog #In the Evening #Rain Song #Since I’ve Been Loving You #Rock and Roll ==See also== * [[Led Zeppelin]] * [[A Tree Full Of Secrets]] - Pink Floyd ==Other Spellings== '''Cabala''' is also a variant spelling of: * Gabala ([[Jabala]]), a Christian city in Syria during the Middle Ages * [[Kabbalah]], the religious mystical system of Judaism * [[Karbala]], a city in Iraq that is holy to Shiite Muslims</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cabal</title> <id>6924</id> <revision> <id>41935311</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:05:26Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>38.118.73.78</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}} A '''cabal''' is a number of persons united in some close design, usually to promote their private views and interests in a [[church]], [[state]], or other community by [[Wiktionary:intrigue|intrigue]]. Cabals are [[secret organization]]s composed of a few designing persons; a political cabal is often called a [[junta]]. The term can also be used to refer to the designs of such persons. The term also holds a general meaning of intrigue and conspiracy. Its usage carries strong connotations of shadowy corners and insidious influence; a cabal is more evil and selective than, say, a faction, which is simply selfish. Because of this negative connotation, few organizations use the term to refer to themselves or their internal subdivisions. Among the exceptions is [[Discordianism]], in which the term is used to refer to an identifiable group within the Discordian tradition. The term cabal derives from [[Kabbalah]] (which has numerous spelling variations), the mystical interpretation of the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] scripture, and originally meant either an occult doctrine or a secret. The term took on its present insidious meaning from a group of ministers of King [[Charles II of England]] ([[Thomas Clifford, 1st Baron Clifford of Chudleigh|Sir Thomas Clifford]], [[Henry Bennet, 1st Earl of Arlington|Lord Arlington]], the [[George Villiers, 2nd Duke of Buckingham|Duke of Buckingham]], [[Anthony Ashley Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury|Lord Ashley]], and [[John Maitland, 1st Duke of Lauderdale|Lord Lauderdale]]), whose initial letters coincidentally spelled Cabal, and who were the signers of the public [[Treaty of Dover]] which allied England to France in a prospective war against the Dutch. It must be said, however, that the so-called [[Cabal Ministry]] can hardly be seen as such - the Scot Lauderdale was not much involved in English governance at all; while the Catholic ministers of the Cabal, Clifford and Arlington, were never much in sympathy with the Protestants, Buckingham and Ashley, nor did Buckingham and Ashley get on very well among themselves. Thus, the &quot;[[Cabal Ministry]],&quot; never very unified in its members' aims and sympathies, fell apart by [[1672]]; Lord Ashley, who became Earl of Shaftesbury, still later even became one of Charles II's fiercest opponents. The explanation that the word originated as an [[acronym]] from the names of the group of ministers is a [[folk etymology]], although the coincidence was noted at the time. The group, who came to prominence after the fall of Charles's first p
ttp://clarsach.net/ Clarsach.net] - about the Gaelic harp of Ireland and the Scottish Highlands *[http://www.asni.net/harplore.html Asni: harp lore] - descriptions of several types of historical European harps (with sound samples) *[http://www.traditionalharps.com/ W. Rees Harps] - includes harp facts, repair and care information *[http://www.harpeceltique.com/ La corde d'argent]: French association for harp Celtic development. *[http://store.harp-bagpipe.com/celticharps.html The Harp &amp; Bagpipe] Information on Celtic Harps *[http://bochsa.site.voila.fr/ Nicolas Bochsa] - the first biography (published in French) of one of the most celebrated harpists in the XIXth century is now available *[http://www.sankey.ws/harp.html To build an Irish harp] *[http://www.harpguitars.net/history/history.htm History of the [[Harp guitar]]] ==Notes== #{{note|thirteen}}, Alasdair Ross, &quot;Pictish Chordophone Depictions&quot;, in ''Cambrian Medieval Celtic Studies'', 36, 1998, esp. p. 41; Joan Rimmer, ''The Irish Harp'', (Cork, 1969) p. 17. ==Bibliography== *Courteau, Mona-Lynn. &quot;Harp&quot;. In J. Shepherd, D. Horn, D. Laing, P. Oliver and P. Wicke (Eds.), ''The Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World'', Vol. 2, 2003, pp. 427-437. *Woods, Sylvia. &quot;Teach Yourself to Play Celtic Harp&quot;; A companion video is available. *Faul, Michel. &quot;Nicolas Bochsa : harpiste, compositeur, escroc&quot;; first biography (in French) of one of the most celebrated harpists in the XIXth century : http://bochsa.site.voila.fr [[Category:Composite chordophones]] [[Category:National emblems of the Republic of Ireland]] [[Category:String instruments]] {{Link FA|sr}} [[als:Harfe]] [[bg:Арфа]] [[cy:Telyn]] [[de:Harfe]] [[es:Arpa (instrumento)]] [[eo:Harpo]] [[fr:Harpe]] [[ko:하프]] [[hr:Harfa]] [[it:Arpa (strumento)]] [[he:נבל (כלי נגינה)]] [[hu:Hárfa]] [[nl:Harp]] [[ja:ハープ]] [[no:Harpe]] [[pl:Harfa]] [[pt:Harpa]] [[simple:Harp]] [[sl:Harfa]] [[sr:Харфа]] [[fi:Harppu]] [[sv:Harpa]] [[th:ฮาร์ป]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hollow Earth</title> <id>13912</id> <revision> <id>42068988</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T16:31:08Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>202.142.180.1</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Hollow earths in fiction */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The phrase '''''hollow earth''''' refers to the [[esoteric]] idea that the planet [[Earth]] has a hollow interior, almost always associated with the idea that it has a habitable inner surface. Although at one time adventure literature made this idea popular and even commonplace, the notion now receives little support; substantial [[geodesy | geodetic]] evidence has long controverted it and the scientific community dismisses it as [[pseudoscience]]. [[Isaac Newton|Newton]]'s [[shell theorem]] mathematically implies a [[gravity | gravitational]] force of zero everywhere inside a spherically symmetric hollow shell of matter, regardless of the shell's thickness, and ignoring other masses inside or outside the shell. Thus, according to the shell theorem and contrary to popular belief, people on the inside of a putative hollow earth would not experience an outward pull and could not stand on the inner surface; rather, they would experience [[weightlessness]] (with some slight residual gravity arising from the fact that the Earth does not have a perfectly symmetrical spherical shape, and from masses such as the Moon which do not form part of the spherical shell). The [[centrifugal force]] from the Earth's rotation ''would'' pull a person outwards, but even at the [[equator]] this force exerts only 0.3% of ordinary Earth gravity. ==Hollow earth claims== &lt;!-- references, other than to dodgy web sites, would be appreciated for much of this material! --&gt; === Conventional hollow earths === ====Early history==== In ancient times, the idea of subterranean realms seemed arguable, and became intertwined with the concept of &quot;places&quot; such as the [[Greek mythology|Greek]] [[Hades]], the [[Norse mythology | Nordic]] [[svartalfheim]], the [[Judaism|Jewish]] [[Sheol]], and the [[Christianity|Christian]] [[Hell]]. [[Image:Edmund Halley Hollow Earth.png|thumb|150px|right|[[Edmund Halley]]'s theory.]] [[Edmund Halley]] in 1692 (''Philosophical Transactions of Royal Society of London'') put forth the idea of [[Earth]] consisting of a hollow shell about 500 miles thick, two inner concentric shells and an innermost core, about the diameters of the planets Venus, Mars, and Mercury. Atmospheres separate these shells, and each shell has its own magnetic poles. The spheres rotate at different speeds. Halley proposed this scheme in order to explain anomalous compass readings. He envisaged the [[Celestial body atmosphere|atmosphere]] inside as [[luminosity|luminous]] (and possibly inhabited) and speculated that escaping gas caused the [[Aurora Borealis]]. [[Image:Hollow earth Leonhard Euler.png|thumb|150px|right|[[Leonhard Euler]]'s purported hollow-earth thought-experiment, featuring openings at the poles, with an internal star.]] Some have claimed [[Leonhard Euler]] also proposed a hollow-earth idea, getting rid of multiple shells and postulating an interior sun 600 miles across to provide light to advanced inner-earth civilization. This claim may result from a mis-reading of a paper that simply involved a [[thought experiment]]. [[Sir John Leslie]] expanded on this idea, suggesting two central suns, which he named Pluto and Proserpine. ====19th century==== In [[1818]], [[John Cleves Symmes, Jr.]] suggested that the Earth consisted of a hollow shell about 800 miles (1,300 km) thick, with openings about 1400 miles (2,300 km) across at both [[geographical pole | pole]]s with 4 inner shells each open at the [[geographical pole | pole]]s. Symmes became the most famous of the early Hollow Earth proponents. He actually proposed making an expedition to the [[North Pole]] hole, thanks to efforts of one of his followers, [[James McBride (pioneer)|James McBride]], but the new President of the United States, [[Andrew Jackson]] (in office 1829 - 1837), halted the attempt. Symmes died in 1829. However, another follower, Jeremiah Reynolds, also delivered lectures on the &quot;Hollow Earth&quot; and also argued for an expedition. Eventually he would drop talk about a hollow Earth after the death of Symmes. Reynolds apparently went on an attempted expedition himself, but the outcome remains unclear. (Information on Reynolds remains sketchy and contradictory: we even lack an image of him. Some say he only had pecuniary interests, that his claimed 'expedition' consisted of an attempt to defraud and that he disappeared following it. Others say he did try to conduct his own expedition and failed, then missed out on joining the [[Wilkes Expedition|Great U.S. Exploring Expedition]] of 1838 - 1842, and later faded into obscurity). Reynolds' agitation ''did'' result in an expedition: the [[Wilkes Expedition|Great U.S. Exploring Expedition]] of 1838 - 1842. This expedition also became known as the [[Wilkes Expedition]]. Reynolds did not participate because he had offended too many in his call for such a trip. Symmes himself never wrote a book of his ideas but others did. McBride wrote ''Symmes' Theory of Concentric Spheres'' in 1826. It appears that Reynolds has an article that appeared as a separate booklet in 1827: ''Remarks of Symmes' Theory Which Appeared in the American Quarterly Review''. In 1868, a professor W.F. Lyons published ''The Hollow Globe'' which put forth a Symmes-like Hollow Earth theory, but didn't mention Symmes. Symmes's son Americus then published ''The Symmes' Theory of Concentric Spheres'' to set the record straight. ====Recent history==== An early twentieth-century proponent of a hollow earth, William Reed, wrote ''Phantom of the Poles'' in 1906. He propounded the idea of a hollow earth, but without interior shells or inner suns. Later came Marshall Gardner (distinct from science writer [[Martin Gardner]]) who wrote ''A Journey to the Earth's Interior'' in 1913 and then an expanded edition in 1920. He placed an interior sun in the hollow earth. He even built a working model of the hollow earth and patented it (#1096102). Gardner made no mention of Reed, but did take Symmes to task for his ideas. Other writers have proposed that &quot;[[Ascended master|ascended masters]]&quot; of esoteric wisdom inhabit subterranean caverns or a hollow Earth. [[Antarctica]], the [[North Pole]], [[Tibet]], [[Peru]], and [[Mount Shasta]] in [[California]], [[United States|USA]], have all had their advocates as the locations of entrances to these subterranean realms, with some advancing the theory that [[Unidentified flying object|UFO]]s have their homeland in these places. A book allegedly by a Dr Raymond Bernard which appeared in 1969, ''The Hollow Earth'', exemplifies this idea. The book rehashes Reed and Gardner's ideas and totally ignores Symmes. Bernard also adds his own ideas: UFOs come from the interior, the Ring Nebula proves the existence of hollow worlds, etc. An article by [[Martin Gardner]] revealed that Walter Siegmeister used the pseudonym `Bernard', but only with Walter Kafton-Minkel's ''Subterranean Worlds: 100,000 years of dragons, dwarfs, the dead, lost races &amp; UFOs from inside the earth'' in [[1989]] did the full story of Bernard/Siegmeister emerge. The pages of the [[science fiction]] [[pulp magazine]] ''[[Amazing Stories]]'' promoted one such idea from 1945 to 1949 as &quot;the Shaver Mystery&quot;. The magazine's editor, [[Ray Palmer]], ran a series of stories by [[Richard Sharpe Shaver]] supposedly claimed as factual, though presented in the context of fiction. Shaver claimed that a superior pre-historic race had built a honeycomb of caves in the Earth, and that their degenerate descendants, known as &quot;Dero&quot;, live there still, using the fantasti
dge fund managers to attract capital from all over the world. Both funds will trade '[[Pari passu]]' based on the strategy outlined in the offering documents. ==Flows and levels== The number of hedge funds increased from less than 1,000 in 1990 to over 8,000 in 2004. During this period assets under management grew from $25bn to $934bn. In 2004 alone, hedge funds assets increased by $139bn, $75bn from net inflows and $64bn from positive performance. It is estimated that funds increased to over $1.1 trillion by the end of 2005. Recent years have been characterised by increased investment from institutional investors such as pension funds, universities, endowments and charitable organisations. Because hedge funds typically use leverage, the positions that they can take in the financial markets are larger than their assets under management. The US was by far the leading source of hedge fund investments accounting for 69% of the total stock of hedge fund assets under management at the end of 2004. Europe was the source of 23% of assets and Asia 5%. New York is the world’s leading location for hedge fund managers with about twice as many hedge fund managers as the next largest centre, London. Other important centres in the US for hedge fund managers include California and Connecticut. London is Europe’s leading centre for the management of hedge funds. At the end of 2004, nearly three-quarters of European-based hedge funds’ assets totalling $256bn were managed out of the UK, the vast majority from London. Japan was the most important centre for Asia-Pacific hedge fund managers. Managers located there accounted for nearly a quarter of the $47.4bn in Asia-Pacific hedge funds’ assets in June 2004. [http://www.ifsl.org.uk/uploads/CBS_Hedge_Funds_2005.pdf] == Administration of hedge fund assets == In mid-2004, 39 firms provided either on-shore or offshore &quot;Administration Services&quot; to hedge funds that were managing $1.1 trillion, up from 30 firms managing $745bn a year before. &quot;Taking into account [[fund of funds]] `double-counting,'&quot; the review said that &quot;average assets under administration for a hedge fund administrator is US$29bn&quot;. &quot;The total number of funds has broken the 10,000 barrier, though the grand total of 11,362 does include both [[master-feeder]]s and [[separate feeder]] and [[sub-funds]].&quot; The 39 Administrators tracked for the mid-2004 number were: *[[Citco]] Fund Services *[[Fortis]] *[[Bank of Bermuda]] GFS *IFS (a [[State Street Corporation|State Street]] company) *[http://www.bisys.com/products/fundServices.asp BISYS Hedge Fund Services] *[[GlobeOp Financial Services]] *[[UBS AG|UBS]] Fund Services *[[Investors Bank &amp; Trust]] *[[SEI Investments]] ({{ndaq|SEIC}}) *Olympia Capital *[[Bank of New York]] *RK Consulting *PFPC *Euro-VL *Bank of Butterfield Fund Services *[http://www.ssctech.com/fundservices/ SS&amp;C Fund Services] *[[Crédit Agricole]] Investor Services *DPM *[[Dundee Leeds]] *[[Admiral Administration]] *[[DAIWA Securities]] Trust &amp; Banking *RBC *[[Trident Trust]] *[[Citigroup]] Global Transaction Services *[[Cayman National Trust]] *[[Custom House Group]] *Baring Fund Administration Services (IFM)Now owned by Northern Trust *Caledonian Fund Services *[[Kredietbank SA]] *Dexia BIL Fund Services *[[Nottingham Company]] *[[Tranaut Fund Administration]] (Ireland)Now owned by JPMorgan *[http://sgfallc.com/ Spectrum Global Fund Administration] *[[Bank of Ireland]] Securities Services *[[Banque Privée Edmond de Rothschild]] *ATC Fund Services *[[Meridian]] *Close Fund Services *[[AIB Worthytrust]] Fund Administration ==Strategies== Hedge funds use alternative strategies such as [[Short selling|selling short]], [[arbitrage]], trading [[options]] or [[Derivative_(finance)|derivatives]], using [[leverage]], investing in seemingly undervalued securities, trading commodity and FX contracts, and attempting to take advantage of the spread between current market price and the ultimate purchase price in situations such as mergers. When strategies become extremely complex they may acquire potential and unanticipated risk of catastrophic losses as in the case of [[Long-Term Capital Management]]. *[[Arbitrage]] **[[Convertible arbitrage]] **[[Fixed income arbitrage]] **[[Risk arbitrage]] **[[Statistical arbitrage]] ('StatArb') *[[ownership equity|Equity (finance)]] **[[Equity market neutral]] **[[Long / short equity]] *Event driven (finance) **[[Distressed securities]] **[[Regulation D]] **[[Event driven multi-strategy]] *Other **[[Emerging markets]] **[[Global macro]] ===Risk arbitrage=== {{Main|Risk arbitrage}} One very common hedge strategy is to buy shares of a company that is in the process of a [[mergers and acquisitions|merger and acquisition]]. The company's stock has an announced price that it will be worth on the date of the merger, so if the stock is under that value prior to the merger, it is a safe investment to purchase the stock and wait. This strategy can be risky, as there is a possibility that the merger will not go through and the stock will be left at its current value. Frequently, the trader will also short sell the stock of the acquiring company in addition to buying the stock of the target. Most of the early hedge funds did just this. They became very popular as a way of seeing gains better than the investment grade bond market, while still having low risk. However the side effect of this popularity was to dramatically increase the interest in all of the non-standard investment strategies, and soon other funds were being set up with new strategies aimed primarily at high growth. Although there is no hedging in these cases, the term is still used for these funds as well. ==Regulation== Investment companies registered with the [[U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission]] (SEC) are subject to strict limitations on the short-selling and use of leverage that are essential to many hedge fund strategies. For this and other reasons, hedge funds elect to operate as unregistered investment companies. As a result, interests in a hedge fund cannot be offered or advertised to the general public, and are limited to individuals who are both &quot;accredited investors&quot; (who have total incomes of over US$200,000 per year or a net worth of over US$1,000,000) and &quot;qualified purchasers&quot; (who own at least US$5,000,000 in qualified investments). For the funds, the trade off is that they have fewer investors to sell to, but they have few government imposed restrictions on their investment strategies. The presumption is that hedge funds are pursuing more risky strategies, which may or may not be true depending on the fund, and that the ability to invest in these funds should be restricted to wealthier investors who are presumed to be more sophisticated and who have the financial reserves to absorb a possible loss. ===Recent regulatory developments US === Unlike mutual funds, however, hedge funds are not required to register with the SEC. This means that hedge funds are subject to very few regulatory controls. Because of this lack of regulatory oversight, hedge funds historically have generally been available solely to accredited investors and large institutions. Most hedge funds also have voluntarily restricted investment to wealthy investors through high investment minimums (e.g., $1 million). Historically, hedge funds have not been subject to regular SEC oversight. In October [[2004]], the SEC approved a rule change, finalized in December, [http://sec.gov/rules/final/ia-2333.htm final rule and rule amendments], implemented on February 1, [[2006]], that requires most hedge fund advisers to register with the SEC as investment advisers under the Investment Advisers Act. The requirement will apply to hedge funds managing $25 million dollars or more. The SEC is adopting a &quot;risk-based approach&quot; to monitoring hedge funds as part of its evolving regulatory regimen for the burgeoning industry, according to the SEC. The SEC has neither the staff nor expertise to comprehensively monitor the estimated 8,000 U.S. and international hedge funds. One of the commissioners, [[Roel Campos]], has said that the SEC is forming internal teams that will identify and evaluate irregular trading patterns or other phenomena that may threaten individual investors, the stability of the industry or the financial world. &quot;It's pretty clear that we will not be knocking on (hedge fund) doors very often,&quot; Campos told several hundred hedge fund managers, industry lawyers and others. And even if it did, &quot;the SEC will never have the degree of knowledge or background that you do.&quot; === Recent regulatory developments UK === In recent years, HM Revenue and Customs, formerly Inland Revenue, has adopted interpretations of the tax laws that seem likely to keep many funds offshore. In [[June 2005]], The United Kingdom's [[Financial Services Authority]] published two discussion papers about hedge funds -- one concerning systemic risks, the other on consumer protection. Due to the same concerns, later in the year the FSA created an internal team to supervise the management of 25 particularly high-impact hedge funds doing business within the UK. Another regulatory body, the Takeover Panel, is reportedly concerned about the use by hedge funds of instruments known as [[contracts for difference]], which it worries may have opaque effects on mergers and acquisitions. More to come. ==Funds of funds== A special type of investment vehicle called a ''fund of funds'', a fund which invests in other hedge funds rather than trading assets itself. Because some U.S. funds of funds may be specially registered with the SEC, they can accept investments from individuals who are not accredited investors or qualified purchasers, and often have lower investment minimums (sometimes as low as $25,000).. Funds of funds carry an additional layer of fees, t
er pieces (e.g. vegetable, meat, [[tofu|doufu]]), ready for direct picking up and eating. Traditionally, Chinese culture considered using [[knife|knives]] and [[fork]]s at the table &quot;[[barbarian|barbaric]]&quot; due to fact that these implements are regarded as [[weapon]]s. [[Fish]] are usually cooked and served whole, with diners directly pulling pieces from the fish with chopsticks to eat, unlike in some other cuisines where they are first [[fillet]]ed. This is because it is desired for fish to be served as fresh as possible. A common Chinese saying &quot;including head and tail&quot; refers to the wholeness and completion of a certain task or in this case; the display of food. Spoon and fork are most often used by [[Malaysian Chinese]] and [[Singaporean Chinese]] eating at home, and are provided in many restaurants—especially &quot;coffee houses&quot; or [[kopi tiam]]. Some Chinese prefer to eat white rice with a spoon, even while eating other dishes with chopsticks. Many school [[cafeteria]]s (canteens) in China provide only spoons for students eating, not chopsticks, due to their reusability and ease of washing. In a Chinese meal, each individual diner is given their own bowl of rice while the accompanying dishes are served in communal plates (or bowls) which are shared by everyone sitting at the table. In western cultures, this communal style of service is known as &quot;family style&quot;. In the Chinese meal, each diner picks food out of the communal plates on a bite-by-bite basis with their chopsticks. This is in constrast to western meals where it is customary to dole out individual servings of the dishes at the beginning of the meal. Many non-Chinese are unaccustomed in allowing a person's individual food utensils (which might have traces of a person's saliva) to touch the communal plates. For this [[hygiene]] issue, some Chinese families use additional serving spoons, or chopsticks (公筷, ''lit.'' common/public/shared chopsticks), to move the pieces of the food from the communal plates to the person's rice bowl. The food selected is often eaten together with a mouthful of rice. [[Vegetarianism]] is not uncommon or unusual in China, though, as is the case in the West, is still only practiced by a relatively small proportion of the population. The Chinese vegetarian does not eat a lot of Tofu, unlike the stereotypical impression in the West. Most Chinese vegetarians are Buddhists. Non-Chinese eating Chinese cuisine will note that a large number of ''vegetable dishes'' may actually contain meat, as meat chunks or bits have been traditionally used to flavor dishes in Chinese cuisine. [[Chinese Buddhist cuisine]] has many true vegetarian dishes (no meat at all). For much of China's history, human [[manure]] has been used as [[fertilizer]] due to the large human population and the relative scarcity of farm animals in China. For this reason, raw food (especially raw vegetables such as [[salad]]) has not been part of the traditional Chinese [[diet (nutrition)|diet]]. [[Dessert]]s as such are less typical in Chinese culture than in the West. Chinese meals do not typically end with a dessert or dessert course as is common in Western cuisine. Instead, sweet foods are often introduced during the course of the meal with no firm distinction made. For instance, the ''basi'' fruit dishes (sizziling sugar syrup coated fruits such as [[banana]] or [[apple]]) are eaten alongside other &quot;savoury&quot; dishes that would be considered &quot;main course&quot; items in the West. However, many sweet foods and dessert snacks do exist in Chinese cuisine. Many are fried, and several incorporate [[red bean paste]] (''dousha''). (Bean paste is also used in [[Japanese cuisine]].) The ''matuan'' is filled with ''dousha'' and fried; it is often eaten for breakfast. Some steamed bun items are filled with ''dousha''; some of these are in the shape of [[peach]]es, an important Chinese cultural symbol. Another dessert is ''[[Babao Fan]]'' (八寶飯) or &quot;Eight Treasure Rice Pudding&quot;. If dessert is served at the end of the meal, by far the most typical choice is fresh [[fruit]], such as sliced [[oranges]]. The second most popular choice is a type of sweet [[soup]], typically made with [[azuki bean|red bean]]s and sugar. This soup is served warm. In Chinese culture, cold [[beverage]]s are believed to be harmful to [[digestion]] of hot food, so items like ice-cold water or [[soft drink]]s are traditionally not served at meal-time. Besides soup, if any other beverages are served, they would most likely be hot [[tea]] or hot water. Tea is believed to help in the digestion of [[Yellow grease|greasy]] foods. ==Varieties== Due to the large and varied characteristics of China itself, a multitude of different regional and other (e.g. religious) styles can be identified in the larger complex of Chinese cuisine: ===Regions of mainland China=== :''Cuisine name derives from province or region except where indicated'' * [[Northwestern Chinese cuisine]] * [[Mandarin cuisine]] * [[Jiang-Huai cuisine]] * [[Northeastern Chinese cuisine]] * [[Cantonese cuisine]] ([[Guangdong]] province) * [[Chiuchow cuisine]] ([[Chaozhou]] region, [[Guangdong]]) * [[Hakka cuisine]] ([[Hakka people|Hakka ethnic group]]) * [[Hunan cuisine]] * [[Shanghai cuisine]] * [[Sichuan cuisine]] * [[Fujian cuisine]] * [[Yunnan cuisine]] * [[Hainan cuisine]] ===Other regions=== * [[Cuisine of Hong Kong]] * [[Macanese (conichywa)cuisine]] * [[Taiwanese cuisine]] * [[Nanyang Chinese cuisine]] (cuisine of the [[Nanyang (geographical region)|Nanyang region]] or Southeast Asia Chinese diaspora) ===Other categories=== * [[Historical Chinese cuisine]] * [[Chinese Islamic cuisine]] * [[Chinese Buddhist cuisine]] ==Typical dishes== [[Image:Chinese meal.JPG|thumb|Chinese meal|300px|right|A chinese meal in [[Suzhou]], [[Jiangsu]] province, with bowls of white rice, shrimp, eggplant, fermented tofu, vegetable stir-fries, vegetarian duck, and a central dish with meat and bamboo. There are 6 bowls of rice, one for each person.]] *[[Fried rice]] *[[Jiaozi]] (filled dumplings) *[[Potsticker]] (shallow fried jiaozi) *[[Chinese noodles|Noodles]] **Fried noodles **Noodle soup *[[Kung Pao chicken]] *[[Hotpot]] *Fried [[pancakes]] (including [[green onion pancake]]s) *[[Zongzi]] (rice balls, wrapped in leaves) *[[Peking Duck]] - the trademark dish of [[Beijing]] *[[Baozi]] (filled steamed buns) *[[Dim sum]] - originated in Guangzhou (Canton) and Hong Kong *Steamed [[fish]] *[[Tofu]] dishes '''Breakfast foods''' *[[Century egg]] (皮蛋; pi2 dan4; ''lit.'' leather egg): hundred-day old egg, or preserved egg *[[Tea egg]] (茶葉蛋; cha2 ye4 dan4): hard boiled [[egg (food)|egg]] soaked or stewed in [[tea]] *[[Congee]] (粥; zhou1): rice porridge *[[Pickling|Pickled]] vegetables (醬菜; jiang4 cai4; ''lit.'' sauced vegetables) *[[Soy milk]] (豆奶; dou4 nai3 or 豆漿; dou4 jiang1) in either sweet or &quot;salty&quot; form *[[Youtiao]] (油條), &quot;Cow tongue pastry&quot; (牛脷酥), or other fried chinese doughfoods *[[Shaobing]] (燒餅): a flaky baked or pan-seared dough pastry. *[[Rice ball]]s (飯糰; fan4 tuan2) with savory fillings or coatings '''Starches''' *[[Mantou]] (steamed bread) *White rice *[[Chinese noodles|Noodles]] ==Other East Asian cuisines== China shares much with the culinary heritage of other regions of East Asia, in addition to some contrasts; compare [[Japanese cuisine]], [[Singaporean cuisine]], and [[Vietnamese cuisine]], among others. == Chinese cuisine in diaspora == See [[American Chinese cuisine]] and [[Canadian Chinese cuisine]] for the development of Chinese cuisine in North America. Chinese cuisine is also highly developed in Western Europe. Within the United States, the [[cuisine of Hawaii]] contains many Chinese foods and Chinese influences, due to the high number of Chinese and Asian immigrants. However, Chinese-originated or -inspired foods are often combined with those of other cuisines in novel ways. ==Contemporary health trends== According to the United Nations [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] estimates for 2000-02, 11% of the population of the People's Republic of China were undernourished. [http://www.fao.org/es/ess/yearbook/vol_1_2/pdf/China.pdf] The number of undernourished people in the country has fallen from 386.6 million in 1969-71 to 142.1 million in 2000-02. [http://www.fao.org/faostat/foodsecurity/Files/NumberUndernourishment.xls] The country still receives international food aid, but the [[World Food Program]] notes that the country achieved its goal of national agricultural self-sufficiency in the mid 1990s. The WFP says hunger is concentrated in rural, resource-poor areas of northern, northwestern, and southwestern China. [http://www.wfp.org/country_brief/indexcountry.asp?region=5&amp;section=9&amp;sub_section=5&amp;country=156] A typical Chinese peasant before industrialization would have eaten meat rarely and most meals would have consisted of rice accompanied with green vegetables, with [[protein]] coming from foods like [[peanut]]s. Fats and sugar were luxuries not eaten on a regular basis by most of the population. In Chinese traditional culture, being overweight was a sign of prosperity and wealth as only the wealthy could afford fatty or sweet foods or even buy enough food to become fat. As income levels have increased, Chinese diets have become richer with more meats, fats, and sugar being consumed. While economic change has significantly reduced undernourishment, new health problems related to overconsumption and poor dietary choices have increased significantly. The incidence of nutrition-related disease and overweightness, including obesity (especially among children) has risen dramatically in mainland China over the last 10-15 years. [http://english.people.com.cn/200510/24/eng20051024_216452.html] Health advocates put some of the blame on the increased popularity of Western foods, especially [[fast food]], and other culinary pr
a retraction would have at least one non-singular point, whose inverse image would be a 1-manifold with boundary. The boundary would have to contain at least two end points, both of which would have to lie on the boundary of the original ball--which would be impossible in a retraction! A quite different proof given by David Gale is based on the game of [[Hex_(board_game)|Hex]]. The basic theorem about Hex is that no game can end in a draw. This is equivalent to the Brouwer fixed point theorem for dimension 2. By considering ''n''-dimensional versions of Hex, one can prove in general that Brouwer's theorem is equivalent to the [[determinacy]] theorem for Hex. == Generalizations == * [[Lefschetz fixed-point theorem]] * For a number of generalizations of the Brouwer fixed point theorem to infinite dimensions, see [[fixed point theorems in infinite-dimensional spaces]]. ==External links== * [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/do_you_know/poincare.shtml#brouwertheorem Brouwer's Fixed Point Theorem for Triangles] at [[cut-the-knot]] ==References== * {{cite journal|author=Gale, D. |year=1979|title=The Game of Hex and Brouwer Fixed-Point Theorem | journal=The American Mathematical Monthly | volume=86 | pages=818-827}} [[Category:Fixed points]] [[Category:Topology]] [[Category:Mathematical theorems]] [[de:Fixpunktsatz von Brouwer]] [[fr:Théorème du point fixe de Brouwer]] [[he:משפט נקודת השבת של ברואר]] [[it:Teorema del punto fisso di Brouwer]] [[nl:Vastepuntstelling van Brouwer]] [[sl:Brouwerjev izrek o negibni točki]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Big bang</title> <id>4102</id> <revision> <id>15902401</id> <timestamp>2005-02-23T01:40:41Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Mondhir</username> <id>167349</id> </contributor> <comment>redirect to actual article</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Big Bang]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Wikipedia:Biochemistry basic topics</title> <id>4105</id> <revision> <id>28881312</id> <timestamp>2005-11-21T04:22:07Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Go for it!</username> <id>571592</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#Redirect [[List of basic biochemistry topics]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Benzoic acid</title> <id>4106</id> <revision> <id>40733424</id> <timestamp>2006-02-22T17:28:03Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Stone</username> <id>13976</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Laboratory preparations */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;float: right; clear: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; border-collapse: collapse;&quot; ! {{chembox header}} | {{PAGENAME}} |- | align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot; | [[image: S-Sci-ArCOOH.jpg|100px]] [[Image: benzoic_acid.png |200px|{{PAGENAME}}]] |- ! {{chembox header}} | General |- | [[IUPAC nomenclature|Systematic name]] | {{PAGENAME}} |- | Other names | Carboxybenzene,&lt;br/&gt;[[E210]], dracylic acid |- | [[Chemical formula|Molecular formula]] | C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;COOH |- | [[Simplified molecular input line entry specification|SMILES]] | c1ccccc1C(=O)O |- | [[Molar mass]] | 122.12 g/mol |- | Appearance | Colourless crystalline solid |- | [[CAS registry number|CAS number]] | [65-85-0] |- ! {{chembox header}} | Properties |- | [[Density]] and [[Phase (matter)|phase]] | 1.32 g/cm&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;, solid |- | [[Solubility]] in [[water (molecule)|water]] | Soluble (hot water)&lt;br/&gt;3.4 g/l (20&amp;nbsp;°C) |- | In [[methanol]],&lt;br/&gt;[[diethyl ether]] | Soluble |- | [[Melting point]] | 122&amp;nbsp;°C (395 K) |- | [[Boiling point]] | 249&amp;nbsp;°C (522 K) |- | [[Acid dissociation constant|Acidity]] (p''K''&lt;sub&gt;a&lt;/sub&gt;) | 4.21 |- ! {{chembox header}} | Structure |- | [[Orbital_hybridisation#Molecule_shape|Molecular shape]] &lt;!-- for simple covalent molecules (omit for most large molecules, ionics and complexes) --&gt; | planar |- | [[Crystal structure]] &lt;!-- omit if not a solid --&gt; | [[Monoclinic]] |- | [[Dipole#Molecular_dipoles|Dipole moment]] | 1.72 [[Debye|D]] in [[Dioxane]] |- ! {{chembox header}} | Hazards &lt;!-- Summary only- MSDS entry provides more complete information --&gt; |- | [[Material safety data sheet|MSDS]] | [http://www.ilpi.com/msds/benzoic.html External MSDS], &lt;br/&gt;[http://www.jtbaker.com/msds/englishhtml/b1356.htm External MSDS] |- | Main [[Worker safety and health|hazard]]s | Irritating |- | [[NFPA 704]] | {{nfpa|2|1|0}} |- | [[Flash point]] | 121°C (394 K) |- | [[Risk and Safety Statements|R/S statement]] | [[List of R-phrases|R]]: {{R22}}, {{R36}}&lt;br/&gt;[[List of S-phrases|S]]: {{S24}} |- | [[RTECS]] number | DG0875000 |- ! {{chembox header}} | [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)|Supplementary data page]] |- | [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)#Structure and properties|Structure and&lt;br/&gt;properties]] | [[Refractive index|''n'']], [[Dielectric constant|&amp;epsilon;&lt;sub&gt;r&lt;/sub&gt;]], etc. |- | [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)#Thermodynamic properties|Thermodynamic&lt;br/&gt;data]] | Phase behaviour&lt;br&gt;Solid, liquid, gas |- | [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)#Spectral data|Spectral data]] | [[UV/VIS spectroscopy|UV]], [[Infrared spectroscopy|IR]], [[NMR spectroscopy|NMR]], [[Mass spectrometry|MS]] |- ! {{chembox header}} | Related compounds |- | Related [[carboxylic acid|carboxylic&lt;br/&gt;acids]] | [[acetic acid]],&lt;br/&gt;[[hippuric acid]],&lt;br/&gt;[[salicylic acid]] |- | Related compounds | [[benzene]],&lt;br/&gt;[[benzaldehyde]],&lt;br/&gt;[[benzyl alcohol]],&lt;br/&gt;[[benzyl benzoate]],&lt;br/&gt;[[benzoyl chloride]] |- | {{chembox header}} | &lt;small&gt;Except where noted otherwise, data are given for&lt;br/&gt; materials in their [[standard state|standard state (at 25 &amp;deg;C, 100 kPa)]]&lt;br/&gt;[[wikipedia:Chemical infobox|Infobox disclaimer and references]]&lt;/small&gt; |- |} '''Benzoic acid''', C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;COOH, is a colourless crystalline solid and the simplest [[aromatic compound|aromatic]] [[carboxylic acid]]. The name derived from [[gum benzoin]] which was for a long time the only source for benzoic acid. The weak acid and its salts are historically used as food preservative and as raw material for several chemical substances like [[benzoyl chloride]] and [[plasticizer]]s. ==History== Benzoic acid was discovered in the 16th century. The [[dry distillation]] of [[gum benzoin]] was first described by [[Nostradamus]] ([[1556]]), and subsequently by [[Alexius Pedemontanus]] ([[1560]]) and [[Blaise de Vigenère]] ([[1596]]).{{ref|römpps}} [[Justus von Liebig]] and [[Friedrich Wöhler]] determined the structure of benzoic acid in [[1832]].{{ref|liebig}} They also investigated how [[hippuric acid]] is related to benzoic acid. In [[1875]] Salkowski discovered the [[antifungal]] abilities of benzoic acid which were used for a long time in the preservation of benzoate containing [[Cloudberry|fruits]].{{ref|salkowski}} ==Production== === Industrial preparations === Starting materials containing an [[alkyl]] substituted [[benzene]] can be oxidised with [[potassium permanganate]], [[chromium trioxide]], [[nitric acid]] or [[oxygen]] (in the presence of a catalyst) to give benzoic acid. [[Image:Benzoic_acid-chemical-synthesis-1.png|220px|toluene oxidation]] Benzoic acid is produced commercially by partial oxidation of [[toluene]] with [[oxygen]] with catalytic amounts of [[cobalt]] or [[manganese]] [[naphthenate]]. The process uses cheap raw materials, proceeds in high yield, and it is environmentally attractive in that it avoids the use of stiochiometric amounts of [[chromium]], [[manganese]] or other metals. U.S. production capacity is estimated to be 126000 [[tonne]]s per year, much of which is consumed internally by the producers to prepare other industrial chemicals. === Historical preparations === The first industrial process was the reaction of [[benzotrichloride]] (trichloromethyl benzene) with [[calcium hydroxide]] in water, with [[iron]] or [[Iron(III) chloride|iron salts]] as [[catalyst]]. The resulting [[calcium benzoate]] is converted to benzoic acid with [[hydrochloric acid]]. The product contains significant amounts of chlorinated benzoic acid derivates. Because of this the only source for benzoic acid for human consumption was the dry distillation of gum benzoin. Even after the discovery of other synthesis methods it was forbidden to use benzoic acid of other source than gum benzoin. === Laboratory preparations === Starting from: '''[[Benzonitrile]]''' Under alkaline or acidic conditions [[hydrolysis]] of the [[nitrile]] takes place. The reaction involves a carboxylic acid [[amide]] or [[imin]], which is subsequently hydrolysed to the acid or salt. '''[[Benzaldehyde]]''' The [[disproportionation]] of [[benzaldehyde]], in the presence of base, using the [[Cannizzaro reaction]], giving a mixture of benzoate and [[benzyl alcohol]]. This disproportionation leads always to trace amounts of [[benzyl alcohol]] and [[benzoic acid]] in [[benzaldehyde]] which has to be removed by [[fractionated distillation]]. '''[[Bromobenzene]]''' First step of the reaction is the [[Grignard reagent]] phenylmagnesium, which is formed by the reaction of [[bromobenzene]] with [[magnesium]]. The [[Grignard reagent]] reacts with [[carbon dioxide]] (mostly applied as dry ice) to produce [[benzoate|magnesium benzoate]]. ==Uses== === Food preservative === Benzoic acid and its salts are used as a food [[preservative]], represented by the [[E-numbers]] [[E210]], [[sodium benzoate|E211]], [[potassium benzoate|E212]] and [[calcium benzoate|E213]]. Benzoic acid inhibits the growth of [[mold]],
