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https://byemyself.com/best-street-art-in-frankfurt/
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en
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Best Street Art in FRANKFURT
|
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This is a guide to the best street art in Frankfurt since not only is the city home to grand museums but also to amazing urban artists.
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bye:myself
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https://byemyself.com/best-street-art-in-frankfurt/
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A couple of weeks ago, I introduced the 25 best things to do on a weekend trip to Frankfurt am Main, mostly known as Germany’s financial power station. One of the activities I recommended was getting to know the best street art in Frankfurt. Because not only is the city home to some of Germany’s best art museums. It is also a cradle of some of the most amazing urban artists such as Case MaClaim and Hera from the artist duo Herakut. In this post, I’m introducing you to some of Frankfurt’s best urban artists.
The Problem With Frankfurt
Frankfurt on the River Main is one of Germany’s most misconceived cities. Just for the record: I’m emphasizing the exact location since there is another Frankfurt in Germany bordering Poland. Frankfurt on the Main, however, is mainly recognized as Germany’s financial hub, hence, economically relevant but otherwise absolutely neglectable.
Also, the area around the main train station is infamous for being some kind of German Skid Row. And indeed, it is very unpleasant, to say the least. But nobody forces you to go there. Just two blocks south are the idyllic banks of the river Main with a long row of some of Germany’s best museums.
As a matter of fact, Frankfurt has 60 museums that host some of the best exhibitions in all of Europe. Why is nobody talking about that?
In the Streets Of Frankfurt
In addition to some world-famous art hanging around in Frankfurt’s art museums, there is also an amazing number of urban art in squares’n’streets of the city. And this is by no means a coincidence. For the governmental Cultural Office Frankfurt am Main, art in public spaces is a mission including amazing opportunities. Regarding urban and social development, it is worth focusing on urban art more than ever.
Hence, the range of around 550 objects that can be seen in Frankfurt’s public spaces is outstanding: Historicist bronze statues, hyper-modern sculptures, huge light installations, and street art such as graffiti and murals are found all around the city.
Since 2014, a designated Art in Public Space Department of the aforementioned Cultural Office has been promoting the participation of Frankfurt-based artists. Also, on their website, the office publishes a comprehensive database including information on more than 500 objects and their creators. Yes, including street artists.
Street Art in Frankfurt
In Frankfurt, just like in other European cities, contemporary street art began with graffiti by punks and later by hip-hoppers in the 1980s. In the beginning, graffiti was primarily about acceptance in the respective peer group. The fact that it was illegal to paint on public walls and dangerous to spray on trains only added to the myth’n’hype.
But gone are the days when graffiti as a whole was considered vandalism. Over the years, it became an important part of contemporary art, and artists in baseball caps and sneakers are making good money with their skills.
Yet, graffiti remained the art form of a particular crowd and still follows its own rules. Graffiti still tends to be an artistic way to express protest and trigger social and political issues.
In Frankfurt, you’ll spot artistic murals as well as quirky and provocative paintings. However, oftentimes, you’ll need to venture from the very center to the outskirts.
The Artists
Most of the time, when I write about urban art, I’m introducing one or two outstanding cultural or social projects: In Málaga, it was MAUS, in Amsterdam If Walls Could Speak, in Copenhagen the Open Air Gable Gallery, and in Paris Street Art 13, to name just a few. The advantage is that the murals are then bunched within a particular perimeter.
In Frankfurt, this is not the case. To put together this post, I had to travel crisscross the city. And since the Rhine-Main area consists also of towns like Bad Vilbel, Mainz, and Wiesbaden, you’d have to travel quite a bit to see some of the wonderful artworks.
Hence, I restricted myself to the very city limits. Also, I’m not introducing Frankfurt’s street art by area, but by artist in alphabetic order. However, in the map below, you can trace where exactly the particular murals are located.
As always, I’ve added a list of the Instagram accounts of all artists featured in this post. This way, you can enjoy more of their work straight from your lazy chair.
Andy and Chris Kaminsky aka ACK2
Andy and Chris Kaminsky aka ACK2 were commissioned to paint a façade facing Merianplatz in 2011.
On 15 meter high building, they adjusted a half-open zipper. Then, above the zipper at the highest point of the façade, they portrayed an old lady looking out of a window.
Justus Becker aka COR
Justus Becker who goes by the nom de plume spray can COR as a memento of his major heart surgery.
In his early years, COR was spraying illegally and was even arrested a couple of times. Despite these tribulations, he became one of the best sprayers in the area. During his studies of Illustration and Fine Arts, COR embellished walls mainly around Frankfurt, but also in Berlin, Guangzhou, Hamburg, New York, Toronto, and other countries around the world.
As social topics matter to COR and are a vital part of his artistic work. He is involved in various social projects both artistically as well as financially.
Also, major companies commission his pieces that often incorporate expressive photo-realistic portraits.
Murals at the Naxos Plant
The cover picture of this post shows a powerful portrait created by COR. You’ll find it at the so-called Naxoshalle. This site is a former factory building of the Naxos Union company. It was completed in 1907 in the Ostend district near the Frankfurt Zoo. Production of abrasives in the plant was abandoned and relocated to another site at the end of the 1980s.
The building was on the brink of falling into disrepair when entrepreneur Josef Buchmann bought the property and rented it out to the city of Frankfurt in 1989. Today, it houses a theater, and municipal institutions catering to children and indigent families.
Also, they are used for cultural events and as concrete canvasses by graffiti sprayers. Hence, venturing into this area outside the very city center is definitely worth it.
Case MaClaim
Andreas von Chrzanowski, far better known as Case MaClaim, was born in 1979. He is a founding member of the muralist group MaClaim which came together in 2000. The crew is mainly known for amazing photorealistic works, and Case specializes in hands as well as other parts of the human body.
In Frankfurt, where he currently resides, you’ll find a handful – pun intended – of his best pieces like for instance the large-scale twin portrait on Miquelallee. On one wall, a woman is writing on a typewriter, and one block down, a man is reading her letter.
Another very cool piece is found on the back of the small house on Hanauer Landstraße right next to the Ostbahnhof train station. Case MaClaim portrayed the Irish Bishop Patrick on the pub’s façade in cooperation with fellow muralist Mario Laugell aka Klark Kent in 2014.
Case has left an excellent mark in many cities, and I have introduced him already in my posts on Streetart in Amsterdam, Berlin, and Rabat.
Thomas Stolz
Thomas Stolz has a completely different approach to designing façades. He is less driven by personal artistic development than by color and motif as essential parts of architecture and of construction. In this spirit, Thomas Stolz is enthusiastic about designing color concepts and motifs that give settlements a special atmosphere, making living spaces a real home in the hustle and bustle of cities.
In his unmistakable style, Stolz has created several larger-than-life portraits of great poets and thinkers in the Rhine-Main area: In the Schwanheim district, he honors the Frankfurt social politician and women’s rights activist Henriette Fürth, in Niederursel the likeness of the playwright Gerhart Hauptmann is emblazoned, and in the district of Nordend the mathematician and physicist Carl-Friedrich Gauß looks down on the Gaußstrasse named after him.
Mathias Weinfurter
In 2014, students from the visual communication department and the NGO Frankfurt Fan Project installed a clear message of tolerance and against discrimination near the Niederrad S-Bahn station. It is a larger-than-life portrait of former professional soccer player Anthony Yeboah. Coming originally from Ghana, Yeboah was often a victim of racism and xenophobia in the Bundesliga. In an open letter, Yeboah, together with Anthony Baffoe and Souleyman Sané, wrote: We are ashamed of everyone who shouts against us.
24 years later, the Frankfurt Fan Project started an initiative against racism and xenophobia, i. a. by founding the Keep in Mind Award. Frankfurt-born artist Mathias Weinfurter won the award for his idea of what now is a powerful mural. It is now on the façade of a residential building at Melibocusstraße around the corner from the Niederrad S-Bahn station. Actually, it can be best seen from the local train going to the airport.
Guido Zimmermann
Guido Zimmermann was born in Frankfurt in 1978. He studied art – according to his self-proclamation not at an academy, but in the streets of Frankfurt. From the beginning on, he had a very distinctive, artistic style of delicate shades and soft lines. At that time, this was rather atypical for street art.
Nevertheless, a decade later, Zimmermann graduated from the Academy of Visual Arts in Frankfurt and has worked as a freelance artist ever since.
After having spent some time in London, he’s now back in Frankfurt.
Painting the City
In 2015, Guido Zimmermann initiated the Museum on the Street project through a crowdfunding campaign. The funds he gained were actually sufficient for at least three house façades.
He completed the first piece in 2016. The humongous mural depicts a rodeo: A cowboy jumps off his horse onto a cow and pushes it to the ground.
The second mural realized by means of the crowdfunding campaign was the mural Bull Versus Bear in the Nordend district. Actually, it is the perfect motif in one of Europe’s most significant financial centers.
The bull and the bear are two animals that are also associated with the stock market. The bear is skeptical, holding his funds back due to pessimism and mistrust. In contrast, the bull is optimistic, buying in the hope of an upturn.
In 2021, the Deutsche Bahn, Germany’s national train company, commissioned Zimmermann to decorate the walls, stairways, and waiting areas of Frankfurt’s S-Bahn station Niederrad.
According to the title From Laundry Village to Office Town, Zimmermann painted scenes from the district in the south of the city on an area of 750 square meters.
Leunabunker
The so-called Leunabunker is a former air raid shelter for the employees of the infamous company IG Farben which was built in the 1930s. Already in 1975, musicians used the bunker for their rehearsals for the first time.
The Leunabunker was entirely covered in high-class graffiti in 2010. Today, there are 47 rehearsal rooms that were refurbished by the tenants with their own funds. Around 80 bands and various visual artists are currently working behind the two-meter-thick walls.
Below, I’ve listed the artists that have contributed to the metamorphosis of the bunker into an open-air gallery.
Dingo Babusch
Dingo Babusch was born near Stuttgart. From 1994 to 1997, he completed professional training as a sign maker. With his paintings, he participated in exhibitions in Copenhagen, Milan, Munich, New York, and Vienna, among others. In 2011, he received an Interior Design Award.
Babusch resided in New York in 2006. Apart from pursuing his painting career, he also was a guest speaker at a school in Brooklyn.
Back in Stuttgart, Babusch works on his own artistic projects and organizes workshops. Also, he published the book Sprüher im Rudel, which translates to Sprayers in a Pack in English, in 2005. It’s a documentation of graffiti writing in Stuttgart.
Helge Steinmann aka BOMBER
In Frankfurt, Helge Steinmann aka BOMBER is an urban art legend. Having been a street artist since 1988, BOMBER succeeded in transforming his art into a business. He began creating commissioned graffiti as a freelancer in the early 1990s.
Eventually, he founded what has been allegedly the world’s first agency that arranges jobs for street artists. Also, together with fellow-sprayer CANTWO, he created the first professionally usable color for street artists.
Hendrik Beikirch aka ECB
German graffiti and street artist Hendrik Beikirch was born in Kassel in 1974 and studied art education at the University of Koblenz-Landau. Although he has been an important figure in the graffiti and street art scene since the 1990s, I discovered him only recently in Morocco, of all places, where I was just blown away by his larger-than-life portraits in Marrakech and Rabat.
Beikirch, who also signs his works with the abbreviation ECB, is famous for his hyper-realistic portraits in black and white that he paints on canvas, paper, and walls, obviously. He has a very distinctive artistic language. No wonder his amazing portraits can be found in many places around the globe.
I’ve introduced some of Hendrik Beikirch’s absolutely amazing portraits in my post on JIDAR Street Art Festival – How Rabat Celebrates International Urban Art.
Mick La Rock
Aileen Esther Middel, better known as Mick La Rock, was born in Groningen in 1970. She is one of Europe’s first and most famous female graffiti artists. Inspired by the classic graffiti lettering, she started writing her name MICKEY in 1983. After she had participated in the famous exhibition Coming from The Subway at the Groninger Museum in the early 1990s, well-established street artists invited her to New York. Henceforth, she spent the 1990s between Amsterdam and New York.
Today, Mick La Rock is a member of the City Curatorial of the Municipality of Amsterdam and paints and curates exhibitions for the city’s world-famous art museums. You can immediately identify her minimalistic work as it’s strongly influenced by brutalist architecture and abstract art of the early 20th century like Dadaism and surrealism.
Mick La Rock currently lives and works in Amsterdam. She is a member of various graffiti crews, and her work has been featured in various publications on graffiti.
SHOK-1
In a unique mix of street art and science, British artist SHOK-1 spray paints unique X-ray art on walls around the world. Enigmatic and full of intricate detail, X-rays are actually a very difficult motif to paint, and SHOK-1 is creating his pieces freehand without any rendering with tape or stencils.
Back in the 1980s, SHOK-1 was one of the first European street artists that sprayers from the US co-opted. Since then, he has continuously reinvented his work during the past 40 years.
SHOK-1 is based in London and holds a degree in Applied Chemistry.
On Instagram
To dig deeper into the subject and see more of the amazing art the above-featured artists have created, you can just check out their Instagram accounts:
How to Get Around
Public Transport
As I pointed out above, there is not some kind of cradle of street art in Frankfurt. The individual pieces are in general quite far one from another. Therefore, I’m afraid that when you’re looking for street art, you can’t avoid using public transport. However, like in every other German city, local public transport in Frankfurt is comprehensive, too. There are buses, trams, subways, and local as well as regional trains.
A regular ticket for the city costs 3.40 €uros and is valid throughout the city with the exception of the airport. There are short-distance tickets for 2.10 €uros. You have to check at the bus stations or the ticket machines whether those tickets apply.
Since tickets don’t have to be validated, single tickets have to be bought right before boarding.
If you don’t have a Frankfurt Card*, a 49 €uros ticket, or any other discounted pass, the best deal for you will be an all-day ticket for 6.65 €uros. Parties of up to five people pay 12.60 €uros for an all-day group ticket. Both tickets are good for an unlimited number of trips.
Cycling
Another way to explore at least the murals in Frankfurt’s center is by bicycle. The company that rents out bikes is called Call a Bike and you find their website here. Registration is free.
As one of the largest bike-sharing networks in Germany, Call a Bike offers you quick access to more than 13,000 bicycles not only in Frankfurt, but also in Berlin, Hamburg, Cologne, and Munich, to name just a few of the more than 80 municipalities.
Download the Call a Bike app Download and register with your email, mobile phone number, and credit card. Then you can choose a bike on a map or with a QR code. The lock will open automatically. If you need a break, you simply click on the Pause button and push down the lock lever on your bike. To travel on, go to Continue in your booking, and the lock opens. Nevertheless, keep in mind that the clock keeps ticking also during your break.
As you return the bike to a station and close the lock, your journey is over.
There are neither free minutes nor is there a flat rate. You’ll be charged 1 €uro for 15 minutes up to a maximum of 9 €uros per day.
Also, you can always ask your hotel if they have rental bikes for their customers. This might be a less complicated option, however, they probably won’t be cheaper.
Map
This map should help you to find the murals I’m introducing in this post. Clicking on the slider symbol at the top left or the full-screen icon at the top right will display the whole map including the legend.
Amazing Street Art was only one kind of art I got to see on my visit to Frankfurt. To read about the rest, go to this comprehensive guide where you’ll find further valuable information that will make your own trip much smoother and more enjoyable. If you have only a short layover in the city, my post 24 hours in Frankfurt has you covered.
Pinnable Pictures
If you choose to pin this post for later, please use one of these pictures:
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dbpedia
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https://www.wikitree.com/wiki/Von_Thurn_und_Taxis-30
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Karl Anselm Von Thurn und Taxis (1733-1805)
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1733-06-02T00:00:00
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Is this your ancestor? Explore genealogy for Karl Von Thurn und Taxis born 1733 Frankfurt am Main, Free Imperial City of Frankfurt, Holy Roman Empire died 1805 Winzer bei Regensburg, Electorate of Bavaria, Holy Roman Empire including ancestors + descendants + 1 photos + more in the free family tree community.
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https://www.wikitree.com/wiki/Von_Thurn_und_Taxis-30
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WIKITREE HOME | ABOUT | G2G FORUM | HELP | SEARCH
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Württemberg Royal Family
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Monarchies of Europe including Queen Victoria's Descendants
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REFERENCE TITLE NAME BORN DIED TITLE NAME BORN DIED COMMENTS 22 Duke Friedrich Eugen of Württemberg 1732 1797 Margravine Friederike of Brandenburg-Shwedt 1736 1798 Friederike was a sister to Margravine Philippine of Brandenburg-Shwedt.
Some reliable source show Friederike as either Sophie Dorothea or Dorothea.
Friederike's great grandfather was Elector Friedrich Wilhelm of Brandenburg (1620-1688) , two of his sons from his second marriage founded the lines of Brandenburg-Shwedt (from whom Friederike descends).
Elector Friedrich Wilhelm's eldest son Friedrich (1657-1713) from his first marriage became the first King in Prussia. 22.1 King Friedrich I of Württemberg 1754 1816 Duchess Auguste of Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel 1764 1788 Duke Friedrich of Württemberg was proclaimed Elector of Württemberg on 27 April 1803 becoming the first King of Württemberg on 1 January 1806. Auguste was a sister of Duke Friedrich Wilhelm of Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel 22.1 King Friedrich I of Württemberg 1754 1816 Princess Charlotte of Great Britain (Princess Royal) 1766 1828 Duke Friedrich of Württemberg was proclaimed Elector of Württemberg on 27 April 1803 becoming the first King of Württemberg on 1 January 1806. Charlotte was a daughter of George III of Great Britain and a sister of Queen Victoria's father the Duke of Kent 22.11 King Wilhelm I of Württemberg 1781 1864 Princess Charlotte "Karoline" Auguste of Bavaria 1792 1873 See 18.4 22.11 King Wilhelm I of Württemberg 1781 1864 Grand Duchess Catherine of Russia 1788 1819 See 4.6 - Catherine was married firstly to Duke George of Oldenburg.
An interesting account surrounding the unfortunate death of Grand Duchess Catherine and her marital circumstances. 22.11 King Wilhelm I of Württemberg 1781 1864 Duchess Pauline of Württemberg 1800 1873 See 22.24 22.111 Princess Marie of Württemberg 1816 1887 Count Alfred von Neipperg 1807 1865 Alfred is the first born son of Count Adam Adalbert von Neipperg (1775-1829) and his first wife Countess Theresia von Pola. 22.112 Princess Sophie of Württemberg 1818 1877 King Willem III of the Netherlands (also Grand Duke of Luxemburg) 1817 1890 See 9.11 Luxemburg which was subject to Salic law and had been ruled by the Kings of the Netherlands was separated from the Netherlands on the death of King Willem III without male issue. Duke Adolf of Nassau from a collateral branch became Grand Duke Adolphe of Luxemburg 22.113 Princess Katherine of Württemberg 1821 1898 Prince Friedrich of Württemberg 1808 1870 See 22.142 22.114 King Karl I of Württemberg 1823 1891 Grand Duchess Olga of Russia 1822 1892 See 4.94 - King Karl I and his wife being childless adopted their niece Grand Duchess Vera of Russia. Vera was a difficult child to control by her parents.
A brief article on the death King Karl I.
The New York Times report on the funeral of King Karl I 22.115 Princess Auguste of Württemberg 1826 1898 Prince Hermann of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach 1825 1901 See 27.45 22.12 Princess Catherine of Württemberg 1783 1835 Prince Jerome Napoléon Bonaparte 1784 1860 Jerome Bonaparte was a brother to Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte (15 August 1769 - 5 May 1821) and became King of Westphalia (1807 to 1813) and created Prince of Montfort by the King of Wurttemberg on 31 July 1816.
Jerome was firstly married to Elizabeth "Betsy" Patterson (1785-1879) in 1803 which was annulled in 1805 on the orders of Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte.
Jerome's first marriage to "Betsy" formed the American Branch of the Bonapartes.
Jerome and Betsy had one child Jerome Napoleon Bonaparte (1805-1870) who had two sons, Jerome Napoleon Bonaparte II ( 1830-1893) and Charles Joseph Bonaparte (1851-1921).
The elder son Jerome Napoleon Bonaparte II (1830-1893) had an interesting life he served first in the U.S. army which he resigned in 1854 and joined the French army of his cousin-once-removed, Napoleon III. He then resigned from the French Army in 1870 returning to the U.S.A.
The younger son Charles Joseph Bonaparte (1851-1921) eventually became US Attorney General and on 26 July 1908 the founder of the forerunner to the modern day FBI.
22.121 Prince Jérôme Bonaparte (Prince of Montfort) 1814 1847 22.122 Princess Mathilde Laetitia Bonaparte 1820 1904 Prince Anatole Demidoff (1st Prince de San Donato) 1813 1870 See 50.2 - Anatole was conferred with the title "Count of San Donato" by Grand Duke Leopold of Tuscany.
An interesting article on Mathilde.
And another article on Mathilde some years later regarding her visit to Emperor Nicholas I of all the Russias. 22.123 Prince Napoléon Joseph Bonaparte "Plon-Plon" (Prince Napoléon) 1822 1891 Princess Clotilde of Savoy (Italy) 1843 1911 See 8.11 - The New York Times report on the death of Napoléon Joseph 22.1231 Prince Napoléon Victor Bonaparte (Prince Napoléon) 1862 1926 Princess Clementine of Belgium 1872 1955 See 14.24 - A report on the wedding of Princess Clementine and Prince Napoléon 22.12311 Princess Marie Clotilde Bonaparte 1912 1996 Count Serge de Witt 1891 1990 I have been unable to locate a definitive family tree for the de Witt family. I have however been advised by a descendant of Count Serge that the de Witt family have been Counts since Peter the Great. The correspondent also mentioned Duc de Raguse (Auguste Frederic Viesse de Marmont) (1774-1852) (presumably in his memoirs) describes how he met the Count de Witt during a visit to Russia. Further. It was also pointed that this de Witt family is unrelated to Count de Witte (Witte with an e at the end) former Minister of Finance in Russia.
Note: One normally reliable source mentions Serge was created Count de Witt by the King of Italy on 11 November 1939. I am now of the opinion this reference to Serge being created Count is erroneous).
A brief report on the Wedding of Princess Marie Bonaparte and Count (shown as Captain) Serge de Witt.
Photograph of Princess Marie Bonaparte and Count (shown as Captain) Serge de Witt after their wedding.
Marriage Registration of Princess Marie Bonaparte and Count Serge de Witt 22.123111 Countess Marie Eugénie de Witt 1939 Count Peter Cheremetieff 1931 22.123111 Countess Marie Eugénie de Witt 1939 Count Helie de Pourtalés 1938 Helie de Pourtalés via his mother Helene Violette de Talleyrand (19152003) was a grandson of Hélie de Talleyrand-Périgord (18591937), 5th Duke of Talleyrand and Dino, Duke of Sagan 22.123112 Countess Hélène de Witt 1941 Marquis Henri du Lau d'Allemans 1925 22.123113 Count Napoléon Serge de Witt 1942 1942 22.123114 Countess Yolande de Witt 1943 1945 22.123115 Countess Vera de Witt 1945 Marquis Raymond Godefroy de Commarque 1938 Chateau de la Bourlie family home of Marquis de Commarque 22.1231151 Count Grégoire Ludovic de Commarque 1967 22.1231152 Count Cyril de Commarque 1970 Princess Cecilie of Hohenlohe-Langenburg 1967 See 39.331121 22.1231152 Count Cyril de Commarque 1970 Visconti Ortensia di Modrone 1972 22.12311521 Countess Oro de Commarque 2010 22.123116 Count Baudoin de Witt 1947 Marquis Isabelle de Rocca-Serra 1950 Count Baudoin de Witt with his wife Isabelle have opened their manor, the Pommerie, to create the Napoleon Museum at Cendrieux 22.123117 Countess Isabelle de Witt 1949 Remmest Laan 1942 22.123118 Count Jean Jérôme de Witt 1950 Veronique de Dryver 1950 22.123118 Count Jean Jérôme de Witt 1950 Viviane Jutheau 1947 22.123119 Count Wladimir de Witt 1952 Margareta Mautner von Markhof 1954 22.123119 Count Wladimir de Witt 1952 Françoise Martin-Flory 1959 22.12311J Countess Anne Clémentine de Witt 1953 Baron Henry Robert de Rancher 1949 1995 22.12312 Prince Louise Bonaparte (Prince Napoléon) 1914 1997 Alix de Foresta 1926 22.123121 Prince Charles Bonaparte (Prince Napoléon) 1950 Princess Beatrice of Bourbon-Two Sicilies 1950 See 37.554921 22.123121 Prince Charles Bonaparte (Prince Napoléon) 1950 Jeanne Françoise Valliccionni 1958 22.1231211 Princess Caroline Bonaparte 1980 Eric Alain Marie Quérénet-Onfroy de Breville 1971 22.1231212 Prince Jean-Christophe Bonaparte 1986 Countess Olympia von Arco-Zinneberg 1988 See 18.151M233 - Jean-Christophe is the present Head of the Imperial House of France 22.1231213 Princess Sophie Cathérine Bonaparte 1992 22.123122 Princess Catherine Bonaparte 1950 Nicolò San Martino d'Agliè dei Marchesi di Fontanetto 1948 22.123122 Princess Catherine Bonaparte 1950 Jean Dualé 1936 2017 22.123123 Princess Laura Bonaparte 1952 Jean-Claude Leconte 1948 2009 22.123124 Prince Jerome Bonaparte 1957 Licia Innocenti 1965 22.1232 Prince Napoléon Louise Bonaparte 1864 1932 22.1233 Princess Maria Laetitia Bonaparte 1866 1926 Prince Amadeo of Savoy (Italy) (1 st Duke of Aosta) 1845 1890 See 8.13 - Amadeo was proclaimed King of Spain on 16 November 1870 (following the abdication of Queen Isabel II of Spain) and abdicated on 11 February 1873 and returned to Italy.
Report on the wedding of Amedeo and Maria Laetitia.This is an uncle/niece marriage, Maria Laetitia's mother was a sister to Amedeo.
Report on the death of Prince Amedeo. 22.13 Princess Sophie of Württemberg 1783 1784 22.14 Prince Paul of Württemberg 1785 1852 Princess Charlotte of Saxe-Hildburghausen 1787 1847 See 30.2 22.141 Princess Charlotte of Württemberg 1807 1873 Grand Duke Michael of Russia 1798 1849 See 4.J - Charlotte took the name "Helena Pavlovna" on her marriage. 22.142 Prince Friedrich of Württemberg 1808 1870 Princess Katherina of Württemberg 1821 1898 See 22.113 22.1421 King Wilhelm II of Württemberg 1848 1921 Princess Marie of Waldeck & Pyrmont 1857 1882 See 42.3 - A failed attempt in 1889 on the life of Wilhelm who was heir presumptive at the time.
Wilhelm abdicated on 29 November 1918.
Marie died a couple of days after giving birth to a still born daughter 22.1421 King Wilhelm II of Württemberg 1848 1921 Princess Charlotte of Schaumburg-Lippe 1864 1946 See 43.71 - Wilhelm abdicated on 29 November 1918.
The New York Times Obituary of King Wilhelm II (note, there are a number of errors relating dates).
The supposedly simple funeral of King Wilhelm II 22.14211 Princess Pauline of Württemberg 1877 1965 Prince Friedrich of Wied (6th Prince of Wied) 1872 1945 See 33.821 22.14212 Prince Ulrich of Württemberg 1880 1880 22.14213 Stillborn daughter 1882 1882 22.143 Prince Karl Paul of Württemberg 1809 1810 22.144 Princess Pauline of Württemberg 1810 1856 Duke Wilhelm of Nassau 1792 1839 See 33 - Wilhelm was formerlylly Prince Wilhelm of Nassau-Weilburg and inherited the principality of Nassau-Weilburg from his father on 9 January 1816 and the Duchy of Nassau-Usingen from a distant relative only two months later on 24 March 1816. He thus became the Duke of Nassau in 1816 following the extinction of the Usingen line of the House of Nassau. 22.145 Prince August of Württemberg 1813 1885 Marie Bethge 1830 1869 Marie was created Baroness von Wardenburg in 1868 22.2 Duke Ludwig of Württemberg 1756 1817 Princess Maria Anna Czartoryska 1768 1854 22.2 Duke Ludwig of Württemberg 1756 1817 Princess Henriette of Nassau-Weilburg 1780 1857 Henriette was a sister to Prince Friedrich Wilhelm of Nassau-Weilburg (1768-1816) father of Prince Wilhelm of Nassau-Weilburg 22.21 Duke Adam of Württemberg 1792 1847 22.22 Duchess Marie of Württemberg 1797 1855 Archduke Joseph Anton of Austria (Palatine of Hungary) (Hungarian Line) 1776 1847 See 21 - Joseph Anton founded the Hungarian branch of the Habsburg family and was a brother of Emperor Franz I of Austria 22.23 Duchess Amalie of Württemberg 1799 1848 Duke Joseph of Saxe-Altenburg 1789 1868 See 30.4 22.24 Duchess Pauline of Württemberg 1800 1873 King Wilhelm I of Württemberg 1781 1864 See 22.11 22.25 Duchess Elisabeth of Württemberg 1802 1864 Prince Wilhelm of Baden 1792 1859 See 32.6 22.26 Duke Alexander of Württemberg 1804 1885 Countess Claudine Rhedey von Kis-Rhede 1812 1841 Claudine was created Countess von Hohenstein in her own right by Emperor Ferdinand I of Austria in 1835. She was trampled to death by a squadron of cavalry led by her husband Duke Alexander, her horse had bolted during the parade and she had fallen in front of the galloping horses.
An alternative source says that she was travelling by her coach to Graz to join her husband when it overturned near Graz and she was thrown into a ditch. Although injured she mounted a horse and rode eight hours without stopping until finally fainting and dying a few hours later. 22.261 Countess Claudine von Hohenstein 1836 1894 Claudine was created Princess of Teck in 1863 22.262 Count Franz von Hohenstein 1837 1900 Princess Mary Adelaide Cambridge (and of Great Britain) 1833 1897 See 45.483 - Franz was created Prince of Teck on 1 December 1863 by King Wilhelm I of Wurttemberg and Duke of Teck on 16 September 1871 by King Karl I of Württemberg. Teck was a subsidiary title of his father Duke Alexander of Württemberg. Mary Adelaide's father was Duke Adolphus of Cambridge a brother to Queen Victoria's father Edward, Duke of Kent.
Marriage Registration of Prince Francis (Franz) of Teck and Princess Mary Cambridge
Death Registration of Franz ,Duke of Teck
Death Registration of Mary Adelaide.
A report in 1898 on the serious health situation of Franz ,Duke of Teck.
A report on the death of Franz ,Duke of Teck 22.2621 Princess Mary "May" of Teck 1867 1953 King George V of Great Britain 1865 1936 See 1.22
Birth Registration of Princess Mary of Teck 22.2622 Duke Adolphus "Dolly" of Teck 1868 1927 Lady Margaret Grosvener 1873 1929 Adolphus relinquished his German title and those of his family on 16 July 1917 and was created Marquess of Cambridge. Margaret was a daughter of Hugh Lupus Grosvenor (1825-1899) the 1st Duke of Westminster.
Birth Registration of Duke Adolphus of Teck
Marriage Registration of Prince Adolphus of Teck and Lady Margaret Grosvener
Death Registration of Adolphus, Marquess of Cambridge
Death Registration of Margaret, Marchioness of Cambridge 22.26221 Prince George of Teck (2 nd Marquess of Cambridge) 1895 1981 Dorothy Isabel Hastings 1899 1988 Birth Registration of Prince George of Teck
Marriage Registration of Prince George of Teck (2 nd Marquess of Cambridge) and Dorothy Isabel Hastings 22.262211 Lady Mary Ilona Margaret Cambridge 1924 1999 Peter Whitley 1923 2003 Birth Registration of Lady Mary Ilona Margaret Cambridge 22.26222 Princess Victoria of Teck 1897 1987 Henry Somerset (10th Duke of Beaufort) 1900 1984 Birth Registration of Princess Victoria of Teck 22.26223 Princess Helena of Teck 1899 1969 John Evelyn Gibbs 1879 1932 Birth Registration of Princess Helena of Teck
John Evelyn Gibbs was an Army Colonel and a veteran of the Boer Wars and World War I. A plaque in memory of Colonel Gibbs at St John The Baptist Church, Shipton Moyne 22.26224 Prince Frederick of Teck 1907 1940 Frederick was killed in action at Herault, Belgium 22.2623 Prince Francis of Teck 1870 1910 Birth Registration of Prince Francis of Teck
Death report of Prince Francis of Teck. It was reported the immediate cause of death was septicaemia following an operation for the removal of the pleuritic effusion most probably caused by an attack of pleurisy.
Death Registration of Prince Francis of Teck 22.2624 Prince Alexander "Alge" of Teck 1874 1957 Princess Alice of Albany (and of Great Britain) 1883 1981 See 1.81 - Prince Alexander relinquished his German titles and those of his family on 14 July 1917 and took the family name of Cambridge and was created Earl of Athlone on 16 July 1917.
Birth Registration of Prince Alexander of Teck
Death Registration of Alexander, Earl of Athlone 22.26241 - QVD Lady May Helen Emma Cambridge 1906 1994 Sir Henry Abel Smith 1900 1993 Lady May was a Princess of Teck until 16 July 1917.
Birth Registration of Princess May Helen of Teck
Death Registration of Princess May Helen of Teck Shown with surname Abel-Smith and first names May Emma V. 22.262411 - QVD Anne Abel Smith 1932 David Liddell-Grainger 1930 2007 After his divorce from Anne Abel Smith, David Liddell-Grainger subsequently married Christine, Lady de la Rue (born Christine Schellin) in very strange circumstances 22.2624111 - QVD Ian Liddell-Grainger 1959 Jill Nesbit 1956 Ian Liddell-Grainger was elected a Conservative British Member of Parliament for the Bridgwater Constituency in June 2001 being the first descendant of Queen Victoria to achieve this distinction. He won again in 2005.
Before the 2010 election the Bridgwater Constituency was abolished and replaced with Bridgwater and West Somerset Constituency which he won.
He won again in 2015, 2017 and 2019.
He stood again in the 2024 election for the newly formed Tiverton and Minehead Constituency, which he lost to the Liberal Democrat candidate. 22.26241111 - QVD Peter Liddell-Grainger 1987 Elizabeth Anne Wilks 1985 22.26241112 - QVD Sophie Liddell-Grainger 1988 James Boardman ? 22.26241113 - QVD May Liddell-Grainger 1992 22.262411131 - QVD Leopold Burns) 2020 Leopold is the son of May Liddell-Grainger and her partner Christopher Burns 22.2624112 - QVD Charles Liddell-Grainger 1960 Karen Humphreys 1956 2018 22.2624112 - QVD Charles Liddell-Grainger 1960 Martha Margaretha de Klerk ? Charles was due to marry for a second time to Eugenie Wilhelmine Anna Marie Campagne but it was called off two weeks before their intended marriage.
The Queen gave consent to the proposed marriage of Charles Montagu Liddell Grainger and Eugenie Wilhelmine Anna Marie Campagne at the Privy Council Meeting on 11 December 2001
The Queen gave consent to the proposed marriage of Charles Montagu Liddell-Grainger and Martha Margaretha de Klerk. at the Privy Council Meeting on 09 October 2008.
Although Martha Margaretha is shown with the surname of de Klerk in the Privy Council Meeting the report of her marriage to Charles Liddell-Grainger in The Telegraph is shown as de Clermont 22.2624113 - QVD Simon Liddell-Grainger 1962 Romana Rogoshewska 1945 22.2624113 - QVD Simon Liddell-Grainger 1962 Natalie Judith Poulard 1970 22.26241131 - QVD Simon Alexander Liddell-Grainger 2000 22.26241132 - QVD Mathew Liddell-Grainger 2003 22.2624114 - QVD Alice Liddell-Grainger 1965 Pietro Panaggio 1963 22.26241141 - QVD Danico Panaggio 1996 22.26241142 - QVD Jessica Panaggio 1998 22.2624115 - QVD Malcolm Liddell-Grainger 1967 Helen Bright 1971 22.26241151 - QVD Cameron Liddell-Grainger 1997 22.262412 - QVD Richard Abel Smith 1933 2004 Marcia Kendrew 1940 Birth Registration of Richard Abel Smith 22.2624121 - QVD Katharine Abel Smith 1961 Hubert Beaumont 1956 22.26241211 - QVD Amelia Beaumont 1983 Simon Murray 1974 See Simon Murray's Ancestry *** *** This site is no longer working, the originator of the web page was Sir William Reierson Arbuthnot, 2 nd Baronet of Kittybrewster who died 7 October 2021 and presumably the site was closed following his death *** . You are able to view the web page by entering the URL into the Internat Wayback Machine
Announcement of the marriage of Simon Murray and Amelia Beaumont 22.262412111 - QVD Matilda Alice Beaumont Murray 2012 Matilda and Archibald are twins
Announcement of the birth of Matilda and Archibald 22.262412112 - QVD Archibald Peregrine Arbuthnot Murray 2012 Matilda and Archibald are twins
Announcement of the birth of Matilda and Archibald 22.26241212 - QVD George Beaumont 1985 Katharine Fitzpatrick 1986 22.26241213 - QVD Richard Beaumont 1989 Elizabeth Louise Holland 1990 22.26241214 - QVD Michael Beaumont 1991 Alice Holborow 1992 22.262413 - QVD Elizabeth Abel Smith 1936 Peter Wise 1929 2021 22.2624131 - QVD Emma Abel Wise 1973 1974 22.26242 - QVD Rupert Cambridge (Viscount Trematon) 1907 1928 Rupert was a Prince of Teck until 16 July 1917 he suffered from haemophilia and died after a car accident.
Birth Registration of Prince Rupert of Teck 22.26243 - QVD Prince Maurice of Teck 1910 1910 Birth Registration of Prince Maurice of Teck 22.263 Countess Amalie von Hohenstein 1838 1893 Count Paul von Hügel 1835 1897 Countess Amalie was created Princess of Teck in 1863 22.2631 Count Paul Julius von Hügel 1872 1912 Anna Homolatsch ? ? 22.3 Duke Eugen Friedrich of Württemberg 1758 1822 Princess Luise of Stolberg-Gedern 1764 1834 Luise was firstly married to Duke August Frederick of Saxe-Meiningen (1754-1782) who on his death was succeeded by his younger brother Georg (1761-1803) as Duke of Saxe-Meiningen 22.31 Duke Eugen of Württemberg 1788 1857 Princess Mathilde of Waldeck and Pyrmont 1801 1825 Mathilde's brother Prince George of Waldeck and Pyrmont (1789-1845) was the father of Prince George Viktor of Waldeck and Pyrmont 22.31 Duke Eugen of Württemberg 1788 1857 Princess Helene of Hohenlohe-Langenburg 1807 1880 Helene was a sister of Prince Ernst of Hohenlohe-Langenburg 22.311 Duchess Marie of Württemberg 1818 1888 Landgrave Karl of Hess-Philippsthal 1803 1868 22.3111 Landgrave Ernst Eugen of Hesse-Philippsthal 1846 1925 The line of Hess-Philippsthal became extinct with the death of Landgrave Ernst.
The Landgrave of Hess-Philippsthal was assumed by Ernst's distant cousin Prince Chlodwig of Hesse-Philippsthal-Barchfeld 22.3112 Prince Karl Alexander of Hesse-Philippsthal 1853 1916 22.312 Duke Eugen of Württemberg 1820 1875 Princess Mathilde of Schaumburg-Lippe 1818 1891 See 43.2 22.3121 Duchess Wilhelmine of Württemberg 1844 1892 Duke Nikolaus of Württemberg 1833 1903 See 22.316 22.3122 Duke Eugen of Württemberg 1846 1877 Grand Duchess Vera of Russia 1854 1912 See 4.963 - Vera was a difficult child to control by her parents and was formally adopted by her childless Uncle and Aunt, King Karl I of Württemberg and his wife (born Grand Duchess Olga of Russia). 22.31221 Duke Karl Eugen of Württemberg 1875 1875 22.31222 Duchess Elsa Mathilde of Württemberg 1876 1936 Prince Albrecht of Schaumburg-Lippe 1869 1942 See 43.74 - Duchess Elsa and Duchess Olga were twins 22.31223 Duchess Olga Alexandrine of Württemberg 1876 1932 Prince Maximilian of Schaumburg-Lippe 1871 1904 See 43.75 - Duchess Elsa and Duchess Olga were twins 22.3123 Duchess Pauline Mathilde of Württemberg 1854 1914 Melchor Willim 1855 1910 Pauline renounced her title and was created Baroness von Kirbach on 1 May 1880 22.313 Duke Wilhelm Alexander of Württemberg 1825 1825 22.314 Duke Wilhelm Nickolaus of Württemberg 1828 1896 22.315 Duchess Alexandrine-Mathilde of Württemberg 1829 1913 22.316 Duke Nikolaus of Württemberg 1833 1903 Duchess Wilhelmine of Württemberg 1844 1892 See 22.3121 22.317 Duchess Agnes of Württemberg 1835 1886 Prince Heinrich XIV Reuss-Schleiz (4th Fürst Reuss-Schleiz) 1832 1913 Prince Heinrich XIV secondly married (morganatically in 1890) Friederike Graetz (1851-1907) who according to the The New York Times was created Baroness von Saalburg by the King of Saxony. Following his morganatic marriage Heinrich XIV abdicated his throne in favour of his son Heinrich XXVII.
A report on the death of Prince Heinrich XIV including an interesting account of the Reuss family. 22.3171 Prince Heinrich XXVII Reuss-Schleiz (5th Fürst Reuss-Schleiz) 1858 1928 Princess Elise of Hohenloe-Langenburg 1864 1929 See 39.332 - Heinrich XXVII renounced the Reuss-Schleiz throne 11 November 1918.
Heinrich XXVII was the Regent for Prince Heinrich XXIV Reuss-Greiz (6th Fürst Reuss-Greiz) (1878-1927) due to the physival and mentl disbaility of the latter. On the death of Heinrich XXIV Reuss-Greiz the titles passed to Heinrich XXVII who thus became the 1st Fürst of Reuss. 22.31711 Princess Viktoria-Feodora Reuss-Schleiz 1889 1918 Duke Adolph Friedrich of Mecklenburg-Schwerin 1873 1969 See 23.111J 22.31712 Princess Luise Adelheid Reuss-Schleiz 1890 1951 22.31713 Prince Heinrich XL Reuss-Schleiz 1891 1891 22.31714 Prince Heinrich XLIII Reuss-Schleiz 1893 1912 22.31715 Prince (Fürst) Heinrich XLV Reuss-Schleiz 1895 1962 Heinrich XLV went missing in 1945 and was declared dead 5 Jan 1962. The male line of Reuss-Schleiz became extinct with the death of Heinrich XLV. Heinrich XLV had adopted Prince Heinrich I Reuss-Köstritz (1910-1982) on 19 January 1935 22.3172 Princess Elisabeth Adelheid Reuss-Schleiz 1859 1951 Prince Hermann zu Solms-Braunfels 1845 1900 See 24.7 (this is a temporary link as work is in progress to provide the descendants of Hermann's grandfather Prince Friedrich of Solms-Braunfels ) . Hermann was firstly married to his first cousin Princess Maria zu Solms-Braunfels (1852-1882) 22.31721 Princess Marie Agnes zu Solms-Braunfels 1888 1976 Count Joseph zu Erbach-Fürstenau 1874 1963 22.31722 Princess Helene zu Solms-Braunfels 1890 1969 Count Raimund zu Erbach-Fürstenau 1868 1926 22.317221 Countess Jutta Luise zu Erbach-Fürstenau 1922 1968 Peter Helbig 1922 22.317222 Count Eugen Alfred zu Erbach-Fürstenau 1923 1987 Countess Elisabeth zu Erbach-Fürstenau 1929 Count Eugen zu Erbach-Fürstenau (1923-1987) and Countess Elisabeth zu Erbach-Fürstenau (1929- ) are both descended from Count Alfred zu Erbach-Fürstenau (1813-1874). Count Alfred zu Erbach-Fürstenau (1813-1874) son Raimond (1868-1926) was the father of Eugen, another son Adalbert (1861-1944) was a grandfather of Elisabeth. 22.3172221 Count Raimund zu Erbach-Fürstenau 1951 2017 Princess Isabelle Maria of Liechtenstein 1954 See 41.343 22.31722211 Hereditary Count Louis Christian zu Erbach-Fürstenau 1976 Olga Wassiljewna 1979 22.31722212 Count Philipp Christoph zu Erbach-Fürstenau 1979 Juliette Souchon 1977 22.31722213 Count Nikolaus Georg zu Erbach-Fürstenau 1984 22.31722214 Countess Margarita Maria-Helena zu Erbach-Fürstenau 1986 22.3172222 Countess Lukardis Elisabeth zu Erbach-Fürstenau 1953 2005 Countess Lukardis died in an accident at the Johann Wolfgang Goethe University in Frankfurt am Main. According to this report Countess Lukardis was travelling in a lift when he became stuck between the second and third floor and although advised by the building doorman to remain in the lift she attempted to leave it and fell down the elevator shaft and was killed. 22.3172223 Count Kraft Ulrich zu Erbach-Fürstenau 1962 1980 22.31723 Prince Ernst-August zu Solms-Braunfels 1892 1968 Princess Elisabeth Caroline zur Lippe 1916 2013 See 24.82111 22.31724 Prince Friedrich Eugen zu Solms-Braunfels 1893 1903 22.32 Duchess Luise of Württemberg 1789 1851 Prince Friedrich August of Hohenlohe-Oehringen (3 rd Prince zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen) 1784 1853 Friedrich August was the founder of the Hohenlohe-Oehringen line and abdicated in 1849 in favour of his son Friedrich Wilhelm Eugen Karl "Hugo".
Friedrich August was the son of Friedrich Ludwig Fürst zu Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen (1746-1818) who was also created Fürst zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen in 1805. Friedrich August's younger brother Adolf Karl (1797-1873) continued the princely line of Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen although it has died out. 22.321 Prince Friedrich of Hohenlohe-Oehringen 1812 1892 Baroness Mathilde von Breuning 1821 1896 Friedrich, renounced his rights as first-born son in 1842. Mathilde was created Baroness von Brauneck by the King of Württemberg 11 Mar 1843 22.322 Princess Friederike Mathilde of Hohenlohe-Oehringen 1814 1888 Prince Günther II Friedrich von Schwarzburg-Sondershausen 1801 1889 Günther II Friedrich was firstly married to Princess Marie von Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt (1809-1833) and their son is Prince Karl Günther of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen 22.323 Prince Friedrich Wilhelm Eugen Karl "Hugo" of Hohenlohe-Oehringen (4 th Prince zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen)(1 st Duke von Ujest) 1816 1897 Princess Pauline zu Fürstenberg 1829 1900 See 32.87 - Hugo was created Duke von Ujest on 18 October 1861.
It was reported in 1881 that the "Royal Prussian Heraldry Office" (1855-1920) in the first 25 years since its inception in 1855 had listed only one created one duke, i.e. the Duke von Ujest.
An account of the complicated house of Hohenlohe and its split into various lines.
Obituary of Hugo. 22.3231 Prince Christian Kraft zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen (5 th Prince zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen)(2 nd Duke von Ujest) 1848 1926 It was reported in 1922 that Christian Kraft was one of the richest individuals in Germany. 22.3232 Princess Marie zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen 1849 1929 Prince Heinrich XIX of Reuss 1848 1904 22.3233 Princess Luise zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen 1851 1920 Count Friedrich Ludwig von Frankenberg und Ludwigsdorff 1835 1897 22.3234 Prince August Karl zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen 1854 1884 22.3235 Prince Friedrich Karl zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen 1855 1910 Countess Marie von Hatzfeldt 1871 1932 Marie is a sister to Countess Helene von Hatzfeldt (married to Friedrich Karl's brother Prince Max Anton Karl zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen).
Marriage Registration of Prince Friedrich Karl and Countess Marie 22.3236 Prince Hans Heinrich zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen (6 th Prince zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen)(3 rd Duke von Ujest) 1858 1945 Princess Olga zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen 1862 1935 See 22.3243 22.32361 Prince Hugo Felix August zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen (7 th Prince zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen)(4 th Duke von Ujest) 1890 1962 Ursula von Zedlitz 1905 1988 Birth Registration of Ursula von Zealots 22.32361 Prince Hugo Felix August zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen (7 th Prince zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen)(4 th Duke von Ujest) 1890 1962 Valerie von Carstanjen 1908 1979 22.32361 Prince Hugo Felix August zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen (7 th Prince zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen)(4 th Duke von Ujest) 1890 1962 Erika Himmelein 1916 2000 22.323611 Princess Alexandra Olga Elsa zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen 1931 Egid Hilz 1932 22.323612 Prince Kraft Hans Konrad zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen (8 th Prince zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen)(5 th Duke von Ujest) 1933 2024 Katharina von Siemens 1938 2023 Katharina's father Peter von Siemens (1911-1986) who from 1971 to 1981 was Chairman of the Supervisory Board of Siemens AG. Peter von Siemens's great grandfather Werner von Siemens (1816-1892) was the founder of the Siemens company. For further reading of the Siemens family. 22.3236121 Princess Margarita zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen 1960 1989 Prince Karl-Emich of Leiningen 1952 See 39.212312 - Princess Margarita was killed in a car accident near Freising, Bavaria 22.3236122 Princess Christina Valerie zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen 1961 Jan-Gisbert Schultze 1961 22.3236123 Prince Kraft Constantin zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen (9 th Prince zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen)(6 th Duke von Ujest) 1966 Carolin von Wendorff 1975 22.323613 Princess Dorothea Elisabeth zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen 1935 2007 János Farkas 1942 22.323614 Princess Dagmar Maria zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen 1948 Rainer Hykes 1959 22.32362 Princess Alexandrine Marie zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen 1891 1959 22.32363 Princess Dorothea zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen 1892 1931 22.32364 Prince Kraft Friedrich zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen 1892 1965 Nina Chischina 1898 1965 Kraft Friedrich and his wife Nina died of wounds received in a car accident 22.3237 Prince Max Anton Karl zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen 1860 1922 Countess Helene von Hatzfeldt 1865 1901 Helene is a sister to Countess Marie von Hatzfeldt (married to Max Anton Karl's brother Prince Friedrich Karl zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen) 22.32371 Prince Waldemar Hugo zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen 1890 1965 Nina Chischine 1898 1965 22.32372 Prince Max Hugo zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen 1893 1951 Countess Marie-Gabriele von Faber-Castell 1900 1985 Marie-Gabriele was a daughter of Count Alexander Friedrich of Castell-Rüdenhausen (1866-1928) and Baroness Ottilie von Faber (of pencil fame) (who married on 28 February 1898). Alexander declared for himself and his descendants from this marriage the name and title of Count/ Countess von Faber-Castell. The company name of Faber was changed to Faber-Castell following this marriage.
Click Faber-Castell - A History for more information 22.32372 Prince Max Hugo zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen 1893 1951 Hella von Ramin 1883 1943 22.32372 Prince Max Hugo zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen 1893 1951 Marianne Diefenthal 1925 1977 22.3238 Prince Wilhelm zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen 1861 1861 22.3239 Prince Hugo Friedrich zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen 1864 1928 Helga Hager 1877 1951 22.323J Princess Margarethe zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen 1865 1940 Count Wilhelm von Hohenau 1854 1930 See 11.95 22.324 Prince Felix Eugen of Hohenlohe-Oehringen 1818 1900 Princess Alexandrine von Hanau (Countess von Schaumburg) 1830 1871 Alexandrine was a daughter of Elector Friedrich Wilhelm of Hesse-Cassel (1802 - 1875) who lost his throne when Hesse-Cassel was annexed to Prussia on 20 September 1866. Elector Friedrich Wilhelm was married morganatically to Gertrude Falkenstein (1803 - 1882) who was created Countess von Schaumburg in 1831 and Princess von Hanua and Horowitz in 1862. 22.3241 Princess Jadwiga Friederike of Hohenlohe-Oehringen 1857 1940 Count Franz-Erich Bentzel zu Sternau und Hohenau 1850 1922 22.3242 Prince Victor Hugo of Hohenlohe-Oehringen 1861 1939 Marie de Vassinhac d'Imécourt 1863 1924 22.3243 Princess Olga of Hohenlohe-Oehringen 1862 1935 Prince Hans Heinrich zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen (6 th Prince zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen)(3 rd Duke von Ujest) 1858 1945 See 22.3236 22.3244 Princess Paula Marie of Hohenlohe-Oehringen 1863 1874 22.3245 Princess Luise of Hohenlohe-Oehringen 1867 1945 Prince Albrecht of Waldeck and Pyrmont 1841 1897 Albrecht was a cousin to Prince George of Waldeck and Pyrmont, their respective fathers were brothers. 22.3245 Princess Luise of Hohenlohe-Oehringen 1867 1945 George Granville Hope-Johnstone 1880 195_ Birth Registration of George Granville Hope-Johnstone 22.3246 Prince Ferdinand Alexander of Hohenlohe-Oehringen 1871 1929 Elsa von Ondarza 1870 1960 Ferdinand Alexander, renounced his rights and took the title Freiherr von Gabelstein 31 Jul 1895.
An article reporting the tragic end to the life of Ferdinand Alexander 22.33 Duke Georg Ferdinand of Württemberg 1790 1795 22.34 Duke Heinrich of Württemberg 1792 1797 22.35 Duke Paul of Württemberg 1797 1860 Princess Maria Sophie of Thurn and Taxis 1800 1870 See 24.45 22.351 Duke Maximilian of Württemberg 1828 1888 Princess Hermine of Schaumburg-Lippe 1845 1930 See 43.11 22.4 Duchess Sophie of Württemberg 1759 1828 Emperor Paul of all the Russias 1754 1801 See 4 - Paul was murdered by a group of conspirators on 23 March 1801 in his bedroom in the St Michael Palace. The conspirators burst into his bedroom and tried to compel him to sign his abdication. He offered some resistance, and one of the assassins struck him with a sword and he was then strangled and trampled to death. Sophie took the name "Maria Feodorovna" on her marriage. 22.5 Duke Wilhelm of Württemberg 1761 1830 Baroness Wilhelmine von Thunerfelt-Rhodis 1777 1822 22.51 Count Alexander of Württemberg 1801 1844 Countess Helene Festetics von Tolna 1812 1886 22.511 Count Eberhard of Württemberg 1833 1896 A strange report regarding the disappearance of Eberhard and that his uncle Count Wilhelm of Württemberg (later 1st Duke of Urach) was implicated. 22.512 Countess Wilhelmine of Württemberg 1834 1910 22.513 Countess Pauline of Württemberg 1836 1911 Count Maximilian Adam von Wuthenau-Hohenthurm 1834 1912 ***** This need to be expanded in due course to point to a g grandaughter Monika von Plessen 27.242424 ***** 22.514 Count Karl Alexander of Württemberg 1839 1876 22.52 Count August of Württemberg 1805 1808 22.53 Count Wilhelm of Württemberg (1st Duke of Urach) 1810 1869 Princess Theodelinde de Beauharis (Duchess von Leuchtenberg) 1814 1857 See 18.25 - Wilhelm was created Duke von Urach on 28 May 1867, his issue bore the title Prince(ss) von Urach 22.53 Count Wilhelm of Württemberg (1st Duke of Urach) 1810 1869 Princess Florentine of Monaco 1833 1897 See 46.22 - Wilhelm was created Duke von Urach on 28 May 1867, his issue bore the title Prince(ss) von Urach 22.531 Princess Auguste von Urach 1842 1916 Count Parzifal von Enzenberg 1835 1874 22.531 Princess Auguste von Urach 1842 1916 Count Franz von Thun and Hohenstein 1826 1888 22.532 Princess Marie von Urach 1844 1864 22.533 Princess Eugenie von Urach 1848 1867 22.534 Princess Mathilde von Urach 1854 1907 Prince Paola Altieri di Viano 1849 1901 22.535 Duke Wilhelm von Urach (2nd Duke of Urach) 1864 1928 Duchess Amalie in Bavaria 1865 1912 See 18.K51 22.535 Duke Wilhelm von Urach (2nd Duke of Urach) 1864 1928 Princess Wiltrud Marie of Bavaria 1884 1975 See 18.151J - Wilhelm accepted an invitation to become the King of a newly independent Lithuania in July 1918 but German opposition meant he was thwarted in his ambitions. 22.5351 Princess Marie Gabriele von Urach 1893 1908 22.5352 Princess Elisabeth von Urach 1894 1962 Prince Karl of Liechtenstein 1878 1955 See 41.8 22.5353 Princess Karola von Urach 1896 1980 22.5354 Duke Wilhelm von Urach 1897 1957 Elisabeth Theurer 1899 1988 Wilhelm renounced the Ducal title and took the name Count von Württemberg 22.5355 Duke Karl von Urach 1899 1981 Countess Gabriele of Waldburg zu Zeil and Trauchburg 1910 2005 22.5356 Princess Margarethe von Urach 1901 1975 22.5357 Prince Albrecht von Urach 1903 1969 Rosemary Blackadder 1901 1975 Visitors may find the following article on Prince Albrecht of some interest 22.5357 Prince Albrecht von Urach 1903 1969 Ute Waldchmidt 1922 1984 22.5358 Prince Rupprecht-Eberhard von Urach 1907 1969 Princess Iniga of Thurn & Taxis 1925 2008 See 24.463442 22.53581 Princess Amelie Margit von Urach 1949 Curt-Hildebrand von Einsiedel 1944 22.535811 Alexander von Einsiedel 1976 22.535812 Elisabeth Helene von Einsiedel 1977 22.535813 Igiga von Einsiede 1979 22.535814 Sophie von Einsiedel 1980 22.535815 Theresa von Einsiedel 1984 Prince François of Orleans 1982 See 13.125474 22.535816 Victoria von Einsiedel 1986 22.535817 Valerie von Einsiedel 1986 22.535818 Felicitas von Einsiedel 1990 22.53582 Princess Elisabeth Maria von Urach 1952 2012 22.53583 Duke Karl Anselm von Urach 1955 Saskia Wüsthof 1968 Karl Anselm owns property in Scotland 22.53584 Prince Wilhelm Albert von Urach 1957 Karen von Brauchitsch 1959 22.53585 Prince Eberhard Friedrich von Urach 1962 Baroness Daniela von und zu Bodman 1963 22.5359 Princess Mechthilde von Urach 1912 2001 Prince Friedrich Karl III of Hohenlohe-Waldenburg-Schillingsfürst (8th Prince of Hohenlohe-Waldenburg-Schillingsfürst) 1908 1982 22.535921 Princess Antonia Maria of Hohenlohe-Waldenburg-Schillingsfürst 1961 Eberhard von Alten 1954 22.535923 Prince Franz Nikolaus of Hohenlohe-Waldenburg-Schillingsfürst 1965 Vera Bülow 1969 22.535924 Prince Maximilian Michael of Hohenlohe-Waldenburg-Schillingsfürst 1967 Jutta Mössner 1967 22.53593 Princess Amélie Elisabeth of Hohenlohe-Waldenburg-Schillingsfürst 1936 1985 Count Clemens von Matuschka 1928 22.53594 Princess Therese Maria of Hohenlohe-Waldenburg-Schillingsfürst 1938 Count Joseph Hubert von Neipperg 1918 2020 Joseph Hubert is a great great grandson of Count Adam Adalbert von Neipperg (1775-1829) and his first wife Countess Theresia von Pola..