utocracy]], government by the rich. Some would argue that a real corporatocracy can only appear when (and if) a government makes it legal to bribe politicians. That quickly makes politicians very corporate-friendly, and makes it easy for corporations to pass laws as they see fit. Many people in the [[United States]] believe the allowance for campaign contributions has created such a situation and view the contributions that prompted the [[Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act]] and the [[Digital Millennium Copyright Act]] as evidence. Also, many argue that when the major media outlets are controlled by large corporations, access to information tends to become limited to what serves corporate interests, and corporate interests in turn are able to define the national political agenda. Finally when the majority of wealth of the politicians is invested into corporations, that gives politicians incentive to support the corporations. The nature of corporations and stock market speculation makes some of the desires of corporations unexpected. For example, a national corporation in a purely national industry (non international), would be less worried about a universal regulation which would decrease profits, than a regulation that would target that individual company, since investors would be more likely to divest in the second case. An example of such a system could be [[Singapore]], where the state supports a strong [[free market]], with weak and sometimes nonexistent political freedom. Although the corporations do not rule Singapore, the state often supports them. Critics of this term argue that the term has no real meaning in terms of [[political theory]], arguing that a [[corporation]] is nothing more than a body of individuals, ruled by a governing body (elected by its shareholders) and executives appointed by that body. As such, it is claimed to have as much a right as any other body of people to exercise powers (such as voters). Pursuing the overriding shareholder interest in corporate profitability generally guides the actions of corporate governing bodies, and it is in the pursuit of this interest that corporations exercise their financial and marketplace power in order to influence public policy. The term however is accurate to describe actions of Corporations interested in maintaining (for them) positive laws, and thus makes it a question of resources to spend (it can be cheaper to give money to a few individuals than to bow to strict laws that cost a lot) Corporatocracy is also used by John Perkins in his 2004 book ''Confessions of an Economic Hit Man'' to describe a system of governance controlled by &quot;big corporations, international banks, and government&quot; (Perkins / Plume paperback edition, 94). Harking back to the &quot;military-industrial complex&quot;, Perkins sees the corporatocracy manifested in the following cycle: the World Bank issues loans to developing nations to pay for large-scale development projects; contracts are then doled out to a handful of American engineering firms; as a result, these countries become ensared in a net of interest payments and debts they cannot repay. American corporations benefit through increased profits, and the U.S. government benefits through securing its political clout and control over developing countries with vast natural resources. The majority of people in those countries do not benefit, however, since a large portion of their country's budget goes toward servicing the national debt instead of improving living conditions. Perkins describes how the convergence between big corporations, international banks, and government - according to him, the three pillars of corporatocracy - allows economic elite to move easily between these sectors. He offers several examples, including that of Vice President and former Halliburton CEO Dick Cheney (Perkins / Plume paperback edition, 91). ==See also== *[[Corporate abuse]] *[[Corporate police state]] *[[Corporatism]] *[[Crony capitalism]] *[[Kleptocracy]] *[[Corporate Personhood]] *[[Confessions of an Economic Hit Man]] [[zh:公司王国]] [[Category: Forms of government]] [[Category: Political neologisms]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Culture of Canada</title> <id>6999</id> <revision> <id>41298242</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T10:35:39Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>72.60.89.91</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Symbols */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">It has been said that '''Canadian culture''' rests solely in the effort to distinguish itself from its southern neighbour, the [[United States]]. However, others argue that while the two countries share some aspects of a common cultural heritage, there is also a separately identifiable [[Canada|Canadian]] culture. They point to what they view as a greater integration of their [[First Nations|Native]] culture; the retention of traditions descended from those of [[France|French]] settlers; and a notable infusion of [[Modern Celts|Celtic]] settlers in later phases of the country's history. One matter of contention in the effort to study Canadian culture rests in the fact of Canada's [[bilingualism]]; there is little reason to question the distinct identities of the [[English language|English]]- and [[French language|French]]-speaking peoples of Canada. However, [[John Ralston Saul]] conjectures that [[Gabrielle Roy]] is better known in [[anglophone]] Canada than in [[France]], and more [[Francophone|French-Canadians]] know of [[Margaret Laurence]] and [[Atom Egoyan]] than Americans. ==Art== {{main|Art in Canada}} ==Literature== {{see also|Canadian literature|List of Canadian writers}} ==Canadian theatre== {{main|Theatre in Canada}} Canada has a thriving stage theatre scene, especially in Southern Ontario and in Quebec. Theatre festivals draw many tourists in the summer months, especially the [[Stratford Shakespeare Festival]] in [[Stratford, Ontario|Stratford]] [[Ontario]], and the [[Shaw Festival]] in [[Niagara On The Lake]], [[Ontario]]. The [[Famous People Players]] are only one of many touring companies that have also developed an international reputation. Canada also boasts the world's second largest live theatre festival, the Edmonton Fringe Festival. == Film and television == {{main|Cinema of Canada}}{{see also|Cinema of Quebec}} The Canadian film market was dominated by the American film industry for decades. In the 1960s [[Michel Brault]], [[Pierre Perrault]], [[Gilles Groulx]], [[Jean-Pierre Lefebvre]], [[Arthur Lamothe]] and other filmmakers from [[Québec]] began to challenge [[Hollywood]] by making innovative and politically relevant documentary and feature films. Among the important English-speaking filmmakers from this period are [[Allan King]], Norman Jewison and [[Robin Spry]]. [[Michael Snow]] continues to be one of the most respected experimental film makers in the world. Norman Jewison recently recieved a Lifetime Achievement 'Oscar' Academy Award. Canada has developed a vigorous [[film]] industry that has produced a variety of well-known films, [[actor]]s, and auteurs. In fact, this eclipsing may sometimes be creditable for the rather bizarre and quite innovative directions of the works of such auteurs as [[Atom Egoyan]] (''[[The Sweet Hereafter]]'', 1997) and [[David Cronenberg]](&quot;A History of Violence&quot;, &quot;The Fly&quot;, &quot;Naked Lunch&quot;). Also, the distinct French-Canadian society permits the work of directors such as [[Denys Arcand]] and [[Denis Villeneuve]]. However given Canada's small population and perhaps, because of the closeness of the giant American TV and film industries, distinctively Canadian productions such as those in [[TIFF's List of Canada's Top Ten Films of All Time]] are relatively thin on the ground, compared with the situations in the United Kingdom. However, Lion's Gates Films and Alliance Atlantis are two film production companies headquartered in Canada who have grown large enough to compete with larger American productions down south. In addition, because of the intricate relationship between the American and Canadian film industry, numerous films such as David Cronenberg's &quot;A History of Violence&quot; (2005) are often credited as both Canadian films by Canadian publications and an American films by American publications due to differing definitions of what constitutes a Canadian or American film by each country. A number of [[Canadian pioneers in early Hollywood]] significantly contributed to the creation of the motion picture industry in the early days of the 20th century. Over the years, many Canadians have made enormous contributions to the American entertainment industry, although they are frequently not recognized as Canadians (see [[Famous Canadians]]). Canada's film industry is in full expansion as a site for Hollywood productions. The series ''[[The X-Files]]'' was famously shot in [[Vancouver]] as is ''[[Stargate SG-1]]'', the 2003 version of ''[[Battlestar Galactica (2003)|Battlestar Galactica]]'', and ''[[The Outer Limits]]''. The American ''[[Queer as Folk (US)|Queer as Folk]]'' is filmed in [[Toronto]]. Since the 1980s Canada, and Vancouver in particular, has become known as [[Hollywood North]]. As with its' southern counterpart in California, USA, many Canadians are employed in the film industry and celebrity-spotting is frequent throughout many Canadian cities. [[Montreal]], due to its [[Europe|European]] appearance, has served in a great variety of mainstream movies, attracting the loyalty of industry people such as [[Bruce Willis]]; there are plans to build the world's biggest film studio on the outskirts of the city. The choice of location is allegedly due to cost, rather than a requirement for a 'Canadian atmosphere'. The frequent question of a Canadian, seeing a film crew on their local streets is 'Which bit of the States are we pretending to be today?'. Canadi
n the lineup. He clearly came back too soon. In [[July]], he was only hitting about .250 as he struggled miserably trying to find his swing. Eventually he regained some of his strength and managed to get somewhat on track, but he finished with a .290 average and 25 home runs in 98 games. Except for the last couple of years at the end of his career, the 1925 season was easily Ruth's worst season in the majors. The Yankees 1925 season went as badly as Ruth's. Injuries, age, and poor play had them at the bottom of the standings all year, and they finished next to last in the A.L. with a 69&amp;ndash;85 mark. Later in the season, Ruth had a well-publicized fight with [[manager]] [[Miller Huggins]], who fined Ruth $5,000 and suspended him nine days for numerous [[curfew]] violations. Only after an apology to Huggins and the team was he allowed to play again, and Ruth would never again question Huggins's authority. One bright spot of the season was on [[June 2]] when [[first baseman]] [[Wally Pipp]] was benched to put a young [[Lou Gehrig]] in the lineup, a lineup Gehrig stayed in for the next 2,130 consecutive games. After his poor 1925 season, Ruth dedicated himself to improving his physical condition, and he worked out hard each off-season. Ruth's weight would stabilize at about 230&amp;ndash;235 pounds, and over the years he replaced body fat with muscle. He had turned 30 in 1925, and he went on to have some of his best seasons after this age, a time in sports when the great majority of ball players were past their prime (or out of the game) by the time they reached 30. Ruth remained a highly productive player until age 38, a testament that Ruth was a far better athlete than often given credit for. ==Return to the top== The 1925 season proved to be an aberration, as in 1926 he rebounded to being the best player in baseball. Ruth led the league in [[home runs]], [[RBI]]s, [[runs]] scored, [[bases on balls]], and [[slugging average]]. He finished second in [[batting average]] with a .372 average, just .006 short of the [[triple crown]] (a feat Ruth would never accomplish). The Yankees also bounced back, going from a 7th place finish in 1925 all the way back to the [[World Series]], where they met the [[St. Louis Cardinals]]. The Cardinals were led by star player-manager [[Rogers Hornsby]], who, for him, had experienced a bad year at the plate, hitting just .317, down from his average of .401 for the previous five seasons. The Cardinals had other good players, including [[Jesse Haines]], [[Jim Bottomley]], [[Chick Hafey]], and [[Grover Alexander]], now a 39-year-old [[epileptic]] and [[alcoholic]], who a decade earlier (with [[Walter Johnson]]) was one of the two best pitchers in baseball. The Yankees had been heavy favorites in the series, but the Cardinals pushed the series to a 7th game. The highlights of the series up to this point had been Ruth's 3-home-run game in game 4 (the first time a player hit 3 home runs in a World Series game), and Alexander's clutch pitching that won games 2 and 6. In game 7, the Cardinals clung to a 3&amp;ndash;2 lead in the 7th inning, when the Yankees loaded the bases with two outs. The stage was now set for one of the classic moments in baseball history. Hornsby removed starting pitcher Haines, who had developed a blister on his finger, and summoned Alexander from the [[bullpen]]. Alexander was napping in the bullpen at the time and, according to some accounts, may have been suffering the effects of a hangover from the previous night's celebration of his game 6 win. Facing [[rookie]] star [[Tony Lazzeri]], Alexander's first pitch was a ball. The next pitch was a low [[fastball]] that was called a strike. The next pitch sailed near Lazzeri's head for ball two. Lazzeri almost assured himself baseball immortality on the next pitch, which he lined to [[left field]] that just went foul, missing a home run by a couple of feet. With the count now 2&amp;ndash;2, Alexander struck out Lazzeri swinging on a letter-high fastball, ending the Yankees rally. [[Image:Ruth1926-3.jpg|thumb|350px|right|Ruth being thrown out trying to steal second, ending the 1926 World Series.]] Alexander retired the side in the 8th and the first two men in the 9th, when Ruth came up to bat. Pitching carefully to him, Alexander walked Ruth. With [[Bob Meusel]] at bat, and [[Lou Gehrig]] in the on-deck circle, Ruth pulled the most notable on-the-field gaffe of his career. He inexplicably took off trying to steal [[second base]], and was easily thrown out by [[catcher]] Bob O'Farrell, ending the game and giving the Cardinals the World Series. Alexander's strikeout of Lazzeri would go down in baseball lore, and Ruth, despite an outstanding series, was perceived as a goat by some. In Ruth's defense, some would say the way Alexander was pitching, the Yankees were not likely going to start a rally anyway, and a steal of second might have upset Alexander, and allowing a single to tie the game. Ruth did not dwell on the play much, as his baseball mentality throughout his entire career was such that he was never afraid of looking bad or failing. Ruth's superb 1926 season ended on a bittersweet note, but he had silenced many of his critics who said his career was on the decline after the 1925 season. Nevertheless, while Ruth had put up some amazing statistics in his first seven years as a Yankee, he had led the Yankees to just one [[World Series]] title, and they had lost three others. From this point, though, he would enjoy greater World Series success: in fact, Ruth played in three more series and never again lost even a single World Series game. ==1927: A Team for the Ages== In 1927, the Ruthian Yankees reached a peak that few teams in baseball history have ever equaled. They went 110&amp;ndash;44, winning the A.L. pennant by 19 games, and then proceeded to sweep the [[Pittsburgh Pirates]] in the [[World]] [[Series]]. Only four teams have won more games: the 1906 [[Chicago Cubs]], who won 116; the 1954 [[Cleveland Indians]], who won 111; the 1998 Yankees, who won 114; and the 2001 [[Seattle Mariners]], who won 116 games (although the latter two played in 162-game seasons). The Cubs and Indians, however, both lost in the World Series, and the Mariners were defeated before even reaching the World Series, effectively removing these teams from a debate of the greatest team ever for a single season. [[Image:1927NYYankees5.jpg|frame|right|The 1927 New York Yankees.]] The '27 Yankees batted .307, slugged .489, scored 975 runs, and outscored their opponents by a record 376 runs. The Yankees did not just beat teams, they demoralized them, and their powerful lineup was again being called &quot;[[Murderers' Row]]&quot; (a term first used by a sportswriter to describe the 1919 pre-Ruth Yankee lineup). Centerfielder [[Earle Combs]] had a career year, batting .356 with 231 hits, leftfielder [[Bob Meusel]] batted .337 with 103 RBIs, and second baseman [[Tony Lazzeri]] drove in 102 runs. The pitching staff led the league in ERA at 3.20, and included [[Waite Hoyt]], who went 22&amp;ndash;7, and [[Herb Pennock]], who went 19&amp;ndash;8. It was [[Lou Gehrig]], though, who broke through and established himself as a great player. Gehrig had one of the greatest seasons of any hitter. He batted .373, with 218 hits, 52 doubles, 18 triples, 47 home runs, 175 RBIs, slugged at .765, and was voted A.L. MVP. In time, the 1927 Yankees would send six players to the [[Baseball Hall of Fame]]. [[Image:Ruth1927.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Ruth hitting a home run in the 1927 World Series.]] It was also a magical year for Ruth. As late as [[August 10]], Gehrig had the home run lead over him, 38&amp;ndash;35. Gehrig hit only 9 the rest of the season, but Ruth went on a home run tear. By the next to last game of the season, he was at 59 homers. On [[September 30]], he lined a shot down the line into the right-field stands for number [[60]] off [[Minnesota Twins|Washington Senators]] pitcher [[Tom Zachary]]. Zachary argued to umpire [[Bill Dinneen]] the ball was foul, but Dinneen upheld the home run. Ruth had set his home run record of 59 in 1921, but had been unable to even approach it until this season. After his 60th, an elated Ruth shouted in the clubhouse, &quot;Sixty, count 'em sixty! Let's see some son of a bitch top that!&quot; In addition to the home runs, Ruth batted .356 and drove in 164 runs. The Yankees met the [[Pittsburgh Pirates]] in the World Series, a team that was just two years removed from a World Series title. Since their last title the Pirates had added brothers [[Paul Waner|Paul]] and [[Lloyd Waner]] to a good-hitting lineup that included [[Pie Traynor]] and Glenn Wright. Before game 1, it was said the Yankees smashing balls over the walls in spacious [[Forbes Field]] during batting practice had the Pirate players awestruck and beaten before the series even started. The series, however, was not a Yankee offensive onslaught. Two of the games were decided by one run, the Yankees batting just .279 with 2 home runs (both by Ruth), and they averaged fewer runs per game than their season average. It would be the Yankees pitching that actually dominated the series. Their team ERA was 2.00, and the Pirates batted just .223 and scored only 10 runs in the 4 games. The 1927 Yankees, as every team in history, had their weaknesses. They were just average defensively, with mediocre players at [[third base]], [[shortstop]] and [[catcher]], and they also had a weak bench. The pitching staff was good, but not dominating. Nevertheless, many present-day baseball historians cite the 1927 Yankees as the greatest baseball team of all-time. ==1928: Repeat== The Yankees' domination in 1927 carried over into the first half of the 1928 season, where they built a 13-game lead in July. But the Yankees were soon plagued by some key injuries, erratic pitching and inconsistent play,
eveloped to meet some practical need in [[surveying]], [[construction]], [[astronomy]], and various crafts. Among these were some surprisingly sophisticated principles, and a modern mathematician might be hard put to derive some of them without the use of [[calculus]]. For example, both the Egyptians and the Babylonians were aware of versions of the [[Pythagorean theorem]] about 1500 years before [[Pythagoras]]; the Egyptians had a correct formula for the volume of a [[frustum]] of a square pyramid; the Babylonians had a [[trigonometry table]]. Chinese culture at this same time period was just as advanced as its contemporaries, so it is likely that they also had an advanced form of mathematics, but no artifacts have survived from which we could learn about it. This may be partly due to their early use of paper, rather than clay tablets or stone, to record their achievements. ==Ancient Indian geometry (c. 3000 - 500 B.C.) == ===Harappan geometry=== The geometry used in the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] of [[North India]] and [[Pakistan]] from around 3000 B.C. was just as advanced as its contemporaries in Egypt and Mesopotamia, and mostly developed as a result of advanced [[urban planning]], which is evident from the perfect grid pattern of [[Harappa]] and [[Mohenjo-daro]], which included streets laid out in perfect right angles. The geometry used by this early [[Harappan civilization]] was for practical means, and was primarily concerned with weights, measuring scales and a surprisingly advanced ''brick technology'', which utilised [[ratio]]s. The ratio for brick dimensions 4:2:1 is even today considered optimal for effective bonding. Brick sizes were in a perfect ratio of 4:2:1. Decimal weights were based on ratios of 1/20, 1/10, 1/5, 1/2, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, and 500, with each unit weighing approximately 28 grams, similar to the English ounce or Greek uncia. Many of the weights uncovered have been produced in definite geometrical shapes ([[cuboid]], [[barrel]], [[cone (solid)|cone]], and [[cylinder]] to name a few) which present knowledge of basic geometry, including the circle. This culture also produced artistic designs of a mathematical nature and there is evidence on carvings that these people could draw concentric and intersecting circles and triangles. Further to the use of circles in decorative design there is indication of the use of bullock carts, the wheels of which may have had a metallic band wrapped round the rim. Some historians believe this points to the possession of knowledge of the ratio of the length of the circumference of the circle and its diameter, and thus values of [[π]]. In [[Lothal]], a thick ring-like shell object found with four slits each in two margins served as a [[compass]] to measure angles on plane surfaces or in horizon in multiples of 40&amp;ndash;360 degrees. Such shell instruments were probably invented to measure 8&amp;ndash;12 whole sections of the horizon and sky, explaining the slits on the lower and upper margins. Archaeologists consider this as evidence the Lothal experts had achieved something 2,000 years before the Greeks are credited with doing: an 8&amp;ndash;12 fold division of horizon and sky, as well as an instrument to measure angles and perhaps the position of stars, and for navigation purposes. Lothal contributes one of three measurement scales that are integrated and linear (others found in Harappa and Mohenjodaro). An ivory scale from Lothal has the smallest-known decimal divisions in Indus civilization. The scale is 6mm thick, 15&amp;nbsp;[[mm]] broad and the available length is 128&amp;nbsp;mm, but only 27 graduations are visible over 146&amp;nbsp;mm, the distance between graduation lines being 1.704&amp;nbsp;mm (the small size indicate use for finer purposes). The sum total of ten graduations from Lothal is approximate to the ''angula'' in the ''[[Arthashastra]]''. The Lothal craftsmen took care to ensure durability and accuracy of stone weights by blunting edges before polishing. The Lothal weight of 12.184&amp;nbsp;gm is almost equal to the Egyptian ''Oedet'' of 13.792&amp;nbsp;gm. ===Vedic geometry=== During the [[Indian mathematics#Vedic Mathematics .281500 BC - 500 BC.29|Vedic period]] of [[Indian mathematics]] (c. 1500-500 B.C.), many rules and developments of geometry are found in [[Vedic]] works as a result of the mathematics required for the construction of religious [[altar]]s. These include the use of geometric shapes, including triangles, rectangles, squares, [[trapezium|trapezia]] and circles, equivalence through numbers and area, [[squaring the circle]] and vice versa, the [[Pythagorean theorem]] and a list of [[Pythagorean triples]] discovered algebraically, and computations of [[π]] (correct to 2 decimal places). As a result of the mathematics required for the construction of these altars, many rules and developments of geometry are found in Vedic works. These include: *Use of geometric shapes, including triangles, rectangles, squares, trapezia and circles. *Equivalence through numbers and area. *[[Squaring the circle]] and vice versa. *[[Pythagorean triple]]s discovered algebraically. *Statements of the [[Pythagorean theorem]] and a numerical proof. *Computations of [[π]], with the closest being correct to 2 decimal places. [[Lagadha]] (circa [[1350]]-[[1200]]) was probably the earliest known mathematician to have used geometry and [[trigonometry]] for [[astronomy]]. [[Yajnavalkya]] ([[9th century BC]]) composed the ''[[Shatapatha Brahmana]]'', which contains geometric aspects, including several computations of π, with the closest being correct to 2 decimal places (the most accurate value of π upto that time), and gives a rule implying knowledge of the Pythagorean theorem. The ''[[Sulba Sutras]]'' (&quot;''Rule of Chords''&quot; in [[Vedic Sanskrit]]), which is another name for geometry, were composed between [[800 BC]] and [[500 BC]] and were appendices to the [[Vedas]] giving rules for the construction of religious altars. The ''Sulba Sutras'' contain the first use of [[irrational number]]s, [[quadratic equation]]s of the form a x&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = c and ax&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; + bx = c, the use of the [[Pythagorean theorem]] and a list of [[Pythagorean triples]] discovered algebraically ''predating'' Pythagoras, geometric solutions of [[linear equation]]s, and a number of geometrical proofs. These discoveries are mostly a result of altar construction, which also led to the first known calculations for the [[square root]] of 2, which were correct to a remarkable 5 decimal places. [[Baudhayana]] (circa [[800 BC]]) composed the ''Baudhayana Sulba Sutra'', which contains a statement of the Pythagorean theorem, geometric solutions of a linear equation in a single unknown, several approximations of [[π]] (the closest value being 3.114), along with the first use of irrational numbers and quadratic equations of the forms ax&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = c and ax&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; + bx = c, and a computation for the square root of 2, which was correct to a remarkable five decimal places. [[Manava]] (circa [[750 BC]]) composed the ''Manava Sulba Sutra'', which contains approximate constructions of circles from rectangles, and squares from circles, which give approximate values of [[π]], with the closest value being 3.125. [[Apastamba]] (circa [[600 BC]]) composed the ''Apastamba Sulba Sutra'', which contains the method of [[squaring the circle]], considers the problem of dividing a segment into 7 equal parts, calculates the square root of 2 correct to five decimal places, solves the general [[linear equation]], and also contains a numerical proof of the [[Pythagorean theorem]], using an area computation. The historian Albert Burk claims this was the original proof of the theorem which [[Pythagoras]] copied on his visit to India. ==Classical Greek geometry (c. 600 – 300 B.C.)== For the ancient [[Greek]] [[Greek mathematics|mathematicians]], geometry was the crown jewel of their sciences, reaching a completeness and perfection of methodology that no other branch of their knowledge had attained. They expanded the range of geometry to many new kinds of figures, curves, surfaces, and solids; they changed its methodology from trial-and-error to logical deduction; they recognized that geometry studies [[forms|“eternal forms”]], or abstractions, of which physical objects are only approximations; and they developed the idea of an [[axiomatic system|“axiomatic theory”]], which, for more than 2000 years, was regarded to be the ideal paradigm for all scientific theories. ===Thales and Pythagoras=== [[Thales]] (635-543 B.C.) of [[Miletus]] (now in southwestern Turkey), was the first to whom deduction in mathematics is attributed. There are five geometric propositions for which he wrote deductive proofs, though his proofs have not survived. [[Pythagoras]] (582-496 B.C.) of Ionia, and later, Italy, then colonized by Greeks, may have been a student of Thales, and traveled to [[Babylon]] and [[Egypt]]. The theorem that bears his name was not his discovery, but he was probably one of the first to give a deductive proof of it. He gathered a group of students around him to study mathematics, music, and philosophy, and together they discovered most of what high school students learn today in their geometry courses. In addition, they made the profound discovery of [[commensurability (mathematics)|incommensurable lengths]] and [[irrational number|irrational numbers]]. ===Plato=== [[Plato]] (427-347 B.C.), the philosopher most esteemed by the Greeks, had inscribed above the entrance to his famous school, “Let none ignorant of geometry enter here.” Though he was not a mathematician himself, his views on mathematics had great influence. Mathematicians thus accepted his belief that geometry should use no tools but a compass and straight edge – never measuring instruments such as a marked ruler or a protractor, because thes
they can freely share their knowledge and experience, thus achieving considerably more than individual Members could achieve by themselves. Much of this collaboration is achieved through Project Groups which study specific technical issues of common interest: for example, EBU Members have long been preparing for the revision of the 1961 Stockholm Plan. The EBU places great emphasis on the use of open standards. Widespread use of open standards (such as [[MPEG-2]], [[Digital audio broadcasting|DAB]], [[DVB]], etc.) ensures interoperability between products from different vendors, as well as facilitating the exchange of programme material between EBU Members and promoting &quot;horizontal markets&quot; for the benefit of all consumers. EBU Members and the EBU Technical Department have long played an important role in the development of many systems used in radio and television broadcasting, such as: *The [[AES/EBU]] digital audio interface; *Serial and parallel interfaces for digital video ([[ITU-R]] Recommendations 601 and 656); *[[Radio Data System|RDS]] - the Radio Data System used on FM broadcasting. The EBU has also actively encouraged the development and implementation of: *[[Digital Audio Broadcasting]] (DAB) through Eureka Project 147 and the WorldDAB Forum; *[[Digital Video Broadcasting]] (DVB) through the DVB Project and DigiTAG; *Digital radio in the bands currently used for AM broadcasting through [[Digital Radio Mondiale|DRM]] ([[Digital Radio Mondiale]]); *Standardisation of [[Digital video recorder|PVR]] systems through the TV-Anytime Forum. ---- Links to: *[http://www.ebu.ch/en/technical/index.php EBU Technical homepage] *[http://www.ebu.ch/en/technical/trev/trev_home.html EBU Technical Review] == Full EBU members == === European members === *[[Albania]]: [[Radio Televizioni Shqiptar|RTSH]] (Radiotelevizioni Shqiptar). *[[Andorra]]: [[RTVA]] (Radio i Television d'Andorra, S.A.). *[[Armenia]]: [[AMPTV]] (Public Television &amp; Radio Company of Armenia) *[[Austria]]: [[ORF]] (Österreichischer Rundfunk). *[[Belarus]]: [[BTRC]] (Belaruskaja Tele-Radio Campanija). *[[Belgium]]: [[VRT]] (Vlaamse Radio- en Televisieomroep), [[RTBF]] (Radio-Télévision Belge de la Communaute francaise). *[[Bosnia and Herzegovina]]: [[PBSBiH]] (Public Broadcasting Service of Bosnia and Herzegovina). *[[Bulgaria]]: [[Bulgarian National Radio|BNR]] (Bâlgarsko Nationalno Radio), [[Bulgarian National Television|BNT]] (Bâlgarska Nationalna Televizija). *[[Croatia]]: [[Croatian Radiotelevision|HRT]] (Hrvatska Radiotelevizija). *[[Czech Republic]]: [[Český rozhlas|ČRo]] (Český rozhlas), [[Česká televize|ČT]] (Česká televize). *[[Denmark]]: [[Danmarks Radio|DR]] (Danmarks Radio), [[DK/TV2]] (TV2/Danmark). *[[Estonia]]: [[Eesti Raadio|ER]] (Eesti Raadio), [[EE/ETV]] (Eesti Televisioon) *[[Finland]]: [[MTV3|FI/MTV]] (MTV Oy), [[Yleisradio|YLE]] (Oy Yleisradio Ab). *[[France]]: [[GRF]] (Groupement des radiodiffuseurs francais), [[Europe 1]] (Europe 1). *[[Germany]]: [[ARD (TV)|ARD]] (Arbeitsgemeinschaft der öffentlich-rechtlichen Rundfunkanstalten der Bundesrepublik Deutschland), [[ZDF]] (Zweites Deutsches Fernsehen). *[[Greece]]: [[Elliniki Radiophonio Teleorassi|ERT]] (Elliniki Radiophonia - Tileorassi SA). *[[Hungary]]: MR ([[Magyar Rádió]]), [[HU/MTV]] ([[Magyar Televizió]]). *[[Iceland]]: [[RUV]] (Ríkisútvarpið). *[[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]]: RTÉ ([[Radio Telefís Éireann]]). *[[Italy]]: [[RAI]] (RAI - Radiotelevisione Italiana). *[[Latvia]]: [[LR]] (Latvijas Radio), [[LT]] (Latvijas Valsts Televizija). *[[Lithuania]]: [[LRT]] (Lietuvos Radijas ir Televizija). *[[Luxembourg]]: [[CLT]] (CLT Multi Media), [[ERSL]] (Etablissement de Radiodiffusion Socioculturelle du Grand-Duché de Luxembourg), [[RTL]] (Radio Télé Lëtzebuerg) *[[Republic of Macedonia|Macedonia]]: [[MKRTV]] (MKRTV). *[[Malta]]: PBS (Public Broadcasting Services). *[[Moldova]]: [[TRM]] (Teleradio-Moldova). *[[Monaco]]: [[GRMC]] (Groupement de Radiodiffusion monégasque). *[[Netherlands]]: [[Publieke Omroep|NOS]] (Nederlandse Omroep Stichting). *[[Netherlands]]-[[Flanders]]: [[BVN]] (Vlaanderen-Nederland TV) *[[Norway]]: [[NRK]] (Norsk Rikskringkasting AS), [[TV 2 (Norway)|NO/TV2]] (TV 2 AS). *[[Poland]]: [[Polskie Radio]], [[TVP]] (Telewizja Polska). *[[Portugal]]: [[RDP]] (Radiodifusão Portuguesa SA), [[RTP_(Portugal)|RTP]] (Radiotelevisão Portuguesa Serviço Público de Televisão SA). *[[Romania]]: [[ROR]] (Societatea Româna de Radiodifuziune), [[RO/TVR]] (Societatea Româna de Televiziune). *[[Russia]]: [[C1R]] (Channel One Russia), [[RDO]] (Radio Dom Ostankino), [[RTR]] (RossijskoeTeleradio). *[[San Marino]]: [[SMRTV]] (San Marino RTV). *[[Serbia and Montenegro]]: [[RTS 1]] (Radio Televizija Srbije), [[TVCG 3]] (Radio Televizija Crne Gore 3 Kanal) *[[Slovakia]]: [[SK/SR]] (Slovensky Rozhlas), [[SK/STV]] (Slovenská Televizia). *[[Slovenia]]: [[RTVSLO]] (Radiotelevizija Slovenija). *[[Spain]]: [[RTVE]] (Radiotelevisión Española), [[SER]] (Sociedad Española de Radiodifusión), [[COPE]] (Radio Popular SA Cope). *[[Sweden]]: STR (Sveriges Television och Radio Grupp:[[Sveriges Television]] and [[Sveriges Radio]]),[[TV4]] (The TV4 group) *[[Switzerland]]: [[SRG SSR idée suisse]] (SRG SSR idée suisse - Sociéte Suisse de Radiodiffusion et Télévision). *[[Ukraine]]: [[NTU/NRU]] (Natsionalna Telekompanija Ukraïny/Natsionalna Radiokompanya Ukraïny). *[[United Kingdom]]: [[BBC]] (British Broadcasting Corporation), [[UKIB]] (United Kingdom Independent Broadcasting - representing [[ITV]] (Independent Television), [[Channel 4]] and [[S4C]] (Sianel Pedwar Cymru - Channel Four Wales)). *[[Vatican City]]: RV ([[Radio Vatican]]). === Non-European members === *[[Algeria]]: [[ENTV]] (Entreprise nationale de Télévision), [[ENRS]] (Entreprise nationale de Radiodiffusion sonore) and [[TDA]] (Télédiffusion d'Algérie). *[[Cyprus]]: [[Cyprus Broadcasting Corporation|CyBC]] (Cyprus Broadcasting Corporation). *[[Egypt]]: [[ERTU]] (Egyptian Radio and Television Union). *[[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]: [[GTVR]] (Georgian TV &amp; Radio Broadcasting) *[[Israel]]: [[Israel Broadcasting Authority|IBA]] (Israel Broadcasting Authority). *[[Jordan]]: [[JRTV]] (Jordan Radio and Television Corporation). *[[Lebanon]]: [[RL/TL]] (Télé-Liban). *[[Libya]]: [[LJB]] (Libya Jamahiriya Broadcasting). *[[Morocco]]: [[MA/RTM]] (Radiodiffusion-Télévision Marocaine). *[[Tunisia]]: [[ERTT]] (Etablissement de la Radiodiffusion-Télévision Tunisienne). *[[Turkey]]: [[Turkish Radio and Television Corporation|TRT]] (Türkiye Radyo-Televizyon Kurumu). Note: Turkey is a [[transcontinental nation]] but is predominantly in [[Asia minor]]. Cyprus and Georgia are considered to be culturally within Europe, and Cyprus is a member of the [[EU]]. The EBU makes no distinction between European and non-European country members - this distinctin here is merely for clarity of listing. == Future &amp; Potential EBU Members == *[[Azerbaijan]]: currently no Azeri television or radio station complies with EBU membership rules, but after October 2005 it will be possible for Azeri broadcasters to become full EBU members *[[Liechtenstein]]: currently Liechtenstein has no national television or radio station, but when they get one it will be possible for them to join the EBU *[[Syria]]: [[ORTAS]] (Organisme de la Radio-Télévision Arabe Syrienne) - currently an associate member only *[[Kosovo]]: [[RTK]] - currently an associate member, if and when Kosovo achieves full independence it will be admitted to the EBU *[[Serbia]]: [[Radio Televizija Srbije|RTS]] (Radio Televizija Srbije) - currently an active member for Serbia &amp; Montenegro, if and when Serbia becomes an independent country it will be admitted to the EBU *[[Montenegro]]: [[RTCG]] (Radio Televizija Crna Gora) - currently an active member for Serbia &amp; Montenegro, if and when Montenegro becomes an independent country it will be admitted to the EBU == External links == * [http://www.ebu.ch/ EBU Website] [[Category:1950 establishments]] [[Category:Broadcasting]] [[Category:Publicly-funded broadcasters]] [[Category:Television networks]] [[da:Eurovision Broadcasting Union]] [[de:European Broadcasting Union]] [[es:Unión Europea de Radiodifusión]] [[fi:EBU]] [[fr:Union européenne de radio-télévision]] [[he:איגוד השידור האירופאי]] [[it:European Broadcasting Union]] [[nl:European Broadcasting Union]] [[pl:Europejska Unia Nadawców]] [[sv:Europeiska Radio- och TV-unionen]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Electrothermal-Chemical technology</title> <id>10381</id> <revision> <id>15908196</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Electrothermal-chemical technology]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Electrothermal-chemical technology</title> <id>10382</id> <revision> <id>15908197</id> <timestamp>2005-05-03T08:02:58Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Art Carlson</username> <id>42188</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>disambig plasma</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Electrothermal-Chemical (ETC)''' technology is an advanced [[gun]] propulsion candidate that can substantially increase gun performance with less system burden than any other advanced gun propulsion technology. It has been under development since the mid [[1980s]]. ETC uses electrical energy to augment and control the release of chemical energy from existing or new [[propellant]]s, and can significantly improve the performance of existing conventional [[cannon]]s, both direct fire (''e.g.'', [[tank]]s) and [[indirect-fire|indirect fire]] (''e.g.'', [[howitzer|howitzers]] and Navy guns). The electrical energy is used to create a high-temperature [[Pla
nd Camp Echo have been labelled &quot;illegal&quot; or &quot;unlawful enemy combatants&quot;, but a number of observers such as the Center for Constitutional Rights and [[Human Rights Watch]] maintain that the United States has not held the [[Combatant Status Review Tribunal|Article 5 tribunals]] required by the Geneva Conventions. [http://hrw.org/press/2002/01/us012802-ltr.htm ] The [[International Committee of the Red Cross]] has stated that, &quot;Every person in enemy hands must have some status under international law: he is either a prisoner of war and, as such, covered by the Third Convention, a civilian covered by the Fourth Convention, [or] a member of the medical personnel of the armed forces who is covered by the First Convention. There is no intermediate status; nobody in enemy hands can fall outside the law.&quot; Thus, if the detainees are not classified as prisoners of war, this would still grant them the rights of the [[Fourth Geneva Convention]] (GCIV), as opposed to the more common [[Third Geneva Convention]] (GCIII) which deals exclusively with prisoners of war. Many supporters of the Bush administration have argued for the summary execution of all [[unlawful combatants]], using [[Ex parte Quirin]] as the precedent, a case during [[World War II]] which upheld the use of military tribunals for eight German soldiers caught on U.S. soil. The Germans were deemed to be saboteurs and unlawful combatants, and thus not entitled to POW protections, and six were eventually executed for [[war crimes]] on request of the [[President]] of the [[United States of America]], [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]. The validity of this case, as basis for denying prisoners in the [[war on terror]] protection by the Geneva Conventions, has been disputed.[http://www.prospect.org/print/V13/1/fletcher-g.html][http://www.aclu.org/safefree/detention/18471leg20040623.html][http://www.iap.nl.com/speeches_annual_conference_2003_washington/terrorism_and_the_rule_of_law_speech_by_nicholas_cowdery.html] A report by the [[American Bar Association]] commenting on this case, states: :''The Quirin case, however, does not stand for the proposition that detainees may be held incommunicado and denied access to counsel; the defendants in Quirin were able to seek review and they were represented by counsel. In Quirin, “The question for decision is whether the detention of petitioners for trial by Military Commission ... is in conformity with the laws and Constitution of the United States. “ Quirin, 317 U.S. at 18. Since the Supreme Court has decided that even enemy aliens not lawfully within the United States are entitled to review under the circumstances of Quirin,11 that right could hardly be denied to U. S. citizens and other persons lawfully present in the United States, especially when held without any charges at all.''[http://news.findlaw.com/hdocs/docs/aba/abatskforce103rpt.pdf] ===Prisoner complaints=== Three [[United Kingdom|British]] prisoners, represented by the Center for Constitutional Rights released in 2004 without charge, have alleged ongoing [[torture]], sexual degradation, forced drugging and religious persecution being committed by U.S. forces at Guantánamo Bay. The prisoners have released a 115-page dossier detailing these accusations. [http://www.wsws.org/articles/2004/aug2004/guan-a06.shtml] They have also accused British authorities of knowing about the alleged torture and failing to respond. The accounts of the British prisoners have been reiterated by two former [[France|French]] prisoners, a former Swedish prisoner, and a former [[Australia|Australian]] prisoner. Former Guantánamo detainee, the [[Sweden|Swede]] Mehdi Ghezali was freed on [[July 9]], [[2004]] after two and half years internment. Ghezali has claimed that he was the victim of repeated torture. His lawyer has declared that he intends to sue the U.S. for their treatment of him. Former Guantánamo detainee Moazzam Begg, freed in January, 2005, after nearly three years in captivity, has accused his American captors of torturing him and other detainees arrested in Afghanistan and Pakistan.[http://www.channel4.com/news/2005/02/week_4/24_begg3.html] Mr Begg, in his first broadcast interview since his release, claimed he &quot;witnessed two people get beaten so badly that I believe it caused their deaths&quot;. An [[Associated Press]] report asserted that some of the detainees were turned over to the United States by [[Afghan people|Afghan]] tribesmen in return for cash rewards. Detainees testified during military tribunals that [[Bounty|bounties]] ranged from $3,000 to $25,000. The allegations were in transcripts the U.S. government released in compliance with a [[Freedom of Information Act|Freedom of Information]] lawsuit filed by AP. [http://www.guardian.co.uk/worldlatest/story/0,1280,-5043187,00.html] There has not been independent confirmation of any of the above allegations since the U.S. government prohibits investigation by any third party. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/4123200.stm] Forced feeding accusations by hunger-striking detainees began around the beginning of Autumn, 2005: &quot;Detainees said large feeding tubes were forcibly shoved up their noses and down into their stomachs, with guards using the same tubes from one patient to another. The detainees say no sedatives were provided during these procedures, which they allege took place in front of U.S. physicians, including the head of the prison hospital.&quot; [http://www.democracynow.org/article.pl?sid=05/10/20/1410254] [http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2005-10/21/content_3659142.htm] &quot;A hunger striking detainee at Guantánamo Bay wants a judge to order the removal of his feeding tube so he can be allowed to die, one of his lawyers has said.&quot; [http://english.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/236E5000-43EB-4DC3-9BC0-6C521563E5AC.htm]. Within a few weeks, the Department of Defense &quot;extended an invitation to United Nations Special Rapporteurs to visit detention facilities at Guantánamo Bay Naval Station&quot; [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2005/55756.htm] [http://www.sptimes.com/2005/10/29/Worldandnation/US_invites_UN_experts.shtml]. This was preliminarily rejected by the U.N. considering the restrictions &quot;that [the] three human rights officials invited to Guantánamo Bay wouldn't be allowed to conduct private interviews&quot; with prisoners [http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=10000103&amp;sid=aUv39b7X7ToI&amp;refer=us] [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/4394584.stm] [http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/nationworld/2002596646_gitmo01.html]. Simultaneously, media reports ensued surrounding the question of prisoner treatment [http://www.plenglish.com/article.asp?ID=%7B5BD10737-9860-4C53-955B-16219E30BD37%7D)&amp;language=EN] [http://www.abc.net.au/correspondents/content/2005/s1493651.htm] [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/10/30/nyregion/30side.html] [http://www.irna.ir/en/news/view/line-20/0510255203134342.htm] [http://www.philly.com/mld/inquirer/news/local/12980848.htm]. &quot;District Court Judge Gladys Kessler also ordered the U.S. government to give medical records going back a week before such feedings take place.&quot; [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/4380642.stm] [http://www.abc.net.au/news/newsitems/200510/s1492333.htm]. In early November, 2005, the U.S. suddenly accelerated, for unknown reasons, the rate of prisoner release, but this was unsustained [http://www.arabnews.com/?page=4&amp;section=0&amp;article=72779&amp;d=6&amp;m=11&amp;y=2005] [http://english.people.com.cn/200511/05/eng20051105_219282.html] [http://www.arabicnews.com/ansub/Daily/Day/051105/2005110518.html] [http://aawsat.com/english/news.asp?section=1&amp;id=2536] [http://www.gulf-daily-news.com/Story.asp?Article=126175&amp;Sn=BNEW&amp;IssueID=28231] [http://usinfo.state.gov/xarchives/display.html?p=washfile-english&amp;y=2005&amp;m=November&amp;x=20051107130659dmslahrellek0.8640863&amp;t=livefeeds/wf-latest.html]. In [[October 2005]], Juma Al Dossary, a 30-year-old Bahraini detainee, at the urging of his lawyers released his memoirs: &quot;Included in his account, which he said he could barely bring himself to write because of the 'shame' he feels, Al Dossary says in three years he has been interrogated some 600 times, fed rotten food, beaten many times (by up to eight guards at once), made to walk on broken glass and pushed so that his face hit the glass shards, made to walk on barbed wire, and has had cigarettes put out on his body. This is in a U.S. prison by U.S. personnel.&quot; [http://www.plenglish.com/article.asp?ID=%7B5BD10737-9860-4C53-955B-16219E30BD37%7D)&amp;language=EN] ===NGO reports=== On [[November 30]], [[2004]], ''[[The New York Times]]'' published excerpts from an internal memo leaked from the U.S. administration,[http://nytimes.com/2004/11/30/politics/30gitmo.html?ei=5094&amp;en=8d107165e454d8b6&amp;hp=&amp;ex=1101877200&amp;adxnnl=1&amp;partner=homepage&amp;adxnnlx=1101843681-+nTyVVJpq8yXt1yEg4X28g] referring to a report from the [[International Committee of the Red Cross|International Committee of the Red Cross]] (ICRC). The ICRC reports of several activities which, it said, were &quot;tantamount to torture&quot;: exposure to loud noise or music, prolonged extreme temperatures, or beatings. It also reported that a [[behavior science team]] (BSCT), also called 'Biscuit', and military physicians communicated confidential medical information to the interrogation teams (weaknesses, phobias, etc.), resulting in the prisoners losing confidence in their medical care. Access of the ICRC to the base was conditional, as is normal for ICRC [[humanitarian]] operations, on the confidentiality of their report; sources have reported heated debates had taken place at the ICRC headquarters, as some of those involved wanted to make the report public, or confront the U.S. administration. The newspaper said the administration and the Pentagon had seen the ICRC report in