Joseph Hubert's son from his first marriage in 1950 to Countess Marie Franziska von Ledebur-Wicheln (1920-1984) is Karl-Eugen (1951- ) who is married to Archduchess Andrea of Austria 22.53595 Princess Hilda Carola of Hohenlohe-Waldenburg-Schillingsfürst 1943 Prince Joseph von Croÿ 1941 22.536 Prince Karl Josef von Urach 1865 1925 22.54 Count August of Württemberg 1811 1812 22.55 Count Konstantin of Württemberg 1814 1824 22.56 Countess Marie of Württemberg 1815 1866 Count Wilhelm von Taubenheim 1805 1894 22.6 Duke Ferdinand of Württemberg 1763 1834 Princess Albertine von Schwarzburg-Sondershausen 1771 1829 22.6 Duke Ferdinand of Württemberg 1763 1834 Princess Pauline von Metternich-Winneburg 1771 1855 22.7 Duchess Friederike of Württemberg 1765 1785 Duke Peter I of Oldenburg 1755 1829 See 31 - Peter succeeded his cousin Wilhelm (1754 - 1823) as Duke of Oldenburg. Wilhelm's father Friedrich August (1711-1785) was Duke of Holstein-Gottorp and was ceded Oldenburg on 14 December 1773 by his cousin Paul (later Emperor Paul I of all the Russias). Oldenburg was elevated from a County to a Duchy in 29 December 1774 (publicly announced on 22 March 1777) with further elevation to a Grand Duchy on 9 June 1815. However the title of Grand Duke was not used until the accession of Duke Peter's son August in 1829 22.8 Duchess Elizabeth of Württemberg 1767 1790 Emperor Franz I of Austria 1768 1835 See 19 - Franz assumed the title of Emperor of Austria on 11 August 1804 and on 6 August 1806 became the last Holy Roman Emperor on its dissolution.
Emperor Franz was married four times:
First - Duchess Elizabeth of Württemberg
Second - Princess Maria Teresa of Bourbon-Two Sicilies
Third - Archduchess Maria Ludowika of Austria-Este (Modena)
Fourth - Princess Charlotte "Karoline" Augustes of Bavaria
22.9 Duchess Willemena of Württemberg 1768 1768 22.J Duke Karl Friedrich of Württemberg 1770 1791 22.K Duke Alexander of Württemberg 1771 1833 Princess Antoinette of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld 1779 1824 See 28.2 22.K1 Duchess Marie of Württemberg 1799 1860 Duke Ernst I of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha 1784 1844 See 28.4 - The uncle of Ernst's first wife Luise's was the last duke of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg who died in 1826 which resulted in a rearrangement of the Saxony Duchies.
Ernst was in the process of divorcing Luise at the time and negotiations were set in train for him to receive Gotha although the other branches objected to this. A compromise was reached with Ernst receiving Gotha and ceding Saalfeld to Saxe-Meiningen.
A report on the death of Duke Ernst. 22.K2 Duke Konstantine of Württemberg 1800 1802 22.K3 Duke Alexander of Württemberg 1804 1881 Princess Marie of Orleans 1813 1839 See 13.3 22.K3 Duke Alexander of Württemberg 1804 1881 Princess Katharina Amalie Pfennigkäufer 1829 1915 Katharina Amalie's surname was later changed to Meyernberg 22.K31 Duke Philipp of Württemberg 1838 1917 Archduchess Marie of Austria (Teschen Line) 1845 1927 See 44.21 22.K311 Duke Albrecht of Württemberg 1865 1939 Archduchess Margarete Sophie of Austria 1870 1902 See 19.J34 22.K3111 Duke Philipp-Albrecht of Württemberg 1893 1975 Archduchess Helena of Austria (Tuscany Line) 1903 1924 See 20.3552 - Helena died a week after giving birth to her daughter Marie Christine. Following Archduchess Helena's death, Duke Philipp-Albrecht married secondly her sister Archduchess Rosa of Austria (Tuscany Line) 22.K3111 Duke Philipp-Albrecht of Württemberg 1893 1975 Archduchess Rosa of Austria (Tuscany Line) 1906 1983 See 20.3554 - Duke Philipp-Albrecht married firstly Archduchess Helena of Austria (Tuscany Line) a sister of Archduchess Rosa 22.K31111 Duchess Marie Christine of Württemberg 1924 Prince Georg of Liechtenstein 1911 1998 See 41.34 22.K31112 Duchess Helene of Württemberg 1929 2021 Marquess Federico von Pallavicini 1924 22.K31113 Duke Ludwig of Württemberg 1930 2019 Baroness Adelheid von Bodman 1938 Ludwig renounced his rights of succession on 29 January 1959 for himself and his descendants because his marriage to Adelheid von Bodman was not equal. 22.K31113 Duke Ludwig of Württemberg 1930 2019 Angelika Kiessig 1942 Ludwig renounced his rights of succession on 29 January 1959 for himself and his descendants because his marriage to his first wife Adelheid von Bodman was not equal. Neither was his second marriage to Angelika Kiessig equal. 22.K31114 Duchess Elisabeth of Württemberg 1933 2022 Prince Antoine of Bourbon-Two Sicilies 1929 2019 See 37.554L1 22.K31115 Duchess Marie Theresa of Württemberg 1934 Prince Henri of Orleans (Count of Paris) 1933 2019 See 13.12542 - Marie Theresa was granted the title Duchess of Montpensier by her father in law the Count of Paris on 27 February 1984 shortly after her divorce from Henri. 22.K31116 Duke Carl of Württemberg 1936 2022 Princess Diane of Orleans 1940 See 13.12546 22.K311161 Hereditary Duke Friedrich of Württemberg 1961 2018 Princess Wilhelmine Marie of Wied 1973 See 33.821222 - Hereditary Duke Friedrich died as a result of a car accident 22.K3111611 Duke Wilhelm of Württemberg 1994 Wilhelm is the present Head of the Royal House of Wurttemberg 22.K3111612 Duchess Marie-Amélie of Württemberg 1996 22.K3111613 Duchess Sophie-Dorothee of Württemberg 1997 22.K311162 Duchess Mathilde of Württemberg 1962 Prince Erich von Waldburg zu Zeil and Trauchburg (8th Prince of Waldburg zu Zeil and Trauchburg) 1962 See 28.1225414 22.K311163 Duke Eberhard of Württemberg 1963 Lucia Desiree Copf 1969 22.K311164 Duke Phillip Albrecht of Württemberg 1964 Princess Marie Caroline of Bavaria (and Duchess in Bavaria) 1969 See 18.1511342 22.K3111641 Duchess Sophie of Württemberg 1994 Maximilien d'Andigné ? 22.K3111642 Duchess Pauline of Württemberg 1997 22.K3111643 Duke Carl of Württemberg 1999 22.K3111644 Duchess Anna of Württemberg 2007 22.K311165 Duke Michael Heinrich of Württemberg 1965 Julia Storz 1965 22.K311166 Duchess Eleonore "Fleur" of Württemberg 1977 Count Moritz von Goëss 1966 See 44.321453 22.K31117 Duchess Marie Antoinette of Württemberg 1937 2004 22.K3112 Duke Albrecht Eugen of Württemberg 1895 1954 Princess Nadejda of Bulgaria 1899 1958 See 17.4 - An announcement on the betrothal of Nadejda to Albrecht Eugen, although the date of the announcement is some four months after their marriage on 24 January 1924. 22.K31121 Duke Ferdinand of Württemberg 1925 2020 22.K31122 Duchess Margarethe Louise of Württemberg 1928 2017 Viscount Francois Luce-Bailly de Chevigny 1923 2022 Duchess Margarethe has a son Patrick de La Lanne-Mirrlees (born 1962) from a long time relationship with Robin Ian Evelyn Grinnell-Milne (1925-2012)
A detailed article on Patrick de La Lanne-Mirrlees being disinherited by his father Robin Ian Evelyn Grinnell-Milne. 22.K31123 Duke Eugen Eberhard of Württemberg 1930 2022 Archduchess Alexandra of Austria (Tuscany Line) 1935 See 20.38273 22.K31124 Duke Alexander Eugen of Württemberg 1933 2024 22.K31125 Duchess Sophie of Württemberg 1937 Antonio de Ramos-Bandeira 1937 1987 22.K3113 Duke Carl Alexander of Württemberg 1896 1964 Carl became a Benedictine monk and was ordained as a priest in 1926 as Father Odo. In late 1940 he had to strenuously deny that he was in the United States of America as a peace emissary of Adolf Hitler.
An interesting Guardian article on Wallis Simpson, the Nazi minister, the telltale monk (this being Father Odo) and an FBI plot.
Some interesting facets on Father Odo, the priest who didnt back down in the face of Hitler. 22.K3114 Duchess Marie-Amelia of Württemberg 1897 1923 22.K3115 Duchess Marie-Theresia of Württemberg 1898 1928 22.K3116 Duchess Maria Elisabeth of Württemberg 1899 1900 22.K3117 Duchess Margarethe of Württemberg 1902 1945 22.K312 Duchess Marie Amalie of Württemberg 1865 1883 22.K313 Duchess Marie Isabell of Württemberg 1871 1904 Prince Johann Georg of Saxony 1869 1938 See 26.6656 22.K314 Duke Robert of Württemberg 1873 1947 Archduchess Maria Immakulata of Austria (Tuscany Line) 1878 1968 See 20.387 22.K315 Duke Ulrich Maria of Württemberg 1877 1944 22.K4 Duke Ernst of Württemberg 1807 1868 Natalie Eischborn 1829 1905 Natalie was created Countess von Grunhof on 21 August 1860 22.K5 Duke Friedrich of Württemberg 1810 1815 22.L Duke Heinrich of Württemberg 1772 1833 Karoline Alexei 1799 1853 Karoline was created Baroness von Hochberg und Rottenburg in September 1807, and Countess von Urach 13 November 1825 22.L1 Baroness Luise von Hochberg und Rottenburg 1799 ? 22.L2 Baroness Henriette von Hochberg und Rottenburg 1801 ? 22.L3 Baroness Marie von Hochberg und Rottenburg 1802 1882 Prince Karl-Ludwig zu Hohenlohe-Kirchberg 1780 1861 Marie was created Countess von Urach 16 Jan 1821.
Hohenlohe-Kirchberg was partitioned from the County of Hohenlohe-Langenburg in 1701 and was raised from a County to a Principality in 1764. The death of Karl-Ludwig in 1861 brought an end to the Princely line of Hohenlohe-Kirchberg. 22.L4 Baroness Alexandrine von Hochberg und Rottenburg 1803 1884 Count Karl von Arpeau und Gallatin 1802 1877 Alexandrine was created Countess von Urach 13 Nov 1825
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The Guild of Smiths’ cup
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Made for the Guild of Smiths; on the stem are smiths at work.
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The British Museum
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http://wb.britishmuseum.org/MCN2386
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Text from Tait 1988:-
Origin: Augsburg; dated 1690; mark of Marx Weinold (master c.1665, died 1700).
Marks:
(i) Assay mark for Augsburg, 1685-1700 (probably R3 186), or Seling 142(168g).
(ii) The initials MW within an oval: the punch-mark of Marx Weinold (R3 726; Seling 1671).
The two marks occur on the foot, stem, bowl and 'cover'.
Provenance: Baron Anselm von Rothschild, Vienna, before 1866.
Commentary: The maker's mark has been identified in Seling 1980 as the punch-mark of the Augsburg goldsmith Marx Weinold, who is recorded in 1665 as marrying Anna Warnberger and is, therefore, presumed to have become a master shortly before that date. He continued his career in Augsburg and was married again in 1680 and in 1691; he died in 1700. In Rosenberg I, 1922, this punch-mark had been attributed to “Mattheus oder Markus Wolff” (died 1716), but that identification has been superseded.
Marx Weinold has created a most impressive standing-cup in the latest taste and of the finest quality. The Baroque style has been most successfully assimilated into the traditional form of tall standing-cup, so popular among the guilds not only in Germany and Switzerland but also in England. This 1690 three smiths cup was published as a piece of plate belonging to the Augsburg Guild of Smiths (in Karl Gröber, ‘Alte deutsche Zunftherrlichkeil’ Munich, 1936, p. 81, fig. 84), and its spectacular sculptural quality is exactly what was required of plate that was intended for display on ceremonial occasions. It was probably intended to be seen from a distance on a sideboard or buffet during a Guild banquet or, possibly, on the High Table in front of the Master as a glittering ornament. The undulating and embossed surfaces of this parcel-gilt cup would, indeed, look well in the candlelight of those social occasions. The sinuous, curving form of the shell had become extremely popular in the second half of the seventeenth century, and on this standing-cup it has been effectively combined with the leafy-scroll Baroque ornament.
A slightly earlier example of this new and very distinctive form by the Augsburg goldsmith Philipp Küsel is in Schloss Weissenstein, Pommersfelden (see Seling 1980, p. 277, pl. 410, where it is dated “um 1675-79”). The introduction of a single figure into the stem of these tall German standing-cups (see Hans Petzolt's tall Bacchus standing-cup and cover in the Waddesdon Bequest, WB.103) was frequently attempted by goldsmiths throughout the late sixteenth and most of the seventeenth centuries, but often with far less harmony and success than in Marx Weinold's complex design of 1690 for the three smiths cup, where the figures are each characterised and modelled with skill and ingenuity. Few, if any, strict parallels can be cited, though one similarly ambitious attempt to create a stem composed of several sculptural figures has been recorded: it is a ewer (with basin en suite), executed in the Augsburg workshop of the Jäger family, and presented by Charles II, King of England, to his godson Charles Clifford and mentioned in a letter dated 4 July 1670. It was lent by Lord Clifford of Chudleigh to the ‘Age of Charles II’ exhibition, Royal Academy, London, 1960 (no. 380, with illus.; see also Seling 1980, p. 261, pls 270-1, where it is dated “um 1660-70”).
The Jäger ewer, 48 cm high, has a stem depicting the violent movement of a soldier seizing with one hand the child from its kneeling mother while holding his sword poised in the other hand. The vigorous three-dimensional Baroque quality of this figure group is brilliantly integrated into the overall design of the ewer, the cover of which is surmounted by another free-standing figure - just as on Marx Weinold's almost contemporary cup, where at the apex the fourth smith dominates the scene. Marx Weinold's asymmetrical design of the three smiths cup has achieved a sophisticated balance which gives it a commanding presence, so necessary for a display item of plate belonging to a guild.
Bibliography
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https://dokumen.pub/gilgamesh-among-us-modern-encounters-with-the-ancient-epic-9780801463419.html
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Gilgamesh among Us: Modern Encounters with the Ancient Epic 9780801463419
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The world's oldest work of literature, the Epic of Gilgamesh recounts the adventures of the semimythical Sumerian k...
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dokumen.pub
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https://dokumen.pub/gilgamesh-among-us-modern-encounters-with-the-ancient-epic-9780801463419.html
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Table of contents :
Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
Introduction
1. The Initial Reception (1884–1935)
2. Representative Beginnings (1941–1958)
3. The Popularization of Gilgamesh (1959–1978)
4. The Contemporization of Gilgamesh (1979–1999)
5. Gilgamesh in the Twenty-First Century (2000–2009)
Conclusion
Chronology
Notes
Index
Citation preview
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https://www.academia.edu/116685871/The_Rothschild_House_The_Owners_of_the_World
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The Rothschild House - The Owners of the World
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http://a.academia-assets.com/images/open-graph-icons/fb-paper.gif
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[] |
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[
""
] | null |
[
"Alexandre A . C . Fonseca",
"cesnafaculdadearnaldo.academia.edu"
] |
2024-03-25T00:00:00
|
An analysis of the most powerful family in the world. The family history lineage until the life of Mayer Amschel Rothschild, the leader of the Rothschild Dynasty in the world. A brief history of his power, especially in Europe. Your family tree, your
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https://www.academia.edu/116685871/The_Rothschild_House_The_Owners_of_the_World
|
Dr. John Coleman, author of The Committee of 300, tells how Mayer Amschel, the founder of the"Red Shield"dynasty acquired his first fortune. It is a far cry from the myths and legends that still surround the man who began as a rag and bone merchant and pawnbroker, working out of a small house on Judenstrasse, Frankfurt on the Main, Germany, where he lived with his wife and family. The events attributed to history are often caused by a "hidden hand" pulling the strings of kings, princes and potentates from behind the scenes. The phenomena is explained and the legends that have grown up around the Rothschilds are demolished by this book that also reveals the Rothschild's intriguing that brought down men like Napoleon and Tsar Alexander II of Russia. Legends has it that Mayer Amschel Rothschild's "genius and financial skills" were inherited by his sons, but the truth is quite a different story, as Dr. Coleman makes very clear in this well documented account that goes far beyond the best known legends cloaking the true character of the family. Exactly how Mayer Amschel Rothschild "stuck it lucky" and the steps he took that brought the family from obscurity to "virtual rulers of all Europe," makes fascinating reading. This outstanding book is not only about the past, it is also about the present and the future. It will help to explain many of the events that perplex the ordinary people like the war in Iraq and the war threats against Iran.
Banking,” the 3rd Lord Rothschild once remarked, “consists essentially of facilitating the movement of money from Point A, where it is, to Point B, where it is needed.” There is a certain elementary truth in this aperçu, even if it did reflect Victor Rothschild’s personal lack of enthusiasm for finance. But if the history of the firm founded by his great-great-grandfather two centuries ago consisted of nothing more than getting money from A to B, it would make dull reading. It should not.
A book that will take us to truly know this famous pyramid made up of people from times past who have carried and maintained their lineage to the present day to maintain power in the world through the political, social and economic system. The Illuminati, the famous extremely powerful elite who own all the world's banks, organizations, governments and monarchies, are the ones who really manage every detail within the entire world organizational structure starting from the tip of the pyramid at the top. which one is satan in the lead. The Illuminati are generational satanic bloodlines that have obtained the greatest power through the manipulation of the entire world system and of which each of them are the true "elite of Satan".
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https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Wilhelm_Karl%252C_Duke_of_Urach
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en
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Wilhelm Karl, Duke of Urach
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[
"https://wikiwandv2-19431.kxcdn.com/_next/image?url=https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/12/WilhelofUrach.jpg/640px-WilhelofUrach.jpg&w=640&q=50",
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[
""
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[] | null |
Prince Wilhelm of Urach, Count of Württemberg, 2nd Duke of Urach, was a German prince who was elected in June 1918 as King of Lithuania, with the regnal name of Mindaugas II. He never assumed the crown, however, as German authorities declared the election invalid; the invitation was withdrawn in November 1918. From 17 July 1869 until his death, he was the head of the morganatic Urach branch of the House of Württemberg.
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en
|
Wikiwand
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https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Wilhelm_Karl%2C_Duke_of_Urach
|
Prince Wilhelm of Urach, Count of Württemberg, 2nd Duke of Urach (Wilhelm Karl Florestan Gero Crescentius; German: Fürst Wilhelm von Urach, Graf von Württemberg, 2. Herzog von Urach; 3 March 1864 – 24 March 1928), was a German prince who was elected in June 1918 as King of Lithuania, with the regnal name of Mindaugas II. He never assumed the crown, however, as German authorities declared the election invalid;[1] the invitation was withdrawn in November 1918. From 17 July 1869 until his death, he was the head of the morganatic Urach branch of the House of Württemberg.
Quick Facts Prince Wilhelm Karl Mindaugas II, Duke of Urach ...
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https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-4652002/Native-Germans-minority-Germany.html
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Native Germans are now a minority in Frankfurt
|
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[
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"Germany"
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[
"Stewart Paterson",
"Stewart Paterson For Mailonline",
"www.facebook.com"
] |
2017-06-29T19:24:01+01:00
|
The figures show 51.2 per cent of people living in Frankfurt are either non-German, German citizens born abroad or Germans who are the children of immigrants.
|
/favicon.ico?v=2
|
Mail Online
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https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-4652002/Native-Germans-minority-Germany.html
|
More than half of residents living in the German city of Frankfurt have a migrant background, according to new statistics.
Figures show 51.2 per cent of people living there are either non-German, German citizens born abroad or Germans who are the children of immigrants.
The city's secretary of integration Sylvia Weber said: 'We have minorities with relatively large numbers in Frankfurt but no group with a clear majority.'
Turkish migrants are the largest non-German minority that are settled in Frankfurt, accounting for 13 per cent of the population.
A further 61 per cent of residents who were born abroad have come from other countries within the European Union.
The vast majority of immigrants had a legal and 'consolidated' status of residency.
The statistics were revealed in a 200-page document titled 'Frankfurt Integration and Diversity Monitoring'.
The report was designed to provide a grounding for the city to better respond to inequalities in areas like employment, education and housing.
'The trend is clear. We are a city without a majority,' added Ms Weber.
The report also shows disparities between immigrants and German - with 49 per cent of non-Germans falling below the poverty line, compared to just 23 per cent of original native citizens.
Immigrants are also less likely to be in work, with just 73 per cent of non-German men and 59 per cent of non-German women being in employment.
The data shows that 83 per cent of native German men are in work - as are 78 per cent of native German women.
It comes after a book published last year predicted that native Germans would soon be reduced to a minority in Frankfurst, Augsburg and Stuttgart.
The German cities would join others throughout Europe that have already seen immigrant numbers overtake natives, including Amsterdam, Brussels, Geneva and London.
The book, titled Super-Diverstiy: A New Perspective on Integration, criticised politicians' calls for migrants to inegrate.
The authors criticised politicians' calls for migrants to innegrate, arguing: 'In practice the result of these calls to assimilate is that an increasing number of citizens with a migrant background feels excluded and unwelcome.'
|
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https://prezi.com/y_kncsbirm0s/famous-people-in-frankfurt-germany/
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en
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Famous people in Frankfurt Germany
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1. As an emerging adult, what are the things about your hometown that would make you decide to return after college? 2. As an emerging adult, what are the things about your hometown that would make you decide NOT to return after college? 3. Can you identify community issues that
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8320
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dbpedia
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0
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https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Karl_Anselm%252C_4th_Prince_of_Thurn_and_Taxis
|
en
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Karl Anselm, 4th Prince of Thurn and Taxis
|
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Karl Anselm, 4th Prince of Thurn and Taxis, full German name: Karl Anselm Fürst von Thurn und Taxis was the fourth Prince of Thurn and Taxis, Postmaster General of the Imperial Reichspost, and Head of the Princely House of Thurn and Taxis from 17 March 1773 until his death on 13 November 1805. Karl Anselm served as Prinzipalkommissar at the Perpetual Imperial Diet in Regensburg for Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor and Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor from 1773 to 1797.
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Wikiwand
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https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Karl_Anselm%2C_4th_Prince_of_Thurn_and_Taxis
|
You can help expand this article with text translated from the corresponding article in German. (November 2009) Click [show] for important translation instructions.
View a machine-translated version of the German article.
Machine translation, like DeepL or Google Translate, is a useful starting point for translations, but translators must revise errors as necessary and confirm that the translation is accurate, rather than simply copy-pasting machine-translated text into the English Wikipedia.
Do not translate text that appears unreliable or low-quality. If possible, verify the text with references provided in the foreign-language article.
You must provide copyright attribution in the edit summary accompanying your translation by providing an interlanguage link to the source of your translation. A model attribution edit summary is Content in this edit is translated from the existing German Wikipedia article at [[:de:Karl Anselm (Thurn und Taxis)]]; see its history for attribution.
You may also add the template {{Translated|de|Karl Anselm (Thurn und Taxis)}} to the talk page.
For more guidance, see Wikipedia:Translation.
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https://www.imdb.com/list/ls072484830/
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Birthdays: May 28
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Anne was born in Newcastle Upon Tyne but the family moved to Redcar when the WWII started. She was educated at White House School where she acted in a school play of Romeo and Juliet with June Laverick, who when older would also take to the stage. When Anne got older she was sent to a boarding school, Penrose College, in North Wales and at 11 was in a choir. Her father became a special correspondent for the Daily Telegraph following in the footsteps of her grandfather, an uncle and 3 brothers who were all journalists. Anne took elocution lessons and did bits in plays with a teacher who recognising her talent helped her to get into RADA after which she worked as as a stage manager and some work in repertory. Her first work in television involved sketches with Benny Hill but gave up acting in 1974 before returning in 1986 eventually making her name in the part of Valerie Barlow in the television soap Coronation Street.
Bojana Maljevic (1974) is an actress, producer, writer, University Professor, and co-founder of the production company Monte Royal Pictures International. She graduated acting at the Faculty of Dramatic Arts (University of Belgrade), and at the same University completing her PhD research studies on the management of the media (Risks In Film Industry). She starred in numerous television series and in more than 20 films: "Boulevard of Revolution," "Rage", "Knife," "In the Middle of Nowhere," "On the Beautiful Blue Danube", "So Hot Was the Cannon" and others. For major roles, she won numerous awards at national film festivals. She produced the film "Rage," "Sisters", "Gram. Kilogram. Ton", as well as the continuation of the cult TV series "Open Doors", which entered the history of television for gathering the same actor / author team, after nearly two decades after, with 36 new episodes - which is a benchmark in our industry. Bojana produced TV drama mini-series "The Mould" and long TV drama/mystery called "The Debt of The Sea" (34 episodes). Now she is preparing new seasons of these TV series. She won the recognition of the United Nations (UNODC - United Nations Office on Drugs and Organized Crime), for the film "Sisters" and humane campaign "Blue Heart", which is implemented in Serbia and the region, and whose theme is a human trafficking. She is increasingly engaged in writing scripts for drama series and films, combined with mystical, magical and other elements. Bojana lives in Belgrade, Serbia, plays mostly in Belgrade theaters. She is the mother of two sons.
Cameron Boyce was an American actor, with Afro-Caribbean and African-American descent. His paternal grandmother Jo Ann Allen was one of the "Clinton Twelve", the first African-Americans to attend an integrated high school in the Southern United States (specifically in Clinton, Tennessee).
In 1999, Boyce was born in Los Angeles, California. He was trained as a dancer from an early age. In 2008, he made his debut in the music video "That Green Gentleman (Things Have Changed)" by the band "Panic! at the Disco". He was playing a child version of guitarist Ryan Ross. Also in 2008, Boyce gained a recurring role in the short-lived soap opera "General Hospital: Night Shift" (2007-2008).
Boyce's first appearance in a feature film was in the horror film "Mirrors" (2008), playing the role of Michael "Mikey" Carson (the son of the film 's protagonist). His second film appearance was in the spy film "Eagle Eye" (2008), playing the role of Sam Holloman. His next prominent film role was in the comedy film "Grown Ups" (2010), again playing the son of the film's protagonist.
Boyce showcased his dancing skills in the web series "The Legion of Extraordinary Dancers" (2010-2011). In 2011, Boyce appeared as a featured dancer in a "Dancing with the Stars" special and in the television sitcom "Shake It Up" (2010-2013). He made a guest appearance in the sitcom "Good Luck Charlie" (2010-2014), playing an impostor version of regular character Gabe Duncan.
Boyce next gained the co-starring role of Luke Ross in the sitcom "Jessie" (2011-2015). The premise of the series was that celebrity couple Morgan and Christina Ross had no free time to spend with their four children, so they hired aspiring actress Jessie Prescott (played by Debby Ryan) as a full-time nanny and surrogate mother to the kids. Luke was the second oldest child, who viewed Jessie as a love interest. The series was a ratings hit for Disney Channel. It lasted for 4 seasons, and a total of 98 episodes.
Carroll Baker was born on May 28, 1931 in Johnstown, Pennsylvania, the daughter of a traveling salesman, William W. Baker. She attended community college for a year and then worked as a dancer and magician's assistant. After a brief marriage, she had a small part in Du bist so leicht zu lieben (1953), did TV commercials, and had a bit part on Broadway. She studied at the Actors Studio and was married to director Jack Garfein (one daughter, Blanche Baker). Warner Brothers, sensing a future Marilyn Monroe, cast her in Giganten (1956), Baby Doll - Begehre nicht des anderen Weib (1956) (Oscar nomination for her thumb-sucking role), Die Unersättlichen (1964) and Die Welt der Jean Harlow (1965) (title role). Moving to Italy, she made films there and in England, Germany, Mexico and Spain . After returning to American films, she married Donald Burton in 1982 and resided in Hampstead, London in the 1980s. They remained together until Burton's death from emphysema in their home in Cathedral City, California in 2007.
Chiquito was born as Gregorio Sánchez Fernández in Málaga en 1932, starting to job as dancer at 8 years old in several flamenco venues with important singers of the time, working in the chorus line along several decades. He was nicknamed as Chiquito ("little boy") by the early age that he started to work, fulfilling after he born in the street of Calzada de la Trinidad in the neighborhood of La Trinidad, hence his artistic name as Chiquito de la Calzada. His reputation as flamenco dancer caused that Chiquito moved along Spain acting in several theaters, and even he lived two years in Japan in the middle 80's, where he traveled to teach dance flamenco to the Japanese. In 1950 he married Josefa "Pepita" García Gómez, who was his long-time love.
In the early 90's, with 62 years old and after 54 years as flamenco dancer, Chiquito was discovered by the great audience appearing in the TV show Genio y figura (1994), a contest with a brand new stand up comedians where he excelled by his particular and special sense of humor. His surrealistic way to tell a joke caused an incredible quick fame along the country due to words and expressions what eventually were turned in language of popular culture, being one of the most famous and dearest humorists in the 90's in Spain. After the cancellation of the TV-show the next year, he continued appearing in different movies and other TV shows throughout the years, using the same style in his performances. With time Chiquito would be recognized as one of the greatest humorists of all time, winning love and affection of all Spanish. He retired from the scene in 2012 after the pass away of Pepita, missing from the public eye and making very little appearances or interviews.
He died on November 11, 2017 in the hospital of Málaga by heart complications after a fall happened in his home, caused by an angina pectoris. He was incinerated, at the same that Pepita, and their ashes rest together in the columbarium of the Saint Paul's church of Malaga.
Christa Miller was introduced to the entertainment world at a very young age. As a toddler, she was photographed by the acclaimed Francesco Scavullo for an Ivory Snow ad with her mother, and, at the age of three, appeared on the cover of "Redbook". Miller was bitten by the acting bug as a child, but couldn't pursue her passion because her parents had other plans for her. Her father hoped she'd have a law career, while her mother, a 1960s supermodel, knew all too well how tough a career in entertainment could be. Despite her parents' concern and her rigorous studies at the Convent of the Sacred Heart, she pursued a modeling career. She appeared in national magazines while working steadily in Europe and Japan. She landed her first commercial (for Polaroid) at age 16. Her first prime-time television role was on Kate & Allie (1984), a part she auditioned for and landed without the help of her aunt, series co-star Susan Saint James. Upon moving to Los Angeles in 1990, Miller won a guest role in an episode of Ausgerechnet Alaska (1990). Other television credits include guest roles on Seinfeld (1989), Party of Five (1994) and Der Prinz von Bel-Air (1990). Her film credits include Getäuscht (1991) and Love and Happiness (1995). She also starred with Kellie Martin in the acclaimed made-for-television movie Tod eines Cheerleaders (1994).
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Czech branch of the House of Thurn and Taxis
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czech_branch_of_the_House_of_Thurn_and_Taxis
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The Czech branch of the House of Thurn and Taxis (German: Thurn und Taxis) is a dynastic cadet branch of the Princely House of Thurn and Taxis, a German noble family that was a key player in the postal services in Europe in the 16th century and became well known as the owner of breweries and builder of many castles.
Descendants of the House of Thurn und Taxis in Bohemia, a family that played an important role in Czech national culture and local history for 140 years, are today dispersed around the world.
Foundation
[edit]
The Czech branch of the House of Thurn und Taxis was founded in 1808 by Prince Maximilian Joseph von Thurn und Taxis, the youngest child of Alexander Ferdinand, 3rd Prince of Thurn and Taxis (1704–1773), a founder of a dynastic order of knighthood and a house order of chivalry in the Princely House of Thurn and Taxis, The Order of Parfaite Amitié, and his third wife Princess Maria Henriette von Fürstenberg (1732–1772).
Maximilian Joseph von Thurn und Taxis
[edit]
Prince Maximilian Joseph von Thurn und Taxis (Regensburg, 29 May 1769 – Prague, 15 May 1831) married Princess Eleonore von Lobkowicz (Prague, 22 April 1770 – Lautschin, 9 November 1834), in 1791. She belonged to a Czech noble family whose origin can be traced back to Mares Martin z Ujezda (1376–90).[1] In 1808, he inherited Lautschin (Loučeň in Czech) and Dobrovice castles from his cousin Princess Maria Josefa von Fürstenberg (1756-1809), and in 1820 permanently settled in Bohemia.[2] Besides Lautschin and other rural estates, the family also owned real estate in Prague that included two palaces: one in the city's uptown (V jámě 635–636, no longer exists) and one in the old town (Vrtbovský Palace in Malá Strana, purchased in 1814).[3]
Maximilian and Eleonore had six sons:[4]
Karl Anselm von Thurn und Taxis (1792–1844), the firstborn (not to be confused with his uncle Karl Anselm, 4th Prince of Thurn and Taxis of Regensburg, heir to the senior line of the House of Thurn und Taxis)[2]
August Maria Maximilian von Thurn und Taxis (1794–1862)
Joseph von Thurn und Taxis (1796–1857)
Karl Theodor von Thurn und Taxis (1797–1868)
Friedrich Hannibal Thurn and Taxis (1799–1857)
Wilhelm Karl von Thurn und Taxis (1801–1848)
Karl Anselm von Thurn und Taxis
[edit]
In 1815, Prince Karl Anselm von Thurn und Taxis (Prague, 18 June 1792 – Teplitz, 25 August 1844) married Countess Marie Isabelle von und zu Eltz genannt Faust von Stromberg (Dresden, 10 February 1795 – Prague, 12 March 1859). They had six children:[5]
Marie Sophie (1816-1897) ⚭ Count Giovanni Batista von Montfort (1804-1878)
Hugo (1817–1889), heir to the family estate
Eleonore (1818-1898)
Emmerich (1820–1900), general and Knight in the Order of the Golden Fleece ⚭ Countess Lucie Capello von Wickeburg (1832-1851)
Marie Theresa (1824-1889) ⚭ Count Edmund von Belcredi (d. 1896)
Rudolf (1833–1904), who became Baron von Troskow.[6]
Prince Rudolf von Thurn und Taxis, later known as Rudolf, Baron von Troskow (Prague, 25 November 1833 – Velehrad, 4 July 1904), was married in 1857 to Jenny Ständler (Prague, 9 April 1830 – Graz, 28 September 1914). They had several children.
Rudolf was an intellectual who loved Czech music and literature and was an avid patron of the arts. He studied law and in 1861 founded Právník ("The Lawyer"), the first Czech language law journal. Aided by writer and historian Karel Jaromír Erben, he also contributed vocabulary to Czech legal terminology.
He was sincerely devoted to the Czech national cause and was one of its important players: among others, he was the publisher of Boleslavan ("Boleslav's Magazine"), a Czech language weekly dedicated to the cause, and became the first chairman of the famous Czech choir Hlahol. He was also a member of the Committee for the Establishment of the Czech National Theatre (1861) and one of the founders of Czech arts society Umělecká beseda in Prague (1863). He supported Czech writers Božena Němcová, Vítězslav Hálek, and Karolina Světlá, and promoted Czech composers Antonín Dvořák and Bedřich Smetana. The latter composed the opera Braniboři v Čechách ("The Brandenburgers in Bohemia") at Rudolf's estate in Niměřice.
In 1894, Rudolf gave up his princely title and family name, receiving at his request the title of Freiherr von Troskow from the Emperor Franz Joseph. Ten years later he died while visiting his daughter Hedvika in Velehrad, Moravia. In 1930, his and his wife's remains were exhumed and reinterred in the family grave in Stará Boleslav.[7]
Hugo Maximilian von Thurn und Taxis
[edit]
Prince Hugo Maximilian von Thurn und Taxis (Prague, 3 July 1817 – Lautschin, 28 November 1889) married Countess Almeria von Belcredi (Ingrowitz, 8 October 1819 – Lautschin, 25 September 1914), sister of Count Richard von Belcredi, who served as Minister-President of the Austrian Empire. Hugo's estate included castles in Dobrovice, Lautschin (Loucen in Czech) and Mzells (Mcely), and estates in Vlkava, Niměřice and Ceteň. They had four legitimate children:[8][9]
Karoline (1846-1931)
Egmont (1849-1866)
Alexander (his heir) (1851-1939)
Maria Theresia (1856-1908)
Alexander von Thurn und Taxis
[edit]
Prince Alexander Johann Vincenz Rudolf Hugo Karl Lamoral Eligius von Thurn und Taxis (Lautschin, 1 December 1851 – Lautschin, 21 July 1939) married in 1875 Princess Marie zu Hohenlohe-Waldenburg-Schillingsfürst (Venice, 28 December 1855 – Lautschin, 16 February 1934). They inherited Lautschin in 1889.[8]
Cultural influence
[edit]
Both Alexander and Marie were avid patrons of the arts (Alexander himself played violin and Marie was an amateur painter), and although they were not wealthy compared to their Regensburg relatives, they were generous and never hesitated to support a good cause.
Marie's protégé Rainer Maria Rilke used to visit the family at their castles Lautschin and Duino. He dedicated his Duino Elegies to the princess, who in turn wrote about him in her published memoirs. Besides Rilke, regular guests at the castle in Lautschin included Karel Sladkovský and Bedřich Smetana who in 1880 dedicated his composition Z domoviny for violin and piano to Alexander. After Smetana's death, Alexander designated the house in nearby Jabkenice, where Smetana lived his last years, as Smetana's museum and donated land for his memorial.
Other artists and intellectuals known to visit the castle included F. X. Salda, Eliška Krásnohorská, Karel Bendl, members of the Czech Quartet (who included composer Josef Suk), and Mark Twain (who visited the castle during his European travels in 1899).
Alexander also loved to travel and he was a passionate hunter who made several hunting trips to Africa, occasionally accompanied by Czech traveller Bedřich Machulka; he later donated his animal trophies to the National Museum in Prague. He belonged to the Knights of Malta and financially assisted a number of charitable causes. Together with his father Prince Hugo he was also instrumental in building the first railway in the region. The railway was built on land that he donated for the project.[10]
Sports influence
[edit]
When his son Prince Erich, who studied in Cambridge, brought to Lautschin a new game, he helped him establish the first football team in Bohemia (1889). The team made history when it played in the first official football match historically recorded in Bohemia (1893). The Lautschin team competed against Regatta, the best team in the Austrian-Hungarian Empire. The match took place at the famous Císařská louka in Prague on 18 April 1893 and ended with the Thurn Taxis team losing 0:5. This was still considered a great success for the Lautschin players and the Vienna newspapers Wiener Sportzeitung did not hesitate to conclude that the team from Lautschin was the second best team after Regatta in the Empire.[11]
Burial place
[edit]
The family's burial place is in Sýčina (Seitzin) near Dobrovice.[12]
Legitimate offspring
[edit]
Prince Alexander had three legitimate children:
Erich (Mzells, 11 January 1876 – Kremsegg, 20 October 1952)
Eugen (Prague, 27 March 1878 – Prague, 4 March 1903)
Alexander (Mzells, 8 July 1881 – Duino, 11 March 1937)
Prince Erich married Countess Gabrielle Kinsky von Wchinitz und Tettau (eldest daughter of Rudolf, 9th Prince Kinsky of Wchinitz and Tettau) in 1903 and in 1925 moved to Austria where he died in 1952. He had nine children, and his son Alexander Ferdinand (1906–1992) held the Lautschin Castle[13] until the end of the war in 1945 when it was confiscated by the Czechoslovak state (his cousin, Ludwig (Luigi) held Mzells Castle[14] until 1948).
Prince Alexander married Princess Marie de Ligne (1885-1971), member of an ancient House of Ligne. Together they had three children:
Raimundo (heir)
Luigi
Margareta
They divorced in 1919.
In 1923 Prince Alexander left the dynastic House of Thurn und Taxis to become the first Duca di Castel Duino by grant of Victor Emmanuel III of Italy.
Alexander's sons Raimundo and Luigi joined their father and were recognized in Italy as Princes della Torre e Tasso. The prince's daughter Princess Margarita remained a member of the Thurn und Taxis family until her marriage in 1931 to Prince Gaetano of Bourbon-Parma.
Alexander married American heiress Helen Holbrook Walker in Vrana.
After Alexander's death, the castle in Duino was inherited by his son Raimundo, 2nd Duke of Castel Duino (1907–1986), and then his grandson Carlo Alessandro, 3rd Duke of Castel Duino, and has remained a part of the Torre e Tasso family estate.[15]
Bibliography
[edit]
Dragounová, Marie. 1922. Kronika rodu Dragounů, loučeňských poštmistrů. (Chronicle of the Dragoun Family, Postmasters at Loučeň). Unpublished text. Deposited in Státní archiv Nymburk.
Dročár, Jan. Zapomenutý šlechtic, 25 June 2007, http://www.pozitivni-noviny.cz/cz/clanek-2007060059 (1 March 2008), Pozitivní noviny.
FK Loučeň: Nejstarší fotbalový klub v Čechách (1893). 2003. Program guide. Published at the occasion of the 110th anniversary of the Loučeň Football Club.
Mareček, Zdeněk. 1998. Loučeň a Thurn Taxisové: Pohledy do doby minulé i nedávné. Loučeň, Czech Republic: Obec Loučeň.
Mareček, Zdeněk. 2003. Vyprávění o tom, jak fotbal na Loučeň přišel. Unpublished text.
Marek, Miroslav (1 March 2008). "Thurn und Taxis". Genealogy.EU.[self-published source][better source needed]
Nováček, Jiří. 2003. Čechy naučili hrát fotbal anglický komorník se zahradníkem. Unpublished text.
Paine, Albert Bigelow. Mark Twain. eBooks@Adelaide. http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/t/twain/mark/paine/chapter206.html Archived 19 July 2013 at the Wayback Machine (31 March 2008), ebooks.adelaide.edu.au
Thurn-Taxis, Marie. 1997. Rainer Maria Rilke v mých vzpomínkách. Praha: Nadace Arbor vitae.
Votypka, Vladimír. 2005. Paradoxy české šlechty. Praha: Nakladatelství Dokořán.
"Z tajností fotbalového pravěku". Stadion 32 (9 August 1988).
Zapletal, Vladimír. JUDr. Rudolf Knize Thurn-Taxis. (2nd ed.) http://www.pozitivni-noviny.cz/cz/clanek-2007060063 (26 June 2007) Pozitivní noviny.
Von Thurn und Taxis, Princess Marie, The Poet and The Princess: Memories of Rainer Maria Rilke, Amun Press, 2017
References
[edit]
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Anne Frank
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Anne Frank is world famous for her diary. She went into hiding during WWII and died in a concentration camp in 1945. Read her biography here.
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Anne Frank Website
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https://www.annefrank.org/en/anne-frank/main-characters/anne-frank/
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Annes first years
Anne spent the first four years of her life in Frankfurt am Main (Germany). She was a cheerful and naughty toddler. Housekeeper Kathi later remembered the time when Anne sat down in a puddle of rain and made Kathi tell her a story there.
Anne never really got to know Germany well, though, and would always struggle with the German language, because the family moved to Amsterdam when she was only four years old.
During the first few years in the Netherlands, Anne suffered from health problems. The family called her 'Zärtlein' [delicate puppet]. In November 1937, mother Edith wrote in a letter to an old neighbour in Frankfurt: ‘Anne stays home from school to sleep in the afternoon, which does her well; she is very cheerful, but sensitive and nervous, too.’
The centre of attention
Otto Frank wrote about 'cheerful Anne': ‘As soon as she entered the living room, things would get turbulent, especially since she often took a whole bunch of friends home. She was very popular because she always had plans for games they could play or things they could get up to.’
Anne loved being the centre of attention. Her teacher at the Montessori school in Amsterdam said as much. In the sixth grade, the pupils performed self-written plays. ‘Anne was in her element. Of course she was full of ideas for the scripts, but since she also had no shyness and liked imitating other people, the big part fell to her. She was rather small among her classmates, but when she played the queen or the princess she suddenly seemed a good bit taller than the others.'
Favourite subject: history
Anne was a sharp observer of other people. Otto: ‘I remember very well how my wife once took her with her on a visit and when she came home she described exactly how everyone had been dressed, from top to toe.’
When he turned 50, Otto Frank wrote letters to his wife, Margot, and Anne. To Anne, he wrote that things did not go as smoothly with her as with Margot, because Anne often struggled not to say 'Yes, but...’ all the time. Anne thought the letter ‘lovely’ and pasted it in her diary. On the envelope, she glued a picture of her dad. Her father was her idol.
At school, Anne - unlike her sister Margot – was not in the top of her class. According to Otto, she disliked mathematics, but was enthusiastic about history. When Anne had to give a talk about the Roman emperor Nero, she even wanted to go beyond the material covered in her history book. A friend of Otto’s gave Anne books about Nero. Otto: ‘Some time later, I asked about her talk. “Oh," she said, "my classmates had trouble believing what I told them, because it was so different from what they had learned about Nero.” “And the teacher?" I asked. "He was very pleased," she said.’
A strong opinion about others
When Anne went to secondary school, she had to take the tram. Margot’s friend Laureen Nussbaum recalled: ‘Anne was always surrounded by other children, boys and girls, and was always the centre of attention.’
Jacqueline van Maarsen was one of Anne’s friends from school. About Anne's outspoken character, she said: ‘Anne could be outspoken in her opinion about others. She was quick to judge and not afraid to voice her views, and I think that's why not everyone liked her. To me, Anne was above all a dear friend. She wanted us to spend time together every day to talk or play or do homework. When she was alone, she was easily bored. I liked to be with her, too, but sometimes I just had other things to do.'
The Benjamin of the Secret Annex
And then, all contact with her friends came to an abrupt end. Anne had to go into hiding with her parents and sister, as the Nazi anti-Jewish measures in the Netherlands made it too dangerous for them to stay in their own home.
In the Secret Annex, Anne was left to her own resources. She had a hard time being the Benjamin in the Secret Annex, surrounded by adults. Adults who constantly commented on her behaviour, too. ‘If I talk, everyone thinks I am showing off; when I’m silent they think I'm ridiculous; rude if I answer, sly if I get a good idea, lazy if I’m tired, selfish if I eat a mouthful more than I should, stupid, cowardly, crafty, etc., etc. The whole day long I hear nothing else but that I'm an insufferable baby.’
Write or suffocate
Anne had the hardest time dealing with her mother Edith. Instead of 'mother' Anne calls her 'Mums': 'the imperfect mother, as it were'. Anne believed that a mother should be tactful, ‘not laugh in my face when I cry about something - not about pain, but about other things - like "Mums" does.’
Otto noticed that Edith and the adolescent Anne did not get along well. ‘Of course, I was worried about my wife and Anne not having a good relationship. However, she truly was an excellent mother, who put her children above all else. She often complained that Anne would oppose everything she did, but she was comforted to know that Anne trusted me.’
For Anne, writing became the means to persevere in the oppressive hiding place. ‘The brightest spot of all is that at least I can write down my thoughts and feelings, otherwise I would be absolutely stifled.’ In addition to the diary, her religion was a source of support as well. 'God has not left me alone and will not leave me alone.’
In love with Peter
Anne still wanted to talk to someone her own age. She decided to talk to Peter, the 17-year-old son of the other family in hiding in the Secret Annex. At first, she thought he was dull, but before long, the two grew closer and talked about everything that concerned them: their parents, the hiding place, and even intimate topics, such as sexuality. They fell in love and kissed and cuddled in Peter's room and in the attic.
Anne worried that her parents might not agree and felt that they should inform her father. At first, Otto did not seem to object, but later, he changed his mind and said that he did not want ‘that Knutscherei' (that cuddling). Anne was upset, she felt that her father should trust her.
Anne's declaration of independence
She went on to write Otto an angry letter, her ‘declaration of independence’. She was convinced that she had become independent on her own - without any support from her parents - and that she did not need anyone. Her father was not to look upon her as a regular 14-year-old, she had grown older because of the unusual situation of living in the Secret Annex. She did not have to answer to anyone and only wrote him the letter, because she did not want to do things in secret. Anne gave her father the choice: he could either trust her and allow her to see Peter, or not trust her and forbid her to do anything. She left the letter in his coat pocket.
Margot told Anne that Otto had been upset all evening. Anne's claim that she had had no support from her parents in particular had hurt him deeply and he told her as much. Anne realised that she had gone too far and regretted her harsh words. ‘It is very good that I have been brought down from my unreachable heights, that my pride is a bit injured, because I was much too taken with myself.’
Two Annes
The cause of the conflict more or less resolved itself: Anne fell out of love. And from 20 May 1944 onwards, her thoughts were dominated by a new desire: after the war, Anne wanted to publish a book about her time in the Secret Annex and become a writer and journalist.
From May 1944, she worked hard on her book. Her diary formed the basis, but 15-year-old Anne looked critically at the 13-year-old girl she had been at the beginning of the period in hiding. Much was left out or rewritten. Alongside working on the book, Anne still kept her diary.
In her last diary letter - three days before her arrest - she concluded that there were really two Annes inside of her: a superficial, funny Anne and a serious Anne. In the company of others, the superficial Anne was dominant, while she would so much like to show her serious side. It saddened her that she had not succeeded in doing so yet.
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dbpedia
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https://www.ranker.com/list/famous-people-from-berlin/reference
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en
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Famous People From Berlin
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https://imgix.ranker.com/list_img_v2/7916/1427916/original/famous-people-from-berlin-u1
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https://imgix.ranker.com/list_img_v2/7916/1427916/original/famous-people-from-berlin-u1
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2014-04-29T00:00:00
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Berlin is Germany's cultural epicenter and a wealth of talent has emerged from this city over the years. This metropolis has given birth to many individuals ...
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en
|
/img/icons/touch-icon-iphone.png
|
Ranker
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https://www.ranker.com/list/famous-people-from-berlin/reference
|
Mike Nichols (born Mikhail Igor Peschkowsky; November 6, 1931 – November 19, 2014) was an American film and theater director, producer, actor, and comedian. He was noted for his ability to work across a range of genres and for his aptitude for getting the best out of actors regardless of their experience. Nichols began his career in the 1950s with the comedy improvisational troupe The Compass Players, predecessor of The Second City, in Chicago. He then teamed up with his improv partner, Elaine May, to form the comedy duo Nichols and May. Their live improv act was a hit on Broadway, and the first of their three albums won a Grammy Award. After Nichols and May disbanded in 1961, he began directing plays, and quickly became known for his innovative productions and ability to elicit polished performances. His Broadway directing debut was Neil Simon's Barefoot in the Park in 1963, with Robert Redford and Elizabeth Ashley. He next directed Luv in 1964, and in 1965 directed another Neil Simon play, The Odd Couple. He received a Tony Award for each of those plays. In 2012, he won his sixth Tony Award for Best Direction of a Play with a revival of Death of a Salesman. Nichols directed and/or produced more than twenty-five Broadway plays. In 1966, Warner Brothers invited Nichols to direct his first film, Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?, starring Elizabeth Taylor and Richard Burton. The groundbreaking film inspired some critics to declare Nichols the "new Orson Welles". It won five Academy Awards (out of 13 nominations), and was the top-grossing film of 1966. Nichols's next film, The Graduate (1967) starred then unknown actor Dustin Hoffman, alongside Anne Bancroft and Katharine Ross. It was another critical and financial success, became the highest-grossing film of the year, and received seven Academy Award nominations, winning Nichols the Academy Award for Best Director. Among the other films Nichols directed were Catch-22 (1970), Carnal Knowledge (1971), Silkwood (1983), Working Girl (1988), Wolf (1994), The Birdcage (1996), Closer (2004) and Charlie Wilson's War (2007). Along with an Academy Award, Nichols won a Grammy Award (the first for a comedian born outside the United States), four Emmy Awards, nine Tony Awards, and three BAFTA Awards. His other honors included the Lincoln Center Gala Tribute in 1999, the National Medal of Arts in 2001, the Kennedy Center Honors in 2003 and the AFI Life Achievement Award in 2010. His films received a total of 42 Academy Award nominations, and seven wins. He is one of the few people who have won Academy, Emmy, Grammy and Tony Awards.
Sir Rudolf Ernst Peierls, (; German: [ˈpaɪɐls]; 5 June 1907 – 19 September 1995) was a Jewish German-born British physicist who played a major role in the Manhattan Project and Tube Alloys, Britain's nuclear programme. His obituary in Physics Today described him as "a major player in the drama of the eruption of nuclear physics into world affairs".Peierls studied physics at the University of Berlin, at the University of Munich under Arnold Sommerfeld, the University of Leipzig under Werner Heisenberg, and ETH Zurich under Wolfgang Pauli. After receiving his DPhil from Leipzig in 1929, he became an assistant to Pauli in Zurich. In 1932, he was awarded a Rockefeller Fellowship, which he used to study in Rome under Enrico Fermi, and then at the Cavendish Laboratory at the University of Cambridge under Ralph H. Fowler. Due to Adolf Hitler's rise to power in Germany, he elected to not return home in 1933, but to remain in Britain, where he worked with Hans Bethe at the University of Manchester, then at the Mond Laboratory at Cambridge. In 1937, Mark Oliphant, the newly-appointed Australian professor of physics at the University of Birmingham recruited him for a new chair there in applied mathematics. In March 1940, Peierls co-authored the Frisch–Peierls memorandum with Otto Robert Frisch. This short paper was the first to set out that one could construct an atomic bomb from a small amount of fissile uranium-235. Until then it had been assumed that such a bomb would require many tons of uranium, and consequently was impractical to build and use. The paper was pivotal in igniting the interest of first the British and later the American authorities in nuclear weapons. He was also responsible for the recruitment of his compatriot Klaus Fuchs to work on Tube Alloys, as the British nuclear weapons project was called, which resulted in Peierls falling under suspicion when Fuchs was exposed as a spy for the Soviet Union in 1950. After the war, Peierls returned to the University of Birmingham, where he worked until 1963, and then was the Wykeham Professor of Physics at the University of Oxford until he retired in 1974. At Birmingham he worked on nuclear forces, scattering, quantum field theories, collective motion in nuclei, transport theory and statistical mechanics, and was a consultant to the Atomic Energy Research Establishment at Harwell. He received many awards, including a knighthood in 1968, and wrote several books including Quantum Theory of Solids, The Laws of Nature (1955), Surprises in Theoretical Physics (1979), More Surprises in Theoretical Physics (1991) and an autobiography, Bird of Passage (1985). Concerned with the nuclear weapons he had helped to unleash, he worked on the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, was President of the Atomic Scientists' Association in the UK, and was involved in the Pugwash movement.
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8320
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https://bruckfamilyblog.com/category/prince-karl-franz-of-prussia/
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en
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Prince Karl Franz of Prussia Archives
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2021-04-30T20:04:11+00:00
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en
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bruckfamilyblog.com
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https://bruckfamilyblog.com/category/prince-karl-franz-of-prussia/
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Note: In this post, I explore and document the connection between my renowned ancestor, Dr. Walter Wolfgang Bruck, and Germany’s last imperial family, that of Kaiser Wilhelm II.
Related Posts:
POST 65: GERMANY’S LAST EMPEROR, WILHELM II, PICTURED WITH UNKNOWN FAMILY MEMBER
POST 99: THE ASTONISHING DISCOVERY OF SOME OF DR. WALTER WOLFGANG BRUCK’S PERSONAL EFFECTS
When formulating my Blog posts, I am acutely aware I am writing about people connected to or associated with members of my family to whom most readers are unrelated. For this reason, I try and frame the stories within a broader historical and cultural context which may be of greater interest to subscribers. Even though many of the events I write about involve people who lived during the Nazi era, which narrowly includes the period from 1933 to 1945, I hope followers will agree this tragic period in history is endlessly fascinating and obviously transcends my own family’s stories.
In perusing the photos of the personal effects belonging to Dr. Walter Wolfgang Bruck (Figure 1), my second cousin twice removed, given to me by Dr. Tilo Wahl, I came upon a surprising array of materials chronicling a friendship between Walter and the family of Kaiser Wilhelm II (1859-1941), Germany’s last emperor. I decided to investigate this connection by having the documentary evidence translated and researching when the bond may have begun and how long it continued. As readers will be able to judge for themselves, some of my findings are conjecture, others are more firmly grounded in the records I found.
Let me start by reviewing what I have been able to establish of Dr. Walter Wolfgang Bruck’s military service during WWI (Figure 2), at which time I surmise a relationship between Dr. Bruck and Kaiser Wilhelm II may have begun. According to contemporary newspaper accounts published in 1925 on Walter’s 25th year anniversary as dental lecturer at the University of Breslau, “During WWI, from October 1914 to August 1917, Walter headed a dental department at the fortress hospital in Breslau, and in 1917 went to Bucharest, where he worked as a consulting dentist for the Romanian military administration and later in the same capacity worked at the high command of the so-called von Mackensen Army Group.” Multiple photographs from Walter personal papers confirm his presence on the Eastern Front during WWI (Figures 3-4) and show him socializing with members of Germany’s high command.
There is a suggestive account in one of the articles I translated as to Walter’s administrative acumen and dental skills which may explain how he came to the attention of upper echelon German military officers and the German Kaiser, “If the suggestions made by Walter in his writings as early as 1900 had succeeded, things would have been better at the beginning of the war for the dental supply of our army. For three years in a large dental department in the Wroclaw hospital, Bruck was able to prove that dental care, as he always thought it should be provided, can be carried out very well.”
Another quote from a contemporary news account alludes to Walter’s cutting-edge dental practices, “He [the speaker] particularly emphasized his [Walter’s] contribution to the introduction of porcelain filling and mentioned that the book Bruck wrote about it had been translated into Russian and English. The speaker also remembered Bruck’s numerous efforts to introduce dental care in the army, including oral hygiene, and mentioned that one of his works had been translated into no less than eight languages. Prof. Euler also mentioned that Bruck had been active as a writer in other fields such as prosthetics and dentistry with success and announced that he intended to hold lectures in the future in the fields of social dentistry and the history of dentistry.” Sadly, I know, from having visited a museum exhibit in Essen, Germany, that the horrific injuries sustained by soldiers during WWI led to the development of advanced prosthetics and facial and maxillary reconstructions following the war.
Regardless of when Dr. Bruck’s dental skills came to the attention of the German government and military command, he would certainly have been known to them because he was at the forefront of his field and in demand.
Let me tell readers a little about Walter’s personal life. In researching when and where Walter’s older sister, Margarethe Prausnitz née Bruck (Figure 5), was born and died, I found an ancestral tree showing Walter had been married before he married Johanna Bruck née Gräbsch, the mother of his two children. This came as quite a surprise to me. According to this source, the name of Walter’s first wife was purportedly Margarethe STUTSCH.
I have repeatedly told readers that unless I can locate primary source documents, I am hesitant to believe what I find in other people’s trees. Case in point. While I was eventually able to confirm Walter had indeed previously been married, I learned his first wife’s maiden name was SKUTSCH not Stutsch, complicating my search. Sadly, I found that Margarethe Skutsch, born the same month and year as Walter, was murdered in Theresienstadt in 1942.
I unearthed two primary source documents confirming Margarethe’s connection to Walter Bruck. The first was her Theresienstadt death certificate (Figure 6), very rarely completed post-mortem for Jews who died there, giving her married name. The second was the 1907 death certificate for Margarethe’s mother, Berta Skutsch née Grosser, at which Walter was a witness. (Figure 7) A picture from around 1917 shows Margarethe and Walter seated at an outside picnic table with the Grand Duke of Oldenburg and his wife (Figure 8), indicating they were still married at the time. Walter’s biography which abruptly ends around 1894-94 gives no indication he was married before he left for America to attend the Baltimore College of Dental Surgery, so the duration of his first marriage is unknown.
Let me briefly digress and tell readers a few relevant facts about Kaiser Wilhelm II to provide context for some of the documents and photos found among Dr. Walter Bruck’s papers. Wilhelm II reigned as the German Emperor from the 15th of June 1888 until he was forced to abdicate on the 9th of November 1918, following some crushing defeats on the Western Front during WWI that led to the collapse of Germany’s war efforts. Following his abdication, on the 10th of November, Wilhelm went into exile in the Netherlands, which had remained neutral throughout WWI. He purchased a country house in the municipality of Doorn, known as Huis Doorn, and moved there in May 1920. This was to be his home for the remainder of his life.
Wilhelm was first married in February 1881 to Princess Augusta Victoria of Schleswig-Holstein, with whom he had seven children. She died in April 1921. The following year Wilhelm met Princess Hermine Reuß of Greiz. It happened when one of her sons sent birthday wishes in January of 1922 to the exiled German Emperor Wilhelm II, who then invited the boy and his mother to Huis Doorn. Wilhelm found Hermine extremely attractive, greatly enjoyed her company, and found they had much in common, both having been recently widowed. By November 1922, they got married in Doorn over the objections of Wilhelm’s monarchist supporters and children.
Hermine had five children from her first marriage to Prince Johann George Ludwig Ferdinand August of Schönaich-Carolath (1873-1920) but upon her marriage to Wilhelm it was decided that only the youngest, Princess Henriette of Schönaich-Carolath, would come live with them. Wilhelm developed a genuine fondness for Henriette whom he affectionately dubbed “the general.” He officially announced her engagement and walked her down the aisle when she got married in 1940 to Wilhelm’s grandson, Prinz Karl Franz of Prussia.
I will briefly return to Wilhelm and Hermine later. First, however, I want to mention a few vital events in the lives of Walter and his second wife, Johanna Bruck née Gräbsch. Then, I will discuss the documents and photos among Walter’s personal effects that establish there existed a bond between he and the last German monarch and his family.
Dr. Walter Bruck married his second wife, Johanna Bruck née Gräbsch, on the 22nd of December 1922. On the 18th of January 1924, Johanna gave birth to their first daughter who sadly passed away less than two months later, on the 10th of March. This daughter was named Hermine, and it is believed and reasonable to assume she was named after Kaiser Wilhelm II’s second wife.
Walter and Johanna’s second daughter, Renate Stephanie Gertrude Bruck (Figure 9), was born on the 16th of June 1926. Among the personnel effects belonging to Walter that Dr. Tilo Wahl acquired from Walter’s grandson is a children’s book, entitled “Alpenblumenmärchen” (Alpine Flower Fairy Tales) by Ernst Kreidolf. The book was given to Renate by Princess Hermine Reuß with the dedication: “Meinem lieben Renatchen/zu Weihnachten 1928/Hermine” (i.e., To my dear Renatchen/for Christmas 1928/Hermine). (Figures 10a-b)
Other documents and photos pre-dating 1928 prove an earlier connection between Wilhelm and Walter’s families. Dr. Wahl purchased two of Walter’s guest books where visitors signed, dated, and often left personal messages upon their departure from Walter’s stately home at Kaiser Wilhelm Platz 17 (later Reichpräsidentenplatz/Hindenburg Platz). (Figure 11) In carefully perusing these guest registers, I noticed that “Hermine Kaiserin (Empress) Wilhlem II” signed one of them on “23 IV 23” (23rd April 1923). (Figures 12a-b)
On Dr. Bruck’s 25th year anniversary as dental lecturer at the University of Breslau, the former Kaiser sent a personal congratulatory “Brieftelegramm” (i.e., mail telegram) on the 14th of February (Figures 13a-d), followed by a personal note from Empress Hermine on the actual date of the event, the 25th of February 1925. (Figures 14a-d) The latter message naturally acknowledged Walter Bruck’s lengthy tenure, but also indicated an intent to come to Silesia for dental treatment.
It is not clear whether Walter was also Wilhelm’s personal dentist though this is a reasonable assumption. An entire page of photos in Walter’s scrap book indicates Walter and Johanna visited the Emperor and Empress at Huis Doorn in September 1925 (Figure 15), possibly to attend to Wilhelm’s dental needs. During this visit Walter took a photo of his wife Johanna surrounded by Wilhelm, Hermine Reuß, two of Hermine’s daughters, Princess Henriette of Schönaich-Carolath and Princess Hermine Caroline of Schönaich-Carolath, Major General Konrad Wilhelm Gustav Hermann Graf Finck von Finckenstein (1862 – 1939), and others. (Figures 16a-b, 17)
Another brief digression. For regular readers, I owe you a huge “Mea Culpa!” In Post 65, I tried to work out who was the unnamed Bruck standing amidst the Kaiser, Hermine Reuß, and their entourage. Several years ago, I obtained the identical picture, captioned otherwise, from a different branch of my extended family so never worked out that the “W.B.” who initialed the photo was Walter Bruck and that his wife was in the photo. (Figures 18a-c) In this instance my powers of deduction abjectly failed me.
From a brief note dated the 4th of October 1925 sent from Huis Doorn, Walter had obviously sent a copy of the aforementioned photo to Wilhelm because his staff acknowledged receipt of the picture and said His Majesty had found the photo to be “excellent.” (Figures 19a-b) As an aside and as mentioned in Post 99, I have shared images of all of Dr. Bruck’s personal papers and photos with Ms. Renata Wilkoszewska-Krakowska, Branch Manager of the Old Jewish Cemetery in Breslau where Walter’s father and grandfather are interred. Renata noted the high quality of Walter’s photographs so checked a publication mentioning Walter Bruck written by professor of dentistry at the University of Wrocław, Prof. Barbara Bruziewicz-Mikłaszewska, and learned he had run the Photography Department at the University of Breslau. My esteemed ancestor was indeed a man of eclectic interests.
It is unclear from Walter’s surviving papers how long the personal friendship between Kaiser Wilhelm’s family lasted nor how long he continued as Empress Hermine’s dentist before the rise of the National Socialists would have made this impossible. There is no indication in Walter’s personal biographical account that he was raised in a Jewish home; on the contrary, several passages from Walter’s memoir state he attended or was taught in Catholic or nondenominational schools and I have long suspected he converted to Christianity like many German Jews at the time did. As students of history know all too well, this would not have afforded him any protection in the Nazi era.
There is direct evidence the Nazis tried to remove Walter Bruck from his teaching post at the University of Breslau following their ascension to power in 1933. This proof does not come from Walter’s papers but from another source. I remind readers that in Post 99 I included a photo taken on the Eastern Front during WWI of Walter Bruck riding in an open car with General Field Marshall August von Mackensen and their respective wives. (Figure 20)
Dr. Tilo Wahl found the following passage in Mackensen’s biography, entitled “Zwischen Kaiser und ‘Führer’: Generalfeldmarschall August von Mackensen,” written by Theo Schwarzmüller, specifically discussing Walter Bruck and Mackensen’s intervention on his behalf:
GERMAN
“. . . An Rust (Anmerkung: preußischer Kultusminister) wandte sich Mackensen auch im Fall von Professor Walther Bruck aus Breslau, eine internationale Kapazität der Zahnmedizin. Wegen jüdischer Abstammung wurde ihm die Lehrbefugnis entzogen, obwohl er sie seit Kaisers Zeiten besaß und schon sein Vater an der Universität Breslau gelehrt hatte. Bruck war evangelisch getauft, christlich erzogen, “immer national” und als Arzt am AOK [=Armeeoberkommando] Mackensen ausgezeichnet, wie er hilfesuchend versicherte. Zunächst lehnte Rust unter Hinweis auf die Gesetze ab, wonach Juden keine Beamten mehr sein dürften. Allerdings galten für Kriegsteilnehmer auf Wunsch Hindenburgs vorerst Ausnahmen. Nach “nochmaliger Prüfung” wurde nach mehreren Monaten Bruck die Lehrbefugnis wieder erteilt, was Mackensen ihm telegrafisch mitteilen konnte. Insgesamt verloren im Dritten Reich mehr als 1000 Hochschullehrer, vor allem Juden und Demokraten, ihre Stellung. Dadurch büßte Deutschland seine führende Position in den Naturwissenschaften ein. Auch der alte NS-Kämpfer Rust, von Hitler bald zum Reichsminister befördert, propagierte die arische Universität, was Gelehrte wie Albert Einstein und Fritz Haber vertrieb. Für Bruck engagierte sich Mackensen, weil dieser eine ihm nahe, deutschnationale Gesinnung vorweisen konnte.“
ENGLISH
“. . .Mackensen also turned to Rust [NOTE: Prussian Minister of Culture, Bernard Rust] in the case of Professor Walther Bruck from Breslau, an international authority in dentistry. Because of his Jewish descent, his teaching license was revoked, although he had held it since the time of the Kaiser and his father had already taught at the University of Breslau. Bruck had been baptized a Protestant, had been raised a Christian, had ‘always been national,’ and had distinguished himself as a physician at the AOK [NOTE: Army High Command] Mackensen, as he helpfully asserted. At first, Rust refused, citing the laws that Jews could no longer be civil servants. However, at Hindenburg’s [NOTE: German general and statesman Paul von Hindenburg] request, exceptions applied for the time being to war veterans. After ‘reconsideration,’ after several months, Bruck was again granted the teaching license, which Mackensen was able to inform him of by telegraph. In total, more than 1000 university professors, mainly Jews and democrats, lost their positions in the Third Reich. As a result, Germany forfeited its leading position in the natural sciences. Even the old Nazi fighter Rust, soon promoted to Reich Minister by Hitler, propagated the Aryan university, which drove away scholars such as Albert Einstein and Fritz Haber. Mackensen became involved with Bruck because the latter could demonstrate a German-national outlook close to his own.”
There is another astonishing document included among Walter’s personal papers that Dr. Tilo Wahl brought to my attention. It is a letter sent by the University of Breslau’s curator, “Der Kurator de Universität und der Technischen Hochschule” (the curator of the university and the technical college) to Walter, dated the 24th of April 1936. (Figures 21a-c) The curator revoked an earlier ruling declaring Walter was no longer a Professor which had effectively removed him from his teaching position. As Tilo aptly points out, humiliatingly, the letter is lacking any form of salutation.
Notwithstanding Walter’s ties to the former Kaiser, August von Mackensen, and other high-ranking German officials, there can be no doubt that Walter would have seen their interventions as anything other than a temporary reprieve from Nazi persecution. Given Kaiser Wilhelm and Kaiserin Hermine’s well-known anti-Semitic views, it is highly unlikely either would have interceded on Walter’s Bruck’s behalf had he lived beyond 1937 and been arrested or deported. Wilhelm held the Jews responsible for the two world wars. As to Wilhelm’s views on Nazism, he hoped the Nazis’ early successes would lead to the restoration of the Hohenzollern monarchy, with his eldest grandson as the fourth Kaiser. Hermine actively petitioned the Nazi government for this on her husband’s behalf. For his part Hitler felt nothing but contempt for Wilhelm, blaming him for Germany’s greatest defeat, and the petitions were ignored.
Notwithstanding his disdain for the Kaiser, Hitler was not averse to using the occasion of Wilhelm’s death on the 4th of June 1941 several weeks before the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union for political advantage. Hitler wanted to bring Wilhelm’s body back to Germany for burial to demonstrate to the Germans the direct descent of the Third Reich from the old German Empire. However, Wilhelm had made it clear that he did not want his body returned to Germany until the monarchy was restored, and his wishes were respected. However, Wilhelm’s request that the swastika and other Nazi regalia not be displayed at his funeral was ignored.
One final thought. Dr. Wahl purchased Walter’s appointment book from his grandson in 2013 and copied it for me. Walter’s calendar shows that in April 1937, the month following his death, Walter still had patients scheduled. (Figures 22a-b) Based on my own father’s experience in his dental practice in Tiegenhof [Nowy Dwór Gdański, Poland], also in 1937, as the Nazis ramped up their anti-Jewish measures, his clients disappeared. I have no doubt Walter saw his once amazing life rapidly slipping away. Barring an unknown medical condition, I am more convinced than ever that Walter took his own life on the 31st of March 1937 to protect his wife and half-Jewish daughter. (Figure 23)
REFERENCE
Schwarzmüller, Theo. Zwischen Kaiser und ‘ Führer’. Generalfeldmarschall August von Mackensen. 2001. Munich: Schöningh (p. 278 footnote)
VITAL STATISTICS OF WALTER WOLFGANG BRUCK & SOME IMMEDIATE RELATIVES
NAME EVENT DATE PLACE SOURCE Walter Wolfgang Bruck (self) Birth 4 March 1872 Breslau, Germany [today: Wrocław, Poland] Walter Bruck’s personal biography Marriage (to Margarethe Skutsch) Unknown Marriage (to Johanna Gräbsch) 22 December 1922 Breslau, Germany [today: Wrocław, Poland] Family tree among Walter Bruck’s personal papers Death 31 March 1937 Breslau, Germany [today: Wrocław, Poland] Walter Bruck’s Breslau death certificate Margarethe Skutsch (first wife) Birth 30 March 1872 Breslau, Germany [today: Wrocław, Poland] Theresienstadt Ghetto death certificate Death 22 September 1942 Theresienstadt Ghetto Theresienstadt Ghetto death certificate Johanna Elisabeth Margarethe Gräbsch (second wife) Birth 10 April 1884 Breslau, Germany [today: Wrocław, Poland] Breslau marriage certificate Death 5 March 1963 Elstree, Hertfordshire, England United Kingdom death certificate Hermine Bruck (daughter) Birth 18 January 1924 Breslau, Germany [today: Wrocław, Poland] Family tree among Walter Bruck’s personal papers Death 10 March 1924 Breslau, Germany [today: Wrocław, Poland] Family tree among Walter Bruck’s personal papers Renate Stephanie Gertrude Bruck (daughter) Birth 16 June 1926 Breslau, Germany [today: Wrocław, Poland] Family tree among Walter Bruck’s personal papers Marriage (to Matthias Eugen Walter Mehne) 1945 Vogelsdorff Family Tree found on ancestry.com Marriage (to Henry Ernest Graham) 18 October 1948 Willesden, Middlesex, England United Kingdom marriage certificate Marriage (to Gary Newman) October 1956 Middlesex, England England & Wales, Civil Registration Marriage Index, 1916-2005 Death 3 March 2013 Ramsholt, Suffolk, England United Kingdom death certificate
VITAL STATISTICS OF JOHANNA BRUCK NÉE GRÄBSCH & SOME IMMEDIATE RELATIVES
NAME EVENT DATE PLACE SOURCE Johanna Elisabeth Margarethe Gräbsch (self) Birth 10 April 1884 Breslau, Germany [today: Wrocław, Poland] Breslau marriage certificate Marriage (to Dr. Alfred Renner) 6 May 1905 Breslau, Germany [today: Wrocław, Poland] Breslau marriage certificate Divorce (from Dr. Alfred Renner) 8 March 1917 Breslau, Germany [today: Wrocław, Poland] Notation on 1905 Breslau marriage certificate Marriage (to Walter Wolfgang Bruck) 22 December 1922 Breslau, Germany [today: Wrocław, Poland] Family tree among Walter Bruck’s personal papers Death 5 March 1963 Elstree, Hertfordshire, England United Kingdom death certificate Alfred Friedrich Karl Kurt Renner (first husband) Birth 20 June 1873 Breslau, Germany [today: Wrocław, Poland] Breslau 1905 marriage certificate Marriage (to Johanna Gräbsch) 6 May 1905 Breslau, Germany [today: Wrocław, Poland] Breslau marriage certificate Death Unknown Walter Wolfgang Bruck (second husband) Birth 4 March 1872 Breslau, Germany [today: Wrocław, Poland] Walter Bruck’s personal biography Marriage (to Johanna Gräbsch) 22 December 1922 Breslau, Germany [today: Wrocław, Poland] Family tree among Walter Bruck’s personal papers Death 31 March 1937 Breslau, Germany [today: Wrocław, Poland] Walter Bruck’s Breslau death certificate Hermine Bruck (daughter) Birth 18 January 1924 Breslau, Germany [today: Wrocław, Poland] Family tree among Walter Bruck’s personal papers Death 10 March 1924 Breslau, Germany [today: Wrocław, Poland] Family tree among Walter Bruck’s personal papers Renate Stephanie Gertrude Bruck (daughter) Birth 16 June 1926 Breslau, Germany [today: Wrocław, Poland] Family tree among Walter Bruck’s personal papers Death 3 March 2013 Ramsholt, Suffolk, England United Kingdom death certificate
Note: In this post, I discuss a postcard given to me showing the last German Emperor, Wilhelm II, taken in Doorn in the Netherlands in May 1926, following Wilhelm’s abdication from the throne after Germany’s defeat in WWI, with an unknown member of my extended family standing amidst the Royal family.
Related Posts:
Post 8: Dr. Otto Bruck & Tiegenhof: National Socialist Parades
Post 15: Berlin & My Great-Aunts Franziska & Elsbeth Bruck
Post 17: Surviving In Berlin In The Time Of Hitler: My Uncle Fedor’s Story
Post 31: Witness To History, “Proof” Of Hitler’s Death In My Uncle Fedor’s Own Words
Among my father Dr. Otto Bruck’s surviving collection of pre-WWII photos are several unique ones of historic interest. These include a small number replicated in Post 8 showing Field Marshall Hermann Wilhelm Göring, one of the most powerful figures in the Nazi Party, taken in 1935 in Tiegenhof, Free State of Danzig [today: Nowy Dwór Gdański, Poland]; at the time, Göring was participating in a campaign event in support of the slate of Nazi candidates running for office there, and an election parade passed just below the office building in which my father had his dental practice.
An equally fascinating photo, illustrated in Post 17, shows a young Käthe Heusermann, who at the time was working as a dental assistant for my uncle, Dr. Fedor Bruck, in Liegnitz, Germany [today: Legnica, Poland]. In 1933, after my uncle was forced by the Nazi overlords to shutter his dental practice, Käthe relocated to Berlin and was hired by Hitler’s dentist, Dr. Hugo Blaschke, as his dental assistant. Following the end of the war, Käthe Heusermann, was instrumental in helping the Russians identify Hitler’s dental remains, although, as discussed in Post 31, it would be many years before this fact was publicly acknowledged by the Russians. Because Käthe had always attended Hitler’s dental treatments, she was well-positioned to recognize Blaschke’s distinct and outdated periodontal work.
And, apropos of this post with a photo of the last German Emperor Wilhelm II, in Post 15 one of my father’s surviving photos illustrates the Kaiser’s daughter-in-law, the last Crown Princess of Germany and Prussia, Princess Cecilie. (Figures 1-2) She is touring my renowned great-aunt Franziska Bruck’s flower school and shop in Berlin. Duchess Cecilie of Mecklenburg-Schwerin (Cecilie Auguste Marie; 20 September 1886 – 6 May 1954) was the last German Crown Princess and Crown Princess of Prussia as the wife of German Crown Prince Wilhelm, the son of German Emperor Wilhelm II.
The current post is about an intriguing, captioned family photo that was given to me by one of my third cousins (Figures 3a-b), Andreas “Andi” Pauly, whom regular readers will recognize from earlier posts. The photo was part of a collection of family pictures I obtained, so I only came to realize its significance after I had the message translated. (Figure 4) The photo was turned into a postcard, and obviously mailed in a stamped envelope because the postcard has no stamp and address on the flip side, but unfortunately the envelope has not survived so the sender is unknown.
I didn’t comprehend who the people in the photo were until I did an Internet query on “Doorn.” I discovered this is in the Netherlands and is where Germany’s former Emperor, Wilhelm II, went into exile after he abdicated the throne following Germany’s defeat in WWI. I had no reason to recognize Wilhelm II but mention of Royalty led me to ask one of my German cousins who is a historian whether he recognized anyone in the photo, and he confirmed it was Germany’s last Kaiser. My cousin was quite excited by this discovery because it reinforced his belief in our family’s connection to the upper echelons of Prussian society.
The message on the card pinpoints only a young princess, “Carolath,” and the postcard-sender’s wife standing behind her without a hat, with no name given. (Figure 5) Comparing the postcard to known photos of the Royal family, we can identify in the front row, the German Emperor’s second wife, Princess Hermine Reuss of Greiz (1887-1947); her youngest daughter by her first marriage, Princess Henriette of Schönaich-Carolath (1918-1972); and the former German Emperor, Wilhelm II. The writer tells us among the rest of the entourage are some of Princess Hermine’s older daughters, as well as some of the Emperor’s former generals. I’ve not positively been able to identify by name any of Princess Hermine’s other children, nor any of the Kaiser’s generals, although I was able to find a picture on the Internet with only Princess Hermine, Wilhelm II, and Princess Henriette (Carolath) taken at Doorn at about the same time. (Figure 6)
What I’ve also been able to learn is that after Princess Henriette’s father died in 1920, her mother, Princess Hermine, remarried in 1922 the former German Emperor, Wilhelm II. Hermine had five young children, but it was decided that only the youngest, Princess Henriette, would come with her mother to live at Doorn. Wilhelm II generally kept out of his stepchildren’s affairs apart from Henriette. He had a genuine affection for her, and when she got engaged to the Emperor’s own grandson, Prince Karl Franz of Prussia, on the 6th of August 1940 at Doorn, Wilhelm II made the official announcement.
The message on the postcard provides clues as to who mailed it and to whom it was mailed and was an obvious starting point for trying to unravel the sender and receiver of the card. Faintly visible at the bottom is the date the postcard was written, the 28th of May 1926. My intimate familiarity with my extended family tree and the fact the photo was given to me by a member of the Pauly family clearly led both Andi and me to conclude the card had been sent to my great-great-aunt, Rosalie “Salchen” Pauly née Mockrauer (1844-1927). (Figures 7-8) Rosalie Pauly was the only one of her Pauly generation still alive in 1926, although she would die the following year.
Having rather quickly satisfied myself as to the receiver of the postcard, I then tackled the much more challenging task of trying to resolve who sent the card to Rosalie Pauly. Readers will immediately notice the sender only signed his initials, “W.B.,” who, at first, I thought might be a member of my Bruck family; I quickly discarded this theory because the writer tells us that on the 28th of May 1926 his wife is due to give birth in about eight days, thus in early June 1926, and I know of no Bruck offspring related to Rosalie Pauly born in that timeframe.
We know the postcard-writer was male because, as previously mentioned, he identifies his wife in the picture standing behind Wilhelm II’s stepdaughter, Carolath, as he refers to her. It’s not clear whether “Carolath” was a diminutive intended as an affectionate nickname to be used only by close family and friends, or how she was known publicly. It seems odd that a member of my extended family would be photographed amidst the former Royal family in a seemingly intimate setting if they were not readily acquainted in some way. More on this later.
The writer of the postcard tells my great-great-aunt Rosalie that the visit of her grandson reminded him to send her the photograph of the Royal couple; Walter Rothholz senior (1893-1978) (Figure 9), mentioned by name a few lines further down, was Rosalie’s eldest grandson and would have been 33 years of age at the time the card was written.
I have a theory as to the sender of the postcard, so far unprovable but conceivable. Walter Rothholz senior was married to a Norwegian woman, Else Marie “Elsemai” Bølling (1915-1976). (Figure 10) Initially, I considered the possibility that one of Else Marie’s brothers had a prename beginning with the initial “W.” I located a Bølling family tree on Geni.com naming Else Marie’s siblings but none begin with this letter. However, I discovered on this family tree that Else Marie’s father had a brother born in Kristiania (Oslo, Norway) named Wilhelm Henning Bølling (1891-1930), that’s to say her uncle, who would have been the right age to have a young family in 1926; he would have been only two years older than Walter Rothholz. If Wilhelm Bølling was the writer of the postcard, his wife is the one pictured. Her prename was “Ingrid,” although no surname is provided. While the Bølling family tree includes multiple photos of family members, including one of Wilhelm Bølling (Figure 11), none of Ingrid are included making it impossible to compare against the woman on the postcard.
According to the Bølling family trees on Geni, Wilhelm and Ingrid had a daughter named Wivi Aase Bølling, but no vital data is provided nor is any photo included.
Wilhelm Bølling is known to Walter Rothholz’s living son, also named Walter; Wilhelm was a very wealthy shipowner who transported coal. According to Walter, he committed suicide. (Figure 12) Given Wilhelm’s connection to the coal trade and its importance to Germany at the time, it’s imaginable he may have been a business associate of and socialized with the German Emperor during and after his rule. Pending the discovery of a photo of Wilhelm Bølling’s wife or a date for the birth of his daughter Wivi Aase, the question of which family member stands amidst Germany’s last Royal family remains a mystery.
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Hesse Travel Guide
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Introduction
Hesse (Hessen in German) is the richest German non-city state in terms of GDP per capita. Its largest city is Frankfurt-am-Main, Germany's financial capital. The political capital of Hesse, though, is Wiesbaden. Darmstadt and Kassel played that role until 1945, when the modern state of Hesse (aka Greater Hesse) was formed out of the Prussian provinces of Hesse-Darmstadt and Hesse-Nassau.
The cultural region of Hesse is larger than the state and includes the area known as Rhenish Hesse in the neighbouring state of Rhineland-Palatinate, from which it is separated by the Rhine River. The oldest and second largest Hessian city, Mainz, is in Rhenish Hesse.
Hesse has a surface area of 21,100 km² (8,100 sq mi), roughly like Israel or the U.S. state of New Jersey. It has a population of 6,077,000 inhabitants, slightly more than Denmark, and the equivalent of the U.S. state of Missouri.
Before the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, what is now Hesse belonged to a multitude of small independent states, such as the Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel, the Landgraviate of Hesse-Darmstadt, the Landgraviate of Hesse-Homburg, the Landgraviate of Hesse-Rotenburg, the Duchy of Nassau, the Principality of Waldeck, the County of Isenberg, the Prince-Bishopric of Fulda, the Free Imperial City of Wetzlar, or the Free Imperial City of Frankfurt.
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Acquisitions
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2024-06-05T11:53:18+02:00
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The acquisition policy of the Palace of Versailles has not ceased to evolve since the inauguration in 1837 of the Museum of History desired by Louis-Philippe. Objects, painted, drawn, photographed or written documents join the collections every year. Discover the acquisitions of the Palace of Versailles year after year.
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Palace of Versailles
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https://en.chateauversailles.fr/node/821/acquisitions
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Since the creation of the historic galleries, inaugurated in Versailles in 1837, the acquisitions policy at the Palace of Versailles has evolved to focus on several categories of items. First, the Palace acquires objects (furniture, bronzes, porcelain, paintings, drawings, sculptures or manuscripts) that at one time were here and which now bring the place back to life as we see what it must have looked like at the time when it was a royal residence and we have a glimpse of life at Court. Alongside these acquisitions, paintings, drawings, photographs or written documents are added on a regular basis to complement our knowledge of the Palace, the Estate and their development through the ages. Lastly, the collection of iconographic material built up since the time of Louis-Philippe is enriched by new works to represent the characters or illustrate the periods of French history that are represented in the Palace galleries.
See below a selection of the works with descriptions.
2023
Royal Mass at the Tuileries
By Hubert Robert
Classed as a “work of great historic interest and artistic significance”, Royal Mass at the Tuileries is a valuable, perhaps unique, evocation of the life of the royal family during the Revolution, at the time of their imprisonment in the Tuileries Palace (1789-1792). After two days of protests and violence on 5 and 6 October 1789, Louis XVI left Versailles under pressure from the people. Monarchical power was brought back to the capital and established at the Tuileries, along with the National Constituent Assembly.
The king and his family are shown attending mass beneath the vault of the Ambassadors’ Gallery. Kneeling on their prie-Dieu chairs, Louis XVI and Marie-Antoinette are surrounded by their children, the Dauphin and Madame Royale, and accompanied by Madame Élisabeth, the king’s sister. The other figures are harder to identify; we can undoubtedly see some of the queen’s closest companions (Madame de Tourzel, Madame de Mackau, the Princesse de Lamballe, the Marquise d’Ossun and the Duchess of Maillé) and the Marquis de Dreux Brezé, the last to remain loyal to the crown. The presence of an officer of the National Guard, on the edge of the scene, is a reminder of the main figures’ state of imprisonment. At the other end of the gallery, a group of deputies, who have just left the National Assembly, are entering the scene and add tension: a symbol of the advancing Revolution, they are about to pass in front of the royal family, the refractory clergy members and the former glory of Louis XIV’s conquests, celebrated in the tapestries. Here, the new order and the Ancien Régime appear to be in cold confrontation, at a time of political instability and forced cohabitation. The artist, Hubert Robert, may have been present at the scene. After being appointed guard of the paintings of the Muséum – the future Musée du Louvre - in 1784, he could simply step through a door from the Grande Galerie into the Tuileries Palace. While it is not known who the work was originally painted for, it belonged to Madame Du Barry, Louis XV’s last mistress in 1793. It remained in the possession of the royal family and suffered the same unfortunate fate.
Purchased as a work of importance for heritage on 30 December 2022; thanks to the patronage of LOV Group.
Pair of footstools
Jacob-Desmalter & Cie
This pair of footstools is one of the few remaining elements from the furniture delivered to Marie Louise for the Lord’s House, as the Queen’s House was named during the Empire. Situated at heart of the Hamlet and built for Marie Antoinette, the Queen’s House was designed by Richard Mique starting in 1783. Luxuriously furnished and decorated, its furniture was dispersed during the revolutionary sales of 1793-95. Under the Empire, the Petit Trianon and the Hamlet were restored and refurnished in order to welcome Empress Marie-Louise during her stays. The Drawing Room in the Queen’s House – later called the Lord’s House – was hung with yellow silk painted by Vauchelet, while the furniture was commissioned from upholsterer Darrac, who undoubtedly subcontracted the woodwork to cabinetmaker Jacob-Desmalter. The chairs were made of wood and painted white with gold highlights. They were covered with yellow silk velvet with a border of gold vine leaves. According to Darrac’s records, the two footstools were sent in 1812, as confirmed by the indication on the label on the undersides. The furniture remained in place until 1850, when it was sent to the Furniture Store-House. Like other items from Trianon, it was probably sold during the latter half of the 19th century. During restoration work in 2018, it was the furniture donated in 1965 by the Duchess of Massa that was restored and upholstered with yellow silk velvet. These two original footstools complement the set.
Bust of Etienne-Vincent de Margnolas, State Councillor, Prefect (1781-1809)
By Giacomo Spalla
Born into a family from Lyon, Étienne Vincent de Margnolas left France during the Revolution. He settled in Italy, from where he maintained numerous connections, which explains his brilliant career across the border during the First French Empire. After working as administrator of the hospices of Lyon, auditor then officer in the Ministry of Finance from 1806 to 1807 and Emperor's commissioner to the Warsaw government commission, Margnolas was appointed Prefect of Pô in March 1808. Appreciated by Napoleon, he was also appointed state councillor on extraordinary duty in 1806, and was in charge of the correspondence of the third arrondissement of the general police for transalpine departments. In 1806, Margnolas married Caroline Béatrix Perrone di San Martino, whose mother was lady-in-waiting to Empresses Joséphine then Marie-Louise. Margnolas’ sudden death on 13 October 1809 cut short a promising career. Signed and dated 1808, this bust was made by Giacomo Spalla, perhaps to commemorate Margnolas’ appointment as Knight of the Empire and member of the Legion of Honour on 11 July 1807. It may also have been commissioned by the model at the time of his appointment as Prefect of Pô. Either way, the bust bears witness to Margnolas’ interest in the Turin art scene, of which Spalla was one of the most eminent representatives. Aged 27, Margnolas is represented in the ancient style, in timeless and heroic nudity. In addition to the Hermes shape, the treatment of the empty eyes gives the bust an ancient look that was prized among the elite at the time. Spalla attached great importance to the choice of marble. This bust was probably made in an ancient large-grained marble and its highly polished finish highlights the beauty of the material. The extreme delicacy of the carving of the curls testifies to Spalla’s stay in Canova’s studio. The face has a certain purity to it while staying true to the features of the model, whose chin was cleft with a small dimple.
Hunting scene in front of the Orangery, the Hundred Steps and the Palace of Versailles
By Pierre-Denis Martin and Adam-Frans Van der Meulen
This view of Versailles, painted between 1695 and 1705, shows the appearance of the Palace after the construction of the envelope by architect Louis Le Vau, but before the creation of the tall golden roof of the chapel: only two small lanterns, built in 1682 on the roofs of the current Dufour and Gabriel pavilions, crown the palace. In the foreground, we can make out the Lake of the Swiss Guard, dug between 1679 and 1682, on which a fleet of boats is sailing, whose masts are topped with white flags. We can also see the first and second Hundred Steps and, of course, the Orangery with its gates and pilasters topped by sculptures by Le Conte and Legros. The painting also shows the ambitious works carried out on the city side, with the Large and Small Stables, the Grand Commun, the Récollets convent, the church of Notre-Dame, the Clagny palace and what is most likely the kennels. Painted with the tip of a brush, in contrast to the buildings sketched with a metal point, the hunting scene in the foreground successfully enlivens the landscape, showing the Court, no doubt led by the king, with his horsemen, packs of dogs and attendants in blue or red livery.
Study for the full-length portrait of the Dauphin Louis
By Charles-Joseph Natoire
The creation of the portrait of the Dauphin Louis, son of Louis XV (1729-1765), preserved at Versailles (MV 3791), was the result of several preparatory drawings currently kept in different institutions. These show the evolution of Natoire’s composition and the Dauphin’s silhouette. However, for this painting, Natoire probably used a 1746 pastel work by Maurice-Quentin de La Tour, currently kept in the Antoine-Lécuyer Museum in Saint-Quentin, as a model, but with the figure turned to the left. The painter did many preparatory drawings for most of his compositions, using different styles and techniques for the same subject. Although he had a predilection for charcoal, he also used red chalk and pen to detail a composition over an initial charcoal outline. He used wash, trois crayons and finally watercolour to create more spectacular representations. The use of yellow or blue paper, which interacts with the wash, brought nuance to the contrasts and was an integral part of the process. This drawing, acquired at public auction, testifies to the liveliness of Natoire's technique, the firmness of his line and the methodical composition of the painting. A particularly fine example, it complements the only two other drawings by the artist conserved at the Palace de Versailles: an early sketch for Youth and Virtue presenting two princesses to France (V.2014.15) and the large watercolour of the Allegory for the birth of the Duke of Burgundy (INV.DESS 1264).
Socialism and Cholera
By Horace Vernet
In an apocalyptic decor, at the foot of a guillotine, a mysterious looking young man in Asian dress with a whip with thongs and balls, Cholera, is playing a flute made of a tibia while leaning against the skeletal figure of Death with his wings spread out. Draped in black and armed with his scythe, the latter is holding the red standard of the Social Republic and is reading the paper Le Peuple. He also symbolises socialism. In the background are two monks hanging from a cross. In the larger, engraved version by Jazet, the foreground is filled with corpses and symbols of France slaughtered, fully justifying its title: Plagues of the 19th century, Socialism and Cholera, the death of the Republic. Very different to the large paintings commissioned from Vernet during the Restoration and the July Monarchy, this small, allegorical satire of the plagues of the 1848 revolution illustrates, for the first time in the collections of Versailles, the many private orders received by the artist, in a much freer and sometimes very grating vein. The first known owner of this work, which is exceptional in every respect, was Anatole Demidoff, the husband of Princess Mathilde, cousin of Prince-President Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte.
Marie-Antoinette’s service “with pearls and cornflowers”
The Sèvres Manufacture
Commissioned by Marie-Antoinette in July 1781 for the Petit Trianon, the service “with pearls and cornflowers” and its 295 pieces was the largest ever requested by the queen.
This service is a true masterpiece by the Manufacture de Sèvres, which required some 20 painters and several gilders to make it. It stands out for its refined decoration with perfectly harmonious colours dominated by blue, green and white highlighted by gold painted lines. The 295 pieces are each decorated with a design of sprigs and bouquets of cornflowers highlighted by two rows of pearls painted on a green background.
Figure of Apollo
By Noël Coypel
In a neutral space, Noël Coypel sketched the young god’s face framed by curls and drafted the chest and arm holding a barely-hinted-at lyre. With just a few lines, he endowed his subject with a majestic presence and pose thanks to the sparce hatching that brings out the chest. In addition to the treatment of the drapery, we can see other features characteristic of Coypel’s work here: angular fingers, thick and muscular hands and arms and a certain imbalance in the posture. In the original painting, commissioned by Louis XIV in 1700 and now displayed in the Emperor’s Private Apartment in the Grand Trianon, Coypel used the same position for the god, with just a slight difference in the hanging and spread of his cloak (MV 6112). The elegance of the face is transformed into a serene, delicate and somewhat idealised image, in line with the spirit of the place for which it was made: the Marble Trianon. With its features characteristic of Noël Coypel’s style, this preparatory drawing for one of the paintings on the iconic theme of the Trianon decor under Louis XIV has found its rightful place in the graphic arts department of Versailles. It gives us a better understanding of the different stages leading to the overall composition of Apollo and the snake Python, in complement to a different idea that was rejected by the king in 1688 (INV.DESS 1206), and exemplifies a type of drawing by Coypel not previously included in the Versailles collections: the lone figure.
The Countess of Artois’ service “with pearls and cornflowers”
The Sèvres Manufacture
The decoration is composed of a bouquet in a medallion and sprigs of little cornflowers on a white background, each framed by two rows of purple pearls. The composition of this service seems to complement the one bought by the Countess’ sister, the Countess of Provence, in 1781, which may testify to the lives of Marie-Antoinette’s sisters-in-law, who frequently organised meals together. The services can be distinguished by sight variations in the design, mainly in the size of the bouquet in the medallion, as well as their date of manufacture.
Watercolour of Louis XIV and his court ascending the Hundred Steps at Versailles
By Eugène Lami
This watercolour showing Louis XIV and his Court ascending the Hundred Steps fits in with the historicist and gallant vein that characterised the second part of Eugène Lami’s career. As explained by Valérie Bajou: “between 1874 and 1876, Lami produced several watercolours dedicated to the reception of the Prince of Condé by Louis XIV. On the steps in the park of Versailles, the king, surrounded by his Court, receives the Grand Condé who is presenting the flags taken from the English and the Dutch at the Battle of Seneffe. The work was executed quickly, with no contours and with highlights that give it all its energy; the brushwork, using scumbling of greys, yellows and pinks, strengthens the impression of depth. The light is distributed in a dramatic way, with a surprising slant of shadow on the facade of the War Room, while the figures are lit in full”. Until now, the Palace of Versailles had no picture of this kind in its collections. Lami’s oeuvre was well represented by his battle paintings, but the Palace had only one of the large watercolours of contemporary scenes for which he was famous: Dinner given by Emperor Napoleon III for Queen Victoria in the Opera House of Versailles, on 25 August 1855 (INV.DESS 768). The purchase of this large-scale watercolour at public auction makes it possible to evoke the Versailles vein of this artist’s work.
2022
Portrait of Henrietta of England
By Jean Nocret
This painting complements a fine collection of works by Jean Nocret, official painter to the Sun King’s brother. Made in particularly bright colours, the painting represents Henrietta of England, the first wife of Philippe of Orléans, Louis XIV’s brother, floating in the sky and throwing flowers to mortals. The iconography may be that of Flora or, more likely, Aurora, the goddess who heralded dawn and announced the break of day, in which case the flowers would be a reference to the morning dew.
The portrait was hung in the Louis XIV rooms in the Palace on 27 June.
This purchase was made possible thanks to the patronage of Ms Campbell-Pretty.
“Flying dragon” sled
After Jean Bérain
Donated by the Dalva Brothers Gallery in New York, this sled joins the exceptional collection of six sleds commissioned during the reign of Louis XV, kept in the Gallery of Coaches at the Palace of Versailles. This type of sled, used for outings on the snowy paths during harsh winters, would have been drawn by a horse with studded shoes and dressed in an elegant caparison decorated with gold and silver bells, driven by a manservant who was half-sitting half-standing on the back seat, while a lady sat inside.
The sled owes its name to the large, superbly carved chimera that forms the body, which has the head of a menacing dragon, the wings of an eagle and the body of a griffin. Standing firmly on its hind legs and clasping two spheres in its dewclaws, the dragon is supported in its momentum by two large carved dolphins. The presence of two large dolphins on the base and the fleur-de-lis and intertwined Ls on the carved decor has led to the suggestion that this sled was made for Monseigneur. Although this is likely the case, the current state of research is unable to confirm with certitude that the sled was designed for the Grand Dauphin.
Plate from the French iconographic service: Guillaume de La Mothe-Piquet
The Sèvres Manufacture
Commissioned under Louis XVIII, the “French iconographic service” was delivered to the king’s brother and successor Charles X for the Grand Trianon palace in 1824. It originally included 90 plates, 2 sugar bowls, 24 footed plates and 16 fruit dishes in four different forms. The plates were all based on the same design. The border is painted with gold-marbled lapis lazuli framed by “grecques” and a frieze of leaves. The centres of the plates display portraits of great men from the 17th and 18th centuries, including military men, ministers, scientists and artists. The name and dates of the figures displayed are written on the backs of the plates, which makes it easy to identify them.
This plate purchased in 2022 shows Toussaint-Guillaume Picquet de la Motte, known as La Motte-Piquet, a Lieutenant-General of the Navy who took part in many naval battles.
Portrait of Jean-Benjamin de la Borde, First Valet de Chambre to the King
Louis-Carrogis, known as Carmontelle
This purchase was made thanks to the patronage of the Friends of Versailles Society.
Jean-Benjamin de La Borde (1734 -1797), appointed First Valet de Chambre to King Louis XV in 1762 and governor of the Louvre, is shown sitting down in front of the famous astronomical clock designed by Claude-Siméon Passemant (1743) and placed in the King’s Private Apartment in 1754. The clock is shown complete, with its gilded bronze case - a rococo masterpiece by Jacques Caffieri - and its marble pedestal.
In this fine watercolour work, La Borde holds a key in his left hand, no doubt evoking his position as governor of the Louvre.
Louis Carrogis, known as Carmontelle, was an 18th-century portraitist and a man of the world. Here, he indirectly represents a member of Louis XV’s inner circle of which only two engraved portraits were previously known. Appreciated by the nobility for his quickness of mind, Carmontelle made 700 watercolour portraits during the 1760s, 70s and 80s. Baron Grimm praised his “talent for singularly capturing the air, posture and spirit of the figure more than the resemblance of the features”. His models, who included men and women of all classes, were almost always depicted in profile and were associated with objects or ornaments that evoked their tastes or personality.
Presumed portrait of Philippine-Elisabeth d'Orléans, Mademoiselle de Beaujolais
Jean-Marc Nattier
Philippine Élisabeth Charlotte d'Orléans, known as Mademoiselle de Beaujolais, was one of the daughters of the regent, Philippe d'Orléans. The nephew of Louis XIV, the latter became regent of the kingdom until the future Louis XV came of age. Mademoiselle de Beaujolais’s mother was Françoise-Marie de Bourbon, the legitimated daughter of Louis XIV.
This painting is somewhere between portraiture and history painting: Love with sheet music gives the work an allegorical meaning, while Mademoiselle de Beaujolais is represented as the muse of music. Highly realistic, the portrait is also firmly anchored in its time by the presence of the guitar, which was particularly popular in salons in the 18th century. The one here in the young woman’s hands is particularly elaborate, with five courses, lateral strips probably made of tortoiseshell and a headstock with alternating ivory and ebony inlays.
Portrait of Catherine Duchemin, flower painter, at her easel
Catherine Duchemin (1630-1698) is renowned as being the first female painter to be admitted to the Académie Royale, on 14 April 1663. The meagreness of her body of work did not prevent her from going down in history as the first woman member of the Académie, while her features are known thanks to this painting that entered the collections of the Palace of Versailles in 2022.
Typical of portraits of artists from this period, the painting portrays her in front of her easel, palette and brushes in hand, with a table beside her on which sits a bunch of poppies and a double anemone that she is in the process of painting. The composition exudes great elegance, both in the artist’s refined pose and in the setting proposed by the painter, with a low wall and green drapery revealing a mountain landscape in the background. While this portrait leaves some questions unanswered, it is nonetheless a landmark work in 17th-century French painting that fits perfectly into the collection of portraits of Académie members conserved at Versailles.
Prince Albert led by the Prince of Joinville and the Dukes of Nemours and Montpensier at the review of the 1st Carabiniers Regiment, near the Château d’Eu, 5 September 1843
Hippolyte Bellangé
Queen Victoria’s trip to France, to the Château d’Eu, in September 1843, was made at the monarch’s own initiative and remained a private affair due to political tension between the British and French governments at the time. Nevertheless, it was the first visit to France by a reigning British sovereign since the meeting between Henry VIII and Francis I on the Field of the Cloth of Gold in June 1520. To commemorate this historic visit, King Louis-Philippe invited artists to the event and commissioned paintings and watercolours, which he presented to the queen in an album the following year. He also added a new room to the Château d’Eu on the garden side, which he named the “Victoria Gallery”, which was lit by a roof light and was entirely decorated with the paintings in question.
The artist, Hippolyte Bellangé (1800-1866), devoted himself almost entirely to military subjects and was one of the greatest battle painters of his time. This painting, of which the commission and Orléans family provenance is perfectly documented, joins 15 other paintings of Queen Victoria’s first visit to France already conserved at Versailles, as well as a dozen others showing subsequent reciprocal visits between the two sovereigns, in 1844 and 1845.
Madame Du Barry’s small service “with putti”: shell fruit dish
The Sèvres Manufacture
This shell-shaped fruit dish is part of a dinner service delivered to Madame Du Barry on 1st September 1770 by the Royal Sèvres Porcelain Manufacture. It was a small dinner service “with a starry blue ground with Children”, intended for two people and included no more than 37 pieces, including two plates currently kept in the British royal collections. The pieces of this service are all entirely decorated with a “Taillandier” sky blue starry ground with medallions featuring allegories with small Putti in landscapes and trophies. The cartouches are framed by gilded lines and branches of myrtle leaves.
Table en chiffonnière
Under the direction of Dominique Daguerre
Made under the direction of Parisian decorative-arts purveyor Dominique Daguerre (ca. 1725-1796), this circular table en chiffonnière was a personal acquisition by Marie-Joséphine of Savoy (1753-1810), Countess of Provence. Characteristic of the highly luxurious works produced under the direction of Parisian purveyors, it was made by Adam Weisweiler (1744-1820), who inserted two plates supplied by the Royal Sèvres Porcelain Manufacture, under the supervision of Daguerre.
The princess intended this little table for her rooms in the Palace of Versailles, but the royal family left Versailles for Paris in October 1789, and the Count and Countess of Provence moved into the Hôtel du Petit Luxembourg. A precise description of this item appears in the revolutionary inventory of the residence when the princely couple's possessions were seized after they emigrated.
Fire screen
Tilliard père et fils
This curved fire screen in the late Rococo style displays a decorative blend typical of the new Neoclassical aesthetic of the mid-1760s: chutes of flowers hanging from a patera over the runners, the foliage crowning the centre of the frame, and the empty cartouches decorating the joints of the stand, reminiscent of Mannerist strapwork. The use of Neoclassical elements in a carved frame testifies to a phase that reached its peak around 1770. The work of Tilliard père et fils, both ordinary cabinet-makers to the Royal Furniture Treasury, was part of this innovative trend.
The letter W painted in ink under the bottom crosspiece of this finely carved screen proves that it was used in the rooms at Versailles upon its delivery. It was included in Queen Marie-Antoinette’s private furniture treasury, of which it bears the circular branded mark (added in 1784), but its style and ornamentation make it quite certain that it was commissioned by an unidentified person before Marie-Antoinette came to France for her marriage to the Dauphin in May 1770.
“Attributes and redcurrants” service from the Petit Trianon: pair of oil dishes
The Sèvres Manufacture
This pair of oil dishes was probably part of the first delivery of the “attributes and redcurrants” service in December 1763, which included “two oil dishes” at 48 Livres each. They were designed to hold a pair of oil and vinegar cruets. Of a slightly curved, oblong shape, each piece displays a wreath of flowers in the centre and two trophies on the rims alternating with redcurrants painted in gold, all framed by lobes formed by a thin blue line with leaves. The outer gilding displays a wolf's teeth motif.
This service purchased by Louis XV was no doubt intended for the Cool Pavilion or the dining room in the French Pavilion. It was later used in the Petit Trianon and the Palace of Versailles.
Portrait of Etienne François de Choiseul-Beaupré Stainville, Duke of Choiseul
Adélaïde Labille-Guiard
This painting showcases both the talent of portraitist Adélaïde Labille-Guiard (1749-1803) and a key figure during the reign of Louis XV: the Duke of Choiseul. After training as a painter under François-André Vincent, Labille-Guiard was admitted to the Académie de Saint-Luc in 1769 then the Académie Royale in 1783. The protégé of Madame de Pompadour, the Count of Stainville embarked on a military career, rising to the rank of Lieutenant General in the king's armies. Appointed French ambassador to the Holy See in Rome and then Vienna, he received the title of Duke of Choiseul-Amboise in 1758. He was appointed Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs (1758-1761) then for the Navy (1761-1766) and for War (1761-1770), and reformed the two latter ministries. Madame Du Barry, to whom he had spoken undiplomatically, played a role in his eviction from the court at the end of 1770, forcing him into exile in his estate of Chanteloup, near Amboise. On the accession of Louis XVI, Choiseul was allowed to return to Paris, where he died on 8 May 1785.
While respecting the codes of the ceremonial portrait, the artist here uses subtle variations. The Duke of Choiseul's relaxed attitude is clearly visible: his breeches are untied at the knee, several buttons on his waistcoat are undone, and his body is slightly slumped. The elegantly knotted tie, the lace on the ruffle and the shirt sleeves protruding from the suit all contribute to the naturalness of the effigy. An extraordinary air emanates from this portrait, in which the Duke of Choiseul’s spirit and gaiety are clearly visible. The artist finished this portrait after the model's death in 1786.
Abundance distributing her gifts over the Earth
Lambert Sigisbert Adam
Commissioned by Louis XV for his Choisy residence, this major work was made by Lambert Sigisbert Adam between 1753 and 1758 and then completed by his nephews. Abundance was intended to feature in a “Peace Grove” designed by Charles Antoine Coypel to celebrate the second Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) which ended the War of the Austrian Succession. Of the five sculptures commissioned for this grove, this allegory of renewed prosperity under the auspices of the peace-making king was the only one that was finished.
In accordance with Cesare Ripa’s Iconologia, Adam represented the allegory of Abundance as a woman crowned with a garland of flowers and holding a horn of plenty from which bunches of raisins, peaches and ears of corn are spilling out. Fruit and flowers cover the base, which is also strewn with coins and jewels
Zephyr and Flora
Philippe Bertrand, René Frémin and Jacques Bousseau
Commissioned by Louis XIV for the gardens of the Grand Trianon, this sculptural group was the last masterpiece of the monarch’s reign. Begun in 1713 by Philippe Bertrand and René Frémin and completed by Jacques Bousseau in 1726, the work was intended for the groves of Trianon, which were designed for the almost exclusive use of the Sun King and decorated with numerous sculptures.
The iconography of Zephyr and Flora is in keeping with the floral and amorous themes typical of the Grand Trianon, then a pleasure residence. Airborne and seeming to emerge from light clouds, Zephyr pays homage to Flora by sprinkling her with flowers. The god of the west wind is represented in all his beauty, as is Flora, goddess of flowers and spring, whose charms were sung of by Ovid. A chubby laughing putto presides over this meeting, sealing the beneficial alliance between the west wind and spring, the guarantee of blossoming and renewal after winter.
The “Recovered Masterpieces” exhibition
The two statues were placed in the gardens of the Château of Ménars (near Blois). When the sculptures from the park and Château of Ménars were dispersed in 1881, the works were bought by Alphonse de Rothschild and placed in his Parisian townhouse on Rue Saint-Florentin. During the Occupation, when the Rothschilds’ possessions were plundered, the two works were indicated to be in the Royal Tennis Court by Rose Valland. Returned after the war, they were placed in the garden of the Ephrussi de Rothschild townhouse in Paris, which became the headquarters of the Embassy of Angola in France in 1979.
return to versailles
Considering the historical value of the two sculptures for French heritage, the Republic of Angola decided to donate them to France in 2022 for the Palace of Versailles. Replicas made by the casts and moulds studio of the Réunion des Musées Nationaux, thanks to the support of Fondation TotalEnergies, were installed in the gardens of the embassy.
Pair of folding stools
Nicolas Quinibert Foliot
These two folding stools belonged to a set of twelve that were part of the winter furniture destined for the young Countess of Artois’ bedchamber at Versailles. New furniture had been ordered for the Count and Countess of Artois’ apartment, then located on the first floor of the South Wing, in the current location of the Battle Gallery.
Architect and Designer for the Royal Furniture Treasury Jacques Gondoin (1737-1816) developed the prototype of this etiquette seat for the Dauphine Marie-Antoinette in 1769, and variations of it were used in the official rooms of the princely apartments. In the Transition style, the folding stools feature runners decorated with acanthus leaves and seeds still in the rococo style, with legs adorned with twisted fluting and elongated waterleaf motifs in a new style. They were restored in 1788 by gilder Louis-François Chatard (ca. 1749-1819), following order no. 191 of 28 June by the Royal Furniture Treasury.
Louis XV’s “pink hunting” service: mustard pot with lid
The Sèvres Manufacture
This mustard pot and its dish are part of a service described as “pink with hunting attributes” or “pink landscape”. The set was designed for two people and was delivered by the Royal Manufacture in December 1759 to Madame Lair, a Parisian decorative-arts purveyor who probably sold it to Louis XV at an unknown date. It included 12 plates with small lobes, a mustard pot and lid at 120 Livres, a butter dish, and oil holder, six fruit dishes, a sugar bowl with its tray, two wine bottle coolers, two half-size wine bottle coolers, two king’s liqueur-bottle coolers, an oval liqueur-bottle cooler, two glass coolers, six ice cream cups, a Bouret tray, four Roussel trays and a chestnut dish with a tray.
Louis XVI ordered a new lid which can now be seen on this mustard pot, which explains the difference in the treatment of the landscapes and the pink ground.
Pair of gaines
André-Charles Boulle
The son of Louis XIV and Marie-Theresa, the Grand Dauphin inherited his father's taste for collecting. Throughout his life, he collected paintings by the masters, porcelains, hardstone vases, crystals, small bronzes and precious furniture. He is known for his admiration of the works of André-Charles Boulle, the emblematic cabinetmaker of the Louis XIV era, from whom he commissioned a series of nine pedestals for his rooms at Versailles in 1684. These items were probably in the Grand Dauphin's famous Mirror Room. Located at one end of the prince’s apartment, this room housed no less than 550 objets d’art. It was decorated with fine panelling by Boulle and had luxurious marquetry flooring, which was begun by Pierre Gole (1620-1684) and completed by Boulle. Mirrors set in gilded copper rods covered the walls.
Today, the only known items from this collection are a pair of pedestals in the Victoria & Albert Museum in London and the pair acquired by the Palace of Versailles in 2022. The pair acquired by Versailles is typical of their maker’s style. Three of the sides are decorated with a fine marquetry of brass, pewter, tortoise shell and stained horn. The front is topped by a gilded bronze mascaron in the form of a bacchante with plaits tied in a knot under her face, while the sides are adorned with satyrs' heads.
2021
The Palace of Versailles recently added to its collection of 17th century paintings with the acquisition of seven works by leading artists Charles Le Brun, Jean-Baptiste de Champaigne and Jean Nocret, among others.
This set of portraits and allegories provides valuable insight into the history of both French portraiture and the decor at the Palace of Versailles. Following their restoration, they are now on display to the public in Louis XIV’s room and the historic galleries at the Palace.
Portrait of the Dauphine Marie-Antoinette
Louis-Joseph-Siffrède Duplessis
This acquisition was made possible thanks to the patronage of the Society of Friends of Versailles.
At the suggestion of Jean-Baptiste Marie Pierre, First Painter to the king and director of the Royal Academy of Painting, Joseph Siffred Duplessis was invited to create a likeness of Marie Antoinette in 1771. His study of the face is undoubtedly the work of a master artist, but, unfortunately, it failed to please the subject herself. Even though the face is more flattering than in the preliminary sketch, the features softer and the hairstyle neat and intricate, the Dauphine did not like the image at all and dismissed its natural look. Duplessis, a real expert in capturing likenesses, knew too well how to depict the key features of Marie Antoinette’s appearance: the bulging eyes, the rounded forehead, the Austrian lip, the prominent Habsburg chin. In the subject’s own opinion, the effect of these was not lessened by the remarkable bearing of the head, the freshness of the complexion and the powdered blond hair.
Optical microscope
Claude-Siméon Passemant, Jacques and Philippe Caffieri (bronzework)
This acquisition was made possible thanks to the patronage of the L’Oréal company.
This famous tripod microscope is one of only six documented examples in the world. This rare instrument combines the most advanced technology at the time with artistic perfection. Commissioned by Louis XV from Claude-Siméon Passemant, it consists of a cylindrical body formed by two tubes – one inside the other – with which the focus is adjusted. The body of the microscope rests on an impressive pedestal made from sculpted and gilded bronze, formed by three openwork supports featuring rococo scrolls and foliage curls, clasps and inserts attributed to Jacques Caffieri, who would have worked on them with his son, Philippe.