Olympic Plaza in the foreground.]] Calgary is traditionally a conservative city, dominated by traditional small-c social conservatives and more modern fiscal conservatives. As the city is a corporate power-centre, a high percentage of the workforce is employed in white-collar jobs. During the 1990s the city's mainstream political culture was dominated by the right-wing [[Reform Party of Canada]] federally, and the [[Alberta Progressive Conservatives]] provincially. The Reform Party was founded in Calgary. However, as Calgary has grown, its politics have become diverse. One growing alternative movement was recently active during the 2000 World Petroleum Congress demonstrations and the [[J26 G8 Protests|J26 G8 2002 protests]]. Protesters were a mix of locals and outsiders. In early 2003 in response to the [[2003 invasion of Iraq|War on Iraq]], according to organizers, 5,000 to 10,000 people from southern Alberta, and elsewhere, converged outside the U.S. Consulate General's office. The city has chapters of various activist organizations, as well as an [[Anti-Capitalist Convergence]]. Left-wing provincial and federal Liberals tend to distance themselves from the activist movement which also claims support from the left. The [[Green Party of Canada]] has also made inroads in Calgary, achieving 7.5% across the city and 11.3% in Calgary North Centre in the [[Canadian federal election, 2004|2004 federal election]]. A provincial alternative, represented by the right-wing [[Alberta Alliance]], became active during the [[26th Alberta general election]] and campaigned for fiscally and socially conservative reforms, and has managed a growing percentage of support in the past Provincial election. Prior to the [[November 22]], [[2004]] General Election, all 21 [[Legislative Assembly of Alberta|provincial MLAs]] representing Calgary were [[Alberta Progressive Conservatives|Progressive Conservatives]]. The province's premier and leader of the Progressive Conservative Party of Alberta, [[Ralph Klein]], has held his [[Calgary Elbow]] seat since [[1989]]. The [[Alberta Liberal Party|Alberta Liberals]] won three seats in the provincial legislature during that election, two of which were new as a result of redistricting. Currently, all eight of Calgary's [[Canadian House of Commons|federal MPs]] are members of the [[Conservative Party of Canada]]. The CPC's predecessors have traditionally held the majority of the city's federal seats. The federal [[electoral district]] of [[Calgary Southwest|Calgary-Southwest]] is currently held by Prime Minister and CPC leader [[Stephen Harper]]. Coincidentally, the same seat was also held by [[Preston Manning]], the leader of the [[Reform Party of Canada]], a predecessor of CPC. [[Joe Clark]], former [[Prime Minister]] and former leader of the [[Progressive Conservative Party of Canada]] (also a predecessor of the CPC), held the seat in the now-abolished [[riding]] of Calgary Centre. Of Canada's 22 serving Prime Ministers, two have come from a Calgary riding; the first was the Right Honourable [[R.B. Bennett]] who held that position from 1930 to 1935. ===Contemporary issues=== As a city that has experienced rapid growth in recent years, Calgary is having its share of growing pains. Among the most significant is that of [[urban sprawl]]. With no geographical barriers to its growth besides the [[Tsuu T'ina Nation 145, Alberta|Tsuu T'ina First Nation]] to the southwest and an affluent population that can afford large homes and properties, the city now has only a slightly smaller urban footprint than that of [[New York City]] and its [[borough|boroughs]], despite having less than one-eighth the population of New York City proper. This has led to difficulties in providing necessary transportation to Calgary’s population, both in the form of roadways and public transit. The result has also been a downtown which has traditionally lacked life on the evenings and weekends. It has also led to a somewhat misguided interpretation of the city as being a “driver’s city”. With the redevelopment of the [[Beltline]] and the [[Downtown East Village]] at the forefront, efforts are underway to vastly increase the density of the inner city, but the sprawl continues nevertheless. Calgary has also struggled to find its own unique identity. On the one hand, it has relentlessly tried to maintain its western heritage. This has led to the popular nickname, &quot;Cowtown&quot;. At the same time, the city has branded itself as being a modern economic and business centre. In recent years, Calgary has also become one of Canada's most [[cosmopolitan]] cities and has been quickly evolving into a major cultural centre. These very different images have often resulted in ambiguity and confusion with regard to the direction of Calgary's continued development. Even though Calgary has a relatively low crime rate when compared to other cities in North America, [[gang|gangs]] and drug-related crime are becoming much larger issues than they have been in the past. Gang “warfare” is becoming more common all the time and contributes to a number of [[homicide|homicides]] in the city annually. Drug busts (particularly of [[Cannabis|Marijuana]] grow operations) are also becoming very common, especially in suburban communities where anonymity is possible. More [[socioeconomics|socioeconomic]] issues have also found their way into the city’s urban fabric in recent history. As the population grows, so does the rate of poverty and homelessness in the city. Certain neighbourhoods along with portions of [[Downtown Calgary|downtown]] have commonly been singled out as being home to much higher proportions of disadvantaged residents. Many neighbourhoods in the city’s east have been particularly (and perhaps unfairly) stereotyped this way. ==Education== [[image:Ucalgary.jpg|right|thumb|250px|University of Calgary Campus]] In the year 2005 roughly 97,000 students attended K-12 in about 215 schools in the English language public school system run by the [[Calgary Board of Education]].[http://www.cbe.ab.ca/media/facts.asp] Another 43,000 attend about 93 schools in the separate English language [[Calgary Catholic School District]] board.[http://www.cssd.ab.ca/schools/index.shtml] The much smaller francophone community has their own French language school boards (public and Catholic), which are both based in Calgary, but serve a larger regional district. Also, there are now several public [[Alberta charter schools|charter schools]] in the city. Calgary has a number of unique schools, including the country's first high school exclusively designed for Olympic calibre athletes, the [[National Sport School (Canada)|National Sport School]]. Calgary is the site of five major public post-secondary institutions. The [[University of Calgary]] is Calgary's primary large degree-granting facility. Currently, nearly 30,000 students are enrolled there. [[Mount Royal College]] is the city's second largest institution (13,000 students), and it grants degrees in a number of fields. [[Bow Valley College|Bow Valley College's]] main campus is located [[Downtown Calgary|downtown]] and provides training in business, technology, and the liberal arts for about 10,000 students (the college has three campuses in Calgary and numerous in the region). The [[Southern Alberta Institute of Technology|Southern Alberta Institute of Technology (SAIT)]] provides polytechnic education. The [[Alberta College of Art and Design|Alberta College of Art and Design (ACAD)]] is located in Calgary. In addition, the [[University of Lethbridge]] has a satellite campus in the city. There are also several private liberal arts institutions including Alliance University College, Nazarene University College and St. Mary's University College. There are a number of other smaller private colleges in the city. Calgary is also home to [[DeVry University|DeVry Career College's]] only Canadian campus. Calgary was also the home of the Milton Wiliams School for Education Through the Arts, a national centre of excellence in arts immersion education for children between the fifth and ninth grades; however, in early 2005, the aging school was demolished. However, the school is still active on the grounds of the Willow Park Elementary School. ==Sports and recreation== [[Image:1988_wolympics_logo.jpg|65px|left|XV Olympic Winter Games]] [[Image:Cop.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Ski Jump and Chair Lift at [[Canada Olympic Park]] Summit]]Calgary hosted the [[1988 Winter Olympic Games]]. Many of the Olympic facilities continue to function as major high performance training facilities. Among the most notable of these are [[Canada Olympic Park]] and the [[Olympic Oval]]. Calgary is currently home to the only [[luge]]/[[bobsleigh]] track and [[ski jumping|ski jump]] tower in Canada. Athletes also take advantage of the [[Altitude training|high altitude]] to improve their physical limit. With facilities that are considered to be world-class and close proximity to the [[Canadian Rockies]], Calgary attracts athletes from all over Canada and around the world for winter sport training. Calgary's multipurpose arena, the [[Pengrowth Saddledome]] was formerly known as the Olympic Saddledome. The Saddledome was the first modern arena in North America capable of accommodating an Olympic regulation-sized ice rink. Calgary's primary open-air stadium, [[McMahon Stadium]], was the site of the opening and closing ceremonies of the Olympics and is currently the venue for Calgary's [[Canadian Football League]] team, the Calgary Stampeders. The stadium has a capacity of nearly 40,000 and is the fifth largest in Canada. The [[Olympic Oval]] is primarily a speed-skating arena that can also accommodate hockey and high-performance training. The rink's ice is world-renowned, and it brings some of the best speed skaters in the world to the facility for training and competition. The Oval has often been touted as having &quot;''the fas
- [[Andre Rodgers]], baseball player (d. [[2004]]) *[[1935]] - [[David Hackett Fischer]], American historian *[[1939]] - [[Yael Dayan]], Israeli writer and politician *1939 - [[Harry Reid]], American politician *[[1943]] - [[Wayne Allard]], American politician *1943 - Brian Spencer Russell, Anglo-American fool *[[1944]] - [[Ibrahim Rugova]], first [[President of Kosovo]] (d. [[2006]]) *1944 - [[Botho Strauss|Botho Strauß]], German author *[[1945]] - [[Penelope Spheeris]], American film director *[[1946]] - [[Gianni Versace]], Italian fashion designer (d. [[1997]]) *1946 - [[John Banks (New Zealand)|John Banks]], New Zealand politician *[[1950]] - [[Bob Kevoian]], American radio personality *[[1954]] - [[Dan Butler]], American actor *1954 - [[Stone Phillips]], American television journalist *[[1957]] - [[Dagfinn Høybråten]], Norwegian politician *[[1958]] - [[Uladzimir Parfianovich]], Belarusian canoer *[[1960]] - [[Rick Savage]], British bassist ([[Def Leppard]]) *[[1966]] - [[Jinsei Shinzaki]], Japanese professional wrestler *[[1968]] - [[Lucy Liu]], American actress *1968 - [[Nate Mendel]], American bassist ([[Foo Fighters]]) *1968 - [[Chris Wedge]], American animator *[[1970]] - [[Sarah Silverman]], American comedian *[[1972]] - [[Sergei Zholtok]], Latvian ice hockey player (d. [[2004]]) *[[1973]] - [[Monica Seles]], Yugoslavian-born tennis player *1973 - [[Jan Ullrich]], German cyclist *[[1978]] - [[Nelly Furtado]], Canadian singer and songwriter *[[1979]] - [[Yvonne Catterfeld]], German singer and actress *[[1981]] - [[Britney Spears]], American singer *[[1982]] - [[Matt Ware]], American football player ==Deaths== *[[1348]] - [[Emperor Hanazono]] of Japan (b. [[1297]]) *[[1381]] - [[John of Ruysbroeck]], Flemish mystic *[[1463]] - Archduke [[Albert VI of Austria]] (b. [[1418]]) *[[1469]] - [[Piero di Cosimo de' Medici]], ruler of Florence (b. [[1416]]) *[[1515]] - [[Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba]], Spanish general and statesman (b. [[1453]]) *[[1547]] - [[Hernán Cortés]], Spanish explorer and conqueror (b. [[1485]]) *[[1552]] - [[Francis Xavier]], Spanish Catholic missionary (b. [[1506]]) *[[1594]] - [[Gerardus Mercator]], Flemish cartographer (b. [[1512]]) *[[1665]] - [[Catherine de Vivonne, marquise de Rambouillet]], French socialite (b. [[1588]]) *[[1694]] - [[Pierre Paul Puget]], French artist (b. [[1622]]) *[[1719]] - [[Pasquier Quesnel]], French Jansenist theologian (b. [[1634]]) *[[1723]] - [[Philip II, Duke of Orléans]], regent of France (b. [[1674]]) *[[1726]] - [[Samuel Penhallow]], English-born American colonist and historian (b. [[1665]]) *[[1747]] - [[Vincent Bourne]], English classical scholar (b. [[1695]]) *[[1748]] - [[Charles Seymour, 6th Duke of Somerset]], English politician (b. [[1662]]) *[[1774]] - [[Johann Friedrich Agricola]], German composer and organist (b. [[1720]]) *[[1814]] - [[Donatien Alphonse Francois de Sade|Marquis de Sade]], French writer (b. [[1740]]) *[[1849]] - [[Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen]], wife of [[William IV of the United Kingdom]] (b. [[1792]]) *[[1859]] - [[John Brown (abolitionist)|John Brown]], American abolitionist (hanged) (b. [[1800]]) *[[1860]] - [[Alfred Bunn]], British theatrical manager (b. [[1796]]) *[[1892]] - [[Jay Gould]], American entrepreneur (b. [[1836]]) *[[1918]] - [[Edmond Rostand]], French poet and dramatist (b. [[1868]]) *[[1931]] - [[Vincent d'Indy]], French composer (b. [[1851]]) *[[1943]] - [[Nordahl Grieg]], Norwegian author and journalist (b. [[1902]]) *[[1944]] - [[Josef Lhévinne]], Russian pianist (b. [[1874]]) *1944 - [[Filippo Tommaso Marinetti]], Italian writer (b. [[1876]]) *[[1950]] - [[Dinu Lipatti]], Romanian pianist (b. [[1917]]) *[[1957]] - [[Harrison Ford (silent film actor)|Harrison Ford]], American actor (b. [[1884]]) *1957 - [[Manfred Sakel]], Polish psychiatrist (b. [[1902]]) *[[1963]] - [[Thomas J. Hicks]], British-born runner (b. [[1875]]) *1963 - [[Sabu Dastagir]], Indian-born American actor (b. [[1924]]) *[[1966]] - [[Giles Cooper]], Irish-born playwright (b.[[1918]]) *[[1968]] - [[Adamson-Eric]] (Eric Adamson), Estonian painter (b. [[1902]]) *[[1969]] - [[Kliment Yefremovich Voroshilov]], Russian politician (b. [[1881]]) *[[1974]] - [[Max Weber (politician)|Max Weber]], Swiss Federal Councilor (b. [[1897]]) *[[1976]] - [[Danny Murtaugh]], baseball player and manager (b. [[1917]]) *[[1980]] - [[Chaudhry Muhammad Ali]], Prime Minister of [[Pakistan]] (b. [[1905]]) *1980 - [[Romain Gary]], Lithuanian-born French writer (b. [[1914]]) *[[1982]] - [[Marty Feldman]], British comedian, writer and actor (b. [[1933]]) *[[1983]] - [[Fifi d'Orsay]], Canadian actress (b. [[1904]]) *[[1985]] - [[Aniello Dellacroce]], American gangster (b. [[1914]]) *1985 - [[Philip Larkin]], English writer and jazz critic (b. [[1922]]) *[[1986]] - [[Desi Arnaz]], Cuban-born actor, musician, band leader, and composer (b. [[1917]]) *[[1987]] - [[Luis Federico Leloir]], French-born chemist and [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1906]]) *1987 - [[Yakov Borisovich Zel'dovich]], Russian physicist (b. [[1914]]) *[[1988]] - [[Tata Giacobetti]], Italian singer and lyricist ([[Quartetto Cetra]]) *[[1990]] - [[Aaron Copland]], American composer (b. [[1900]]) *[[1993]] - [[Pablo Escobar]], Colombian drug dealer (b. [[1949]]) *[[1995]] - [[Robertson Davies]], Canadian novelist (b. [[1913]]) *[[1997]] - [[Shirley Crabtree]], British professional wrestler (b. [[1930]]) *[[2002]] - [[Ivan Illich]], Austrian priest and philosopher (b. [[1926]]) *2002 - [[Arno Peters]], German historian (b. [[1916]]) *[[2003]] - [[Alan Davidson (food writer)|Alan Davidson]], British author (b. [[1924]]) *[[2004]] - [[Mona Van Duyn]], American poet (b. [[1921]]) *2004 - [[Alicia Markova]], British ballerina (b. [[1910]]) *[[2005]] - [[Van Tuong Nguyen]], Australian drug smuggler (hanged) (b. [[1980]]) *2005 - [[Kenneth Lee Boyd]], American convicted murderer (executed) (b. [[1948]]) ==Holidays and observances== *[[Calendar of Saints|R.C. Saints]] - [[St Bibiana]] *[[Laos]] - [[National Day]] *[[United Arab Emirates#Holidays|United Arab Emirates]] - [[National Day]] (independence from Britain, [[1971]]) ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/2 BBC: On This Day] ---- [[December 1]] - [[December 3]] - [[November 2]] - [[January 2]] — [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[af:2 Desember]] [[ar:2 ديسمبر]] [[an:2 d'abiento]] [[ast:2 d'avientu]] [[bg:2 декември]] [[be:2 сьнежня]] [[bs:2. decembar]] [[br:2 Kerzu]] [[ca:2 de desembre]] [[ceb:Disyembre 2]] [[cv:Раштав, 2]] [[co:2 di decembre]] [[cs:2. prosinec]] [[cy:2 Rhagfyr]] [[da:2. december]] [[de:2. Dezember]] [[et:2. detsember]] [[el:2 Δεκεμβρίου]] [[es:2 de diciembre]] [[eo:2-a de decembro]] [[eu:Abenduaren 2]] [[fo:2. desember]] [[fr:2 décembre]] [[fy:2 desimber]] [[gl:2 de decembro]] [[ko:12월 2일]] [[hr:2. prosinca]] [[io:2 di decembro]] [[id:2 Desember]] [[ia:2 de decembre]] [[is:2. desember]] [[it:2 dicembre]] [[he:2 בדצמבר]] [[jv:2 Desember]] [[ka:2 დეკემბერი]] [[csb:2 gòdnika]] [[ku:2'ê berfanbarê]] [[la:2 Decembris]] [[lt:Gruodžio 2]] [[lb:2. Dezember]] [[hu:December 2]] [[mk:2 декември]] [[ms:2 Disember]] [[nap:2 'e dicembre]] [[nl:2 december]] [[ja:12月2日]] [[no:2. desember]] [[nn:2. desember]] [[oc:2 de decembre]] [[os:2 декабры]] [[pl:2 grudnia]] [[pt:2 de Dezembro]] [[ro:2 decembrie]] [[ru:2 декабря]] [[se:Juovlamánu 2.]] [[sco:2 December]] [[sq:2 Dhjetor]] [[sh:2.12.]] [[scn:2 di dicèmmiru]] [[simple:December 2]] [[sk:2. december]] [[sl:2. december]] [[sr:2. децембар]] [[fi:2. joulukuuta]] [[sv:2 december]] [[tl:Disyembre 2]] [[tt:2. Dekäber]] [[te:డిసెంబర్ 2]] [[th:2 ธันวาคม]] [[vi:2 tháng 12]] [[tr:2 Aralık]] [[uk:2 грудня]] [[wa:2 d' decimbe]] [[war:Disyembre 2]] [[zh:12月2日]] [[pam:Disiembri 2]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>December 1</title> <id>8357</id> <revision> <id>42007259</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T04:33:44Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rklawton</username> <id>754622</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Births */ removed redundant year link</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- language links at the bottom of this page --&gt; '''[[December 1]]''' is the 335th (in leap years the 336th) day of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]]. There are 30 days remaining. {{DecemberCalendar}} ==Events== *[[1640]] - [[Portugal]] regains its independence from [[Spain]] and [[João IV of Portugal]] becomes king. *[[1822]] - [[Peter I of Brazil|Peter I]] is crowned as Emperor of [[Brazil]]. *[[1824]] - [[U.S. presidential election, 1824]]: Since no candidate received a majority of the total [[U.S. Electoral College|electoral college]] votes in the election, the [[United States House of Representatives]] is given the task to decide the winner (as stipulated by the [[Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution]]). *[[1835]] - [[Hans Christian Andersen]] publishes first book of fairy tales *[[1884]] - [[American Old West]] - Near Frisco, [[New Mexico]] (now [[Reserve, New Mexico|Reserve]]), deputy sheriff [[Elfego Baca]] holds off a gang of 80 Texan [[cowboy]]s who want to kill him for arresting [[Charles McCarthy]]. *[[1885]] - Although the exact date is unknown, the [[US Patent Office]] acknowledges December 1st, [[1885]] as the first day [[Dr Pepper]] was served. *[[1913]] - [[Ford Motor Company]] introduces the first moving [[assembly line]]. *[[1918]] - [[Iceland]] becomes a self-governing kingdom, yet remains united with [[Denmark]]. *1918 - [[Transylvania]] unites with [[Romania]], following the [[March 27]] incorporation of [[Bessarabia]] and [[Bucovina]]. *1918 - The Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later known as the [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia]]) is proclaimed. *[[1919]] - [[Nancy Astor|Lady Astor]] becomes first female member of the British [[Parliament]] to take her seat (she had been elected to that position on [[No
n between the Satpura and Vindhya ranges, and drains the northern slope of the Satpura range, running west towards the Arabian Sea. [[Image:Aravalli.jpg|thumb|240px|The Aravalli range in Rajasthan.]] The '''[[Aravalli Range]]''' is the oldest mountain range in India, running from northeast to southwest across [[Rajasthan]] in western [[India]], extending approximately 500&amp;nbsp;km (310&amp;nbsp;miles). The northern end of the range continues as isolated hills and rocky ridges into [[Haryana]], ending near [[Delhi]]. The highest peak is [[Mount Abu]], rising to 1,722&amp;nbsp;m (5,653&amp;nbsp;feet), lying near the southwestern extremity of the range, close to the border with [[Gujarat]]. The city of [[Ajmer]] with its lake lies on the southern slope of the range in Rajasthan. The Aravalli Range is the eroded stub of an ancient folded mountain system that was once snow-capped. The range rose in a [[Precambrian]] event called the Aravalli-Delhi [[orogen]]. The range joins two of the ancient segments that make up the Indian [[craton]], the [[Marwar]] segment to the northwest of the range, and the Bundelkhand segment to the southeast. [[Image:India topo big.jpg|thumb|240px|Elevated regions in India.]] The '''[[Western Ghats]]''' or '''Sahyadri''' mountains run along the western edge of [[India]]'s [[Deccan]] Plateau, and separate the Deccan plateau from a narrow coastal plain along the [[Arabian Sea]]. The range starts south of the [[Tapti River]] near the border of [[Gujarat]] and [[Maharashtra]], and runs approximately 1,600&amp;nbsp;km (1,000&amp;nbsp;miles) through the states of Maharashtra, [[Goa]], [[Karnataka]], [[Kerala]], and [[Tamil Nadu]], almost to the southern tip of the Indian peninsula. The average elevation is around 1,000&amp;nbsp;m with the higher peaks occurring in the northern section of the range in Maharashtra. Two of the notable peaks lying in the western ghats are [[Kalsubai]] 1,646&amp;nbsp;m (5,427&amp;nbsp;feet) and [[Mahabaleshwar]] 1,438&amp;nbsp;m (4,710&amp;nbsp;feet). The '''[[Eastern Ghats]]''' are a discontinuous range of mountains, which have been eroded and cut through by the four major rivers of southern [[India]], the [[Godavari]], [[Mahanadi River|Mahanadi]], [[Krishna River|Krishna]], and [[Kaveri River|Kaveri]]. These mountain ranges extend from [[West Bengal]] in the north, through [[Orissa]] and [[Andhra Pradesh]] to [[Tamil Nadu]] in the south. They run parallel to the [[Bay of Bengal]] and are not as tall as the Western Ghats, though some of its peaks are over 1000&amp;nbsp;m in height. The Eastern and Western Ghats meet at the [[Nilgiri]] knot in Tamil Nadu. The [[Anai Mudi]] in the [[Cardamom Hills]] at 2,695&amp;nbsp;m (8,841&amp;nbsp;feet) in Kerala is the highest peak in the Western Ghats. The Nilgiris are considered to be a part of the Western Ghats. ===Indo-Gangetic plain=== {{main|Indo-Gangetic plain}} [[Image:Ganga.jpg|thumb|200px|A satellite view of the Gangetic plains.]] [[Image:IndoGangeticPlain Map.png|thumb|240px|Extent of the Indo-Gangetic plain across South Asia.]] The '''Indo-Gangetic plains''' are large [[floodplain]]s of the [[Indus]] and the [[Ganga]]-[[Brahmaputra]] river systems. They run parallel to the Himalaya mountains, from [[Jammu and Kashmir]] in the west to [[Assam]] in the east, draining the states of [[Punjab, India|Punjab]], [[Haryana]], eastern [[Rajasthan]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[Bihar]], [[Jharkhand]] and [[West Bengal]]. The plains encompass an area of 700,000&amp;nbsp;km&amp;sup2; (270,000&amp;nbsp;mile&amp;sup2;) and vary in width through their length by several hundred kilometres. Major rivers that form a part of this system are the Ganga ([[Ganges River|Ganges]]) and [[Indus River]] along with their tributaries; [[Beas River|Beas]], [[Yamuna River|Yamuna]], [[Gomti River|Gomti]], [[Ravi River|Ravi]], [[Chambal River|Chambal]], [[Sutlej River|Sutlej]] and [[Chenab River|Chenab]]. The Indo-Gangetic belt is the world's most extensive expanse of uninterrupted [[alluvium]] formed by the deposition of [[silt]] by the numerous rivers. The plains are flat and mostly treeless, making it conducive for [[irrigation]] through [[canal]]s. The area is also rich in [[ground water]] sources. The plains are one of the world's most [[intensive farming|intensely farmed]] areas. Crops grown on the Indo-Gangetic Plain are primarily [[rice]] and [[wheat]], grown in [[Crop rotation|rotation]]. Other crops include [[maize]], [[sugarcane]] and [[cotton]]. Also known as the Great Plains, the Indo-Gangetic plains rank among the world's most densely populated areas. ===Thar Desert=== {{main|Thar Desert}} [[Image:Jaisalmer-3.jpg|thumb|240px|[[Jaisalmer]] in Rajasthan is situated in the heart of the Thar Desert. The region is arid and dusty.]] The '''Thar Desert''' (also known as the '''Great Indian Desert''') is a hot [[desert]] that forms a significant portion of western India. Spread over four states in [[India]] &amp;ndash; [[Punjab, India|Punjab]], [[Haryana]], [[Rajasthan]], and [[Gujarat]] it covers an area of 208,110&amp;nbsp;km&amp;sup2; (80,350&amp;nbsp;mile&amp;sup2;). The desert continues into [[Pakistan]] as the [[Cholistan Desert]]. Most of the Thar Desert is situated in [[Rajasthan]], covering 61% of its geographic area. Most of the desert is rocky, with a small part of the extreme west of the desert being sandy. The origin of the Thar Desert is uncertain. Some geologists consider it to be 4,000 to 10,000 years old, whereas others state that [[aridity]] began in this region much earlier. The area is characterised by extreme temperatures of above 45&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;[[Celsius|C]] (113&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;[[Fahrenheit|F]]) in summer to below [[freezing point|freezing]] in winters. Rainfall is precarious and erratic, ranging from below 120&amp;nbsp;mm (4.72&amp;nbsp;in) in the extreme west to 375&amp;nbsp;mm (14.75&amp;nbsp;in) eastward. The lack of rainfall is mainly due to the unique position of the desert with respect to the Aravalli range. The desert lies in the rain shadow area of the [[Bay of Bengal]] arm of the southwest monsoon. The parallel nature of the range to the Arabian Sea arm also means that the desert does not receive much rainfall. The desert can be divided into two regions, the great Desert and the little desert. The great Desert extends northwards from the edge of the [[Rann of Kutch]] region of Gujarat. The little desert extends from the [[River Luni]] between the towns of [[Jodhpur]] and [[Jaisalmer]], up to the northern areas. The soils of the arid region are generally sandy to sandy-loam in texture. The consistency and depth vary according to the topographical features. The low-lying loams are heavier and may have a hard pan of clay, [[calcium carbonate]] or [[gypsum]]. Due to the low population density, the effect of the population on the environment is relatively less compared to the rest of India. ===Highlands=== The Central Highlands are composed of three main plateaus &amp;ndash; the [[Malwa]] Plateau in the west, the [[Deccan Plateau]] in the south, (covering most of the Indian peninsula); and the [[Chota Nagpur Plateau]] in [[Jharkhand]] towards the east. [[image:deccan.jpg|thumb|240px|Satellite image of the Deccan region of southern India]] The '''Deccan''' [[plateau]] is a large triangular plateau, bounded by the Vindhyas to the north and flanked by the Eastern and Western Ghats. The Deccan covers a total area of 1.9 million&amp;nbsp;km&amp;sup2; (735,000 mile&amp;sup2;). It is mostly flat, with elevations ranging from 300 to 600&amp;nbsp;m (1,000 to 2,000&amp;nbsp;feet) {{ref|deccan}}. The name ''Deccan'' comes from the [[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]] word ''dakshina'', which means &quot;the south&quot;. The plateau slopes gently from west to east and gives rise to several peninsular [[river]]s such as the [[Godavari]], the [[Krishna]], the [[Kaveri]] and the [[Narmada River|Narmada]]. This region is mostly semi-arid as it lies on the leeward side of both Ghats. Much of the Deccan is covered by thorn scrub forest scattered with small regions of [[deciduous]] broadleaf forest. Climate ranges from hot summers to mild winters. The '''Chota Nagpur Plateau''' is a plateau in eastern India, which covers much of [[Jharkhand]] state as well as adjacent parts of [[Orissa]], [[Bihar]], and [[Chhattisgarh]]. The total area of Chota Nagpur Plateau is approximately 65,000&amp;nbsp;km&amp;sup2; (25,000&amp;nbsp;mile&amp;sup2;). The Chota Nagpur Plateau is made up of three smaller plateaus, the Ranchi, Hazaribagh, and Kodarma plateaus. The Ranchi plateau is the largest of the plateaus, with an average elevation of 700&amp;nbsp;m (2,300&amp;nbsp;feet). Much of the plateau is forested, covered by the [[Chota Nagpur dry deciduous forest]]s. The plateau is famous for its vast reserves of ores and [[coal]]. Besides the Great Indian peninsula, the [[Kathiawar]] Peninsula in Gujarat is another large peninsula of India. === East coast=== The '''Eastern Coastal Plain''' is a wide stretch of land lying between the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal. It stretches from Tamil Nadu in the south to West Bengal in the north. [[river delta|Deltas]] of many of India's rivers form a major portion of these plains. The [[Mahanadi]], [[Godavari]], [[Kaveri]] and [[Krishna]] rivers drain these plains. The region receives both the Northeast and Southwest monsoon rains with its annual rainfall averaging between 1,000&amp;nbsp;mm (40&amp;nbsp;in) and 3,000&amp;nbsp;mm (120&amp;nbsp;in). The width of the plains varies between 100 to 130&amp;nbsp;km (62 to 80&amp;nbsp;miles) {{ref|ecp}}. The plains are divided into seven regions: The Mahanadi delta; the southern Andhra Pradesh plain; the Krishna Godavari deltas; the Kanyakumari coast; [[Coromandel Coast]] and sandy [[littoral]]. === West coast=== [[Image:India Goa Coastline Tiracol.jpg|thumb|240px|A view of India's west coast at Goa, near the border with Maharashtra.]] The '''Western
., usually never). Furthermore, the Great Old Ones, or ''Ancient Ones'', have no unified [[pantheon (gods)|pantheon]]{{Rn|Tremlett-tbq}}. Indeed, the term &quot;Ancient Ones&quot; appears in only one Lovecraft story, &quot;[[Through the Gates of the Silver Key]]&quot; (moreover, the story is actually a collaboration between Lovecraft and his friend and correspondent [[E. Hoffman Price]]). ===Derleth's elemental theory=== Derleth also connected the deities of the mythos to the four [[elemental|elements]] of ''air'', ''earth'', ''fire'', and ''water''. This system left gaps which Derleth filled in by creating the beings [[Ithaqua]], representing ''air'', and [[Cthugha]], representing ''fire''{{Rn|Schultz-27}}. However, the system is fraught with problems. For example, Derleth classified Cthulhu as a ''water elemental'', but if this were so, how could he be trapped beneath the ocean and how could his [[Telepathy|psychic emanations]] be blocked by water? Furthermore, applying the elemental theory to beings that function on a cosmic scale (such as [[Yog-Sothoth]]) is also problematic&amp;mdash;some authors have tried to get around this by creating a separate cateogory of ''aethyr'' elementals for [[Azathoth]], [[Shub-Niggurath]], [[Nyarlathotep]], and Yog-Sothoth. Another problem is that Derleth matched the ''earth'' beings against the ''fire'' beings and the ''air'' beings against the ''water'' beings, which is not consistent with the traditional elemental dichotomy (namely, that ''air'' opposes ''earth'' and ''fire'' opposes ''water'').{{Rn|Harms-101}} {|class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |+'''Elemental classifications''' !Air !Earth !Fire !Water |- |[[Hastur]]&amp;#42;&lt;br&gt;[[Ithaqua]]&amp;#42;&lt;br&gt;[[Zhar (Great Old One)|Zhar and Lloigor]]&amp;#42; |[[Azathoth]](?)&lt;br&gt;[[Cyäegha]]&lt;br&gt;[[Nyarlathotep]](?)&lt;br&gt;[[Nyogtha]]&lt;br&gt;[[Shub-Niggurath]]&lt;br&gt;[[Tsathoggua]]&lt;br&gt;[[Yog-Sothoth]](?) |[[Great Old One compendium#Aphoom-Zhah|Aphoom-Zhah]]&lt;br&gt;[[Cthugha]]&amp;#42; |[[Cthulhu]]&lt;br&gt;[[Deep Ones#Father Dagon and Mother Hydra|Dagon]]&lt;br&gt;[[Ghatanothoa]]&lt;br&gt;[[Deep Ones#Father Dagon and Mother Hydra|Mother Hydra]]&lt;br&gt;[[Xothic legend cycle#Zoth-Ommog|Zoth-Ommog]] |} &amp;#42;Deity created by Derleth. ===Conclusion=== To his credit, Derleth became a [[publisher]] of Lovecraft's stories after his death{{Rn|bloch-8}}. Lovecraft himself was very critical of his own writings and was often easily discouraged, especially when faced with any rejection of his work{{Rn|Joshi-I}}. Were it not for Derleth, Lovecraft's writings and the Cthulhu mythos might have remained largely unknown. ==See also== * [[Elements of the Cthulhu mythos]] * [[Dreamlands]] * [[Elder God (Cthulhu mythos)|Elder Gods]] * [[Great Old One]]s * [[Outer God]]s * The Cthulhu mythos has become part of [[popular culture]]. See [[References to the Cthulhu mythos]] for a list. * For a list of characters, see [[Cthulhu mythos biographies]]. ==References== ===Books=== * {{cite book | last = Bloch | first = Robert | chapter = Heritage of Horror | date = 1982 | title = The Best of H.P. Lovecraft: Bloodcurdling Tales of Horror and the Macabre | edition = 1st ed. | publisher = Ballantine Books | id = ISBN 0-345-35080-4 }} * {{cite book | last = Derleth | first = August | chapter = The Cthulhu Mythos | title = Tales of the Cthulhu Mythos | location = Sauk City, WI | publisher = Arkham House | date = 1969 }} * {{cite book | last = Harms | first = Daniel | title = The Encyclopedia Cthulhiana | edition = 2nd ed. | publisher = Chaosium, Inc. | date = 1998 | id = ISBN 1-56882-119-0 }} * {{cite book | last = Joshi | first = S.T. | title = H. P. Lovecraft | edition = 1st ed. | location = Mercer Island, WA | publisher = Starmont House | date = 1982 | id = ISBN 0-916-73236-3 / ISBN 0-916-73235-5 (paper) }} * {{cite book | author = Joshi S.T. (ed.) | title = H. P. Lovecraft: Four Decades of Criticism | location = Athens, OH | publisher = Ohio University Press | date = 1980 | id = ISBN 0-821-40442-3 (cloth) / ISBN 0-821-40577-2 (paper) }} * {{cite book | last = Joshi | first = S.T. | coauthors = David E. Schultz | title = An H.P. Lovecraft Encyclopedia | location = Westport, CT | publisher = Greenwood Press | date = 2001 | id = ISBN 0-313-31578-7 }} * {{cite book | last = Lovecraft | first = Howard P. | title = Selected Letters III | location = Sauk City, WI | publisher = Arkham House | date = 1998 | id = ISBN 0-870-54032-7 }} * {{cite book | last = Mariconda | first = Steven J. | chapter = Toward a Reader-Response Approach to the Lovecraft Mythos | title = On the Emergence of &quot;Cthulhu&quot; &amp; Other Observations | edition = 1st printing | location = West Warwick, RI | publisher = Necronomicon Press | date = 1995 | id = ISBN 0-940884-81-X }} * {{cite book | last = Mosig | first = Yozan Dirk W. | title = Mosig at Last: A Psychologist Looks at H. P. Lovecraft | edition = 1st printing | location = West Warwick, RI | publisher = Necronomicon Press | date = 1997 | id = ISBN 0-940-88490-9 }} &lt;!--HIDING FOR NOW: Price, Robert M. (ed.) ''Black Forbidden Things: Cryptical Secrets from the &quot;Crypt of Cthulhu&quot;'', San Bernardino, CA: The Borgo Press, 1992. ISBN 1-557-42248-6 / ISBN 1-557-42249-4. --&gt; * {{cite book | last = Price | first = Robert M. | chapter = Introduction | title = The New Lovecraft Circle | editor = Robert M. Price (ed.) | location = New York, N.Y. | publisher = Random House, Inc. | date = 1996 | id = ISBN 0-345-44406-X }} * {{cite book | last = Price | first = Robert M. | chapter = Lovecraft's 'Artificial Mythology' | title = An Epicure in the Terrible: a centennial anthology of essays in honor of H.P. Lovecraft | editor = David E. Schultz and S.T. Joshi (ed.) | publisher = Rutherford, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press; Cranbury, NJ: Associated University Presses | date = 1991 | id = ISBN 0-838-63415-X }} * {{cite book | last = Shreffler | first = Phillip A. | title = The H. P. Lovecraft Companion | location = Westport, CT / London, England | publisher = Greenwood Press | date = 1977 | id = ISBN 0-837-19482-2 }} * {{cite book | last = Turner | first = James | chapter = Iä! Iä! Cthulhu Fhtagn! | title = Tales of the Cthulhu Mythos | edition = 1st ed. | publisher = Random House | date = 1998 | id = ISBN 0-345-42204-X }} ===Journals=== * {{cite journal | last = Dziemianowicz | first = Stefan | title = &quot;Divers Hands&quot; | journal = Crypt of Cthulhu #80: A Post-structuralist Thriller and Theological Journal | year = Eastertide 1992 | volume = 11 | issue = 2 }} West Warwick, RI: Necronomicon Press. * {{cite journal | last = Price | first = Robert M. | title = &quot;H. P. Lovecraft and the Cthulhu Mythos&quot; | journal = Crypt of Cthulhu #35: A Pulp Thriller and Theological Journal | year = Hallowmas 1985 | volume = 5 | issue = 1 }} Mount Olive, NC: Cryptic Publications. ===Web sites=== * {{cite web | last = Joshi | first = S. T | title = H. P. Lovecraft | work = The Scriptorium | url = http://www.themodernword.com/scriptorium/lovecraft.html | accessdate = July 20 | accessyear = 2005 }} * {{cite web | last = Tremlett | first = J. Edward | title = A Color Out of Space, A Shadow Out of Time: H.P. Lovecraft &amp; His Works | url = http://www.nocturnis.net/articles/genwod/printable/51/page1.html | accessdate = October 14 | accessyear = 2005 }} ===Notes=== #{{Note|Harms-viii-a}}Harms, &quot;A Brief History of the Cthulhu Mythos&quot;, ''The Encyclopedia Cthulhiana'', pp. viii&amp;ndash;ix. #{{Note|Joshi-31ff}}Joshi, &quot;The Lovecraft Mythos&quot;, ''H. P. Lovecraft'', pp. 31ff. #{{Note|Joshi-50}}Although Lovecraft sometimes mentioned the &quot;Arkham cycle&quot; in his correspondence, he never explained its meanings; it is possible that he was referring to his stories that take place in his mythical [[New England]] setting. (Joshi &amp; Schultz, ''An H.P. Lovecraft Encyclopedia'', pp. 50.) #{{Note|Joshi-51}}Lovecraft's flippant use of ''Yog-Sothothery''&amp;mdash;a veiled reference to [[Yog-Sothoth]], one of the mythical beings in his tales&amp;mdash;probably indicates that he never took his mythos very seriously. In a letter to [[Frank Belknap Long]] in early 1931, Lovecraft wrote &quot;that 'Yog-Sothoth' is a basically immature conception [and] unfitted for really serious literature&quot;. (Joshi &amp; Schultz, ''An H. P. Lovecraft Encyclopedia'', pp. 51.) &lt;!--Lovecraft and the mythos--&gt; #{{Note|Joshi-32}}Joshi's characterizations are a followup to George T. Wetzel's assertion that Lovecraft's mythos stories can be thought of as chapters of a long novel (Joshi, &quot;The Lovecraft Mythos&quot;, pp. 32). See also Wetzel's essay &quot;The Cthulhu Mythos: A Study&quot; (''H. P. Lovecraft: Four Decades of Criticism&quot;, pp. 79&amp;ndash;95). #{{Note|Price1991-247B}}Price, &quot;Lovecraft's 'Artificial Mythology'&quot;, ''An Epicure in the Terrible'', pp. 247. #{{Note|Price1996-xviii}}Price, &quot;Introduction&quot;, ''The New Lovecraft Circle'', pp. xviii&amp;ndash;xix. Price writes: &quot;One seeks forbidden knowledge, whether wittingly or, more likely, unwittingly, but one may not know till it is too late... The knowledge, once gained, is too great for the mind of man. It is [[Promethean]], [[Faustian]] knowledge. Knowledge that destroys in the moment of enlightenment, a [[Gnosis]] of damnation, not of salvation.&quot; #{{Note|Price1991-249}}Price, &quot;Lovecraft's 'Artificial Mythology'&quot;, pp. 249. #{{Note|Tremlett-tum}}Tremlett, 'The Unknown Mind', &quot;A Color Out of Space, A Shadow Out of Time: H.P. Lovecraft &amp; His Works&quot;. #{{Note|Joshi-31}}Joshi, &quot;The Lovecraft Mythos&quot;, pp. 31. &lt;!--Lovecraft's pantheon--&gt; #{{Note|Shreffler-156a}}Shreffler, &quot;The Hierarchy of Monsters&quot;, ''The H. P. Lovecraft
ished at the Old Jerry McAuley Water Street Mission, New York City. A striking collection of cases also appears in the appendix to Professor Leuba's article.&quot; William James cited the works of James H. Leuba and Edwin D. Starbuck frequently. Leuba quoted sections of ''Autobiography'' by John B. Gough, who describes his depression as an alcoholic. Leuba also points out that self-surrender is necessary for conversion. He quotes S. H. Hadley and comments &quot;In this record the approach towards complete surrender can be followed step by step. He has laid aside pride enough to respond to the invitation and thereby confess publicly his inability to cease drinking. Old crimes, and that which the settlement of them will require of him, pass before his mind; for a moment he hesitates to accept the attitude towards them which submission to God would demand. His humble prayer for succor, and its effect, indicate that all the resistance of which he is conscious had given away, and that, as he called upon Christ, he threw himself unreservedly at his feet.&quot; Starbuck describes conversion following what A.A. came to refer to as &quot;hitting rock bottom.&quot; When &quot;the divine urging has become imperative and irresistible. Here is the critical point, the tragic moment. The subject resorts to evasion of good influences, pointing out the perfection of the present self, the imperfection of others, and anything to preserve the old self intact. It is more often a distress, a deep undefinable feeling of reluctance, which is perhaps a complex of all surface considerations which a thorough break in habits and associations would involve. He continues until complete exhaustion takes away the power of striving; he becomes nothing; his will is broken; he surrenders himself to the higher forces that are trying to claim him; he accepts the higher life as his own.&quot; Most importantly, Wilson found that his own sobriety seemed to grow stronger when he shared his personal alcoholic experience with other alcoholics. Wilson was on the verge of a relapse on a business trip to Akron. In a hotel lobby, he decided to phone local ministers and ask if they knew of alcoholics he could talk to. Thus he was introduced to Smith. Had it not been for Wilson's decision to reach out to a fellow sufferer, AA would not exist today. These were the ideas that he presented to Smith, who had been struggling with his own chronic drinking addiction. The two struck up a solid friendship and together they put Wilson's discoveries into practice. Smith's last drink is said to have been [[June 10]], [[1935]], and that is considered within A.A. to be the date of the founding of A.A. Their first publication in 1939, ''Alcoholics Anonymous'', the first 164 pages of which have remained virtually unchanged since then, has been a perennial best-seller. The fellowship began to be called &quot;Alcoholics Anonymous&quot; after the publication of this book. Given this start, it is no surprise that A.A. groups and members are frequently called &quot;Friends of Bill W.&quot; The [[AA Grapevine]] is the international journal of Alcoholics Anonymous. It is written, edited, illustrated, and read by A.A. members and others interested in the A.A. program of recovery from the disease of alcoholism. The growth of A.A., especially in its early years, was striking. In 2002, the General Service Office of Alcoholics Anonymous reported more than 100,000 A.A. groups in 150 countries, with a total membership of approximately two million alcoholics. ==How the A.A. program works== Although some believe that A.A's success lies in the sense of support its members gain from attending regular meetings, many members, as well as A.A's literature, hold that the essence of the program is the Twelve Steps. The Steps incorporate Dr. Silkworth's description of the two-fold problem of physical allergy and mental obsession in Step One, Dr. Jung's description of the spiritual solution in Step Two, the Oxford Groups' method of reaching a spiritual awakening in Steps Three through Eleven, and Wilson's experience in helping others in Step Twelve. The process of working the Steps is sometimes summed up as &quot;Trust god, clean house, and help others.&quot; (See [[twelve-step program]] for a list of the steps themselves.) A.A. members are encouraged to &quot;work the Steps&quot;, usually with the guidance of a voluntary sponsor. (A sponsor is a more experienced member who has worked the Steps before, usually of the same sex as the sponsee, and freely chosen - and just as freely &quot;fired&quot;- by the sponsee.) The Steps are designed to help the alcoholic achieve a spiritual, emotional and mental state conducive to lasting sobriety. There are many long-term A.A. members who claim that working the Steps has freed them entirely from the urge to drink alcohol. Whereas staying sober was once difficult and uncertain, these members report that sobriety is now much easier, provided they keep working the A.A. program. Most members regard attendance at A.A. meetings as important to their sobriety (although there are groups in A.A. made up of loners and members living in remote locations who communicate by mail and internet). Even members with decades of continuous sobriety still go to meetings regularly. There is no compulsion or requirement to attend. Members may attend as few or as many meetings as they wish, as frequently or infrequently as they like. However, new members are encouraged to go to 90 meetings in 90 days, and a sponsor may set his or her own expectations for a sponsee's attendance. No official membership or attendance records are kept at any level in A.A. However there are annually published estimates which are available through AAs headquarters in New York City, known as &quot;GSO&quot; (General Service Office). With the above in mind, a typical individual program of recovery for a newcomer may include: * Above all, avoiding the first drink. * Attendance at one or more meetings daily for 90 days or longer. Some people coming into A.A. have attended meetings daily for the first year. (Note: nowhere in A.A. literature is there a reference to frequent attendance at A.A. meetings. Many A.A.s believe this notion started in the treatment center industry; graduating patients were advised to attend many A.A. meetings, presumably in an effort to acquire a new peer group of abstinent friends to reinforce the effects of treatment. Regardless of source, this recommendation is consistent with a suggestion commonly heard in A.A. that one in recovery should &quot;change playgrounds and playmates.&quot;) * Contact with one's sponsor daily in order to work the steps and to discuss whatever problems one may be having in one's life, problems which may, if not addressed, lead the alcoholic to take the first drink: &quot;One [drink] is too many and one thousand [drinks] never enough.&quot; * Daily prayer and/or meditation, as suggested by Step 11: &quot;Sought through prayer and meditation to improve our conscious contact with god ''as we understood him,'' praying only for knowledge of his will for us and the power to carry that out.&quot; * Daily attention to Step 10: &quot;Continued to take personal inventory and when we were wrong, promptly admitted it.&quot; * Service work, which, for the newcomer, can be as uncomplicated as making coffee at meetings, helping to set up and break down tables and chairs, etc. It will be noted that the program is to be worked ''daily'' and done so ''one day at a time.'' Frequently heard at meetings: &quot;I'm a winner today, no matter what happens, as long as I don't pick up that first drink.&quot; A common feature of A.A. meetings is that members are asked to speak to the group about their experience with alcoholism and recovery. However, there is no requirement to speak. Some members speak every time they are asked; others simply sit and listen in meetings for years before they say anything; some may choose never to speak. A.A. does not charge membership fees to attend meetings, but instead relies on whatever donations members choose to give to cover basic costs like room rental, coffee, etc. Contributions from members are limited to a maximum annual amount. A.A. is self-supporting and is not a charity. It accepts no subsidies from any non-A.A. source and donations of money or other items of value from such sources are not accepted. A.A. receives proceeds from sale of its book ''Alcoholics Anonymous'' along with other A.A. published books and literature, which are periodically reviewed from a cost standpoint so that printed materials can be priced to be self-sustaining while not actually being a source of profit for the organization. Many A.A. groups use the famous [[Serenity Prayer]] and many AA groups in the Southern United States often close their meeting with [[The Lord's Prayer]]. ==Beliefs about alcoholism== There is no official creed of A.A. belief about alcoholism, since individual members are free to believe whatever they wish based on their own experiences. Even the core twelve step program is presented to members as suggested rather than mandatory. While AA literature states that &quot;our twelve steps are only suggestions&quot;, many more traditionally-minded members claim that today's decreased emphasis on &quot;Step Work&quot; has resulted in a drastic decline in AA's success rate. In the early days of AA, say critics of today's meeting-centered brand of Alcoholics Anonymous, the 12 Steps were mandatory and attendance at meetings were optional. They claim that during this time, AA experienced 75-90% success rates of recovery{{fact}}. In recent years however, the Fellowship has shifted its views greatly and now many veteran AA members advise newcomers that meetings are mandatory while placing less emphasis on &quot;working the steps&quot;. Some blame this lessened emphasis on The Twelve Steps for a first-time sobrie