It is an example of technical prowess of which few mechanical engineers were capable. An object like this required perfect symbiosis between the mechanic and the bronzeworker, as the bronze elements are not merely decorative but also structural, ensuring the stability of the device and the precision necessary for scientific observation. These features make this microscope an iconic work in the king’s personal collections.
Bust of Jules Breton, painter and poet
Jean-Joseph Carriès, Pierre Bingen
It was most likely while attending the 1881 Salon that Jules Breton, a key figure on the Parisian art scene, noticed Carriès talent and promptly commissioned him to produce this bronze likeness. An initial version, created in 1881, depicted the painter bareheaded (Paris, Musée d’Orsay, RF 3450). It seems Breton did not like this overly simplistic portrayal as the following spring, the sculptor produced a second, more accomplished version “without a sitter”. It shows the painter wearing a hat and smock and, this time, it met with the approval of its subject.
The casting of the bust was assigned to Pierre Bingen. The supremely detailed work is a wonderful study of contrasts between the bushy beard, smooth cheeks and wrinkled eyes. The patina, Bingen’s speciality, is intense, its green tint sometimes reflecting more tawny hues. Finally, the inscription on the back is evidence of the links between the sculptor and the Breton family.
Roll-top desk belonging to the Dauphine Marie-Josèphe de Saxe
Jean-François Oeben, Jean-Henri Riesener
This acquisition was made possible thanks to the bequest of Madame Jeanne Heymann.
This small desk dates from a few years after the “King’s desk” commission in 1760 and, unlike the furniture produced for Louis XV, it features a bare minimum of bronze elements. Intended to be placed in the centre of the room, the item is decorated on all sides with marquetry panels of flowers framed in rosewood. In the central part of the roll-top is a motif representing lyrical poetry – a common feature in the work of the cabinetmaker, Jean-Henri Riesener.
This acquisition is all the more significant because it is the last roll-top desk of royal origin to remain in private hands. All the others made by Riesener, after he took over Oeben’s workshop in 1763, are held in public collections.
Discover the Dauphine’s Private Chamber
Corner cabinets
Martin Carlin
This acquisition was made possible thanks to the patronage of the Fondation La Marck.
The simple and elegant features of these corner cabinets showcase the sophistication of the details that are characteristic of Martin Carlin’s style. Their compact size made them suitable for rooms with a mezzanine, whether the rooms on the first floor or those on the second, or a room granted to a member of the household. The corner cabinets, which bear Carlin’s stamp, were undoubtedly delivered to him by the decorative-arts purveyor Simon-Philippe Poirier, as their style precludes an earlier date.
This acquisition documents a little-known side of the work of Martin Carlin, whose most significant output includes the precious furniture items decorated with plaques of Sevres porcelain or lacquered panels. The acquisition also adds to the body of knowledge about Marie-Antoinette’s favourite furniture provider.
Single plate from Louis XVI’s mythology dinner service
Sèvres Royal Manufactory, Pierre-André and Etienne-Henry Le Guay
This acquisition was made possible thanks to the bequest of Madame Jeanne Heymann.
The first batch of the “beau bleu” (dark blue) mythology service was delivered to Louis XVI in 1783. It is the best known of all those made by the Sevres Royal Manufactory in the 18th century. In all, 200 items were produced for the service, although 400 were originally planned. Around 150 still exist today, most of which have been held at Windsor Castle since the start of the reign of George IV (1762–1830).
In the centre of this plate is a scene from Ovid’s Metamorphoses, in which Coronis, pursued by Neptune, is transformed into a crow by Minerva. The scenes painted in the four roundels on the lip are inspired by prints illustrating Roman history in the form of figures. The dark-blue lip is embellished with gold-painted garlands of leaves and vines. Each roundel is bordered by a wide rim of gold. The one surrounding the central medallion is engraved with the markings of a piaster coin, reminiscent of the gilding on Louis XV’s main service.
Discover the Porcelain Room
View of the Merry-go-Round Game from the gallery and one of the façades of the Palace
Claude-Louis Châtelet
This painting is one of the few depictions of the Chinese merry-go-round game – one of the first things Marie Antoinette ordered to be built at her new estate, The Petit Trianon. The game, a legacy from medieval tournaments, involved metal rings (the “bagues” of the game’s title in French) being lifted up by a lance suspended from a type of gallows. The central column, comprising Chinese figures made from gilded wood, was topped with a metal parasol decorated with a frieze and to which wooden eggs and small metal bells were attached, as were dragon’s heads, from which the rings descended. The whole set-up was surrounded by a “Chinese” gallery for the spectators who observed the game. It could be accessed from the Palace via a semi-underground passageway. The roof was decorated with gilded garlands of flowers and fruit, and green- and vermilion-painted latticework.
Portrait of the Dauphin, son of Louis XIV
Jean Nocret
Donation of M. Edouard de Royère via the Society of Friends of Versailles
This portrait is one of few depictions of the dauphin, son of Louis XIV, aged two or three years. The young boy’s status explains the size of this commissioned work, which is significant for a portrait of one so young. It is a full-length portrayal of the dauphin, who is playing with some flowers and wearing a blue tunic with the cross of the Order of the Holy Spirit, which was given to him at the time of his birth. Restoration work on the painting revealed the presence, next to the child, of a crown decorated with dolphins, thus confirming the identity of the subject.
Portrait assumed to be of the Duchess of Longueville
Simon Vouet's entourage
This painting depicts a woman dressed as Timocleia of Thebes, whose fate was described by Plutarch and Quintus Curtius. During the capture of the city, she was raped by a captain in Alexander the Great’s army. She managed to convince him that all her riches were hidden in a well, into which she then pushed him and had him stoned to death by her servants. Subsequently imprisoned, she was released by the Macedonian king, who ordered his troops never to commit such crimes again.
This work is a rare example of the practice of producing a portrait by studio, as followed by Simon Vouet, one of the greatest painters of his time, and it may be the work of his pupil, Charles Poerson. The portrait completes the collection of works dating from the reign of Anne of Austria held at the Palace and now joins them in the first of the Louis XIV rooms.
The various nations
Charles Le Brun
This acquisition was made possible partly thanks to the patronage of the Fondation La Marck in 2020.
These two paintings are wonderful examples of the décor of the Palace of Versailles’ monumental “Ambassadors’ staircase”, which no longer exists. Designed by Louis Le Vau, it was built between 1674 and 1679, and destroyed in 1752.
The decor, created by Charles Le Brun, First Painter to the king, was divided over three levels. On the second level, the walls were decorated with a series of alternating solid paintings and mock open windows. Trompe-l’oeil tapestries illustrating victorious battles alternated with fake loggias, in which stood figures symbolising the nations from four continents. These figures were depicted standing between two columns under an open sky and leaning on a balustrade covered with heavy drapery. These two works belong to this set.
Restoration work on the canvases brought out their pictorial quality, revealing Le Brun’s inventive genius and his idiosyncrasies, such as the quickly captured expressive faces, the barely outlined silhouettes in the background, the coloured haloes emphasising the contours of the turbaned heads and the drapery, which helps structure the space.
Spain defeated
Charles Le Brun
This painting is the sketch for “L’Espagne défaite” (Spain defeated), one of the arches painted by Charles Le Brun for the War Room.
In 1678, Jules Hardouin-Mansart started constructing the Hall of Mirrors and the War Room and Peace Room. Charles Le Brun was given the task of decorating them and chose, as his subject, the Franco-Dutch War (1672–1678). The Dutch had a vast European coalition on their side, including the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation (Germany) and Spain.
This canvas is thought to date from the early stages of the construction project, around 1684–1685. It was undoubtedly produced for the king and for Colbert. The vibrancy of the colours, the lightness of touch and the swiftness of the movements are all characteristic of Le Brun’s sketches. There are subtle differences between the sketch and the final composition on the ceiling. The latter is more accomplished and the theme of war is more pronounced.
Two designs for the ceiling in the Hercules Room
Jean-Baptiste de Champaigne
Jean-Baptiste de Champaigne, the talented nephew of Philippe de Champaigne, was commissioned in 1672 to paint the whole of the ceiling of the Mercury Room, in the King’s State Apartment. The artist featured Augustus, Alexander and Ptolemy Philadelphus as allusions to the deeds and majesty of Louis XIV. The canvases allude to the scientific advances linked to the conquests of far-off lands, drawing an analogy with the activities of the sovereign on various continents.
The Palace of Versailles acquired two preliminary canvases for this decor. These add to the body of knowledge about the ceiling in the Mercury Room and complete the sketch for the central section, “le Triomphe de Mercure sur son char” (Mercury triumphant on his chariot), which is already held by the Palace of Versailles. These works join the collection of other sketches and designs for the Saturn and Jupiter ceilings already on display in the Historic Galleries of the Palace.
2020
Georges Mareschal - First King's surgeon (1658-1736)
François Girardon
The portrait of the surgeon Georges Mareschal is undoubtedly the last portrait sculpted by François Girardon. Born in 1658 of an Irish father, Georges Mareschal had the opportunity from 1696 to treat Louis XIV, and was present at his bedside on the evening of his life. In addition, Mareschal was at the origin, with Lapeyronie, of the creation of the Royal Academy of Surgery in 1731.
Self-portrait
François- Marius Granet
After spending 20 years in Rome where he specialised in depictions of interiors and monasteries, François-Marius Granet was appointed curator of paintings at the Palace of Versailles in 1833, with the support of the Count of Forbin, then director of the Louvre. This self-portrait was painted towards the end of the artist’s life and provides an insight into his inner world, with his black skullcap and brown coat reminding us of a Capuchin friar’s habit.
The Château of Choisy-le-Roi, Courtyard side
Alexis-Nicolas Pérignon
This gouache painting is generally attributed to Alexis-Nicolas Pérignon, a veduta painter of the second half of the 18th century, whose best-known works include the landscapes of the Château of Chanteloup, owned by the Duke of Choiseul. This gouache painting is a rare testimony to the state of the royal residence of Choisy after the modernisation works carried out by Ange-Jacques Gabriel between 1740 and 1777.
Head study of “The Love of Virtue” in the “Apotheosis of Hercules”
François Lemoyne
Of the 142 figures that make up the Apotheosis of Hercules, a painted ceiling completed by François Lemoyne in 1736, some of the preparatory sheets survive, including this study for “The Love of Virtue”. This is a central figure of the ceiling, as the angel is between the hero-turned-demigod, and Jupiter introducing him to his daughter, which explains the care taken with this sheet in trois crayons and pastel highlights. With this work, Lemoyne proves that he belongs among the finest pastel artists of his time.
Pair of vases with “lion heads”
Manufacture de Sèvres, Antoine-Jospeh Chappuis (porcelain painter)
This pair of vases said to have "lion heads" with a mosaic background and a Chinese landscape and bird depictions was acquired by Louis XVI in 1780, along with two other “garden vases”, before being taken away from Versailles at the end of the Ancien Régime. The "garden" vases were acquired by Versailles in 1998, and these four porcelain pieces, emblems from Louis XVI's collection, have now been reunited.
Sèvres plates
Manufacture de Sèvres, Adèle-Jospeh Carré (turner)
These 24 porcelain plates are decorated with a polychrome floral decor and gold rinceaux. They were acquired at a public sale and were a part of King Louis-Philippe's tableware, delivered to the Trianon in 1847. These pieces are now on display in Louis-Philippe's recently refurbished Grand Trianon apartment.
Photography of the Hôtel du Grand Contrôle
Donated by Alain Roger-Ravily
Donated by Alain Roger-Ravily, this shot of the Orangery Parterre and Hôtel du Grand Contrôle was taken during the Second Empire and is part of a batch of twenty stereoscopic shots. These prints, along with the 296 views present in the museum's photographic collections, document the history of the architecture of the Palace of Versailles.
“Ricordi” paintings
Charles Le Brun
These two small paintings are fascinating testimonies to the decor of the King's Grand Staircase or Ambassadors' Staircase, one of the most famous in the Palace of Versailles, which was completed by Charles Le Brun in 1679 and destroyed in 1752. The nations of Asia and Africa could be found on the vestibule side. These two paintings would appear to be ricordi or souvenirs, elaborated by the artist.
This acquisition was made in part thanks to the patronage of the La Marck Foundation.
Candelabras
Claude Quentin Pitoin
These acanthus-leaf ribbed candelabras are inspired by those delivered in 1781 by Claude Quentin Pitoin for Marie Antoinette's Méridienne Room, now kept at the Getty Museum in Los Angeles.
Le Beau garçon, or Le Favori de la fortune
John Seally
This book by English author and journalist John Seally (1742-1795) was acquired thanks to the donation of Mr Plouseau and Mr Caramelle, through the Friends of Versailles Society, and was included in the catalogue of Marie-Antoinette’s books, drawn up from 1781. It shows the Queen's taste for literature from across the English Channel.
View and perspective of Leto’s Fountain
Louis-Rémy Robert
From a series of seven glass negatives representing Versailles in the early 1850s, this view of Leto’s Fountain by Louis-Rémy Robert (1811-1882) reflects the beginnings of a new technique, fifty years before Eugene Atget.
2019
The Abduction of a Sabine Woman
Antonio Susini
After featuring in the collections of Louis XIV’s son, the Grand Dauphin, at the Palace of Versailles, this bronze sculpted group depicting The Abduction of a Sabine Woman joined the collections of the Crown. It testifies to the pronounced taste of members of the Royal Family, including Louis XIV, for small bronzes copied or derived from models created in Italy. This group boasts an exceptional quality of casting and chiselling and is based on the marble model sculpted by Giambologna in the early 1580s. During his lifetime, Giambologna distributed his art by taking part in the production of bronzes of his own compositions, thus supplying the collections of European art lovers. This piece was sold off during the Revolution, but its purchase was made possible thanks to the bequest of Mrs. Jeanne Heymann.
Round dish of Louis XV's table set with France’s coat of arms
Jingdezhen Manufacture (China)
This Qianlong-era Chinese porcelain dish, painted and gilded with the King’s coat of arms (a crest with France’s coat of arms with a crown and the chains of the orders of Saint Michael and the Holy Spirit), was commissioned by Louis XV in 1738 through the French East India Company. This table set was probably intended for the new dining rooms built in 1735 on the second and third floors of the King's Chambers at the Palace of Versailles. It is currently on display in the newly-created Porcelain Cabinet.
Review of the King’s Household at Trou d’Enfer
Jean-Baptiste “Louis” Le Paon (drawing), Jacques-Philippe Le Bas (engraving)
This print made by etching and chiselling was donated by Mr. Alain Roger-Ravily and portrays the review of the King’s Household. Once every four years, the King would review his troops in the hamlet of Trou d’Enfer near Versailles. These reviews were public with the Court being invited and the event being described in the newspapers or memoirs of authors of the time. The drawing here was by cavalry officer Le Paon who resigned from his military career to focus on paintings of battle scenes. Jacques-Philippe Lebas (1707-1783) was one of the most prolific engravers of the 18th century.
Bergère armchair
François II Foliot (woodwork), Jacques Gondoin (design)
This golden beech bergère armchair is richly carved and decorated with natural floral motifs. It has four spiral-fluted legs and capitals with ornamental leaves. It was commissioned in 1779 by Marie-Antoinette to furnish her large private chamber and was one of the main pieces there. This piece of furniture was designed by architect Jacques Gondoin and is very refined. Once it was completed and furnished, the large private chamber boasted a subtle mix ancient classical touches and natural flower motifs.
Pair of vases
Manufacture de Sèvres, Jean-Jacques Dieu (painting on porcelain)
This pair of vases was delivered by the Manufacture de Sèvres and was acquired for 3,600 pounds by Louis XVI at the factory's annual sales at Versailles in December 1779 and January 1780. These “egg” vases were gifts from the King to his sister Madame Elisabeth and are made of hard-paste porcelain with a lilac background and Chinese decorations on a gilded bronze frame. Several plant motifs can be admired on this piece, especially in the pierced neck forming a trellis of quadrilobed petals, as well as the pineapple-shaped handle. The acquisition of this vase was made possible by the bequest of Madame Jeanne Heymann.
Alexandrine Le Normant d'Etiolles
François Boucher
This portrait, painted in 1749, entered the collections of Versailles thanks to the Society of the Friends of Versailles. It depicts Alexandrine Le Normant, the daughter of Madame de Pompadour, and is one of the few representations of Louis XV’s favourite’s only child. The painting of this portrait by François Boucher corresponded to the child's entry to the Convent of the Dames de l’Assomption on Rue Saint-Honoré in Paris, but Alexandrine died of peritonitis in June 1754, before the age of 10. The presence in this painting of a caged bird is a common feature in portraits of children under the Ancien Régime, as it underlines the ephemeral nature of this tender age.
Courteille bowl
Manufacture de Sèvres
This Courteille floral bowl, from a pair probably acquired by Louis XVI at the Versailles exhibition in December 1779, was made of soft-paste porcelain by the Manufacture de Sèvres. It is decorated with a lilac Taillandier background as well as two cartels. One side is decorated with a pastoral landscape and sheep, and the other side with a bush in flower placed on a mound and hollyhocks in front of a dolphin fountain. This pair was placed in the King’s Bath Chamber, according to the so-called 1791 inventory. This purchase at a public sale joined its counterpart which had been in the collections of Versailles since 1994.
Paul Verlaine
Louis-Eugène de Gaspary
This original plaster bust by Louis-Eugène de Gaspary is one of the few sculpted portraits of writer Paul Verlaine. The model's gaze is turned to the left, evoking the poet's inspiration. The pedestal consists of a quill placed on the right side, as well as a pile of books evoking the famous works of the artist: Poésies, Romances sans paroles, La bonne chanson, Fêtes galantes, Sagesse, Jadis et naguère, Amour. This sculpture was presented at the Salon of the Society of French Artists in 1893, where visitors did not fail to notice the strong personality of the poet, brilliantly rendered by the sculptor.
View of the Orangery
Charles Jouas
This view of the Orangery, drawn with a quill and brown ink, red chalk and pastel in around 1910 by Charles Jouas is currently on display as part of the “Versailles Revival” exhibition. Architecture is central to this artist's work: both the Cathedral of Chartres and Palace of Versailles are represented for their architectural and symbolic power. Jouas draws the decorative and architectural elements with talent and precision, and his drawings always testify to his mastery of light effects and his particular taste for unusual points of view. Through his choice of faded colours and unusual views, the places he depicts are often tinged with strangeness or mystery. This acquisition completed the purchase of the View of the Reservoirs which had been made in 2018.
Stereoscopic view of the Place d'Armes and the Palace.
This photograph, which entered the Versailles collections thanks to the donation of Mr. Alain Roger-Ravily, depicts a stereoscopic view of the Place d'Armes and the Palace, dated between 1860 and 1870. This type of work is precious for its insight into the different historical states of the King’s home: we can note that the statue of Louis XIV by Pierre Cartellier, which is now on display on the Place d’Armes, used to decorate the centre of the Royal Courtyard. Similarly, the turret built under Louis-Philippe at the corner of the Royal Courtyard, which was destroyed later, is still present here.
Chest of drawers
Bernard II Vanrisamburgh
This work by Bernard II Vanrisamburgh (1696-1766) was commissioned in 1745 for the marriage of the Dauphin, the son of Louis XV, with the Infanta of Spain Maria-Theresa Rafaela, for their new apartment located on the first floor of the South Wing. This chest of drawers with its curved shapes is composed of Japanese lacquer panels with European varnish motifs and is lavishly embellished with gilded bronzes forming large, whirling cartouches. It was delivered by Thomas-Joachim Hébert, one of the most innovative merchants of his generation. This chest of drawers is one of the most spectacular acquisitions of 2019, made possible thanks to the bequest of Madame Jeanne Heymann. It is on display in the Dauphine’s Chamber.
La Cité des eaux
Henri-François-Joseph de Régnier
This acquisition is particularly interesting in that it associates the poems of Henri de Régnier with the two sets of engravings made by artist Charles Jouas to go with them: the first printed in bistre and the second in black. This second series contains at least one engraving which was not used in the published collection: "The Music Pavilion." This volume also features a handwritten poem by Henri de Régnier, as well as fifteen drawings and sketches by Jouas, which make it a special object for book lovers. These drawings bear witness to Jouas' efforts to find the best views of the Palace of Versailles, perfecting his technique mixing pencil, red chalk, oil pastel, chalk and gouache.
Pierre de Nolhac's Academician’s Sword
Edmond Becker (goldsmith)
Pierre de Nolhac, eminent curator of the Palace of Versailles, was elected to the Académie Française on 15 June 1922 to the chair of Emile Boutroux and then received there by Maurice Donnay on 18 January 1923. This sword, made of steel and silver gilt, is decorated with a pommel cut in the round and depicting the face of Laure de Sade. There are also the coats of arms of the Nolhacs - "azur with a silver castle, with a chief gules bearing a silver star between two gold fleurs de lys". It was donated to Nolhac by the Society of the Friends of Versailles and the Academy of Moral Sciences of Letters and Arts of Seine-et-Oise, and then presented at a private ceremony at the Jacquemart-André Museum. It entered the Palace collections in 2019 thanks to a donation from the Society of Friends of Versailles.
Spain Defeated
Charles Le Brun
This painting is the sketch for Spain Defeated, one of the arches painted by Charles Le Brun for the War Room. A broad European coalition was assembled around the Dutch, including the Holy Roman Empire and Spain. This sketch reveals slight differences with the final, more accomplished composition, where the subject of war seems to have been accentuated. This work is a precious testimony to the creation of the War Room in 1684 and completes the painted series preparing the arches of this décor: Bellona in a Rage, Germany Looking at Victory with Horror and Holland Overturned on its Lion. These four paintings by Charles Le Brun are presented in the Gallery of the History of the Palace, on the ground floor of the North Wing.
2018
Flat-top desk
Bernard II Vanrisamburgh
Produced in the workshop of the cabinetmaker Bernard Vanrisamburgh (circa 1700-1766), this small flat-top desk, with three drawers, has all the stylistic features of this master craftsman who specialised in rich floral marquetry. This desk was commissioned on the occasion of the marriage of the Dauphin of France, Louis-Ferdinand, son of Louis XV, to the Infanta Maria Teresa Rafaela of Spain in 1745. In order to furnish the new apartments for the royal couple on the first floor of the South Wing, the Royal Furniture Treasury purchased new furniture, including this table-cum-desk, intended for the library, and supplied by the decorative-arts purveyor Henri Le Brun. This work was acquired as payment in kind.
Traders preparing bundles, and a Jesuit conversing with a Mandarin
The fair in the city of Nankin
Marie Leszczynska
These two works are part of a cycle of paintings from the beginning of summer 1761 by Queen Marie Leszczynska, assisted by La Roche, Frédou, Prévost and Coqueret, painters of the King’s Cabinet. The Queen was particularly interested in the history of the first missionaries to China. A first Chinese room was originally installed for Marie Leszczynska in Versailles in 1747 in what is now Marie-Antoinette's library; it was replaced by a second room in 1761, known as the “Chinese room”.
Dessert platter from Louis XV’s “Bleu celeste” (Heavenly blue) service
This dessert platter is made of porcelain with redcurrant motifs on a background of turquoise blue, a pigment that was invented by the scientist Jean Hellot. The platter was intended to be used for serving dishes between the roast meats and the desserts. It is part of the Bleu Céleste service, the first complete dinner service delivered by the Vincennes Manufacture, and of which Versailles has many pieces. This acquisition was funded by the Friends of Versailles Society through a legacy from Madame Simone Baraille.
Jug from Siam
Piece acquired in February 2018 thanks to the patronage of LVMH-Moët Hennessy-Louis Vuitton
This gilded silver jug, of Chinese origin, is decorated with chased leaf motifs, showing houses and birds in relief, and is an extremely rare piece. It was given to Louis XIV by the ambassadors of Siam during their audience with the King at Versailles in 1686, and it is the only silver item still in existence that was given as a gift to the King by the King of Siam, Phra Naraï (1633-1688) or his prime minister, Constance Phaulkon (1647-1688).
Portrait of Charles Perrault
Charles Le Brun, 1665
It was perhaps in Simon Vouet’s studio that Le Brun first learned how to use pastel, although Le Brun’s technique is closer to that introduced into France by Wallerand Vaillant: the subject’s position is a three-quarter view, the materials are delicate and applied quickly, brown background, limited colour palette (brown, white, black, red and blue). This “Portrait for friendship” is by an artist at the peak of his career, as he was appointed Painter to the King in June 1664, and shows another artist, a writer this time, but also a close collaborator of Colbert, to whom Le Brun owed his appointment. We can also see what unites the writer and the painter, as both are striving towards the glorification of Louis XIV.
Commode for Madame Adélaïde’s chambers at Versailles
Jean-Henri Riesener
Donated by the Society of the Friends of Versailles in 2018, thanks to the exceptional legacy of Ms Simone Baraille, Ms Micheline Cavallo and Ms Monique Genneret
This commode was delivered in 1776 for the withdrawing room of Madame Adélaïde, daughter of Louis XV, in her ground floor apartment in the central section of the Palace, and it can now be returned to the exact location for which it was originally intended. From its structure, its marquetry with latticework and colour, and the richness of the bronze work, this commode is typical of those produced by Jean-Henri Riesener during the period 1770-1780. In the central panel we also see a sunflower emerging, the cabinetmaker’s favourite motif.
The death of Saint François-Xavier
Charles-Antoine Coypel
The Death of Saint François-Xavier by Charles-Antoine Coypel came originally from the Palace of Versailles. In fact, the work was commissioned by the Dauphin Louis de France (1729-1765) for his wife, and previously hung in Maria Josepha of Saxony’s oratory (1731-1767) on the ground floor of the Palace. This painting was completed in 1749 and was combined with two other paintings delivered by the same painter in 1747: Saint Landrade instructing the widows and young people who had come under his direction and Saint Piame withdrawing with her mother in a village in Upper Egypt. Charles-Antoine Coypel’s vision of the death of the missionary is particularly appropriate in a painting for private devotion.
Cradle of the Duke of Anjou
Charles Le Brun
Donated by Mr Edouard de Royère via the intermediary of the Society of the Friends of Versailles in November 2018
This intimate painting is valuable testimony to the beginnings of the career of Charles Le Brun before his stay in Italy. Louis XIII is leaning tenderly towards Anne of Austria who is holding the Dauphin. Born on the 21 September 1640 in the Château of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, two years after the long-awaited birth of Louis Dieudonné, it was now the turn of Philippe to occupy the royal cradle. The fleurs-de-lys that decorate both the carpet and the dais confirm that this is a royal scene. This small painting, with colours that are particularly vivid and precious (red and almond green, gilded effects), falls into a pictorial genre that was in fashion in Paris during the period 1630-1640.
Rococo vase with pink ribbons and flowers
This vase has the characteristics of the Rococo style that developed during the reign of Louis XV, with the motif on the base consisting of intertwined foliage and shells. This piece now stands alone, although it did have a companion piece when it was acquired by Louis XV at the annual sales at the Royal Sèvres porcelain Manufacture in Versailles, in December 1758. The pink background was a technique perfected at Sèvres in 1757, and several members of the royal family acquired such pieces. Louis XV probably intended this purchase for Marie Leszczyńska, as the Queen owned two vases with similar decoration.
Clark Gable and Stereoscopic photograph of the central section of the Palace
This batch of photographs, donated by Monsieur Alain Roger-Ravily, is of great interest as it tells us more about Versailles in modern times. The American actor Clark Gable is immortalised in front of Latona’s Parterre, testifying to the attraction of Versailles for celebrities from all over the world, just like Fred Astaire before him and John Travolta who came later. This donation also contains stereoscopic photographs on albumen paper, for example this view of the central section showing the Louis-Philippe, turret, which was destroyed in 1898.
Reparations made to the King on behalf of the Doge of Genoa in the Hall of Mirrors, 15 May 1685
Charles Gavard
This batch of 23 drawings that the Palace has acquired is part of a substantial set produced at the request of Louis-Philippe by around thirty artists for the Historic galleries of Versailles published by order of the King and dedicated to Her Majesty the Queen of the French (Galeries historiques de Versailles publiées par ordre du Roi et dédiées à S. M. la reine des Français) by Charles Gavard, published between 1837 and 1854. All these drawings, like Reparations made to the King on behalf of the Doge of Genoa in the Hall of Mirrors shown here, illustrate episodes in the reign of Louis XIV, between 1657 and 1691; seven are related to his family history and diplomatic events.
2017
Portrait of Tiberio Fiorilli as Scaramouche
Pietro Paolini, 1635-1681
December 2017
Born in 1608 in Naples, Fiorilli became famous for his interpretation of the burlesque character Scaramouche on both the Italian and French stages for over half a century. The figure of Scaramouche (Scaramuccia) is based on Il Capitano, the Neapolitan troublemaker who was always keen to start a fight but would then slip away. Fiorilli kept the black costume, typical of Spanish noblemen, but made some changes to the character by removing his sword and mask. Fiorilli’s role in the history of 17th century theatre has only recently been appreciated and now this painting puts him in his rightful place. In fact, the Neapolitan actor is reputed to have been Molière’s teacher, and his contribution was key to the successful establishment of Italian theatre in France. This portrait of Scaramouche is therefore doubly interesting for Versailles, as it conjures up both a pictorial trend that was popular at that time and a character for whom Louis XIV personally had a deep affection.
The Allegory of Sculpture working on the bust of King Louis XIV
Baudrin Yvart, 1666
November 2017
This work was submitted as the painter’s reception piece to the Académie Royale on 11 August 1663. It was only delivered in 1666, however, the year the Académie de France in Rome was founded by Colbert. Here we see the allegory of Sculpture working on the bust of Louis XIV, clothed as a Roman emperor. On the ground are three busts including one of the philosopher Seneca recalling the usual references to Antiquity for artists in the 17th century. The column and green drapery give the scene a very theatrical atmosphere. This is a very precious piece as it is the only painting that can definitely be attributed to Yvart, a loyal collaborator of Charles Le Brun. In addition, the classical theme of the allegory of the arts in the service of Louis XIV emphasises the magnificence of the King’s ambitions at the start of his reign.
Fred Astaire dances for the GIs at Versailles, 18 September 1944
Photograph published by ACME Newspictures, black and white print on photographic paper, press photo
Donated by Monsieur Didier Doré, November 2017
This photo shows the actor and dancer Fred Astaire dancing for American troops in front of the Palace of Versailles façade on the garden side, at the Liberation.
Fire-dogs for Madame Elisabeth at Versailles
Claude-Jean Pitoin, 1778, gilded bronze
Purchased through the patronage of the Society of the Friends of Versailles (legacy of Madame Simone Bataille), in September 2017
This pair of chased and gilded bronze fire-dogs was delivered in 1778 for the apartment of Madame Elisabeth, sister of Louis XVI, by the bronzeworker Claude-Jean Pitoin, son of Quentin-Claude Pitoin. Father and son were both chasers at the Furniture Store-House. Note the extremely high quality of the chasing on these fire-dogs and the application of different shades of gold which play with the light and create effects of relief. This pair was subsequently moved to Fontainebleau before becoming part of the Greffulhe family’s collection. It is a perfect illustration of the royal family’s taste in the 1780s for interior furnishings.
Tea and chocolate set belonging to Marie Leszczynska
Meissen porcelain, 1737
April 2017
The Palace of Versailles was able to acquire eight pieces from a tea and chocolate service (nécessaire) produced by the prestigious porcelain manufacturers, Meissen, in Germany, and given to Marie Leszczynska by Auguste III, King of Poland, in March 1737. The purpose behind this gift was to ease diplomatic tensions between France and Poland after the War of the Polish Succession. All these pieces bear arms of allegiance to the Queen (arms of France and Poland) and are adorned with abundant gilding and various forms of decoration: fantasy chinoiserie, military and maritime scenes. These pieces can now join the large rinsing bowl acquired by Versailles in 2014. However, this is still only a small part of the entire service, which consisted originally of fifty-six pieces.
2016
The Orangery at the Palace of Versailles
Hubert Robert, 1777-1798, oil on canvas
September 2016
In 1777, Hubert Robert delivered several views of the Palace and the Park of Versailles which were both documentary and poetic, and this View of the Orangery of the Palace of Versailles, oil on a small format panel, is one of this series. In the foreground, the scene is set in the south gallery of the Orangery, then the artist shows the start of the great transversal central gallery. At the top of the steps, where the two galleries cross, is the statue of Isis, part of Louis XIV's collection, and installed in the rotunda of the Orangery in 1694. On its pedestal it looms extremely large. The statue’s presence means that the work can be dated to pre-1798, the year it was removed from the rotunda. Hubert Robert is one of the painters who has really understood the poetry of the spaces at Versailles. In around 1783, he also contributed to creating the Queen’s Hamlet, built by the architects Mique and Caraman.
Charles Gravier, Count of Vergennes, minister
Antoine-François Callet, 1780, oil on canvas
June 2016
This portrait of Vergennes (1719-1787), presented to the 1781 Salon, was commissioned from Callet, Louis XVI's portrait artist, by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. He is adorned with the badge and the sky blue sash of the Order of the Holy Spirit, wearing a cream-coloured waistcoat embroidered with cornflowers, and he holds a note addressed “To the King”, thus showing his allegiance to the Sovereign. The minister’s file cabinet is topped by a medallion bearing the profile of Louis XVI supported by three spirits. In accordance with established practice for ministers, the model appears surrounded by his work tools: pen and inkstand, and memoirs. Vergennes is famous for having played a leading role in American Independence, having signed the first “Franco-American Treaty of Amity and Commerce” with Franklin on 6 February 1778.
Menus served to the King by Héliot, Equerry in Ordinary in Madame la Dauphine’s kitchen staff
1745-1756, manuscript
Donated by the Society of the Friends of Versailles, in June 2016
This is a collection of the 138 menus served to King Louis XV between 8 September 1745 and 13 May 1756 at Choisy, Trianon and La Muette. Each menu is presented separately; they describe suppers, dinners and Médianos served to the King, with the date. It was perhaps from this collection that Carême took the five menus he mentioned to illustrate culinary changes during the reign of Louis XV. It is difficult to determine the exact status of this document, as it may simply be a notebook for Héliot’s sole use.
General de Gaulle visiting Versailles, 28 August 1963
Donated by Monsieur Roger-Ravily: Photographies Associated Press, black and white photograph April 2016
This photo sets the scene for General de Gaulle’s visit to Versailles accompanied by his Minister for Cultural Affairs, André Malraux. By taking the decision in 1962 to restore the Grand Trianon, de Gaulle confirmed Versailles’ role as the national palace. He and Malraux shared a certain idea of Versailles, which the Minister described as an “exemplary place in western civilisation”. In doing this, the general made Versailles an iconic place for France and for the country’s power, where important figures like Presidents Kennedy and Nixon were received.
Invitation to the formal ball given for the marriage of the Dauphin
Jean-Michel Moreau the Younger, 1770, pen and ink on vellum
January 2016
Appointed draughtsman of the Menus-Plaisirs in 1770 then Engraver for the King’s Cabinet in 1778, Moreau the Younger produced and engraved drawings for the major events in the reigns of Louis XV then Louis XVI. It was almost certainly soon after his arrival as draughtsman of the Menus-Plaisirs in 1770 that he produced this preparatory drawing for the invitation cards to the Formal Ball held to mark the marriage of the Dauphin and Archduchess Marie-Antoinette on May 16th, 1770 in the newly built Royal Opera House. This drawing follows the traditional style of invitation cards inherited from Cochin: a frame of flowers and cherubs playing musical instruments, the arms of the Premier Gentilhomme de la Chambre du Roi, who was in charge of festivities. This is an invaluable insight into the work of the Menus-Plaisirs, a department of the King’s household responsible for “the King’s pleasures”.
2015
Louis XIV’s bureau by Alexandre-Jean Oppenordt (1639-1715)
November 2015
After an absence of 264 years, King Louis XIV's bureau has returned to the Palace of Versailles. Listed as a National Treasure, it was acquired by the Établissement public du château, du musée et du domaine national de Versailles in November 2015.
This bureau with a folding top (bureau brisé), delivered in 1685, is made of oak, with ebony and Rio rosewood veneer. The King’s monogram is omnipresent in the brass and engraved red tortoiseshell marquetry. The bureau was one of a pair commissioned by the Royal Estates Buildings for the room where the King used to write, a private chamber behind the Hall of Mirrors located where King Louis XVI's bathroom now stands. Its counterpart is currently held by the Metropolitan Museum of New York.
There are a number of documents that reveal the names of the craftsmen who worked on this piece, in particular Alexandre-Jean Oppenordt, Cabinetmaker in Ordinary to the King. The exuberance of the arabesques on the top are very reminiscent of compositions by the designer of the King’s Chambers, Jean I Bérain. Considered old-fashioned by 1751, it was sold and reappeared in England in the 19th century in the collections of Baron Ferdinand James Anselm de Rothschild (1839-1898), where it was transformed into a slant-top desk.
The acquisition of this bureau is thanks mainly to the work of the Society of the Friends of Versailles and AXA. This is one of the very rare pieces of cabinetry created for Louis XIV, and especially so since it was made for Versailles. It enhances the museum’s collections immeasurably. After restoration, it will be displayed in the Hall of Plenty close to the Medal Cabinet.
Before it is shown to the public, this famous piece of furniture requires some restoration. It is envisaged that it should be returned to its original function with a folding top. A scientific committee has been set up to examine this proposal.
Portrait of Christoph Willibald, Chevalier von Gluck (1714-1787)
Signed and dated at the bottom left J.S.Duplessis/pinx parisis 1775
Oil on canvas - H.101; w. 85 cm
Bought at public auction using the right of pre-emption, lot no.46, Sotheby's Paris sale on 17 June 2015
The Palace of Versailles acquired this portrait of the German musician Gluck at auction. In all likelihood, this is a signed copy of the work by Duplessis shown at the Salon in 1775 and currently held by the Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna.
The musician was Marie-Antoinette’s singing teacher in Vienna but he also had a Europe-wide career. In 1774-1775, he enjoyed unprecedented fame. It was during this period that the sculptor Jean-Antoine Houdon created an effigy of the musician and Duplessis painted his portrait, showing him seated with his hands on his harpsichord, his face turned upwards gazing into the distance.
This portrait of Gluck will be presented as part of the new tour route devoted to Marie-Antoinette in the Captain of the Guard’s Apartment, alongside images of Grétry and Paisiello painted by Madame Vigée Le Brun, which complete the gallery of portraits of the “Queen’s artists”.
Tureen stand from the service "with the frieze rich in colours and rich in gold" belonging to Marie-Antoinette
Royal Sèvres porcelain Manufacture
1784 – Soft-paste porcelain - W.42.5 cm - In blue: LL interlaced; date-letter gg (1784); Y (for Edmé-François Bouillat)
Bought at public auction using the right of pre-emption, lot no. 227, AGUTTES sale on 28 May 2015
Since 1900, the Palace of Versailles has regularly acquired pieces from the service “with the frieze rich in colours and rich in gold” commissioned at the beginning of 1784 by Queen Marie-Antoinette. With this recent acquisition, the collection now has 53 pieces from this service, which are displayed in the corner cupboards in the Queen’s private chambers on the second floor of the Palace.
This stand is approximately the same size as a ragout tureen; in its central medallion it has a bouquet of roses in full bloom surrounded by a frieze of pearls on a blue background. The ends are contoured and gilded to show off to advantage the frieze of roses and cornflowers against a wine-coloured background framed by gold pearls and garlands of laurel. This is only interrupted by the cleverly alternating cartouches decorated with pansies.
The Founding of the Hôtel des Invalides in 1674
Pierre Dulin (Paris, 1669-1748)
Oil on canvas
H. 48 cm; W.74 cm
Bought at public auction using the right of pre-emption, lot no.45, RIEUNIER-de MUIZON, 30 March 2015
This painting by Pierre Dulin is a design for the tapestry cartoon of the Founding of the Hôtel des Invalides in 1674, commissioned in 1710 to complete the series of tapestries depicting the History of the King.
The episode shown here happened more than thirty years earlier: in 1670, Louis XIV decided to build the Hôtel des Invalides. This institution would house and care for sick soldiers and veterans. Here, Dulin depicts events that happened at different points in time, such as the founding and approval of the plans (1670-1674), the construction of the Hôtel (1671-1678) and the completion of the dome (1706). At the centre of the painting we see the figure of Louvois, Minister for War, accompanied by Minerva (goddess of Wisdom and War) and by Architecture, who is kneeling. The Minister shows the King the plan of the buildings, which are under construction in the background. Among those present, we can recognise the building’s two architects, Libéral Bruant and Jules Hardouin-Mansart, the King and Louvois. On the right, Glory leads a group of infirm soldiers to the King. In the sky, Fame, holding a banner, sounds her trumpet.
This design for the Founding of the Hôtel des Invalides will be added to the set of preparatory designs for tapestries already held by the Palace. It will be displayed in the Louis XIV rooms alongside those by François Marot and Claude-Guillaume Hallé depicting The first promotion of the Knights of Saint Louis on 10 May 1693 (MV 2149) and Reparations made by the Doge of Genoa on 15 May 1685 (MV 2107).
Glass cooler from the "pearls and cornflowers" service
Royal Sèvres porcelain Manufacture - 1781
Soft-paste porcelain - H.10.5 cm – Blue painted marks: mark of the Manufacture with two interlaced Ls; date-letters DD for 1781
Bought at public auction using the right of pre-emption, lot no.44, SVV PESCHETEAU-BADIN, 16 March 2015 with the participation of the Forum Connaissance de Versailles via the Society of the Friends of Versailles
Commissioned in July 1781 for the Petit Trianon, the service with “pearls and cornflowers” was delivered to Queen Marie-Antoinette on 2 January 1782 for a total sum of 12,420 livres.
With this new acquisition, the collections at the Palace of Versailles now have thirteen pieces from this service, which originally consisted of 295 pieces.
Portrait of Marie-Thérèse of Savoy, Countess of Artois
Work purchased thanks to the patronage of Fondation de Luxembourg, acting on behalf of Fondation La Marck, February 2015
At the Sotheby’s auction in Paris on 11/2/2015, as part of the dispersion of the collections of Château Réveillon (Burgundy), property of the Dukes of Mortemart, the Palace of Versailles acquired a Portrait of the Countess of Artois (1756-1805), dated circa 1775, the work of François-Hubert Drouais (1727-1775).
The purchase of this oil painting on canvas is a significant addition to our collection of 18th century paintings. It completes the suite of portraits of the royal family painted by this artist after his appointment as First Painter to the Count of Provence in 1771: the Count of Provence, the Countess of Provence, Madame Clotilde, Louis XV, the Count of Clermont.
The Palace already had a portrait of the Countess by Gautier-Dagoty, another by Leclercq, and a pastel by Boze showing her circa 1785, but it had no image of the quality of this work by Drouais.
The marriage of Princess Marie-Thérèse of Savoy (1756-1805), daughter of Victor-Amédée III of Sardinia, to Charles-Philippe, Count of Artois, was celebrated at Versailles on 15 November 1773.
Allegorical portrait of Madame Louise
February 2015
At the auction organised at Eric Pillon’s auction house in Versailles on 08/02/2015, the Palace of Versailles acquired this Allegorical portrait of Madame Louise, daughter of Louis XV.
The princess is shown in court dress, before she entered the Carmelite convent in 1770. This type of portrait of a royal princess in an allegorical style is a valuable addition to the Versailles collection, an iconography that is rare in the national collections.
2014
Commode of Choisy
Antoine-Robert Gaudreaus
In 1744, Gaudreaus received a large order for five pieces of furniture for the king's apartment at the Château de Choisy: a chest of drawers, a desk, two corner cupboards and a console. This chest of drawers recalls the design and structure of the one delivered by the cabinetmaker in 1739 for Louis XV's bedroom in Versailles, now in the Wallace Collection in London. This work entered the collections of Versailles thanks to a donation from the Edmond J. Safra Philanthropic Foundation, represented by Madam Lily Safra. It is currently exhibited in Madam Victoire's bedroom.
Wall lights
Anonymous Paris 18th century
These wall lights, acquired in Paris around 1752-1753 by Madam Infante, Duchess of Parma, for her castle of Colorno in Italy, are composed of rocaille motifs and acanthus scrolls; the shaft is surmounted by a bouquet of flowers with periwinkle and sunflower (or queen daisy). Acquired in public auction, these works are currently exhibited in the Dauphine's bedroom.
Compotier
Manufacture of Vincennes
This compotier is part of the service "à fond bleu céleste" of Louis XV, ordered in 1751 and delivered by the manufacture of Vincennes from 1753 to 1755, which included 1749 pieces, including 1266 pieces of biscuit (unglazed porcelain) for the table decoration. For this service, the chemist Jean Hellot developed a new turquoise blue background color called "celestial blue" in homage to the Empire of China. The Louis XV service was used by the royal family until the end of the Ancien Régime.
Pastel Vaillant
Wallerant Vaillant
This little-known portrait of Louis XIV, executed from the model in 1660 by the time of his marriage, features the young king without artifice. It is part of a series of portraits of the royal circle commissioned by Anne of Austria, the King's mother. Inspired by the works of Robert Nanteuil, Vaillant's pastels are the first portraits of this type, in a very wide range of colors. This work was acquired at public auction.
Stereoscopic views
Anonymous France 19th century
Twenty-seven of the original stereoscopic views from the gift of Mr. Roger-Ravily are views of the king's private apartments as they were during the Second Empire. This view shows the first salon, known as the "Salon des Gouaches de Louis XV", formerly the Salon des Jeux of Louis XVI, in which two gouaches by Van Blarenberghe and four stools by Marcion can be seen.
Collection of Comedies and Ballets
Anonymous France 18th century
The thirty-nine plays performed during the four winters of 1747 to 1750 were the subject of a special printing, gathered in these four volumes. Each play gives the names of the authors of the text and music, the names of the singers and dancers, as well as those of the costume designers and decorators. Faced with the criticism of the expenses incurred for these entertainments, the king decided that there would be no more theater at Versailles. This work entered the castle's collections thanks to a gift from Madam Florence Austin in May 2014.
Portrait
Jacques Hellart
This portrait, characteristic of the early 18th century, is now attributed to Jacques Hellart thanks to the signature it bears, and is to this day the only known work by the painter. An inscription on the back of the canvas in October 1760 reveals the identity of the models represented in the painting: Jeanne-Françoise de Castéja, M. Salomon de La Lande’s wife, is shown with her daughter Françoise-Mélanie, future marquise d'Arcy. Madam de La Lande was closely associated with the life of the court after her appointment by Louis XIV as sub-governor of the children of France on March 25, 1704 with the marshal of La Mothe and the duchess of Ventadour.
Marie Leszczynska's tea and chocolate set: rinsing bowl
Meissen Porcelain Manufactory
Part of a tea and chocolate set, this large rinsing bowl with the arms of Queen Marie Leszczynska (twice on the outside and once on the bottom) was ordered in March 1737 by August III, King of Poland and Elector of Saxony (1696-1763). The set was inventoried in 1768 in the grand cabinet of the Queen at Versailles. It is the first piece of this service acquired in public auction by the Palace of Versailles.
Collection of 3 books
André Félibien des Avaux
The Palace of Versailles owns two other editions of the Grotte de Versailles (dated 1674 and 1676) and of the Labyrinth (1677 and 1679), but this is the only copy representing the antique statues and busts of the royal houses in this complete version (nearly one hundred plates) in folio format.
Drawing by Natoire
Charles-Joseph Natoire
This drawing is the preparatory study for the painting commissioned by Marie Leszczynska at the time of the birth of Princesses Adelaide (1732) and Victoire (1733), which took its place as overdoor in the Queen's bedroom at Versailles in 1735 (MV 7163). This work entered the château's collections thanks to a gift from Madam Florence Austin in May 2014.
Wall clock
Balthazar II Martinot
Balthazar II Martinot (1636-1714) was one of the most famous clockmakers of the time of Louis XIV. This tortoiseshell veneered wall clock with copper fillet decoration is decorated with chased and gilded bronzes, and is surmounted by a Renommée. The chased and gilt bronze dial surmounts a plate showing two young women and a love that could represent Abundance and Geography. The lower register of the case ends with two acanthus scrolls and a central mascaron. This work entered Versailles thanks to the gift of Madam Colette Delhorbe, in memory of her husband Jacques Delhorbe.
2013
Coachman’s whip from the Coronation coach of Charles X
Donated by Mr Hubert de Chaisemartin, November 2013
This French-style coach whip was used during the Coronation ceremony of Charles X, in Reims, on 29 May 1825. Charles X’s carriage was pulled by eight horses; a royal privilege, the two front horses were guided by the postilion, who rode the left-side horse and the other six were controlled by the coachman. He held the whip in his right hand, a third of the way up, with his elbow close to his body.
This whip comprises a gilded and varnished wooden stick, it is flexible and tapered towards the top, embellished with six bands with alternating decoration. The lash, which in this case is absent, was mounted on the loop that can be seen at the end. It was made of leather cut into thin plaited strips and ended with a thong, a small plaited rope or knotted string with which to touch the horses’ shoulders. At the base of the stick, the grip is covered with crimson silk-velvet decorated top and bottom with balls of gold wire. At the end, the cap is made of gold, engraved with a fleur-de-lys with this inscription: “Charles X, Sacré le 29 Mai 1825” (Charles X, crowned 29 May 1825). The trim matching the King’s Coach, the exceptional dimensions, the very flamboyant style and the inscription on the gold cap all suggest that this whip was indeed the one used by the coachman on the King’s coach for the coronation of Charles X, and could indicate that at the end of the ceremonial, the object was presented as an honorary gift to a dignitary who then had it engraved as a souvenir of the event. The very fact of adding an inscription to an everyday object gives it use value and shows the importance and the symbolic value of this whip at the ceremony.
This unusual piece is an addition to the collections of the Museum of Coaches at Versailles.
Vase-clock belonging to Louis XVI
July 2013
Dated 1775, this vase-clock with a beau-bleu (beautiful blue) background, and a clock face signed de Roque, Paris, was acquired by Louis XVI from the Royal Sèvres porcelain Manufacture during 1777. It was intended for the fireplace in his newly installed Bathroom in the first-floor apartments. It was sent to the Tuileries in January 1792, and was probably sold during the Revolution; all trace of it was lost until 1927, when it appeared at the sale of the collections of Anthony de Rothschild. It now has a square base, probably added during the 19th century, as was the case for many Sèvres pieces from the previous century.
The acquisition of this vase-clock, with its extremely unusual shape and its royal provenance, is of very great importance for expanding the Palace collections. It is part of a policy that has been implemented over several decades, a policy of systematically purchasing royal pieces of Vincennes-Sèvres porcelain that were at Versailles in the second half of the 18th century. These pieces can be identified from the Palace inventories which were drawn up at the outbreak of the Revolution and the sales records at the Manufacture. The acquisition of this clock reinforces what we already know of Louis XVI’s very sincere appreciation of pieces from the royal Manufacture, founded at Vincennes in 1740 during the reign of his grandfather.
Portraits of the Duke of Berry and the Duke of Burgundy by Fredou
June 2013
Between 1760 and 1762, Jean-Martial Fredou produced eleven portraits of the children of the Dauphin, son of Louis XV, and Maria Josepha of Saxony. The pastel portrait of the Duke of Burgundy, completed on 15 March 1760 and held in the Palace of Versailles collections (INV.DESS 726), was the inspiration for several other oil-painted versions by Fredou. One of these was given by the Dauphin to the Marquis of Sinety. In 1760, he had been appointed deputy governor for the Duke of Berry and in 1762 sub-governor for the Count of Provence. The portrait of the Duke of Berry (future Louis XVI) was also the subject of a drawing by Fredou as part of the 1760-1762 commission. The portrait was painted as a match for that of the Duke of Burgundy, which was also given to the Marquis de Sinety, and is in all likelihood a variant of this still unknown drawing. The identical frames, which are probably the original ones, confirm that these two portraits were produced as a matching pair.
The Palace of Versailles had no oil painting of the Duke of Burgundy and no portrait at all of the Duke of Berry as a child. This acquisition fills an important gap in our iconography.
Visit by Queen Victoria to the Queen’s Hamlet in Petit Trianon, on 21 August 1855 by Karl Girardet
April 2013
This small painting by Karl Girardet is a sketch in preparation for a watercolour that was commissioned by Queen Victoria in 1855 and which is now in the British Royal Collection. It commemorates the visit by the Queen and Prince Albert, accompanied by the Imperial couple, to Trianon, on Tuesday 21 August 1855, during the British sovereign’s visit to Paris.
Here we can clearly see the Queen and the Empress in an open carriage, which has stopped in front of the Queen’s House, and the Emperor and the Prince Consort on horseback on either side. The escort is provided by the Hundred Swiss and postilions from the Emperor’s House in full dress. Beneath the gallery that links the Queen’s House to the Games House is the band of the Guides of the Imperial Guard, which played while the two couples ate lunch.
There are very few old painted representations of the Trianon Hamlet. The Palace of Versailles has two views of the Mill and the Queen’s House with the Marlborough Tower, produced by the studios of Guérard and Wallaert, which date from the Bourbon Restoration, and one view of the interior of the Queen’s Theatre in the time of the July Monarchy, by Mme Asselineau, but none from the Second Empire, the time when the Trianon was undergoing something of a revival driven by Empress Eugénie. This acquisition will fill this gap with a work that will be placed in the Petit Trianon attic, in the area devoted to the Second Empire and the Empress.
Three vases belonging to Madame Victoire
Vases purchased thanks to the patronage of LVMH-Moët Hennessy-Louis Vuitton group, March 2013
In 1772, Madame Victoire, one of Louis XV’s daughters, acquired these three vases for her bedroom in the Palace of Versailles. In fact, she bought a set of five vases with a dark green background from the Royal Sèvres porcelain Manufacture. The other two vases in the set are currently in the Metropolitan Museum of Art.
These three vases are exceptional for their painted decoration and their shape. The cartouches are the work of Charles-Nicolas Dodin, one of the best painters of figures at the Sèvres Manufacture in the 18th century. The Palace of Versailles devoted an exhibition to him in 2012.
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Mainhattan
Frankfurt is one of the largest financial centers in Europe. It is the seat of the European Central Bank, the German Federal Bank and the Frankfurt Stock Exchange. More than 300 national and international banks are represented in the city. Many of these banks have their headquarters in highrises. With a height of 850 ft. the Commerzbank tower is the highest office building in Europe. The large number of skyscrapers has earned Frankfurt the nickname “Mainhattan”.
Copyright: Nicolas Scheuer
Germany’s Hub
Frankfurt is the largest traffic hub in Germany. Frankfurt Airport with passenger traffic of 60 million per year is one of the world’s 10 busiest airports. Frankfurts “Hauptbahnhof” is with 350,000 passengers the busiest train station in Germany. The “Frankfurter Kreuz” where Germany’s major Autobahns intersect symbolizes Frankfurt's good connections to the world. With approximately 320,000 cars daily, it is the most heavily used interchange in Europe.
Copyright: Lutz-R. Frank
A Fair City
Frankfurt hosts some of the world's most important trade fairs. The International Automobil-Ausstellung (IAA) has a rich history of introducing cutting-edge automotive concepts.The Frankfurt Book Fair is the biggest book and media fair in the world - with around 7500 exhibitors from over 110 countries. The Musikmesse is an international fair for musical instruments, music production and music business.
The Land of Poets and Thinkers
The city’s most famous son is Johann Wolfgang von Goethe who was born in Frankfurt in 1749. Goethe is one of the most important writers and thinkers in Western culture. His works span the fields of literature, theology, philosophy and science. The Goethe-Institut, which has a branch in Frankfurt, is named after this polymath.
Multi-Kulti
Frankfurt is a multicultural city, home to people of 180 nationalities. It has the highest percentage of immigrants in Germany. About 25% of Frankfurt’s 670,000 inhabitants have no German passport and another 10% are naturalized German citizens.
True Frankfurters
While in the US the terms hot dog, wiener and frankfurter are used interchangeably, an authentic German "frankfurter" is something quite unique. The Frankfurter Würstchen is a thin, boiled sausage of pure pork in a casing of mutton's intestine.Traditionally, it is served with bread, mustard, horseradish and potato salad. Since 1929 the name "Frankfurter Würstchen" is only allowed to be used for sausages that are produced in the area of Frankfurt am Main.
Crime in the City
Frankfurt is regularly dubbed Germany's crime capital. Many of the crimes, however, are committed by some of the 53 million passengers who pass through Frankfurt Airport every year. Frankfurt's 3 homicides per 100.000 persons pale in comparison to New Orleans' average annual homicide rate of 52 per 100.000 people, which ranks highest in the U.S.
Harmony Frankfurt
Frankfurt’s top soccer team, Eintracht Frankfurt, has won the German championship just once. It has enjoyed more success in competition outside the Bundesliga. Eintracht lost the European Cup final (predecessor of the Champions League) to Real Madrid in 1960 at Glasgow’s Hampden Park 7-3 in front of 127,621 spectators. It is one of the most talked about European matches of all time.
World Player of the Year
Birgit Prinz is considered by many to be Europe's finest female soccer player of the 1990s and 2000s. With her club team FFC Frankfurt she won six German national championships. At age 16 she made her international debut for the German national women's team. In addition to three consecutive FIFA Player of the Year awards (2003–05) and three Olympic bronze medals (2000, 2004, and 2008), Prinz secured two Women’s World Cup trophies. She retired in 2012.
The Championship Game
The Commerzbank Arena holds 51,500 spectators and is known for its electrifying atmosphere throughout Germany. It hosted five games of the 2006 Soccer World Cup and was the venue for the final of the 2011 Women’s World Cup.
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Artist s001 wholesale oil painting picture frame moulding mirror s001
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German Academic Painter, 1828-1899,German painter, was born at Frankfurt-am-Main. He studied art first at the Städel Institute in his native town, and then at Stuttgart and Munich. He painted many of his favourite subjects in his travels in the East. He first accompanied Prince Thurn and Taxis through Hungary, Wallachia, Russia and Turkey; then, in 1854, he followed the Austrian army across the Wallachian frontier. In 1856 he went to Egypt and Syria, and in 1861 to Algiers. In 1862 he settled in Paris, but returned to Germany in 1870; and settled at Cronberg near Frankfurt, where he died. Arab Horsemen by Schreyer.Schreyer was, and is still, especially esteemed as a painter of horses, of peasant life in Wallachia and Moldavia, and of battle incidents. His work is remarkable for its excellent equine draughtsmanship, and for the artist's power of observation and forceful statement; and has found particular favour among French and American collectors. Of his battle-pictures there are two at the Schwerin Gallery, and others in the collection of Count Mensdorff-Pouilly and in the Raven Gallery, Berlin. His painting of a Charge of Artillery of Imperial Guard was formerly at the Luxembourg Museum. The Metropolitan Museum, New York owns three of Schreyer's oriental paintings: Abandoned, Arabs on the March and Arabs making a detour; and many of his best pictures are in the Rockefeller family, Vanderbilt family, John Jacob Astor, William Backhouse Astor, Sr., August Belmont, and William Walters collections. RA (1854-1935) was an English landscape painter. Born in Southport, Lancashire, he became a cotton broker in Liverpool, where his artistic talent was noticed by John Herbert RA, who advised him to submit his drawings to the Royal Academy. He entered the Royal Academy Schools in 1872 and exhibited at the Academy from 1876. In that year went to France where he lived for 10 years, settling back in England in 1886, at Carbis Bay and joining the artists' colony at St Ives. Adrian Stokes was a landscape painter, concerned most with atmospheric effects, and later with decorative landscapes. He was the author of 'Landscape Painting' (1925). He became ARA in 1909 and RA in 1919, won medals at the Paris Exhibition and Chicago World Fair (1889), became first President of the St Ives Society of Arts (1890) and Vice President of the Royal Watercolour Society (1932). He married Marianne Preindlesberger of Graz, Austria, in 1884, while living in France. She became a well known artist under her married name of Marianne Stokes. An obituary of Adrian Stokes was published in The Times Monday 2 December 1935 Russian Painter, 1830-1897 was a Russian landscape painter and creator of the lyrical landscape style. Savrasov was born into the family of a merchant. He began to draw early and in 1838 he enrolled as a student of professor Rabus at the Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture (graduated in 1850), and immediately began to specialize in landscape painting. In 1852, he traveled to Ukraine. Then, in 1854 by the invitation of the Grand Duchess Maria Nikolayevna, President of the Imperial Academy of Arts, he moved to the neighborhood of St. Petersburg. In 1857, Savrasov became a teacher at the Moscow School of painting, sculpturing and architecture. His best disciples, Isaac Levitan and Konstantin Korovin, remembered their teacher with admiration and gratitude. The Rooks Have Come Back was painted by Savrasov near Ipatiev Monastery in Kostroma.In 1857, he married Sophia Karlovna Hertz, sister of art historian K. Hertz. In their home they entertained artistic people and collectors including Pavel Tretyakov. Savrasov became especially close with Vasily Perov. Perov helped him paint the figures of the boat trackers in Savrasov's Volga near Yuryevets, Savrasov painted landscapes for Perov's Bird catcher and Hunters on Bivouac. In the 1860s, he traveled to England to see the International Exhibition, and to Switzerland. In one of his letters he wrote that no academies in the world could so advance an artist as the present world exhibition. The painters who influenced him most were British painter John Constable and Swiss painter Alexandre Calame. The Rooks Have Come Back (1871) is considered by many critics to be the high point in Savrasoves artistic career. Using a common, even trivial, episode of birds returning home, and an extremely simple landscape, Savrasov emotionally showed the transition of nature from winter to spring. It was a new type of lyrical landscape painting, called later by critics the mood landscape. The painting brought him fame. In 1870, he became a member of the Peredvizhniki group, breaking with government-sponsored academic art. In 1871, French 1839-1899 Alfred Sisley Galleries Alfred Sisley (October 30, 1839 ?C January 29, 1899) was an English Impressionist landscape painter who was born and spent most of his life in France. Sisley is recognized as perhaps the most consistent of the Impressionists, never deviating into figure painting or finding that the movement did not fulfill his artistic needs. Sisley was born in Paris to affluent English parents; William Sisley was in the silk business, and his mother Felicia Sell was a cultivated music connoisseur. At the age of 18, Sisley was sent to London to study for a career in business, but he abandoned it after four years and returned to Paris. Beginning in 1862 he studied at the atelier of Swiss artist Marc-Charles-Gabriel Gleyre, where he became acquainted with Fr??d??ric Bazille, Claude Monet, and Pierre-Auguste Renoir. Together they would paint landscapes en plein air (in the open air) in order to realistically capture the transient effects of sunlight. This approach, innovative at the time, resulted in paintings more colorful and more broadly painted than the public was accustomed to seeing. Consequently, Sisley and his friends initially had few opportunities to exhibit or sell their work. Unlike some of his fellow students who suffered financial hardships, Sisley received an allowance from his father??until 1870, after which time he became increasingly poor. Sisley's student works are lost. His earliest known work, Lane near a Small Town is believed to have been painted around 1864. His first landscape paintings are sombre, coloured with dark browns, greens, and pale blues. They were often executed at Marly and Saint-Cloud. 1823-1906 Alfred Stevens Galleries Flemish Alfred Emile Stevens (May 11, 1823 - August 29, 1906) , Belgian painter, was born in Brussels. El??gants sur les BoulevardsHis father, an old officer in the service of William I of the Netherlands, was passionately fond of pictures, and readily allowed his son to draw in the studio of François Navez, director of the Brussels Academy. In 1844 Stevens went to Paris and worked under the instructing of Camille Roqueplan, a friend of his father's; he also attended the classes at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, where Ingres was then professor. In 1849 he painted at Brussels his first picture, A Soldier in Trouble, and in the same year went back to Paris, where he definitely settled, and exhibited in the Salons. He then painted Ash-Wednesday Morning, Burghers and Country People finding at Daybreak the Body of a Murdered Gentleman, An Artist in Despair, and The Love of Gold. Allegory of the Night MSK, Oostende, BelgiumIn 1855 he exhibited at the Antwerp Salon a little picture called At Home, which showed the painter's bent towards depicting ladies of fashion. At the Great Exhibition in Paris, 1855, his contributions were remarkable, but in 1857 he returned to graceful female subjects, and his path thenceforth was clear before him. At the Great Exhibition of 1867 he was seen in a brilliant variety of works in the manner he had made his own, sending eighteen exquisite paintings; among them were the Lady in Pink (in the Brussels Gallery), Consolation, Every Good Fortune, Miss Fauvette, Ophelia, and India in Paris. At the Paris International Exhibitions of 1878 and 1889, and at the Historical Exhibition of Belgian Art, Brussels, 1880, he exhibited The Four Seasons (in the Palace at Brussels), The Parisian Sphinx, The Japanese Mask, The Japanese Robe, and The Lady-bird (Brussels Gallery). "Alfred Stevens is one of the race of great painters," wrote Camille Lemonnier, "and like them he takes immense pains with the execution of his work." The example of his finished technique was salutary, not merely to his brethren in Belgium, but to many foreign painters who received encouragement from the study of his method. The brother of Alfred Stevens, Joseph Stevens, was a great painter of dogs and dog life. See J. du Jardin, L'Art flamand; Camille Lemonnier, Histoire des beaux arts en Belgique. Alonso Sachez Coello (1531/32 -August 8, 1588) was a portrait painter of the Spanish Renaissance and one of the pioneers of the great tradition of Spanish portrait painting. Alonso Sachez Coello was born in Benifairode les Valls, near Valencia, and spent his childhood there, until the death of his father when he was around ten years old. He was educated in Portugal at his grandfather's home. Coello's years in Portugal and his family name of Portuguese origin led to a long-standing belief that he was in fact Portuguese. His grandfather (after whom he was named) was in the service of King John III of Portugal who sent the young painter to study with Anthonis Mor (also known as Antonio Moro) in Flanders around 1550. He was under the service of Antoine de Granville, bishop of Arras, learning from Mor. While studying in Flanders, Coello also spent time copying some of Titian's works. b.July 16, 1486, Florence d.Sept. 28, 1530, Florence Italian Andrea del Sarto Galleries Andrea del Sarto (1486 ?C 1531) was an Italian painter from Florence, whose career flourished during the High Renaissance and early-Mannerism. Though highly regarded by his contemporaries as an artist "senza errori" (i.e., faultless), he is overshadowed now by equally talented contemporaries like Raphael. Andrea fell in love with Lucrezia (del Fede), wife of a hatter named Carlo, of Recanati; the hatter dying opportunely, Andrea married her on 26 December 1512. She has come down to us in many a picture of her lover-husband, who constantly painted her as a Madonna and otherwise; even in painting other women he made them resemble Lucrezia. She was less gently handled by Giorgio Vasari, a pupil of Andrea, who describes her as faithless, jealous, and vixenish with the apprentices; her offstage character permeates Robert Browning's poem-monologue "Andrea del Sarto called the 'faultless painter'" (1855) . He dwelt in Florence throughout the memorable siege of 1529, which was soon followed by an infectious pestilence. He caught the malady, struggled against it with little or no tending from his wife, who held aloof, and he died, no one knowing much about it at the moment, on 22 January 1531, at the comparatively early age of forty-three. He was buried unceremoniously in the church of the Servites. His wife survived her husband by forty years. A number of paintings are considered to be self-portraits. One is in the National Gallery, London, an admirable half-figure, purchased in 1862. Another is at Alnwick Castle, a young man about twenty years, with his elbow on a table. Another youthful portrait is in the Uffizi Gallery, and the Pitti Palace contains more than one. 1559-1661 Italian Andrea Sacchi Gallery As a young man, Sacchi had worked under Cortona in Castel Fusano (1627-1629). But in a set of public debates later developed in the Roman Artist's Guild, Accademia di San Luca, he strongly criticized Cortona's exuberance. In particular, Sacchi advocated that since a unique, individual expression needs to be assigned to each figure in a composition, a painting should not consist of more than about ten figures. In a crowded composition, the figures would be deprived of individuality, and thus cloud the particular meaning of the piece. In some ways this is a reaction against the zealous excess of crowds in paintings by men such as Zuccari of the prior generation, and by Cortona among his contemporaries. Simplicity and unity were essential to Sacchi. Cortona argued that large paintings were more like an epic, that could avail themselves of multiple subplots. The encrustation of a painting with excess decorative details, including melees of crowds, would represent "wall-paper" art rather than focused narrative. Among the partisan's of Sacchi's argument for simplicity and focus were his friends, the sculptor Algardi and painter Poussin. The controversy was however less pitched than some suggest, and also involved the dissatisfaction that Sacchi and Albani, among others, shared regarding the artistic depiction of low or genre subjects and themes, such as preferred by the Bamboccianti and even the Caravaggisti. They felt that high art should focus on exalted themes- biblical, mythologic, or from classic history. Sacchi, who worked almost always in Rome, left few pictures visible in private galleries. He had a flourishing school: Poussin and Carlo Maratta were younger collaborators or pupils. In Maratta's large studio, Sacchi's preference for grand manner style would find pre-eminence among Roman circles for decades to follow. But many others worked under him or his influence including Luigi Garzi, Francesco Lauri, Andrea Camassei and Giacinto Gimignani. Sacchi's own illegitimate son Giuseppe, died young after giving very high hopes. Sacchi died at Nettuno in 1661. Italian C1703-1771 Italian painter. George Vertue, the only source for Soldi's earliest years, described him in 1738 as a Florentine aged 'about thirty-five or rather more' who had been in England 'about two years'. He had previously been in the Middle East, where he painted some British merchants of the Levant Company who had advised him to go to London. Two three-quarter-length portraits called Thomas Sheppard (1733 and 1735-6; ex-art market, London, 1917 and 1924, see Ingamells, 1974) belong to this period. In London Soldi enjoyed considerable success in the period between 1738 and 1744; Vertue reported that he began 'above thirty portraits' between April and August 1738. He was extensively patronized by the 2nd and 3rd Dukes of Manchester (eight portraits, sold Kimbolton Castle, Cambs, 18 July 1949), the 3rd Duke of Beaufort (four portraits at Badminton House, Glos) and the 4th Viscount Fauconberg (eight portraits at Newburgh Priory, N. Yorks). The seated three-quarter-length of Isabella, Duchess of Manchester, as Diana (1738; London, Colnaghi's, 1986) and the informal full-length of Lord Fauconberg (c. 1739; Newburgh Priory, N. Yorks) exemplify his lively handling, strong colour and theatrical, Italianate imagination. In a less extravagant vein, the Duncombe Family (1741; priv. col., see Ingamells, 1974), a conversation piece of some charm, and the Self-portrait (1743; York, C.A.G.) suggest a versatile talent. Soldi's bravura contrasted with contemporary English portrait practice, then wavering between the sober manner of Kneller and a playful Rococo, and his attraction for Italianate Englishmen was obvious. He was rivalled only by Jean-Baptiste van Loo, who was in London between 1737 and 1742; both artists painted the dealer Owen McSwiny and the poet Colley Cibber about 1738. He far outclassed his Italian rivals, the Cavaliere Rusca (1696-1769), who worked in London from 1738 to 1739, and Andrea Casali, who was in London from 1741 to 1766. (February 16, 1787, The Hague - April 19, 1870, The Hague) was a Dutch painter, etcher and lithographer, known for his landscape paintings. He belongs to the Romantic movement. His Dutch winter scenes and frozen canals with skaters were already famous during his lifetime. He became one of the most influential Dutch landscape artists of his century. He started as a house painter in the framing business of his father. He already started painting pictures in his spare time. After a well-received first exhibition in The Hague, his father sent him to receive proper training to Joannes Breckenheimer (1772-1856), a stage designer, in The Hague. He learned not only the technical aspects of painting, but also made detailed studies of the 17th-century Dutch landscape artists Meindert Hobbema en Jacob van Ruisdael. In 1815 he started his own workshop. Through his technical excellence and sense of composition and his use of naturalistic colours, he soon became famous also outside The Hague. In 1819 he was awarded the Gold Medal at the exhibition in Antwerp. In 1818 he became a member of the Royal Academy for Visual Arts of Amsterdam. He reputation continued to grow and in1822 he was given the rank of Fourth Class Correspondent of the Royal Dutch Institute. From then on, one exhibition followed after another. Initially he painted mainly summer scenes, beach scenes, and animal paintings. But as his initial winter scenes even had more success, he began to include them in his exhibitions. He was mainly a studio artist, relying on his sketches done en plein air. His sketchbook Liber Veritatis (Book of Truth) shows that he made about twenty paintings a year, among them a few foreign views. This indicated that he travelled abroad around 1825. In later years he visited France in 1833, England in 1835 (especially to study the works of Constable) and Germany. He provided training to several painters who would become famous in their own right : Johan Hendrik Weissenbruch, Johan Jongkind (one of the forerunners of the Impressionists), Charles Leickert, Jan Willem van Borselen, Nicholas Roosenboom, Willem Troost, the American Hudson River School Painter Louis Remy Mignot and his son-in-law Wijnand Nuyen. At the end of his career he put together a series of eighty landscape drawings, mainly recordings of previous paintings and watercolours. They were drawn in chalk and lightly coloured. His death marked the end of the Romantic period in Holland. He is considered a precursor of the Hague School Italian Mannerist Painter, 1532-1625 The best known of the sisters, she was trained, with Elena, by Campi and Gatti. Most of Vasari's account of his visit to the Anguissola family is devoted to Sofonisba, about whom he wrote: 'Anguissola has shown greater application and better grace than any other woman of our age in her endeavours at drawing; she has thus succeeded not only in drawing, colouring and painting from nature, and copying excellently from others, but by herself has created rare and very beautiful paintings'. Sofonisba's privileged background was unusual among woman artists of the 16th century, most of whom, like Lavinia Fontana (see FONTANA (ii),(2)), FEDE GALIZIA and Barbara Longhi (see LONGHI (i), (3)), were daughters of painters. Her social class did not, however, enable her to transcend the constraints of her sex. Without the possibility of studying anatomy, or drawing from life, she could not undertake the complex multi-figure compositions required for large-scale religious or history paintings. She turned instead to the models accessible to her, exploring a new type of portraiture with sitters in informal domestic settings. The influence of Campi, whose reputation was based on portraiture, is evident in her early works, such as the Self-portrait (Florence, Uffizi). Her work was allied to the worldly tradition of Cremona, much influenced by the art of Parma and Mantua, in which even religious works were imbued with extreme delicacy and charm. From Gatti she seems to have absorbed elements reminiscent of Correggio, beginning a trend that became marked in Cremonese painting of the late 16th century. This new direction is reflected in Lucia, Minerva and Europa Anguissola Playing Chess (1555; Poznan, N. Mus.) in which portraiture merges into a quasi-genre scene, a characteristic derived from Brescian models. The best known of the sisters, she was trained, with Elena, by Campi and Gatti. Most of Vasari's account of his visit to the Anguissola family is devoted to Sofonisba, about whom he wrote: 'Anguissola has shown greater application and better grace than any other woman of our age in her endeavours at drawing; she has thus succeeded not only in drawing, colouring and painting from nature, and copying excellently from others, but by herself has created rare and very beautiful paintings'. Sofonisba's privileged background was unusual among woman artists of the 16th century, most of whom, like Lavinia Fontana (see FONTANA (ii),(2)), FEDE GALIZIA and Barbara Longhi (see LONGHI (i), (3)), were daughters of painters. Her social class did not, however, enable her to transcend the constraints of her sex. Without the possibility of studying anatomy, or drawing from life, she could not undertake the complex multi-figure compositions required for large-scale religious or history paintings. She turned instead to the models accessible to her, exploring a new type of portraiture with sitters in informal domestic settings. The influence of Campi, whose reputation was based on portraiture, is evident in her early works, such as the Self-portrait (Florence, Uffizi). Her work was allied to the worldly tradition of Cremona, much influenced by the art of Parma and Mantua, in which even religious works were imbued with extreme delicacy and charm. From Gatti she seems to have absorbed elements reminiscent of Correggio, beginning a trend that became marked in Cremonese painting of the late 16th century. This new direction is reflected in Lucia, Minerva and Europa Anguissola Playing Chess (1555; Poznan, N. Mus.) in which portraiture merges into a quasi-genre scene, a characteristic derived from Brescian models. (1655 - 13 August 1726) was a Flemish painter. He was born in Antwerp and became a pupil of Erasmus Quellinus II and his son Jan-Erasmus Quellinus. He travelled to Rome and like his teachers had done before him, joined the Bentvueghels with the nickname "Parrhasius" in 1674. In Rome he lived with Charles de Vogelaer in the via Margutta and later he lived from 1688-89 in the Corso, near the via di Ripetta. In 1695 he became court painter in Vienna, where he later died. During the course of his lengthy career he also worked in Antwerp, Riems, Lyon, Amsterdam, the Hague, Brno, Dusseldorf, Copenhagen, and Berlin.He is known for portraits and historical allegories, and was the teacher of Georg Gsell. (Porto, 11 November 1850 - Porto, 11 June 1893) was a Portuguese naturalist painter. Born in Porto, he studied there under João Antenio Correia and T. Furtado, then continued his studies in Paris and Rome. While in Paris he exhibited his work in the Salon and in the World´s Fair of 1878. In Paris, he studied with his friend João Marques de Oliveira, where they were pupils of Adolphe Yvon and Alexandre Cabanel. They became followers of the naturalist Barbizon School, and brought the new school of painting to Portugal, when they returned in 1879. Silva Porto become one of the most acclaimed naturalist painters of his generation, showing the heritage of Jean-Baptiste Camille Corot and Charles-François Daubigny. Secondary effects from impressionism can sometimes be found in his paintings.
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https://freiherrvonquast.wordpress.com/2020/08/09/i-have-obtained-a-nobiliary-title-from-a-deposed-monarch-do-i-belong-to-the-nobility-of-his-country/
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“I have obtained a nobiliary title from a deposed monarch. Do I belong to the nobility of his country?”
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2020-08-09T00:00:00
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As deposed dynasties do not form part of a state any more, it might appear that holders of their nobiliary titles do not belong to the nobility of the region over which the dynasty once ruled. This article examines if this assumption is correct. I will first examine a case where the monarch is the…
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nl
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Nobiliary law - Adelsrecht - Droit nobiliaire
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https://freiherrvonquast.wordpress.com/2020/08/09/i-have-obtained-a-nobiliary-title-from-a-deposed-monarch-do-i-belong-to-the-nobility-of-his-country/
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As deposed dynasties do not form part of a state any more, it might appear that holders of their nobiliary titles do not belong to the nobility of the region over which the dynasty once ruled. This article examines if this assumption is correct. I will first examine a case where the monarch is the Head of State and subsequently examine three cases where the dynasty is deposed.
British honours
All modern British honours, including peerage dignities, are created by the Crown (analogous to all intents and purposes to the reigning Sovereign, currently HM Queen Elizabeth II). Therefore, the Crown is the fons honorum for all British honours. Every year, the final list of those nominated for honours is prepared by the Main Honours Committee at 10 Downing Street. The list incudes life peerages and knighthoods. When approved by the Committee, it is submitted, through the Prime Minister, to The Queen. The creations take effect when letters patent are issued, affixed with the Great Seal of the Realm; the chief seal of the Crown as a symbol of the Sovereign’s approval. In today’s constitutional monarchy, the Sovereign acts on the advice of the Government, but the Great Seal of the Realm remains an important symbol of the Sovereign’s role as Head of State:
The Queen is as much the Queen of New South Wales (In re Bateman’s Trust (1873) 15 Eq 355, 361) and Mauritius (R v Secretary of State for the Home Department, Ex p Bhurosah [1968] 1 QB 266, 284) and other territories acknowledging her as head of state as she is of England and Wales, Scotland, Northern Ireland or the United Kingdom. Thus the Secretary of State as a servant of the Crown exercises executive power on behalf of the Crown in whatever is, for purposes of that exercise of executive power, the relevant capacity of the Crown.
R (Al Rawi and others) v Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs and another [2006] EWCA Civ 1279, paragraph 9.
Along with the House of Commons and the House of Lords, the Crown is an integral part of the institution of Parliament. The Queen plays a constitutional role in opening and dissolving Parliament and approving Bills before they become law. When a bill has been approved by a majority in the House of Commons and the House of Lords, it is formally agreed to by the Crown. This is known as the Royal Assent. It transforms a Bill into an Act of Parliament, allowing it to become law in the United Kingdom.
Because in Britain, the State and its sovereign are entwined, the peers created by the sovereign belong to the peerage of the state. The peerage of the United Kingdom is the legal system comprising both hereditary and lifetime titles, composed of various noble ranks, and forming a constituent part of the British honours system. Therefore, a person who is granted a peerage by The Queen belongs to the British peerage.
Sovereign rights after the monarch is deposed
This situation is different when a monarch is involuntarily deposed: the monarch and the state are not entwined any more, but the two are separated. It is in line with international legal principles that (ex-)rulers continue to possess their sovereign rights (see Hugo Grotius’ De iure belli ac pacis; English: On the Law of War and Peace. Paris 1625), and therefore still hold the fons honorum to create nobiliary titles:
That is called Supreme, whose Acts are not subject to another’s Power, so that they cannot be made void by any other human Will. When I say, by any other, I exclude the Sovereign himself, who may change his own Will, as also his Successor, who enjoys the same Right, Cacheranus Decis Pedem. 139. n. 6. and consequently, has the same Power, and no other.
Hugo Grotius, The Rights of War and Peace, edited and with an Introduction by Richard Tuck, from the Edition by Jean Barbeyrac (Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 2005. Vol. 1. 8/16/2020). https://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/1425, Book 1, Chapter 3, paragraph 7
The character of the holder of this supreme authority is probably the most important dimension of sovereignty (source: Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy).
King Kigeli V of Rwanda
It has been stated by some individuals that the last King of Rwanda, King Kigeli V (1936-2016), did not enjoy sovereign powers under the Belgium suppression and that therefore he did not have the competence to create a Western-style nobiliary framework after being deposed.
Rwanda existed long before European colonization. Modern human settlement of what is now Rwanda dates from, at the latest, the last glacial period, either in the Neolithic period around 8000 BC, or in the long humid period which followed, up to around 3000 BC.
Gihanga (“Creator”, “Founder”) (1081-1114) is described in oral histories as an ancient Tutsi king credited with establishing the ancient Kingdom of Rwanda. In the 15th century, the population coalesced first into clans and then into kingdoms. The Kingdom of Rwanda dominated from the mid-eighteenth century, with the Tutsi kings conquering other monarchs militarily, thus centralising power. It had its own political and socio-economic organization, its culture and customs.
The Berlin Conference of 1884 assigned the territory to Germany as part of German East Africa, marking the beginning of Rwanda’s colonial era. The German explorer Gustav Adolf Graf von Goetzen was the first European to significantly explore the country in 1894. He crossed from the south-east to Lake Kivu and met king Kigeli IV Rwabugiri at his palace in Nyanza. The Germans did not significantly alter the social structure of the country, but exerted influence by supporting the king and the existing hierarchy and delegating power to local chiefs.
The Kingdom of Rwanda was a sovereign nation. In the pre-colonial era the King of Rwanda held the supreme authority over a very complex administrative structure of interdependence of political, administration, military, social, economic and religion, based on the clan and lineage which appears behind each ruling structure:
Contrary to the German occupation, during the suppression by the Belgians (1916-1962), the King of Rwanda’s executive power were limited. The colonizer institutionalized “chefferies” and “sous-chefferies” by regrouping ancient royal political – administrative entities but removed the chiefs of the land, the chiefs of pastures and the chiefs of the army. In the same occasion, the Mortehan Reform of 1926-1931 by the Belgians changed the ethnic power distribution in the new commands by removing average Hutu, Twa and Tutsi and replacing them by people from the major Tutsi lineages (matridynastic or dynastic and princes). Also, the king could no longer choose his chiefs, and he could not dismiss them. His power was weakened while that of the colonizer was reinforced. The King of the Belgians usurped the King of Rwanda’s sovereignty. During the Mortehan Reform, Rwanda was transformed inside out on political, administrative, social and culture levels. In five years time, Belgium destroyed Rwanda’s centuries old civilization.
In view of the forementioned, it is perfectly legitimate for the former King Kigeli V of Rwanda to issue Western-style nobiliary titles. His dynastic rights as a sovereign should be considered the same as in the pre-colonial era, when he had supreme authority. In my opinion, titleholders can state legitimately that they belong to the Rwandan peerage as it is perfectly clear who is the sole legitimate issuer of such titles.
The case of Prince Francesco and Prince Thorbjorn Paternó Castello
Paternò Castello is a Sicilian noble family that was very powerful and influential in eastern Sicily, especially in Catania. Between the 17th and 18th centuries, the family acquired numerous possession and titles. The family can be divided into six branches: two princely (Biscari and Valsavoia), two ducal (Carcaci and Paternò Castello Guttadauro), one marquisate (San Giuliano), and two baronial (Bicocca and Sant’Alessio).
Paternò Castello descends from the Royal House of the Counts of Barcelona, later Kings of Aragon. The House of Barcelona was a medieval dynasty that ruled the County of Barcelona continuously from 878 and the Crown of Aragon from 1137 (as kings from 1162) until 1410. They inherited most of the Catalan counties by the thirteenth century and established a territorial Principality of Catalonia. This principality was united with the Kingdom of Aragon through marriage and conquering numerous other lands and kingdoms. In 1410, the last legitimate male of the main branch, Martin the Humanist, died but cadet branches of the house continued to rule Provence from 1112 to 1245, and Sicily from 1282 to 1409. By the Compromise of Caspe of 1412 the Crown of Aragon passed to a branch of the House of Trastámara, descended from the infanta Eleanor of the house of Barcelona.
The Crown of Aragon continued to exist until 1713 when its separate constitutional systems (Catalan Constitutions, Aragon Charters, and Charters of Valencia) were disbanded by the Nueva Planta decrees at the end of the War of the Spanish Succession. The decrees effectively created a Spanish citizenship or nationality, which judicially no longer distinguished between Castilian and Aragonese with respect to both rights and law. Since then, independent Aragonese monarchs seized to exist. Nonetheless, Spanish monarchs up to Felipe VI (1968), continue to use titles that were affiliated to the defunct Crown of Aragon.
The House of Paternò is originally a cadet branch of the House of Barcelona-Aragona. This genealogical relationship is the basis for the dynastic claims of two brothers; prince Francesco Paternò Castello (*1964) and prince Thorbjorn Paternò Castello (*1976).
I have examined the legitimacy of both claims earlier in a 2016 article. At least two individuals are of the opinion that prince Thorbjorn’s claims are not legitimate:
The fons honorum of the House of Paternò is heavily challenged by Guy Stair Sainty, stating that as a junior member of a junior branch of the family don Roberto has no right to claim any prerogative pertaining to its chief, whether or not such prerogative actually exists (Guy Stair Sainty and Rafal Heydel-Mankoo, World Orders of Knighthood and Merit 2006).
In 1973 Lt Col Robert Gayre published a booklet in which he states that “certain observations should be made which, in our opinion, destroy completely these historical claims. The Papal legitimation which is brought forward to allow the desired descent was, in itself, insufficient to transfer any title to the Crown of Aragon. Furthermore, as Aragon did not have the Salic law, the descent of the crown could pass through a female line. Consequently, even if the legitimization had put Don Pedro Sancho into the line of succession, that succession would have gone through a female line on the extinction of the male descent – and so to the house of Paternò would have been out of succession in any case.”. (…) It is clear that no matter how distinguished is the house Paternò, it cannot claim to be the heirs of the Kingdom of the Balearic Isles or of Aragon.” (Lt Col R. Gayre of Gayre and Nigg, A Glimpse of the Chivalric and Nobiliary Underworld, Lochore Enterprises (Malta) Ltd. Valetta, Malta, pp. 27-28).
R.A.U. Juchter van Bergen Quast, Legal Opinion: The Fons Honorum of the House of Paternò Castello, 2016
The forementioned statements by Sainty and Gayre are incorrect and obsolete. On 12 December 2017, the judicial court of Reggio Emilia in Italy confirmed the legitimacy and legality of prince Thorbjorn to grant titles and honours (his fons honorum). In response to the accusation of the Italian public prosecutor that prince Thorborn is not a descendent of the House of Aragon, nor a legitimate claimant to its dynastic rights, the court ruled very clearly:
There is no evidence that the crucial document for the claim, a statement issued by King Ferdinand II of the Two Sicilies (1810-1859), in whose realm the family resided, is false (as had been stated by the public prosecutor):
In ancient Sicily, titles could not only be inherited by the firstborn child, but also by other sons and daughters (the public prosecutor stated that succession could only take place through the male line):
The forementioned Paternò Castello-case is fascinating: it is the only case where the fons honorum of a royal claimant is sanctioned by an authoritative legal judgment in a case against the state prosecutor. The case was initiated by the SMOM. The consequence of the judgment is that the legitimacy and legality of the claimed dynastic rights of prince Thorbjorn Paternò Castello are definite.
In my opinion, holders of titles from both brothers should specify clearly that their titles originate from the house of Paternò Castello in the capacity of claimant to the dynastic rights of Aragon and Valencia because otherwise, confusion can arise about their origin as the King of Spain also claims these rights. In addition, Aragon and Valencia do not longer exist as independent regions, which also adds to the confusion. It is more practical to just refer to the House Paternò Castello, for example: Barone di Montichelvo (title issued by the Princely House of Paternò Castello).
The case of King Peter of Yugoslavia
Petar Karađorđevič (1923, Belgrade – 1970, Los Angeles, California), was the last king of Yugoslavia. He ruled the country under the regnal name of Peter II.
Peter II was the son of Alexander I, who was assassinated during a visit to France on 9 October 1934. He became titular king at age 11, but the actual rule was in the hands of a regent, his uncle Prince Paul. After Paul was deposed by a coup of officers led by General Dušan Simović on 27 March 1941, Peter II ruled for a few weeks until Fascist troops invaded Yugoslavia. Peter II then fled into exile in London, where he led an émigré government. In 1944, he married Princess Alexandra of Greece, and, after the Yugoslav monarchy was abolished by general Tito in 1945, he settled in the United States. He wrote A King’s Heritage: The Memoirs of King Peter II of Yugoslavia (1955) and worked in the public relations sector in New York (source: Encyclopaedia Britannica).
It was not the first time that the king visited the United States. His first visit to America started on 24 June 1942 with his reception at the White House where he was accorded warm hospitality by President Roosevelt. He was welcomed with full honours that even exceeded the official protocol (source: Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Serbia).
Addressing King Peter in a very moving speech, President Roosevelt said that as a young man, he read about the 500-year-long Serbian struggle for national liberation and the establishment of its sovereignty, with great interest and deep emotions. In response to this warm welcome, King Peter thanked President Roosevelt and the American people for the understanding and moral support showed for the struggle of his people (source: Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Serbia).
Peter II died in Denver, Colorado, on 3 November 1970. He was interred in Saint Sava Monastery Church at Libertyville, Illinois, and was the only European monarch so far to have been buried in the United States. On 22 January 2013, King Peter’s remains were returned to Belgrade. The former King was buried in the Royal Family Mausoleum at Oplenac on 26 May 2013 along with his wife, Queen Alexandra. The Serbian Royal Regalia were placed over the King’s coffin. Present at the ceremonies were: the First Deputy Prime Minister of Serbia, Ivica Dačić; King Peter’s son Alexander with his family; and Serbian Patriarch Irinej, an advocate for the restoration of the Serbian monarchy.
The acts of Peter II during his period in exile (1945 – 1970) are the acts of a sovereign, who was forced by the Communist Josip Broz Tito to give up his position. According to Hugo Grotius’ principles of international law, Peter II still enjoyed sovereignty after he had been deposed. Do recipients of noble titles, issued by King Peter II belong to the Yugoslav nobility?
I will answer this question on the basis of the complicated case of Thomas Shannon Foran (born, 1925, New London, Connecticut, United States – died, 2005, Neuilly-Sur-Seine, Hauts-De-Seine, Île-De-France, France; as Thomas Foran de Saint Bar; France Death Index, 1970-2020). The New York Times reported his obituary:
FORAN–Thomas. Thomas Shannon, Baron Foran, duc de Saint Bar, died October 15, at home in Neuilly-Sur-Seine, France, after a long illness. Baron Foran was born in New Haven, CT. In 1943, he volunteered as a paratrooper and joined the 82nd Airborne division, serving in the African, Sicilian, and Italian campaigns, and parachuted behind German lines at Draguignan, France. He was wounded in France and in Belgium during the Battle of the Bulge. His medals include the Bronze Star, Purple Heart with two palms, and the Yugoslav War Cross. He was aide-de-camp to King Peter II of Yugoslavia and thereafter championed and published several books on the Yugoslav Karageorges Royal Family. After the war he lived in Paris, where he represented European wines and spirits in the US. He was a Knight Grand-Cross with sash of the Sovereign Order of Malta, an order he served in many capacities for 45 years. In recent years, his commentaries in European journals provided insights on European royalty and the breakup of Yugoslavia. He will be remembered gratefully by family and friends for his unconditional love, loyalty, and friendship; values that shaped his life. He is survived by a sister, Theodora Jones, his niece and adopted daughter, Valerie Knox Carter, their families, and by Marc Gantzer de Saint Bar. A Memorial Mass will be held at 10 am, Friday, November 4th, 2005, at Saint Patrick’s Cathedral, 213 Broadway, Norwich, CT. Entombment in the Shannon mausoleum at St. Mary’s Cemetery, 815 Boswell Ave, will follow the Mass.
New York Times, 31 October 2005. Note: Forian was a member of King Peter’s independent Order of Malta, formed by the King on 19 March 1964.
Foran was the son of John Kennedy Foran and Madeleine Valerie. King Peter II issued a diploma, dated 30 March 1941, issuing to him the title of duc de Saint Bar. Obviously, the diploma has been backdated to a period when Peter II ruled over Yugoslavia as a monarch. Is the backdating of the diploma acceptable from a legal perspective?
Clearly, Peter II wanted to explicitly backdate the effects of the diploma in his capacity as ruling monarch of Yugoslavia. The diploma could factually have been issued later in the Common Law jurisdictions of England or the United States (the King’s subsequent main residences after the war), or in France, where the King lived in the 1950’s.
In Common Law, if backdating a document misleads a third party or gives a false impression about when an action was taken, it may be fraudulent. Where both parties consent to the backdating of the document, normally the courts in common law jurisdictions will disregard the backdating of that document, and treat the rights as accruing from the date when the document was actually executed. In exceptional cases – where third party rights are not affected – the courts might treat the stated date as being the effective date. The parties’ intentions are essential when evaluating whether backdating is legal (source: Kwall, Jeffrey L. and Duhl, Stuart, Backdating. Business Lawyer, 2008, Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=1112845). In this case, the purpose and effect was not to mislead a third party, but to underline the sovereign powers of Peter II, and to oppose the usurpation of his throne by the fascists and communists, by attributing the legal effect of the diploma since 1943. When the diploma was factually created in France, which has a Civil Law jurisdiction, the conclusion is the same, based on the théorie de l’autonomie de la volonté (the principle of party autonomy and will). Therefore, Foran’s diploma is legal and legitimate, from a Common and Civil Law perspective as well as from an international law perspective.
On 4 December 1918, after the end of World War I and the defeat of Austria-Hungary, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes was formed. In 1921, the so-called Vidovdan constitution was introduced. Under this new Constitution, the territory of the state was centralized, church authorities did not have the status of state authority, and the Church was only acknowledged the status of an autonomous organization. The Vidovdan Constitution established a constitutional monarchy. It further envisaged that the King did not have any authorities outside the Constitution, and that there were no authorities that could not be taken away from him under the Constitution. The Vidovdan Constitution followed the agreement between the Muslim party and the Serbian radicals to keep Bosnia and Herzegovina a separate administrative unit in this new kingdom. However, this constitution was not legitimate, because the provisions it rested on were not approved by the parliamentary majority of each nation separately but by the parliamentary majority of all nations together, where the three nations had unequal number of representative (source: Aksic, Sava: 2016). The Vidovdan constitution was annulled by King Alexander in 1929 and replaced by a new constitution in 1931. The name of the country was changed to Kingdom of Yugoslavia. The 1931-constitution defined the state as a hereditary and constitutional monarchy. Ministers and other high officials were dependent on the king. In 1946, after World War II, a Communist constitution was adopted (source: Constitutionnet.org).
Chapter II, Article 4 of the 1931 Constitution stipulated:
Држављанство је у читавој Краљевини једно. Сви су грађани пред законом једнаки. Сви уживају једнаку заштиту власти. Не признаје се племство ни титуле, нити икаква преимућства по рођењу.
There is but one single nationality in the whole Kingdom. All citizens are equal before the law. All enjoy equal protection from the authorities. Nobility, titles or other hereditary privileges are not recognized.
licodu.cois.it
Did this article prevent King Peter from issuing nobiliary diplomas, after he left the country because it was occupied by Axis powers (since 6 April 1941)?
Art. 29. The King is the guardian of national unity and State integrity. He is the protector of their interests at all times. The King sanctions and promulgates the laws, appoints civil servants, and confers military rank, in accordance with the provisions of the law. The King is the supreme commander of all the military forces. He confers decorations and other distinctions.
Art 29, Chapter V, The Constitution of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia (1931)
Art. 29 allows the King to confer decorations and other distinctions. Therefore, although nobiliary titles did not carry privileges, they could still be conferred. The sovereign powers King Peter II had as a monarch were still valid after he was deposed, including his right to confer decorations and other distinctions. In my opinion, this included the right to confer titles of honour, like duc de Saint-Bar.
Considering the date of the diploma, it was King Peter’s intention to issue the title in his capacity as sovereign monarch of Yugoslavia with legal effect from 1943 onwards. It can therefore be said that the recipient of the title and his successors belong to the nobility of Yugoslavia. In this case, there is no confusion, since Yugoslavia ceased to exist as a state in 1992 and it therefore should be understood, that the title has a historical character.
Conclusions
In dynastic matters, it is inappropriate to follow the legal system of the usurper. Applying the Belgian colonial laws in the Kigali-case would be like applying the Soviet laws as criteria for judging the dynastic rights of the Russian imperial pretenders.
Recognition by a court is rarely achieved. SMOM obviously never expected the outcome of the Paternò Castello-case, when it filed its criminal complaint against prince Thorbjorn Paternò Castello.
It depends on the specific circumstances whether one can legitimately state that she/he belongs to the peerage of a country when the honour is issued by a deposed monarch. It is always important to be transparent in these matters.
Recommendations
When a title is obtained from a deposed dynasty, I recommend being fully transparent about its origin by specifying the dynasty that issued the title; for example: Comte de Saint-Anselm (Royal House of Rwanda). Although, based on the principle of sovereignty, it is not incorrect to state that a person belongs to the Rwandan nobility, it can cause confusion regarding the issuer’s capacity. The same is true for other titles, issued by dynastic claimants.
Sources
Hugo Grotius, The Rights of War and Peace, edited and with an Introduction by Richard Tuck, from the Edition by Jean Barbeyrac (Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 2005). Vol. 1. 8/16/2020). <https://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/1425>.
Blagojević A., Radonić, B. On the Constitution of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia of 1931, in: Journal of law and social sciences of the Law Faculty of University J.J. Strossmayer in Osijek = Zeitschrift für Rechts-und Sozialwissenschaften der Fakultät für Rehtswissenschaften der Universität J.J. Strossmayer in Osijek = Journal des sciences juridiq, Vol. 28 No. 1, 2012.
Ranouil, V. L’Autonomie de la volonté: Naissance et évolution d’un concept, Paris, Presses universitaires de France, coll. « Travaux et recherches de l’Université de droit, d’économie et de sciences sociales de Paris », 1980.
Aksic, Sava. (2016). Legitimacy of the Vidovdan Constitution and relationships established thereby. Zbornik radova Pravnog fakulteta, Nis. 55. 105-116. 10.5937/zrpfni1673105A.
Saint-Bar, T. F. (1999). Les Karageorges rois de Serbie et de Yougoslavie: De l’assassinat de la monarchie et de la démocratie en Yougoslavie par Tito, avec l’aide de Staline, jusqu’à la guerre du Kosovo. Paris: Christian.
Saint-Bar, T. F. (2004). Ordres et décorations du royaume de Yougoslavie: Pierre II, le dernier souverain. Paris: Christian.
Saint-Bar, T. F. (2006). Orders and decorations of the kingdom of Yugoslavia: Peter II, the last king. Paris: Christian.
Foran, T. D. (1973). Portrait d’un roi: Pierre II de Yougoslavie. Ivry sur Seine: Ed. SERG Société d’études et de réalisations graphiques.
Mallet, G. (1994). Étude des titres nobiliaires Baron de Luis XIV, Duc de Saint Bar, portés par le citoyen americain Thomas Foran. París: S.n.
Chrétien, J. (1986). Roi, religion, lignages en Afrique Orientale précoloniale – royautés sans Etat et monarchies absolues. Paris: P.U.F.
Gahama, J. (1983). Le Burundi sous l’administration belge: La période du mandat, 1919-1939. Paris: C.R.A.
Heusch, L. D. (1966). Le Rwanda et la civilisation interlacustre. Université libre de Bruxelles: Institut de sociologie.
Maquet, J. J. (1954). Le système des relations sociales dans le Ruanda ancien. Tervuren, Belgique: Musée Royal du Congo Belge.
Grimm D.: Cooper B. (2015). Sovereignty: The Origin and Future of a Political and Legal Concept, New York: Columbia University Press.
Judicial Court of Reggio Emilia, Judgement N. 500/17 of 12 December 2017.
Hoegen Dijkhof, H.J. (2006). The legitimacy of orders of St. John: A historical and legal analysis and case study of a para-religious phenomenon.
Photo
Scythian Messengers Meet the Persian King Darius I by Franciszek Smuglewicz. Creation Date: end of the 18th century – beginning of the 19th century. Provided by Lithuanian Art Museum. PD for Public Domain Marka by Franciszek Smuglewicz.
Franciszek Smuglewicz was a Polish-Lithuanian draughtsman and painter. Smuglewicz is considered a progenitor of Lithuanian art in the modern era. He was precursor of historicism in Polish painting. He was also a founder of Vilnius school of art, his most prominent students were Jan Rustem, Jan Krzysztof Damel, Gaspar Borowski and Józef Oleszkiewicz. His father Łukasz Smuglewicz and brother Antoni were also painters;
Franciszek Smuglewicz is one of the most famous Lithuanian Classicism painters, the first professor and the head of the Drawing and Painting Department established in late 18th century in Vilnius University. His artworks and educational activities made significant impact for the development of professional Lithuanian art. His ancient subject paintings were inspired by works of Antique authors, such as Herodotus, Plutarch, Homer, and Vergilius. Depicted scenes were given philosophic and moralising subtext, corresponding with the spirit of the Enlightened Classicism.
The painting “Scythian Messengers Meet the Persian King Darius I” depicts another reception scene. This time Persian king Darius I (550-486 BC) is portrayed after his unsuccessful campaign against the Scythians. Scythian messenger comes to Darius I and hands him a bird, a mouse, a frog, and five arrows. He tells that the Persians themselves must find out the meaning of these presents. King Darius is sitting in his throne, lost in his thoughts, trying to understand the meaning of gifts. His advisers gathered behind him also think intensely. In the opinion of the king, strange gifts mean the Scythians are to surrender to the Persians with soil and water. However, Gobryas, Darius’ lance carrier, one of the seven conspirators who killed the Magian usurper Gaumâta and helped Darius the Great to become the king, interprets the meaning of presents completely differently. According to him, the gifts tell this message: “Oh, the Persians! If you will not fly-away skywards like birds, or will not dig yourselves into the ground line mice, or will not jump into water like frogs, you will not return home, because these arrows will pierce you”.Both “Persian Envoys before the King of Ethiopia” and “Scythian Messengers Meet the Persian King Darius I“ promote the right of nations to be independent and to fight for their freedom. As the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth ceased to exist in the late 18th century after its’ territory was partitioned among Prussia, the Austrian Empire, and the Russian Empire these ideas were very important at the time Franciszek Smuglewicz lived in and during the following years.
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Maximilian Karl, 6th Prince of Thurn and Taxis
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Maximilian Karl, 6th Prince of Thurn and Taxis,[1][2] full German name: Maximilian Karl Fürst von Thurn und Taxis[1][2] (3 November 1802, Regensburg, Electorate of Bavaria[1][2] – 10 November 1871, Regensburg, Kingdom of Bavaria[1][2]) was the sixth Prince of Thurn and Taxis, head of the...
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Military Wiki
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https://military-history.fandom.com/wiki/Maximilian_Karl,_6th_Prince_of_Thurn_and_Taxis
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Maximilian Karl, 6th Prince of Thurn and Taxis,[1][2] full German name: Maximilian Karl Fürst von Thurn und Taxis[1][2] (3 November 1802, Regensburg, Electorate of Bavaria[1][2] – 10 November 1871, Regensburg, Kingdom of Bavaria[1][2]) was the sixth Prince of Thurn and Taxis, head of the Thurn-und-Taxis-Post, and Head of the Princely House of Thurn and Taxis from 15 July 1827 until his death on 10 November 1871.[1]
Early life, education, and military career[]
Maximilian Karl was the fourth child of Karl Alexander, 5th Prince of Thurn and Taxis and his wife Duchess Therese of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, sister of Queen Louise of Prussia. He was born on 3 November 1802 in the so-called Inner Palace of St. Emmeram's Abbey. At the age of nine, Maximilian Karl became Under Lieutenant in Bayer's Fourth Bayerrischen Cheveaulegers-Regiment König. After four years of education at Bildungsinstitut Hofwyl, a Swiss educational institution, he joined the Bavarian army on 25 August 1822. After the death of his father in 1827, Maximilian Karl asked for his dismissal from the army. Afterwards, he continued with his new role as head of the House of Thurn and Taxis, with the advisement and support of his mother.[3]
Marriage and family[]
Maximilian Karl married Baroness Wilhelmine of Dörnberg, daughter of Ernst, Baron of Dörnberg and his wife Baroness Wilhelmine Henriette Maximiliane of Glauburg, on 24 August 1828 in Regensburg.[1][2] Maximilian Karl and Wilhelmine had five children:[1][2]
Prince Karl Wilhelm of Thurn and Taxis (14 April 1829 – 21 July 1829)[1][2]
Princess Therese Mathilde of Thurn and Taxis (31 August 1830 – 10 September 1883)[1][2]
Maximilian Anton Lamoral, Hereditary Prince of Thurn and Taxis (28 September 1831 – 26 June 1867)[1][2]
Prince Egon of Thurn and Taxis (17 November 1832 – 8 February 1892)[1][2]
Prince Theodor of Thurn and Taxis (9 February 1834 – 1 March 1876)[1][2]
In their seventh year of marriage, Wilhelmine died at the age of 32. Maximilian Karl mourned her death greatly and constructed the Neo-Gothic mausoleum at St. Emmeram's Abbey for her. Maximilian Karl married secondly to Princess Mathilde Sophie of Oettingen-Oettingen and Oettingen-Spielberg, daughter of Johannes Aloysius III, Prince of Oettingen-Oettingen and Oettingen-Spielberg and his wife Princess Amalie Auguste of Wrede, on 24 January 1839 in Oettingen in Bayern.[1][2] Maximilian Karl and Mathilde Sophie had twelve children:[1][2]
Prince Otto of Thurn and Taxis (28 May 1840 – 6 July 1876)[1][2]
Prince Georg of Thurn and Taxis (11 July 1841 – 22 December 1874)[1][2]
Prince Paul of Thurn and Taxis (27 May 1843 – 10 March 1879)[1][2]
Princess Amalie of Thurn and Taxis (12 May 1844 – 12 February 1867)[1][2]
Prince Hugo of Thurn and Taxis (24 November 1845 – 15 May 1873)[1][2]
Prince Gustav of Thurn and Taxis (23 February 1848 – 9 July 1914)[1][2]
Prince Wilhelm of Thurn and Taxis (20 February 1849 – 11 December 1849)[1][2]
Prince Adolf of Thurn and Taxis (26 May 1850 – 3 January 1890)[1][2]
Prince Franz of Thurn and Taxis (2 March 1852 – 4 May 1897)[1][2]
Prince Nikolaus of Thurn and Taxis (2 August 1853 – 26 May 1874)[1][2]
Prince Alfred of Thurn and Taxis (11 June 1856 – 9 February 1886)[1][2]
Princess Marie Georgine of Thurn and Taxis (25 December 1857 – 13 February 1909)[1][2]
In 1843, Maximilian Karl and his family moved to the newly constructed princely castle of the Thurn and Taxis family in Donaustauf, which was completed in the same year as the nearby Walhalla. The castle Donaustauf was completely destroyed during a blaze on 4 March 1880.
Postal career[]
In 1827, Maximilian Karl was his father's successor as head of the private Thurn-und-Taxis-Post which had its headquarters in Frankfurt am Main. With the annexation of the Free City of Frankfurt by the Kingdom of Prussia in 1866 and the forced sale of Thurn-und-Taxis-Post for three million Thalers ended the era of the Thurn and Taxis family's postal monopoly. The handover took place on 1 July 1867.[4]
Titles, styles, honours and arms[]
Titles and styles[]
3 November 1802 – 13 November 1805: His Serene Highness Prince Maximilian Karl of Thurn and Taxis
13 November 1805 – 15 July 1827: His Serene Highness The Hereditary Prince of Thurn and Taxis
15 July 1827 – 10 November 1871: His Serene Highness The Prince of Thurn and Taxis
Honours[]
Grand Master of the Order of Parfaite Amitié
Knight of the Austrian Order of the Golden Fleece
Knight of the Order of the Black Eagle
Ancestry[]
References[]
Martin Dallmeier / Martha Schad: The Princely House of Thurn und Taxis, Verlag Friedrich Pustet, Regensburg, Germany 1996 ISBN 3-7917-1492-9.
[]
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Karl Alexander, 5th Prince of Thurn and Taxis
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Alexander,_5th_Prince_of_Thurn_and_Taxis
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For other people named Karl Alexander, see Karl Alexander (disambiguation).
Prince of Thurn and Taxis
Karl Alexander, 5th Prince of Thurn and Taxis, full German name: Karl Alexander Fürst von Thurn und Taxis (22 February 1770 – 15 July 1827) was the fifth Prince of Thurn and Taxis, head of the Thurn-und-Taxis Post, and Head of the Princely House of Thurn and Taxis from 13 November 1805 until his death on 15 July 1827. With the death of his father on 13 November 1805, he became nominal Generalpostmeister of the Imperial Reichspost until the resignation of Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor.
Karl Alexander was born as the son of Karl Anselm, 4th Prince of Thurn and Taxis and his first wife, Duchess Auguste of Württemberg.[1] He studied at the Universities of Strasbourg, Würzburg, and Mainz and then subsequently went on a European tour. In 1797, he was appointed successor to his ailing father's position as Prinzipalkommissar at the Perpetual Imperial Diet in Regensburg. Karl Alexander also worked for the Thurn and Taxis postal empire, operating during a decline due to the gradual loss of territory as a result of the Napoleonic Wars.
Karl Alexander married Duchess Therese of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, fourth eldest child and third eldest daughter of Charles II, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg and his wife Princess Friederike of Hesse-Darmstadt, on 25 May 1789 in Neustrelitz, Mecklenburg-Strelitz. Karl Alexander and Therese had seven children:
Princess Charlotte Luise of Thurn and Taxis (24 March 1790 – 22 October 1790)
Prince George Karl of Thurn and Taxis (26 March 1792 – 20 January 1795)
Princess Maria Theresia of Thurn and Taxis (6 July 1794 – 18 August 1874), ancestress of Gloria, Princess of Thurn and Taxis
Princess Luise Friederike of Thurn and Taxis (29 August 1798 – 1 December 1798)
Princess Maria Sophia Dorothea of Thurn and Taxis (4 March 1800 – 20 December 1870)
Maximilian Karl, 6th Prince of Thurn and Taxis (3 November 1802 – 10 November 1871)
Prince Friedrich Wilhelm of Thurn and Taxis (29 January 1805 – 7 September 1825)[2]
After the end of the Holy Roman Empire, the Thurn and Taxis postal system continued to survive as a private company. Since 1806, Karl Alexander headed a private postal company, the Thurn-und-Taxis Post. It existed first as a feud of some of the Confederation of the Rhine members, such as Baden, Bavaria, and Württemberg. Bavaria nationalised the postal system two years later. After the Congress of Vienna, Karl Alexander took over the Hessian and Thuringian postal services, as well as those in the Hanseatic League cities of Bremen, Hamburg, and Lübeck, and Schaffhausen. From 1820, the company began to prosper again, so Karl Alexander began to acquire large amounts of land holdings.
According to the Confederation of the Rhine Act, agreed upon between Napoleon I of France and the Confederation of the Rhine princes, the Principality of Thurn and Taxis lost its independence and was mediatised in 1806. Since then, the Princes of Thurn and Taxis and hence Karl Alexander, depending on the territory, were subjects of either the King of Württemberg, or the Princes of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen. In return, the House of Thurn and Taxis received the Imperial Abbey of St. Emmeram and associated territories in Regensburg. Karl Alexander also received as the family head of the House of Thurn and Taxis, Prussian possessions in the Grand Duchy of Poland. In 1822/23, he bought from the Count Kinsky and others the Burg Reichenburg in Liberec Bohemia.
Wolfgang Behringer: Thurn und Taxis, München 1990 ISBN 3-492-03336-9
Wolfgang Behringer: Im Zeichen des Merkur, Göttingen 2003 ISBN 3-525-35187-9
Wolfgang Behringer: Innovative Reichsfürsten, in: Damals, Juli 2005
Martin Dallmeier: Quellen zur Geschichte des europäischen Postwesens, Lassleben, Kallmünz 1977
Ludwig Kalmus: Weltgeschichte der Post, Wien 1937
Max Piendl: Das fürstliche Haus Thurn und Taxis, Regensburg 1980
Europäische Stammtafeln Band V, Genealogie Thurn und Taxis, Tafel 131
Eugen Lennhoff/Oskar Posner: Internationales Freimaurer-Lexikon. Wien 1932, Nachdruck: Almathea-Verlag München 1980
Media related to Karl Alexander, 5th Prince of Thurn and Taxis at Wikimedia Commons
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Most Famous People with Last Name Frank
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https://playback.fm/share-image?text=Famous%20Franks
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The most famous person with last name Frank is Anne Frank. Other famous people with last name include celebrities like Barney Frank and Hans Frank.
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https://playback.fm/people/last-name/frank
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Fame Ranking
What does "Most Famous" mean? Unlike other sites which use current mentions, follower counts, etc. that tend to call the most famous people YouTube stars or Reality TV stars, we've decided to mark fame as a persons importance in history. We've conducted research scouring millions of historical references to determine the importance of people in History. That being said, we might have missed a few people here and there. The ranking system is a continuing work in progress - if you happen to feel like someone is misranked or missing, please shoot us a message!
Fame Ranking
What does "Most Famous" mean? Unlike other sites which use current mentions, follower counts, etc. that tend to call the most famous people YouTube stars or Reality TV stars, we've decided to mark fame as a persons importance in history. We've conducted research scouring millions of historical references to determine the importance of people in History. That being said, we might have missed a few people here and there. The ranking system is a continuing work in progress - if you happen to feel like someone is misranked or missing, please shoot us a message!
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Marguerite de Navarre by VB.com
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"cremerie de paris",
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] | null |
[] | null |
VB.com, is a historic Pop Up Expo location in Paris and a meeting place of the World's most famous brands.
|
en
|
favicon.ico
| null |
Marguerite de Navarre by Jean Clouet around 1527 Marguerite de Navarre (1492 - 1549)
Princess of France, sister of King Francois I
Queen of Navarre,
writer
married to Henry II of Navarre (1503 - 1555)
came to the Hotel de Villeroy Bourbon (VB) / Cremerie de Paris
for receptions and litterary meetings
two children
- Jeanne d'Albrecht (1528 - 1572)
- Jean de Navarre (1530 - 1530)
grandmother of the Bourbons
The "B" of VB.com
Not everybody knows that Margurite de Navarre
has already been to her square .. over 500 years ago
At the times it was the jonction of
rue St Honore and rue de la Ferronnerie.
Rue des Halles, (imagined 1860 by Empress Eugénie)
did not yet exist.
Marguerite was a friend of Nicolas II de Villeroy
previous owner of the house
and grandfather of Nicolas IV de Villeroy.
Not everybody knows many historic people
have been / are in connection with Cremerie de Paris.
Francois 1er by Jean Clouet around 1530
brother
Francois 1er (1494 - 1547)
born François d'Angouleme
first Valois King of France (1515 - 1547)
Duke of Milan (1515 - 1525)
Francois Ist was
father of King Henri II (1515 - 1559)
father-in-law of Catherine de Medici (1519 - 1589)
wood engraving by Hans Holbein
The engraving shows King Francois 1 with his advisor Nicolas II de Villeroy ( 14xx - 1553)
Nicolas II de Villeroy became secretary of the King in 1515
Nicolas II inherited the Hotel de Villeroy Bourbon (VB) from his father Nicolas I de Villeroy
He was the grandfather of Nicolas IV de Villeroy
Protector of the Arts
Leonardo da Vinci (1452 - 1519) was a friend of both
Marguerite de Navarre and her younger brother François 1er
1516 Francois 1er invited Leonardo da Vinci to come to France.
Francois 1er bought
the Mona Lisa (created in 1503) from the artist.