r [[microfiche]] files in the traditional office environment. Computer files provide a way to organize the resources used to permanently store information inside a computer. ==File Content== Information in a computer file usually consists of smaller packets of information (often called ''records'' or ''lines'') that are individually different but share some trait in common. For example, a payroll file might contain information concerning all the employees in a company and their payroll details; each record in the payroll file concerns just one employee, and all the records have the common trait of being related to payroll&amp;mdash;this is very similar to placing all payroll information into a specific filing cabinet in an office that does not have a computer. A text file may contain lines of text, corresponding to printed lines on a piece of paper. The way information is grouped into a file is entirely up to the person designing the file. Most computer files are used by [[computer programs]]. These programs create, modify and delete files for their own use on an as-needed basis. The programmers who create the programs decide what files are needed, how they are to be used and (often) their names. In some cases, computer programs manipulate files that are made visible to the computer user. For example, in a word-processing program, the user manipulates document files that she names herself. The content of the document file is arranged in a way that the word-processing program understands, but the user chooses the name and location of the file, and she provides the bulk of the information (such as words and text) that will be stored in the file. Many different types of information can be stored in computer files. Some computer files contain text (words, spaces, digits and so on). Others contain pictures or sounds. Still others may contain ''[[computer program|computer programs]].'' A file is simply a stream of bytes, which is treated by the operating system as a single logical unit. Many applications pack all their data files into a single file. The data files used by games such as [[Doom]] and [[Quake]] are examples of this. A computer data file often has a size, which is usually expressed in ''[[byte|bytes]].'' Special types of files in Unix, such as device nodes in /dev and entries in /proc under Linux, do not use file sizes. Files on a computer can be created, moved, modified, grown, shrunk and deleted. In most cases, computer programs that are executed on the computer handle these operations, but the user of a computer can also manipulate files if necessary. For instance, [[Microsoft Word]] files are normally created and modified by the Microsoft Word program in response to user commands, but the user can also move, rename, or delete these files directly by using a ''[[file manager|file manager program]]'' such as [[Windows Explorer]] (on Windows computers). ==Identifying and organizing files== [[Image:FileFolders.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Files and folders arranged in a hierarchy]] In modern computer systems, files always have names. Files are located in ''directories''. A file's name within a directory must be unique. In other words, no two files in a directory may have the same name. A file's name and the path to the file's directory uniquely identifies it among all other files in the computer system&amp;mdash;no two files can have the same name. The appearance of the name depends on the type of computer system being used. Early computers permitted only a few letters or digits in the name of a file, but modern computers allow long names containing almost any combination of letters or digits, making it easier to understand the purpose of a file at a glance. Some computer systems allow file names to contain spaces; others do not. Case-sensitivity of file names is determined by the [[file system]]. Unix file systems are usually case sensitive and allow user-level applications to create files whose names differ only in the case of characters. [[Microsoft Windows]] supports multiple file systems, each with different policies regarding case-sensitivity. The common [[File Allocation Table|FAT]] file system can have multiple files whose names differ only in case if the user uses a [[disk editor]] to edit the file names in the [[directory entry|directory entries]]. User applications, however, will usually not allow the user to create multiple files with the same name but differing in case. Most computers organize files into hierarchies called ''folders, directories,'' or ''catalogs.'' (The concept is the same irrespective of the terminology used.) Each folder can contain an arbitrary number of files, and it can also contain other folders. The other folders can contain still more files and folders and so on, thus building a tree-like structure in which one &amp;ldquo;master folder&amp;rdquo; (or &amp;ldquo;root folder&amp;rdquo;&amp;mdash;the name varies from one computer to another) can contain any number of levels of other folders and files. The folders can be named just as files can (except for the root folder, which often does not have a name). The use of folders makes it easier to organize files in a logical way. When a computer allows the use of folders, each file and folder has not only a name of its own, but also a ''path,'' which identifies the folder or folders in which a file or folder resides. In the path, some sort of special character&amp;mdash;such as a slash&amp;mdash;is used to separate the file and folder names. For example, in the illustration shown in this article, the path '''/Payroll/Salaries/Managers''' uniquely identifies a file called '''Managers''' in a folder called '''Salaries''', which in turn is contained in a file called '''Payroll'''. The folder and file names are separated by slashes in this example; the topmost or root folder has no name, and so the path begins with a slash (if the root folder had a name, it would precede this first slash). Many (but not all) computer systems use ''extensions'' in file names to help identify what they contain. On Windows computers, extensions consist of a dot or period at the end of a file name, followed by a few letters to identify the type of file. An extension of '''.txt''' identifies a text file; the '''.doc''' extension identifies any type of document or documentation, commonly in the [[Microsoft Word]] file format; and so on. Even when extensions are used in a computer system, the degree to which the computer system recognizes and heeds them can vary; in some systems, they are required, while in other systems, they are completely ignored if they are present. ==Protecting files== Many modern computer systems provide methods for protecting files against accidental and deliberate damage. Computers that allow for multiple users implement ''file permissions'' to control who may or may not modify, delete, or create files and folders. A given user may be granted only permission to modify a file or folder, but not to delete it; or a user may be given permission to create files or folders, but not to delete them. Permissions may also be used to allow only certain users to see the contents of a file or folder. Permissions protect against unauthorized tampering or destruction of information in files, and keep private information confidential by preventing unauthorized users from seeing certain files. Another protection mechanism implemented in many computers is a ''read-only flag.'' When this flag is turned on for a file (which can be accomplished by a computer program or by a human user), the file can be examined, but it cannot be modified. This flag is useful for critical information that must not be modified or erased, such as special files that are used only by internal parts of the computer system. Some systems also include a ''hidden flag'' to make certain files invisible; this flag is used by the computer system to hide essential system files that users must never modify ==Storing files== In physical terms, most computer files are stored on ''[[hard disk|hard disks]]''&amp;mdash;spinning magnetic disks inside a computer that can record information indefinitely. Hard disks allow almost instant access to computer files. On large computers, some computer files may be stored on magnetic tape. Files can also be stored on other media in some cases, such as writeable ''[[compact disc|compact discs]]'', ''[[Zip drive|Zip drives]],'' etc. ==Backing up files== When computer files contain information that is extremely important, a ''back-up'' process is used to protect against disasters that might destroy the files. Backing up files simply means making copies of the files in a separate location so that they can be restored if something happens to the computer, or if they are deleted accidentally. There are many ways to back up files. Most computer systems provide utility programs to assist in the back-up process, which can become very time-consuming if there are many files to safeguard. Files are often copied to removable media such as writeable CDs or cartridge tapes. Copying files to another hard disk in the same computer protects against failure of one disk, but if it is necessary to protect against failure or destruction of the entire computer, then copies of the files must be made on other media that can be taken away from the computer and stored in a safe, distant location. ==File systems and file managers== The way a computer organizes, names, stores and manipulates files is globally referred to as its ''[[file system]].'' All computers have at least one file system; some computers allow the use of several different file systems. For instance, on newer Windows computers, the older [[FAT]] and [[FAT32]] file systems of old versions of Windows are supported, in addition to the [[NTFS]] file system that is the normal file system for recent versions of Windows. NTFS is not newer
of formula fiction is assigned because of the reuse of plot, [[plot device]]s and [[stock character]]s. Genres like [[high fantasy]], [[Western movie|Westerns]] and [[science fiction]] [[space opera]] have specific settings, like the Old West, or outer space. Approaching the genre, certain assumed background information covers the nature and purpose of predictable elements of the story, such as the appearance of [[European dragon|dragon]]s in [[high fantasy]], [[warp drive]]s in [[science fiction]], or [[gunfight|shootouts]] at high noon in [[Western movie|Westerns]]. These set-ups are taken for granted by the genre conventions, and need not be explained for the reader anew. The ''formula'' is defined specifically by predictable narrative structure. Formulaic tales such as ''[[Adultery in Academia]]'', ''[[My Jewish Childhood]]'', or ''[[Beat Generation|Beatniks]] Wandering the [[Midwest]]'' incorporate plots that have been reused so often as to be easily recognizable. Perhaps the most clearly formulaic plots characterize the [[romantic comedy]] genre; in a book or film labeled as such, viewers already know its basic plot. In film, the reuse of similar settings and plot motifs is called the [[Hollywood cycles]]. == External links == * [http://www.ipl.org/div/farq/plotFARQ.html The &quot;Basic&quot; Plots in Literature] [[Category:Literature]] [[Category:Fiction]] [[Category:Literary genres]] [[de:Trivialliteratur]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Fungi</title> <id>10601</id> <revision> <id>15908402</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fungus]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Field (mathematics)</title> <id>10603</id> <revision> <id>41464764</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T14:56:51Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Abu Amaal</username> <id>265666</id> </contributor> <comment>/* See also */ integral domain, field of fractions</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[abstract algebra]], a '''field''' is an [[algebraic structure]] in which the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and [[division (mathematics)|division]] (except division by zero) may be performed, and the same rules hold which are familiar from the [[arithmetic]] of ordinary [[number]]s. ==Introduction== Fields are important objects of study in algebra since they provide a useful generalization of many number systems, such as the [[rational number|rational numbers]], [[real number|real numbers]], and [[complex number]]s. In particular, the usual rules of [[associativity]], [[commutativity]] and [[distributivity]] hold. Fields also appear in many other areas of mathematics; see the examples below. When abstract algebra was first being developed, the definition of a field usually did not include commutativity of multiplication, and what we today call a field would have been called either a ''commutative field'' or a ''rational domain''. In contemporary usage, a field is always commutative. A structure which satisfies all the properties of a field except for commutativity, is today called a ''[[division ring]]'' or sometimes a ''skew field'', but also ''non-commutative field'' is still widely used. Other languages have retained the old usage: for example, in [[Italian (language)|Italian]] and [[French (language)|French]], division rings are called ''corpo'' and ''corps'', both literally meaning 'body'. Instead, in [[German (language)|German]] and [[Spanish (language)|Spanish]], ''Körper'' (whence the [[blackboard bold]] '''K''' used to denote a field) and ''cuerpo'' mean 'field'. Notice that French language has no single word for field, they are simply called ''corps commutatif''. Italian for field is ''campo'', with the same literal meaning as English. The concept of a field is of use, for example, in defining [[vector space|vector]]s and [[matrix_(mathematics)|matrices]], two structures in [[linear algebra]] whose components can be elements of an arbitrary field. [[Galois theory]] studies the symmetry of equations by investigating the ways in which fields can be contained in each other. See [[field theory (mathematics)|field theory]] for more information. == History == In 1910 [[Ernst Steinitz]] gave the first axiomatic definition of a field in his paper ''Algebraische Theorie der Körper'' ([[german language|german]]:algebraic theory of fields). ==Definition== A ''field'' is a [[commutative ring]] (''F'', +, *) such that 0 does not equal 1 and all elements of ''F'' except 0 have a multiplicative inverse. (Note that 0 and 1 here stand for the identity elements for the + and * operations respectively, not the actual numbers [[0]] and [[1]]) Spelled out, this means that the following hold: ; Closure of ''F'' under + and * : For all ''a'', ''b'' belonging to ''F'', both ''a'' + ''b'' and ''a'' * ''b'' belong to ''F'' (or more formally, + and * are [[binary operations]] on ''F''). ; Both + and * are associative : For all ''a'', ''b'', ''c'' in ''F'', ''a'' + (''b'' + ''c'') = (''a'' + ''b'') + ''c'' and ''a'' * (''b'' * ''c'') = (''a'' * ''b'') * ''c''. ; Both + and * are commutative : For all ''a'', ''b'' belonging to ''F'', ''a'' + ''b'' = ''b'' + ''a'' and ''a'' * ''b'' = ''b'' * ''a''. ; The operation * is distributive over the operation + : For all ''a'', ''b'', ''c'', belonging to ''F'', ''a'' * (''b'' + ''c'') = (''a'' * ''b'') + (''a'' * ''c''). ; Existence of an additive identity : There exists an element 0 in ''F'', such that for all ''a'' belonging to ''F'', ''a'' + 0 = ''a''. ; Existence of a multiplicative identity : There exists an element 1 in ''F'' different from 0, such that for all ''a'' belonging to ''F'', ''a'' * 1 = ''a''. ; Existence of additive inverses : For every ''a'' belonging to ''F'', there exists an element &amp;minus;''a'' in ''F'', such that ''a'' + (&amp;minus;''a'') = 0. ; Existence of multiplicative inverses : For every ''a'' &amp;ne; 0 belonging to ''F'', there exists an element ''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt; in ''F'', such that ''a'' * ''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt; = 1. The requirement 0 &amp;ne; 1 ensures that the set which only contains a single element is not a field. Directly from the axioms, one may show that (F, +) and (F &amp;minus; {0}, *) are commutative [[group (mathematics)|groups]] ([[abelian group|abelian groups]]) and that therefore (see [[elementary group theory]]) the additive inverse &amp;minus;''a'' and the multiplicative inverse ''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt; are uniquely determined by ''a''. Furthermore, the multiplicative inverse of a product is equal to the product of the inverses: :(''a*b'')&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt; = ''b''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt; * ''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt; = ''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt; * ''b''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt; provided both ''a'' and ''b'' are non-zero. Other useful rules include :&amp;minus;''a'' = (&amp;minus;1) * ''a'' and more generally :&amp;minus;(''a * b'') = (&amp;minus;''a'') * b = ''a'' * (&amp;minus;''b'') as well as :''a'' * 0 = 0, all rules familiar from elementary [[arithmetic]]. If the requirement of commutativity of the operation * is dropped, one distinguishes the above '''commutative fields''' from '''non-commutative fields''', usually called [[division ring]]s or ''skew fields''. == Examples of fields == *The [[complex number|complex numbers]] '''C''', under the usual operations of addition and multiplication. The field of complex numbers contains the following ''subfields'' (a subfield of a field ''F'' is a set containing 0 and 1, closed under the operations + and * of ''F'' and with its own operations defined by restriction): **The [[rational number|rational numbers]] '''Q''' = { ''a''/''b'' | ''a'', ''b'' in '''Z''', ''b'' &amp;ne; 0 } where '''Z''' is the set of [[integer|integers]]. The rational number field contains no proper subfields. **An [[algebraic number field]] is a finite field extension of the [[rational number]]s '''Q''', that is, a field containing '''Q''' which has finite dimension as a [[vector space]] over '''Q'''. Such fields are very important in [[number theory]]. **The field of [[algebraic number|algebraic numbers]], the [[algebraic closure]] of '''Q'''. **The [[real number|real numbers]] '''R''', under the usual operations of addition and multiplication. When the real numbers are given the usual ordering, they form a ''complete ordered field'' which is categorical &amp;mdash; it is this structure that provides the foundation for most formal treatments of [[calculus]]. ***The real numbers contain several interesting subfields: the real [[algebraic number]]s, the [[computable number]]s, and the [[definable number]]s. *If ''q'' &gt; 1 is a power of a [[prime number]], then there exists ([[up to]] [[isomorphism]]) exactly one [[finite field]] with ''q'' elements, usually denoted '''F'''&lt;sub&gt;''q''&lt;/sub&gt;, '''Z'''/''q'''''Z''', or GF(''q''). Every other finite field is isomorphic to one of these fields. Such fields are often called a [[Galois field]], whence the notation GF(''q''). **In particular, for a given prime number ''p'', the set of integers modulo ''p'' is a finite field with ''p'' elements: '''F'''&lt;sub&gt;''p''&lt;/sub&gt; = {0, 1, ..., ''p''&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;1} where the operations are defined by performing the operation in '''Z''', dividing by ''p'' and taking the remainder; see [[modular arithmetic]]. ***Taking ''p'' = 2, we obtain the smallest field, '''F'''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, which has only two elements: 0 and 1. It can be defined by the two [[Cayley table| Cayley tables]] [[XOR|+]] '''0''' '''1''' [[Logical AND|*
cross the finish line dead even. If either car goes faster than its dial-in (called breaking out), it is disqualified regardless of who has the lowest elapsed time; if both cars break out, the one who breaks out by the smallest amount wins. This eliminates any advantage from putting a slower time on the windshield to get a head start. The effect of the bracket racing rules is to place a premium on consistency of performance of the driver and car rather than on raw speed, in that victory goes to the driver able to precisely predict elapsed time, whether it is fast or slow. This in turn makes victory much less dependent on large infusions of money, and more dependent on skill. Therefore, bracket racing is popular with casual weekend racers. Many of these recreational racers will drive their vehicles to the track, race them, and then simply drive them home. Most tracks do not host national events every week, and on the interim weekends host local casual and weekend racers. Organizationally, however, the tracks are run according to the rules of either the NHRA or the IHRA (for the most part). Even street vehicles must pass a safety inspection prior to being allowed to race. Besides NHRA and IHRA, there are niche organizations for muscle cars and nostalgia vehichles. There is even an organization called the [[National Electric Drag Racing Association]], ([[NEDRA]]), which races [[electric vehicle]]s against high performance gasoline-powered vehicles such as [[Dodge Vipers]] or classic [[muscle car]]s in 1/4 and 1/8 mile races. ==Drag racing performance facts== The fastest top fuelers can attain terminal speeds of over 330 mph (530 km/h) while covering the quarter mile (402 m) distance in roughly 4.45 seconds. It is often related that Top Fuel dragsters are the fastest accelerating vehicles on [[Earth]]; quicker even than the [[space shuttle]] launch vehicle or [[Aircraft_catapult|catapult]]-assisted [[Fighter aircraft|jet fighter]] (however this ignores the hydrogen peroxide [[rocket dragsters]] such as [[Kitty O'Neil]]'s 3.22 ET and 412 MPH quarter mile world records set in 1977). In fact, if you take a vehicle traveling at a steady 200 mph (322 km/h) as it is crossing the start line, a top fuel dragster starting from a dead stop at the same moment will beat it to the finish line one quarter of a mile (402 m) away. Additionally, through the use of large multiple braking [[parachutes]], the astounding performance of 0 to 330 mph (531 km/h) and then back to 0 in 20 seconds can be obtained. Deceleration of up to five &quot;gee&quot; can be attained, enough to cause separated retinae in TF drivers. [http://www.wediditforlove.com The History of Fuel Dragsters] The faster categories of drag racing are an impressive spectacle, with engines of over 7000 [[horsepower]] (4.5 MW) and noise outputs to match, cars that look like bizarre parodies of standard street cars (funny cars), and the ritual of burnouts where, prior to the actual timed run, the competitors cause their car's driving wheels to spin while stationary or moving forward slowly, thus heating up the [[tire]]s to proper working temperature and laying down a sticky coat of rubber on the track surface ( which may have been coated with [[VHT_TrackBite | VHT Trackbite]] or similar to increase traction) to get optimum grip on the all-important launch. The Blown Alcohol and Nitrous Oxide injected Pro Modifieds with their 2000 horsepower motors are capable of running in the low six second range at over 230 miles per hour. The IHRA Pro Stocks are just behind, running in the 6.3 second range at over 210 miles per hour, while the NHRA Pro Stocks run in the high sixes at over 200 miles per hour. Top Sportsman and Top Dragster, the two fastest sportsman classes, run a bracket style race and can range from the 6.4 second range at 210 miles per hour to the high sevens at over 170 miles per hour. Cars in Super Comp/Quick Rod are either dragsters or doorcars, but run with a throttle stop. Some cars can run as low as a 7.50 at around 180 miles per hour without a throttle stop, but use it in order to hit the 8.90 index. Super Gas/Super Rod and Super Street/Hot Rod run with a 9.90 and 10.90 index respectfully, but they both run with a throttle stop. Drag racing has traditionally been the domain of big - usually American - cars with high capacity engines. However, the power to weight ratio of lighter, usually imported, cars has allowed them to be successful when their engines are modified and bodies lightened. The [[VW Beetle]] was one of the first to be exploited this way. Recently there has been an increase in Sport Compact racing, where smaller cars, especially Japanese, but recently some American and European, are raced. Use of a [[turbocharger]] or [[supercharger]] is very common, and often necessary to break through the 12-second quarter-mile barrier. In 2001, the NHRA brought out NIRA ([[National Import Racing Association]]) and renamed it the Sport Compact category featuring such cars, and while Toyota, Honda, Nissan, and Subaru are very popular, the NHRA has also permitted General Motors, Ford, and DaimlerChrysler cars to participate in Sport Compact. With NHRA rule changes in recent years making Pro Stock cars more compact, a change from a 500 cubic inch (8.2 L) V8 engine to a modified factory four or six cylinder double overhead camshaft engine can easily convert a Pro Stock car to Sport Compact Pro Rear Wheel Drive car. The cars are separated by performance, and since 2003 categories have been split based on the car's drive wheels. Ironically, most NHRA Sport Compact records for elapsed time and speed are held by General Motors cars, rather than the imports. One of the negative side-effects of sport compact drag racing is that the cheaper cars involved are often raced (illegally) on the street, where they cause trouble, with many drivers making a public nuisance of themselves. Illegal street racing was glamorised in the movie ''[[The Fast and the Furious (2001 movie)|The Fast and the Furious]]''. This phenomenon is just a resurgence of the problem, which has existed ever since there have been cars and &quot;hot rodders&quot; (''cf.'' ''[[American Graffiti]]'', ''[[Rebel Without a Cause]]'', etc.). Closure of many dragstrips has contributed to its resurgence; many drag racers and fans consider street racing a plague. ==Drag racing strategies and methods== The various strategies used in drag racing begin with the car itself. Performance enhancements must comply both with [[National Hot Rod Association|NHRA]]/[[International Hot Rod Association|IHRA]] rules and restrictions based on the class the car is running in. Some common enhancements include the use of slicks (smooth, soft tires that grip the track), methods for introducing more air into the motor such as turbos, superchargers, and [[nitrous oxide]], specialized fuels (higher octane gas, [[methanol]], etc...), improved [[suspension (vehicle)|suspension]]s, and a multitude of others. ===The burnout=== [[image:Dragster_BurnOut_Top_Fuel.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Example of a burn-out before staging. Note the amount of smoke.]] When approaching the starting line (also known as the staging area), most racers will apply water (formerly bleach) to the rear tires either by backing into a small puddle (the &quot;water box&quot;) or having it sprayed on. The car then exits the water and does a burnout to heat the tires, making them even stickier. Some cars have a mandatory &quot;line-lock&quot; which prevents the rear brakes from engaging when the brake pedal is depressed (which can be toggled on and off). This allows the car to remain stationary (with the brakes applied) without burning up the rear brake pads while doing a burn-out. Cars in street classes (which must be street legal) are the only exception to this pre-race ritual, as the grooved tires tend to retain some of the water. ===Staging=== After the burn-out comes the &quot;staging phase&quot;, where the cars pull up to the starting line. Each lane has its own string of lights on the &quot;christmas tree&quot;, with two small orange lights on top. These are the &quot;pre-staged&quot; and &quot;staged&quot; lights. The two cars will slowly creep forward until the first (pre-staged) orange light is lit. This means they are very close to the actual starting line (a mere 7 inches). Then the cars will nudge forward until the second (staged) light is lit. This indicates they are at the starting line. When both cars have lit both bulbs, the starter will begin the christmas tree. ===The nitrous purge=== Only cars running nitrous oxide can do this. The drivers push a button that activates a solenoid called a purge valve, which clears the gaseous nitrous oxide in the line out into the atmosphere without entering the motor. This brings the liquid nitrous oxide towards the motor, ensuring a correct mixture of nitrous oxide and fuel when the system is activated. ===The race=== Several things are important on the way down the track in drag racing. The first is not to cross into your opponent's lane, as this will result in disqualification. In case of a double disqualification in which one driver commits a foul start and the second driver crosses into his opponent's lane, the driver who committed the foul start wins. Another important consideration is when to shift gears. Most drag cars are shifted manually by the driver, and there are optimum times for shifting that vary with each car. Typically, power will increase as the engine RPMs (revolutions per minute) increase, but only up to a point before power begins to taper off. The ideal time to shift is at the peak power point. Most drag racers use a tachometer to judge shift points. In Fuel classes especially, &quot;pedalling&quot; the car (adjusting the throttle) to prevent loss of traction is often important, one measure of how good a driver is. Strategies for crossing the finish line usually only involve bracket r
adstory ''This Day In History'': History Channel] ---- [[August 1]] - [[August 3]] - [[July 2]] - [[September 2]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[ceb:Agosto 2]] [[ilo:Agosto 2]] [[nap:2 'e aùsto]] [[pam:Agostu 2]] [[war:Agosto 2]] [[af:2 Augustus]] [[ar:2 أغسطس]] [[an:2 d'agosto]] [[ast:2 d'agostu]] [[bg:2 август]] [[be:2 жніўня]] [[bs:2. avgust]] [[ca:2 d'agost]] [[cv:Çурла, 2]] [[co:2 d'aostu]] [[cs:2. srpen]] [[cy:2 Awst]] [[da:2. august]] [[de:2. August]] [[et:2. august]] [[el:2 Αυγούστου]] [[es:2 de agosto]] [[eo:2-a de aŭgusto]] [[eu:Abuztuaren 2]] [[fo:2. august]] [[fr:2 août]] [[fy:2 augustus]] [[ga:2 Lúnasa]] [[gl:2 de agosto]] [[ko:8월 2일]] [[hr:2. kolovoza]] [[io:2 di agosto]] [[id:2 Agustus]] [[ia:2 de augusto]] [[ie:2 august]] [[is:2. ágúst]] [[it:2 agosto]] [[he:2 באוגוסט]] [[jv:2 Agustus]] [[ka:2 აგვისტო]] [[csb:2 zélnika]] [[ku:2'ê gelawêjê]] [[la:2 Augusti]] [[lt:Rugpjūčio 2]] [[lb:2. August]] [[li:2 augustus]] [[hu:Augusztus 2]] [[mk:2 август]] [[ms:2 Ogos]] [[nl:2 augustus]] [[ja:8月2日]] [[no:2. august]] [[nn:2. august]] [[oc:2 d'agost]] [[pl:2 sierpnia]] [[pt:2 de Agosto]] [[ro:2 august]] [[ru:2 августа]] [[sco:2 August]] [[sq:2 Gusht]] [[scn:2 di austu]] [[simple:August 2]] [[sk:2. august]] [[sl:2. avgust]] [[sr:2. август]] [[fi:2. elokuuta]] [[sv:2 augusti]] [[tl:Agosto 2]] [[tt:2. August]] [[te:ఆగష్టు 2]] [[th:2 สิงหาคม]] [[vi:2 tháng 8]] [[tr:2 Ağustos]] [[uk:2 серпня]] [[ur:2 اگست]] [[wa:2 d' awousse]] [[zh:8月2日]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Atlantic (disambiguation)</title> <id>1155</id> <revision> <id>40351937</id> <timestamp>2006-02-20T00:20:04Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Botteville</username> <id>347079</id> </contributor> <comment>addition</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Atlantic''' may mean: *The [[Atlantic Ocean]], a major [[ocean]] in the world * [[Atlantic Canada]], consisting of the four Canadian provinces on the Atlantic Ocean * [[Atlantic, Iowa]] * [[Atlantic, Pennsylvania]] * [[Atlantic, Virginia]] * [[Atlantic City, New Jersey]] * [[Atlantic County, New Jersey]] * [[Atlantic Beach, Florida]] * [[Atlantic Beach, North Carolina]] * [[Atlantic Beach, New York]] * [[Atlantic Records]], a rock and R&amp;B music label * [[RMS Atlantic]], a [[steamship]] that sank off [[Halifax, Nova Scotia|Halifax]] in [[1873]] killing 546 people. *''[[The Atlantic Monthly]]'', a monthly magazine published in the United States * Atlantic, a [[steam locomotive]] with a [[4-4-2 (locomotive)|4-4-2]] [[wheel arrangement]] *The ''[[Atlantic (passenger train)]]'', a named passenger train operated by [[Canadian Pacific Railway]] and later [[VIA Rail]] * The Atlantic Alliance, another name for [[NATO]]. * The [[Atlantic Revolutions]], included the [[American Revolution|American]] and [[French Revolution]]s * The [[Atlantic (period)|Atlantic period]] of palaeoclimatology {{disambig}} [[de:Atlantic]] [[fo:Atlantic]] [[fr:Atlantic]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Australia, New Zealand, United States security treaty</title> <id>1157</id> <revision> <id>15899658</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[ANZUS]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Algebraic number</title> <id>1158</id> <revision> <id>40171455</id> <timestamp>2006-02-18T18:40:46Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>MathMartin</username> <id>29707</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>link</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], an '''algebraic number''' relative to a [[field (mathematics)|field]] &lt;math&gt;F&lt;/math&gt; is any element &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; of a given field &lt;math&gt;K&lt;/math&gt; containing &lt;math&gt;F&lt;/math&gt; such that &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; is a solution of a [[polynomial]] [[equation]] of the form: ''a''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;''x''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; + ''a''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&amp;minus;1&lt;/sub&gt;''x''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt; + ··· + ''a''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;''x'' + ''a''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0 where ''n'' is a [[positive integer]] called the ''degree'' of the polynomial, every coefficient ''a''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; is an element of ''F'', and ''a''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; is nonzero. If the field ''F'' is the field '''Q''' of [[rational number]]s and ''K'' is an [[algebraically closed field]] then the algebraic numbers relative to '''Q''' are simply called '''algebraic numbers'''. The [[algebraically closed field]] in which these numbers lie can be the [[complex number]]s '''C''', but sometimes other fields are used. Any such [[algebraic closure]] is unique [[up to]] field [[isomorphism]], but may differ in topological properties. Considered purely as a field it is unique, and it is either this abstract field devoid of topology or the closure of the rationals in the complex numbers which is most often called the field of algebraic numbers. All rationals are algebraic. A [[real number|real]] number that is not rational may or may not be algebraic; for example [[irrational number]]s such as 2&lt;sup&gt;1/2&lt;/sup&gt; (the [[square root]] of 2) and 3&lt;sup&gt;1/3&lt;/sup&gt;/2 (half the [[cube root]] of 3) are also algebraic because they are the solutions of ''x''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;2&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;0 and 8''x''&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;3&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;0, respectively. But most real numbers are not algebraic; examples of this are [[Pi|&amp;pi;]] and ''[[e (mathematical constant)|e]]''. If a complex number is not an algebraic number then it is called a [[transcendental number]]. So, for instance ''i'', the [[imaginary unit]], is an algebraic number since it satisfies ''x''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp;1&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;0; however &lt;math&gt;i^i&lt;/math&gt; is transcendental by the [[Gelfond-Schneider theorem]]; one branch of this number is e&lt;sup&gt;-&amp;pi;/2&lt;/sup&gt;, which shows that e&lt;sup&gt;&amp;pi;&lt;/sup&gt; is also transcendental. If an algebraic number satisfies such an equation as given above with a [[polynomial]] of degree ''n'' and not such an equation with a lower degree, then the number is said to be an ''algebraic number of degree n''. ==The field of algebraic numbers== {{main|algebraic number field}} The sum, difference, product and quotient of two algebraic numbers is again algebraic, and the algebraic numbers therefore form a [[field (mathematics)|field]]. It can be shown that, if we allow the coefficients &lt;math&gt;a_i&lt;/math&gt; to be any algebraic numbers, then every solution of the equation will again be an algebraic number. This can be rephrased by saying that the field of algebraic numbers is [[algebraically closed field|algebraically closed]]. In fact, it is the smallest algebraically closed field containing the rationals, and is therefore called the [[algebraic closure]] of the rationals. ==Numbers defined by radicals== All numbers which can be obtained from the integers using a [[finite]] number of [[addition]]s, [[subtraction]]s, [[multiplication]]s, [[division (mathematics)|division]]s, and ''n''&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; roots (where ''n'' is a positive integer) are algebraic. The converse, however, is not true: there are algebraic numbers which cannot be written in this manner. All of these numbers are solutions to polynomials of degree &amp;ge;&amp;nbsp;5, (see [[Quintic equation]]s and the [[Abel–Ruffini theorem]]). This is a result of [[Galois theory]]. An example of such a number would be the unique real root of ''x''&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;x&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;1&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;0. ==Algebraic integers== {{main|algebraic integer}} An algebraic number which satisfies a [[polynomial equation]] of degree ''n'' with leading coefficient ''a''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;1 (that is, a [[monic polynomial]]) and all other coefficients ''a''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; belonging to the set '''Z''' of [[integer]]s, is called an '''[[algebraic integer]]'''. Examples of algebraic integers are 3&amp;radic;{{overline|2}}&amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp;5 and 6''i''&amp;nbsp;-&amp;nbsp;2. The sum, difference and product of algebraic integers are again algebraic integers, which means that the algebraic integers form a [[ring (algebra)|ring]]. The name ''algebraic integer'' comes from the fact that the only rational numbers which are algebraic integers are the integers, and because the algebraic integers in any [[algebraic number field|number field]] are in many ways analogous to the integers. If ''K'' is a number field, its '''ring of integers''' is the subring of algebraic integers in ''K'', and is frequently denoted as ''O''&lt;sub&gt;K&lt;/sub&gt;. ==Special classes of algebraic number== *[[Gaussian integer]] *[[Eisenstein integer]] *[[Quadratic irrational]] *[[Fundamental unit]] *[[Root of unity]] *[[Gaussian period]] *[[Pisot-Vijayaraghavan number]] *[[Salem number]] [[Category:Abstract algebra]] [[Category:Algebra]] [[Category:Algebraic numbers|*]] [[Category:Number theory]] [[cs:Algebraické číslo]] [[da:Algebraiske tal]] [[de:Algebraische Zahl]] [[es:Número algebraico]] [[fa:اعداد جبری]] [[fr:Nombre algébrique]] [[gl:Número alxebraico]] [[he:מספר אלגברי]] [[it:Numero algebrico]] [[ja:代数的数]] [[ko:대수적 수]] [[nl:Algebraïsch getal]] [[pl:Liczby algebraiczne]] [[pt:Número algébrico]] [[ru:Алгебраическое число]] [[zh:代數數]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ankh-Morpork</title> <id>1159</id> <revision> <id>41606822</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T13:40:08Z</timest
rmedbear.org/j.html Armed Bear J Editor], though it can be used independently. * [[Jatha]] [http://jatha.sourceforge.net/] is a Java library that implements a fairly large subset of Common Lisp. Commercial implementations are available from [http://www.franz.com Franz, Inc.], [http://www.lispworks.com/ LispWorks Ltd.], [http://www.digitool.com/ Digitool, Inc.], [http://www.cormanlisp.com/ Corman Technologies] and [http://www.scieneer.com/index.html Scieneer Pty Ltd.]. ==Applications== Common Lisp is used in many successful commercial applications, the most famous (no doubt due to [[Paul Graham]]'s promotion) being the [[Yahoo!]] Store web-commerce site. Other notable examples include: *[[Orbitz]], a major travel booking site. *[http://www.izware.com/mirai/index.htm Mirai], [http://www.izware.com/ Izware LLC]'s fully integrated 2d/3d computer graphics content creation suite that features what is almost universally regarded as the best polygonal modeler in the industry, an advanced IK/FK and non-linear animation system (later popularized by such products as Sega's [[Animanium]] and Softimage XSI, respectively), and advanced 2d and 3d painting. It is used in major motion pictures (most famously in New Line Cinema's [[Lord of the Rings]]), video games and military simulations. *[http://www.piano.aero/ Piano], a package for commercial aircraft preliminary design and competitor evaluation. *[http://www.xanalys.com/ Xanalys Corp.]'s line of investigation software, used by police, security and fraud prevention services worldwide. *[http://www.ktiworld.com/ Knowledge Technologies International]'s [[ICAD]] mechanical design software. *[http://www.genworks.com/ Genworks International]'s General-purpose Declarative Language (GDL), a development tool for creating web-based engineering, design, and business applications. * [http://www.noteheads.com/ Igor Engraver]: a 1st-Class Music notation and engraving program written in Common Lisp. There also exist successful open-source applications written in Common Lisp, such as: * [[ACL2]], a full-featured [[theorem prover]] for an [[applicative]] variant of Common Lisp. * [http://maxima.sourceforge.net/ Maxima], a sophisticated [[computer algebra system]]. * [http://compo.sourceforge.net Compo], a language allowing complex musical structures to be described in a natural way. * [http://lisa.sourceforge.net Lisa], a production-rule system to build &quot;intelligent&quot; software agents. As well, Common Lisp is used by many government and non-profit institutions. Examples of its use in [[NASA]] include: *[http://www.stsci.edu/resources/software_hardware/spike/ SPIKE], the [[Hubble Space Telescope]] planning and scheduling system. *[http://ic.arc.nasa.gov/projects/remote-agent/ Remote Agent], winner of the 1999 NASA Software of the Year Award. ==External links== * The [http://www.lisp.org/HyperSpec/FrontMatter/index.html Common Lisp HyperSpec], a hypertext version of the Common Lisp standard. * The [http://ww.telent.net/cliki/index CLiki], a Wiki for [[Free Software]] Common Lisp systems running on Unix-like systems. * [http://www.lisp.org/ The Association of Lisp Users]. * [http://www.geocities.com/fhzeya20042000/lisp.htm Lisp tutorial by Faiz ul haque Zeya] * [http://www.unmutual.info/startingwithcl.html A quick guide to starting with Common Lisp]. * [http://www.cs.cmu.edu/Web/Groups/AI/html/cltl/cltl2.html Common Lisp the Language, 2nd Edition], known as &quot;CLtL2&quot;. Guy Steele's book on Common Lisp, which served as the basis for the ANSI Common Lisp standard. A [http://cltl2.lisp.se/cltl/cltl2.html mirror site] may also be handy since the standard site has had offline content for a considerable time. * [http://cl-cookbook.sourceforge.net/ The Common Lisp Cookbook], a collection of useful programming methods. * [http://www.paulgraham.com/lisp.html Paul Graham's page] about Lisp. If you follow the links you can find his book ''On Lisp'' online, which is concerned with macro design in Common Lisp. * [http://www-2.cs.cmu.edu/afs/cs.cmu.edu/user/dst/www/LispBook/index.html Common Lisp: A Gentle Introduction to Symbolic Computation] by [[David S. Touretzky]], available online and aimed at beginners. * [http://www.norvig.com/ Peter Norvig's page] containing many interesting resources about Common Lisp. * [http://www.gigamonkeys.com/book/ Practical Common Lisp] Online version of book of same name. * [http://www.lisperati.com/casting.html Casting SPELs in Lisp] A cartoon introduction to Common Lisp. {{Major programming languages small}} [[Category:LISP dialects]] [[Category:Functional languages]] [[Category:Object-oriented programming languages]] [[de:Common Lisp]] [[fr:Common Lisp]] [[ko:커먼 리스프]] [[ja:Common Lisp]] [[pt:Common Lisp]] [[zh:Common Lisp]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Color code</title> <id>6069</id> <revision> <id>41492688</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T19:02:54Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>82.15.28.195</ip> </contributor> <comment>I'm not certain why we need to state that here, and I can't see the relevance of the link to this list</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">A '''color code''' is a system for displaying information by using different [[color]]s. Color codes are often difficult or impossible for [[color blindness|color blind]] people to understand. [[Image:25 pair color code chart.png|right|thumb|100px|25 Pair Color Code Chart]] Examples of color codes: *[[Bottled gas]]es *[[Electrical wiring]] *[[Electronic color code]] *[[Web colors]] for HTML color codes *[[25-pair color code]] *[[Fire extinguisher]]s *[[Hanky code]] *[[Jumper cables]] *[[Navigation light]]s, [[sea mark]]s and [[characteristic light]]s *[[Ribbon]] colors ''see:'' [[:Category:Ribbon symbolism]] *[[United States Department of Homeland Security|U.S. Department of Homeland Security]]'s [[Department of Homeland Security Advisory System|Advisory System]] *[[Utility color code]]s {{Commons|Colour code}} [[Category:Colors]] [[Category:Encodings]] [[pt:Código de cores]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Color/Orange</title> <id>6070</id> <revision> <id>15904235</id> <timestamp>2002-08-13T13:55:41Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jeronimo</username> <id>108</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fix redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Orange (colour)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Color/black</title> <id>6071</id> <revision> <id>15904236</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Black]] :''See also :'' [[Color]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Color/orange</title> <id>6074</id> <revision> <id>15904237</id> <timestamp>2002-08-13T13:56:36Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jeronimo</username> <id>108</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fix redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Orange (colour)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Color/cyan</title> <id>6076</id> <revision> <id>15904239</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cyan]] :''See also :'' [[Color]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Color/Black</title> <id>6077</id> <revision> <id>15904240</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Black]] :''See also :'' [[Color]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Color/white</title> <id>6078</id> <revision> <id>15904241</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[White]] :''See also :'' [[Color]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>CGI</title> <id>6080</id> <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions> <revision> <id>40898657</id> <timestamp>2006-02-23T19:27:21Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Westfall</username> <id>965234</id> </contributor> <comment>+clinical global impression scale</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''CGI''' may mean: * [[CGI Group Inc.]], the Canadian information management company (formerly ''Conseillers en Gestion et Informatique C.G.I. Inc.''). * [[Common Gateway Interface]], a technology used in web servers. ** [[CGI.pm]], a Perl module used for dealing with it. * [[Computer-generated imagery]], a movie making technology. * [[Computer graphics interface]], a low-level interface between the [[Graphical Kernel System]] and the hardware. * [[Clinical Global Impression]], a scale to assess treatment response associated with mental disorders. * [[Corrugated galvanised iron]], moulded sheet metal. * [[Consultative Group on Indonesia]] * [[Cape Girardeau Regional Airport]] (IATA airport code: CGI) in Cape Girardeau, Missouri, United States. * [[Cuerpo Guardia de Infantería]], an [[Argentina|Argentine]] [[police]] [[riot control|riot control service]]. {{TLAdisambig}} [[de:CGI]] [[hu:CGI]] [[nl:CGI]] [[ja:CGI]] [[sv:CGI]] [[th:CGI]] [[zh:CGI]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Color space</title> <id>6081</id> <revision> <id>40442515</id> <timestamp>2