There is no certitude that Leonardo
has been to the Hotel de Villeroy Bourbon (VB),
but it is most likely he knew about the house
which was already very glamorous at his time.
His painting, the Mona Lisa
is located at the Louvre since 1797,
a few minutes walking distance from Cremerie de Paris (VB.com)
Many admires of what might be the World's most famous painting
use the subway exit Marguerite de Navarre to get to the Louvre.
On their way the see the Cremerie de Paris windows
constantly changing iconic Pop Up Stores. .
Jeanne d'Albret
daughter
Jeanne d'Albret / Jehanne III Reine de Navarre (1528 - 1572)
married to Antoine de Bourbon, King of Navarre.
5 children
- Henri de Bourbon
- Henri IV
- Louis Charles de Bourbon
- Madeleine de Bourbon
- Catherine de Bourbon (1559 - 1604)
2nd generation
The painting is in the Gallery des portraits
du Chateau de Beauregard.
Henri IV, 1st Bourbon King
grandson
Henri IV (1553 - 1610)
first Bourbon King of France
married to
Marguerite de Valois (1572 - 1599)
Marie de Medici (1575 - 1642)
3rd generation
12 children
avec Marie de Medicis
- Louis XIII (1601 - 1643)
- Elisabeth de France (1602 - 1644)
- Christine de France (1606 - 1663)
- Monsier d Orleans (1607 - 1611)
- Gaston de France (1608 - 1660)
- Henriette Marie de France (1609 - 1669)
- Cesar de Bourbon (1594 - 1665)
- Catherine Henriette de Bourbon (1596 - 1663)
- Alexandre de Bourbon (1598 - 1629)
- Henri de Bourbon (1601 - 1682)
- Antoine de Bourbon (1607 - 1632)
- Jeanne Baptiste de Bourbon (1608 - 1670)
Henri IV had a pied-a-terre at the Cremerie de Paris
Nicolas IV de Villeroy (1543 - 1617)
was a minister and advisor for Henri IV.
Nicolas IV de Villeroy was the heir
of the Hotel de Villeroy Bourbon (VB)
Louis XIII, 2nd Bourbon King
great-grandson
Louis XIII (1601 - 1643)
second Bourbon King of France
married to Anne of Autriche (1601 - 1666)
4th generation
2 children
Louis XIV, 3rd Bourbon King (red circle)
Tutor Nicolas V de Villeroy
(lived at the VB mansion)
Philippe I of Orleans red circle),
2 x great-grandsons
- Louis XIV / Sun King (1638 - 1715)
third Bourbon King of France
oldest child of Louis XIII
5th generation
played at the Cremerie de Paris as a child
Nicolas V de Villeroy was his tutor
lived at the Chateau de Versailles
married to Maria Theresia of Spain (1638-1683)
married to
Francois d'Aubiné / Madame de Maintenon (1635 - 1719)
- Philippe I of Orleans / Monsieur (1640 - 1701)
duke of Orléans
second child of Louis XIII
only brother of Louis XIV
played at the Cremerie de Paris as a child
lived at the Chateau de St Cloud
married to Henrietta of England
married to Elisabeth Charlotte of Bavaria (la Palatine).
Nicolas V de Villeroy on a coin by Jean Vavin
Nicolas V de Villeroy inherited the Hotel de Villeroy Bourbon (VB)
from his grandfather Nicolas IV de Villeroy in 1617
In the late 1630ies he tore down the mansion
to replace it by the present Hotel de Villeroy Bourbon accomplished in 1640.
Junichi Masuda, composer of the Pokemon Music with a coin of Nicolas V de Villeroy
Masuda was fascinated by the history of VB, mainly due to it's links with the composer Igor Stravinsky
Philippe II d'Orleans
on the right young Louis XV, 4the Bourbon King
tutor François de Villeroy
(son of Nicolas V de Villeroy)
3 x great-grandson
Philippe II of Orléans (1674 - 1723)
Regent of France from 1715-1723
during the minority of his great-nephew
Louix XV
nephew of Louis XIV
ancestor of Memo von Sachsen
musician
6th generation
Louis Duc d'Orleans
4 x great-grandson
Louis Duke of Orleans (1703 - 1752)
married to Johanna of Baden-Baden (1704–1726)
7th generation
Louis Philippe I Duc d'Orleans
5 x great-grandson
Louis Philippe I (1725 - 1785)
Duke of Orléans
married to Louise Henriette de Bourbon.
8th generation
Louis Philippe II
6 x great-grandson
Louis Philippe II (1747 - 1793)
did not like Marie Antoinette married to his cousin Louis XVI
During French Revolution
he adhered to the ideas of Jean-Jacques Rousseau
was also killed in the French Revolution
married to Louise Marie de Bourbon
9th generation
King Louis Philippe
7 x great-grandchildren
Louis Philippe I (1773 - 1850)
King of the French from 1830 - 1848
10th generation
transformed the chateau de Versailles into a Museum
redesigned place de la Concorde
setting the 3000 year old Luxor Obelisk in the center
created a liberal constitutional monarchy
known as Monarchie de Juillet
replaced by 2nd Republic
with President Louis Napoloen,
1848 replaced by 2nd Republic
with Louis Napoléon (nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte)
first President, then Emperor of France
during the Second Empire
Empress Eugenie played an important
role in the construction of the
Halles Centrales / Pavillons Baltard foodmarlet
married to Maria Amalia of Naples and Sicily.
10 children:
- Ferdinand Philippe Orléans (1810 -1842)
father of Robert d'Orleans, Duc de Chartres (1840 - 1910)
grandfather of Jean d'Orleans, Duc de Guise (1874 - 1940)
great-grandfather of Henri Count of Paris (1908 - 1999)
2x great-grandfather of Henri Count of Paris (1933 - 2019)
Micaela, Countess of Paris (1938 - 2022)
was the 3 x grand-daughter in law of King Louis Philippe
the second wife of Henri d'Orleans, Comte de Paris
and the mother of Alexis Boeuf.
In the picture with her young friend David Aaron Benali (Cremerie de Paris)
- Louise, Queen of the Belgians (1812 - 1850)
- Marie Wurtemberg (1813 - 1839)
- Louis d'Orleans, Duke of Nemours (1814 - 1896)
- Francoise d'Orléans (1816 - 18198)
- Clementine Sachsen-Coburg Gotha (1817 - 1907)
see following family tree
- François d'Orlénas , Prince de Joinville (1818 - 1900)
- Charles d'Orléans, Duke of Penthieve (1820 - 1828)
- Henri d'Orléans, Duke of Aumale (1822 - 1897)
- Antoine d'Orléans, Duke of Montpensier (1824 - 1890)
10th generation
Clementine d'Orleans
8 x great-granddaughter
Clementine of Orleans (1817-1907)
married August of Saxe Coburg and Gotha
11th generation
5 children
- Clotilde of Saxe Coburg
- Ferdinand Tsar of Bulgaria
Clementine overlooks place de la Concorde
next to the Tuileries Garden in Paris.
She is the model for the city of Lille,
one of 8 French city statues of the famous square.
Place de la Concorde is 2 km walking distance
from the Cremeries de Paris,
so many times we have been driving by the statue
without realising that both Clementine's
ancesters and descendents
were connected to our history.
Clotilde de Saxe Coburg
9 x great-granddaughter
Clothilde of Saxe Coburg and Gotha (1846 - 1927)
married Joseph Karl of Austria
They had 7 children, among them:
"Margarethe" of Austria / Thurn und Taxis
who might have been named after "Marguerite" de Navarre
12th generation
Margarethe of Austria / Thurn & Taxis
was named after Marguerite de Navarre
Albert 8th Prince and Margarete von Thurn & Taxis
with their 7 children in 1910
10 x great-grandaughter
Margarethe of Austria (1870 - 1955)
married Albert I von Thurn & Taxis (1870 - 1952)
(nephew of Sissi of Austria)
artist
13th generation
knew Cremerie de Paris in relation it's Postal history
They had 6 sons and one beautiful daughter
Elisabeth Helène von Thurn und Taxis / Markgravine von Sachsen.
for their wedding Albert bought the famous Tiara, crown jewel of France
The perl tiara was ordered by Napoléon III for his wedding with Eugenie de Montijo
The 212 pearls and 1998 diamonds come from old old jewels of the Bourbons.
The tiara can be seen in multiple historic paintings
including those of Franz Xavier Winterhalter.
Next to the crown of the Queen of England
or the tiara of the Tsarina of Russia
it is today the World's most valuable jewel.
Sadly for the Postal family
Gloria von Thurn und Taxis
sold the tiara for the equivalent of 567.023 euro
which might not even be 5% of todays value.
Today the tiara is based at the Louvre,
Gallerie Appolon
800 m walking distance from Cremerie de Paris / Place Marguerite de Navarre
Elisabeth Helene von Sachsen
and her brother Karl August,
later 10th Prince of Thurn & Taxis
11 x great-grandchildren
Karl August von Thurn & Taxis (1898 - 1982)
married Maria Anna of Braganza (1899 - 1971)
grandaughter of King Miguel of Portugal
3 children
Elisabeth Helene von Thurn und Taxis (1903 - 1976)
married Margrave Friedrich Christian von Meissen (1893 - 1968),
son of the last King of Saxony,
Frederick Augustus III
6 children
14th generation
|
|||||
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0
| 1
|
https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q216259
|
en
|
Karl Anselm, 4th Prince of Thurn and Taxis
|
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[
""
] | null |
[] | null |
German prince
|
en
|
/static/apple-touch/wikidata.png
|
https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q216259
| ||||||
8320
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dbpedia
|
0
| 92
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https://issuu.com/odane.hamilton/docs/wolfgang-amadeus-mozart
|
en
|
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
|
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[] |
[
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[] |
2011-07-11T00:00:00+00:00
|
A collection of articles from Wikipedia PDF generated using the open source mwlib toolkit. See http://code.pediapress.com/ for more information. PD...
|
en
|
/favicon.ico
|
Issuu
|
https://issuu.com/odane.hamilton/docs/wolfgang-amadeus-mozart
|
Welcome to Issuu’s blog: home to product news, tips, resources, interviews (and more) related to content marketing and publishing.
Here you'll find an answer to your question.
|
||||
8320
|
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3
| 28
|
https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Frankfurt
|
en
|
Frankfurt – Travel guide at Wikivoyage
|
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https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Frankfurt
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This article is about the city in Hesse. For the town in Brandenburg, see Frankfurt an der Oder.
Frankfurt (German: Frankfurt am Main) is the largest city in the German state of Hesse, and is considered the business and financial centre of Germany. It is the fifth largest city in Germany after Berlin, Hamburg, Munich and Cologne. The city is known for its modern skyline, and for hosting the headquarters of the European Central Bank, the Deutsche Börse stock exchange and numerous German financial services companies. Furthermore, it hosts some of the world's most important trade shows, such as the Frankfurt Auto Show and the Frankfurt Book Fair. It is on the river Main at a crossroad of the German Autobahn system and connected to several high-speed rail lines, with Germany's busiest airport on its outskirts, Frankfurt is one of the most important transportation hubs of Europe.
Understand
[edit]
Frankfurt is a city of contrasts. Wealthy bankers, students and hippie drop-outs coexist in a city that has some of the highest, most avant-garde skyscrapers of Europe next to well maintained old buildings. The downtown area, especially Römer square and the museums at the River Main, draw millions of tourists every year. On the other hand, many off-the-beaten-track neighbourhoods, such as Bockenheim, Bornheim, Nordend and Sachsenhausen, with their intact beautiful 19th-century streets and parks are often overlooked by visitors.
It's the heart of the Rhine-Main region, spanning from Mainz and Wiesbaden in the west to Hanau in the east and Gießen in the north to Darmstadt in the south and has some 5.6 million inhabitants (2019) in the whole surrounding metropolitan area.
Frankfurt is the place where Germany's major autobahns and railways intersect. About 650,000 people commute to the city each day, not counting some 763,000 people who live here (2019). With a huge airport — the third-largest in Europe — it is the gateway to Germany and for many people also the first point of arrival in Europe. Further, it is a prime hub for interconnections within Europe and for intercontinental flights.
In the years following 1968, especially in the late 1970s and up to the early 1980s, Frankfurt was a centre of the left wing Sponti-Szene, which frequently clashed with police and local authorities over politics and urban design issues (specifically whether or not old buildings should be torn down). Several members of these radical groups went on to have quite respectable careers in politics, among them Daniel Cohn-Bendit (long time leading MEP for the Greens) and Joschka Fischer (Foreign Minister and Vice Chancellor 1998-2005), though their erstwhile radical and violent antics did hurt them in their later political careers.
Frankfurt has one of the highest percentage of immigrants in Germany: about 25% of Frankfurt's people have no German passport and another 10% are naturalized German citizens. With about 35% immigrants, Frankfurt is one of the most diverse of German cities.
Frankfurt is home to many museums, theatres and a world-class opera.
Territorial subdivisions
[edit]
Frankfurt is divided into 16 Ortsbezirke, which are further subdivided into 46 Stadtteile. As Frankfurt is an expansive city with a large area given its population, most of those are of little interest to a tourist, with most attractions concentrated in the Ortsbezirk Innenstadt I (there are four Ortsbezirke starting with Innenstadt ("inner city"), distinguished by Roman numerals). Some Stadtteile of particular note are:
Altstadt (Dom-Römer Quarter) – the heart of Frankfurt's old town, largely rebuilt after the Second World War, particularly, as part of a major urban development project, from 2012 to 2018
Innenstadt – named confusingly (sharing its name with the larger Ortsbezirk) is the part embracing the Altstadt up until the old city fortifications, still visible as a green belt on the city map. The home to the most of Frankfurt's skyscrapers
Bahnhofsviertel – the densely-built part of the city immediately facing the Hauptbahnhof, hosting the most hotels in town and its red light district
Gutleutviertel – the area south of the tracks leading up to the Hauptbahnhof, with a modern residential quarter on the Main
Gallus – the area north of the Hauptbahnhof tracks known most for the past-2010 Europaviertel development (a new city quarter with apartment blocks and offices built around the wide Europaallee next to the fairgrounds)
Bockenheim
Westend – the most expensive part of Frankfurt by land values, mostly covered with low-rise residential buildings and villas, but also several skyscrapers on its edges
Nordend
Bornheim – Popular area with small shops, cafés and restaurants, as well as historic taverns and half-timbered houses. See listing below.
Sachsenhausen – the historic southern bank of the river Main, which preserved its typical 19th-century character, very different from the modern northern bank punctured by skyscrapers. Includes the Museumsufer museum collection directly at the riverbank. See listing below for further details.
Höchst – Formerly a separate small town, now a suburb. The small Altstadt, around the Schloss, is one of the closest places to central Frankfurt that you can see large numbers of traditional timber-framed buildings that didn't get destroyed in the war. The square by the Schloss has some very nice traditional Gaststätte to eat or drink in. See listing below for further details.
When to visit
[edit]
The best times for Frankfurt are late spring to early autumn. The summers tend to be sunny and warm around 25°C (77°F). Be prepared, however, for very hot summer days around 35°C (95°F) as well as for light rain. The winters can be cold and rainy (usually not lower than -10°C/14°F). It rarely snows in Frankfurt itself.
If you intend to stay overnight, you may wish to avoid times when trade fairs are held, as this will make finding affordable accommodation a challenging task. The biggest is the Book Fair (Buchmesse) yearly in mid-October; see Fairs for details.
Tourist information
[edit]
There are two offices for tourism information:
Get in
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Frankfurt is the heart of central Germany and as such, it is one of the most important transportation hubs. It has excellent connections by rail, road and air. Reaching and leaving Frankfurt is easy.
By plane
[edit]
Frankfurt Airport
[edit]
Main article: Frankfurt Airport
(FRA IATA) is among the busiest in Europe — fourth in passenger traffic after London Heathrow, Amsterdam Schiphol and Paris Charles de Gaulle Airport. Frankfurt is the banking centre of Germany and hosts numerous international trade fairs. Therefore all major airlines and all airline alliances fly frequently to Frankfurt and connect it to every inhabited continent and all major cities in the world. The German flag carrier Lufthansa[dead link] is the main airline in Frankfurt and offers most connections. Lufthansa also has several domestic feeder flights to and from Frankfurt that also serve business travelers.
The airport is connected to downtown Frankfurt by taxi, bus (line 61 to Frankfurt Süd(bahnhof) U1 U2 U3 U8 S5 S6 (Frankfurt South Station), and most easily by S-Bahn (fast commuter trains).
To get to the city by S-Bahn, take lines S8 or S9 in the direction of Offenbach Ost or Hanau at the regional train station, , on the lowest level of Terminal 1 (entrances in section A and B). If your plane lands or departs from Terminal 2, count in another 15 minutes as you need to move between the terminals with either the shuttle bus or the monorail Skytrain (both are free of charge, just follow the signs). If you want to go downtown, get off at Frankfurt Taunusanlage , Frankfurt Hauptwache or Frankfurt Konstablerwache , which are in the heart of the city. If you want to change to long-distance trains get off at Frankfurt Hauptbahnhof (Frankfurt Central Station). The ride from the airport to the central station takes about 20 minutes. You have to purchase a ticket at the vending machines in the train station before boarding the train. The adult ticket costs €5.80, and €3.40 for children (April 2023).
If you want to go to the airport by S-Bahn, take the S8 or S9 in the direction of Wiesbaden. Don't take the S1 , since it does not stop at the airport.
Regional trains RB and RE to Mainz, Wiesbaden, and Hanau stop at the same place as the S-Bahn to Frankfurt.
Connections outside the Frankfurt region have a separate long-distance train station, . Here, you can board high-speed long-distance trains (Inter-City and ICE) to Cologne, Munich and other national and international destinations. Local train tickets are not valid on ICE or IC.
Hahn Airport
[edit]
The smaller airport called Frankfurt/Hahn (HHN IATA), mostly used by budget airlines, advertises proximity to Frankfurt. However, Hahn is far away from Frankfurt and it takes about 90 minutes to drive there from downtown to cover the 125 km (78 mi) distance. For that airport, if you have to use it at all, allow more time in your travel plans and budget. A bus from Frankfurt/Hahn to Frankfurt Main airport and on to Frankfurt Hauptbahnhof (Frankfurt Central Station) costs about €17.99 and leaves roughly every hour. Tickets are available from the kiosk outside in front of the main entrance.
Frankfurt/Hahn is not far (9 km) from Traben-Trarbach, which lies by the Mosel river and has a train station. The streets between the airport and Traben-Trarbach are not lit at night and have no sidewalk.
By train
[edit]
See also: Rail travel in Germany
Frankfurt has three major train stations: , and the above-mentioned one at the airport (Flughafen Fernbahnhof). However, several inter-city trains that stop at the airport do not stop at Hauptbahnhof. Long-distance trains leaving from Hauptbahnhof do not stop at Südbahnhof, while a few long-distance trains pass by Hauptbahnhof and only stop at Südbahnhof. Check the timetable to make sure you are going to the right station!
Frankfurt Hauptbahnhof is one of the biggest and busiest train stations in Europe, so it's definitely worth a visit. Frankfurt has connections to most German cities - and neighbouring countries especially to the south and west - via InterCity and high-speed InterCity Express trains. There is no problem to get a connection to any train destination from Frankfurt.
Frankfurt train stations are very large, confusing, labyrinth-like places for newcomers. Allow extra time to locate the boarding area for your train. Don't hesitate to ask someone for help the first time. There is a large departures signboard above the main exit/entrance with destination and platform information, and you can also get information from the railway travel office in the station.
From the main ticket office at Frankfurt you can buy 5- and 10-day rail travel cards which allow you to travel around Germany using all train services, including the Intercity ones. These are a significant saving on individual train fares. The 5-day ticket costs €189 and the 10-day ticket €289. You cannot buy these tickets from regional train stations.
In addition to regular Deutsche Bahn trains and regional trains on which DB tickets are valid, Frankfurt is also served by Flixtrain. Tickets can be bought through Flixbus, but DB tickets are not valid and there is no BahnCard discount. That said, Flixtrain tickets are usually considerably cheaper than comparable DB tickets.
By car
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See also: Driving in Germany
Frankfurt is connected to several autobahns and can be easily reached by car. Try to avoid rush-hour and especially snowy days, as car traffic can easily break down. Parking is definitely a problem in most areas. Especially during big conventions—such the Internationale Automobilausstellung (International Automobile Exhibition) in September, or the Frankfurter Buchmesse (Frankfurt Book Fair) in mid-October—you should consider using the well designed park-and-ride system If you intend to stay mostly in Frankfurt and only make day-trips to the bigger cities in the surrounding area, consider leaving the car altogether and arriving by train, as Frankfurt has a superb public transport system (see below).
By bus
[edit]
See also: Intercity buses in Germany
Get around
[edit]
By public transport
[edit]
Frankfurt has a good, co-ordinated public transport system of Underground (U-Bahn), tram (Straßenbahn) and bus. Public transit nerds will be quick to point out, that the "U-Bahn" is actually a bit of a misnomer, given the fact that it has moved traffic sections in the outskirts, more in line with systems called "Stadtbahn" in other German cities. The RMV site has basic information and timetable information available in English and other languages. The U-Bahn (metro) stations are signed with a white capital "U" on a blue background . For connections to the suburbs or airport, use the S-Bahn, signed with a white "S" on green background . Almost all S-Bahn lines and two U-Bahn lines ( U6 , U7 ) come together in the city-tunnel in central Frankfurt ( and ), besides line S7 , which ends at Central Station. If you want to go to the old city take the U-Bahn to or tram line 11 or 12.
The S-Bahn, run by Deutsche Bahn, connects the downtown areas to outer-lying suburbs as well as other cities in the region, such as Mainz, Wiesbaden, and Darmstadt. Beware that the S-Bahn is notorious for its delays. If you need to get somewhere on time, allow for some buffer time. In the morning rush-hour, delays of 5–15 minutes are common. If you are catching a plane or have another similar time-critical appointment, allow an extra 30 minutes to be on the safe side. Other services (subway, tram and bus) are usually more punctual.
Tickets
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You can get single trip, all-day and weekly tickets. You can get tickets for one person or a group of up to five people travelling together.
You must use a ticket machine to purchase a ticket before boarding. Ticket machines can be switched to English. You have to press Einzelfahrt Frankfurt for a single trip in the city and Tageskarte Frankfurt for a day ticket in the city. If you want to ride to the airport, you have to press Einzelfahrt Frankfurt Flughafen or Tageskarte Frankfurt Flughafen. If your destination is outside Frankfurt, you have to look up your destination on the list provided at the machine, enter this number with the numeric keypad, then press the button for the type of ticket you want (Einzelfahrt - single trip; Tageskarte - day ticket). Also, every station has some stations listed as "short distance" destinations (Kurzstrecke); tickets to those are cheaper. If you have the opportunity, ask a bystander to explain the vending machines to you the first time you want to buy a ticket. Unlike in other German cities, tickets purchased are valid immediately. You cannot purchase single trip tickets in advance, but time tickets (day, week, month) can be chosen according to the date, which you have to know in advance.
Fares are based on the zones you travel through. Central Frankfurt is all contained within a single zone (zone 50) so tickets (except short trip tickets) are all the one fare. In this central zone a single trip ticket costs €3.40 and a day ticket costs €7.20. For the central zone and the airport zone together a single trip ticket costs €5.80 and a day ticket costs €11.30. Group day-tickets (5 people: €11.30 / €19.10) cost less than two individual day-tickets, so are better value if you are travelling together and purchasing day-tickets. Discounts are available for children of age 14 and under.
If you are visiting attractions and museums then consider buying a Frankfurt Card. It allows unlimited travel on Frankfurt's public transport system (city zone and airport) and discounts in many museums. The Frankfurt Card is available as a one day and two day ticket, and for a single person or a group of up to five (1 person 1 day €11.50, 2 days €17.00; group (max. 5 persons) 1 day €24, 2 days €34) [updated 2023]. These tickets are not sold at the vending machines. You can buy the Frankfurt Card at the airport (arrival gate B, terminal 1), at travel agencies, railway stations, at the tourist information desk at Hauptbahnhof, at the tourist information desk at Römer, or in advance online. A one-day one-person Frankfurt card including airport transportation is cheaper than the equivalent public transport ticket that includes the airport.
A fine of €60 applies for riding without a valid ticket.
By e-hailing
[edit]
Uber, Bolt and Free Now cover the city.
By taxi
[edit]
Frankfurt has plenty of taxi drivers to service the many business travellers. The city is not too big, although fares tend to be expensive. Watch out for taxi drivers that take detours if they notice that you do not know the city. Still, for door-to-door transport, taxis are a way to go.
Most taxi drivers love to drive to the airport because it's longer than inner-city fares, but not all taxi drivers are licensed to go there. They tend to drive very fast because most German business travellers expect them to do this. If you feel uncomfortable, let the driver know and he will slow down.
Blacklane - offers an extensive fleet of vehicles for business travellers. An airport transfer service from city centre to Frankfurt Airport is about €30.
DCAcar - is the leader in luxury travel. Originally founded in Washington DC they have been providing service in Europe since 2022.
Limousine & Shuttle Service Frankfurt - Is Your reliable partner for Your appointments and celebrations, both in the greater Frankfurt area and throughout Germany. Limousine & Shuttle Service Frankfurt safely, professionally and reliably transport You in their exclusive limousine and shuttle vehicles to Your desired destinations.
In the main tourist areas downtown there are also human-powered bike taxis that convey one or two passengers. For those not too keen on walking this may be a convenient way of seeing the sights.
By car
[edit]
Avoid using your car in the city, especially in tourist "hot spots" like Sachsenhausen (especially on a Saturday) because of congestion and a severe lack of parking spaces. It's very limited, and people tend to park in places they're not supposed to. This ends up costing a fair bit if your car gets towed, which it often will. If you want to enter the city, your best bet is to use a Parkhaus (parking garage, which charges a fee of €1 per hour or €8 for the whole day) and then either walk, or take public transport.
Many areas are reserved for local residents, in and outside the city. You will see the areas marked by parking signs that indicate a local permit is needed during certain hours during the day. The wording to be aware of is "Parkausweis Nr.X" (where X is a number). If you park in these spaces you risk a fine.
Even vehicles registered in countries other than Germany need a "low emissions" sticker[dead link] (on the inside of the windscreen) to legally enter certain signposted environmental protection zones in Frankfurt. (The stickers are valid for all low emission zones in Germany.) Labelling a vehicle with these emission stickers, also often called "fine particle stickers", is voluntary, but vehicles without this sticker - even those with foreign number plates and even those that would otherwise meet the criteria - are not allowed into environmental zones without risking a fine of €40.
Also, remember that Germany has strict laws about driving under the influence of alcohol, only allowing 0.5mg of alcohol per mL of blood. That's just about one beer or glass of wine. Although there are Autobahns without speed limits, when there are speed limits, these are enforced rigorously. Radar traps are frequent. Heavy on-the-spot fines can be levied. The laws pertaining to tailgating have been sharpened, and the fines have gotten larger.
By bicycle
[edit]
Frankfurt is bike-friendly, featuring an expansive network of bike lanes. While there are various rental-bike companies in Frankfurt, they are relatively rare and situated in inconvenient areas of the city for travellers. A more convenient source of rental bikes may be Deutsche Bahn. Look out for their rental bikes, marked in the colours red and white and the letters "DB".
These bikes are available year-round and can be found pretty much anywhere in the city - especially at street corners, which are the major pick-up and drop-off points. You can rent these bikes 24/7 just using your cell-phone and your credit card. German citizens can also sign-up for direct debit from their checking account. For instructions on how to use this service, call the number on the bike or go their website.
Another service is offered by nextbike. Sign up (either online or via their hotline) and rent bicycles and return them at any station all over town. Rates are charged by the half-hour (€1) and are capped at €9 per day.
Bike Rental Outlets Frankfurt[dead link]
See
[edit]
While most of the buildings in the inner town were destroyed during the second world war, many of them in Römerberg have been meticulously restored. The imposing town hall and the cathedral St Bartholomeus where emperors of the Holy Roman empire were crowned in the 17th and 18th centuries are among them. Walk on top of a tower or get to the Main for good views of the skyline.
Historical attractions
[edit]
Skyline
[edit]
Frankfurt has some of the tallest buildings in Germany (the Commerzbank Tower is the country's tallest office building). Its skyline is unique for the country, as the high rises are concentrated in a relatively small downtown area, giving Frankfurt the looks of a metropolis. One of the reasons for this are the lax zoning laws compared to the rest of Germany. Elsewhere, building such high rise buildings is almost - if not outright - impossible. The skyline is the reason why Frankfurt is sometimes called by the nickname Mainhattan.
For a view of the skyline try the Main river bridges. The eastern bridges offer the best view, in particular the Ignaz-Bubis-Brücke and also the Alte Brücke. For a great view including the new European Central Bank building, the train bridge in Ostend and the new bridge behind it provide excellent views. Also, when you approach the city from the airport via the subway, stay to the right side of the train. Just before the train approaches the Frankfurt central station it enters a big curve, and from here you will have a nice first glance of the skyline. For another good view of the skyscrapers take a walk from Schweizer Platz U1 U2 U3 U8 northwards.
Other attractions
[edit]
Museums
[edit]
Museums in Germany are generally closed on Mondays (there are exceptions); the exact opening hours on other days depend on the museum. If you want to visit a museum on a public holiday, check with them before to be sure they open on that day.
The museums in Frankfurt offer a wide range of exhibits. Many museums are clustered on both banks of the Main in a district called Museumsufer (Museum Riverbank). To get there, take the subway to Schweizer Platz U1 U2 U3 U8 (southern bank) or Willy-Brandt-Platz U1 U2 U3 U4 U5 U8 (northern bank), then walk towards the Main river. You can see the downtown skyscrapers when you leave the station Schweizer Platz, that's the direction you have to take. There are enough museums in Museumsufer to keep you occupied for a while, and it is especially suitable if you are staying in Frankfurt only for a short time.
The Museumsufer Ticket is valid for admission to all municipal museums on two consecutive days and is available at all Frankfurt museums. Individual visitors €18, concessions €10, families (2 adults and children) €28.
At the Museumsufer
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All of the following museums are at the Museumsufer in Sachsenhausen. You have a number of options to get there, e.g. Schweizer Platz U1 U2 U3 U8 or Bus 46 (Museumsufer Linie) to "Städel". It is also just a 10 minute walk from Dom/Römer U4 U5 across the Eiserner Steg bridge, or 10 minutes from the main train station over the pedestrian bridge Holbeinsteg.
Other museums
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Do
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Culture
[edit]
Frankfurt Architectural Photo Tour[dead link] , Free photography course of architectural fine arts
Fairs
[edit]
Frankfurt's trade fairs are known to have taken place as early as in 1160. The Messe Frankfurt is one of the world's largest exhibition centres, hosting a continuous stream of exhibitions small, large and gargantuan — the Motor Show draws almost a million visitors. Most fairs are open to the public for at least part of the time, and can be a fascinating if somewhat overwhelming experience if you're interested in the theme. The Messe has its own S-Bahn train station, Messe S3 S4 S5 S6 , two stops away from the Central Railway Station (from platform 104, underground), and there's also the Festhalle/Messe U4 subway stop. Advance tickets for fairs often allow free use of all RMV public transport. Trains to the trade fairs are announced in English.
(Frankfurt Buchmesse): . The largest event of the world's publishing industry, held yearly in mid-October. The Frankfurt Book Fair has a long history, first being held in 1485, shortly after Gutenberg's printing press in nearby Mainz made books much more easily available than before. The last two days (Sa Su) are open to the general public, with book sales allowed on Sunday only. The public days of the Book Fair have also drawn a vast contingent of manga/anime fans, many of whom dress up as their favourite characters! Photography is allowed, but only after asking permission.Day ticket €12. (date needs fixing)
Sports
[edit]
Football:
Swimming at Titus-Thermen or Rebstockbad, which both also have whirlpools and sauna facilities. Or visit any of the other public indoor or outdoor pools in Frankfurt. The biggest outdoor pool is next to the Nidda in Rödelheim part of Frankfurt: Bretano bath. Some of the bigger complexes outside the city limits include Taunus-Therme in Bad Homburg and Rhein-Main-Therme in Hofheim.
Walks
[edit]
In the summer, a walk along the river Main is a nice thing to do. A lot of people will spend a sunny afternoon walking or sitting there on a lawn or playing frisbee or football. It's a relatively quiet area, considering it's in the heart of the city. Nearby cafes and restaurants allow you to have a drink in between. The only disadvantage is that it can be quite crowded when the weather is nice; try going during business hours on a weekday unless you're looking for a crowd.
Go for a walk in the City Forest (Stadtwald) in the south of Frankfurt. With about 48 km², it is regarded as the largest inner-city forest in Germany. Six playgrounds and nine ponds make the forest a popular tourist attraction. The forest can be reached via tram line 17 direction Neu-Isenburg/Stadtgrenze from Frankfurt Main Station (Frankfurt Hauptbahnhof S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 U4 U5 ). Trams 12, 19, 20 and 21 also connect the Stadtwald with downtown Frankfurt.
Go on top of the Feldberg mountain, the highest mountain in the Taunus. Take a train from Frankfurt central to Königsstein and then go to the main bus place (Parkstraße). Buses via Feldberg depart every 2 hours. Get on top of the observation tower at the Feldberg. If it's cold, have a hot chocolate with cream (Heiße Schokolade mit Sahne) at the tower's kiosk.
Events
[edit]
(Long Night of Museums): . One night a year in mid-May most Frankfurt museums are open to the public until the early morning of the next day. Special bus lines will take visitors from one to the next. Various special events are organized; for example dances, music performances, special exhibits, games, and so on. It is very crowded but also highly recommended; be prepared for very long lines. Buy a ticket in advance so you do not have to waste time during the night of the event on this, and do not forget to pick up a schedule of the events and map of the bus routes. Similar events are organized in other German cities as well. (date needs fixing)
: , Römerberg, Paulsplatz und Mainkai(Dom/Römer U4 U5 ).M–Sa 10:00–21:00, Su 11:00–21:00. Get a glühwein mug and start enjoying the evening. It is one of the biggest German Christmas Markets featuring a big tree and popular participation. Late November to 22 December (date needs fixing)
(CSD Frankfurt): (Konstablerwache U4 U5 U6 U7 ). LGBT parade and festival in mid-July. (date needs fixing)
(Museumsufer Festival): . Massive 3-day outdoor festival held every year in late August along both sides of the downtown waterfront. Numerous stages with live music, DJs, food, shops, and museum events. Beware that it can get very crowded in certain spots and there are often queues to cross the Eiserner Steg bridge. Fireworks on the last day.Free. (date needs fixing)
There are various fireworks displays throughout the year. Many major events - like the Museumsufer festival are ended with very well done fireworks. Check your local event schedule; if you are in the city these are always worth your time. The exception are the New Year fireworks, which are unorganized and less than spectacular. Good vantage points are the Main bridges, or the river banks.
Other activities
[edit]
The RMV offers a tour of the city in the so-called Ebbelwei Express, a special tram that offers music, apple wine, and pretzels. Probably very stereotypical and more suited for people who do not mind "tacky" tourist traps.
About once a month, an old steam engine train rides along tracks on the northern riverbank of the Main. Prices vary, starting at €4 for an adult.
Learn
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Work
[edit]
Frankfurt is one of the better locations in Germany to start looking if you want to find a job. It is the centre of national and international banking/finance and there are also many high tech, chemical and pharmaceutical companies in the Rhine-Main area. All of these are more willing to accept people with no or less than adequate German skills if you can offer any other special skills.
Last but not least the airport and companies working for trade fairs, as well as several companies in the so called "Industriepark Hoechst" always need people who speak English and other (seldom spoken) languages. Especially low skilled and very high skilled jobs are available. Make sure you have the proper permits and papers; working illegally can get you into a lot of trouble.
Buy
[edit]
Frankfurt is a great place for shopping, as it caters both to tourists and to the local population, so you can find anything from haute couture to ridiculously cheap, and most of the shopping possibilities are located in the centre. The majority of shops are open until 20:00, though some of the larger stores downtown may close at 21:00 or 22:00. In general, shops are closed on Sundays.
Shopping streets
[edit]
The Zeil is the main shopping street in Frankfurt and in fact one of the most frequented shopping streets in Europe. This area caters to all sorts of shopping needs. There are big department stores such as Galeria Kaufhof and Karstadt as well as numerous other larger shops along the Zeil. Head to the top floor of Galeria Kaufhof for a restaurant with amazing views of the city. The lower levels of both department stores sell food products from all of the world. There are also shopping complexes like the Zeilgalerie and MyZeil, which is notable for its remarkable architecture, including the longest shopping mall escalator in Europe. Some of the surrounding streets, e.g. Liebfrauenstraße, Schillerstraße, and Kaiserstraße, have a lot of interesting smaller shops. Head to the Goethestraße for upscale shopping.
Schweizer Straße: small, traditional shops with local specialties, take subway to Schweizer Platz U1 U2 U3 U8 .
Berger Straße: smaller trendy shops and cafés, take subway to Merianplatz U4 or Höhenstraße U4 .
Leipziger Straße: smaller shops, take subway to Leipziger Straße U6 U7 station.
Markets
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Shops
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Shopping centres
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Eat
[edit]
There are of course restaurants all over Frankfurt. One notable area for dining may be what is locally known as the Fressgass (a literal translation would be "munching alley"). The correct name of this street is Große Bockenheimer Straße. As the nickname implies, the Fressgass features many cafés, restaurants, and deli food stores. It is a popular area to dine after going shopping. Take the subway to station Hauptwache U1 U2 U3 U6 U7 U8 or Alte Oper U6 U7 . In late May to early June (exact dates vary each year), the Fressgass Fest takes place with food stands, cheap beer and live music. The area also has a few notable historic buildings, such as the beautiful rococo style house at Große Bockenheimer Straße 31 built in 1760 and the two 18th century half-timbered houses at Kleine Bockenheimer Strasse 10 and 12.
If you are looking for an in-depth paper-based restaurant guide, a popular publication is Frankfurt Geht Aus (Frankfurt is going out), a magazine style dining guide of the city. It can be bought for €4.80 at many kiosks and book stores, or at the Tourism Information at the central station.
Traditional Hessian dishes
[edit]
Typical specialities from the Hessian region are:
Handkäs mit Musik – A cheese from curdled milk.
Frankfurter Grüne Sauce (also known as Grie Soß) – A thick sauce made from eggs and 7-9 fresh herbs. Typically served with potatoes, hard-boiled eggs, or occasionally with a Schnitzel in a dish known as a Frankfurter Schnitzel.
Frankfurter sausages (Frankfurter Würstchen) are well-known internationally, but it is here that you can try the original kind, consisting of pork.
Frankfurter Rindswurst – another kind of sausage, quite different from Frankfurter Würstchen, that is very popular in this region. These consist of beef only, and were created in part to appeal to Frankfurt's large Jewish community. The ones from Metzgerei Gref-Völsings (at Hanauer Landstrasse 132) are the most well-known.
Sachsenhäuser Schneegestöber (also known as "Frankfurter Schneegestöber") – A dish consisting of Camembert cheese, cream cheese, onions and bell pepper powder. Available only in select restaurants.
Frankfurter Rippchen – Cured pork, slowly heated in sauerkraut or meat broth.
Bethmännchen – A pastry made mainly from marzipan and almonds. Popular during Christmas time.
Many of the above dishes are typically eaten while drinking Apfelwein (see Drink). Most restaurants in Frankfurt feature international food, so you have to specifically search for restaurants serving traditional dishes. For popular restaurants in Frankfurt, it is highly recommended to reserve in advance as the restaurant might otherwise not have any free tables left.
Budget
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In various locations
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Around the Old Town
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Around the main train station
[edit]
East Frankfurt
[edit]
West Frankfurt
[edit]
Mid-range
[edit]
Splurge
[edit]
Drink
[edit]
Frankfurt is a young city where socialising and parties are always high on the agenda. Sachsenhausen, Bockenheim, Bornheim, Nordend and the city centre are the main areas of action.
Due to Frankfurt's large financial industry and business travellers, parts of its nightlife cater to a more upscale audience. At some such venues, sneakers may not be acceptable. However, there are also plenty of bars and clubs for other kinds of audiences, including for students, hipsters, fans of R&B and Hip Hop, or of alternative rock music.
For a quick beverage on the go, there are also small shops all over the town called Trinkhalle, which are usually open well into the night. Most of the times one orders and buys directly from the street. Drinking alcohol on the street is legal in Germany.
Near the central train station there is a rather seedy red light district – heavily patrolled by police/Ordnungsamt – with large brothels, porn cinemas and bars. Strip clubs like the Golden Gate Frankfurt are popular for bachelor/bachelorette parties at the weekend and similar joints are in walking distance. Check pricing upfront to avoid problems with bouncers afterwards.
Bars
[edit]
While mostly associated with Sachsenhausen, you will find good bars all over the city.
Cafes
[edit]
There are few cafés on Großer Hirschgraben. Café Karin and Walden are very popular with the locals. During the summer, you can enjoy one of the open air rooftop bars.
Clubs
[edit]
There are many clubs in Frankfurt that cater to business people and organise corporate events. The German favour for electronic music results in a wide variation of clubs that offer this music. Alternative music is a niche market that cater the roots of the migrants in Frankfurt.
Ebbelwoi
[edit]
The "regional speciality" Ebbelwoi (literally "apple wine", sometimes spelled Ebbelwei, or listed as Apfelwein or Äppler in standard German) is an apple cider that tastes very different from other kinds of ciders. Most locals drink their ebbelwoi with a dash of sparkling water. Just order a glass by asking for a "Sauergespritzte" or simply a "Sauer". People who are not used to the taste may also prefer to order a sweeter version, a "Süßgespritzte", which is ebbelwoi with a dash of lemonade, though this might earn you some disapproving looks from locals. If you are in a group you can also order a Bembel. This is a traditional clay jug that comes in different sizes and keeps the apple wine cool (this is also a good souvenir that you can buy in some stores). Possmann is a well-known brand of ebbelwoi, while the "Frau Rauscher" edition has a pleasant natural taste with some yeast left into it.
Mispelchen are another more recent local specialty and tend to be available in the same kinds of traditional restaurants and taverns that serve ebbelwoi. A Mispelchen is served in a small glass and consists of apple brandy and a whole loquat fruit on a tooth pick as well as optionally some loquat syrup.
Alt-Sachsenhausen, a part of the suburb Sachsenhausen south of the Main river, is particularly famous for its bars and Kneipen (a German type of pub) serving ebbelwoi. However, these days, some parts of Sachsenhausen are mostly for tourists. Good options in Alt-Sachsenhausen are Dauth-Schneider, Struwwelpeter and Lorsbacher Thal. Another option in Sachsenhausen is along Textorstraße, a two minute walk south, where you can still find a row of authentic places catering to locals (Germania, Kanonensteppel, Feuerrādchen).
Not as famous as Alt-Sachsenhause, but also well known, is Bornheim (located in the north) which also some biergarden-like ebbelwoi establishments on 'Berger Straße' and the surrounding area. Some of the popular traditional ebbelwoi places in Bornheim are Solzer, Zur Sonne and Zur Schoenen Müllerin.
Sleep
[edit]
Frankfurt has plenty of accommodation but during major trade fairs, prices at even the cheapest hotels will suddenly skyrocket with charges of over €300/night quite common. Plan well ahead and alternatively, consider staying in nearby cities like Darmstadt, Neu-Isenburg, Bad Homburg, Mainz or Wiesbaden which are under an hour away by S-Bahn. If none of these works then Mannheim might be a last resort as it is 30mins by ICE high-speed train (but the train ticket is rather expensive unless bought in advance).
Frankfurt is the banking capital of Germany so most people are business travellers with an expense account. If you intend to stay for longer periods, ask for discounts or corporate rates. If you need to depart early or arrive very late then hotels around the main station are a valid alternative to expensive airport hotels as it is just a 10-minute ride from Terminal 1 by local train. See the Frankfurt Airport article for accommodation options in the vicinity of the airport.
Many of the hotels in Frankfurt are located around the Hauptbahnhof, but this is also the red light district in Frankfurt and is also known for the many beggars and druggies who hang around. Although the area is well policed and quite safe, many tourists are often left with a somewhat negative impression of Frankfurt after staying in this area.
Budget
[edit]
Mid-range
[edit]
The mid-range segment is the main battle ground between privately owned/run hotels and the major chain hotels (Mercure, Courtyard, Meininger etc.). During the weekends and at non trade fair dates substantial discounts are possible but vice-versa during trade fairs prices at least triple!
Niederrad
[edit]
Many hotels billed as "Frankfurt Airport" are in the district of Frankfurt-Niederrad between the airport and city proper. The Frankfurt-Niederrad S7 S8 S9 S-Bahn is just one station away from the airport station. The hotels are within walking distance of the train station, but most at a distance you would not want to drag a suitcase.
Splurge
[edit]
Stay safe
[edit]
Frankfurt has one of Germany's highest crime rates, though, in part, only for statistical reasons: smuggling and similar offences at the airport as well as anything concerning credit card fraud anywhere in Germany is registered in Frankfurt, since the main credit card clearing company is based in the city. Furthermore if you count crime per person, you don't include a good chunk of people working but not living in Frankfurt.
Physical crime is in general concentrated in the red-light district around the central train station, which is also the hangout of many drug dealers/junkies, although even there you are usually safe during the day and moderate evening hours. Frankfurt is safe and it is highly unlikely that you will face armed robbery or other violent crimes. Use your common sense and avoid drunken or aggressive people at night. In general, firearms are an uncommon sight in Germany and the police have a very no-nonsense approach to people wielding guns or even knives. If shots are fired, the police are never far away, as this very rarely happens.
If you have a problem or are being harassed, ask the police for help. The German police and the Frankfurt Ordnungsamt (City Enforcement Officers) are clean, competent and willing to help. Germany is very bureaucratic but structured; as long as you behave respectfully toward the police, you should have no problem. Don't consider buying and smuggling drugs, these are major offences with dire consequences. Lately, bogus police officers have been an issue. All real officers have a green card with photograph and number, and no officer will check cash. Ring 110 if you get in any trouble.
Drugs and beggars
[edit]
The central station area (Hauptbahnhof) is known for being a centre for homeless people and drug users. The situation has improved, but you will still occasionally be bothered by beggars. The drug addicts generally don't bother people, and the beggars will ask for Kleingeld (small change), which by their definition is anything between €0.20 and two euro. One way to fend off beggars is just to say you do not speak German (and this might just be true for you anyway!). They will often switch to English then, so just pretend you can not speak that either (just shake your head, or say "No English").
Connect
[edit]
Internet
[edit]
There are a number of Internet cafés in Frankfurt of varying prices and quality. Free Wi-Fi at coffee shops is getting more and more common but most businesses require some purchases of food or the likes to get the code. La maison du pain[dead link] offers Wi-Fi. Various other hotels offer Internet access but usually at a charge.
Burger King (corner Liebfrauenstraße / Holzgraben) near Hauptwache U1 U2 U3 U6 U7 U8 offers free Wi-Fi in its restaurant, as does Starbucks near Hauptwache (Börsenplatz).
Phone
[edit]
Besides public pay phones and mobile phone services, a large number of stores sell prepaid telephone cards. This is especially useful for international calls. The PTT multi-media store - 65 Baseler Straße, offers competitive rates for international calls (10 cents per min to the UK) Some other stores also offer in house phone services. Another easy to reach store that seems reliable is in the Hauptwache U1 U2 U3 U6 U7 U8 subway station. You may also visit one of the plenty Internet cafés, since they almost all offer cheap phone calls via Internet.
Post offices
[edit]
The postal service in Germany is Deutsche Post. The four easiest-to-reach full-service postal offices are easy to locate:
Inside Frankfurt Hauptbahnhof (central station) by the long-distance ICE/IC trains; near McDonalds.
On Goetheplatz
At Frankfurt Süd U1 U2 U3 U8 S5 S6 (i.e., Südbahnhof, Southern Station), take exit Diesterwegplatz and cross the square; the post office is to the left.
Cope
[edit]
Consulates
[edit]
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https://military-history.fandom.com/wiki/Prince_Paul_of_Thurn_and_Taxis
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Prince Paul of Thurn and Taxis
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Paul Maximilian Lamoral, Prince of Thurn and Taxis,[1][2] full German name: Paul Maximilian Lamoral Fürst von Thurn und Taxis;[1][2] 27 May 1843, Castle Donaustauf near Regensburg – 10 March 1879 Cannes, France), was the third child of Maximilian Karl, 6th Prince of Thurn and Taxis and his...
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Military Wiki
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https://military-history.fandom.com/wiki/Prince_Paul_of_Thurn_and_Taxis
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Paul Maximilian Lamoral, Prince of Thurn and Taxis,[1][2] full German name: Paul Maximilian Lamoral Fürst von Thurn und Taxis;[1][2] 27 May 1843, Castle Donaustauf near Regensburg – 10 March 1879 Cannes, France), was the third child of Maximilian Karl, 6th Prince of Thurn and Taxis and his second wife Princess Mathilde Sophie of Oettingen-Oettingen and Oettingen-Spielberg. He was buried in Cannes, at the Cimetière du Grand Jas, Allée du Silence no. 33 under the name of Paul de Fels.[3]
Friendship with Ludwig II of Bavaria[]
At the request of his father to King Maximilian II of Bavaria, he was appointed on 15 November 1861 as junior lieutenant in the 2nd Bavarian artillery regiment (military registry no. KA OP 69 547)[4] and was assigned as orderly officer of then Crown Prince Ludwig on 1 May 1863. Ludwig and Paul became close friends after spending three weeks together in Berchtesgaden in September 1863.[5] After Ludwig’s accession to the throne in 1864, Paul was promoted to personal aide-de-camp of the king on 18 January 1865.[6] In the following two years, Paul von Thurn und Taxis, who matched the king in his good looks,[7] became the closest friend and confidant of the monarch, who gave him the nickname Faithful Friedrich:
“Let me assure you that I shall always foster with the same sincerity the feelings of gratefulness and faithful love which I bear for you in my heart. Remember with love, your faithful Ludwig” (Letter of Ludwig II to Paul).[8]
Although this infatuation, like that with Richard Wagner, was probably not sexually expressed, there were rumours in Munich that Ludwig was sexually intimate with his aide-de-camp.[9]
Paul appears to have kept a diary, but like everything else concerning him in the Regensburg archives of the Thurn und Taxis family, it has been destroyed.[10] Following letter was sent by Paul to Ludwig from his apartment at Türkenstrasse 82 in Munich on 5 May 1866:
“Dear and Beloved Ludwig! I am just finishing my diary with the thought of the beautiful hours which we spent together that evening a week ago which made me the happiest man on earth… Oh, Ludwig, Ludwig, I am consecrated to you! I couldn’t stand the people around me; I sat still and, in my thought I was with you ... How my heart beats when, at the Residenz, I see a light in your window."[11]
Paul and Ludwig shared their passion for Richard Wagner and the theatre. He was gifted with a beautiful voice and sang before the King several times. Wagner rehearsed with Paul a part of the opera Lohengrin which was performed at the occasion of the 20th birthday of the king on 25 August 1865 at the Alpsee in Hohenschwangau. It was magnificently staged with Paul - dressed as Lohengrin wearing a silver shining armor - drawn over the lake by an artificial swan and the whole scenery was illuminated by electric light.[12]
After Richard Wagner was forced to leave Munich on 10 December 1865, Prince Paul of Taxis served as a discreet messenger and intermediary between Ludwig and Wagner. Ludwig apparently also toyed with the idea of abdicating in order to follow his hero into exile, but Wagner with the assistance of Taxis dissuaded him from doing so, while both of them stayed incognito at Wagner’s Villa in Tribschen in May 1866. Using the alias ‘’Friedrich Melloc’’, Paul travelled again to Tribschen on 6 August 1866, this time, however without Ludwig, obviously to convince Wagner to return to Munich. Paul’s following letter to Ludwig is dated 7 August 1866:
“I have just left the intimate circle of the Dear Friends (i.e. Richard & Cosima Wagner) and have retired to the cosy little room which we shared when we were here together… Beautiful memory!...He and Frau Vorstal (i.e. Richard & Cosima Wagner) send their deepest greetings. May God protect you and keep you on the Throne. This is their wish and my own, because only then can we achieve our high ideal. The results of my mission are best given verbally, and I believe that you will approve of them….But now good night, in my thoughts I salute you a thousand times. Your sincere and faithful Friedrich.”[13]
But soon the relationship between Paul and Ludwig soured. Jealous tongues attempted to discredit Paul, and evil and untrue rumours reached Ludwig’s ears that Paul lived a frivolous life. Having little malice in his own nature, Ludwig could never get used to it in others and at first he probably took the rumours about Paul at face value.[14]
Although Ludwig’s feelings for his friend grew deeper and developed into great love, the friendship was so precariously balanced that the slightest tremor of reality threatened to send it plummeting to oblivion. Paul again “faltered” making a wrong choice, saying the wrong word, displaying too much familiarity on one occasion and not enough affection on another. Trivial in themselves, such incidents preyed upon Ludwig’s mind until they became unbearable. Once and for all, he cut Paul out of his life. Apparently the final indiscretion was so trivial that even Paul himself was unaware of it. When he learned of his fall from grace, he sent some agonized letters to the King, but there was to be no response from Ludwig.[15] Paul’s letter to Ludwig is undated, but must have been written somewhere about the middle of December 1866: “My own beloved Ludwig! What in the name of all the Saints has your Friedrich done to you? What did he say that no hand, no good night, no Auf Wiedersehen favoured him? How I feel I cannot say, my trembling hand may show you my inner disquiet. I did not intend to hurt you. Forgive me; be good again with me, I fear the worst - I cannot stand this. May my notes climb to you reconcilingly. Amen! Forgive your unhappy Friedrich”.[16]
Marriage, Break-up with his Family and Death[]
On 7 November 1866, Paul is released from his duties as aide-de-camp and transferred to an artillery regiment "under gracious recognition of his services".[17] From midst November 1866, he started to drink without limits and in a state of turmoil and distress ended up with the Jewish soubrette Elise Kreuzer of the Actien-Volkstheater,[18] "with whom he spend a night at a local boarding house, he was well too drunk to remember, the next morning they parted but in the end of December 1866 she proclaimed him to be the father of her unborn child”.[8]
After their final break up Paul would never see Ludwig again. In January 1867, Paul retired from the Bavarian army under peculiar circumstances, which were later termed as “desertion” by Minister of War Siegmund von Pranckh in 1872.[19] Using the alias “Rudolphi”, Paul moved to Wankdorf near Bern, Switzerland, together with Elise where their son Heinrich, named after Elise’s father Heinrich Kreuzer, a known opera singer, was born on 30 June 1867. After Paul received notice that his parents had tasked the Bavarian police to trace their son in order to convince him to abandon Elise, they moved to Mannheim or Ludwigshafen in August 1867.[20] In October 1867, Paul took up an engagement at the municipal theatre of Aachen under the name “Herr von Thurn” together with Elise.[21]
1867 was a very challenging year for the Thurn and Taxis family. Paul’s sister Amalie died on 12 February 1867 at the age of 22 and his half-brother, Maximilian Anton Lamoral, the Hereditary Prince of Thurn and Taxis, died on 26 June 1867 at the age of 36. With the annexation of the Free City of Frankfurt am Main - where the Thurn-und-Taxis-Post had its headquarters - by the Kingdom of Prussia in 1866 during the Austro-Prussian war, the era of the Thurn and Taxis family's postal monopoly ended on 1 July 1867 with the handover to Prussia.
In 1868, Prince Paul von Thurn und Taxis was forced by his family to marry Elise morganatically, and thereafter was disowned by them, stripped of all his titles, rank and birthrights against an annual pension of 6000 florin.[22] Paul kept writing to Ludwig but without any reply, in the end he begged the King to give him a title. On 19 June 1868 Ludwig inscribed him upon the list of the nobility of Bavaria as Herr Paul von Fels.[23] However, his later petition for conferment of hereditary nobility was declined on 10 December 1869 at the request of the Bavarian Ministry.[24]
Paul tried to reconnect with Richard Wagner as a diary entry of Cosima Wagner on 11 April 1869 shows:[25]“...Hans reporting nothing but bad things from Munich; on top of that a letter from Paul of Fels (formerly Prince Taxis), who wants an appointment of some kind, and, in order to secure it, tells us a lot of gossip! At three o’clock a boat trip with the three little ones and R.”
Paul started a new attempt to reconcile with his father and visited him together with Elise on 3 August 1869 in castle Donaustauf, obviously to no avail.[26] Paul became then an actor at the Zurich theatre in Switzerland, however, ended his acting career after being hissed off the stage.[27]
After his father died on on 10 November 1871, his sister-in-law, Helene of Thurn and Taxis, became the unofficial head of the family until her son, Maximilian Maria, the Hereditary Prince, became of age on 24 June 1883. Known for her diplomatic skills, she tried to reconnect Paul to King Ludwig II and, according to newspaper reports of 1874,[27] Paul would regain his family name and become the Marshall of the Royal Palace Herrenchiemsee and Master of the Revels to King Ludwig II. However, this was not realized for unknown reasons.
In 1877/78, Elise was the prima donna at the theatre of Freiburg. According to Baring-Gould[28] she “exacted from her husband that, whenever she acted, he should throw a bouqet on to the stage at her feet, and get his friends to do the same”.
Shortly after, Paul came down with tuberculosis and went with his wife to Lugano, where he grew worse. Elise formed a liaison with a Prussian officer, staying at the same hotel, and eloped with him, '"leaving her husband, who had given up so much for her, to die unbefriended"[29] on March 10, 1879 in Cannes, "remembering the only true love of his life".[8]
In 1879, Paul's widow - under the name of Frau Elisabeth von Fels - joined the Municipal Theatre in Lübeck[30] together with Arno Cabisius, whom she married in 1881.[18] In 1891, Cabisius became the Director of the Magdeburg Municipal Theatre which he led until his death on 6 March 1907. Elisabeth Cabisius-Kreuzer took over the directorship to complete her husband's contract until the end of the season 1907/08.[31] The fate of Paul's son Heinrich von Fels, who was left behind with his father after Elise abandoned her family,[29] remains unclear.
Trivia[]
In the TV series Wagner (1983) with Richard Burton as Richard Wagner and Vanessa Redgrave as Cosima Wagner, Prince Paul of Thurn and Taxis (played by Arthur Denberg) appears performing as Lohengrin on the Alpsee and at the occasion of his visit to Tribschen together with King Ludwig II in May 1866.[32]
Prince Paul Taxis is featured as lover of King Ludwig II in the three-volume manga series Ludwig II (Ruutovihi II sei) [33][34] by the artist You Higuri, published by Kadokawa Shoten.
Prince Paul makes a little appearance in the movie Ludwig - Requiem für einen jungfräulichen König, from 1972. Actor unknown.