ill the first two points, he urged California voters to pass [[California Proposition 57 (2004)|Proposition 57]] and [[California Proposition 58 (2004)|Proposition 58]] in the [[March 2]], [[2004]], election, which authorized the sale of $15 billion in bonds and mandated balanced budgets, respectively. Despite initially tepid support from the public, the combination of heavy campaigning by Schwarzenegger, endorsements from a number of leading Democrats, and warnings about the dire consequences should the propositions fail to pass, led to overwhelming votes in favor of the two propositions. Prop. 57 passed with 63.3% of the votes in favor and Prop. 58 passed with 71.0% in favor. He accomplished the third point when he signed a workers' compensation reform bill on [[April 19]], [[2004]]. Schwarzenegger convinced the Democratic-controlled state legislature to approve the package by threatening to take the issue directly to state voters in a November ballot initiative if the legislature did not act. Schwarzenegger was later criticized for reneging on his campaign pledges not to take money from special interests and for failing to answer directly the sexual harassment allegations raised by the ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'' immediately preceding the recall election. However, Schwarzenegger made a point shortly after becoming governor of voluntarily attending a training course conducted by the state Attorney General's office on preventing sexual harassment (along with several members of his senior staff). Schwarzenegger continues to collect campaign contributions from private interests (see [http://arnoldwatch.org/special_interests/index.html]]) at a greater rate than any politician in California history, including Gray Davis, whom he criticized on that very issue (see [[http://www.nbc4.tv/politics/2385057/detail.html]). In February 2004 when [[San Francisco]] city mayor, [[Gavin Newsom]], ordered a change in the certificate application documents to allow for [[same-sex marriage]]s, Governor Schwarzenegger opposed the move as being beyond the powers of the mayor, but also said that he supports gay rights and has expressed support for a law to grant [[civil unions]] to gay couples. In 2005 when he vetoed a bill that would have legalized same-sex marriages he defended his actions by saying that California voters had passed an initiative banning such recognition and that he supports that state's domestic partnership law that gives same-sex couples many of the same rights as a heterosexual married couple. Still, critics have observed that there is no federal requirement that other states recognize a state-granted domestic partnership, as is the case with marriages under the [[Full Faith and Credit Clause]] of the United States Constitution. Also in February 2004, he declined [[amnesty]] to convicted murderer [[Kevin Cooper]] who had asked him for clemency in his [[death penalty]] sentence. Nevertheless, Cooper's planned [[Execution (legal)|execution]] was stayed by the [[Ninth U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals]] pending a revisiting of evidence. The first execution under his administration was that of [[Donald Beardslee]]. [[Austrian Green Party]] spokesman, [[Peter Pilz]], later called for Schwarzenegger to be stripped of his Austrian [[citizenship]]. Pilz claimed that Austrian law forbids any Austrian citizen from taking part in or ordering executions. However, Schwarzenegger does not appear to be in any danger of losing his Austrian citizenship. The governor has granted [[clemency]] to a number of [[Felony|convicted felons]] &amp;ndash; more than Democrat predecessor Gray Davis, who presided over numerous executions. The power of clemency is often controversial. After a longer period of consideration than is usual, on [[December 12]], [[2005]], Schwarzenegger denied clemency to quadruple murderer [[Stanley Tookie Williams]], who was executed on [[December 13]]. In a statement (see [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/4523352.stm]) Schwarzenegger argued not on the grounds that Williams' actions were beyond atonement: instead he appeared to acknowledge that atonement was possible, but Williams had not done so, Schwarzenegger stating that &quot;the one thing [apologising for the four murders he committed] that would be the clearest indication of complete remorse and full redemption is the one thing Williams will not do.&quot; Despite expectations that Schwarzenegger would be vulnerable to opposition critics once taking office, his early governorship showed some successes. He has dealt successfully with California politicians as diverse as [[John Burton]] on the left to [[Tom McClintock]] on the right. At the end of May, 2004, the Field poll put his popularity at 65%, the highest for a California governor in 45 years, including 41% of Democrats, party adherents of his opposition. By comparison, former [[United States President]] [[Ronald Reagan]], known as &quot;the Great Communicator,&amp;quot; never hit 60% approval while serving as California governor. (see [http://www.latimes.com/news/local/politics/cal/la-me-lopez28may28,1,2650515.column?coll=la-news-politics-california]) In March, 2004 libertarian policy research foundation, [[The Cato Institute]], rated him 1st in their 1994 fiscal policy report card (see [http://www.cato.org/pub_display.php?pub_id=3691]) of the tax and spending policies of the nation's governors. In July 2004, however, Schwarzenegger and the state legislature deadlocked, failing to approve the state budget on time. Trying to rouse public support for his position, he compared lawmakers to kindergartners who need a &quot;timeout,&quot; and in a rally of supporters called his budget opponents &quot;girlie men&quot; (a reference to a long-running ''[[Saturday Night Live]]'' skit parodying Schwarzenegger). He said about the legislators: &quot;They are part of a bureaucracy that is out of shape, that is out of date, that is out of touch and that is definitely out of control in Sacramento. They cannot have the guts to come out there in front of you and say, 'I don't want to represent you. I want to represent those special interests: the unions, the trial lawyers.' ... if they don’t have the guts, I call them girlie-men. They should get back to the table and they should finish the budget.&quot; The remark became national news and was not received well by his opponents, including gay advocacy and feminist groups who labeled it homophobic and sexist, in spite of his earlier support for gay rights (see the Gavin Newsom incident above), not to mention the legislators themselves. Others however, were quick to point out that the critics actually were expressing a sentiment of latent [[homophobia]] themselves because they automatically connected the phrase &quot;girlie-men&quot; with [[homosexual]]s. His supporters made &quot;girly men&quot; T-shirts and the Governor continued to use the term, including when he addressed the [[Republican National Convention]] in NYC, calling critics of the current U.S. economic situation &quot;economic girlie men&quot;. Despite what some viewed as political snags during the summer, the Field polls released in August and October 2004 showed that Schwarzenegger's approval rating remained at 65%. Additionally, in October, for the first time in four years a plurality of Californians felt the state was &quot;on the right track&quot;. However, when asked if they would support Schwarzenegger if he could run for president, 50% said they would oppose, while only 26% said they would support the governor in a presidential bid (see [http://field.com/fieldpollonline/subscribers/RLS2137.pdf]). ====Spring 2005==== &lt;!--Please remember to report neutrally in this section--&gt; In the spring of 2005, polls began showing Schwarzenegger's approval ratings had dropped to between 40-49%. (See [http://www.latimes.com/news/local/la-me-cap7apr07,1,63188.column?coll=la-headlines-california&amp;amp;ctrack=3&amp;cset=true], [http://www.woai.com/news/local/story.aspx?content_id=A367E183-FC31-4616-8669-4FD5D36181D4], [http://www.surveyusa.com/50governorsrated051005.htm], [http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=10000103&amp;sid=ac98Wx3eNeSw&amp;refer=us].) On [[June 13]], [[2005]], Schwarzenegger called a [[California special election, 2005|statewide special election]] for [[November 8]], [[2005]], to vote on a series of reform measures he initially proposed in his 2005 State of the State address. A non-partisan Field poll released a week later showed his support had dropped to 37%, one of the lowest approval ratings for any California governor and barely above the support of recalled former Governor, [[Gray Davis]] (see [http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/n/a/2005/06/21/state/n060039D76.DTL]). Schwarzenegger's spokesman responded that Schwarzenegger had not yet had enough time to explain his proposals to voters. The Legislature also shared low approval ratings, with just 24% of voters saying they approve of the job lawmakers have been doing. That represents a drop of 10% since February. The governor has responded that the poll sends a &quot;very clear message to us. They are saying they want us to work together.&quot; He has also responded &quot;I know popularity goes up and down... as soon as you start making decisions and strong decisions, sometimes they're not popular decisions.&quot; (see [http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,159854,00.html], video, right side) Republicans have claimed that the drop in popularity was due to a multi-million dollar ad campaign by various groups such as unions for nurses, police and firefighters, who opposed his plans for the state pension and his administration's lawsuit to delay implementation of a nurse-to-patient staffing ratio plan. In late June 2005, another non-partisan Field Poll had similar numbers as the earlier one, finding that 57% of California voters are not inclined to elect Schwarzenegger to a second term as Governor in
r [[Mephisto (Diablo)|Mephisto]]. The third brother, [[Baal (Diablo)|Baal]], is encountered in Act 5, which is added by the ''Diablo II: Lord of Destruction'' expansion pack. Diablo II was first recognized by the majority of the public when it was awarded a spot in the [[Guinness Book of World Records]] &quot;[[2000]] edition&quot;. ==Character Classes== ===Amazon=== [[Image:Art-amazon.jpg|thumb|Amazon]] The [[Amazons|Amazon]] is an &quot;active skill&quot;-oriented fighter. While the [[Barbarian]] relies on brute strength and weapon skills, and the [[Paladin]] on auras and other special abilities, many of the Amazon's abilities require far more attention. Her skills are oriented around personal (generally passive) protective abilities, the use of a bow and arrow (whose abilities are linked with the elements of fire and ice), as well as the spear and javelin (whose abilities are linked with the elements of lightning and poison). The Amazon is most similar to the [[Rogue]] of ''Diablo'': both are primarily associated with bows and crossbows, and both are middle points between pure strength and pure magic. The Amazon is different in that she can also use javelins and spears adeptly. The Amazon can use skills from the [[Javelin]] &amp; [[Spear]], Passive &amp; [[Magic (gaming)|Magic]], and [[Bow (weapon)|Bow]] &amp; [[Crossbow]] skill trees. Amazon is one of the more popular classes in Diablo II. The most popular weapons for this character are: Windforce (a legendary, ultra-elite, ultra-rare item once considered to be the most expensive item in the game, Lord Of Destruction only), Buriza-Do Kyanon Ballista (A crossbow; though an elite item, it is very easy to find or obtain with some trading) and Titan's Revenge (main weapon for amazons, this is because an amazon skill allows it to deal massive damage). Amazons became popular in the earlier days due to a exploit in the game. A passive skill in her skill tree allows her a percentage chance to fire arrows straight through their targets (higher the skill, higher the percentage; tops near 35 percent). When coupled with another skill that automatically seeks out the enemy (guided arrow), it became very deadly. When the arrow penetrates the enemy, it does not disappear but instead goes through its body. Under normal circumstances the arrow will continue forward in its path, but because of the auto-seeking nature of this skill, it targets the nearest enemy - which is the one it has just penetrated. So, it turns around 180 degrees and goes through the same enemy again and does this many times, effectively tripling or quadrupling one shot. Extremely useful in [[PvP]] but often despised when used. Amazons have fairly effective crowd control skills, mostly stemming from the &quot;Multiple Shot&quot; skill, which splits a single arrow or bolt show into multiple, all heading in the same direction. One of the more popular amazon builds is the bowazon/javazon in the expansion which allows the characters to equip 2 sets of weapons. These builds generally concentrate on passive skills trees that improve preparation and defence. In the other 2 skill trees, points are spent on the most popular/effect skills such as lightning strike, multiple shot, etc., bypassing all other skills by donating 1 skill point to each prerequisite. ===Barbarian=== [[Image:Art-barbarian.jpg|thumb|Barbarian]] The [[Barbarian]] is by far the most powerful melee fighting character on a pound-per-pound basis and the only one in the original ''Diablo II'' (not ''Lord Of Destruction''), who is able to [[dual-wield]] weapons. His skills are divided into various weapon masteries, warcries, and combat skills. The masteries are purely passive and allow the Barbarian to specialize in different types of melee weapons and to gain natural speed and resistances. His warcries are essentially radial skills (''skills which are only effective within a certain radius of the player'') that enhance his and his party's ability in combat, or reduce the ability of the enemy. Warcries differ from the auras of the paladin in that they are single-use and impermanent. The barbarian's combat skills are attacks that maximize brute force, his greatest asset. The Barbarian can cast spells from the [[Warcry|Warcries]], [[Combat]] Masteries, and Combat Skills skill trees. ====Barbarian history in Classic DII==== This character was the damage powerhouse in the early history of ''Diablo II''. The ''Whirlwind'' skill, a mad spinning charge, was highly overpowered in the first release of the game, and was reduced in damage in patch 1.03, made dependent on weapon speed in the expansion and it is still one of the best melee skills in the game. With damage to spare, very high natural life and the life and mana-increasing ''Battle Orders'' spell, a well-built barbarian in 1.00 to 1.06 was almost indestructible and was the main &quot;power-leveling&quot; character. ====Barbarian Strategy==== Barbarian strategy typically follows only one guideline with small variations. Most Barbarians make use of the skills ''Iron Skin'', ''Battle Orders'', ''Whirlwind'', and Combat Masteries. ''Whirlwind'' has many uses: It allows the player to spin through a crowd of enemies, damaging each greatly, or it can carve a path out of a crowd if the character is surrounded. ''Whirlwind'' requires skill to control, and one can take down hard bosses by making circles around the perimeter of the boss so all his hits land on the boss. One also must be careful not to spin into a crowd of monsters, as once a spin is started it can't be stopped. The Achilles' Heel of this strategy is that some monsters (and Necromancer and Paladin player characters) can cast a curse that returns damage back to the barbarian equals to several times the amount he deals, most certainly killing him if he spins into a large crowd and delivers massive amounts. Major changes in the 1.10 patch have made certain low level skills augment higher level skills and vice versa. Thus, a popular build involves a maximum contribution to battle orders and concentration. With the 1.11 patch, a ''Frenzy''-based barbarian became very popular after an in-game clan showed with several successful Uber-Tristram runs that the build is second only to the ''Smiter'' (paladin). ===Paladin=== [[Image:Art-paladin.jpg|thumb|Paladin]] The [[Paladin]] is a warrior fighting for all that is good. To reflect this, the Paladin has combat skills ranging from fanatical attacks to anti-undead spells. His specialty, however, lies in ''auras'' that [[Buff (computer gaming)|buff]] himself and his party. These passive auras, which can enhance personal abilities, lower the amount of damage dealt by enemies or recover health and can add considerable complexity to the class because only one aura can be active at a time. The Paladin also has access to great strength and health and, because the auras do not generally require mana to activate, is not heavily restricted by heavy mana consumption. The Paladin is the only character able to use his shield as a weapon in a smite attack. The more powerful the shield, the more damage he can deal with it (also, paladins typically have the best &quot;blocking&quot; rate). The Paladin can cast spells From the Defensive [[Aura]]s, [[Combat]] Skills, and Offensive Auras skill trees. ====Paladin history &amp; Strategy in Classic DII==== The paladin was usually seen as one of the weaker characters, with too much emphasis on boosting his allies and too little damage to fend for himself. The class has a staggering number of useless auras, and the anti-undead idea did not work in practice due to the lack of actual undead in the harder areas. When the game was released, the ''Conversion + Thorns'' skill combo was extremely effective. ''Conversion'' is a normal melee attack that has a chance to convert the target to fight for you, and ''Thorns'' is an aura that causes anyone who attacks a party member to take a large amount of damage in return. This build cleared the hardest levels with ease, so it came as no surprise that it was weakened in patch 1.03. Unfortunately, nothing else in his skill trees was quite as good, and the class slipped into obscurity. Another powerful strategy is &quot;Vengeance&quot;, which adds fire, lightning and cold damage to your attacks , and the aura, &quot;Conviction&quot;, which reduces your enemies elemental resistances and defence. Thus when used, you can do massive elemental damage to your opponent with just one hit. Then ''Blessed Hammer'' was discovered to be useful. Originally a weak and hard to aim magical attack, until it was discovered that the Concentration aura affected ''Blessed Hammer'' as well. This resulted in the infamous ''hammerdin'', an odd caster build capable of killing any normal monster in the game in a few hits. If the skill is maxed, each hammer can deal over 10,000 damage (17,000 in 1.11), with enough skill bonuses from items. Thanks to the &quot;synergy&quot; boosts added to skills (including Blessed Hammer) in patch 1.10, the Hammerdin is still widely considered the strongest all-around character type in the game today, able to do up to 8,000 damage once all the synergies are maxed with concentration and great items. Before patch 1.10, a technique known as &quot;flashing&quot; was common. Because the effect of an aura on allies (and enemies) is slightly delayed and because it persists for a few seconds even if switched immediately, a paladin could switch on an enemy-affecting aura, wait for it to &quot;stick&quot; onto the enemies, and then quickly &quot;flash&quot; to a personal aura. The result would be two simultaneous auras, one augmenting the paladin's abilities and one weakening an enemy's. After 1.10, however, this strategy is no longer viable: auras now either change instantly or with unreliable speed. ===Sorceress=== [[Image:Art-sorceress.jpg|thumb|Sorceress]] The [[Sorceress]] focuses on ranged elemental
contains hydrogen cyanide, house fires often result in cyanide poisonings of the inhabitants. A deep [[blue]] pigment called [[Prussian blue]], used in the making of [[blueprint]]s, is [[iron]](III) ferrocyanide (hence the name ''cyanide'', from [[cyan]], a shade of blue). It produces hydrogen cyanide when exposed to acids. [[Gold]] and [[silver]] cyanides are among the very few [[soluble]] forms of these metals, and cyanides are thus used in [[mining]], [[electroplating]], [[metallurgy]], [[jewelry]] and [[photography]] for chemical [[gilding]], [[buffing]], and extraction of gold. (See also below under [[#Mining|Mining]].) Furthermore, cyanides and hydrogen cyanide are used in the production of chemicals including [[plastics]], and as [[insecticide]]s when fumigating ships. In the past they have also been used as rat poison. In organic synthesis, cyanides are often used to lengthen the carbon chain: RX + CN&lt;sup&gt;–&lt;/sup&gt; &amp;rarr; RCN ([[Nucleophilic Substitution]]) followed by # RCN + H&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; &amp;rarr; [[carboxylic acid|RCOOH]] ([[Hydrolysis]]), or # RCN + [[Lithium tetrahydridoaluminate|LiAlH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;]] &amp;rarr; [[amine|RCH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;NH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;]] (under [[reflux]] in dry [[diethyl ether|ether]], followed by addition of H&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;), or # RCN + [[Sodium tetrahydridoborate|NaBH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;]] &amp;rarr; [[aldehyde|RCOH]]. In all the above cases, the number of carbon atoms of the main chain R is increased by one. [[Potassium ferrocyanide]] is used to achieve a blue colour on cast [[bronze sculpture]]s during the final finishing stage of the sculpture. On its own, it will produce a very dark shade of blue and is often mixed with other chemicals to achieve the desired tint and hue. It is applied using a torch and paint brush while wearing the standard safety equipment used for any patina application; rubber gloves, safety glasses and a respirator. The actual amount of cyanide in the mixture varies according to the recipes used by each foundry. Two cyanide ions can bond to each other via their carbon atoms, forming the gas [[cyanogen]] (NC-CN). === Mining === Cyanide salts are used in [[silver]] and [[gold]] mining, via the so-called ''[[cyanide process]]''. Finely ground high-grade ore is mixed with the cyanide solution (concentration of about two kilogram NaCN per tonne); low-grade ores are stacked into heaps and sprayed with cyanide solution (concentration of about one kilogram NaCN per ton). The precious-metal [[cation]]s are complexed by the cyanide [[anion]]s to form soluble derivatives, e.g. [Au(CN)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;]&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; and [Ag(CN)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;]&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;. The &quot;pregnant liquor&quot; containing these ions is separated from the leftover dirt, which is discarded to a tailing pond or spent (the recoverable gold having been removed) heap. The metal is recovered from the &quot;pregnant solution&quot; by reduction with [[zinc]] dust or by absorption onto activated carbon. This process can result in environmental and health problems. Aqueous cyanide is hydrolyzed rapidly, especially in sunlight. It can mobilize some heavy metals such as mercury if present. Gold can also be associated with arsenopyrite (FeAsS), which is similar to [[iron pyrite]] (fool's gold), wherein half of the sulfur atoms are replaced by arsenic. Au-containing arsenopyrite ores are similarly reactive toward cyanide. === Fishing === Cyanides are illegally used to capture live fish near [[coral reef]]s for the [[aquarium]] and seafood markets. This fishing occurs mainly in the [[Philippines]], [[Indonesia]] and the [[Caribbean]] to supply the 2 million marine aquarium owners in the world. In this method, a diver uses a large, needleless [[syringe]] to squirt a cyanide solution into areas where the fish are hiding, stunning them so that they can be easily gathered. Many fish caught in this fashion die immediately, or in shipping. Those that survive to find their way into pet stores often die from shock, or from massive digestive damage. The high concentrations of cyanide on reefs so harvested has also resulted in cases of cyanide poisioning among local fishermen and their families. Environmental organizations decry the practice, as do responsible aquarists and aquarium dealers. To prevent the trade of illegally-caught aquarium fish, the Marine Aquarium Council (Headquarters: Honolulu, Hawaii) has created a certification in which the tropical fish are caught legally with nets only. To ensure authenticity, &quot;MAC-Certified marine organisms bear the '''MAC-Certified''' label on the tanks and boxes in which they are kept and shipped.&quot; [http://www.aquariumcouncil.org/subpage.asp?section=13 MAC Certification]. ==Toxicity== === Absorption === The most usual route of absorption is by inhalation of [[hydrogen cyanide]] gas, which can be formed from alkaline cyanides and certain complex cyanides by the action of acid. Hydrogen cyanide poisoning is also common as a result of smoke inhalation after house fires. Ingestion is equally dangerous, although this route of absorption is usually deliberate (suicidal or criminal). Absorption through the skin is also possible, though rare. === Mechanism of toxicity === Cyanide ions bind to the iron atom of the [[enzyme]] [[cytochrome c oxidase]] in the [[mitochondria]] of cells. This deactivates the enzyme and breaks the [[electron transport chain]], meaning that the cell can no longer use the [[oxygen]] which is available to it. Tissues that mainly depend on [[aerobic respiration]], such as the [[central nervous system]] and the [[heart]], are particularly affected. Plants contain a cyanide-insensitive pathway for respiration in their mitochondria, and as a result are insensitive to concentrations of cyanide that are lethal to animals. === Clinical symptoms === It is difficult to give dose figures in this section due to the rapid [[metabolism]] of cyanide in the human body. Animal studies are of little help, as different species have widely different sensitivities to cyanide: it is quite possible that there is also a considerable range of sensitivity among human individuals. The [[#Regulatory information|Regulatory information]] section below may give some guidance. ====Acute poisoning==== Inhalation of high concentrations of hydrogen cyanide causes a [[coma]] with [[seizures]], [[apnea]] and [[cardiac arrest]], with death following in a matter of minutes. At lower doses, loss of consciousness may be preceded by general weakness, giddiness, [[headache]]s, [[Vertigo (medical)|vertigo]], confusion, and perceived difficulty in breathing. At the first stages of unconsciousness, breathing is often sufficient or even rapid, although the state of the victim progresses towards a deep coma, sometimes accompanied by [[pulmonary edema]], and finally cardiac arrest. Skin colour goes pink from high blood oxygen saturation. ====Subacute poisoning==== At doses insufficient to cause loss of consciousness, the symptoms can also include faintness, drowsiness, anxiety and excitement. Dizziness, nausea, vomiting and sweating are common. The situation is complicated by the non-specific nature of the symptoms and by notoriety of the product. In some cases, such symptoms are [[psychosomatic]], caused by anxiety at working with cyanides, and this is accentuated by the characteristic odor of hydrogen cyanide, detectable by healthy, undesensitized subjects at levels far below those which are believed to be toxic (odor threshold &lt;&amp;nbsp;1&amp;nbsp;ppm). This is not to say that such symptoms should be taken lightly: if the patient is a truly a victim of cyanide poisoning, their clinical state may deteriorate rapidly; while if the symptoms are psychosomatic, they will surely reoccur unless the anxieties about the safety procedures are addressed. ====Chronic exposure==== Exposure to lower levels of cyanide over a long period (e.g., after use of [[cassava]] roots as a primary food source in tropical [[Africa]]) results in increased blood cyanide levels. These may result in weakness of the fingers and toes, difficulty walking, dimness of vision, deafness, and decreased [[thyroid gland]] function, but chemicals other than cyanide may contribute to these effects. Skin contact with cyanide can produce irritation and sores. It is not known whether cyanides can directly cause birth defects in people. Birth defects were seen in rats that ate diets of cassava roots. Effects on the reproductive system were seen in rats and mice that drank water containing sodium cyanide. ===Diagnosis of poisoning=== There are medical tests to measure blood and urine levels of cyanide; however, small amounts of cyanide are not always detectable in blood and urine. Tissue levels of cyanide can be measured if cyanide poisoning is suspected, but cyanide is rapidly cleared from the body, so the tests must be done soon after the exposure. An almond-like odour in the breath may alert a doctor that a person was exposed to cyanide but not all people are able to smell HCN. ===Treatment of poisoning and antidotes=== The [[United States]] standard cyanide [[antidote]] kit first uses a small inhaled dose of [[amyl nitrite]] followed by intravenous sodium nitrite. This converts a portion of the hemoglobin's iron from [[ferrous]] iron to [[ferric]] iron, converting the hemoglobin into [[methemoglobin]]. Cyanide is more strongly drawn to methemoglobin than to the cytochrome [[oxidase]] of the cells, effectively pulling the cyanide off the cells and onto the methemoglobin. Once bound with the cyanide, the methemoglobin becomes cyanmethemoglobin. Therapy with nitrites is not innocuous. The doses given to an adult can potentially cause a fatal [[methemoglobinemia]] in children or may cause profound hypotension. Treatment of childre
gend's development, though many of the early Celtic-based arguments are largely discredited (Loomis himself came to reject much of Weston and Nutt's work). The general view is that the central theme of the Grail is Christian, even when not explicitly religious, but that much of the setting and imagery of the early romances is drawn from Celtic material. ===Etymology of ''graal''=== The word ''graal'', as it is earliest spelled, appears to be an [[Old French]] adaptation of the [[Latin]] ''gradalis'', meaning a dish brought to the table in different stages of a meal. According to the ''[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]'', after the cycle of Grail [[Romance (genre)|romances]] was well established, late [[medieval]] writers came up with a [[false etymology]] for ''sangreal'' an alternate name for &quot;Holy Grail&quot;. In [[Old French]], ''san grial'' means &quot;Holy Grail&quot; and ''sang rial'' means &quot;royal blood&quot;; later writers played on this pun. Since then, '''Sangreal''' is sometimes employed to lend a medievalizing air in referring to the Holy Grail. This connection with royal blood bore fruit in a modern best-seller linking many historical conspiracies ([[#Modern retellings|see below]]). ==The beginnings of the Grail in literature== ===Chrétien de Troyes=== The Grail is first featured in ''[[Perceval, le Conte du Graal]]'' (The Story of the Grail) by [[Chrétien de Troyes]], who claims he was working from a source book given to him by his patron, Count [[Philip of Flanders]]. In this incomplete poem, dated sometime between [[1180]] and [[1191]], the object has not yet acquired the implications of holiness it would have in later works. While dining in the magical abode of the Fisher King, [[Perceval]] witnesses a wondrous procession in which youths carry magnificent objects from one chamber to another, passing before him at each course of the meal. First comes a young man carrying a bleeding lance, then two boys carrying candelabras. Finally, a beautiful young girl emerges bearing an elaborately decorated ''graal'', or &quot;grail&quot;. Chrétien refers to his object not as &quot;The Grail&quot; but as ''un graal'', showing the word was used, in its earliest literary context, as a common noun. For Chrétien the grail was a wide, somewhat deep dish or bowl, interesting because it contained not a pike, salmon or lamprey, as the audience may have expected for such a container, but a single Mass wafer which provided sustenance for the Fisher King’s crippled father. Perceval, who had been warned against talking too much, remains silent through all of this, and wakes up the next morning alone. He later learns that if he had asked the appropriate questions about what he saw, he would have healed his maimed host, much to his honor. ===Robert de Boron=== Though Chrétien’s account is the earliest and most influential of all Grail texts, it was in the work of [[Robert de Boron]] that the Grail truly became the “Holy Grail” and assumed the form most familiar to modern readers. In his verse romance ''Joseph d’Arimathie'', composed between [[1191]] and [[1202]], Robert tells the story of [[Joseph of Arimathea]] acquiring the chalice of the Last Supper to collect Christ’s blood upon His removal from the cross. Joseph is thrown in prison where Christ visits him and explains the mysteries of the blessed cup. Upon his release Joseph gathers his in-laws and other followers and travels to the west, and founds a dynasty of Grail keepers that eventually includes Perceval. ===The Grail in other early literature=== After this point, Grail literature divides into two classes. The first concerns King Arthur’s knights visiting the Grail castle or questing after the object; the second concerns the Grail’s history in the time of Joseph of Arimathea. The nine most important works from the first group are: * The ''Perceval'' of Chrétien de Troyes. * Four continuations of Chrétien’s poem, by authors of differing vision and talent, designed to bring the story to a close. * The German ''[[Parzival]]'' by [[Wolfram von Eschenbach]], which adapted at least the holiness of Robert’s Grail into the framework of Chrétien’s story. * The Didot ''Perceval'', named after the manuscript’s former owner, and purportedly a prosification of Robert de Boron’s sequel to ''Joseph d’Arimathie''. * The [[Welsh romance]] ''[[Peredur]]'' (generally included in the ''[[Mabinogion]]''), based on Chrétien’s poem but including very striking differences from it. * ''[[Perlesvaus]]'', called the &quot;least canonical&quot; Grail romance because of its very different character. * The German ''[[Diu Crône]]'' (''The Crown''), in which Gawain, rather than Perceval, achieves the Grail. * The ''[[Lancelot]]'' section of the vast [[Vulgate Cycle]], which introduces the new Grail hero, [[Galahad]]. * The ''[[Queste del Saint Graal]]'', another part of the Vulgate Cycle, concerning the adventures of Galahad and his achievement of the Grail. Of the second class there are: * Robert de Boron’s ''Joseph d’Arimathie'', * The ''Estoire del Saint Graal'', the first part of the Vulgate Cycle (but written after ''Lancelot'' and the ''Queste''), based on Robert’s tale but expanding it greatly with many new details. Though all these works have their roots in Chrétien, several contain pieces of tradition not found in Chrétien which are possibly derived from earlier sources. ==Ideas of the Grail== [[Image:Galahad_grail.jpg|thumb|400px|[[Galahad]], [[Bors]], and [[Percival]] achieve the Grail]] As stated above, the Grail was considered a bowl or dish when first described by Chrétien de Troyes. Other authors had their own ideas; Robert de Boron portrayed it as the vessel of the Last Supper, and ''Peredur'' had no Grail per se, presenting the hero instead with a platter containing his kinsman's bloody, severed head. In ''Parzival'', Wolfram von Eschenbach, citing the authority of a certain (probably fictional) [[Kyot the Provençal]], claimed the Grail was a stone that fell from Heaven, and had been the sanctuary of the Neutral Angels who took neither side during [[Lucifer]]'s rebellion. The authors of the Vulgate Cycle used the Grail as a symbol of [[divine grace]]. Galahad, bastard son of the world's greatest knight, [[Lancelot]], and the Grail Bearer [[Elaine (legend)|Elaine]], is destined to achieve the Grail, his spiritual purity making him a better warrior than even his illustrious father. Galahad and the interpretation of the Grail involving him were picked up in the [[15th century]] by Sir [[Thomas Malory]] (''[[Le Morte d'Arthur]]''), and remain popular today. Various notions of the Holy Grail are currently very widespread in Western society (especially British, French and American), popularized through numerous medieval and modern works (see below) and linked with the predominantly Anglo-French (but also with some German influence) cycle of stories about King Arthur and his knights. Because of this wide distribution, Americans and West Europeans sometimes assume that the Grail idea is universally well known. The stories of the Grail, however, are totally absent from the folklore of those countries that were and are Eastern Orthodox (whether Arabs, Slavs, Romanians, or Greeks). This is true of all Arthurian myths, which were not well known east of Germany until the present-day Hollywood retellings. Nor has the Grail been as popular a subject in some predominantly Catholic areas, such as [[Spain]] and [[Latin America]], as it has been elsewhere. The notions of the Grail, its importance, and prominence, are a set of ideas that are essentially local and particular, being linked with Catholic or formerly Catholic locales, Celtic mythology and Anglo-French medieval storytelling. The contemporary wide distribution of these ideas is due to the huge influence of the pop culture of countries where the Grail Myth was prominent in the Middle Ages. Some insist the Holy Grail, even if historical, should be considered separate from the [[Holy Chalice]] used by Jesus at the [[Last Supper]]. However, confusion between the two has been the historical practice. ==The later legend== Belief in the Grail, and interest in its potential whereabouts, has never ceased. Ownership has been attributed to various groups (including the [[Knights Templar]], probably because they were at the peak of their influence around the time that Grail stories started circulating in the 12th and 13th centuries). There are cups claimed to be the Grail in several churches such as the [[Valencia]] cathedral. The emerald chalice at [[Genoa]], which was obtained during the [[crusades]] at [[Aleppo]] at great cost, has been less championed as the Holy Grail since an accident on the road while it was being returned from Paris after the fall of Napoleon revealed that the emerald was green glass. In Wolfram von Eschenbach's telling, the Grail was kept safe at the castle of [[Munsalvaesche]] (''mons salvationis''), entrusted to Titurel, the first Grail King. Some, not least the monks of Montserrat, have identified the castle with the real sanctuary of [[Montserrat (mountain)|Montserrat]] in [[Catalonia]], [[Spain]]. Other stories claim that the Grail is buried beneath [[Rosslyn Chapel]] or is to be found deep in the spring at [[Glastonbury Tor]]. Still other stories claim that a secret line of hereditary protectors keep the Grail, or that it was hidden by the Templars in [[Oak Island]], [[Nova Scotia]]'s famous &quot;[[Oak_Island#The_Money_Pit|Money Pit]]&quot;, while local folklore in [[Accokeek, Maryland]] says that it was brought to the town by a closeted priest aboard Captain [[John Smith of Jamestown|John Smith]]'s ship. ==Modern interpretations== ===Casual metaphor=== The legend of the Holy Grail is the basis of the use of the term ''holy grail'' in modern-day culture. This or that &quot;holy grail&quot; is seen as the distant, all-but-unobtainable ultimate goal for a person, organization, or field to achi
e term &quot;bureaucratic feudalism&quot; which is an oxymoron. The placement of the Tang as the beginning of the bureaucratic phase rests largely on the [[imperial examination]] system which finally overcame the [[nine-rank system]]; prior to this both systems were in use. Some [[World systems theory|World-systems analysts]] contend capitalism first arose in [[Song dynasty]] China by following [[Kondratiev waves]] to their source. Recently, the PRC has adopted an extreme antiquarian chronology which extends Chinese statehood as far back as possible. The still speculative [[Xia dynasty]] and the almost certainly mythical [[Sanhuangwudi]] are accepted as fact by the official view of history. === Ethnic Inclusiveness === Also sponsored by the PRC is the view that Chinese history should include all of China's ethnic groups past and present ([[Zhonghua Minzu]]), not just the history of the [[Han Chinese]]. China (including its vassals/tributaries) is viewed as a coherent state formed since [[time immemorial]] and exists as one legal entity even in periods of political disunity. &quot;Chinese&quot; is viewed as all subjects and participants of that state regardless of ethnicity. The benefits of this theory shows the contributions of non-Han to Chinese history. Once &quot;foreign&quot; dynasties like the Mongol [[Yuan dynasty|Yuan]] and the Manchu [[Qing dynasty|Qing]] can be appreciated as part of the Chinese tapestry. This would allegedly help reduce the alienation of ethnic minorities living in China. This theory has also led to criticism and international disputes. It was accused as a smokescreen for China's hold on [[Tibet]] and claims on [[Taiwan]]. [[Mongolia]] and [[Vietnam]] are worried that it will be used against them in the future since they could be labeled as &quot;Chinese&quot; under the theory. Korean historians dispute the labelling of ethnic Korean archaeological sites in China as Chinese. It has also been accused of causing inaccuracies such as &quot;Genghis Khan's Chinese army&quot;. === Anti-Imperialist Narratives === Closely related are anti-imperialist narratives. While some anti-imperialist narratives notably those of historians within the People's Republic of China as well as Western Marxist histories incorporate anti-imperialist narratives in their histories, many anti-imperialist narratives are non-Marxist or as in the case of the [[Kuomintang]] in the [[1960s]], actively anti-Marxist. === Modernist Interpretations of Chinese history === This view of Chinese history sees Chinese society in the [[20th century]] as a traditional society seeking to become modern, usually with the implicit assumption that Western society is the definition of modern society. This view of Chinese history has its roots with British views of the orient of the early [[19th century]]. In this viewpoint, the societies of India, China, and the Middle East were societies with glorious pasts but that they have become trapped in a static past (''see'' [[Orientalism]]). This view provided an implicit justification of British colonialism with Britain assuming the &quot;white man's burden&quot; of breaking these societies from their static past and bringing them into the modern world. By the mid 20th century, it was increasingly clear to historians that the notion of &quot;changeless China&quot; was untenable. A new concept, popularized by [[John Fairbank]] was the notion of &quot;change within tradition&quot; which argued that although China did change in the pre-modern period but that this change existed within certain cultural traditions. There are a number of criticisms of the modernist critique. One centers on the definition of &quot;traditional society.&quot; The criticism is that the idea of &quot;traditional society&quot; is simply a catch all term for early non-Western society and implies that all such societies are similar. To use an analogy, one could classify all animals into &quot;fish&quot; and &quot;non-fish&quot; but that classification would be hardly useful, and would imply that spiders are similar to mountain goats. The notion of &quot;change within tradition&quot; also been subject to criticism. The criticism is that the statement that &quot;China has not changed fundamentally&quot; is tautological, that one looks for things that have not changed and then define those as fundamental. The trouble with doing this is that when one can do this with anything that has lasted for an extended period of time resulting in absurd statements such as &quot;England has not changed fundamentally in the past thousand years because the institution of the monarchy has existed for this long.&quot; === Hydraulic Theory === Derived from Marx and [[Max Weber]], [[Karl August Wittfogel]] argued that bureaucracy arose to manage irrigation systems. Despotism was needed to force the people into building canals, dikes, and waterways to increase agriculture. [[Yu the Great]], one of China's legendary founders, is mostly known for his control of the flood. The [[hydraulic empire]] produces wealth from its stability and while dynasties may change, the structure remains intact until destroyed by modern powers. Critics of Wittfogel's oriental despotism theory point out that water management was not a high priority when compared to taxes, rituals, and fighting off bandits. The theory also has a strong [[orientalist]] bent which regards all Asian states as generally the same. === Convergence Theory === Convergence theory is a broad term which includes a viewpoint popular among non-Marxist Chinese intellectuals of the mid 20th century. This includes [[Hu Shih]] and [[Ray Huang]]'s involution theory. This view was that the past 150 years was a period in which Chinese and Western civilization were in the process of convergence into a world civilization. This view is heavily influenced by modernization theory, but is also strongly influenced by indigenous sources such as the notion of &quot;shijie datong&quot; or the Great Unity. It has tended to be less popular among more recent historians. Among Western historians, it conflicts with the postmodern impulse which is skeptical of great narratives. Among Chinese historians, convergence theory is in conflict with Chinese nationalism which includes a strong element of China as being unique. === European conflict interpretations of Chinese history === European conflict interpretations focus on interaction with Europe as the driving force behind recent Chinese history. There are two variants, one focuses on Europe as the driving force behind China's quest for modernity, the other focuses on the effects of European colonialism. One criticism of this view is that it ignores historical forces that do not involve Europe, such as indigenous economic forces. One example of a blind spot which is provided by this viewpoint is the influence of central Asian policies on interactions with Europe in the [[Qing dynasty]]. === Post-modern interpretations of Chinese history === Post-modern interpretations of Chinese history tend to reject the grand narratives of other interpretations of history. Instead of seeking a grand pattern of history, post-modern interpretations tend to focus on a small subset of Chinese history. In attention rather than focusing on the political elites of China, post-modern historians look also at the daily lives of ordinary people. == Issues in the study of Chinese history == === Recent trends in Chinese historical scholarship === The late 20th century and early [[21st century]] has seen a large amount of studies of Chinese history, quite a bit of it 'revisionist' in that it seeks to challenge traditional paradigms. The field is rapidly evolving with much new scholarship. Much of this new scholarship comes from the realization that there is much about Chinese history that is unknown or controversial. To give one such controversy, it is an active topic of discussion whether the typical Chinese peasant in [[1900]] was seeing his life improve or decline. In addition to the realization that there are major gaps in our knowledge of Chinese history is the equal realization that there are tremendous amounts of primary source material that has not yet been analyzed. Recent Western scholarship of China has been heavily influenced by [[postmodernism]]. For example, current scholars of China tend to question the question, and look heavily at the assumptions within a question before attempting to answer it. For example, one begins to answer the question &quot;Why did China not develop modern science and capitalism?&quot; by asking the question &quot;Why are we assuming that what China did develop was not modern science and capitalism?&quot; This then brings up the question of what are the essential characteristics of modern science and capitalism, and whether it makes any sense at all to apply European concepts to Chinese history. One example of the fruitfulness of questioning assumption comes from questioning the assumption that &quot;China was weak in the 19th century&quot; and pointing out the fact that at the time in which China was supposedly weak, it managed to extend its borders to record sizes in [[Central Asia]]. This in turn has caused scholars to be more interested in Chinese policies and actions in Central Asia and has led to the realization that Central Asia affected Chinese policies toward Europe in a deep way. Another trend in Western scholarship of China has been to move away from &quot;grand theories&quot; of history toward understanding of a narrow part of China. A survey of papers on Chinese history in the early 21st century would reveal relatively little attempt to fit Chinese history into a master paradigm of history as was common in the [[1950s]]. Instead, early 21st century papers on Chinese history tend to be empirical studies of a small part of China which aim to reach a deep understanding of
tions.&quot; The author noted that, unlike the ALF which seeks publicity, &quot;ELF cells, for security reasons, work without informing the press and do not claim responsibility for actions... The surest way to be done for conspiracy or to attract surveillance or infiltrators is to seek attention.&quot; Instead, the ELF publicizes pre-announced, internationally coordinated &quot;Earth Nights.&quot; These announcements always call for harm to property only, never life. ==See also== *[[Rod Coronado]] *[[Craig Rosebraugh]] *[[Animal Liberation Front]] *[[Eco-Terrorism]] *[[Green Anarchism]] *[[Green syndicalism]] *[[Earth First]] *[[Operation Backfire (FBI)]] *[[Jacob Ferguson]] *[[Green Scare]] ==External links== *[http://www.spiritoffreedom.org.uk/ Earth Liberation Prisoners] *[http://www.ecoprisoners.org/ North American Earth Liberation Prisoners Support Network] *[http://web.archive.org/web/*/http://www.earthliberationfront.com archives of the Earth Liberation Front homepage] *[http://www.fbi.gov/congress/congress02/jarboe021202.htm FBI on Eco-Terrorism] *[http://www.keele.ac.uk/depts/spire/Working_Papers/Brian_Doherty_working_papers/Covert%20Repertoires%20Ecotage%20in%20the%20UK.doc Covert Repertoires: Ecotage in the UK] *[http://www.eco-action.org/dod/index.html Do or Die: Voices from the Ecological Resistance] *[http://earthfirst.org.uk/actionreports/ Earth First! (UK) action reports] *[http://www.earthfirst.org/ Earth First!] *[http://bombsandshields.blogspot.com/ Bombs and Shields: Covers the latest ELF news] [[Category:Environmental organizations]] [[Category:Anarchist organizations]] [[Category:terrorism]] [[de:Earth Liberation Front]] [[fr:Earth Liberation Front]] [[nl:Earth Liberation Front]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Elliptic integral</title> <id>9960</id> <revision> <id>41177802</id> <timestamp>2006-02-25T15:50:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>195.93.21.106</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Incomplete elliptic integral of the third kind */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[integral calculus]], '''elliptic integrals''' originally arose in connection with the problem of giving the [[arc length]] of an [[ellipse]] and were first studied by [[Giulio Fagnano]] and [[Leonhard Euler]]. In the modern definition, an '''elliptic integral''' is any [[function (mathematics)|function]] ''f'' which can be expressed in the form :&lt;math&gt; f(x) = \int_{c}^{x} R(t,P(t))\ dt &lt;/math&gt; where ''R'' is a [[rational function]] of its two arguments, ''P'' is the square root of a [[polynomial]] of degree 3 or 4 (a cubic or quartic) with no repeated roots, and ''c'' is a constant. In general, elliptic integrals cannot be expressed in terms of elementary functions; exceptions to this are when ''P'' does have repeated roots, or when ''R''(''x'',''y'') contains no odd powers of ''y''. However, with appropriate reduction formula, every elliptic integral can be brought into a form that involves integrals over rational functions, and the three canonical forms (i.e. the elliptic integrals of the first, second and third kind). Besides the forms given below, the elliptic integrals may also be expressed in [[Legendre form]] and [[Carlson symmetric form]]. Additional insight into the theory of the indefinite integral may be gained through the study of the [[Schwarz-Christoffel mapping]]. ==Notation== Elliptic integrals are often expressed as functions of a variety of different arguments. These different arguments are completely equivalent (they give the same elliptic integral), but can be confusing due to their different appearance. Most texts adhere to a canonical naming scheme. Before defining the integrals, we review the naming conventions for the arguments: * ''k'' the '''[[elliptic modulus]]''' * ''m''=''k''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; the '''parameter''' * &lt;math&gt;\alpha&lt;/math&gt; the '''modular angle''', &lt;math&gt;k=\sin \alpha&lt;/math&gt; Note that the above three are completely determined by one another; specifying one is the same as specifying another. The elliptic integrals will also depend on another argument; this can also be specified in a number of different ways: * &lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt; the '''amplitude''' * ''x'' where &lt;math&gt;x=\sin \phi= \textrm{sn} \; u&lt;/math&gt; * ''u'', where ''x''=sn ''u'' and sn is one of the [[Jacobian elliptic functions]] Specifying any one of these determines the others, and thus again, these may be used interchangeably in the notation. Note that ''u'' also depends on ''m''. Some additional relationships involving ''u'' include :&lt;math&gt;\cos \phi = \textrm{cn}\; u&lt;/math&gt; and :&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1-m\sin^2 \phi} = \textrm{dn}\; u&lt;/math&gt;. The latter is sometimes called the '''delta amplitude''' and written as &lt;math&gt;\Delta(\phi)=\textrm{dn}\; u&lt;/math&gt;. Sometimes the literature refers to the ''complementary parameter'', the ''complementary modulus'' or the ''complementary modular angle''. These are further defined in the article on [[quarter period]]s. ==Incomplete elliptic integral of the first kind== The '''incomplete elliptic integral of the first kind''' ''F'' is defined, in [[Carl Gustav Jakob Jacobi|Jacobi]]'s form, as :&lt;math&gt; F(x;k) = \int_{0}^{x} \frac{1}{ \sqrt{(1-t^2)(1-k^2 t^2)} }\ dt \,\!&lt;/math&gt; Equivalently, using alternate notation, :&lt;math&gt; F(x;k) = F(\phi|m) = F(\phi\setminus \alpha ) = \int_0^\phi \frac{1}{ \sqrt{1-\sin^2 \alpha \sin^2 \theta}} \ d\theta \,\!&lt;/math&gt; where it is understood that when there is a vertical bar used, the argument following the vertical bar is the parameter (as defined above), and, when a backslash is used, it is followed by the modular angle. Note that :&lt;math&gt;F(x;k) = u&lt;/math&gt; with ''u'' as defined above: thus, the [[Jacobian elliptic functions]] are inverses to the elliptic integrals. ==Incomplete elliptic integral of the second kind== The '''incomplete elliptic integral of the second kind''' ''E'' is :&lt;math&gt; E(x;k) = \int_{0}^{x} \frac{ \sqrt{1-k^2 t^2} }{ \sqrt{1-t^2} }\ dt &lt;/math&gt; Equivalently, using alternate notation, :&lt;math&gt; E(x;k) = E(\phi|m) = E(\phi\setminus \alpha ) = \int_0^\phi \sqrt{1-\sin^2 \alpha \sin^2 \theta} \ d\theta &lt;/math&gt; Additional relations include :&lt;math&gt;E(\phi|m) = \int_0^u \textrm{dn}^2 w \;dw = u-m\int_0^u \textrm{sn}^2 w \;dw = (1-m)u+m\int_0^u \textrm{cn}^2 w \;dw&lt;/math&gt; ==Incomplete elliptic integral of the third kind== The '''incomplete elliptic integral of the third kind''' &lt;math&gt;\Pi&lt;/math&gt; is :&lt;math&gt; \Pi(n; \phi|m) = \int_{0}^{x} \frac{1}{1-nt^2} \frac{1} {\sqrt{(1-k^2 t^2)(1-t^2) }}\ dt &lt;/math&gt; or :&lt;math&gt; \Pi(n; \phi|m) = \int_0^\phi \frac{1}{1-n\sin^2 \theta} \frac {1}{\sqrt{ (1-\sin^2 \alpha \sin^2 \theta) }} \ d\theta&lt;/math&gt; or :&lt;math&gt; \Pi(n; \phi|m) = \int_0^u \frac{1}{1-n \textrm{sn}^2 (w|m)} \; dw&lt;/math&gt; The number ''n'' is called the '''characteristic''' and can take on any value, independently of the other arguments. Note though that the value &lt;math&gt;\Pi(1;\pi/2|m)&lt;/math&gt; is infinite, for any &lt;math&gt;m&lt;/math&gt;. ==Complete elliptic integral of the first kind== The complete elliptic integral of the first kind ''K'' is defined as :&lt;math&gt; K(k) = \int_{0}^{1} \frac{1}{ \sqrt{(1-t^2)(1-k^2 t^2)} }\ dt &lt;/math&gt;&lt;br /&gt; and can be computed in terms of the [[arithmetic-geometric mean]]. It can also be calculated as&lt;br /&gt; :&lt;math&gt; K(k) = \frac{\pi}{2} \sum_{n=0}^{\infty} k^{2n} \frac{(2n)!(2n)!}{16^n n!n!n!n!}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;br /&gt; Or in form of integral of [[sine]], when 0 &amp;le; ''k'' &amp;le; 1&lt;br /&gt; :&lt;math&gt;K( k ) = \int_0^{\frac{\pi}{2}} \frac{d\theta}{\sqrt {1 - k^2 \sin ^2 \theta }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;br /&gt; The complete elliptic integral of the first kind is sometimes called the [[quarter period]]. ==Complete elliptic integral of the second kind== The '''complete elliptic integral of the second kind''' ''E'' is defined as&lt;br /&gt; :&lt;math&gt; E(k) = \int_{0}^{1} \frac{ \sqrt{1-k^2 t^2} }{ \sqrt{1-t^2} }\ dt &lt;/math&gt; Or if 0 &amp;le; ''k'' &amp;le; 1:&lt;br /&gt; :&lt;math&gt;E( k ) = \int_0^{\frac{\pi}{2}} \sqrt {1 - k^2 \sin ^2 \theta}\ d\theta&lt;/math&gt; ==History== Historically, elliptic functions were discovered as inverse functions of elliptic integrals, and this one in particular: we have ''F''(sn(''z'';''k'');''k'') = ''z'' where sn is one of [[Jacobi's elliptic functions]]. ==See also== * [[Legendre form]] * [[Carlson symmetric form]] * [[Schwarz-Christoffel map]] ==References== * Milton Abramowitz and Irene A. Stegun, ''[[Handbook of Mathematical Functions]]'', (1964) Dover Publications, New York. ISBN 486-61272-4 . ''(See chapter 17)''. [[Category:Special functions]] [[Category:Elliptic functions]] [[Category:Special hypergeometric functions]] [[fr:Intégrale elliptique]] [[pl:Ca&amp;#322;ki eliptyczne]] [[de:Elliptisches Integral]] [[it:Integral ellittico]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Epistle to the Romans</title> <id>9961</id> <revision> <id>41718714</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T07:08:17Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>69.168.120.63</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Protestant treatment of the text */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the New Testament}} The '''Epistle to the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]]s''' is one of the [[epistle]]s, or letters, included in the [[New Testament]] canon of the [[Christianity|Christian]] [[Bible]]. When it is clear that the Bible is being discussed, it is often referred to as simply &quot;Romans&quot;. Romans is one of the seven currently (as of 2004) undisputed letters of [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] and even among the four letters accepted as authentically his (in German scholarship, the ''Hauptbriefe'') by
by another rational being outside of oneself. Fichte also used self-sufficiency idea for the state, make the goal of a “closed commercial state.” In his mind, State should control international relations, value of money and remain an autarky. Because of this necessity to have relations with other rational beings in order to achieve consciousness, Fichte writes that there must be a 'relation of right,' in which there is a mutual recognition of rationality by both parties. In 1806, in a [[Berlin]] occupied by [[Napoleon I of France|Napoléon]], Fichte gave a series of ''Addresses to the German Nation'' which became an incentive for [[German nationalism]]. Here, Fichte indirectly continues his anti-Semitic argumentation from his early works on religion and the [[French Revolution]]. His son [[Immanuel Hermann Fichte]] also made contributions to [[philosophy]]. Fichte died of [[typhus]] at the age of fifty-two. == Bibliography == ===Primary Sources=== * ''Early Philosophical Writings'' * (1793) ''Attempt at a Critique of All Revelation (Versuch einer Kritik aller Offenbarung)'' * (1796) ''[[Foundations of Transcendental Philosophy]] (Wissenschaftslehre nova methodo)'' * (1798) ''The System of Ethics in accordance with the Principles of the Wissenschaftslehre (Das System der Sittenlehre nach den Principien der Wissenschaftslehre)'' * (1800) ''Introduction to the Wissenschaftslehre and Other Writings'' * (1800) ''The Vocation of Man (Die Bestimmung des Menschen)'' * (1807-8) ''Addresses to the German Nation'' ===Secondary Sources (English)=== Arash Abizadeh. [http://www.profs-polisci.mcgill.ca/abizadeh/Fichte.htm &quot;Was Fichte an Ethnic Nationalist?&quot;] ''History of Political Thought'' 26.2 (2005): 334-359. Daniel Breazeale. &quot;Fichte's 'Aenesidemus' Review and the Transformation of German Idealism&quot; ''The Review of Metaphysics'' 34 (1980/1) 545-68. Daniel Breazeale and Thomas Rockmore (eds) ''Fichte: Historical Contexts/Contemporary Controversies''. Atlantic Highlands: Humanities Press, 1997. Franks, Paul, ''All of Nothing: Systematicity, Transcendental Arguments, and Skepticism in German Idealism'', Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2005 [[Dieter Henrich]]. &quot;Fichte's Original Insight&quot; ''Contemporary German Philosophy'' 1 (1982) 15-52. T. P. Hohler. ''Imagination and Reflection: Intersubjectivity. Fichte's 'Grundlage' of 1794.'' The Hague: Nijhoff, 1982. Wayne Martin. ''Idealism and Objectivity: Understanding Fichte's Jena Project.'' Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997. [[Frederick Neuhouser]]. ''Fichte's Theory of Subjectivity''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990. [[Peter Suber]]. [http://www.earlham.edu/~peters/writing/fichte.htm &quot;A Case Study in Ad Hominem Arguments: Fichte's ''Science of Knowledge''],&quot; ''Philosophy and Rhetoric'', 23, 1 (1990) 12-42. Robert R Williams. ''Recognition: Fichte and Hegel on the Other''. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1992. Gunther Zoller. ''Fichte's Transcendental Philosophy: The Original Duplicity of Intelligence and Will''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998. == External links == * [http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/philosophy/works/ge/fichte.htm Outlines of the Doctrine of Knowledge] * [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/johann-fichte/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Entry] [[Category:1762 births|Fichte, Gottlieb]] [[Category:1814 deaths|Fichte, Gottlieb]] [[Category:Continental philosophers|Fichte, Gottlieb]] [[Category:German philosophers|Fichte, Gottlieb]] [[Category:Idealists|Fichte, Gottlieb]] [[bs:Johann Gottlieb Fichte]] [[cs:Gottlieb Fichte]] [[de:Johann Gottlieb Fichte]] [[eo:Johann Gottlieb FICHTE]] [[es:Johann Gottlieb Fichte]] [[fi:Johann Gottlieb Fichte]] [[fr:Johann Gottlieb Fichte]] [[he:יוהאן גוטליב פיכטה]] [[hr:Johann Gottlieb Fichte]] [[hu:Johann Gottlieb Fichte]] [[it:Johann Gottlieb Fichte]] [[ja:ヨハン・ゴットリープ・フィヒテ]] [[ko:요한 고틀리프 피히테]] [[lt:Johanas Gotlybas Fichtė]] [[lv:Johans Gotlībs Fihte]] [[nl:Johann Gottlieb Fichte]] [[no:Johann Gottlieb Fichte]] [[pl:Johann Gottlieb Fichte]] [[pt:Johann Fichte]] [[ro:Johann Gottlieb Fichte]] [[ru:Фихте, Иоганн Готлиб]] [[sk:Johann Gottlieb Fichte]] [[sv:Johann Gottlieb Fichte]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Great Lakes</title> <id>12010</id> <revision> <id>41642206</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T19:09:37Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Civil Engineer III</username> <id>1001318</id> </contributor> <comment>add facts, grammar, format</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Great Lakes from space.jpg|thumb|350px|right|The Great Lakes from space]] :''This article is about the group of North American lakes. For the African lakes, see [[African Great Lakes]]. For other uses of this term, see [[Great Lakes (disambiguation)]].'' The '''Great Lakes''' are a group of five large [[Lake|lakes]] on or near the [[United States]]-[[Canada|Canadian]] border. They are the largest group of [[fresh water]] lakes on the earth and the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence system is the largest fresh-water system in the world. They are sometimes referred to as [[inland sea]]s. ==Lakes== [[Image:Grlakes_lawrence_map.png|thumb|250px|right|Map of the Great Lakes/St. Lawrence Watershed]] The Great Lakes are (west to east, general direction of water flow): *[[Lake Superior]] (the largest and deepest, larger than the [[Czech Republic]]) *[[Lake Michigan]] (the only one entirely in the U.S., the second largest in volume) *[[Lake Huron]] (the second largest in area) *[[Lake Erie]] (the smallest in volume and shallowest) *[[Lake Ontario]] (the smallest in area, much lower altitude than the rest) A commonly used [[mnemonic]] for remembering the names of the lakes is HOMES, for '''H'''uron, '''O'''ntario, '''M'''ichigan, '''E'''rie, and '''S'''uperior, although this mnemonic puts the lakes in no particular order. Alternative mnemonics such as ''Sister Mary Hates Ecumenical Overtures'' or ''She Made Harry Eat Onions'' place them in west-east order. Lakes Michigan and Huron, being hydrologically intertwined, are sometimes considered to be one entity: [[Lake Michigan-Huron]]. Considered together, Michigan-Huron would be larger in surface area than Lake Superior, but smaller in total water volume. [[Image:Great Lakes 2.PNG|thumb|250px|right|Great Lakes: System Profile]] A much smaller sixth lake, [[Lake Saint Clair (North America)|Lake St. Clair]], is part of the Great Lakes system between Lake Huron and Lake Erie, but is not considered one of the &quot;Great Lakes&quot;. The system also includes the rivers that connect the lakes: [[St. Marys River (Michigan-Ontario)|St. Marys River]] between Lake Superior and Lake Huron, the [[St. Clair River]] between Lake Huron and Lake St. Clair, the [[Detroit River]] between Lake St. Clair and Lake Erie, and the [[Niagara River]] and [[Niagara Falls]], between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario. (Lake Michigan is connected to Lake Huron through the [[Straits of Mackinac]].) Large islands and a peninsula divide Lake Huron into the lake proper and [[Georgian Bay]]. The lakes are bounded by [[Ontario]] (all of the lakes but Michigan), [[Minnesota]], [[Wisconsin]], [[Michigan]] (all but Ontario), [[Illinois]], [[Indiana]], [[Ohio]], [[Pennsylvania]], and [[New York]]. Four of the five lakes straddle the U.S.-Canada border; the fifth, Lake Michigan, is entirely within the [[United States]]. The [[Saint Lawrence River]], which marks the same international border for a portion of its course, is a primary outlet of these interconnected lakes, and flows through [[Quebec]] and past the [[Gaspé Peninsula|Gaspé Peninsula]] to the northern [[Atlantic Ocean]]. [[image:NorthAmericaSatelliteImage.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The Great Lakes are clearly visible in this satellite image of North America]] Sprinkled throughout the lakes are the approximately 35,000 [[Islands_of_the_Great_Lakes|Great Lakes islands]], including [[Manitoulin Island]] in Lake Huron, the largest island in any inland body of water, and [[Isle Royale]] in Lake Superior, the largest island in the largest lake (each island large enough to itself contain multiple lakes). Today, 20 percent of the world’s freshwater supply is contained in the five great lakes: 5,473 cubic miles, or 6 quadrillion gallons in all. It is enough water to cover the lower 48 states to a uniform depth of 9.5 feet. The combined [[surface area]] of the lakes is 94,250 square miles – larger than the states of [[New York]], [[New Jersey]], [[Connecticut]], [[Rhode Island]], [[Massachusetts]], [[Vermont]] and [[New Hampshire]] combined. Stretched end to end, their shorelines would reach nearly halfway around the [[equator]]. The [[Saint Lawrence Seaway]] and [[Great Lakes Waterway]] opened the Great Lakes to ocean-going vessels. However the move to wider ocean-going container ships - which do not fit through the [[canal lock|lock]]s on these routes - has limited shipping on the lakes. Despite their vast size, large sections of the Great Lakes freeze over in winter, and most shipping stops during that season. There are some [[Icebreaker|icebreakers]] that operate on the lakes. The lakes have an effect on weather in the region, known as [[lake effect snow|lake effect]]. In winter, the moisture picked up by the prevailing winds from the west can produce very heavy snowfall, especially along lakeshores to the east such as in Michigan, Ontario, and New York. The most infamous example is the [[Blizzard of 1977|Blizzard of '77]] in which previous heavy snowfall and strong winds running the length of Lake Erie covered [[Buffalo, New York]] in drifting snow. The lakes also moderate seasonal temperatures somewhat, by absorbing heat and cooling the air in summer, then slowly radiating that heat in autumn. This temperature buffering produces areas known as &quot;fruit belts&quot;, where fruit typically grown
he recorded briefly for [[Atlantic Records]], but the recordings met with less commercial success than his previous works. He continued performing some live shows in his hometown of Atlanta, but his continued career was cut short by ill health, predominantly [[diabetes]]. In 1959, a year after the death of his wife of 24 years, he died of a stroke. A blues festival in McTell's honor is held annually in his birthplace, Thomson, Georgia. == Partial sessionography == * October 18, 1927 - Atlanta, Georgia ** &quot;Writing Paper Blues&quot; ** &quot;Stole Rider Blues&quot; ** &quot;Mama, Tain't Long Fo' Day&quot; ** &quot;Mr. McTell Got The Blues&quot; (Take 1) ** &quot;Mr. McTell Got The Blues&quot; (Take 2) * October 18, 1927 - Atlanta, Georgia ** &quot;Three Women Blues&quot; ** &quot;Dark Night Blues&quot; ** &quot;Statesboro Blues&quot; ** &quot;Loving Talking Blues&quot; * October 30, 1929 - Atlanta, Georgia ** &quot;Atlanta Strut&quot; ** &quot;Travelin' Blues&quot; ** &quot;Come On Around To My House Mama&quot; ** &quot;Kind Mama&quot; * November 25, 1929 - Atlanta, Georgia ** &quot;Teasing Brown&quot; * November 26, 1929 - Atlanta, Georgia **Drive Away Blues&quot; * November 27, 1929 - Atlanta, Georgia ** &quot;This Is Not The Stove To Brown Your Bread&quot; == Discography == *''The Definitive Blind Willie McTell 1927&amp;ndash;1935'' on Catfish Records (KATCD229) - Presents the complete recordings (including pseudonymous works) from the period 1927&amp;ndash;1935. *''The Definitive Blind Willie McTell'' on [[Columbia Records]] (C2K-53234) includes several previously unissued takes and has extensive liner notes by David Evans. It does, however, omit &quot;Statesboro Blues,&quot; probably McTell's most definitive song. *''The Classic Years 1927&amp;ndash;1940'' on JSP Records (JSP7711) omits some recordings found on the previous set but adds his 1940 session for the Library of Congress. *''Complete Recorded Works in Chronological Order, Vol. 1'' - Document Records (Austria) DOCD-5006. *''Complete Recorded Works in Chronological Order, Vol. 2'' - Document Records (Austria) DOCD-5007. *''Complete Recorded Works in Chronological Order, Vol. 3'' - Document Records (Austria) DOCD-5008. *These three discs, covering 1927-1933, were also issued in a box set as ''Statesboro Blues'' (DOCD-5677) *''1940: Complete Library of Congress Recordings'' - RST Records (Austria) BDCD-6001. *''Blind Willie McTell &amp; Curley Weaver: The Post-War Years 1949-1950'' - RST Records (Austria) BDCD-6014. [[Category:1901 births|Mactell, Blind Willie]] [[Category:1959 deaths|Mactell, Blind Willie]] [[Category:Blind musicians|MacTell, Blind]] [[Category:Blues musicians|Mactell, Blind Willie]] [[Category:Blues singers|Mactell, Blind Willie]] [[Category:Blues guitarists|Mactell, Blind Willie]] [[Category:Atlantans|Mactell, Blind Willie]] [[Category:Diabetics|MacTell, Blind Willie]] [[de:Blind Willie McTell]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>BDSM</title> <id>4545</id> <revision> <id>42016204</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T06:02:38Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>24.5.96.130</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Support groups */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:BDSM collar back.jpg|thumb|right|300px|A [[collar (BDSM)|collar]] is a common symbol of BDSM.]] '''BDSM''' is a term which describes a number of related patterns of [[human sexual behavior|human sexual behaviour]]. The major subgroupings are described in the abbreviation &quot;BDSM&quot; itself: *[[Bondage (BDSM)|Bondage]] ('''B''') *[[Bondage (BDSM)|Bondage]] &amp; [[discipline (BDSM)|Discipline]] ('''B&amp;D''') *[[Domination and submission (BDSM)|Domination &amp; Submission]] ('''D&amp;S, DS, D/S, D/s''') *[[Sadism and masochism|Sadism &amp; Masochism]] (or Sadomasochism) ('''S&amp;M, SM''') Many of the specific practices in BDSM are those which, if performed in neutral or nonsexual contexts, are widely considered unpleasant, undesirable, or disadvantageous. For example, [[pain]], [[physical restraint]] and [[Servitude (BDSM)|servitude]] are traditionally inflicted on persons against their will and to their detriment. In BDSM, however, these activities are engaged in with the mutual [[Consent (BDSM)|consent]] of the participants, and typically for mutual enjoyment. (Any &quot;consent&quot; may or may not amount to [[consent (criminal)|legal consent]] and represent a defence to criminal liability for any injuries caused.) This emphasis on [[informed consent]] and safety is also known as SSC ([[safe, sane and consensual]]), though others prefer the term RACK ([[Risk Aware Consensual Kink]]), believing that it places more emphasis on acknowledging the fact that all activities are potentially risky. == Psychological == === Psychiatric view === {{main|Sadism and masochism as medical terms}} In the past, sadomasochistic activities and fantasies were regarded by most [[psychiatrist]]s as pathological, but have been regarded as increasingly acceptable since at least the [[1990s]]. Indeed, the [[DSM-IV]] asserts that &quot;The fantasies, sexual urges, or behaviors&quot; must &quot;cause clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning&quot; in order for sexual sadism or masochism to be considered a disorder. Psychiatrists are now moving towards regarding sadism and masochism not as disorders in and of themselves, but only as disorders when associated with other problems such as a personality disorder. People who practice BDSM, as well as most psychiatrists, do not view these practices as disordered. === Power exchange === On a psychological level, much BDSM play involves [[power (sociology)|power]] and dominance, in particular [[power exchange (BDSM)|power exchange]] of various forms. One person may willingly and consciously hand over personal autonomy or the power dynamic may arise between the parties in the relationship as a spontaneous result of their interpersonal chemistry, in which case no conscious decision is made. This power can manifest in an endless variety of relationship dynamics. Some of the variations include: * Addressing another person as &quot;[[Master (BDSM)|Master]]&quot; or &quot;[[Dominatrix|Mistress]]&quot;. * An agreement of service that covers the duties and responsibilities of the submissive that may or may not include a long-term commitment. Some service relationships are understood to last only as long as the submissive maintains performance standards. * Formal [[collar (BDSM)|collar]]ing with a lifelong agreement between the parties for the dominant to provide an ongoing presence in the submissive's life. (See [[Total Power Exchange]].) Collared slaves have responsibilities and servitude duties that vary from the moderate to extreme micro-management. According to most practitioners, the power exchange should always be negotiated. Before play, the participants discuss their physical and psychological limitations, establish [[safeword]]s (words that will signal the cessation of the scene), and work out what activities they will engage in. However, many reject extensive negotiation and eschew the use of safewords, preferring instead to accept heightened risk and facilitate a more &quot;natural&quot; interaction. The conflict between the need for risk and the need for limitations and safety is at the heart of the [[Safe, sane and consensual|SSC]] and [[Risk-aware consensual kink|RACK]] debates. == Roles == === Dominant behavior === A '''[[dominant (BDSM)|dominant]]''' person enjoys controlling a submissive person. Reasons for this are said to include demonstrating skill and power, having ownership of another person, and being the object of affection and devotion. Domination may be the fashion in which the dominant feels most comfortable expressing and/or receiving affection. [[Service-oriented]] dominants would add that it is obviously useful to have the resources and abilities of another human at their disposal. Of course, other known possible motives remain to be considered, including pleasure taken not only in sheer power, but in the suffering of others, thrill seeking in risk taking, and outright self destructiveness. That is why many in the BDSM community are concerned with establishing the motivations of those involved in an encounter and advise caution in making BDSM connections. === Submissive behavior === A '''[[submissive (BDSM)|submissive]]''' person is one who submits of their own free will and seeks to submit to another. Submissives vary in how seriously they take their position, training, and situation. Motivations for engaging in submissive behavior may include relief from responsibility, being the object of attention and affection, gaining a sense of security, showing off endurance, and working through issues of shame. Others simply enjoy a &quot;natural&quot; feeling when they are in the presence of their partner. What are known as [[service-oriented]] submissives may also have a deep seated desire to be &quot;of use&quot;. Submissives also vary in the extent to which they engage in play, in how often they play, and even in whether they consider their role &quot;play&quot; at all. === Tops and bottoms === In BDSM, a '''[[top (BDSM)|top]]''' is a partner who takes the role of giver in such acts as bondage, flogging, humiliation, or servitude. The top performs acts such as these upon the '''[[bottom (BDSM)|bottom]]''', who is the person receiving for the duration of a scene. Although it is easy to assume that a top is dominant and a bottom is submissive, it is not necessarily so. The top is sometimes the partner who is following instructions, i.e., he tops when, and in the manner, requested by the bottom. A person who applies sensation or control to a bottom, but does so to the bottom's explicit instruction is a ''service top''. Contrast the service top with the ''pure dominant
-substances}} [http://www.incb.org/pdf/e/list/green.pdf List of Psychotropic Substances Under International Control], International Narcotics Control Board. # {{note|unodc.org-1982}} [http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/bulletin/bulletin_1982-01-01_3_page002.html The ratification of the Convention on Psychotropic Substances 1971 and its transposition into national legislation in the Federal Republic of Germany], [[Bulletin on Narcotics]], 1982. # {{note|unodc.org-1973}} [http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/resolution_1973-05-18_3.html 1973/1773(LIV). 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances: ratifications and accessions], UN Economic and Social Council, [[May 18]] [[1973]]. # {{note|unodc.org-1975}} [http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/resolution_1975-12-09_1.html 3443(XXX). 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances], UN General Assembly, [[9 December]] [[1975]]. # {{note|unodc.org-1979}} [http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/resolution_1979-02-22_1.html CND Res.6(XXVIII). 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances], UN Commission on Narcotic Drugs, [[22 February]] [[1979]]. # {{note|unodc.org-1981}} [http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/resolution_1981-05-06_1.html 1981/7. Implementation of the 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances], UN Economic and Social Council, [[May 6]] [[1981]]. # {{note|europarlreport}} [http://www.chanvre-info.ch/info/en/article602.html Working document on the UN conventions on drugs], Committee on Citizens’ Freedoms and Rights, Justice and Home Affairs, European Parliament, 2002. # {{note|radicalparty.org}} Cappato, Marco and Perduca, Marco: [http://servizi.radicalparty.org/documents/index.php?func=detail&amp;par=213 Concept Paper for Campaign by the Transnational Radical Party and the International Antiprohibitionist League to Reform the UN Conventions on Drugs], [[9 October]] [[2002]].&lt;!--Or is it [[10 September]] [[2002]]? The date is listed as 09/10/2002, so it could be either the U.S. or European format.--&gt; # {{note|bewleytaylor}} Bewley-Taylor, David R.: [http://www.tni.org/reports/drugs/debate5.htm Breaking the Impasse: Polarisation &amp; Paralysis in UN Drug Control], July 2002. # {{note|incb.org-1961-14}} [[Wikisource:Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs|Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs]]. # {{note|parl.gc.ca-report}} See [[{{PAGENAME}}#endnote_cansenrpt|above note]] # {{note|incb.org-1961-preamble}} See [[{{PAGENAME}}#endnote_incb.org-1961-14|above note]] # {{note|europarlreport2}} See [[{{PAGENAME}}#endnote_europarlreport|above note]] # {{note|unodc.org-report}} Bayer, I. and Ghodse, H.: [http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/bulletin/bulletin_1999-01-01_1_page003.html Evolution of International Drug Control, 1945-1995], United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 1999. # {{note|parl.gc.ca|report2}} See [[{{PAGENAME}}#endnote_cansenrpt|above note]] # {{note|europarl.eu.int-report}} *[http://www2.europarl.eu.int/omk/sipade2?PUBREF=-//EP//NONSGML+REPORT+A5-2003-0085+0+DOC+PDF+V0//EN&amp;L=EN&amp;LEVEL=3&amp;NAV=S&amp;LSTDOC=Y Report Including a Proposal for a Recommendation of the European Parliament to the Council on the Reform of the Conventions on Drugs], Committee on Citizens' Freedoms and Rights, Justice and Home Affairs, European Parliament, [[24 March]] [[2003]]. ''HTML version: http://www.chanvre-info.ch/info/en/article602.html''. # {{note|parl.gc.ca-adherence}} [http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/treaty_adherence.html Monthly Status of Treaty Adherence], UN Office on Drugs and Crime, [[1 January]] [[2005]]. # {{note|unodc.org-report2}} [http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/bulletin/bulletin_1970-01-01_3_page002.html The Protocol on Psychotropic Substances], Bulletin on Narcotics, 1970. # {{note|who.int-tetrahydrocannabinol}} [http://www.who.int/medicines/library/qsm/who-edm-qsm-2000-5/thc.doc Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol and its stereochemical variants], World Health Organization. # {{note|usdoj.gov-811}} [http://www.usdoj.gov/dea/pubs/csa/811.htm 21 U.S.C. § 811(d)(4)]. # {{note|hhs.gov-daterape}} [http://www.hhs.gov/asl/testify/t990311b.html Statement on &quot;Date Rape&quot; Drugs by Nicholas Reuter, M.P.H.], U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, [[11 March]] [[1999]]. # {{note|ddmi.he.net-ephedrine}} [http://ddmi.he.net/~herbs/current/ephcontrol.html DSSC says ephedrine should not be a controlled substance], Herb World News Online, 1998. # {{note|unicri.it-ketamine}} [http://www.unicri.it/min.san.bollettino/altre/915-en.pdf Thirty-Third Report], WHO Expert Committee on Drug Dependence, 2003.&lt;!--Ketamine-related--&gt; # {{note|erowid.org-ecstasy}} Saunders, Nicholas: [http://www.erowid.org/library/books_online/e_for_ecstasy/e_for_ecstasy-a1-1.shtml#R15 E For Ecstasy]. # {{note|lycaeum.org-FDA}} [http://paranoia.lycaeum.org/stimulants/59.FR.31639 International Drug Scheduling; Convention on Psychotropic Substances; Certain Stimulant/Hallucinogenic Drugs and Certain Nonbarbiturate Sedative Drugs], Food and Drug Administration, [[June 20]] [[1994]]. # {{note|unodc.org-report2-2}} Nahas, Gabriel G.: [http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/bulletin/bulletin_1981-01-01_2_page002.html A pharmacological classification of drugs of abuse], Bulletin on Narcotics, 1981. # {{note|nida.nih.gov-report}} [http://www.nida.nih.gov/DirReports/DirRep297/DirectorReport9.html Director's Report to the National Advisory Council on Drug Abuse], National Institute on Drug Abuse, Feb. 1997. # {{note|statedept}} [http://www.state.gov/s/l/16353.htm Memorandum in Opposition to Plaintiffs’ Motion for Summary Judgment in O Centro Espirita Beneficiente Uniao do Vegetal v. Reno, filed in the U.S. District Court for the District of New Mexico], U.S. Department of State, [[January 25]] [[2001]]. # {{note|maps.org-pipermail}} Lande, Adolf, et al: [http://www.maps.org/pipermail/maps_forum/2001-March/003376.html Commentary on the Convention on Psychotropic Substances, New York 1976, E/CN.7/589, p.385] # {{note|unodc.org-report2-3}} See [[{{PAGENAME}}#endnote_unodc.org-report2|above note]] # {{note|erowid-cathinone}} [http://www.erowid.org/freedom/law/federal_register/58.FR.4316.shtml 21 CFR Part 1308], Schedules of Controlled Substances: Placement of Cathinone and 2,5-Dimethoxy-4-ethylamphetamine Into Schedule I, Drug Enforcement Administration, [[7 January]] [[1993]]. # {{note|unodc.org-1971}} [http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/bulletin/bulletin_1971-01-01_3_page002.html The Convention on Psychotropic Substances], [[Bulletin on Narcotics]], United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 1971.&lt;!--This appears to be in the nature of a commentary. It sheds some light on the Convention's legislative history.--&gt; # {{note|un.org-1999}} [http://www.un.org/documents/ecosoc/docs/1999/e1999-28.htm Report on the forty-second session], UN Commission on Narcotic Drugs, [[March 16]]-25, 1999. # {{note|worlddrugreport}} [http://www.ias.org.uk/publications/theglobe/97issue3/globe9703_p11.html World drug threat, the UN reports], World Drug Report, 1997. # {{note|un.org-amphet}} [http://www.un.org/ga/20special/featur/amphet.htm Amphetamine-Type Stimulants], UN General Assembly Special Session on the World Drug Problem, [[June 8]]-10, 1998. # {{note|ecosocres}} [http://www.un.org/documents/ecosoc/res/1997/eres1997-41.htm 1997/41. Implementation of comprehensive measures to counter the illicit manufacture, trafficking and abuse of amphetamine-type stimulants and their precursors], UN Economic and Social Council, [[July 21]] [[1997]]. # {{note|unodc.un.or.th}} [http://www.unodc.un.or.th/factsheet/ATSissuesplans310102.htm Amphetamine Type Stimulants Threaten East Asia], United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, [[4 February]] [[2002]]. # {{note|marijuananews}} Edwards, Steven: [http://www.marijuananews.com/news.php3?sid=126 UN Blasts Canada for Hypocrisy on Drug Trade], The National Post, [[23 February]] [[2000]]. # {{note|unhcr}} [http://www.unhchr.ch/huricane/huricane.nsf/0/61158D4A9269068EC12569F5002BFAE4?opendocument United Nations press release], [[15 February]] [[2001]]. [[Category:Drug control treaties]] [[Category:Psychedelics, dissociatives and deliriants]] {{featured article}} [[fr:Convention sur les substances psychotropes de 1971]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Chief Executive Officer</title> <id>6522</id> <revision> <id>15904657</id> <timestamp>2003-05-06T04:24:19Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Minesweeper</username> <id>7279</id> </contributor> <comment>#REDIRECT [[chief executive officer]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[chief executive officer]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>CIDR</title> <id>6523</id> <revision> <id>35927924</id> <timestamp>2006-01-20T07:44:59Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Botryoidal</username> <id>814230</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Robot: Automated text replacement (-{{4LA}} +{{4LC}})</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''CIDR''' may refer to: * [[Classless Inter-Domain Routing]], a way of interpreting [[IP address]]es * [[CIDR-FM|CIDR]], an [[FM radio]] station in [[Windsor, Ontario]] * CIDR (Controlled Internal Drug Release) an intravaginal drug delivery system used to control the oestrus cycle in cattle, sheep and goats. {{4LC}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Clam Dip</title> <id>6524</id> <revision> <id>15904659</id> <timestamp>2002-05-21T17:17:54Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Maveric149</username> <id>62</id> </contributor> <comment>#redirect [[clam dip]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[clam dip]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Condorcets Method</title> <id>6525</id> <revision> <id>15904660</id> <timestamp>2003-07-25T12:40:16Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Dissident</username> <id>42935</id> </contributor> <minor />