Titles, styles, honours and arms[]
Titles and styles[]
27 May 1843 – 7 June 1868: His Serene Highness Prince Paul of Thurn and Taxis
7 June 1868 – 10 March 1879: Paul, Lord of Fels
Honours[]
Knight of the Order of Parfaite Amitié
Ancestry[]
Citations[]
See also[]
Austro-Prussian War
Baron Karl Ludwig von der Pfordten
Berg Castle
Cosima Wagner
Duchess Sophie Charlotte in Bavaria
Edgar Hanfstaengl
Ludwig II of Bavaria
Prince Chlodwig of Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst
Richard Wagner
Roseninsel
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Princely House of Thurn und Taxis 2: July 2008 - July 2011
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"A Country Italy"
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2010-07-03T18:07:55-04:00
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Here is the W magazine article:
Read More Gloria Takes Manhattan: Gloria von Thurn und Taxis: Society: Wmagazine.com
A copy of a passage about her homes (...
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/data/assets/logo/icon_192_royalforums.png
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The Royal Forums
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https://www.theroyalforums.com/threads/princely-house-of-thurn-und-taxis-2-july-2008-july-2011.17969/page-13
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What you all have to know is following information: ( you will all have to read it twice, because its rather complicated )
Prince France Josef, 9 th Prince of T & T passed the whole family fortune on to his unborn great grandchild to save death duty !
Why his great grandchild ?
In the early years of the federal republic of germany they had another inheritance law.
To save taxes it was possible to inherit things to unborn members of the family - sounds weird but is genious ( a bit risky also, cause no one knows, if children will be born). Inherit things to your great grandchild means saving taxes for a long ! time.
That means: In 1971 the 10 th Prince got control over the family wealth, but didn't had to pay any taxes at all, because he just did not INHERITED IT !!!!! ( Not again.: The heir of the 9 th Prince of T&T is the 12 th Prince of T&T, and not his own children).
He was not the owner but the main administrative authority of his own wealth!!! He was a usufructuary, a beneficiary so to say.
People would say: God, this guy gave his money away because he was to avaricous to pay taxes, but in fact he left his sons and grand sons full control at any time without loosing familys money. Genious!
The taxes of the inheritage of 1971 first had to be paid in the year someone became the 12 th Prince of T & T. This happened in 1990, when Alberts father Johannes, 11 th prince, died.
So in 1990 Albert become heir, the first "real" owner of the family wealth for nearly 20 years. But than they also had to pay full taxes: this is the reason why Gloria had to sell so much. ( That Albert was only 7, did not matter - children have to pay inheritage taxes in the moment they inherit, not when they turn 18.)
What happened to Gloria and her children ???
In German law is the law of the "legal portion": Your closes relatives have the right of a certain percentage of your wealth ( no matter if you like them or not !!). But this concerns ONLY the closes relatives. Of course you can make a testament, but whatever you write in it, the right of the legal portion comes first and then your last will.
So when Johannes died and Albert became 12 th Prince, they were no closes relatives any more ( all died) and so ONLY Albert inherited, because he was the only heir by the late prince testament. So Albert inherited 100 % of the T & T wealth.
( Here you see the second geniuos reason for this crazy rule: family wealth was kept together and not splitted by legal portion over the years.)
What happend to Johannes, Jo's father Karl August, Gloria and her daughters:
they got N O T H I N G of the T & T family wealth ( read it from my lips: Not a Penny !)
Unbelievable, but true !!!
What did they inherit ??? Oh, they got a bit ( bit more, we would say ; ))) )
Jo's father and Jo got some " pocket money" when they came to an certain age: some millions they could invest or do similar things with. This was ther personal wealth. There was also the inheritage of their wives and mothers.
Both were god businessmen and they increased they private fortune.
From this several million euro private fortune ( on which they all had to pay regular inheritage taxes, just by the way) Gloria and her daughters inherited.
So Gloria and her daughters only have some millions in deed .....no several hundred millions they normaly had to inherit, if their would have been a normal "row" of inheritages.
So they are all not as rich as we thought and Albert is richer than we can imagine.
This is why Gloria said in the interview: I don't have the same buget as the heir of T&T!
Source: the book " Gloria - a princess talks" ( Gloria: Die Fürstin - Im Gespräch mit Peter Seewald: Amazon.de: Gloria Fürstin von Thurn und Taxis: Bücher)
I'm sure you all have to read this article twice, but it makes sense ; )
Nowadays in Germany is a new law of inheritance. I don't know if they can do that a second time.
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https://psychology.fas.harvard.edu/people/erik-erikson
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en
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Department of Psychology
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https://psychology.fas.harvard.edu/people/erik-erikson
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Erik Erikson’s relationship with Harvard spanned decades, coinciding with some of his most influential works. Born in Frankfurt, and trained in psychoanalysis in Vienna by Anna Freud, Erikson came to Boston in 1933. He accepted an appointment as a research associate at the Harvard Psychological Clinic; in conjunction with that position Erikson started to work on a graduate degree in psychology at Harvard. Finding himself at odds with the quantitative, empirical focus of Harvard’s Psychology Department, Erikson discontinued his studies in 1936 without finishing his degree. For the next two decades he pursued his interests in human development by conducting research at Yale and Berkeley, as well as continuing his private psychoanalytic practice.
Erikson’s humanist theory of psychosocial development deviated significantly from the traditional Freudian psychosexual theory of human development in two ways. Erikson believed that humans’ personalities continued to develop past the age of five, and he believed that the development of personality depended directly on the resolution of existential crises like trust, autonomy, intimacy, individuality, integrity, and identity (which were viewed in traditional psychoanalytic theory as mere by-products of the resolution of sexual crises). Erikson’s highly influential eight-stage theory of development also expanded Freud’s original five stages to encompass the years of life after early childhood. Within this theory, Erikson introduced and described the characteristics of adolescent identity crisis and the adult’s midlife crisis.
Despite his lack of a doctorate, Erikson returned to Harvard in 1960 as Professor of Human Development and Lecturer in Psychiatry at the Harvard Medical School, and was invited to be an unofficial member of the Department of Social Relations. There he taught popular undergraduate and graduate courses on human development. In the ensuing decade Erikson published three books, Insight and Responsibility (1964), Identity Youth and Crisis (1968) and Gandhi's Truth (1969). The latter won the Pulitzer Prize and the National Book Award.
Erikson was awarded the AM (hon) on appointment in 1960, and the LLD (hon) in 1978. He retired as Professor Emeritus in 1970. Erik Erikson is listed as number 12 on the American Psychological Association’s list of the 100 most eminent psychologists of the 20th century.
Sources
Coles, R., Hunt, R., and Maher, B. (2002). Erik Erikson: Faculty of Arts and Sciences Memorial Minute. Harvard Gazette Archives. Retrieved October 17, 2007 from http://www.hno.harvard.edu/gazette/2002/03.07/22-memorialminute.html
Eminent psychologists of the 20th century. (July/August, 2002). Monitor on Psychology, 33(7), p.29.
Friedman, L. J. (1999). Identity's Architect; A Biography of Erik H. Erikson. Scribner Book Co., New York.
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https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/12/magazine/anselm-kiefer-art.html
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Into the Black Forest With the Greatest Living Artist
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[
"https://static01.nyt.com/images/2020/02/16/magazine/16mag-kiefer-03/16mag-kiefer-03-articleLarge.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale"
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[
"Karl Ove Knausgaard"
] |
2020-02-12T00:00:00
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How does Anselm Kiefer conjure such brutal beauty, such overwhelming gravity? To find out, the novelist Karl Ove Knausgaard followed him back to the source.
|
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/vi-assets/static-assets/favicon-d2483f10ef688e6f89e23806b9700298.ico
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https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/12/magazine/anselm-kiefer-art.html
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There are some people who are famous in such a way that you would never expect to meet them, as if they existed in another world. This is true of actors, singers and politicians, whose faces are everywhere around us, while they themselves are always somewhere else. It is also true of artists, but in a different way: It is not their faces that are everywhere, but their work — and radiating from the work, their names.
Anselm Kiefer has always been such a name for me — more so than any other artist of our time, perhaps — because his works are so monumental, so charged with time, so burdened by history, and because the private sphere, the near and the personal, is so completely absent from them.
When I became interested in his work in my late teens, Kiefer was already one of the biggest names in contemporary art. Back then, in the 1980s, all art was ironic, at least in my own circles. Everything, including authenticity, was seen as a construct. Crying over a book, a movie or painting meant that you had been tricked. Instead, we laughed. But it was impossible to laugh in front of Kiefer’s dark, searing images of Nazi buildings or his lead-book libraries. No, standing in front of Kiefer’s pictures, you fell silent.
Today Kiefer has long since been canonized, and his name has become a kind of trademark. If anyone is truly provoked by his work these days, it is by its price tag. And it’s easy to find critical voices: There are plenty who say his art is that of a megalomaniac, that it consists of grand gestures and little else, that it is hollow and empty and perhaps not art at all but kitsch.
But if his name has changed meaning over the years and if his art is judged differently, the work itself has the same effect now that it did 30 years ago: Standing before it, you fall silent.
I experienced this in a fairly acute way at a Kiefer retrospective in London in 2014. Looking at one of his monumental paintings — “Black Flakes,” nearly 20 feet long and 10 feet tall, depicting a snow-covered field beneath an ashen sky, dark and apocalyptic, with rows of branches surrounding a thick book made of lead — all my thoughts seemed to be suspended, and only emotions remained. It wasn’t as if I was looking at a painting; the painting was enveloping me and filling me with its mood, which was impossible to escape. Everyone else who came into the room fell silent, too, as if they had suddenly been transported to another place within themselves. Kiefer’s pictures seemed to align with a gravity that we all knew but rarely acknowledged, a gravity that is solemn at times, horrifying at others.
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https://stampaday.wordpress.com/2017/07/24/thurn-und-taxis-northern-district-18-1863/
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Thurn und Taxis [Northern District] #18 (1863)
|
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[] |
[] |
[
""
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[
"Mark Joseph Jochim"
] |
2017-07-24T00:00:00
|
Today's entry is a bit unusual in that it concerns a stamp-issuing entity that wasn't a country, territory or a colony. In fact, it wasn't a place at all but a family. The Tasso family began providing mail courier services for Italian city-states in the 13th century. By the 16th century, they had a monopoly on…
|
en
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https://secure.gravatar.com/blavatar/adefba2e155966a57558f29c20c7be2f8186bff210bbcb14fbd9434994fa9edb?s=32
|
A Stamp A Day
|
https://stampaday.wordpress.com/2017/07/24/thurn-und-taxis-northern-district-18-1863/
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Today’s entry is a bit unusual in that it concerns a stamp-issuing entity that wasn’t a country, territory or a colony. In fact, it wasn’t a place at all but a family. The Tasso family began providing mail courier services for Italian city-states in the 13th century. By the 16th century, they had a monopoly on postal services, operating a network of postal routes in Spain, Germany, Austria, Italy, Hungary, and the Low Countries. At the peak of their operations, they employed some 20,000 messengers to deliver mail and newspapers. The family also became well known as owners of breweries and the builders of countless castles. Today, they are still one of the wealthiest families in Europe where they are called the Princely House of Thurn and Taxis (das Fürstenhaus Thurn und Taxis in German) which arose from the translation into German of the family’s French title (de La Tour et Tassis or de Tour et Taxis). Between 1806 and 1867, the family operated the Thurn-und-Taxis Post, a private company and the successor to the Imperial Reichspost of the Holy Roman Empire. It was headquartered in Regensburg from its creation in 1806 until 1810 when it relocated to Frankfurt am Main where it remained until 1867.
The Tasso (from the Italian for “badger”) were a Lombard family in the area of Bergamo. The earliest records place them in Almenno in the Val Brembana around 1200 before they fled to the more distant village of Cornello to escape feuding between Bergamo’s Guelf Colleoni and the Ghibelline Suardi families. Around 1290, after Milan had conquered Bergamo, Ruggiero Omodeo (or Amadeo) Tasso organized 32 of his relatives into the Company of Couriers (Compagnia dei Corrieri) and linked Milan with Venice and Rome. The recipient of royal and papal patronage, his post riders were so comparatively efficient that they became known as bergamaschi throughout Italy. Today, he is generally credited with initiating the first modern postal service as the administrator of the Imperial Post. Under the misspelling “Omedio Tassis”, Omodeo figures prominently in the Thomas Pynchon novella The Crying of Lot 49.
Ruggiero de Tassis was named to the court of the emperor Frederick the Peaceful in 1443. He organized a post system between Bergamo and Vienna by 1450; from Innsbruck to Italy and Styria around 1460; and Vienna with Brussels around 1480. Upon his success, Ruggiero was knighted and made a gentleman of the Chamber. Jannetto de Tassis was appointed Chief Master of Postal Services at Innsbruck in 1489. In 1495, Jennetto founded the Kaiserliche Reichspost (Imperial Mail) — the name of the country-wide postal service of the Holy Roman Empire.
The Bergamascan Tasso family had built up postal routes throughout Italy since c. 1290 and Jannetto’s uncle Ruggiero had worked for Frederick III since the mid-15th century. Ruggiero had already connected Vienna and Innsbruck with Italy, Styria, and Brussels, before Maximilian expanded from those routes throughout his realm. Maximilian’s Philip of Burgundy appointed Jannetto’s brother Francisco as capitaine et maistre de nos postes in 1502 and it was a payment dispute between the two which caused Francisco to open the family’s network to public correspondence in 1506. By 1516, Francisco had moved the family to Brussels in the Duchy of Brabant, where they became instrumental to Habsburg rule, linking the rich Habsburg Netherlands to the Spanish court. The normal route passed through France, but a secondary route across the Alps to Genoa was available in times of hostility. Charles V confirmed Jannetto’s son Giovanni Battista as Postmaster General (chief et maistre general de noz postes par tous noz royaumes, pays, et seigneuries) in 1520.
Throughout the course of the 16th century, the Taxis dynasty was entrusted as the imperial courier of the Holy Roman Empire and in the Spanish Netherlands, Spain, and Burgundy. In 1595, Leonhard I von Taxis was the empire’s Postmaster General. Confirmed by Emperor Rudolph II that year, the Imperial postal service remained a monopoly of the Thurn und Taxis family (officially hereditary from 1615 onwards) until it was terminated with the end of the Empire in 1806.
At the time, the Imperial Reichspost was based in Brussels in the Spanish Netherlands, from where the original (“Dutch”) route led via Namur, Bastogne, Lieser, Wöllstein, Rheinhausen, and Augsburg to Innsbruck and Trento. It was also used to bypass the Kingdom of France in order to keep in touch with Habsburg Spain during times of hostility. Competing services were prohibited, although the Imperial cities were permitted to maintain their own communication system.
After the accession of Rudolph’s brother Emperor Matthias in 1612, a second route was established from Cologne via Frankfurt, Aschaffenburg, and Nuremberg to Bohemia and later also to Leipzig and Hamburg. After the Thirty Years’ War and the Peace of Westphalia, Postmaster General Count Lamoral II Claudius Franz von Thurn und Taxis and his successors had to deal with the establishment of separate postal agencies, mainly by the Protestant Imperial States of Northern German but also in several lands of the Habsburg Monarchy, leading to long-lasting disputes over their range of authority.
Maximilian I expanded their network throughout the Holy Roman Empire. Beginning in 1615, the office of General of the Imperial Reichspost became hereditary under Lamoral I von Taxis. In 1624, the family were elevated to grafen (“counts”). In 1650, the house was permitted with imperial authorization to rename itself from the House of Tassis (Taxis) to the House of Thurn and Taxis (from the French Tour et Taxis). They were named “princely” in 1695 at the behest of Emperor Leopold I. As a result, it was able to maintain the Imperial Reichspost in competition with Europe’s post offices.
In the course of the War of the Spanish Succession, the Thurn und Taxis seat was relocated from Brussels to the Free City of Frankfurt in 1702. Though the dynasty had sided with the Wittelsbach rival Charles VII in the War of the Austrian Succession, their services were indispensable, and Maria Theresa’s husband Emperor Francis I officially re-implemented the Thurn und Taxis monopoly in 1746. Two years later, the postal authority moved to Regensburg, seat of the Imperial Diet. The family had accumulated extreme wealth; nonetheless, it was devastated by the Napoleonic Wars. The last Postmaster General, Prince Karl Alexander von Thurn und Taxis, lost his office with the Empire’s dissolution on August 6, 1806, but his postal authority continued as the Frankfurt-based Thurn-und-Taxis Post until the unification of Germany.
Due to the 1792–1802 French Revolutionary Wars and the following 1803–15 Napoleonic Wars, the Imperial Reichspost gradually lost more and more postal districts during the tenure of Karl Anselm, 4th Prince of Thurn and Taxis, beginning with the Austrian Netherlands, thus depriving the post of important sources of revenue. Upon the death of Karl Anselm on November 13, 1805, the office of Postmaster General was inherited by his son, Karl Alexander, 5th Prince of Thurn and Taxis.
After the Peace of Pressburg in December 1805, the operation of the Imperial Reichspost of the Holy Roman Empire was abolished in Württemberg, which then continued under government control. By contrast, Karl Alexander was granted the postal system in the Kingdom of Bavaria as a fiefdom of the House of Thurn and Taxis on February 24, 1806. On May 2, 1806, an agreement was signed between Karl Alexander and the Grand Duchy of Baden, also instituting its postal system as a fiefdom of the House of Thurn and Taxis.
The creation of the Confederation of the Rhine on July 12, 1806, virtually meant the end of the Holy Roman Empire and thus the end of the Imperial Reichspost and the hereditary office of Postmaster General held by the House of Thurn and Taxis. On August 6, 1806, Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor dissolved the empire after the disastrous defeat of the Third Coalition by Napoleon I of France at the Battle of Austerlitz.
While the Imperial Reichspost and the office of Postmaster General ceased to exist, Karl Alexander’s wife Therese, Princess of Thurn and Taxis was instrumental in negotiating postal agreements with the Confederation of the Rhine and Napoleon, thus preserving the House of Thurn and Taxis postal monopoly as a private company.
On August 1, 1808, the Kingdom of Bavaria placed the postal system under its government’s control. The Grand Duchy of Baden followed suit on August 2, 1811. After Karl Theodor Anton Maria von Dalberg ceded Regensburg to Bavaria in 1810, the House of Thurn and Taxis relocated the headquarters of its postal operations to Frankfurt am Main. After the defeat and exile of Napoleon, the Congress of Vienna recognized the postal claims of the House of Thurn and Taxis in several member states of the German Confederation as legitimate. This recognition resulted in Article 17 of the German Federal Act of June 8, 1815, which required states that had established their own postal system, or intended to do so, to give the House of Thurn and Taxis fair compensation for its loss of revenue.
Under the German Federal Act, the postal systems of the Grand Duchy of Hesse, the duchies of Nassau, Saxe-Weimar, Saxe-Meiningen, and Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, the principalities of Reuss and Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, the free cities of Frankfurt am Main, Hamburg, Bremen, and Lübeck, the principalities of Hohenzollern-Hechingen, Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, Lippe-Detmold and Schaumburg-Lippe were placed under the now privately operated Thurn-und-Taxis Post. The seat of the post’s headquarters in Frankfurt am Main was confirmed on May 20, 1816.
On May 14, 1816, Karl Alexander entered into a contract with William I, Elector of Hesse to operate the postal system of Hesse-Kassel. Prior to the contract, the Thurn-und-Taxis Post had a January 23, 1814, mutual transportation agreement with Hesse-Kassel’s state postal system. On July 27, 1819, the Kingdom of Württemberg transferred the ownership and management of its state postal system to the Thurn-und-Taxis Post due to its inability to pay its compensation owed to the House of Thurn and Taxis.
In 1847, a German postal conference met in Dresden which resulted in the establishment of the German-Austrian Postal Association. The association came into force on July 1, 1850. On April 6, 1850, the Thurn-und-Taxis Post joined the German-Austrian Postal Association, which was greeted with negative reactions from the government of the Kingdom of Prussia. Above all, Otto von Bismarck, as a representative of the German Confederation in Frankfurt am Main, was disparaged.
The Thurn-und-Taxis Post issued its first postage stamps on January 1, 1852. One difficulty they faced, and that the German Confederation and Empire would eventually face, was that the Northern Germanic states and the Southern Germanic states had different currencies. They had to issue two series of postage stamps, one for the Northern District, denominated in Silbergroschen, and another for the Southern District denominated in Kreuzer.
Between 1852-1858, seven stamps were issued for the Northern District (Scott #1-7). These were typographed, imperforate, and unwatermarked. They featured a large numeral of value inside a square frame and were printed in black on colored paper: red brown for the ¼ sgr, buff for ⅓ sgr, green on the ½ sgr, dark blue for 1 sgr which was reissued in 1853 in light blue, rose for the 2 sgr, and the 3 sgr appearing on brownish yellow paper with a shade variety of pale orange yellow (Scott #7a).
In 1859 and 1860, the ¼ sgr, ½ sgr, 1 sgr, 2 sgr, and 3 sgr designs were printed in new colors (red, green, blue, rose, and red brown) on white paper (Scott #8-12). Two new high-values were added, the 5 sgr in lilac and 10 sgr orange (Scott #13-14). Genuine used examples of these last two stamps are very rare. Faked cancellations are abundant and certification is necessary for used examples. Reprints of Scott #1-12 were made in 1910, They all have ND (Neudruck) in script lettering printed on the back. According to the Scott catalogue, they are worth about US $6.00 each.
In 1862 and 1863, the ¼ sgr, ⅓ sgr, ½ sgr, 1 sgr, 2 sgr, and 3 sgr denominations were again issued in changed colors (black, green, orange yellow, rose, blue, and bister — Scott #15-20). In 1865, the previous issue was printed rouletted between the stamps, in order to facilitate their separation (Scott #21-26). These generally have rough and sometimes uneven rouletting lines. Scott #15-20 and 23-24 were reprinted in 1910 with a script ND on the back, valued at US $6.00 each.
In 1866, the final stamps for the Northern District of Thurn-und-Taxis Post were released using the same design but this time with colored rouletting between the stamps (Scott #27-32). These are very common in mint condition, but are very scarce genuinely used. Fake cancellations exist for many of the Northern District postage stamps, especially for the ones that are high-priced in used condition.
Stamps of the Thurn-und-Taxis Post were cancelled with concentric ring postmarks with the center number indicating the post office of origin. To these tired eyes, my copy of Scott #18 — 1 groschen rose issued in 1863 — seems to bear the number “231” which would indicate the post office at Eisenach, a small town about 93 miles (150 kilometers) northeast of Frankfurt. It is situated on the Hörsel river, a tributary of the Werra between the Thuringian Forest in the south, the Hainich mountains in the north-east and the East Hesse Highlands in the north-west.
Eisenach was an early capital of Thuringia in the 12th and 13th centuries. St. Elizabeth lived at the court of the Ludowingians here between 1211 and 1228. Later, Martin Luther came to Eisenach and translated the Bible into German. In 1685, Johann Sebastian Bach was born here. In 1869, the SDAP, one of the two precursors of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) was founded in Eisenach. Between the 1860s and 1938, the town hosted one of the largest Jewish communities in Thuringia with nearly 500 members at the beginning of the 20th century. Many Jews migrated from the Rhön area around Stadtlengsfeld to Eisenach after their emancipation in the early 19th century.
After the Prussian victory in the Austro-Prussian War, the Prussians occupied the Free City of Frankfurt and the Thurn-und-Taxis Post’s headquarters. The Thurn-und-Taxis Post transferred its postal system contracts to the Prussian state for the sum of three million Thaler after a contract was signed and ratified on January 28, 1867. The handover of control of the postal system took place on July 1, 1867. The last Post Director General of the Thurn-und-Taxis Post in Frankfurt was Eduard von Schele zu Schelenburg. Stamps of the Northern District were replaced by those of Prussia in 1867.
Rainer Maria Rilke wrote his Duino Elegies while visiting Princess Marie of Thurn and Taxis (née princess of Hohenlohe) at her family’s Duino castle. Rilke later dedicated his only novel The Notebooks of Malte Laurids Brigge to the princess, who was his patroness. Marie’s relation to Regensburg’s Thurn and Taxis is rather distant, however; she was married to Alexander Thurn and Taxis, a member of the family’s branch that in the early 19th century settled in Bohemia (now Czech Republic) and became strongly connected to Czech national culture and history.
Several members of the family have been Knights of Malta The Thurn and Taxis family came to massive media attention during the late 1970s through mid-1980s when late Prince Johannes married Countess Mariae Gloria of Schönburg-Glauchau, a member of an impoverished but mediatized noble family. The couple’s wild, “jet set” lifestyle and Princess Gloria’s over-the-top appearance (characterized by bright hair colors and avante garde clothes) earned her the nickname “Princess TNT”.
The current head of the house of Thurn and Taxis is HSH Albert II, 12th Prince of Thurn and Taxis, son of Johannes and his wife, Gloria. The family is one of the wealthiest in Germany. The family has resided in St. Emmeram Castle in Regensburg since 1748. The family’s brewery was sold to the Paulaner Group (Munich) in 1996, but still produces beer under the brand of Thurn und Taxis.
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The most famous person with last name Frankfurt is Harry Frankfurt. The last name Frankfurt is ranked as being very unique and less than 3 famous people in the world share this name.
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Fame Ranking
What does "Most Famous" mean? Unlike other sites which use current mentions, follower counts, etc. that tend to call the most famous people YouTube stars or Reality TV stars, we've decided to mark fame as a persons importance in history. We've conducted research scouring millions of historical references to determine the importance of people in History. That being said, we might have missed a few people here and there. The ranking system is a continuing work in progress - if you happen to feel like someone is misranked or missing, please shoot us a message!
Fame Ranking
What does "Most Famous" mean? Unlike other sites which use current mentions, follower counts, etc. that tend to call the most famous people YouTube stars or Reality TV stars, we've decided to mark fame as a persons importance in history. We've conducted research scouring millions of historical references to determine the importance of people in History. That being said, we might have missed a few people here and there. The ranking system is a continuing work in progress - if you happen to feel like someone is misranked or missing, please shoot us a message!
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Ancestors & Cousins: Royal, Titled, Noble, and Commoner (over 193,000 names).
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Children
Maria Theresia von Thurn-Taxis2 b. 10 Jul 1757, d. 9 Mar 1776
Sophie Friederike Dorothea Henriette von Thurn-Taxis2 b. 20 Jul 1758, d. 31 May 1800
Karl Alexander, 5th Prince of Thurn-Taxis, Prince of Buchau & Krotoszyn, Graf zu Friedberg-Scheer & Valsassina3 b. 22 Feb 1770, d. 19 Jul 1827
Children
Maria Theresia von Thurn-Taxis3 b. 10 Jul 1757, d. 9 Mar 1776
Sophie Friederike Dorothea Henriette von Thurn-Taxis3 b. 20 Jul 1758, d. 31 May 1800
Karl Alexander, 5th Prince of Thurn-Taxis, Prince of Buchau & Krotoszyn, Graf zu Friedberg-Scheer & Valsassina2 b. 22 Feb 1770, d. 19 Jul 1827
Children
Wilhelm I Friedrich Karl, King of Württemberg4,1 b. 27 Sep 1781, d. 25 Jun 1864
Paul von Württemberg+4 b. 19 Jan 1785, d. 16 Apr 1852
Family
Friedrich I Wilhelm Karl, King of Württemberg, Russian Lt. Gen & Governor-General of Finland b. 6 Nov 1754, d. 30 Oct 1816 Children
Wilhelm I Friedrich Karl, King of Württemberg2,3 b. 27 Sep 1781, d. 25 Jun 1864
Paul von Württemberg+3 b. 19 Jan 1785, d. 16 Apr 1852
Family
George IV, King of England, Ireland, & Hannover, Earl of Chester, Duke of Cornwall & Rothsay, Prince of Wales b. 12 Aug 1762, d. 25 Jun 1830
Family
Friedrich I Wilhelm Karl, King of Württemberg, Russian Lt. Gen & Governor-General of Finland b. 6 Nov 1754, d. 30 Oct 1816
Family
Wilhelm Friedrich Philipp von Württemberg, Danish Lt. General, Governor of Copenhagen, General Field Marshal of Württemberg b. 11 Mar 1767, d. 10 Aug 1830 Child
Karl August Wilhelm von Tunderfeldt, Burggraf von Tunderfelt+1 b. 20 Mar 1746, d. 4 Jul 1802
Child
Karl August Wilhelm von Tunderfeldt, Burggraf von Tunderfelt+1 b. 20 Mar 1746, d. 4 Jul 1802
Family
Gustav Johann de Rodes von Tunderfelt b. 7 Feb 1656, d. 10 Feb 1710 Child
Carl Friedrich Schilling von Canstatt, Freiherr von Canstatt+1 b. 10 Apr 1697, d. 8 Jul 1754
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Monarchies of Europe including Queen Victoria's Descendants
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REFERENCE TITLE NAME BORN DIED TITLE NAME BORN DIED COMMENTS 22 Duke Friedrich Eugen of Württemberg 1732 1797 Margravine Friederike of Brandenburg-Shwedt 1736 1798 Friederike was a sister to Margravine Philippine of Brandenburg-Shwedt.
Some reliable source show Friederike as either Sophie Dorothea or Dorothea.
Friederike's great grandfather was Elector Friedrich Wilhelm of Brandenburg (1620-1688) , two of his sons from his second marriage founded the lines of Brandenburg-Shwedt (from whom Friederike descends).
Elector Friedrich Wilhelm's eldest son Friedrich (1657-1713) from his first marriage became the first King in Prussia. 22.1 King Friedrich I of Württemberg 1754 1816 Duchess Auguste of Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel 1764 1788 Duke Friedrich of Württemberg was proclaimed Elector of Württemberg on 27 April 1803 becoming the first King of Württemberg on 1 January 1806. Auguste was a sister of Duke Friedrich Wilhelm of Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel 22.1 King Friedrich I of Württemberg 1754 1816 Princess Charlotte of Great Britain (Princess Royal) 1766 1828 Duke Friedrich of Württemberg was proclaimed Elector of Württemberg on 27 April 1803 becoming the first King of Württemberg on 1 January 1806. Charlotte was a daughter of George III of Great Britain and a sister of Queen Victoria's father the Duke of Kent 22.11 King Wilhelm I of Württemberg 1781 1864 Princess Charlotte "Karoline" Auguste of Bavaria 1792 1873 See 18.4 22.11 King Wilhelm I of Württemberg 1781 1864 Grand Duchess Catherine of Russia 1788 1819 See 4.6 - Catherine was married firstly to Duke George of Oldenburg.
An interesting account surrounding the unfortunate death of Grand Duchess Catherine and her marital circumstances. 22.11 King Wilhelm I of Württemberg 1781 1864 Duchess Pauline of Württemberg 1800 1873 See 22.24 22.111 Princess Marie of Württemberg 1816 1887 Count Alfred von Neipperg 1807 1865 Alfred is the first born son of Count Adam Adalbert von Neipperg (1775-1829) and his first wife Countess Theresia von Pola. 22.112 Princess Sophie of Württemberg 1818 1877 King Willem III of the Netherlands (also Grand Duke of Luxemburg) 1817 1890 See 9.11 Luxemburg which was subject to Salic law and had been ruled by the Kings of the Netherlands was separated from the Netherlands on the death of King Willem III without male issue. Duke Adolf of Nassau from a collateral branch became Grand Duke Adolphe of Luxemburg 22.113 Princess Katherine of Württemberg 1821 1898 Prince Friedrich of Württemberg 1808 1870 See 22.142 22.114 King Karl I of Württemberg 1823 1891 Grand Duchess Olga of Russia 1822 1892 See 4.94 - King Karl I and his wife being childless adopted their niece Grand Duchess Vera of Russia. Vera was a difficult child to control by her parents.
A brief article on the death King Karl I.
The New York Times report on the funeral of King Karl I 22.115 Princess Auguste of Württemberg 1826 1898 Prince Hermann of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach 1825 1901 See 27.45 22.12 Princess Catherine of Württemberg 1783 1835 Prince Jerome Napoléon Bonaparte 1784 1860 Jerome Bonaparte was a brother to Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte (15 August 1769 - 5 May 1821) and became King of Westphalia (1807 to 1813) and created Prince of Montfort by the King of Wurttemberg on 31 July 1816.
Jerome was firstly married to Elizabeth "Betsy" Patterson (1785-1879) in 1803 which was annulled in 1805 on the orders of Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte.
Jerome's first marriage to "Betsy" formed the American Branch of the Bonapartes.
Jerome and Betsy had one child Jerome Napoleon Bonaparte (1805-1870) who had two sons, Jerome Napoleon Bonaparte II ( 1830-1893) and Charles Joseph Bonaparte (1851-1921).
The elder son Jerome Napoleon Bonaparte II (1830-1893) had an interesting life he served first in the U.S. army which he resigned in 1854 and joined the French army of his cousin-once-removed, Napoleon III. He then resigned from the French Army in 1870 returning to the U.S.A.
The younger son Charles Joseph Bonaparte (1851-1921) eventually became US Attorney General and on 26 July 1908 the founder of the forerunner to the modern day FBI.
22.121 Prince Jérôme Bonaparte (Prince of Montfort) 1814 1847 22.122 Princess Mathilde Laetitia Bonaparte 1820 1904 Prince Anatole Demidoff (1st Prince de San Donato) 1813 1870 See 50.2 - Anatole was conferred with the title "Count of San Donato" by Grand Duke Leopold of Tuscany.
An interesting article on Mathilde.
And another article on Mathilde some years later regarding her visit to Emperor Nicholas I of all the Russias. 22.123 Prince Napoléon Joseph Bonaparte "Plon-Plon" (Prince Napoléon) 1822 1891 Princess Clotilde of Savoy (Italy) 1843 1911 See 8.11 - The New York Times report on the death of Napoléon Joseph 22.1231 Prince Napoléon Victor Bonaparte (Prince Napoléon) 1862 1926 Princess Clementine of Belgium 1872 1955 See 14.24 - A report on the wedding of Princess Clementine and Prince Napoléon 22.12311 Princess Marie Clotilde Bonaparte 1912 1996 Count Serge de Witt 1891 1990 I have been unable to locate a definitive family tree for the de Witt family. I have however been advised by a descendant of Count Serge that the de Witt family have been Counts since Peter the Great. The correspondent also mentioned Duc de Raguse (Auguste Frederic Viesse de Marmont) (1774-1852) (presumably in his memoirs) describes how he met the Count de Witt during a visit to Russia. Further. It was also pointed that this de Witt family is unrelated to Count de Witte (Witte with an e at the end) former Minister of Finance in Russia.
Note: One normally reliable source mentions Serge was created Count de Witt by the King of Italy on 11 November 1939. I am now of the opinion this reference to Serge being created Count is erroneous).
A brief report on the Wedding of Princess Marie Bonaparte and Count (shown as Captain) Serge de Witt.
Photograph of Princess Marie Bonaparte and Count (shown as Captain) Serge de Witt after their wedding.
Marriage Registration of Princess Marie Bonaparte and Count Serge de Witt 22.123111 Countess Marie Eugénie de Witt 1939 Count Peter Cheremetieff 1931 22.123111 Countess Marie Eugénie de Witt 1939 Count Helie de Pourtalés 1938 Helie de Pourtalés via his mother Helene Violette de Talleyrand (19152003) was a grandson of Hélie de Talleyrand-Périgord (18591937), 5th Duke of Talleyrand and Dino, Duke of Sagan 22.123112 Countess Hélène de Witt 1941 Marquis Henri du Lau d'Allemans 1925 22.123113 Count Napoléon Serge de Witt 1942 1942 22.123114 Countess Yolande de Witt 1943 1945 22.123115 Countess Vera de Witt 1945 Marquis Raymond Godefroy de Commarque 1938 Chateau de la Bourlie family home of Marquis de Commarque 22.1231151 Count Grégoire Ludovic de Commarque 1967 22.1231152 Count Cyril de Commarque 1970 Princess Cecilie of Hohenlohe-Langenburg 1967 See 39.331121 22.1231152 Count Cyril de Commarque 1970 Visconti Ortensia di Modrone 1972 22.12311521 Countess Oro de Commarque 2010 22.123116 Count Baudoin de Witt 1947 Marquis Isabelle de Rocca-Serra 1950 Count Baudoin de Witt with his wife Isabelle have opened their manor, the Pommerie, to create the Napoleon Museum at Cendrieux 22.123117 Countess Isabelle de Witt 1949 Remmest Laan 1942 22.123118 Count Jean Jérôme de Witt 1950 Veronique de Dryver 1950 22.123118 Count Jean Jérôme de Witt 1950 Viviane Jutheau 1947 22.123119 Count Wladimir de Witt 1952 Margareta Mautner von Markhof 1954 22.123119 Count Wladimir de Witt 1952 Françoise Martin-Flory 1959 22.12311J Countess Anne Clémentine de Witt 1953 Baron Henry Robert de Rancher 1949 1995 22.12312 Prince Louise Bonaparte (Prince Napoléon) 1914 1997 Alix de Foresta 1926 22.123121 Prince Charles Bonaparte (Prince Napoléon) 1950 Princess Beatrice of Bourbon-Two Sicilies 1950 See 37.554921 22.123121 Prince Charles Bonaparte (Prince Napoléon) 1950 Jeanne Françoise Valliccionni 1958 22.1231211 Princess Caroline Bonaparte 1980 Eric Alain Marie Quérénet-Onfroy de Breville 1971 22.1231212 Prince Jean-Christophe Bonaparte 1986 Countess Olympia von Arco-Zinneberg 1988 See 18.151M233 - Jean-Christophe is the present Head of the Imperial House of France 22.1231213 Princess Sophie Cathérine Bonaparte 1992 22.123122 Princess Catherine Bonaparte 1950 Nicolò San Martino d'Agliè dei Marchesi di Fontanetto 1948 22.123122 Princess Catherine Bonaparte 1950 Jean Dualé 1936 2017 22.123123 Princess Laura Bonaparte 1952 Jean-Claude Leconte 1948 2009 22.123124 Prince Jerome Bonaparte 1957 Licia Innocenti 1965 22.1232 Prince Napoléon Louise Bonaparte 1864 1932 22.1233 Princess Maria Laetitia Bonaparte 1866 1926 Prince Amadeo of Savoy (Italy) (1 st Duke of Aosta) 1845 1890 See 8.13 - Amadeo was proclaimed King of Spain on 16 November 1870 (following the abdication of Queen Isabel II of Spain) and abdicated on 11 February 1873 and returned to Italy.
Report on the wedding of Amedeo and Maria Laetitia.This is an uncle/niece marriage, Maria Laetitia's mother was a sister to Amedeo.
Report on the death of Prince Amedeo. 22.13 Princess Sophie of Württemberg 1783 1784 22.14 Prince Paul of Württemberg 1785 1852 Princess Charlotte of Saxe-Hildburghausen 1787 1847 See 30.2 22.141 Princess Charlotte of Württemberg 1807 1873 Grand Duke Michael of Russia 1798 1849 See 4.J - Charlotte took the name "Helena Pavlovna" on her marriage. 22.142 Prince Friedrich of Württemberg 1808 1870 Princess Katherina of Württemberg 1821 1898 See 22.113 22.1421 King Wilhelm II of Württemberg 1848 1921 Princess Marie of Waldeck & Pyrmont 1857 1882 See 42.3 - A failed attempt in 1889 on the life of Wilhelm who was heir presumptive at the time.
Wilhelm abdicated on 29 November 1918.
Marie died a couple of days after giving birth to a still born daughter 22.1421 King Wilhelm II of Württemberg 1848 1921 Princess Charlotte of Schaumburg-Lippe 1864 1946 See 43.71 - Wilhelm abdicated on 29 November 1918.
The New York Times Obituary of King Wilhelm II (note, there are a number of errors relating dates).
The supposedly simple funeral of King Wilhelm II 22.14211 Princess Pauline of Württemberg 1877 1965 Prince Friedrich of Wied (6th Prince of Wied) 1872 1945 See 33.821 22.14212 Prince Ulrich of Württemberg 1880 1880 22.14213 Stillborn daughter 1882 1882 22.143 Prince Karl Paul of Württemberg 1809 1810 22.144 Princess Pauline of Württemberg 1810 1856 Duke Wilhelm of Nassau 1792 1839 See 33 - Wilhelm was formerlylly Prince Wilhelm of Nassau-Weilburg and inherited the principality of Nassau-Weilburg from his father on 9 January 1816 and the Duchy of Nassau-Usingen from a distant relative only two months later on 24 March 1816. He thus became the Duke of Nassau in 1816 following the extinction of the Usingen line of the House of Nassau. 22.145 Prince August of Württemberg 1813 1885 Marie Bethge 1830 1869 Marie was created Baroness von Wardenburg in 1868 22.2 Duke Ludwig of Württemberg 1756 1817 Princess Maria Anna Czartoryska 1768 1854 22.2 Duke Ludwig of Württemberg 1756 1817 Princess Henriette of Nassau-Weilburg 1780 1857 Henriette was a sister to Prince Friedrich Wilhelm of Nassau-Weilburg (1768-1816) father of Prince Wilhelm of Nassau-Weilburg 22.21 Duke Adam of Württemberg 1792 1847 22.22 Duchess Marie of Württemberg 1797 1855 Archduke Joseph Anton of Austria (Palatine of Hungary) (Hungarian Line) 1776 1847 See 21 - Joseph Anton founded the Hungarian branch of the Habsburg family and was a brother of Emperor Franz I of Austria 22.23 Duchess Amalie of Württemberg 1799 1848 Duke Joseph of Saxe-Altenburg 1789 1868 See 30.4 22.24 Duchess Pauline of Württemberg 1800 1873 King Wilhelm I of Württemberg 1781 1864 See 22.11 22.25 Duchess Elisabeth of Württemberg 1802 1864 Prince Wilhelm of Baden 1792 1859 See 32.6 22.26 Duke Alexander of Württemberg 1804 1885 Countess Claudine Rhedey von Kis-Rhede 1812 1841 Claudine was created Countess von Hohenstein in her own right by Emperor Ferdinand I of Austria in 1835. She was trampled to death by a squadron of cavalry led by her husband Duke Alexander, her horse had bolted during the parade and she had fallen in front of the galloping horses.
An alternative source says that she was travelling by her coach to Graz to join her husband when it overturned near Graz and she was thrown into a ditch. Although injured she mounted a horse and rode eight hours without stopping until finally fainting and dying a few hours later. 22.261 Countess Claudine von Hohenstein 1836 1894 Claudine was created Princess of Teck in 1863 22.262 Count Franz von Hohenstein 1837 1900 Princess Mary Adelaide Cambridge (and of Great Britain) 1833 1897 See 45.483 - Franz was created Prince of Teck on 1 December 1863 by King Wilhelm I of Wurttemberg and Duke of Teck on 16 September 1871 by King Karl I of Württemberg. Teck was a subsidiary title of his father Duke Alexander of Württemberg. Mary Adelaide's father was Duke Adolphus of Cambridge a brother to Queen Victoria's father Edward, Duke of Kent.
Marriage Registration of Prince Francis (Franz) of Teck and Princess Mary Cambridge
Death Registration of Franz ,Duke of Teck
Death Registration of Mary Adelaide.
A report in 1898 on the serious health situation of Franz ,Duke of Teck.
A report on the death of Franz ,Duke of Teck 22.2621 Princess Mary "May" of Teck 1867 1953 King George V of Great Britain 1865 1936 See 1.22
Birth Registration of Princess Mary of Teck 22.2622 Duke Adolphus "Dolly" of Teck 1868 1927 Lady Margaret Grosvener 1873 1929 Adolphus relinquished his German title and those of his family on 16 July 1917 and was created Marquess of Cambridge. Margaret was a daughter of Hugh Lupus Grosvenor (1825-1899) the 1st Duke of Westminster.
Birth Registration of Duke Adolphus of Teck
Marriage Registration of Prince Adolphus of Teck and Lady Margaret Grosvener
Death Registration of Adolphus, Marquess of Cambridge
Death Registration of Margaret, Marchioness of Cambridge 22.26221 Prince George of Teck (2 nd Marquess of Cambridge) 1895 1981 Dorothy Isabel Hastings 1899 1988 Birth Registration of Prince George of Teck
Marriage Registration of Prince George of Teck (2 nd Marquess of Cambridge) and Dorothy Isabel Hastings 22.262211 Lady Mary Ilona Margaret Cambridge 1924 1999 Peter Whitley 1923 2003 Birth Registration of Lady Mary Ilona Margaret Cambridge 22.26222 Princess Victoria of Teck 1897 1987 Henry Somerset (10th Duke of Beaufort) 1900 1984 Birth Registration of Princess Victoria of Teck 22.26223 Princess Helena of Teck 1899 1969 John Evelyn Gibbs 1879 1932 Birth Registration of Princess Helena of Teck
John Evelyn Gibbs was an Army Colonel and a veteran of the Boer Wars and World War I. A plaque in memory of Colonel Gibbs at St John The Baptist Church, Shipton Moyne 22.26224 Prince Frederick of Teck 1907 1940 Frederick was killed in action at Herault, Belgium 22.2623 Prince Francis of Teck 1870 1910 Birth Registration of Prince Francis of Teck
Death report of Prince Francis of Teck. It was reported the immediate cause of death was septicaemia following an operation for the removal of the pleuritic effusion most probably caused by an attack of pleurisy.
Death Registration of Prince Francis of Teck 22.2624 Prince Alexander "Alge" of Teck 1874 1957 Princess Alice of Albany (and of Great Britain) 1883 1981 See 1.81 - Prince Alexander relinquished his German titles and those of his family on 14 July 1917 and took the family name of Cambridge and was created Earl of Athlone on 16 July 1917.
Birth Registration of Prince Alexander of Teck
Death Registration of Alexander, Earl of Athlone 22.26241 - QVD Lady May Helen Emma Cambridge 1906 1994 Sir Henry Abel Smith 1900 1993 Lady May was a Princess of Teck until 16 July 1917.
Birth Registration of Princess May Helen of Teck
Death Registration of Princess May Helen of Teck Shown with surname Abel-Smith and first names May Emma V. 22.262411 - QVD Anne Abel Smith 1932 David Liddell-Grainger 1930 2007 After his divorce from Anne Abel Smith, David Liddell-Grainger subsequently married Christine, Lady de la Rue (born Christine Schellin) in very strange circumstances 22.2624111 - QVD Ian Liddell-Grainger 1959 Jill Nesbit 1956 Ian Liddell-Grainger was elected a Conservative British Member of Parliament for the Bridgwater Constituency in June 2001 being the first descendant of Queen Victoria to achieve this distinction. He won again in 2005.
Before the 2010 election the Bridgwater Constituency was abolished and replaced with Bridgwater and West Somerset Constituency which he won.
He won again in 2015, 2017 and 2019.
He stood again in the 2024 election for the newly formed Tiverton and Minehead Constituency, which he lost to the Liberal Democrat candidate. 22.26241111 - QVD Peter Liddell-Grainger 1987 Elizabeth Anne Wilks 1985 22.26241112 - QVD Sophie Liddell-Grainger 1988 James Boardman ? 22.26241113 - QVD May Liddell-Grainger 1992 22.262411131 - QVD Leopold Burns) 2020 Leopold is the son of May Liddell-Grainger and her partner Christopher Burns 22.2624112 - QVD Charles Liddell-Grainger 1960 Karen Humphreys 1956 2018 22.2624112 - QVD Charles Liddell-Grainger 1960 Martha Margaretha de Klerk ? Charles was due to marry for a second time to Eugenie Wilhelmine Anna Marie Campagne but it was called off two weeks before their intended marriage.
The Queen gave consent to the proposed marriage of Charles Montagu Liddell Grainger and Eugenie Wilhelmine Anna Marie Campagne at the Privy Council Meeting on 11 December 2001
The Queen gave consent to the proposed marriage of Charles Montagu Liddell-Grainger and Martha Margaretha de Klerk. at the Privy Council Meeting on 09 October 2008.
Although Martha Margaretha is shown with the surname of de Klerk in the Privy Council Meeting the report of her marriage to Charles Liddell-Grainger in The Telegraph is shown as de Clermont 22.2624113 - QVD Simon Liddell-Grainger 1962 Romana Rogoshewska 1945 22.2624113 - QVD Simon Liddell-Grainger 1962 Natalie Judith Poulard 1970 22.26241131 - QVD Simon Alexander Liddell-Grainger 2000 22.26241132 - QVD Mathew Liddell-Grainger 2003 22.2624114 - QVD Alice Liddell-Grainger 1965 Pietro Panaggio 1963 22.26241141 - QVD Danico Panaggio 1996 22.26241142 - QVD Jessica Panaggio 1998 22.2624115 - QVD Malcolm Liddell-Grainger 1967 Helen Bright 1971 22.26241151 - QVD Cameron Liddell-Grainger 1997 22.262412 - QVD Richard Abel Smith 1933 2004 Marcia Kendrew 1940 Birth Registration of Richard Abel Smith 22.2624121 - QVD Katharine Abel Smith 1961 Hubert Beaumont 1956 22.26241211 - QVD Amelia Beaumont 1983 Simon Murray 1974 See Simon Murray's Ancestry *** *** This site is no longer working, the originator of the web page was Sir William Reierson Arbuthnot, 2 nd Baronet of Kittybrewster who died 7 October 2021 and presumably the site was closed following his death *** . You are able to view the web page by entering the URL into the Internat Wayback Machine
Announcement of the marriage of Simon Murray and Amelia Beaumont 22.262412111 - QVD Matilda Alice Beaumont Murray 2012 Matilda and Archibald are twins
Announcement of the birth of Matilda and Archibald 22.262412112 - QVD Archibald Peregrine Arbuthnot Murray 2012 Matilda and Archibald are twins
Announcement of the birth of Matilda and Archibald 22.26241212 - QVD George Beaumont 1985 Katharine Fitzpatrick 1986 22.26241213 - QVD Richard Beaumont 1989 Elizabeth Louise Holland 1990 22.26241214 - QVD Michael Beaumont 1991 Alice Holborow 1992 22.262413 - QVD Elizabeth Abel Smith 1936 Peter Wise 1929 2021 22.2624131 - QVD Emma Abel Wise 1973 1974 22.26242 - QVD Rupert Cambridge (Viscount Trematon) 1907 1928 Rupert was a Prince of Teck until 16 July 1917 he suffered from haemophilia and died after a car accident.
Birth Registration of Prince Rupert of Teck 22.26243 - QVD Prince Maurice of Teck 1910 1910 Birth Registration of Prince Maurice of Teck 22.263 Countess Amalie von Hohenstein 1838 1893 Count Paul von Hügel 1835 1897 Countess Amalie was created Princess of Teck in 1863 22.2631 Count Paul Julius von Hügel 1872 1912 Anna Homolatsch ? ? 22.3 Duke Eugen Friedrich of Württemberg 1758 1822 Princess Luise of Stolberg-Gedern 1764 1834 Luise was firstly married to Duke August Frederick of Saxe-Meiningen (1754-1782) who on his death was succeeded by his younger brother Georg (1761-1803) as Duke of Saxe-Meiningen 22.31 Duke Eugen of Württemberg 1788 1857 Princess Mathilde of Waldeck and Pyrmont 1801 1825 Mathilde's brother Prince George of Waldeck and Pyrmont (1789-1845) was the father of Prince George Viktor of Waldeck and Pyrmont 22.31 Duke Eugen of Württemberg 1788 1857 Princess Helene of Hohenlohe-Langenburg 1807 1880 Helene was a sister of Prince Ernst of Hohenlohe-Langenburg 22.311 Duchess Marie of Württemberg 1818 1888 Landgrave Karl of Hess-Philippsthal 1803 1868 22.3111 Landgrave Ernst Eugen of Hesse-Philippsthal 1846 1925 The line of Hess-Philippsthal became extinct with the death of Landgrave Ernst.
The Landgrave of Hess-Philippsthal was assumed by Ernst's distant cousin Prince Chlodwig of Hesse-Philippsthal-Barchfeld 22.3112 Prince Karl Alexander of Hesse-Philippsthal 1853 1916 22.312 Duke Eugen of Württemberg 1820 1875 Princess Mathilde of Schaumburg-Lippe 1818 1891 See 43.2 22.3121 Duchess Wilhelmine of Württemberg 1844 1892 Duke Nikolaus of Württemberg 1833 1903 See 22.316 22.3122 Duke Eugen of Württemberg 1846 1877 Grand Duchess Vera of Russia 1854 1912 See 4.963 - Vera was a difficult child to control by her parents and was formally adopted by her childless Uncle and Aunt, King Karl I of Württemberg and his wife (born Grand Duchess Olga of Russia). 22.31221 Duke Karl Eugen of Württemberg 1875 1875 22.31222 Duchess Elsa Mathilde of Württemberg 1876 1936 Prince Albrecht of Schaumburg-Lippe 1869 1942 See 43.74 - Duchess Elsa and Duchess Olga were twins 22.31223 Duchess Olga Alexandrine of Württemberg 1876 1932 Prince Maximilian of Schaumburg-Lippe 1871 1904 See 43.75 - Duchess Elsa and Duchess Olga were twins 22.3123 Duchess Pauline Mathilde of Württemberg 1854 1914 Melchor Willim 1855 1910 Pauline renounced her title and was created Baroness von Kirbach on 1 May 1880 22.313 Duke Wilhelm Alexander of Württemberg 1825 1825 22.314 Duke Wilhelm Nickolaus of Württemberg 1828 1896 22.315 Duchess Alexandrine-Mathilde of Württemberg 1829 1913 22.316 Duke Nikolaus of Württemberg 1833 1903 Duchess Wilhelmine of Württemberg 1844 1892 See 22.3121 22.317 Duchess Agnes of Württemberg 1835 1886 Prince Heinrich XIV Reuss-Schleiz (4th Fürst Reuss-Schleiz) 1832 1913 Prince Heinrich XIV secondly married (morganatically in 1890) Friederike Graetz (1851-1907) who according to the The New York Times was created Baroness von Saalburg by the King of Saxony. Following his morganatic marriage Heinrich XIV abdicated his throne in favour of his son Heinrich XXVII.
A report on the death of Prince Heinrich XIV including an interesting account of the Reuss family. 22.3171 Prince Heinrich XXVII Reuss-Schleiz (5th Fürst Reuss-Schleiz) 1858 1928 Princess Elise of Hohenloe-Langenburg 1864 1929 See 39.332 - Heinrich XXVII renounced the Reuss-Schleiz throne 11 November 1918.
Heinrich XXVII was the Regent for Prince Heinrich XXIV Reuss-Greiz (6th Fürst Reuss-Greiz) (1878-1927) due to the physival and mentl disbaility of the latter. On the death of Heinrich XXIV Reuss-Greiz the titles passed to Heinrich XXVII who thus became the 1st Fürst of Reuss. 22.31711 Princess Viktoria-Feodora Reuss-Schleiz 1889 1918 Duke Adolph Friedrich of Mecklenburg-Schwerin 1873 1969 See 23.111J 22.31712 Princess Luise Adelheid Reuss-Schleiz 1890 1951 22.31713 Prince Heinrich XL Reuss-Schleiz 1891 1891 22.31714 Prince Heinrich XLIII Reuss-Schleiz 1893 1912 22.31715 Prince (Fürst) Heinrich XLV Reuss-Schleiz 1895 1962 Heinrich XLV went missing in 1945 and was declared dead 5 Jan 1962. The male line of Reuss-Schleiz became extinct with the death of Heinrich XLV. Heinrich XLV had adopted Prince Heinrich I Reuss-Köstritz (1910-1982) on 19 January 1935 22.3172 Princess Elisabeth Adelheid Reuss-Schleiz 1859 1951 Prince Hermann zu Solms-Braunfels 1845 1900 See 24.7 (this is a temporary link as work is in progress to provide the descendants of Hermann's grandfather Prince Friedrich of Solms-Braunfels ) . Hermann was firstly married to his first cousin Princess Maria zu Solms-Braunfels (1852-1882) 22.31721 Princess Marie Agnes zu Solms-Braunfels 1888 1976 Count Joseph zu Erbach-Fürstenau 1874 1963 22.31722 Princess Helene zu Solms-Braunfels 1890 1969 Count Raimund zu Erbach-Fürstenau 1868 1926 22.317221 Countess Jutta Luise zu Erbach-Fürstenau 1922 1968 Peter Helbig 1922 22.317222 Count Eugen Alfred zu Erbach-Fürstenau 1923 1987 Countess Elisabeth zu Erbach-Fürstenau 1929 Count Eugen zu Erbach-Fürstenau (1923-1987) and Countess Elisabeth zu Erbach-Fürstenau (1929- ) are both descended from Count Alfred zu Erbach-Fürstenau (1813-1874). Count Alfred zu Erbach-Fürstenau (1813-1874) son Raimond (1868-1926) was the father of Eugen, another son Adalbert (1861-1944) was a grandfather of Elisabeth. 22.3172221 Count Raimund zu Erbach-Fürstenau 1951 2017 Princess Isabelle Maria of Liechtenstein 1954 See 41.343 22.31722211 Hereditary Count Louis Christian zu Erbach-Fürstenau 1976 Olga Wassiljewna 1979 22.31722212 Count Philipp Christoph zu Erbach-Fürstenau 1979 Juliette Souchon 1977 22.31722213 Count Nikolaus Georg zu Erbach-Fürstenau 1984 22.31722214 Countess Margarita Maria-Helena zu Erbach-Fürstenau 1986 22.3172222 Countess Lukardis Elisabeth zu Erbach-Fürstenau 1953 2005 Countess Lukardis died in an accident at the Johann Wolfgang Goethe University in Frankfurt am Main. According to this report Countess Lukardis was travelling in a lift when he became stuck between the second and third floor and although advised by the building doorman to remain in the lift she attempted to leave it and fell down the elevator shaft and was killed. 22.3172223 Count Kraft Ulrich zu Erbach-Fürstenau 1962 1980 22.31723 Prince Ernst-August zu Solms-Braunfels 1892 1968 Princess Elisabeth Caroline zur Lippe 1916 2013 See 24.82111 22.31724 Prince Friedrich Eugen zu Solms-Braunfels 1893 1903 22.32 Duchess Luise of Württemberg 1789 1851 Prince Friedrich August of Hohenlohe-Oehringen (3 rd Prince zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen) 1784 1853 Friedrich August was the founder of the Hohenlohe-Oehringen line and abdicated in 1849 in favour of his son Friedrich Wilhelm Eugen Karl "Hugo".