gerous cards can be ruffed to future tricks of that suit. One or two cards in a suit are relatively easy to clear; while a 3- or 4-card suit can be cleared, doing so may exhaust most or all of the cards in that suit, making the clearing useless. Early in a round of hearts, players often try to take the lead when they believe they can do so safely, because of the liberty offered by having the lead. Sometimes a player holding a doubleton King or Ace of Spades (but not also the Queen) will attempt a &quot;finesse&quot; by playing the King or Ace if third to play to a spade trick, in the hope that the fourth player is not the one who holds the Queen. Later, as penalty cards begin to emerge, players try to lose tricks. Often a player taking the lead late in a round of Hearts will be stuck with it. === Shooting the moon === The above criteria of desirability, one should note, only apply to a player not desiring to &quot;shoot the moon&quot;. Otherwise, many of these criteria are reversed. A hand that appears doomed may be excellent for the purpose of moon-shooting. The element of risk involved in shooting the moon is one of the appeals of the game, since a player may attempt to get all 26 points and fail by only getting 24 or 25, in which case the player suffers a massive penalty. This element provides much of the appeal of the game, along with the cutthroat aspect associated with a player holding the queen of spades possibly having the option of dropping it on another player's trick (sometimes called Q-bombing in slang). Often the player who has the fewest points (and is thus leading) is the one people try to give the queen to; however, there is always the risk of giving it to a player who then uses it as part of shooting the moon. Players must always be on the lookout for another player trying to shoot the moon, in the hopes that they can stop it. In addition, the element of passing cards allows players to attempt to control their destiny and influence that of their fellow players. Receiving a pass of low cards is a [[red flag (signal)|red flag]] that the other player is attempting to shoot the moon. ==Trivia== * Hearts is one of three card games bundled in several versions of [[Microsoft_windows|Microsoft Windows]]. ==See also== * [[Microsoft Hearts]] == External links == *[http://www.toycrossing.com/hearts/index.shtml How to Play Hearts, Proficiently] *[http://www.hearts-clan.de Hearts-Clan Germany] [[Category:Anglo-American playing card games]] [[Category:Trick-taking card games]] [[da:Hjerterfri]] [[de:Hearts]] [[eo:Keroj]] [[fr:dame de Pique]] [[he:לבבות (משחק קלפים)]] [[ja:ハーツ]] [[nl:Hartenjagen]] [[pl:Kierki]] [[sv:Hjärter]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hastings</title> <id>13830</id> <revision> <id>41791778</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T19:59:06Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Kelisi</username> <id>173996</id> </contributor> <comment>/* History */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; width=300 style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot; style=margin-left:10px |- !colspan=2 align=center bgcolor=&quot;#ff9999&quot;|Borough of Hastings |- |align=center|[[Image:Hastings - East Sussex dot.png|115px|Hastings]] |align=center|[[Image:EastSussexHastings.png|150px|Hastings]]&lt;br&gt;''Shown within [[East Sussex]]'' |- !colspan=2 bgcolor=&quot;#ff9999&quot;|Geography |- |width=&quot;45%&quot;|Status:||Borough |- |[[Regions of England|Region]]:||[[South East England]] |- |Admin. County:||[[East Sussex]] |- |[[Surface area|Area]]:&lt;br&gt;- Total||[[List of English districts by area|Ranked 338th]]&lt;br&gt;[[1 E7 m²|29.72]] [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] |- |Admin. HQ:||Hastings |- | [[British_national_grid_reference_system|Grid reference]]: || {{mmukscaled|TQ821095|100|TQ 82 10}} |- |[[ONS coding system|ONS code]]:||21UD |- |Postcode:||TN34 |- !colspan=2 bgcolor=&quot;#ff9999&quot;|Demographics |- |[[Population]]:&lt;br&gt;- Total ([[2004]] est.)&lt;br&gt;- [[Density]]||[[List of English districts by population|Ranked 275th]]&lt;br&gt;84,600&lt;br&gt;2,847 / km&amp;sup2; |- |Ethnicity:||97.0% White |- !colspan=2 bgcolor=&quot;#ff9999&quot;|Politics |- |colspan=2 align=center|Hastings Borough Council&lt;br&gt;http://www.hastings.gov.uk/ |- |[[Local_government_in_England#Councils_and_councillors|Leadership]]:||Leader &amp; Cabinet |- |Executive:||All party |- |[[MPs elected in the UK general election, 2005|MP]]:||[[Michael Jabez Foster|Michael Foster]] |} {{otheruses}} '''Hastings''' is a town and local government [[Non-metropolitan district|district]] in [[South East England|South East]] [[England]], in the county of [[East Sussex]]. The population was about 84,000 in 2000. Known as a [[seaside resort]] and for the [[Battle of Hastings]] [[1066]], which actually occurred at the nearby town of [[Battle, East Sussex|Battle]]. Hastings was one of the [[Cinque Ports]], but its significance as a port declined after the [[Middle Ages]] and its main industry became [[fishing]]. It still has the largest beach-based fishing fleet in [[England]]. The town enjoyed some modest expansion in the latter part of the 20th century. ==History== :''Main article: [[Battle of Hastings]]. For the history and etymology of the place name see [[Wiktionary:Hastings|Hastings]] in Wiktionary.'' Hastings was not a Roman settlement, although there are traces of Iron Age or Romano-British earthworks. The town of Hæstingas (probably referring to the followers of an [[Anglo-Saxon]] leader called Hæsta), is mentioned in documents from the [[eighth century]], and a royal [[mint (coin)|mint]] was established there in the reign of [[Athelstan]]. [[William the Conqueror]] made his headquarters here on his arrival in England, and the Battle of Hastings was fought a few miles a way near the present town of [[Battle, East Sussex|Battle]]. In this battle, William defeated and killed [[Harold Godwinson]], the last Saxon King of England, and destroyed his army, opening England to the Norman conquest. After the conquest, William built a castle at Hastings, as depicted on the [[Bayeux Tapestry]] - probably the earthworks of the existing castle. In the middle ages Hastings became one of the [[Cinque Ports]]; [[Sandwich]], [[Dover]], and [[New Romney]] being the first, Hastings, and [[Hythe]] followed, all finally being joined by [[Rye, East Sussex|Rye]] and [[Pevensey]], at one point 42 towns were directly or indirectly affiliated to the group. In the [[13th century]] much of the town was washed away by the sea. In [[1339]] and [[1377]] the town was raided and burnt by the French, and seems then to have gone into a decline. As a port, Hastings suffered over the years from the lack of a natural harbour. There were many attempts to create a sheltered harbour, and in 1897 the foundation stone was laid of a large concrete structure; however there was insufficient money to complete the work, and the &quot;Harbour arm&quot; remains uncompleted. It was partially blown up to discourage possible use by German invasion forces during World War II. The fishing boats are still stored on and launched from the beach. Hastings returned two [[Member of Parliament|Members of Parliament]] from the [[fourteenth century]] to [[1885]] since when it has returned one. &lt;div style=&quot;float:right;width:280px;&quot;&gt; [[Image:Television.JPG|none|thumb|280px|One of the most significant inventions of the last 100 years took place in Queens Arcade, Hastings]] &lt;/div&gt; Like many coastal towns, the population of Hastings grew significantly as a result of the construction of railway links and the fashionable growth of seaside holidays during the Victorian era.[[nineteenth century]]. ==Geography== &lt;div style=&quot;float:right;width:280px;&quot;&gt; [[Image:Hastings_town_centre_postcard.jpg|none|thumb|280px|Hastings town centre and the Memorial from an old postcard]] [[Image:Hastings_town_centre_present.jpg|none|thumb|280px|Hastings town centre in 2005]] &lt;/div&gt; Hastings is situated where the [[sandstone]] beds, at the heart of the [[Weald]], known geologically as the Hastings Sands, meet the [[English Channel]], forming tall cliffs to the east of the town. Hastings Old Town is in a sheltered valley between the East Hill and West Hill (on which the remains of the Castle stand). In Victorian times and later the town has spread westwards and northwards, and now forms a single urban centre with the more suburban area of [[St Leonards-on-Sea]] to the west. Roads from the Old Town valley lead towards the Victorian area of Clive Vale and the former village of [[Ore, Sussex|Ore]], from which &quot;The Ridge&quot;, marking the effective boundary of Hastings, extends north-westwards towards [[Battle, East Sussex|Battle]]. Beyond St Leonards, the western end of Hastings is marked by low-lying land in the direction of [[Bexhill-on-Sea]]. The sandstone cliffs have been the subject of considerable erosion in relatively recent times: much of the Castle was lost to the sea before the present sea defences and promenade were built, and a number of cliff-top houses are in danger of disappearing around the nearby village of [[Fairlight, East Sussex|Fairlight]]. The beach is mainly shingle, although wide areas of sand are uncovered at low tide. The town is generally built upon a series of low hills rising to 500 feet above sea level at &quot;The Ridge&quot; before falling back in the river valley further to the north. The town also has a large Victorian park, [[Alexandra Park, Hastings|Alexandra Park]]. ==Local government== Hastings was a [[borough]] by [[1086]], and gave its name to the Rape of Hastings, one of the six [[Rape (district)|Rapes]] or administrative districts of Sussex. As a borough, Hastings had a [[corporation]
ional $750 million in merchandising alone. * Executive producers Benjamin Melniker and Michael E. Uslan sued Warner Brothers for forcing them into accepting a net profit agreement rather than the gross profit one that was set up for other parties like Jack Nicholson. Warners then claimed that, although &quot;Batman&quot; at the time was the 5th biggest grossing film ever, it was still technically in the red, and offered the two producers a $1 million out-of-court settlement. They naturally rejected this. * Corto Maltese (where Vicki had been taking pictures) is the name of a popular European [[Corto Maltese | comic character]], starring in the adventure comic books of Italian Hugo Pratt. Corto Maltese is also an island country in [[Frank Miller]]'s [[The Dark Knight Returns]], one of Burton's inspirations for Batman. * This was the first film to ever get a &quot;12&quot; rating in Great Britain. The rating was created to prevent young children from seeing the film. It had been in place up until 2002, where it was updated to &quot;12A&quot; for the live-action Spider-Man (2002) movie. * Kim Basinger is only a few inches shorter than Michael Keaton. To make Keaton appear taller, she wears flat heels or is in stocking feet in all the scenes in which they are standing next to each other. * In the Globe office, an artist hands Knox a drawing of a bat dressed like a man, poking fun at his belief in Batman. The drawing is signed &quot;[Bob Kane]&quot;. Kane himself was originally planned to play the artist. * Jack Nicholson received a percentage of the gross on the film, and due to its massive box-office took home around $60 million. As of 2003 it is still the single-movie record for actor's salary. * The flag of Gotham City closely resembles the state flag of Indiana. It can be seen briefly in Harvey Dent's office. * When the Tom Mankiewicz script was in development, the directors associated with the project included Joe Dante and Ivan Reitman. Producers wanted an unknown to play Batman and the cast wish-list included William Holden as Commissioner Gordon and David Niven as Alfred, Bruce Wayne's faithful butler. * The movie's &quot;Vicki Vale&quot; is partially based on 1970s Bruce Wayne girlfriend Silver St. Cloud, a name deemed too silly for a movie character. However, in the comics there was a character named Vicki Vale, who was a reporter and appeared in the comics throughout the '40s and '60s. * The character of Alexander Knox (Robert Wuhl) was a character created for the movie. In the first draft of the script, the character was killed during the parade scene. * When Alfred receives Vicki Vale's message, a portrait can be seen in the background, some believe it to be a portrait of Thomas Wayne, Bruce's father. * For its first video release, the film was graded slightly lighter, as cinema audiences had complained that it was filmed so darkly that they could hardly see what was going on. * Anton Furst's designs for Gotham City were partally incorporated into the comics during the early '90s. * In a newsroom scene, Vicki Vale and Alexander Knox examine a map of Gotham City which has been marked with Batman sightings. The map is actually a map of Vancouver, British Columbia. * The film was the first live-action movie to be played on [[Toonami]]. * One scene in the film includes the destruction of a priceless painting when one of joker's goons places his hands on the painting (leaving red hand prints.) But later in the scene we see that the hand prints are mysteriously gone. * Screenwriter Sam Hamm was annoyed at the filmmakers over certain changes made from his original drafts. The most notable would be making The Joker the killer of Bruce Wayne's parents, and Alfred Pennyworth letting Vicki Vale into the Batcave. Hamm himself said that he was able to keep Burton from making these changes until a writer's strike which permitted him from being with production. * In Sam Hamm's original draft, Alexander Knox was a more serious character who has romantic rivalry between Bruce over Vicki. Knox was also able to figure out Bruce's secret identity, but would later be killed in the climax. * In the book Hit and Run, author Kim Masters writes that Tim Burton's original vision for the film was much, much darker, but producers Jon Peters and Peter Guber vetoed the idea. == On DVD== [[Image:batman2disc.jpg|right|thumb|128px||Cover of the 2-disc Special Edition DVD]] ''Batman'' was given a &quot;bare bones&quot; DVD release when the medium was introduced in 1997-98. However, in 2005, the newest feature film, [[Batman Begins]], spurred Warner Bros. to release a Two-Disc Special Edition set of all four Burton-Schumacher films in ''Batman: The Motion Picture Anthology 1989-1997''. Features of the original Burton film include: *Digitally Remastered Anamorphic Widescreen Transfer *English Dolby Digital 5.1 Surround Track *English DTS 5.1 Surround Track *Audio Commentary with Director Tim Burton *Legends of the Dark Knight: The History of Batman Documentary *Shadows of the Bat: The Cinematic Saga of the Dark Knight Parts 1, 2 &amp; 3 *#The Road to Gotham City *#The Gathering Storm *#The Legend Reborn *Beyond Batman Documentary Gallery Including: **Visualizing Gotham: The Production Design of Batman **Building the Batmobile **Those Wonderful Toys: The Props and Gadgets of Batman **Designing the Batsuit **From Jack to Joker **Nocturnal Overtures: The Music of Batman *&quot;Batdance&quot;, &quot;Partyman&quot; and &quot;Scandalous&quot; Music Videos by Prince *The Heroes and The Villains Profile Galleries *Batman: The Complete Robin Storyboard Sequence *On the Set with Bob Kane Featurette *Batman Theatrical Trailer ==External links== {{wikiquote|Batman_(1989)}} *{{imdb title|id=0096895|title=Batman}} *[http://www.batmanunmasked.com Pictures of the set, Batsuit, Batmobile, and cast of Batman] * [http://www.keithshortsculptor.com/batman.htm Keith Short - Film Sculptor] Sculpted the Batmobile for this film *[http://www.bullz-eye.com/mguide/reviews_1989/batman.htm Batman review, Batman DVD review] *[http://www.sydlexia.com/batmancereal.htm 1989's Batman Cereal] *[http://terryxart.com/BatmanPage1.htm Tim Burton's Batman Page 1] *[http://tiger.towson.edu/~apeak1/writtenwork/thoughtpieces/thegoodlifeofcrime.html The Good Life of Crime] * [http://www.batmanytb.com/movies/batman/index.php Batman @ BYTB: Batman Yesterday, Today and Beyond] ==See also== *[[Batman (video game)]] {{Batmanmovies}} {{Tim Burton Films}} [[Category:1989 films]] [[Category:Films directed by Tim Burton]] [[Category:American films]] [[Category:Prince films]] [[Category:Thriller films]] [[Category:Warner Bros. films]] [[es:Batman (película)]] [[fr:Batman (film, 1989)]] [[pt:Batman (filme)]] [[ru:?????? (?????)]] [[sk:Batman (1989 film)]] [[sv:Batman (film)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Batman (1966 film)</title> <id>4727</id> <revision> <id>41190547</id> <timestamp>2006-02-25T17:48:35Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>65.10.114.45</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* External links */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Film | name =Batman | imdb_id = | image = 1966 batman movie poster.jpg | producer =[[William Dozier]]&lt;br&gt; | writer = [[Lorenzo Semple Jr.]] (screen writer)&lt;br&gt;[[Bob Kane]] (comic book) | starring = [[Adam West]]&lt;BR&gt;[[Burt Ward]]&lt;BR&gt;[[Lee Meriwether]]&lt;BR&gt;[[Cesar Romero]]&lt;BR&gt;[[Burgess Meredith]]&lt;BR&gt;[[Frank Gorshin]] &lt;BR&gt; | director = [[Leslie H. Martinson]]| distributor = [[20th Century Fox]] | released = [[July 30]], [[1966]] | runtime = 105 min. | language =English | music = | awards = | budget = $1,377,800 | }} This big screen spin-off of the popular Batman televison series, [[Adam West]]'s '''''Batman''''' was the first full-length theatrical adaptation of the [[DC Comics]] character. It was later to acquire the video-box title ''Batman: The Movie''. The [[20th Century Fox]] release starred [[Adam West]] as Batman and [[Burt Ward]] as Robin. Filmed at the end of season one of the ABC [[primetime]] [[Batman (1960s TV series)|''Batman'' TV series]] of the 1960s (between [[April 25]] and [[May 31]], [[1966]] at an estimated $1,377,800), it featured four main criminals from the show, including &quot;fiendish funnyman&quot; [[Joker (comics)|the Joker]] ([[Cesar Romero]]), The &quot;riddling&quot; [[Riddler]] ([[Frank Gorshin]]), that &quot;fowl bird&quot; [[Penguin (comics)|The Penguin]] ([[Burgess Meredith]]), and the &quot;fiendish feline&quot; [[Catwoman]] ([[Lee Meriwether]]). It was directed by [[Leslie H. Martinson]], who won a [[Golden Gryphon]] for his efforts. The 105-minute ''Batman'' opened at [[Paramount Theatre, The (Austin, Texas)|The Paramount Theatre]] in [[Austin, Texas]] on Saturday, [[July 30]], [[1966]] (between the first and second seasons of the [[Batman (1960s TV series)|TV series]]. Like the television series, the movie featured saturated colours, [[campy]] [[dialogue]] and special effects, and over-exaggeration in acting performances, effectively being a [[tongue-in-cheek]] [[parody]]. It performed poorly at the box office and is despised by many fans of the [[gothic horror]] &quot;Creature of the Night&quot; [[Batman]]. ==Plot summary== {{Spoiler}} When Batman ([[Adam West|West]]) and Robin ([[Burt Ward|Ward]]) get a tip that Commodore Schmidlapp is in danger aboard his yacht, they launch a rescue mission. After a tangle with an exploding shark, Batman and Robin head back to Commissioner Gordon's office where, by case of deduction and wisdom, they figure out that that the tip was a set-up by four of the most powerful villains ever (Joker, Penguin, Riddler and Catwoman), who seek to defeat the Dynamic Duo once and for all. Armed with a dehydrator that can turn humans into
of animals such as they are—is brought about entirely through the mediation of angels.'' ::''For all forces are angels! How blind, how perniciously blind are the naïve?! If you told someone who purports to be a sage of Israel that the Deity sends an angel who enters a woman's womb and there forms an embryo, he would think this a miracle and accept it as a mark of the majesty and power of the Deity—despite the fact that he believes an angel to be a body of fire one third the size of the entire world. All this, he thinks, is possible for God. But if you tell him that God placed in the sperm the power of forming and demarcating these organs, and that this is the angel, or that all forms are produced by the Active Intellect—that here is the angel, the &quot;vice-regent of the world&quot; constantly mentioned by the sages—then he will recoil. For he [the naïve person] does not understand that the true majesty and power are in the bringing into being of forces which are active in a thing although they cannot be perceived by the senses.'' ::''The sages of blessed memory state clearly—to those who are wise themselves—that every bodily power (not to mention forces at large in the world) is an angel and that a given power has one effect and no more. It says in Midrash Bereshit Rabbah &quot;We are given to understand that no angel performs two missions, nor do two angels perform one mission.&quot;—which is just the case with all forces. To confirm the conclusion that individual physical and psychological forces are called &quot;angels&quot;, there is the dictum of the sages, in a number of places, ultimately derived from Bereshit Rabbah, &quot;Each day the Holy One creates a band of angels who sing their song before him and go their way.&quot; Midrash Bereshit Rabbah, LXXVIII. When this midrash was countered with another which suggests that angels are permanent...the answer given was that some are permanent and other perish. And this is in fact the case. Particular forces come to be and pass away in constant succession; the species of such forces, however, are stable and enduring....[Giving a few more examples of the mention of angels in rabbinic writings, Maimonides says] Thus the Sages reveal to the aware that the imaginative faculty is also called an angel; and the mind is called a cherub. How beautiful this will appear to the sophisticated mind—and how disturbing to the primitive.&quot;'' &lt;/small&gt; One can perhaps say that Maimonides thus presents a virtual rejection of the &quot;classical&quot; Jewish view of [[miracle]]s; he and others substitute a rationalism that seems more appropriate for 20th and 21st century religious rationalists. Others might perhaps view Maimonides's statements as being perfectly in keeping with the continued evolvement of [[Jewish philosophy|Jewish thought]] over a period of several [[Millennium|millennia]]. == Christian views == [[Image:Jacob-angel.jpg|right|thumbnail|250px|[[Jacob Wrestling with the Angel]] - [[Gustave Doré]], [[1855|(1855)]]]] In the [[New Testament]] angels appear frequently as the ministers of God and the agents of revelation (''E.g.'' [[Matthew]] 1:20 (to Joseph), 4:11. (to Jesus), [[Luke]] 1:26 (to Mary), [[Acts]] 12:7 (to Peter)); and Jesus speaks of angels as fulfilling such functions (''E.g.'' [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] 8:38, 13:27), implying in one saying that they neither marry nor are given in marriage (Mark 12:25). Naturally angels are most prominent in the Apocalypse. The New Testament takes little interest in the idea of the angelic hierarchy, but there are traces of the doctrine. The distinction of good and bad angels is recognized; [[Gabriel]] (Luke 1:19), [[Metatron]] (Rev. 10:1), and [[Michael]] (Daniel 12:1), and the evil angels [[Beelzebub]], (Mark 3:22) [[Satan]] (Mark 1:13), and[[Apollyon]] (Rev. 9:11); ranks are implied, archangels (Michael, Jude 9), principalities and powers (Rom. 8:38; Col. 2:10), thrones and dominions (Col 1:16). Angels occur in groups of four or seven (Rev 7:1). In Rev. 1-3. we meet with the Angels of the Seven Churches of Asia Minor. These are probably guardian angels, standing to the churches in the same relation that the angel-princes in Daniel stand to the nations; practically the angels are personifications of the churches. The archangel Gabriel appeared to [[The Virgin Mary|Mary]] in the traditional role of messenger to inform her that her child would be the [[Messiah]], and other angels were present to herald his birth. In Matt. 28:2, an angel appeared at [[Jesus]]' tomb, frightened the Roman guards, rolled away the stone from the tomb, and later told the [[myrrh]]-bearing women of Jesus' [[resurrection]]. Alternately, in Mark 16:5 the angel is not seen until the women enter the already-opened tomb, and he is described simply as &quot;a young man.&quot; In Luke's version of the resurrection tale (Luke 24:4), two angels suddenly apparate next to the women within the tomb; they are described as being clothed in &quot;shining apparel.&quot; This is most similar to the version in John 20:12, where Mary alone speaks to &quot;two angels in white&quot; within the tomb of Jesus. Two angels witnessed Jesus' ascent into [[Heaven]] and prophesied his return. When [[Saint Peter|Peter]] was imprisoned, an angel put his guards to sleep, released him from his chains, and led him out of the prison. Angels fill a number of different roles in the Book of Revelation. Among other things, they are seen gathered around the Throne of the Triple-God singing the thrice-holy [[hymn]]. Angels are frequently depicted as human in appearance, though many [[theology|theologian]]s have argued that they have no physical existence, but can incarnate.[[Seraphim]] are often depicted as six wings radiating from a center concealing a body, as depicted in the Bible. Starting with the end of the [[4th century]], angels were depicted with wings, presumably to give an easy explanation for them travelling to and from heaven. This is also heavily implied by the Scriptures. Scholastic theologians teach that angels are able to reason instantly, and to move instantly. They also teach that angels are intermediaries to some forces that would otherwise be natural forces of the universe, such as the rotation of planets and the motion of stars. Angels possess the beatific vision, or the unencumbered understanding of God (the essence of the pleasure of heaven). Furthermore, there are more angels than there are anything else in the universe (although when first written this would have probably not included atoms since atomic structure was not known). Religious thought about the angels during the middle ages was much influenced by the theory of the angelic hierarchy set forth in ''[[The Celestial Hierarchy]]'', a work of [[Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite]], an unknown [[5th century]] [[author]] or authors writing in the style of [[Dionysius the Areopagite]]. The creeds and confessions do not formulate any authoritative doctrine of angels; and agnostics have tended to deny the existence of such beings, or to regard the subject as one on which we can have no certain knowledge. The principle of continuity, however, seems to require the existence of beings intermediate between man and God. Some [[Christianity|Christian]] traditions hold that angels are organized into three major [[Hierarchy of angels|hierarchies]] which are subdivided into orders called Choirs, and list as many as ten orders of angels. ''The Celestial Hierarchy'' is the source of the names that have become part of tradition: ''Angels'', ''Archangels'', ''Principalities'', ''Powers'', ''Virtues'', ''Dominions'', ''Thrones'', ''Cherubim'', and ''Seraphim''. In this hierarchy, the Cherubim and Seraphim are typically closest to God, while the Angels and Archangels are most active in human affairs. Many of these names come from verses in the Bible which would appear at first to be referencing a literal thing, although retroactively suggesting that they really mention angels can also make sense in the context. For example the verse in Paul &quot;our struggle is not with earthly things but with principalities and powers&quot; (meaning according to most theologians the [[fallen angel]]s of those choirs, used as an example of all the fallen angels). Some Christian traditions also hold that angels play a variety of specific roles in the lives of believers. For instance, each Christian may be assigned a guardian angel at their baptism (although never defined by the Anglican, Catholic, or Orthodox churches, nevertheless it is personally held by many church members and most theologians). Each consecrated altar has at least one angel always present offering up prayers, and a number of angels join the congregation when they meet to pray. In the story of the 40 martyrs of Sebaste, in which 40 Christian Roman soldiers were made to stand [[nudity|naked]] on a frozen lake in the snow until they renounced their faith, angels were seen descending from Heaven placing the crowns of martyrs on their heads. Certain Christian traditions, especially the [[Reformed]] tradition within [[Protestantism]] and the Anglican Church hold that references to the &quot;Angel of the Lord&quot; are references to pre-[[Incarnation]] appearances of Jesus. Some medieval Christian philosophers were influenced by the views of Maimonides, and accepted his view of angels. Today, these views of angels are still technically acceptable within many mainstream Christian denominations. Satan, Beelzebul, and the rest of the demons are thought by Christians to be angels who rebelled against God and were expelled from Heaven. Christianity also considers other religions' gods as rebellious celestial spirits who oppose the Triple-God, the Trinity. In many informal [[folklore|folk beliefs]] among Christians concerning the [[afterlife]], the souls of the virtuous dead ascend into Heaven to be converted into angel-like beings. The [[Bible]] does st
it is undeniable that regardless of their (probably feeble) physical impact, early cannon, with their noise, smoke, and flames, had a terrifying [[psychological]] impact on horses or soldiers who had never encountered the weapons before. Early cannon did not always fire spherical projectiles. For smaller cannon, arrow-like rounds were used in the 14th century, sometimes with brass fin-stabilisers or inflammable heads. Initially, round shot was made of iron but was soon replaced by stone balls, particularly for larger pieces, due to the cost of metals in the 14th and 15th centuries. The round shot were sometimes covered in [[lead]] to reduce [[windage]]. For [[anti-personnel]] use, massed lead pellets were quickly adopted, but ''in extremis'' any small stones, nails, or iron scraps would be used as &quot;hailshot&quot;. The introduction of wheeled carriages for cannon did not occur until the 15th century. Prior to then the weapons were mounted on sturdy wooden frames. The largest siege bombards would be strapped down to large timber baulks on earthwork platforms and aimed either with the initial [[weapons platform|platform]] or by hammering wedges under the front. Timber props supporting thick wooden planks were positioned to absorb the [[recoil]]. [[Image:Grand Turk(28).jpg|thumb|right|250px|Cast-iron muzzle-loading ship's cannon aboard the [[Grand Turk (frigate)|Grand Turk]]]] In the 16th century the &quot;Great Guns&quot; were classified according to size, with such names as &quot;[[Tsar Cannon|cannon royal]]&quot;, &quot;[[demi-cannon]]&quot;, &quot;[[culverin]]&quot;, &quot;[[demi-culverin]]&quot;, &quot;falcon&quot;, &quot;falconer&quot;, &quot;minion&quot; etc., but by the 18th century they were classified by the weight of the round shot that they fired. Thus the demi-cannon was described as a 32-pounder (15 kg). Smaller guns included the 18-pound (8 kg) culverin, 12-pounders (5 kg), 9 pounders (4 kg) and 6-pounders (3 kg). The gun barrel was mounted on a wheeled carriage balanced on two &quot;trunnions&quot;, the short metal projections on either side of the barrel invented by an unknown Dutchman. The angle of elevation could be altered by moving a wooden wedge under the rear end of the gun. [[Shotguns]] were developed as essentially small cannon, having been first named in [[Kentucky]] in the 18th Century; their size, expressed in [[Gauge (bore diameter) | gauge]], is expressed in the fraction of a pound that a round shot of a diameter equal to their barrel bore diameter would be. Hence, a 12 gauge shotgun has a bore that is equivalent in diameter to a round shot of lead weighing one-twelfth of a pound. See [[gauge (bore diameter)]]. The early big guns were built up from strips of wrought iron, heated until they glowed yellow, and then hammered together to weld them and form the barrel. Rings of iron were forced over the barrel to reinforce it. Smaller guns were cast in [[brass]] or bronze, using techniques used for centuries to produce statues. In the 16th century the Dutch developed [[cast iron]] cannon. In addition to the obvious implications for land-based artillery, the lighter weight of cast-iron cannon rendered shipboard artillery far more efficient and cost-effective. Cast-iron technology spread to England in [[1543]], where it grew to become a key element in the British rise to naval supremacy. In the 18th and early 19th centuries, cannon occupied several roles. On the battlefield they were like modern-day machine guns, used to &quot;thin out&quot; an advancing group of the enemy. In a siege, larger cannon and mortars were used more like conventional artillery or medieval siege weapons, to knock holes in the defences. In [[1823]], the first cannon using explosive [[Shell (projectile)|shells]] were invented by the French General [[Henri-Joseph Paixhans]]. These cannon, combining explosive power with a flat trajectory, were adopted by various Navies from the 1840s, thereby triggering the demise of wooden ships, and the iron hull revolution in boat building. [[Image:DahlgrenCannon.jpg|thumb|200px|A [[Rodman gun|Rodman cannon]]&amp;mdash;a successor to the similarly bottle-shaped [[John A. Dahlgren|Dahlgren cannon]]]] The development of the smooth bore muzzle-loaded cannon culminated in the inventions of [[John A. Dahlgren]], the admiral who designed the heavy, cast-iron cannon fired from Union ships in the [[American Civil War]]. In [[1862]] John Gilleland invented a [[double-barreled cannon]], which turned out to be a spectacular failure. The military use of cannon declined in the mid-19th century as fabrication technology improved enough to enable the rifling of gun barrels (which in turn required the introduction of breech loading, followed by a brief return to muzzle-loading) and the use of the far more destructive explosive shells. During the [[nineteenth century]], artillery technology advanced at a very rapid rate, ensuring that by the beginning of the [[twentieth century]], modern armies in Europe, America, and Japan were equipped with lethally accurate cannon. Artillery came to dominate the [[First World War]], with approximately 7 million of the estimated 10 million worldwide casualties being caused by artillery shells. Artillery forced armies to construct elaborate [[trench]] systems, which became the enduring image of the war. During the [[World War II|Second World War]], artillery became less important as battles had become highly mobilised, with [[bomber]] aircraft taking over the role of long-range cannon. Cannon in fortified positions, such as the [[Maginot Line]] and the [[Atlantic Wall]], were increasingly unable to protect areas from infantry and tank attacks. The German &quot;[[Big Bertha]]&quot; guns, capable of firing shells from Occupied France across the English Channel, were technologically unsuitable as the cannon's rifling would too quickly wear away. The [[V-3 cannon|High-pressure gun]], designed by German engineers to bombard London, was a spectacular failure. == In Popular Culture == In cases of emergency, ersatz cannon have been fashioned from as sewer pipes and hollow tree trunks, anecdotally even from [[alligator]] carcasses, as described in the historical ballad, ''[[Battle of New Orleans (song) |The Battle of New Orleans]]''. ==Projectiles fired from cannon== [[Image:Cannon diagram.PNG|right|frame|Essential parts of a cannon: 1. the [[projectile]], or cannonball 2. [[gunpowder]] 3. hole in which the [[Fuse (explosives)|fuse]] is inserted]] ; '''Round shot''' : A solid projectile made, in early times, from dressed stone but, by the [[17th century]], from iron. The most accurate projectile that could be fired by a smooth-bore cannon, used to batter the wooden hulls of opposing ships, forts, or fixed emplacements, and as a long-range anti-personnel weapon. ; '''Chain shot''' or '''bar shot''' : Two sub-calibre round shot (a good deal smaller than the bore of the barrel) linked by a length of chain or a solid bar, and used to slash through the [[rigging]] and sails of an enemy ship so that it could no longer manoeuvre. It was inaccurate and only used at close range. ; '''[[Canister shot]]''' (or '''case shot''') : An anti-personnel weapon which included several small round shot or [[lead]] [[musket]] [[bullet]]s in a metal can, which broke up when fired, scattering the shot throughout the enemy personnel, like a large [[shotgun]]. ; '''[[Shell (projectile)|Shell]]''' : An anti-personnel weapon, similar to canister shot, but with a can that was much more robust and which also contained a [[fuse (explosives)|fused]] [[explosive]] charge, trimmed to explode above the heads of the enemy, spreading shot and can fragments in the form of [[shrapnel]] over the enemy. First used in the [[16th century]] as a [[siege weapon]] fired from [[mortar (weapon)|mortars]], and later as a battlefield weapon. ; '''[[Grapeshot]]''' : An anti-personnel weapon, similar to canister shot, but with the shot being contained in a [[canvas]] bag, and generally of a smaller calibre. ; '''Carcass''' : An incendiary/antipersonnel projectile designed to burn fiercely and produce poisonous fumes. It was constructed of an iron frame bound with [[sack cloth]] and filled with various ingredients such as [[Pitch (resin)|pitch]], [[antimony]], [[sulphur]], [[saltpeter]], [[tallow]] and venetian [[turpentine]]. It was ignited by the cannon's propellant charge, bursting on impact with the target and releasing noxious fumes while setting fire to its surroundings. It was effectively an early [[chemical weapon]] as well as an [[incendiary]] and [[area denial weapon]]. ; '''Heated shot''' : A process where the cannonball is heated and when shot the cannonball could bounce over water and damage a ship. [[Image:CannonWithSmoke.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Cannon in a Civil War [[Historical reenactment|re-enactment]]: The large amounts of gunpowder often affected visibility significantly. Gunners hope for a strong wind that will allow them to continue to see their target.]] == Modern cannon == A modern artillery piece is generally referred to either as a &quot;gun&quot;, or by the name of its specific type, such as a [[Howitzer]]. Since [[World War II]] the term ''cannon'' is used to refer to a gun of around 20 mm to 125 mm calibre, sometimes with an automatic loading [[Firearm action |action]] capable of firing explosive [[ammunition]], an ''[[auto-cannon]]''. The minimum calibre of a cannon, 20 mm, has been a ''[[de facto]]'' standard since [[World War II|WWII]], when heavy machine guns of 12.7 mm (0.5&quot;) and 13.2 mm calibre were used side by side with 20 mm and larger guns, the latter using explosive ammunition, e.g., [[Royal Air Force|RAF]] fighters with 20 mm Hispano cannon and [[Luftwaffe]] with 20 mm and [[30 mm caliber|30 mm]] cannon. The [[Bofors 40 mm gun]] and [[Oerlikon 20 mm cannon]] are two examples largely used during the Second World War, and still in usage today. Most
oic prince. ====Comics==== In the Japanese comic book series [[Urusei Yatsura]] (1978-1987) created by Rumiko Takahashi and published by Shogakukan, a girl character named Rynosuke wears a white shirt with the Chinese ideogram for &quot;male&quot; on the back of her shirt along with pants, along with other male attire as part of her father's misguided insistence that his child is a male. More recently, in the Japanese action comic [[Gunslinger Girl]] (2003), published in the United States by ADV, one girl character brainwashed to be an assassin, takes pleasure in wearing a men's style suit and tie. ====Theater==== [[David Henry Hwang]]'s [[1988]] play ''[[M. Butterfly]]'' focuses on a love affair between a [[France|French]] diplomat and a male [[Beijing]] opera singer who plays ''dan'' (&amp;#26086;), or female, roles. The [[Takarazuka Revue]] is a group of six associated all-female Japanese acting troupes, known for their elaborate productions of stage musicals. Takarazuka actresses may specialize in either male or female roles, but the most popular stars tend to be those who play male characters. Beethovens' only opera, [[Fidelio]], involves the story of a woman who disguises herself as a young man as part of a plan to rescue her husband from prison. In the musical [[Rent]], Angel is an example of a modern drag queen. {{sectstub}} == See also == * [[List of transgender-related topics]] * [[Breeches role]] * [[Crossdressing During Wartime]] * [[Tri-Ess]] * [[En femme]] == References and further reading == * Rudolf M. Dekker, Lotte C. Van De Pol, Lotte C. Van De Pol, ''The Tradition of Female Transvestism in Early Modern Europe'', 1989, ISBN 0-312-173342. * Peggy J. Rudd, ''Crossdressing With Dignity : The Case For Transcending Gender Lines'', PM Publishers, Inc., [[1999]]. ISBN 0962676268. * Charles Anders, ''The Lazy Crossdresser'', [[Greenery Press]], 2002. ISBN 1890159379. * Lacey Leigh, ''Out &amp; About: The Emancipated Crossdresser'', Double Star Press, 2002. ISBN 0971668000. ==External links== * [http://arthur-ransome.org/ar/literary/pyrates.htm Mary Read and Anne Bonny] * [http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/deon.htm Charles d'Eon de Beaumont] * [http://www.maskon.com/marti/gallery.htm A gallery of female maskers] * [http://personal.telefonica.terra.es/web/tmap/index.htm An index of cross-dressing and gender-related transformations in Manga and Anime] * [http://www.outlawwomen.com/WomenSoldiersoftheCivilWar.htm Women Soldiers of the Civil War] * [http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/cathytg/anima.htm Jung's Anima Theory and How it Relates to Crossdressing] [[Category:Transgender people and behavior]] [[Category:Sexual orientation and identity]] [[de:Cross-Dressing]] [[fa:مبدل‌پوشی]] [[he:קרוס-דרסר]] [[pl:Crossdressing]] [[sv:Crossdressing]] [[zh:扮裝]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>C</title> <id>5701</id> <revision> <id>41533952</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T00:11:51Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Cameron Nedland</username> <id>652628</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses1|the letter C itself}} {{dablink|'''C#''' redirects here. Due to technical limitations, the article on the C# programming language is located at [[C Sharp]]. For information about the musical note C♯, see [[musical notation]]}} {{AZ|uc=C|lc=c}} [[Image:Copyright.svg|thumb|100px|'''C''' in Copyright mark]] '''C''' (lowercase '''c''') is the third letter of the [[Roman alphabet]]. Its name in [[English language|English]] is ''cee'' ([[IPA]] [si:]). In the [[Etruscan language]], [[plosive consonant]]s had no contrastive [[phonation|voicing]], so the [[Greek language|Greek]] [[Gamma|&amp;Gamma;]] (Gamma) was used to represent /k/. In the beginning, the Romans used C for both /k/ and /g/, only later adding a horizontal bar at right-center to produce [[G]]. It is possible but uncertain that C represented only /g/ at an even earlier time, while [[K]] might have been used for /k/. Some scholars claim that the Semitic [[Gimel (letter)|&amp;#1490;]] (gîmel) pictured a camel, but most assume it was probably ''gaml'' (a throwing stick/[[boomerang]]). Other alphabets have letters identical to C in form but not in use and derivation, in particular the [[Cyrillic alphabet|Cyrillic]] letter [[Es (cyrillic)|Es]] which derives from one form of the [[Greek alphabet|Greek]] letter [[sigma (letter)|sigma]], known as the &quot;lunate sigma&quot; from its resemblance to a crescent moon. ==Phonetic use== /k/ developed [[palatal consonant|palatal]] and [[velar consonant|velar]] [[allophone]]s in [[Latin]], probably due to Etruscan influence. The [[Romance languages]] and [[English language|English]] have a common feature inherited from [[Vulgar Latin]] where C takes on either a &quot;hard&quot; or &quot;soft&quot; value depending on the following vowel. In English and [[French language|French]], C takes the &quot;hard&quot; value [[voiceless velar plosive|{{IPA|/k/}}]] finally and before A, O, and U, and the &quot;soft&quot; value [[voiceless alveolar fricative|{{IPA|/s/}}]] before E, I, or Y. [[Romance languages]] obey similar rules, but the soft value is different in several languages, taking on [[voiceless dental fricative|/&amp;#952;/]] in European [[Spanish language|Castilian]] and {{IPA|/&amp;#679;/}} (like English CH) in [[Italian language|Italian]] and [[Romanian language|Romanian]]. Other languages use C with different values, such as {{IPA|/k/}} regardless of position in [[Irish language|Irish]], [[Welsh language|Welsh]], {{IPA|/&amp;#952;/}} in [[Fijian language|Fijian]], {{IPA|/&amp;#676;/}} in [[Turkish language|Turkish]], [[Tatar language|Tatar]], [[Azeri language|Azeri]], {{IPA|/ʧ/}} in [[Tagalog]], [[Bahasa Indonesia]], {{IPA|/&amp;#678;/}} in [[Czech language|Czech]], [[Croatian language|Croatian]], [[Esperanto]], [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]], [[Polish language|Polish]], [[Pinyin|Romanized]] [[Chinese language|Chinese]], [[Serbian language|Serbian]], [[Latvian language| Latvian]]. There are several common digraphs with C, the most common being CH, which in some languages such as [[German language|German]] is far more common than C alone. In English, CH most commonly takes the value {{IPA|/&amp;#679;/}}, but can take the value {{IPA|/k/}} or [[voiceless velar fricative|{{IPA|/x/}}]], usually when transliterating [[Greek language|Greek]] &amp;Chi; or Hebrew. CH takes various values in other languages, such as [[Voiceless palatal fricative|{{IPA|/ç/}}]], {{IPA|/k/}}, or {{IPA|/x/}} in German, [[Voiceless postalveolar fricative|{{IPA|/&amp;#643;/}}]] in [[French language|French]], {{IPA|/k/}} in Italian, {{IPA|/&amp;#648;&amp;#642;&amp;#688;/}} in [[Mandarin Chinese]], and so forth. CK, with the value {{IPA|/k/}}, is often used after short vowels in [[Germanic languages]] such as English, German and [[Swedish language|Swedish]] (but some other Germanic languages use KK instead, such as [[Dutch language|Dutch]] and [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]]). The digraph CZ is found in Polish and CS in Hungarian, both representing {{IPA|/&amp;#679;/}}. In Old English, sc made the |{{IPA|/&amp;#643;/}}]]. As a [[phonetic]] symbol, lowercase c is the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] and [[X-SAMPA]] symbol for the [[voiceless palatal plosive]], and capital C is the [[X-SAMPA]] symbol for the [[voiceless palatal fricative]]. ==Codes for computing== {{Letter |NATO=Charlie |Morse=–·–· |B1=● |B2=○ |B3=○ |B4=● |B5=○ |B6=○ }} In [[Unicode]] the [[majuscule|capital]] C is codepoint U+0043 and the [[minuscule|lowercase]] c is U+0063. The [[ASCII]] code for capital C is 67 and for lowercase c is 99; or in [[Binary numeral system|binary]] 01000011 and 01100011, respectively. The [[EBCDIC]] code for capital C is 195 and for lowercase c is 131. The [[numeric character reference]]s in [[HTML]] and [[XML]] are &quot;&lt;tt&gt;&amp;amp;#67;&lt;/tt&gt;&quot; and &quot;&lt;tt&gt;&amp;amp;#99;&lt;/tt&gt;&quot; for upper and lower case respectively. ==Meanings for C== * A c with a bar over it is an abbreviation for the [[Latin]] word &quot;cum&quot;, meaning &quot;with&quot;. * In [[anatomy]], C means [[cervical]] (cervix meaning &quot;neck&quot;), as in C-spine, or written with a number refers to a numbered [[Cervical vertebrae|cervical vertebra]] ([[C1]] to [[C7]]) or cervical [[spinal nerve]] (C1 - C8) * In [[astronomy]], ** C stands for comet (long period), as in [[C/1957 P1]] (Comet Mrkos). ** C stands for a February 1 through 15 discovery, in the provisional designation of a comet (e.g. [[C/1962 C1]], Comet Seki-Lines) or asteroid (e.g. [[(3950) 1986 CH]]). * In [[baseball]], C is the abbreviation for the position of [[catcher]]. * In [[basketball]], C is the abbreviation for the position of [[center (basketball)|center]]. * In [[biochemistry]], C is the symbol for the [[amino acid]] [[cysteine]] and the nitrogenous [[nucleic acid]] base [[cytosine]]. * [[Brassiere cup size]] '''C''' * In [[business]], C is a &quot;creation&quot; initial. It is used for the company name etc. in many Japanese companies. * In [[Canada|Canadian]] [[television]], the '''C''' [[Television rating system|rating]] indicates a program intended to be viewed by children. * In [[chemistry]], C is the symbol for [[carbon]]. * In the [[CMYK]] [[color model]], C stands for the color [[cyan]]. * In [[communication]], c is an [[abbreviation]] for the word &quot;see&quot; in [[Short message service|SMS]] or [[instant message]]. * In [[computing]], ** C denotes the [[C programming language]]. Several of its derivatives have names including the letter C, for example [[C++]], [[Objective-C]], and [[C Sharp programming language | C#]]. ** C is a security division (&quot;Discretionary Protection&quot;) in the [[TCSEC]]. * In [[currency]], c or ¢ (c with a vertical or slanted bar through it) means [[Cent (currency)|cent]]. * In [[economics]], C is usually used to repre
3 in Iraq, continued to oppose US occupation of the country after the war and further refused to comply with US requests to send troops to the country even under a UN umbrella.&lt;BR&gt; The issue of participation in the post-war construction efforts in Iraq has been controversial in Egypt and in the Arab world as a whole. Opponents see that the war was illegal and it is necessary to wait until Iraq has legal representative government to deal with it. On the other hand supporters of participation argued that the responsibility to protect Iraqis and to help them in time of crisis should prevail and guide the Egyptian action in [[Iraq]]. ==International involvement== Egypt played a key role during the 1990-91 Gulf crisis. President Mubarak helped assemble the international coalition and deployed 35,000 Egyptian troops against Iraq to liberate [[Kuwait]]. The Egyptian contingent was the third largest in the coalition forces, after the U.S. and [[United Kingdom|U.K.]] &lt;BR&gt; In the aftermath of the Gulf war, Egypt signed the Damascus declaration with [[Syria]] and the Gulf states to strengthen Gulf security. Egypt continues to contribute regularly to [[United Nations]] [[peacekeeping]] missions, most recently in [[East Timor]], [[Sierra Leone]], and [[Liberia]].&lt;BR&gt; Following the [[September 11]] [[2001]] [[September 11, 2001 attacks|terrorist attacks]] on the United States, Egypt, which has itself been the target of terrorist attacks, has been a key supporter of the U.S. war against terrorists and terrorist organizations such as [[Osama bin Ladin]] and [[al-Qaeda]], and has supported the Iraqi Governing Council. ==See also== [[List of Foreign ministers of Egypt]] ==External links== *[http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=Al2Rk2NRHyAQa8_KLFbNOJ5XNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTE2MWFla2V2BGNvbG8DZQRsA1dTMQRwb3MDMgRzZWMDc3IEdnRpZANERlg1XzMw/SIG=12c9c732e/EXP=1135384084/**http%3a//europa.eu.int/comm/external_relations/egypt/intro/ EU-Egyptian Relations] *[http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=AmF3WMYBWc7Cpc9ElrQGr11XNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTE2anNnbmViBGNvbG8DZQRsA1dTMQRwb3MDNgRzZWMDc3IEdnRpZANERlg1XzMw/SIG=12er3jl9e/EXP=1135385348/**http%3a//www.ahram.org.eg/acpss/eng/ahram/2004/7/5/STUD8.HTM/ Assessing the United States-Egyptian Military and Security Relations] *[http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=AhnXpstyX_05uh3.zk8oztNXNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTE3dHZsZGltBGNvbG8DdwRsA1dTMQRwb3MDMTYEc2VjA3NyBHZ0aWQDREZYNV8zMA--/SIG=12tr1k1a8/EXP=1135385972/**http%3a//commdocs.house.gov/committees/intlrel/hfa94279.000/hfa94279_0f.htm/ The Future of American-Egyptian relations] [[Category:Foreign relations of Egypt| ]] [[Category:Foreign relations by country|Egypt]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>El Salvador</title> <id>9356</id> <revision> <id>42056360</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:28:35Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Sergio.solar</username> <id>715321</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the city in [[Chile]], see'' [[El Salvador, Chile]]. {{Template:El Salvador infobox}} The '''Republic of El Salvador''' ([[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''República de El Salvador'', [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: {{IPA|[re'puβlika ðe el salβa'ðor]}}) is a country in [[Central America]] with a population of approximately 6.9 million people. It is bordered on the west by [[Guatemala]] and to the north and east by [[Honduras]]. The [[Pacific Ocean]] is to the south. El Salvador is the most densely populated nation on the [[Americas|American]] mainland (especially in its capital, [[San Salvador, El Salvador|San Salvador]]) and also the most [[industrialisation|industrialized]] country in the region. The country was named after the Spanish word for &quot;The Savior&quot; and its territory was known [[Prehispanic|prehispanically]] as Cuscatlán. ==History== ''Main article: [[History of El Salvador]]'' The civilization of Cuscatlán, in which territory was founded El Salvador in the 16th century, dates from the pre-Columbian time, around 1500 years B.C.E, according to evidence provided by the ancient ruins of Tazumal and Chalchuapa. The Spanish Admiral Andrés Niño lead an expedition to Central America and disembarked on the Island Meanguera, located in the Gulf of Fonseca, on May 31st, 1522. This was the first Salvadoran territory visited by the Spaniards. In June, 1524, Spanish Captain Pedro de Alvarado attacked Cuscatlán (land of beautiful jewels) that was populated by the native tribes of the land. After 17 days of bloody battles many natives and Spaniards died. Pedro de Alvarado defeated, and hurt in his left hip, abandoned the fight and ran to Guatemala, telling his brother, Gonzalo de Alvarado, to continue with the conquest of Cuscatlán. Later, his cousin Diego de Alvarado established the villa of San Salvador on April, 1525. King Carlos I of Spain granted San Salvador the title of city in the year 1546. During the following years, El Salvador developed under Spanish dominion. Towards the end of 1810, a feeling of a need for freedom arose between the people of Central America and the moment to break the chains of colonial government arrived at dawn on November 5th, 1811, when the Salvadoran priest, Jose Matías Delgado, sounded the bells of the Iglesia La Merced in San Salvador, making a call for the insurrection. After many internal fights, the Acta de Independencia (Act of Independence) of Central America was signed in Guatemala on September 15th, 1821. On [[September 15]], [[1821]], El Salvador and the other [[Central American]] provinces declared their independence from [[Spain]]. In [[1823]], the [[United Provinces of Central America]] was formed by the five [[Central America|Central American]] states under General [[Manuel José Arce]]. When this federation was dissolved in [[1838]], El Salvador became an independent republic. El Salvador's early history as an independent state was marked by frequent revolutions. From [[1872]] to [[1898]] El Salvador was a prime mover in attempts to reestablish an isthmian [[federation]]. The governments of El Salvador, [[Honduras]], and [[Nicaragua]] formed the [[Greater Republic of Central America]] via the [[Pact of Amapala]] in [[1895]]. Although [[Guatemala]] and [[Costa Rica]] considered joining the Greater Republic (which was rechristened the [[United States of Central America]] when its constitution went into effect in 1898), neither country joined. This union, which had planned to establish its capital city at Amapala on the Golfo de Fonseca, did not survive a seizure of power in El Salvador in 1898. The enormous profits that [[coffee]] yielded as a monoculture export served as an impetus for the process whereby land became concentrated in the hands of an [[oligarchy]] of several hundred families. A succession of [[president]]s from the ranks of the Salvadoran oligarchy, nominally both [[conservative]] and [[Liberalism|liberal]], throughout the last half of the [[19th century]] generally agreed on the promotion of coffee as the predominant [[cash crop]], on the development of [[infrastructure]] ([[railroad]]s and [[sea port|port facilities]]) primarily in support of the coffee trade, on the elimination of communal landholdings to facilitate further coffee production, on the passage of anti-[[vagrancy]] laws to ensure that displaced [[campesino]]s and other rural residents provided sufficient [[labour (economics)|labor]] for the coffee fincas ([[plantation]]s), and on the suppression of rural discontent. The coffee industry grew inexorably in El Salvador. As a result the elite provided the bulk of the government's financial support through [[import]] [[duty|duties]] on goods imported with the foreign [[currency|currencies]] that coffee sales earned. This support, coupled with the humbler and more mundane mechanisms of [[political corruption|corruption]], ensured the coffee growers of overwhelming influence within the [[government]] and the [[military]] which they used to create the Guardia Nacional (GN) in [[1912]]. The duties of the GN differed from those of the Policia Nacional (PN), mainly in that GN personnel were specifically responsible for providing security on the coffee fincas and effectively [[Suppression of dissent|suppressing rural dissent]]. A bloodless [[coup d'etat|coup]] led by General Tomás Regalado took El Salvador into the [[20th century]]. Regalado's peaceful transfer of power in [[1903]] to his handpicked successor, Pedro José Escalón, ushered in a period of comparative stability that extended until the [[Great Depression|Depression]]-provoked upheaval of [[1931]]&amp;ndash;[[1932|32]]. In [[1930]], General [[Maximiliano Hernández Martínez]], the country's [[Defence minister|Minister of Defense]], took power in a [[coup d'état]]. Soon after, Martínez, now [[List of Presidents of El Salvador|President]], suppressed a 1932 revolt consisting of farmers and Indians in the western part of the country. The revolt was conducted by the newly formed [[Communist Party of El Salvador|Communist Party]] and its leader [[Farabundo Martí|Agustín Farabundo Martí]]. The military conflict left more than 20,000 people dead in retaliatory massacres, which came to be known as &quot;La Matanza;&quot; this marked the beginning of a series of ''de facto'' [[military dictatorship]]s that would rule El Salvador until [[1979]], when General [[Carlos Humberto Romero|Humberto Romero]] of the [[Party of National Conciliation]] (PCN) would be overthrown in a reformist coup. Under the authoritarian rule of Maj. [[Óscar Osorio]] ([[1950]]&amp;ndash;[[1956|56]]) and Lt. Col. José María Lemus (1956&amp;ndash;[[1960|60]]) considerable economic progress was made. Lemus was overthrown by a coup, and after a confused period, a junta composed of leaders of the National Conciliation party came to power in June [[1961]]. The junta's candidate, Lt. Col. Julio Adalberto Rivera, was elected president in [[1962]]. He was succeeded in [[1967]] by Col. [[Fid
contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Excalibur</title> <id>9717</id> <revision> <id>41655522</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T21:02:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>66.99.116.65</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* In other media */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bedivere.jpg|thumb|250px|''How [[Sir Bedivere]] Cast the Sword Excalibur into the Water''. Illustration by [[Aubrey Beardsley]], 1894.]] :''This article is about King Arthur's sword Excalibur. For other meanings, see [[Excalibur (disambiguation)]].'' ---- ''There drew he forth the brand Excalibur,&lt;br&gt; ''And o’er him, drawing it, the winter moon,&lt;br&gt; ''Brightening the skirts of a long cloud, ran forth&lt;br&gt; ''And sparkled keen with frost against the hilt:&lt;br&gt; ''For all the haft twinkled with diamond sparks,&lt;br&gt; ''Myriads of topaz-lights, and jacinth-work&lt;br&gt; ''Of subtlest jewellery.''&lt;br&gt; '''[[Alfred, Lord Tennyson]], Morte D'Arthur''' ---- '''Excalibur''' is the mythical [[sword]] of [[King Arthur]], sometimes attributed with magical powers or associated with the rightful [[sovereignty]] of [[Great Britain]]. Often Excalibur and the '''Sword in the Stone''' (the proof of Arthur's lineage) are said to be the same weapon, but in other versions they are considered separate. The sword was associated with the [[Arthurian legend]] very early; in [[Welsh language|Welsh]], the sword was called '''Caledfwlch'''. ==Excalibur and the Sword in the Stone== In surviving accounts of Arthur, there are two originally separate legends about his sword's origin. The first is the &quot;Sword in the Stone&quot; legend, first appearing in [[Robert de Boron]]'s poem ''[[Merlin (wizard)|Merlin]]'', in which Excalibur can only be drawn from the stone by Arthur, the rightful king. The second version is found in the later [[Post-Vulgate]] ''Suite du Merlin'' and was taken up by Sir [[Thomas Malory]]. Here, Arthur receives Excalibur from the [[Lady of the Lake]] after breaking his first sword in a fight with King [[Pellinore]]. The Lady of the Lake calls the sword &quot;Excalibur, that is as to say as Cut-steel.&quot; At his death, he tells a reluctant [[Sir Bedivere]] ([[Sir Griflet]] in some versions) to return the sword to the Lake. Malory records both versions of the legend in his ''[[Le Morte d'Arthur]]'', and confusingly calls both swords Excalibur. The film ''[[Excalibur (movie)|Excalibur]]'' attempts to rectify this by having the Lady of the Lake only repair the sword after it is broken. ==History== ===Caledfwlch=== In [[Welsh mythology|Welsh]] legend, Arthur's sword is known as ''Caledfwlch''. In ''[[Culhwch and Olwen]]'', it is one of Arthur's most valuable possessions. It is used in that romance by Arthur's warrior Llenlleawg the Irishman to kill the Irish king Diwrnach while stealing his magical cauldron. Caledfwlch is thought to derive from the legendary [[Irish mythology|Irish]] weapon ''[[Caladbolg]]'', the lightning sword of [[Fergus mac Roich]]. Caladbolg was also known for its incredible power, and it was carried by some of Ireland's greatest heroes. Caledflwch is vividly described in the ''[[Mabinogion]]'': :&quot;Then they heard [[Cador|Cadwr Earl of Cornwall]] being summoned, and saw him rise with Arthur's sword in his hand, '''with a design of two serpents on the golden hilt; when the sword was unsheathed what was seen from the mouths of the two serpents was like two flames of fire, so dreadful that it was not easy for anyone to look.''' At that the host settled and the commotion subsided, and the earl returned to his tent. 'Iddawg, who is the man who brought Arthur's sword?' (asks [[Rhonabwy]]) &quot;Cadwr Earl of Cornwall, the man whose task it is to arm the king on the day of battle and conflict.&quot; &quot; ::''[[The Dream of Rhonabwy]]'', from ''The [[Mabinogion]]'', translated by Jeffrey Gantz. ===Caliburn to Excalibur=== [[Geoffrey of Monmouth]]'s ''[[History of the Kings of Britain]]'' is the first non-Welsh source to speak of the sword. Geoffrey says the sword was forged in [[Avalon]] and [[Latin]]izes the name &quot;Caledfwlch&quot; to ''Caliburn'' or ''Caliburnus''. Continental writers altered the name further - first to ''Escalibor'', then to ''Excalibur'' - when his influential pseudo-history made it to [[Continental Europe]]. The legend was expanded upon in the [[Vulgate Cycle]] (c. [[1230]] - [[1250]]), also known as the Lancelot-Grail Cycle, and in the [[Post-Vulgate Cycle]] which emerged in its wake. Both included the work known as the ''[[Prose Merlin]]'', but the Post-Vulgate authors left out the ''Merlin'' Continuation from the earlier cycle, chosing to add an original account of Arthur's early days including a new origin for Excalibur. ==Attributes== In many versions, Excalibur's blade was engraved with words on opposite sides. On one side were the words, '''TAKE ME UP''', and on the other side, '''CAST ME AWAY''' (or similar words). This prefigures its return into the water. Excalibur's scabbard was said to have powers of its own. The scabbard protects its bearer from harm (and to prevent the bearer from suffering further harm from wounds already received). Injuries from losses of blood for example would not kill the bearer. The scabbard is stolen by [[Morgan le Fay]] and thrown into a lake, never to be found again. ==Notes== Several [[etymology|etymologies]] have been proposed for the origin of the name &quot;Excalibur', like ''ex calibur'', &quot;cut-steel&quot;. One theory about the &quot;Sword in the Stone&quot; legend is that it stems from a scribal error. The Latin word for stone is ''saxum'', very similar to ''[[Saxon people|Saxon]]'' (''Saxonum''), so it is possible that the story of Arthur originally had him killing a Saxon and taking his sword as a symbol of victory, but that during a later copying of the text, a scribe mistakenly changed it to saxum. Hence, &quot;Arthur pulled the sword from the Saxon&quot; may have become &quot;Arthur pulled the sword from the stone.&quot; However, the Sword in the Stone has an analogue in some versions of the story of [[Sigurd]] (the [[Norse]] proto-[[Siegfried]]), who draws his father [[Sigmund]]'s sword out of a tree where it is embedded. Interestingly, in several early [[France|French]] works such as [[Chrétien de Troyes]]' ''[[Perceval, the Story of the Grail]]'' and the Vulgate ''Lancelot Proper'' section, Excalibur is said to be the property of [[Gawain]], one of Arthur's best knights. This is in contrast to later versions, where the sword belongs solely to the king. In the ''[[Alliterative Morte Arthure]]'' (ca. [[1400]]), Arthur is said to have two legendary swords, the second one being [[Clarent]], stolen by the evil [[Mordred]]. It is from that sword that Arthur receives his fatal blow. The legend of the Sword in the Stone is possibly a reference and rememberance in storytelling of the techniques of [[Bronze Age]] sword making technology[http://www.bronze-age-craft.com/swordcasting.htm]. Simply described, the technique involved casting a sword using molten bronze into a mold consisting of two halves. There is a hollow in the shape of a sword formed by the two halves. The two halves run the length of the sword, and shape the flat of the blade as well as the handle. They can be made of hardened clay or of stone. When molten bronze hardens and the halves are separated, one half is left with a 'sword in the stone', resting inside one of the halves. In its own right it is a magical moment, impressive enough to have remained as a poetic image, transformed by writers who did not know or remember the possible origin of the phrase. ==Later references== Excalibur, whether the same as the Sword in the Stone or not, features prominently in modern Arthurian fiction and pop culture. ===In books=== * ''[[The Sword in the Stone]]'' by [[T. H. White]] is based upon the beginning of ''Le Morte D'Arthur''. * In [[Marion Zimmer Bradley]]'s ''[[Mists of Avalon]]'', Excalibur was made of meteoric iron and its sheath enchanted by [[Morgan le Fay|Morgaine]] herself; the sword in the stone was a different weapon. * Its connection to the sovereignty of Britain is an important part of many books, like [[Rosemary Sutcliff]]'s novel ''[[Sword at Sunset]]''. * In [[Stephen R. Lawhead]]'s ''[[Pendragon Cycle]]'', Caledflwch or Caliburnus is the sword of the [[Atlantis|Atlantean]] [[Fisher King]] of [[Avalon]], which passes from him to [[Merlin]] to Arthur (which replaces the Sword in the Stone, the old sword of [[Magnus Maximus]]). Lawhead follows the description given in the Mabinogion, with the addition of the engraved words (in Atlantean runes). * [[Bernard Cornwell]] calls the sword both Caledflwch and Excalibur in ''[[The Warlord Chronicles]]''. * [[Mary Stewart]] calls the sword Caliburn in her Merlin trilogy and in ''[[The Wicked Day]]''. ===In film=== *The sword is wielded by Uther Pendragon before Arthur in [[John Boorman]]'s film ''[[Excalibur (movie)|Excalibur]]''. *In the animated film ''[[Quest for Camelot]]'' (known as ''The Magic Sword'' in Asia), King Arthur loses Excalibur, and the maiden Kayley and the blind Garett must find it before the evil Sir Ruber does (helped by a two-headed dragon). *The TV movie ''Merlin'' (1998) also has Uther wielding the sword before Arthur. Merlin even uses it himself, during a battle with [[Vortigern]]. *In the 2004 film ''[[King Arthur (film)|King Arthur]]'', it is a mundane sword. ===In other media=== *The superheroine Ms. Liberty in [[City of Heroes]] carries Excalibur. The previous wielder was Hero-1 who entrusted the blade with her while he journeyed with the Omega Team to the Rikti Homeworl
edfield Jamison|Kay Jamison]] &lt;!--PhD--&gt; of [[Johns Hopkins University]] and others has attributed high rates of creativity and productivity to individuals with bipolar disorder. (See [http://www.mcmanweb.com/article-161.htm Brain Damage].) There may be no conflict here: Cognitive dysfunction does not necessarily bar creativity. ==The Mood Spectrum Perspective== Clinical depression and bipolar disorder are classified as separate illnesses, but psychiatry is increasingly viewing them as part of an overlapping spectrum that also includes anxiety and psychosis. In a 2003 study, [[Akiskal]] and Judd re-examined data from the landmark [[Epidemiological Catchment Area study]] from two decades before.{{citeneeded}} The original study found that .08 percent of the population surveyed had experienced a manic episode at least once (the diagnostic threshold for bipolar I) and .05 a hypomanic episode (the diagnostic threshold for bipolar II). But by tabulating survey responses to include criteria below the diagnostic radar, such as one or two symptoms over a short time period, the authors of the study recalculated the data to arrive at an additional 5.1 percent of the population, adding up to a total of 6.4 percent of the entire population who could conceivably be thought of as having bipolar disorder. There is also a case that [[clinical depression]] can be bipolar disorder waiting to happen. In a 2005 study, [[Jules Angst]] &lt;!--MD--&gt; and his colleagues at [[Zurich University]] tracked 406 patients with major mood disorders over a 20-year period.{{citeneeded}} Of 309 patients presenting with depression, 121 (39.2 percent) eventually manifested as bipolar (24.3 percent to bipolar I, 14.9 percent to bipolar II). In all, more than 50 percent of the study population turned out to have bipolar disorder. This could also be attributed to the fact that most cases of bipolar disorder are first misdiagnosed as depression. ==Environmental factors affecting mood in bipolar disorder== In mid-2003, a [[twin study]] was published concerning environmental factors and bipolar disorder. The bipolar twin was found to be far more affected by changes in sunlight. Longer nights resulted in changes in mood and length of sleep to a far greater extent than the healthy twin. Sunny days also did more to improve mood. In fact, natural light in general was found to have a profound positive effect upon the well-being of the bipolar twin.{{ref|Hakk_2003}} Paradoxically, in the 2004 publication of a study using [[Tel Aviv]]'s public psychiatric hospitals, it was found that &quot;Admission rates of bipolar depressed patients increase during spring/summer and correlate with maximal environmental temperature&quot;.{{ref|Shap_2004}} Unipolar depressed patient admission had no such correlation. High temperature points in the month, as well as high temperature months, were found to be correlated with depressive episodes in admissions. In contrast, it has been found that the bipolar cycle tends towards extreme mania in the mid-to-late-summer, followed by an inevitable crash into depression with the ending of the manic episode coupled with the decreasing natural light in autumn. ==Treatment of bipolar disorder== There is no cure for bipolar disorder; the emphasis is on management of the symptoms. A variety of [[medication]]s are used to treat bipolar disorder; many people with bipolar disorder require multiple medications. Some people with bipolar disorder supplement or replace their [[Western medicine|Western medication]] with [[herbal medicine|herbal]] or [[holistic]] options. Still, even with optimal medication treatment, many people with the illness have some residual symptoms or relapses of depression or mania. [[Cognitive therapy]] may work to lessen the severity of mood swings by recognizing and managing triggering symptoms or events. [[Interpersonal and Social Rhythm Therapy]] (ISPRT) emphasizes the regulation of sleep, diet and exercise to prevent episodes, along with teaching coping skills; it is well-documented that sleep disruptions can trigger manic episodes. ===Principles=== [[Medication]]s called [[mood stabilizer]]s are used to prevent or mitigate manic or depressive episodes. Because mood stabilizers are generally more effective at treating mania than bipolar depression, periods of depression are sometimes also treated with [[antidepressant]]s. However, as stated above, antidepressants carry the risk of inducing mania, especially in bipolar patients who are not taking a mood stabilizer. In severe cases where the mania or the depression is severe enough to cause [[psychosis]] (and recently sometimes in less severe cases as well, although this remains controversial), The [[antipsychotic drugs]] may also be used. A new class of [[Atypical antipsychotic|&quot;atypical&quot; antipsychotics]] has also become more widely used for bipolar episodes. The FDA has only approved them for [[acute]] episodes, if at all (with the exception of [[olanzapine]], which is approved as a mood stabilizer). Like most doctors, [[psychiatrists]] use medication for &quot;off-label&quot; uses, even when such uses are not supported by available research. It is becoming accepted practice to use [[atypical antipsychotics]] as mood stabilizers at this point, and there is support in the literature for their effectiveness in mood stabilization. Some people have reported that antipsychotics cause [[mania]], [[panic attacks]], or [[psychosis]]{{citeneeded}}. Any agitation should be reported to the doctor immediately. Antipsychotics also carry a risk of causing [[tardive dyskinesia]], a potentially disfiguring and sometimes irreversible movement disorder that may case the arms, legs, face or head to jerk or twitch. The risk is thought to be proportionate to the length of duration of [[Antipsychotic|neuroleptic/antipsychotic]] use (roughly 5% per year in non-elderly patients) and has recently been linked to an equally high occurrence in both typical and atypical antipsychotics{{citeneeded}}, in contrast to claims of lower risks when the atypicals were introduced. Patients and physicians need to be careful to watch for symptoms of this side effect carefully so that an antipsychotic can be reduced in dosage, or changed to another medication, before the condition progresses. The doctor should, of course, be consulted about any change in dosage. The only antipsychotic with no apparent association with tardive dyskinesia is [[clozapine]]. Medications work differently in each person, and it takes considerable time to determine in any particular case whether a given drug is effective at all, since bipolar disorder is by nature episodic, and patients may experience remissions whether or not they receive treatment. For this reason, neither patients nor their doctors should expect immediate relief, although [[psychosis]] with [[mania]] can respond quickly to antipsychotics, and bipolar depression can be alleviated quickly with electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). Many doctors emphasize that patients should not expect full [[stabilization]] for at least 3-4 weeks (some [[antidepressants]], for example, take 4-6 weeks to take effect), and should not “give up” on a medication prematurely {{ref|New Hope}}, nor should they discontinue medication with the disappearance of symptoms as the depression may return. Compliance with medications can be a major problem, because some people as they become manic lose the awareness of having an illness, and they therefore discontinue medications. Patients also often quit taking medication when symptoms disappear, erroneously thinking themselves &quot;cured&quot;, and some people enjoy the effects of unmedicated hypomania. Depression does not respond instantaneously to resumed medication, typically taking 2&amp;ndash;6 weeks to respond. Mania may disappear slowly, or it may become depression. Other reasons cited by individuals for discontinuing medication are side effects, expense, and the stigma of having a psychiatric disorder. In a relatively small number of cases stipulated by law (varying by locality but typically, according to the law, only when a patient poses a threat to himself or others), patients who do not agree with their psychiatric diagnosis and treatment can legally be required to have treatment without their consent. Throughout North America and the United Kingdom, [[involuntary treatment]] or detention laws exist for severe cases of bipolar disorder and other mental illnesses. ==Prognosis== While bipolar disorder can be one of the most severe and devastating medical conditions, indeed the sixth highest cause of disability in the world according to the [[World Health Organization]], fortunately many individuals with bipolar disorder can also live full and mostly happy lives with correct management of their condition. Compared to patients with [[schizophrenia]], persons with bipolar disorder are more likely to have periods of normal functioning in the absence of medication. Although schizophrenic patients may have remissions with relatively high levels of functioning, schizophrenic patients tend to suffer some impairment during these intervals in contrast to persons with bipolar disorder who often appear completely healthy when they are between mood swings. ===Lithium salts=== The use of [[lithium salt]]s as a treatment of bipolar disorder was first discovered by Dr. [[John Cade]], an Australian psychiatrist who published a paper on the use of lithium in 1949. Lithium salts had long been used as a first-line treatment for bipolar disorder. In ancient times, doctors would send their mentally ill patients to drink from &quot;alkali springs&quot; as a treatment. They did not know it, but they were really prescribing lithium, which was present in high concentration in the waters. The therapeutic effect of lithium salts appears to be entirely due to the [[lithium]] ion, Li&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;. The two lithium s
imary reality is rational consciousness. Descartes argued that humans could think away everything that exists and doubt its reality but that humans could not think away or doubt the thinking consciousness, whose reality is therefore more certain than any other reality. Existentialism decisively rejects this argument, asserting instead that as conscious beings humans always find themselves already in a world, a prior context and history that is given to consciousness and in which it is situated, and that humans cannot think away that world. It is inherent and indubitably linked to consciousness. In other words, the ultimate, certain, indubitable reality is not thinking consciousness but, according to Heidegger, &quot;being in the world.&quot; This is a radicalization of the notion of [[intentionality]] that comes from [[Brentano]] and [[Husserl]], which asserts that, even in its barest form, consciousness is always conscious ''of something''. ===Atheistic Existentialism=== Sartre's dictum, &quot;Existence precedes and rules essence,&quot; is generally taken to mean that ''there is no pre-defined essence to humanity, except that which people make for themselves''. Since Sartrean existentialism does not acknowledge the existence of a [[god]], or of any other determining principle, [[human being]]s are free to act as they choose; his abovementioned essay is the most programmatic and straightforward statement of this principle. Even if an individual believes that he has an essence -- such as a soul or rationality or a psychological type -- that essence is a choice that he is making rather than something pre-existing that is imposed on him. ===Christian Existentialism=== In contrast to Sartre's atheism, Kierkegaard's Christian existentialism focused on the relationship between the self and God. Kierkegaard never posited or thought it possible to prove the existence of God. However, he argued that an individual could, despite one's doubt, have faith that God exists and that God is good. This leap of faith was for Kierkegaard a choice that an individual must make in defining his or her life. The leap of faith signifies an individual's choice to embrace meaning in life. As with atheistic existentialism, Kierkegaard's Christian existentialism does not impose a reality or meaning on the individual; rather, the individual makes the choice to take meaning in life and to define his or her life. Kierkegaard wrote that the individual person is infinite in depth, and ultimately, &quot;subjectivity is truth&quot; and &quot;truth is subjectivity&quot; (''Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments''). ===Common Threads=== Since there is no predefined [[human nature]] (or even if there were, that human nature would be infinite), nor any ultimate evaluation of life beyond that which humans project onto the world, individuals may only be judged or defined by their actions and choices. ==Existentialism before 1970== An early forerunner of existentialism was [[Blaise Pascal]]. In 1670, his book [[Pensées]] was published, in which he described many fundamental themes of existentialism. Pascal argued that without a God, life would be meaningless and miserable. People would only be able to create obstacles and overcome them in an attempt to escape boredom. These token-victories would ultimately become meaningless, since people would eventually die. This was good enough reason not to choose to become an atheist according to Pascal. Sartre takes this idea of avoiding the inevitable death as bad faith. Camus embraces the idea that without a God ultimately everything is meaningless, and tries to find meaning within it. The first philosophers considered existentialists are [[Søren Kierkegaard]] and [[Friedrich Nietzsche]], even though the term had not yet come into use. Like Pascal, they were interested in people's concealment of the meaninglessness of life and their use of diversion to escape from boredom. However, what Pascal did not write about was that people can create and change their fundamental values and beliefs. Kierkegaard and Nietzsche realized that human nature and human identity vary depending on what values and beliefs humans hold. In contrast Pascal did not reason that human nature and identity are constituted by the free decisions and choices of people. Sartre builds strongly on that idea with his ''existence precedes essence'' dictum. The thought of the major existentialist philosophers of the 20th century, Heidegger and Sartre, grew out of the [[phenomenology]] of Husserl, which attempted to critique [[positivism]] and [[psychologism]] by grounding all perception, experience, and knowledge in structures of human [[consciousness]]. Husserl stressed that all Being is always being for a consciousness. Heidegger transformed this into the core existentialist notion that Being is always being, not for a pure consciousness, but rather for a concrete existence, that is that consciousness is a property of a (human) existence (''Dasein'') that has &quot;being-in-the-world,&quot; and exists in a concrete historical context. Sartre developed his version of existentialist philosophy under the influence of Husserl and Heidegger. In the [[1950s]] and [[1960s]], existentialism experienced a resurgence of interest in popular artforms. In fiction, [[Jack Kerouac]] and the [[Beat poets]] adopted existentialist themes. [[Herman Hesse]]'s ''[[Steppenwolf (novel)|Steppenwolf]]'', based on an idea in Kierkegaard's ''Either/Or'' (1843), sold well in the West, and &quot;arthouse&quot; films began quoting and alluding to existentialist thought and thinkers. Simultaneously, in Sartre, [[Paris]] university students found a hero for the [[May 1968]] demonstrations, and others were appropriating the thematic pessimism found in [[Albert Camus]] and [[Søren Kierkegaard]]. The despair of choice and the despair of the unknowing self featured prominently (often in [[pidgin]] form) in cinema and novels. ==Existentialism since 1970== Although [[Postmodernism|postmodernist]] thought became the focus of intellectuals in the [[1970s]] and thereafter (whether the movement is strong today, and what, if anything, has replaced it, still is debated), much postmodern writing is existential --unsurprising, since postmodernism evolved from the thought of Nietzsche and Heidegger (two of the greatest proto-existential philosophers), despite Heidegger's rejecting the existentialist label. One should, however, not confuse postmodernism with existentialism. Thematically postmodern films such as ''[[The Matrix]]'' posit the idea of [[simulacrum]], dealing with reality and appearance, and of how the latter renders the former indistinguishable, if the artificial can sufficiently mimic the real (see [[Jean Baudrillard]], the philosopher whose work was a primary influence on the film). Alternatively, existential cinema deals more with the themes of: #Retaining authenticity in an apathetic, mechanical world, something [[post-modernism]] would staunchly reject--as authenticity is related to a non-existent &quot;reality&quot;. #The consciousness of death; e.g. Heidegger's 'being towards death'--exemplified in [[Ingmar Bergman]]'s film &quot;[[The Seventh Seal]]&quot; (1957). #The feelings of alienation and loneliness consequent to being unique in a world of many, or, in Nietzsche's phrase, &quot;herd-animals&quot;. #The concept Alltägliche selbstsein (Everyday-ness) which Heidegger explicated in his book ''[[Sein und Zeit]]'' (1927), (English translation [[Being and Time]]). Since [[1970]], much cultural activity in art, cinema, and literature contains postmodern and existential elements, which, ironically, would support the postmodern thesis of &quot;borderlessness between concepts&quot;. Books such as ''[[Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep]]'', by [[Philip K. Dick|Philip K. Dick]], and ''[[Toilet: The Novel]]'', by [[Michael Szymczyk]] all distort the line between reality and appearance while simultaneously espousing strong existential themes. In cinema, postmodern editing techniques (showing the displacement, discontinuity, and temporal perspective of postmodernism) can go hand-in-hand with a purely existential story, thus synthesizing technique and function to give meaning. Moreover, this has created the neologism &quot;[[Neo-Existentialism]]&quot;--combining postmodernism's epistemology with the reflective [[ontological]] belief of existentialism. ==Criticisms of existentialism== [[Herbert Marcuse]] criticized existentialism, especially in Sartre's ''[[Being and Nothingness]]'', for projecting certain features, such as anxiety and meaninglessness, of the modern experience of living in an oppressive society, onto the nature of existence itself: &quot;In so far as Existentialism is a philosophical doctrine, it remains an idealistic doctrine: it hypothesizes specific historical conditions of human existence into ontological and metaphysical characteristics. Existentialism thus becomes part of the very ideology which it attacks, and its radicalism is illusory&quot; (Herbert Marcuse, &quot;Sartre's Existentialism&quot;, p. 161). [[Theodor Adorno]], in his ''Jargon of Authenticity'', criticized Heidegger's philosophy, with special attention to his use of language, as a mystifying ideology of advanced industrial society and its power structure. [[Roger Scruton]] claimed, in his book ''From Descartes to Wittgenstein'', that both Heidegger's concept of [[Authenticity %28philosophy%29|inauthenticity]] and Sartre's concept of [[Sartre and bad faith|bad faith]] were incoherent; both deny any universal moral creed, yet speak of these concepts as if everyone were bound to abide them. In chapter 18, he writes,''&quot;In what sense Sartre is able to 'recommend' the authenticity which consists in the purely self-made morality is unclear. He does recommend it, but, by his own argument, his recommendation can have no objective force.&q
[[classical guitar]], however the body size is usually significantly larger than a classical guitar and it has a narrower, reinforced neck and stronger structural design, to sustain the extra tension of steel strings which produce a louder and brighter tone. The acoustic guitar is a staple in [[folk music|folk]], [[Old-time music]] and [[blues]] music. ## ''Resonator'', ''resophonic'' or ''[[Dobro|Dobro&lt;sup&gt;&amp;reg;&lt;/sup&gt;]] guitars'': Similar to the flat top guitar in appearance, but with sound produced by a metal resonator mounted in the middle of the top rather than an open sound hole, so that the physical principle of the guitar is actually more similar to the [[banjo]]. The purpose of the resonator is to amplify the sound of the guitar; this purpose has been largely superseded by electrical amplification, but the resonator is still played by those desiring its distinctive sound. The type of resonator guitar with a neck with a square cross-section -- called &quot;square neck&quot; -- is usually played face up, on the lap of the seated player, and often with a metal or glass [[slide guitar|slide]]. The round neck resonator guitars are normally played in the same fashion as other guitars, although slides are also often used, especially in blues. ## ''[[12 string guitar]]s'' usually have steel strings and are widely used in [[folk music]], [[blues]] and [[rock and roll]]. Rather than having only six strings, the 12-string guitar has pairs, like a [[mandolin]]. Each pair of strings is tuned either in unison (the two highest) or an octave apart (the others). They are made both in acoustic and electric forms. [[Big Joe Williams]] is a blues musician famous for his 12 string guitar. ##''[[Archtop guitar]]s'' are steel string, instruments which feature a violin-inspired f-hole design in which the top (and often the back) of the instrument are carved in a curved rather than a flat shape. Lloyd Loar of the [[Gibson Guitar Corporation]] invented this variation of guitar after designing a style of [[mandolin]] of the same type. The typical Archtop is a hollow body guitar whose form is much like that of a mandolin or violin family instrument and may be acoustic or electric. Some solid body electric guitars are also considered archtop guitars although usually 'Archtop guitar' refers to the hollow body form. Archtop guitars were immediately adopted upon their release by both [[jazz]] and [[country music|country]] musicians and have remained particularly popular in jazz music, usually using thicker strings (higher gauged round wound and flat wound) than acoustic guitars. Archtops are often louder than a typical dreadnought acoustic guitar. The electric hollow body archtop guitar has a distinct sound among electric guitars and is consequently appropriate for many styles of [[rock and roll]]. Many electric archtop guitars intended for use in [[rock and roll]] even have a [[Tremolo_arm|Tremolo Arm]]. ##''[[Acoustic bass guitar]]s'' also have steel strings, and match the tuning of the electric bass, which is likewise similar to the traditional double bass viol, the &quot;big bass&quot;, a staple of string orchestras and [[Bluegrass music|bluegrass]] bands alike. ##''[[Harp guitar]]s''. Harp Guitars are difficult to classify as there are many variations within this type of guitar. They are typically rare and uncommon in the popular music scene. Most consist of a regular guitar, plus additional 'harp' strings strung above the six normal strings. The instrument is usually acoustic and the harp strings are usually tuned to lower notes than the guitar strings, for an added bass range. Normally there is neither fingerboard nor frets behind the harp strings. Some harp guitars also feature much higher pitch strings strung below the traditional guitar strings. The number of harp strings varies greatly, depending on the type of guitar and also the player's personal preference (as they have often been made to the player's specification). #[[Image:Stratocaster_detail_DSC06937.jpg|thumb|right|This Fender Stratocaster has the features of most electric guitars: multiple single coil pickups, a whammy bar, volume and tone knobs.]] ''[[Electric guitar]]s'': Electric guitars can have solid, semi-hollow or hollow bodies, and produce little or very low sound without amplification. [[Electromagnetic]] [[Pickup (music)|pickup]]s (single and double coil) convert the vibration of the steel strings into electric signals which are fed to an amplifier through a cable or radio device. The sound is frequently modified by other electronic devices or natural distortion of valves ([[vacuum tube|vacuum tubes]]) in the amplifier. The electric guitar is used extensively in [[blues]] and [[rock and roll]], and was commercialized by [[Gibson Guitar Corporation|Gibson]] together with [[Les Paul]] and independently by [[Leo Fender]]. The lower fretboard action (the height of the strings from the fingerboard) and its electrical amplification lend the electric guitar to some techniques which are harder (or impossible) to execute on acoustic guitars. These techniques include [[tapping]], extensive use of [[legato]] through [[pull-off]]s and [[hammer-on]]s (a.k.a. slurs in the traditional Classical genre), [[pinch harmonic]]s, [[volume swells]] and use of a [[Tremolo arm]] or [[effects pedals]]. ## ''[[7 string guitar]]s'' were developed in the 1990s (earlier in [[jazz]]) to achieve a much darker sound through extending the lower end of the guitar's range. They are used today by bands such as [[Korn|KoЯn]] and players such as [[Steve Vai]]. [[Meshuggah]] &amp; [[Charlie Hunter]] go a step further, using an ''[[8 string guitar]]'' with ''two'' extra low strings. The electric bass is similar in tuning to the traditional double bass viol. Hybrids of acoustic and electric guitars are also common. There are also more exotic varieties, such as double-necked guitars, all manner of alternate string arrangements, fretless fingerboards (used almost exclusively on bass guitars, meant to emulate the sound of a [[Double bass | stand-up bass]]), and such. ==Guitar terminology== The guitar has come to be called many different colloquial names over time such as: box, guit-fiddle, bread-winner and axe. The pitch bend arm found on many electric guitars has also had [[slang]] terms applied to it, such as &quot;tremolo bar&quot;, &quot;sissy bar&quot;, &quot;whammy handle&quot;, and &quot;whammy bar&quot;. The latter two slang terms led [[stompbox]] manufacturers to use the term 'whammy' in coming up with a pitch raising effect introduced by popular guitar brand &quot;[[Digitech]]&quot;. [[Leo Fender]], who did much to revolutionize the modern electric guitar, also created much confusion over the meaning of the terms &quot;tremolo&quot; and &quot;vibrato&quot;, specifically by misnaming the [[Tremolo arm|&quot;tremolo&quot; bar]] on his guitars and also regarding the &quot;Vibrolux&quot; amps. Vibrato is a variation in pitch, whereas tremolo is a variation in volume, so the tremolo bar is actually a vibrato bar and the &quot;Vibrolux&quot; amps actually had a tremolo effect. A [[Capo|capo]] (used to change key without changing fingering) is sometimes called a &quot;cheater&quot;. A [[Slide guitar|slide]], (bottle or knife) used in blues and rock to create a 'gliss' or '[[Lap steel guitar|hawaiian]]' effect. Many times, the necks of bottles were used. ==Guitar/synthesizer== A [[guitar/synthesizer]] is the adaptation of a guitar to control a [[synthesizer]]. Most commonly, a guitar/synth is a converter which analyzes the pitch of each string and sends an electronic message to a synthesizer, telling it what note to play. The pitches of the individual strings can be determined if a hexaphonic pickup is used. In modern implementations, the converter's output is a [[MIDI]] signal. This implementation led to the use of ''MIDI guitar'' as a synonym for a guitar/synthesizer or for the field of guitar synthesis in general. A guitar-like [[MIDI controller]] is also referred to as a ''guitar/synthesizer''. Such a device is not actually a guitar, but a human interface designed to play like one. It allows a guitarist to play synthesizers or other MIDI-enabled instruments. The [[SynthAxe]] was one notable example. ==See also== *[[List of guitar-related topics]] ==External links== {{book}} {{commons|Guitar}} *General ** [http://www.guitarwiki.com/ Guitar Wiki] Wiki-based guitar resource. **[http://www.ilearnmusic.com/index.php?option=com_content&amp;task=category&amp;sectionid=6&amp;id=73&amp;Itemid=58 Free Guitar Lessons] --Beginner guitar lessons for free -- including tablature to the Beatles, Led Zeppelin, and other classic rock songs, chords, and more. **[http://www.classicalguitarmagazine.com/ Classical Guitar Magazine] The world's only monthly magazine dedicated to the classical guitar ** [http://www.cs.dartmouth.edu/~wbc/new/new_lute.html Wayne Cripps' lute pages] Photos of replica Renaissance and Baroque guitars ** [http://www.guitarnoise.com Guitar Noise] Articles on theory and practice of guitar. **[http://www.esflamenco.com/scripts/news/ennews.asp?frmIdPagina=380 All you need to know about your flamenco guitar] ** [http://www.wikiguitar.net/ Wiki Guitar] Wiki-based guitar resource site with tabs and lessons. ** [http://www.ultimate-guitar.com/ Ultimate-Guitar] Guitar site with tabs, news and articles. ** [http://sankey.ws/guitars/approach.html The Flat-back Archtop Guitar]. *Music ** [http://www.delcamp.net/en/index.html Delcamp.net] 1500 Classical guitar sheet music and 700 MP3 files for classical guitar, forums. *Tabs &amp; Chords ** [http://www.looknohands.com/chordhouse/ Chord House] Guitar Chord and Scale Finder ** [http://chordfind.com/ ChordFind.com] Guitar Chord Finder ** [http://www.chordie.com/ Guitar Chords] Chordie - Guitar Chords ** [http://www.tabwiki.com/ Wiki Guitar Tabs] Guitar Tabs site using Wiki-technology. ** [http://www.platinumt