Friedrich August was the son of Friedrich Ludwig Fürst zu Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen (1746-1818) who was also created Fürst zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen in 1805. Friedrich August's younger brother Adolf Karl (1797-1873) continued the princely line of Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen although it has died out. 22.321 Prince Friedrich of Hohenlohe-Oehringen 1812 1892 Baroness Mathilde von Breuning 1821 1896 Friedrich, renounced his rights as first-born son in 1842. Mathilde was created Baroness von Brauneck by the King of Württemberg 11 Mar 1843 22.322 Princess Friederike Mathilde of Hohenlohe-Oehringen 1814 1888 Prince Günther II Friedrich von Schwarzburg-Sondershausen 1801 1889 Günther II Friedrich was firstly married to Princess Marie von Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt (1809-1833) and their son is Prince Karl Günther of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen 22.323 Prince Friedrich Wilhelm Eugen Karl "Hugo" of Hohenlohe-Oehringen (4 th Prince zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen)(1 st Duke von Ujest) 1816 1897 Princess Pauline zu Fürstenberg 1829 1900 See 32.87 - Hugo was created Duke von Ujest on 18 October 1861.
It was reported in 1881 that the "Royal Prussian Heraldry Office" (1855-1920) in the first 25 years since its inception in 1855 had listed only one created one duke, i.e. the Duke von Ujest.
An account of the complicated house of Hohenlohe and its split into various lines.
Obituary of Hugo. 22.3231 Prince Christian Kraft zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen (5 th Prince zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen)(2 nd Duke von Ujest) 1848 1926 It was reported in 1922 that Christian Kraft was one of the richest individuals in Germany. 22.3232 Princess Marie zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen 1849 1929 Prince Heinrich XIX of Reuss 1848 1904 22.3233 Princess Luise zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen 1851 1920 Count Friedrich Ludwig von Frankenberg und Ludwigsdorff 1835 1897 22.3234 Prince August Karl zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen 1854 1884 22.3235 Prince Friedrich Karl zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen 1855 1910 Countess Marie von Hatzfeldt 1871 1932 Marie is a sister to Countess Helene von Hatzfeldt (married to Friedrich Karl's brother Prince Max Anton Karl zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen).
Marriage Registration of Prince Friedrich Karl and Countess Marie 22.3236 Prince Hans Heinrich zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen (6 th Prince zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen)(3 rd Duke von Ujest) 1858 1945 Princess Olga zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen 1862 1935 See 22.3243 22.32361 Prince Hugo Felix August zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen (7 th Prince zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen)(4 th Duke von Ujest) 1890 1962 Ursula von Zedlitz 1905 1988 Birth Registration of Ursula von Zealots 22.32361 Prince Hugo Felix August zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen (7 th Prince zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen)(4 th Duke von Ujest) 1890 1962 Valerie von Carstanjen 1908 1979 22.32361 Prince Hugo Felix August zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen (7 th Prince zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen)(4 th Duke von Ujest) 1890 1962 Erika Himmelein 1916 2000 22.323611 Princess Alexandra Olga Elsa zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen 1931 Egid Hilz 1932 22.323612 Prince Kraft Hans Konrad zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen (8 th Prince zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen)(5 th Duke von Ujest) 1933 2024 Katharina von Siemens 1938 2023 Katharina's father Peter von Siemens (1911-1986) who from 1971 to 1981 was Chairman of the Supervisory Board of Siemens AG. Peter von Siemens's great grandfather Werner von Siemens (1816-1892) was the founder of the Siemens company. For further reading of the Siemens family. 22.3236121 Princess Margarita zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen 1960 1989 Prince Karl-Emich of Leiningen 1952 See 39.212312 - Princess Margarita was killed in a car accident near Freising, Bavaria 22.3236122 Princess Christina Valerie zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen 1961 Jan-Gisbert Schultze 1961 22.3236123 Prince Kraft Constantin zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen (9 th Prince zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen)(6 th Duke von Ujest) 1966 Carolin von Wendorff 1975 22.323613 Princess Dorothea Elisabeth zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen 1935 2007 János Farkas 1942 22.323614 Princess Dagmar Maria zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen 1948 Rainer Hykes 1959 22.32362 Princess Alexandrine Marie zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen 1891 1959 22.32363 Princess Dorothea zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen 1892 1931 22.32364 Prince Kraft Friedrich zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen 1892 1965 Nina Chischina 1898 1965 Kraft Friedrich and his wife Nina died of wounds received in a car accident 22.3237 Prince Max Anton Karl zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen 1860 1922 Countess Helene von Hatzfeldt 1865 1901 Helene is a sister to Countess Marie von Hatzfeldt (married to Max Anton Karl's brother Prince Friedrich Karl zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen) 22.32371 Prince Waldemar Hugo zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen 1890 1965 Nina Chischine 1898 1965 22.32372 Prince Max Hugo zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen 1893 1951 Countess Marie-Gabriele von Faber-Castell 1900 1985 Marie-Gabriele was a daughter of Count Alexander Friedrich of Castell-Rüdenhausen (1866-1928) and Baroness Ottilie von Faber (of pencil fame) (who married on 28 February 1898). Alexander declared for himself and his descendants from this marriage the name and title of Count/ Countess von Faber-Castell. The company name of Faber was changed to Faber-Castell following this marriage.
Click Faber-Castell - A History for more information 22.32372 Prince Max Hugo zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen 1893 1951 Hella von Ramin 1883 1943 22.32372 Prince Max Hugo zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen 1893 1951 Marianne Diefenthal 1925 1977 22.3238 Prince Wilhelm zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen 1861 1861 22.3239 Prince Hugo Friedrich zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen 1864 1928 Helga Hager 1877 1951 22.323J Princess Margarethe zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen 1865 1940 Count Wilhelm von Hohenau 1854 1930 See 11.95 22.324 Prince Felix Eugen of Hohenlohe-Oehringen 1818 1900 Princess Alexandrine von Hanau (Countess von Schaumburg) 1830 1871 Alexandrine was a daughter of Elector Friedrich Wilhelm of Hesse-Cassel (1802 - 1875) who lost his throne when Hesse-Cassel was annexed to Prussia on 20 September 1866. Elector Friedrich Wilhelm was married morganatically to Gertrude Falkenstein (1803 - 1882) who was created Countess von Schaumburg in 1831 and Princess von Hanua and Horowitz in 1862. 22.3241 Princess Jadwiga Friederike of Hohenlohe-Oehringen 1857 1940 Count Franz-Erich Bentzel zu Sternau und Hohenau 1850 1922 22.3242 Prince Victor Hugo of Hohenlohe-Oehringen 1861 1939 Marie de Vassinhac d'Imécourt 1863 1924 22.3243 Princess Olga of Hohenlohe-Oehringen 1862 1935 Prince Hans Heinrich zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen (6 th Prince zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen)(3 rd Duke von Ujest) 1858 1945 See 22.3236 22.3244 Princess Paula Marie of Hohenlohe-Oehringen 1863 1874 22.3245 Princess Luise of Hohenlohe-Oehringen 1867 1945 Prince Albrecht of Waldeck and Pyrmont 1841 1897 Albrecht was a cousin to Prince George of Waldeck and Pyrmont, their respective fathers were brothers. 22.3245 Princess Luise of Hohenlohe-Oehringen 1867 1945 George Granville Hope-Johnstone 1880 195_ Birth Registration of George Granville Hope-Johnstone 22.3246 Prince Ferdinand Alexander of Hohenlohe-Oehringen 1871 1929 Elsa von Ondarza 1870 1960 Ferdinand Alexander, renounced his rights and took the title Freiherr von Gabelstein 31 Jul 1895.
An article reporting the tragic end to the life of Ferdinand Alexander 22.33 Duke Georg Ferdinand of Württemberg 1790 1795 22.34 Duke Heinrich of Württemberg 1792 1797 22.35 Duke Paul of Württemberg 1797 1860 Princess Maria Sophie of Thurn and Taxis 1800 1870 See 24.45 22.351 Duke Maximilian of Württemberg 1828 1888 Princess Hermine of Schaumburg-Lippe 1845 1930 See 43.11 22.4 Duchess Sophie of Württemberg 1759 1828 Emperor Paul of all the Russias 1754 1801 See 4 - Paul was murdered by a group of conspirators on 23 March 1801 in his bedroom in the St Michael Palace. The conspirators burst into his bedroom and tried to compel him to sign his abdication. He offered some resistance, and one of the assassins struck him with a sword and he was then strangled and trampled to death. Sophie took the name "Maria Feodorovna" on her marriage. 22.5 Duke Wilhelm of Württemberg 1761 1830 Baroness Wilhelmine von Thunerfelt-Rhodis 1777 1822 22.51 Count Alexander of Württemberg 1801 1844 Countess Helene Festetics von Tolna 1812 1886 22.511 Count Eberhard of Württemberg 1833 1896 A strange report regarding the disappearance of Eberhard and that his uncle Count Wilhelm of Württemberg (later 1st Duke of Urach) was implicated. 22.512 Countess Wilhelmine of Württemberg 1834 1910 22.513 Countess Pauline of Württemberg 1836 1911 Count Maximilian Adam von Wuthenau-Hohenthurm 1834 1912 ***** This need to be expanded in due course to point to a g grandaughter Monika von Plessen 27.242424 ***** 22.514 Count Karl Alexander of Württemberg 1839 1876 22.52 Count August of Württemberg 1805 1808 22.53 Count Wilhelm of Württemberg (1st Duke of Urach) 1810 1869 Princess Theodelinde de Beauharis (Duchess von Leuchtenberg) 1814 1857 See 18.25 - Wilhelm was created Duke von Urach on 28 May 1867, his issue bore the title Prince(ss) von Urach 22.53 Count Wilhelm of Württemberg (1st Duke of Urach) 1810 1869 Princess Florentine of Monaco 1833 1897 See 46.22 - Wilhelm was created Duke von Urach on 28 May 1867, his issue bore the title Prince(ss) von Urach 22.531 Princess Auguste von Urach 1842 1916 Count Parzifal von Enzenberg 1835 1874 22.531 Princess Auguste von Urach 1842 1916 Count Franz von Thun and Hohenstein 1826 1888 22.532 Princess Marie von Urach 1844 1864 22.533 Princess Eugenie von Urach 1848 1867 22.534 Princess Mathilde von Urach 1854 1907 Prince Paola Altieri di Viano 1849 1901 22.535 Duke Wilhelm von Urach (2nd Duke of Urach) 1864 1928 Duchess Amalie in Bavaria 1865 1912 See 18.K51 22.535 Duke Wilhelm von Urach (2nd Duke of Urach) 1864 1928 Princess Wiltrud Marie of Bavaria 1884 1975 See 18.151J - Wilhelm accepted an invitation to become the King of a newly independent Lithuania in July 1918 but German opposition meant he was thwarted in his ambitions. 22.5351 Princess Marie Gabriele von Urach 1893 1908 22.5352 Princess Elisabeth von Urach 1894 1962 Prince Karl of Liechtenstein 1878 1955 See 41.8 22.5353 Princess Karola von Urach 1896 1980 22.5354 Duke Wilhelm von Urach 1897 1957 Elisabeth Theurer 1899 1988 Wilhelm renounced the Ducal title and took the name Count von Württemberg 22.5355 Duke Karl von Urach 1899 1981 Countess Gabriele of Waldburg zu Zeil and Trauchburg 1910 2005 22.5356 Princess Margarethe von Urach 1901 1975 22.5357 Prince Albrecht von Urach 1903 1969 Rosemary Blackadder 1901 1975 Visitors may find the following article on Prince Albrecht of some interest 22.5357 Prince Albrecht von Urach 1903 1969 Ute Waldchmidt 1922 1984 22.5358 Prince Rupprecht-Eberhard von Urach 1907 1969 Princess Iniga of Thurn & Taxis 1925 2008 See 24.463442 22.53581 Princess Amelie Margit von Urach 1949 Curt-Hildebrand von Einsiedel 1944 22.535811 Alexander von Einsiedel 1976 22.535812 Elisabeth Helene von Einsiedel 1977 22.535813 Igiga von Einsiede 1979 22.535814 Sophie von Einsiedel 1980 22.535815 Theresa von Einsiedel 1984 Prince François of Orleans 1982 See 13.125474 22.535816 Victoria von Einsiedel 1986 22.535817 Valerie von Einsiedel 1986 22.535818 Felicitas von Einsiedel 1990 22.53582 Princess Elisabeth Maria von Urach 1952 2012 22.53583 Duke Karl Anselm von Urach 1955 Saskia Wüsthof 1968 Karl Anselm owns property in Scotland 22.53584 Prince Wilhelm Albert von Urach 1957 Karen von Brauchitsch 1959 22.53585 Prince Eberhard Friedrich von Urach 1962 Baroness Daniela von und zu Bodman 1963 22.5359 Princess Mechthilde von Urach 1912 2001 Prince Friedrich Karl III of Hohenlohe-Waldenburg-Schillingsfürst (8th Prince of Hohenlohe-Waldenburg-Schillingsfürst) 1908 1982 22.535921 Princess Antonia Maria of Hohenlohe-Waldenburg-Schillingsfürst 1961 Eberhard von Alten 1954 22.535923 Prince Franz Nikolaus of Hohenlohe-Waldenburg-Schillingsfürst 1965 Vera Bülow 1969 22.535924 Prince Maximilian Michael of Hohenlohe-Waldenburg-Schillingsfürst 1967 Jutta Mössner 1967 22.53593 Princess Amélie Elisabeth of Hohenlohe-Waldenburg-Schillingsfürst 1936 1985 Count Clemens von Matuschka 1928 22.53594 Princess Therese Maria of Hohenlohe-Waldenburg-Schillingsfürst 1938 Count Joseph Hubert von Neipperg 1918 2020 Joseph Hubert is a great great grandson of Count Adam Adalbert von Neipperg (1775-1829) and his first wife Countess Theresia von Pola..
Joseph Hubert's son from his first marriage in 1950 to Countess Marie Franziska von Ledebur-Wicheln (1920-1984) is Karl-Eugen (1951- ) who is married to Archduchess Andrea of Austria 22.53595 Princess Hilda Carola of Hohenlohe-Waldenburg-Schillingsfürst 1943 Prince Joseph von Croÿ 1941 22.536 Prince Karl Josef von Urach 1865 1925 22.54 Count August of Württemberg 1811 1812 22.55 Count Konstantin of Württemberg 1814 1824 22.56 Countess Marie of Württemberg 1815 1866 Count Wilhelm von Taubenheim 1805 1894 22.6 Duke Ferdinand of Württemberg 1763 1834 Princess Albertine von Schwarzburg-Sondershausen 1771 1829 22.6 Duke Ferdinand of Württemberg 1763 1834 Princess Pauline von Metternich-Winneburg 1771 1855 22.7 Duchess Friederike of Württemberg 1765 1785 Duke Peter I of Oldenburg 1755 1829 See 31 - Peter succeeded his cousin Wilhelm (1754 - 1823) as Duke of Oldenburg. Wilhelm's father Friedrich August (1711-1785) was Duke of Holstein-Gottorp and was ceded Oldenburg on 14 December 1773 by his cousin Paul (later Emperor Paul I of all the Russias). Oldenburg was elevated from a County to a Duchy in 29 December 1774 (publicly announced on 22 March 1777) with further elevation to a Grand Duchy on 9 June 1815. However the title of Grand Duke was not used until the accession of Duke Peter's son August in 1829 22.8 Duchess Elizabeth of Württemberg 1767 1790 Emperor Franz I of Austria 1768 1835 See 19 - Franz assumed the title of Emperor of Austria on 11 August 1804 and on 6 August 1806 became the last Holy Roman Emperor on its dissolution.
Emperor Franz was married four times:
First - Duchess Elizabeth of Württemberg
Second - Princess Maria Teresa of Bourbon-Two Sicilies
Third - Archduchess Maria Ludowika of Austria-Este (Modena)
Fourth - Princess Charlotte "Karoline" Augustes of Bavaria
22.9 Duchess Willemena of Württemberg 1768 1768 22.J Duke Karl Friedrich of Württemberg 1770 1791 22.K Duke Alexander of Württemberg 1771 1833 Princess Antoinette of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld 1779 1824 See 28.2 22.K1 Duchess Marie of Württemberg 1799 1860 Duke Ernst I of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha 1784 1844 See 28.4 - The uncle of Ernst's first wife Luise's was the last duke of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg who died in 1826 which resulted in a rearrangement of the Saxony Duchies.
Ernst was in the process of divorcing Luise at the time and negotiations were set in train for him to receive Gotha although the other branches objected to this. A compromise was reached with Ernst receiving Gotha and ceding Saalfeld to Saxe-Meiningen.
A report on the death of Duke Ernst. 22.K2 Duke Konstantine of Württemberg 1800 1802 22.K3 Duke Alexander of Württemberg 1804 1881 Princess Marie of Orleans 1813 1839 See 13.3 22.K3 Duke Alexander of Württemberg 1804 1881 Princess Katharina Amalie Pfennigkäufer 1829 1915 Katharina Amalie's surname was later changed to Meyernberg 22.K31 Duke Philipp of Württemberg 1838 1917 Archduchess Marie of Austria (Teschen Line) 1845 1927 See 44.21 22.K311 Duke Albrecht of Württemberg 1865 1939 Archduchess Margarete Sophie of Austria 1870 1902 See 19.J34 22.K3111 Duke Philipp-Albrecht of Württemberg 1893 1975 Archduchess Helena of Austria (Tuscany Line) 1903 1924 See 20.3552 - Helena died a week after giving birth to her daughter Marie Christine. Following Archduchess Helena's death, Duke Philipp-Albrecht married secondly her sister Archduchess Rosa of Austria (Tuscany Line) 22.K3111 Duke Philipp-Albrecht of Württemberg 1893 1975 Archduchess Rosa of Austria (Tuscany Line) 1906 1983 See 20.3554 - Duke Philipp-Albrecht married firstly Archduchess Helena of Austria (Tuscany Line) a sister of Archduchess Rosa 22.K31111 Duchess Marie Christine of Württemberg 1924 Prince Georg of Liechtenstein 1911 1998 See 41.34 22.K31112 Duchess Helene of Württemberg 1929 2021 Marquess Federico von Pallavicini 1924 22.K31113 Duke Ludwig of Württemberg 1930 2019 Baroness Adelheid von Bodman 1938 Ludwig renounced his rights of succession on 29 January 1959 for himself and his descendants because his marriage to Adelheid von Bodman was not equal. 22.K31113 Duke Ludwig of Württemberg 1930 2019 Angelika Kiessig 1942 Ludwig renounced his rights of succession on 29 January 1959 for himself and his descendants because his marriage to his first wife Adelheid von Bodman was not equal. Neither was his second marriage to Angelika Kiessig equal. 22.K31114 Duchess Elisabeth of Württemberg 1933 2022 Prince Antoine of Bourbon-Two Sicilies 1929 2019 See 37.554L1 22.K31115 Duchess Marie Theresa of Württemberg 1934 Prince Henri of Orleans (Count of Paris) 1933 2019 See 13.12542 - Marie Theresa was granted the title Duchess of Montpensier by her father in law the Count of Paris on 27 February 1984 shortly after her divorce from Henri. 22.K31116 Duke Carl of Württemberg 1936 2022 Princess Diane of Orleans 1940 See 13.12546 22.K311161 Hereditary Duke Friedrich of Württemberg 1961 2018 Princess Wilhelmine Marie of Wied 1973 See 33.821222 - Hereditary Duke Friedrich died as a result of a car accident 22.K3111611 Duke Wilhelm of Württemberg 1994 Wilhelm is the present Head of the Royal House of Wurttemberg 22.K3111612 Duchess Marie-Amélie of Württemberg 1996 22.K3111613 Duchess Sophie-Dorothee of Württemberg 1997 22.K311162 Duchess Mathilde of Württemberg 1962 Prince Erich von Waldburg zu Zeil and Trauchburg (8th Prince of Waldburg zu Zeil and Trauchburg) 1962 See 28.1225414 22.K311163 Duke Eberhard of Württemberg 1963 Lucia Desiree Copf 1969 22.K311164 Duke Phillip Albrecht of Württemberg 1964 Princess Marie Caroline of Bavaria (and Duchess in Bavaria) 1969 See 18.1511342 22.K3111641 Duchess Sophie of Württemberg 1994 Maximilien d'Andigné ? 22.K3111642 Duchess Pauline of Württemberg 1997 22.K3111643 Duke Carl of Württemberg 1999 22.K3111644 Duchess Anna of Württemberg 2007 22.K311165 Duke Michael Heinrich of Württemberg 1965 Julia Storz 1965 22.K311166 Duchess Eleonore "Fleur" of Württemberg 1977 Count Moritz von Goëss 1966 See 44.321453 22.K31117 Duchess Marie Antoinette of Württemberg 1937 2004 22.K3112 Duke Albrecht Eugen of Württemberg 1895 1954 Princess Nadejda of Bulgaria 1899 1958 See 17.4 - An announcement on the betrothal of Nadejda to Albrecht Eugen, although the date of the announcement is some four months after their marriage on 24 January 1924. 22.K31121 Duke Ferdinand of Württemberg 1925 2020 22.K31122 Duchess Margarethe Louise of Württemberg 1928 2017 Viscount Francois Luce-Bailly de Chevigny 1923 2022 Duchess Margarethe has a son Patrick de La Lanne-Mirrlees (born 1962) from a long time relationship with Robin Ian Evelyn Grinnell-Milne (1925-2012)
A detailed article on Patrick de La Lanne-Mirrlees being disinherited by his father Robin Ian Evelyn Grinnell-Milne. 22.K31123 Duke Eugen Eberhard of Württemberg 1930 2022 Archduchess Alexandra of Austria (Tuscany Line) 1935 See 20.38273 22.K31124 Duke Alexander Eugen of Württemberg 1933 2024 22.K31125 Duchess Sophie of Württemberg 1937 Antonio de Ramos-Bandeira 1937 1987 22.K3113 Duke Carl Alexander of Württemberg 1896 1964 Carl became a Benedictine monk and was ordained as a priest in 1926 as Father Odo. In late 1940 he had to strenuously deny that he was in the United States of America as a peace emissary of Adolf Hitler.
An interesting Guardian article on Wallis Simpson, the Nazi minister, the telltale monk (this being Father Odo) and an FBI plot.
Some interesting facets on Father Odo, the priest who didnt back down in the face of Hitler. 22.K3114 Duchess Marie-Amelia of Württemberg 1897 1923 22.K3115 Duchess Marie-Theresia of Württemberg 1898 1928 22.K3116 Duchess Maria Elisabeth of Württemberg 1899 1900 22.K3117 Duchess Margarethe of Württemberg 1902 1945 22.K312 Duchess Marie Amalie of Württemberg 1865 1883 22.K313 Duchess Marie Isabell of Württemberg 1871 1904 Prince Johann Georg of Saxony 1869 1938 See 26.6656 22.K314 Duke Robert of Württemberg 1873 1947 Archduchess Maria Immakulata of Austria (Tuscany Line) 1878 1968 See 20.387 22.K315 Duke Ulrich Maria of Württemberg 1877 1944 22.K4 Duke Ernst of Württemberg 1807 1868 Natalie Eischborn 1829 1905 Natalie was created Countess von Grunhof on 21 August 1860 22.K5 Duke Friedrich of Württemberg 1810 1815 22.L Duke Heinrich of Württemberg 1772 1833 Karoline Alexei 1799 1853 Karoline was created Baroness von Hochberg und Rottenburg in September 1807, and Countess von Urach 13 November 1825 22.L1 Baroness Luise von Hochberg und Rottenburg 1799 ? 22.L2 Baroness Henriette von Hochberg und Rottenburg 1801 ? 22.L3 Baroness Marie von Hochberg und Rottenburg 1802 1882 Prince Karl-Ludwig zu Hohenlohe-Kirchberg 1780 1861 Marie was created Countess von Urach 16 Jan 1821.
Hohenlohe-Kirchberg was partitioned from the County of Hohenlohe-Langenburg in 1701 and was raised from a County to a Principality in 1764. The death of Karl-Ludwig in 1861 brought an end to the Princely line of Hohenlohe-Kirchberg. 22.L4 Baroness Alexandrine von Hochberg und Rottenburg 1803 1884 Count Karl von Arpeau und Gallatin 1802 1877 Alexandrine was created Countess von Urach 13 Nov 1825
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https://www.visitfrankfurt.travel/en/experience/cuisine/frankfurt-specialities
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Frankfurt specialities
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Frankfurt's liquid gold is not just a beverage, it is an experience. Deeply rooted in Hessian tradition, every sip reflects the soul and history of the region. This drink, pressed from the juiciest apples, undergoes a loving fermentation process that gives it its unmistakably refreshing, slightly tangy flavour.
Traditionally, apple wine is enjoyed from a ribbed glass with a diamond pattern, which not only enhances the tactile experience but is also part of the cultural heritage. The diversity of apple wine unfolds in the way it is enjoyed: pure for the purists, "Sauergespritzter" with a hint of mineral water or "Süßgespritzter" mixed with lemonade for a softer flavour. Each variant tells its own story.
Embedded in the heart of Frankfurt's hospitality, the traditional apple wine taverns, known as "Ebbelwei-Wirtschaften", are the centrepiece of this city's cultural heritage. Here, served from the Bembel, a typical Hessian stone jug, apple wine becomes a symbol of community.
Tasting this liquid gold means becoming part of Frankfurt's culture. It is an invitation to sit back, soak up the atmosphere and experience a piece of Hessian joie de vivre. Apple wine is more than just a drink - it is a journey of discovery, a piece of home waiting to be explored. Come and let yourself be captivated by its charm.
Frankfurt Green Sauce is considered the city's culinary flagship and is one of Frankfurt's seven culinary specialities. What makes it so special, you ask? Well, for one, t is served cold. This often comes as a surprise to first-time tasters.
Made from a finely balanced mixture of seven herbs - chives, parsley, chervil, borage, sorrel, burnet and cress - the sauce develops its characteristic, fresh flavour.
Whether served with boiled eggs and jacket potatoes or as a fresh dip with fish or schnitzel, Frankfurt Green Sauce is a versatile favourite. It is a culinary delight that characterises Frankfurt's culinary landscape.
The annual Green Sauce Festival in Frankfurt underlines the dish's cultural significance and celebrates the creativity that goes into the preparation of this wonderful speciality.
“Hand Cheese with Music” (Handkäs mit Musik) is more than just a local speciality; it is a contemporary culinary document from the year 1813, born in Groß-Gerau. The small, round, hand-moulded sour milk cheeses combine skill with tradition and have developed from a simple dish for the "little people" into a staple of Frankfurt cuisine.
Marinated in a savoury mixture of vinegar, oil and spices, the cheese develops its full-bodied flavour. "Music" comes into play through the raw onions, which, in addition to a savoury note, also provide a cheerful anecdote in the Frankfurt vernacular.
“Handkäs'” is traditionally presented at the city's restaurants: With just a knife, some buttered bread on the side and, of course, the indispensable onions. This simplicity makes the dish authentic and down-to-earth.
“Handkäs' mit Musik” is not just a dish; it is an invitation to immerse yourself in the rich culture and warmhearted community of Frankfurt. It embodies a love for the simple pleasures of life and offers everyone who tries it a genuine taste of the city's history. Simply put, it is a must for anyone who wants to experience the real Frankfurt.
“Frankfurter” sausages are the culinary flagship of the metropolis on the Main, comparable to Parma ham in Italy. Their roots go back to 1562, when they first tantalised the palates of guests at the coronation of Maximilian II. This long history not only emphasises their importance in regional cuisine, but also their reputation as a world-class delicacy.
Uniqueness through tradition: Genuine Frankfurt sausages may only be produced in Frankfurt and the surrounding area. A resolution passed in 1929 protects their origin and guarantees their authenticity. The strict regulations ensure quality, which is reflected in the choice of meat and the traditional smoking process using beech wood.
The sausages are traditionally served in pairs and offer an authentic flavour experience, whether dipped in mustard or horseradish. The best way to enjoy them? Quite simply by hand, which emphasises their down-to-earth nature. Frankfurt sausages are therefore more than just a meal - they are a taste of Frankfurt's history and culture.
Whether served in apple wine bars or on finer occasions, Frankfurter sausages celebrate the diversity and richness of local cuisine. They invite you to become part of Frankfurt's living tradition and honour its culinary heritage with every bite.
A classic of Hessian cuisine
Frankfurt loin ribs occupy a special place in the culinary world of Frankfurt. This traditional dish, consisting of carefully cured and cooked pork, is a firm favourite on the regional menu. It combines the warmth of Hessian hospitality with a love of strong, down-to-earth flavours.
Served warm, Frankfurt loin ribs harmonise perfectly with sauerkraut and creamy mashed potatoes, a combination that warms the soul and is particularly appreciated on cold days. But the versatility of this speciality is also evident in its cold version, which is often served with fresh bread, bread rolls or a hearty potato salad. Both versions offer an authentic flavour experience that is deeply rooted in Hessian food culture.
Whether in the cosy atmosphere of a traditional apple wine pub or at the city's finer culinary addresses, Frankfurt loin ribs are a must for anyone who wants to taste the real Frankfurt.
Frankfurt Crown Cake ("Frankfurter Kranz"), a masterpiece of the art of baking since 1735, is more than just a cake - it is a piece of Frankfurt pride. This magnificent buttercream cake in its characteristic ring shape not only honours the form of a crown, but also tells a story of opulence and elegance. Covered in crunchy brittle that mimics gold and topped with bright red cherries reminiscent of precious rubies, each Frankfurt Crown Cake is a work of art that reflects the splendour of a royal crown.
Whether this creation was intended as a tribute to the coronation of Charles VI in 1711 or a general ode to the city of Frankfurt remains a sweet secret of history. But one thing is certain: Frankfurt Crown Cake epitomises the city's rich tradition and cultural wealth.
Every slice of this cake is a celebration of Frankfurt, a bite that travels through time and history. With its harmonious combination of flavour and symbolism, Frankfurt Crown Cake invites you to experience the city's cultural heritage and sweet traditions. A cake not just for festive occasions, but as a constant reminder of Frankfurt's rich culture and undying pride.
“Bethmännchen”, small marzipan biscuits decorated with almonds, are deeply rooted in Frankfurt culture. Created in the House of Bethmann, they tell a story as rich as their flavour. Originally, four almond halves represented the four sons of the renowned Bethmann banking family. A tradition that changed after the loss of a son - since then, only three almonds adorn these delicious biscuits.
More than just a sweet, Bethmännchen are a piece of living history that tells the story of Frankfurt's past and its citizens with every bite. These marzipan balls are not only popular with locals and visitors alike because of their delicate flavour, but also stand as a symbol of solidarity with the city and its traditions.
Whether as a gift at Christmastime or as a sweet gesture on special occasions, Bethmännchen are a symbol of love and remembrance that has endured for generations. The heart of Frankfurt lives on in each of these small, carefully crafted marzipan balls, a delicious tribute to family, tradition and the sweet side of life.
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https://www.iamexpat.de/expat-info/german-expat-news/9-famous-german-actors-you-might-recognise
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9 famous German actors you might recognise
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"actors that speak German",
"German actors winning Oscar"
] | null |
[
"Emily Proctor"
] |
2022-01-09T05:49:00+01:00
|
Think you know German actors? Here's our list of the most famous German actors, German actors who made it in Hollywood and other actors who are famous abroa...
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en
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IamExpat
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https://www.iamexpat.de/expat-info/german-expat-news/9-famous-german-actors-you-might-recognise
|
While there are many talented German actors out there, only a few of them have made it big in the movie industry abroad. Here are some of the good and great of Germany’s most famous actors!
Internationally famous German Actors
Famous German actors don't just play officers or soldiers in films about the First and Second World Wars - they star in all types of film, from comedy and romance to action and horror. Here are some big names you probably recognise - although you might not have realised they're German!
Daniel Brühl
One of Germany’s most famous and versatile actors is the multitalented Daniel Brühl, who rose to international fame in the 2009 film Inglourious Basterds - a film through which many other German actors also rose to fame (as we'll see below). Barcelona-born Daniel Brühl has acted in films across the world, from Poland to the United States.
Brühl has appeared in films such as The Bourne Ultimatum (2007) and Rush (2013). More recently, Brühl has delighted Netflix audiences in the TV series The Alienist, and even landed a role as the Marvel villain Helmut Zemo in Captain America: Civil War (2016).
Here he is in action, as Dr Laszlo Kreizler in Netflix's The Alienist:
Video: YouTube / Still Watching Netflix
Diane Kruger
German-American Diane Kruger, much like Brühl, found fame from Quentin Taraninto’s Inglourious Basterds, and since then, her career has only gotten better and better. Having appeared in French, German and English-language films, Kruger is truly an international hit.
Aside from acting, Diane Kruger has also had a strong career as a model, and has featured in People magazine’s annual 50 most beautiful people in the world list. She won the Best Actress award at the Cannes Film Festival and has also received the Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture award from the Screen Actors Guild in the United States.
Here's Kruger in the trailer for The Operative (2019):
Video: YouTube / Rapid Trailer
Christoph Waltz
Undoubtedly, Christoph Waltz is one of Germany's most famous cultural exports (although Austria would probably also claim him as theirs - he has a parent from each country). Yet another face in Inglourious Basterds, Waltz has been able to land roles in significant films such as the James Bond franchise and Django Unchained.
Waltz is one of the most decorated German actors, having received two Academy Awards, two British Academy Film Awards, two Screen Actors Guild Awards, and two Golden Globe Awards. Waltz’s international success has even seen him host an episode of the US’s primetime TV show Saturday Night Live.
You can see Waltz in his directorial debut in the movie Georgetown (2019) below:
Video: YouTube / Paramount Movies
German actors in Hollywood
Though it is often thought that being in Hollywood is the key to fame, not all actors who make it into the industry manage to get the credit they deserve. As time goes by, new actors take over and the classics get forgotten - here’s some great German actors that managed to make it in Hollywood.
Marlene Dietrich
As one of the most famous faces of the Golden Age of Hollywood, Marlene Dietrich truly earned a place on this list. Though she sadly passed away in 1992, she greatly outlived many of the other stars of her era in Hollywood. While Dietrich was known for her stunning looks, she also had a truly generous, humanitarian side, which she put to particular use during the war - housing German and French exiles, and helping them in their struggle to get citizenship in the US.
Thanks to the internet, while Dietrich is no longer with us, her legacy lives on. Here she is singing "Where have all the flowers gone?" in 1963:
Video: YouTube / MarleneDietrichVideo
August Diehl
Named by Gala magazine as “the most important German actor of today” in 2006, it was always clear that August Diehl was going to be a big star. After he got his big break in Inglorious Basterds in 2009, Diehl stayed in Hollywood to work alongside Angelina Jolie on the action-thriller film Salt, in 2010.
Diehl is talented off-screen too, as he speaks four languages - German, Spanish, French and English, and he also plays the guitar.
Here's a brief glimpse of Diehl in the trailer for Salt (2010):
Video: YouTube / Sony Pictures Releasing UK
6. Michael Fassbender
The German-Irish actor Michael Fassbender is another of the most-decorated actors to have been born in Germany. In 2015, he was nominated for the Academy, BAFTA, Golden Globe and SAG awards for his role in the biopic Steve Jobs.
In a major career change, Fassbender has started taking part in auto racing in more recent years. He currently competes in the European Le Mans Series, representing Proton Competition.
See Fassbender in action in Trespass Against Us (2016):
Video: YouTube / Rotten Tomatoes Trailers
Most famous German actors in Germany
Enough of Germans who made it big abroad - it’s time to appreciate some homegrown talent that Germans love! These three German actors, though not necessarily well-known faces abroad, are some of the most recognised actors at home in Germany.
Klaus Kinski
Much like Marlene Dietrich, Klaus Kinski was a cinema classic in Germany before his tragic death in 1991. Kinski was known for being an intense performer with a volatile personality off-screen. It has been suspected that Kinski suffered from schizophrenia, as the actor was seen to behave erratically over the span of his career. His eccentric personality was reflected in a wide range of eclectic films he directed himself, especially towards the end of his life.
Despite struggles with his mental health, Klaus Kinski was still able to land major roles and make a huge name for himself both in Germany and abroad. His earlier films saw him stay in Germany, but as his career picked up, he ventured across the water into the United States.
Here's the original trailer for one of Kinski's most successful films, Fitzcarraldo (1982):
Video: YouTube / HD Retro Trailers
8. Udo Kier
Born in Cologne near the end of World War Two, it is hard to think that becoming an actor was an easy task for Udo Kier. From the day he was born, he was thrown into adversity - having to be dug out of the rubble of the hospital where he was born with his mother, after it was blown up in the conflict. Nevertheless, Kier pushed forward with his dream to become an actor, eventually landing a role in the 1966 short film Road to St Tropez.
Fast forward to today, where Udo has featured in more than 220 films worldwide, and dozens of TV shows. He has also worked extensively as a voice actor, and has used his skills for roles in international films such as Scooby Doo and video games.
See the 77-year-old in action in the trailer for Swan Song (2021):
Video: YouTube / Magnolia Pictures & Magnet Releasing
9. Jürgen Vogel
As a former child model, it has always been clear that the place for Jürgen Vogel to be is on the big screen. Vogel claims to have been inspired to follow a career in acting after watching the movie Taxi Driver (1976) and managed to strike luck in 1989, finally catching a break in the German film Bumerang-Bumerang.
He has since gone on to star in many films and TV shows, including several episodes of the hit German crime drama Tatort.
Here's Vogel talking about his teeth in an interview in 2008 (you can turn on English subtitles at the bottom of the video):
Video: YouTube / Gagolero
The German actors that made it big
So there you have it: Germany is home to some fine acting talent. Have a favourite German actor that didn't make our list? Let us know in the comments below!
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German and Austrian Nobles & Royals — House of Mecklenburg & of Thurn and Taxis: Therese...
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[
"historyedit",
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[
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2019-11-02T22:27:48+00:00
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House of Mecklenburg & of Thurn and Taxis: Therese of Mecklenburg-Strelitz Therese was born as the fourth child and third daughter to Grand Duke Charles II of Mecklenburg-Strelitz and his first wife...
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https://www.tumblr.com/germanaustriannoblesandroyals/188773994032/thereseofmecklenburgstrelitz
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https://www.wikitree.com/wiki/Von_Thurn_und_Taxis-30
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Karl Anselm Von Thurn und Taxis (1733-1805)
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[
"Karl Von Thurn und Taxis genealogy"
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[] |
1733-06-02T00:00:00
|
Is this your ancestor? Explore genealogy for Karl Von Thurn und Taxis born 1733 Frankfurt am Main, Free Imperial City of Frankfurt, Holy Roman Empire died 1805 Winzer bei Regensburg, Electorate of Bavaria, Holy Roman Empire including ancestors + descendants + 1 photos + more in the free family tree community.
|
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/favicon.ico
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https://www.wikitree.com/wiki/Von_Thurn_und_Taxis-30
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WIKITREE HOME | ABOUT | G2G FORUM | HELP | SEARCH
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https://terranovacollective.com/track/2320724/henri-joseph-de-croes-symphony-no-1-menuetto-allegro-terra-nova-collective-vlad-weverbergh
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en
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Terra Nova Collective Vlad Weverbergh by Terra Nova Collective
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From the album De Croes Symphonies and Concerti
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https://terranovacollective.com/home
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DE CROES: SYMPHONIES and CONCERTI
The superb court library of the Thurn und Taxis family in Regensburg contains many musical treasures, including the music of the almost forgotten Belgian composer Henri Joseph de Croes. Given that he composed works for the clarinetto d’amore, an instrument that is also practically forgotten, he immediately becomes twice as interesting.
The clarinetto d’amore has today completely disappeared from the concert stage; two replicas of this unusual instrument were therefore made especially for this recording. All of the works by De Croes that are presented on this CD are world première recordings. De Croes, however, was no obscure composer who wrote only for this curious instrument; he was a respected musician with an intriguing body of work. In order to provide a balanced overview of his output, we are also presenting examples of his symphonies and concertos here alongside his chamber works.
Henri Joseph de Croes was born in Brussels in 1758 and died in Regensburg in 1842. He was born two years after his illustrious contemporary and colleague Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791). Like Mozart, De Croes had a talented musician for a father who had won his spurs as leader of a typical central European court orchestra during the middle years of the 18th century. This father was Henri-Jacques de Croes (1705-1786), who had already become concert master of the court orchestra in Brussels in 1744. Between 1749 and his death in 1786 he worked as Kapellmeister to the court of Prince Charles of Lotharingen, the brother of the emperor who had been appointed as viceroy over the Austrian Netherlands. Henri Joseph de Croes grew up in this environment and was quickly recognized as being a superb violinist.
Henri Joseph de Croes entered the service of the Thurn und Taxis family in 1776; this aristocratic family had been awarded the monopoly on postal and courier services within the Holy Roman Empire and the Habsburg territories by emperor Charles V. The family had lived in Mechelen since the 16th century and later moved to Brussels. The elder De Croes had also been in service to the Thurn und Taxis family before his appointment to the court of Charles V and had commuted back and forth between Brussels and Frankfurt with them from 1729 to 1744; he clearly remained on good terms with the Thurn und Taxis family, for his talented son entered their service when he turned eighteen years old.
Henri Joseph de Croes’ new employer was Karl Anselm, Vorst von Thurn und Taxis (1733-1805), who engaged him for the Prince’s family orchestra in Regensburg. Karl Anselm was a great lover of music and had expanded his court orchestra with a few of the most skilled virtuosi in Central Europe, these including the French viol player Joseph Touchemoulin, the Italian oboist Giovanni Palestrini, the Bohemian violin player Franz Xaver Pokorny and the Italian flautist Fiorante Agustinelli. The arrival of the young Belgian violist Henri Joseph de Croes fitted in perfectly with the Prince’s artistic policy. This was also the time when remarkable court orchestras could guarantee long-lasting fame that would echo far beyond its country’s borders; Karl Anselm’s efforts were well worthwhile. The orchestra of the Regensburg court was declared to be one of the best in German-speaking lands during the 1790s; its only rivals were the renowned Hofkapelle in Mannheim and the orchestra of the Esterházy’s with Joseph Haydn at its head.
Theodor Freiherr von Schacht (1748-1823) was De Croes’ direct superior in Regensburg. He too came from a highly musical family and had for a time been a pupil of the Napolitan composer Niccolo Jommelli, who had himself been employed in Stuttgart for many years. Von Schacht was not only a serviceable composer and producer of German and Italian operas but also an excellent diplomat who was able to shape the Regensburg court orchestra according to his employer’s wishes. When Von Schacht was later required to spend the greater part of his time on diplomatic duties, the daily administration of the orchestra passed to Touchemoulin. Following the dismissal of Touchemoulin in 1798, the post went to the then forty-year-old De Croes, who had already composed a number of works for the court. We know of his Singspiel Der Zauberer (1782), concertos and two symphonies, as well as divertimenti for a novel type of wind ensemble in which the oboes were replaced with violas.
The death of Karl Anselm von Thurn und Taxis in 1805, the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire and the tempest that Napoleon unleashed in the German-speaking world all combined to ensure that the court orchestra in Regensburg swiftly became an irrelevance. Theodor von Schacht left Regensburg for Vienna, other musicians also soon began to disperse. The new prince, Karl Alexander von Thurn und Taxis (1770-1827), seemed to be too busy with protecting his family’s interests to be able to maintain an expensive court orchestra.
This was a disastrous time for Henri Joseph de Croes as well. Two of his children had already died, followed by his wife, the singer Maria Augusta Houdier, in 1806. De Croes nonetheless remained in Regensburg but seems not to have composed much more after 1806.
His two extant symphonies are here recorded for the first time. The first was composed in 1782 and dates from before his appointment as Kapellmeister. This symphony is very much in the Mannheim style. The second symphony is more in the tradition set by Joseph Haydn. We have here also recorded the bassoon concerto by De Croes that is kept in the library of the Regensburg court.
The Symphonic Culture at the Regensburger Court
During the eighteenth century most smaller German principalities within the borders of the Holy Roman Empire realized they were no match for the greater powers of Prussia, Austria, France, Russia, or even Saxony and Bavaria. In terms of their military strength, economic power and diplomatic influence, they were but small fish in a rather large pond. That is why some of them embarked on expensive projects that were meant to show their dominance in another field altogether: culture. These princes were by no means poor and they were able to spend large sums of money on lavish building projects to create magnificent castles, gardens or theaters or to accumulate huge art collections that would become the envy of their peers. Some of them spent their money on music, building excellent orchestras, centred around one or two famous composers and their vision on contemporary music. Most famous amongst them was Carl Theodor, prince-elector of the Palatinate, who by mid-century could boast the most famous orchestra in Europe. Thanks to his Kapellmeister, Johan Stamitz, this Mannheimer Hoforchester set the standard for orchestral music in Germany for decades to come. Carl Theodor knew he could not compete with the big boys on the international stage and his army would be next to useless should he ever find himself pitched against France, Austria or Prussia, but everybody who was anybody in the eighteenth century knew who Carl Theodor, the magnificent prince, was, since he was the creator and protector of Europe’s most marvellous orchestra that invented the modern symphonic style. Visitors from all over Europe flocked to Mannheim in order to hear its symphonies.
Many orchestras founded during the eighteenth century tried to emulate the example of Mannheim. The Regensburger Hoforchester was no exception. In 1748 the family of Thurn und Taxis, originally from Italian descent, decided to move their seat of power from Brussels and Frankfurt to Regensburg. Since the beginning of the sixteenth century, the family had found a home in Brussels. They built a large city palace and funded a chapel in the local church of Our Lady (Sablon) where members of the family were burried. The family had made its fortune as the owners of the largest post-network in Europe. Brussels, the heart of Europe then as well as today, was an excellent headquarters from which to conduct their operations. They were great patrons of the arts, commissioning amongst other things large tapisseries from local workshops, today in Regensburg. The family of Thurn und Taxis were non-nobles in the fifteenth century, but were promoted by Emperor Leopold I to the rank of Imperial Princes (Reichsfürsten) in 1695. At the time they were one of the richest families within the empire.
We are ill informed about the musical life at the Thurn und Taxis Residence in Brussels up until the middle of the eighteenth century. A document dated 1739 gives us the first clue to the existence of a court orchestra. This orchestra seems to have been populated by foreign musicians, since their names sound Italian (Schiovanette), German (Denner) or French (Regnix). Other names belong to the great musical families of Brussels (Boutmy). The leader of the orchestra was one Henri Jacques De Croes, who entered the service of the family Thurn und Taxis in 1729.
In 1748 the family decided to move to Regensburg. Most musicians, including De Croes, were either sacked or decided to stay in Brussels. In Regensburg however, a new court orchestra was formed and an “état de la musique” of 1755 shows that at that time the Prince employed fourteen musicians and a Kapellmeister named Joseph Riepel. A simular list dated 1766 clearly shows that the orchestra had doubled in size over the course of a decade. The most expensive musician on the list was the French flute player Joseph Touchemoulin who had been recruted from Cologne after the death of prince-bishop Clemens August Wittelsbach in 1791. He took over the orchestra after the death of Kapellmeister Riepel in 1784.
The orchestra seems to have increased in quality as well as quantity with the engagement in 1771 of Hofkavalier Theodor Freiherr von Schacht, who wanted to turn the Regensburger Hoforchester into one of the best in Germany. He soon found an ally in the new Prince, Carl Anselm von Thurn und Taxis, who had a great fondness for Italian music and opera. A document dated 1775 mentions 24 musicians in the service of the prince, most of them Italian or Bohemian. Some of them were well known musicians who seem to have been attracted to increase the overall quality of the orchestra. Amongst them was Henri De Croes from Brussels, a young violinist and son of Henri Jacques De Croes. The orchestra continued to grow all through the 1770s, with 28 musicians and a court soprano in 1777 and 37 musicians and 3 singers in 1782. During the 1780s the size of the orchestra remained stable and their number settled around 40.
The orchestra was used to entertain. When prominent guests, like emperor Joseph II, came to visit, the orchestra would be ordered to play during the banquet and the ball given in his honour. In autumn, winter and spring the orchestra was obliged to give a weekly performance in which they played symphonies or concertos. During the summer they played outside in the palace garden. The court musicians also played in the theater whenever they were ordered to do. On special occasions, the orchestra was also employed in the church. They played passion cantates or funeral music on the death of a family member. With all these responsibilities, it is no wonder that most of the orchestra members were lodged on the castle grounds and could only leave those grounds after having asked for permission to do so.
The repertoire in Regensburg was extremely rich and diverse. When Theodor von Schacht took charge of the orchestra, one of the first things he did was to organize the music library. Copies of scores were made in Regensburg by copyists who were most probably members of the orchestra. A catalogue, made by Von Schacht in 1790 lists no less than 1319 symphonies by at least 157 composers (some scores are anonymous). Amongst them were symphonies by Haydn and Mozart. Only at the beginning of the nineteenth century did the music library order printed scores from music publishers in Vienna or Paris. In 1803 the court payed a large sum to a publisher in Paris to obtain the scores of Haydn’s symphonies.
The symphonic culture in Regensburg declined after 1798. Due to the war with France, the princes had lost control over their post-services in key parts of the continent. Touchemoulin, a very expensive musician, was dismissed and was replaced by De Croes. A document dated 1800 shows that the orchestra still comprised of 24 musicians, but its budget was only half of what it had been in 1790. The orchestra was still 23 musicians strong when it was disbanded in 1806. That year the Holy Roman Empire ceased to exist and the princes of Thurn und Taxis lost their “Prinzipalkommissariat der Fürsten”. It was the end of a rich symphonic era that lasted about forty years.
David Vergauwen
The Musical Style of Henri Joseph de Croes
The two known symphonies by Henri Joseph de Croes were written at different junctures in his career and are separated in time by almost two decades. The first symphony, written in 1782, is clearly marked by the characteristics of the Late Mannheimer Style in general and by the symphonic style of Christian Cannabich in particular. A key hallmark of Canabich’s symphonies is the slow introduction at the beginning of the first part of the symphony that leads immediately into a rather spectacular and energetic allegro molto. Having met Cannabich in Mannheim, Mozart would use exactly such an introduction in the first movement of his Paris symphony (KV 297) of 1778, precisely because he knew Cannabichs symphonies were widely appreciated there. The two middle section of the symphony were factured after the galant style, typical for the Mannheimer Schule and the symphony concludes with a spectacular finale in which de Croes uses a trademark formula involving an up-beat in his second theme, which can also be found in his other works, as well as in the bassoon concerto.
It is impossible to say how many symphonies de Croes composed during his lifetime, but the more modern style and structure of the second symphony, compels us to speculate that the composer must have matured during the intermediate decades. The first movement of the second symphony, written around 1800, again opens with a slow introduction, this time in the minor, immediately followed by an energetic allegro in the style of Cannabich. The second movement seems to deviate from the Mannheimer formula and is written in a theme-in-variation-form in which the various soloists are given ample opportunity to create a rich palet of colours. The symphony concludes with an intoxicating tarantella and a ravishing alla caccia on the horn, in a way that is reminiscent to the symphonic style of Joseph Haydn.
Both symphonies are galant, affable an original construction, infused with the surprises and effects of Sturm und Drang. The most unique sounding compositions are perhaps the partias on cd2 in which the composer truly finds a voice of his own. He tends to use the middle voices - and the violas in particular – as a way to create a darker, more sensitive sound, bordering on the melancholic. In these compositions, de Croes clearly shows himself as a delicate and erudite composer of the Galant Style.
Vlad Weverbergh
The discovery of a “new” solo bassoon concerto
The discovery of a “new” solo bassoon concerto is certainly something to be excited about. Even when not a masterpiece, it is still such an unexpected gift to our relatively meagre repertoire that we bassoonists can get quite worked-up. When Vlad Weverbergh told me late one night that he had a really excellent (Belgian!) bassoon concerto for me to play, I apparently looked doubtful, if not downright scornful, and said along the lines of “yeah, SURE you do!” Well, since preparing and recording it with him and his wonderful band, I am eating my words. The concerto by Henri Joseph de Croes is indeed a great piece, and a really worthy addition to our solo literature.
The most famous bassoon concerto is of course Mozart’s early K.191, a true masterpiece. His reputed four others having tragically disappeared, we have had to content ourselves with some other “ok, definitely worth playing” classical concertos such as those by J.C.Bach, Kozeluch, Vanhal and Devienne. It’s not until C.M. von Weber’s operatic extravaganza of 1811 that we have something really to boast about; certainly nothing that modern bassoonists can regularly be bothered with. Of course, this can also be explained by the fact that these transitional classical-romantic compositions are very much dependent on the specific qualities of the period instruments and performers they were intended for - their idiosyncrasies, colours and techniques. They tend to be pushing the limits both of the performers and the instruments in terms of technique and virtuosity, and so it makes sense that when played on a modern bassoon (on which they are quite unchallenging), one misses the drama and the inherent risk-taking, as well as the individual tonal palettes and altered balance in the orchestral interplay.
An earlier great discovery for me was of the five concertos of Franz Danzi, (three of which I recorded) which are truly neglected. They really are jewels of idiomatic early romantic bassoon writing, with lyricism, humour, thoroughly well-worked architecture, and rich orchestral colour. The De Croes concerto can in many ways be compared to these pieces in style, range and quality. De Croes builds a proper grand romantic concerto opening with a thoroughly worked orchestral exposition, before the solo bassoon enters as part of the wind section of horns and oboes - as if to slyly remind the performer not to get too pretentious! The writing exploits many of the bassoon’s abilities and most-loved characteristics for tenor-register lyricism, rapid-fire staccato passage-work, large leaps across the register and comic effects. As in the Mozart concerto, the bassoon is often in eager dialogue with the violins, emphasising the instrument’s multiple roles; as melodicist, wind section member, and bass instrument. The middle movement in particular is very beautiful with its lilting, cantabile, beguiling character, whilst the finale is a comic romp.
Jane Gower
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Pace Gallery
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https://www.pacegallery.com/static/images/favicon.dc63b0105878.ico
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https://www.pacegallery.com/static/images/favicon.dc63b0105878.ico
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2022-06-21T00:00:00
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en
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https://www.pacegallery.com/static/images/favicon.dc63b0105878.ico
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https://www.pacegallery.com/artists/jeff-koons/
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2024
Bartels, Meghan. “Sculptures about to Land on the Moon Join a Long History of Lunar Art.” Sceintific American, 21 February 2024. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/sculptures-about-to-land-on-the-moon-join-a-long-history-of-lunar-art/
Binswanger, Julia. “A Lunar Lander Carrying Jeff Koons’ Art Is Flying Toward the Moon.” Smithsonian Magazine, 16 February 2024. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/a-mission-to-bring-jeff-koons-art-to-the-moon-launches-successfully-180983804/
Brown, David W. “How Jeff Koons’s Lunar Artwork Could Outlast All of Humanity.” Scientific American, 17 April 2024. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-jeff-koonss-lunar-artwork-could-outlast-all-of-humanity/.
Carey-Kent, Paul. “Inner Cosmos, Outer Universe” (Pace Gallery exhibition review). Seisma Magazine, 12 April 2024. https://seismamag.com/visual-fine-art/inner-cosmos-outer-universe
Cassady, Daniel. “Jeff Koons and Non-Profit Startup Clever Noodle Release Children’s Literacy Game.” Artnews, 30 April 2024. https://www.artnews.com/art-news/news/jeff-koons-literacy-game-1234705328/#recipient_hashed=73a0316e50ef251387928b2942f5129e8e174ba2ccaf1ba639d8c0cde423503d&recipient_salt=f36eecdec541c29d87b19e3fbfa898e64c0b88332d9a99a18318a2c98e8adce7
“Culture Beat: Exhibition marks debut of Jeff Koons’ sculpture in China” (One Song Center exhibition review). Global Times, 22 April 2024. https://www.globaltimes.cn/page/202404/1311066.shtml
“Elon Musk Flies Jeff Koons to the Moon.” Apollo, 16 February 2024. https://www.apollo-magazine.com/jeff-koons-moon-rakewell/
Frankel, Eddy. “Jeff Koons: ‘Paintings, 2001-2013’.” Time out, 14 March 2024. https://www.timeout.com/london/art/jeff-koons-paintings-2001-2013.
Gamboa, Carlota. “Jeff Koons Sends Sculptures to the Moon and More News.” Art & Object, 17 February 2024. https://www.artandobject.com/news/jeff-koons-sends-sculptures-moon-and-more-news
Ghassemitari, Shawn. “Jeff Koons’ Colorfully Chaotic Paintings Take Over Skarstedt London.” Hypebeast, 11 April 2024. https://hypebeast.com/2024/4/jeff-koons-paintings-2001-2013-skarstedt-gallery.
Gurney, James. “Jeff Koons’ art has landed on the moon with Odysseus.” Wallpaper Magazine, 21 February 2024. https://www.wallpaper.com/art/exhibitions-shows/reality-reframed-recent-works-by-todd-gray-8th-floor-new-york
Harris, Gareth. “Jeff Koons sculptures complete long-awaited journey to moon.” The Art Newspaper, 23 February 2024. https://www.theartnewspaper.com/2024/02/23/jeff-koons-sculptures-finally-land-on-the-moon.
“Highlights From the Successful Lunar Landing of the Spacecraft Odysseus.” New York Times, 22 February 2024. https://www.nytimes.com/live/2024/02/22/science/nasa-moon-landing-odysseus#its-not-all-rocket-science-jeff-koons-packed-sculptures-aboard-odysseus.
Ho, Karen K. “SpaceX Rocket Carrying Jeff Koons’s 125 Moon Sculptures Finally Takes Off.” ARTnews, 15 February 2024. https://www.artnews.com/art-news/news/spacex-rocket-jeff-koons-125-moon-sculptures-1234696402/
Jacobs, Harrison. “Jeff Koons’s ‘Moon Phases’ Sculptures Still Aboard Lunar Lander That May Lose Power.” ARTnews, 27 February 2024. https://www.artnews.com/art-news/news/lunar-landing-2024-jeff-koons-moon-phases-sculptures-update-1234697867/.
“Jeff Koons Blasts Moon With 125 Sculptures Aboard Elon Musk’s SpaceX.” Artlyst, 14 February 2024. https://artlyst.com/people/jeff-koons-blasts-moon-with-125-sculptures-aboard-elon-musks-spacex/
Kazakina, Katya. “Jeff Koons’s Art Is on the Moon, but His Prices Have Cratered. Can Power Players Reignite His Market?” Artnet News, 23 February 2024. https://news.artnet.com/market/jeff-koonss-art-is-on-the-moon-but-his-prices-have-cratered-can-power-players-reignite-his-market-2436175
Nichols, Chris. “The First Artwork on the Moon Lands, Falls Over.” Los Angeles Magazine, 29 February 2024. https://lamag.com/news/first-artwork-on-the-moon-lands-falls-over
Palumbo, Jacqui. “Artist Jeff Koons makes history with a sculpture on the moon.” CNN Style, 22 February 2024. https://www.cnn.com/2024/02/22/style/jeff-koons-moon-phases-odysseus-landing/index.html.
“Parkland Group Announces Masterpiece Sculpture ‘Sacred Heart’ by Jeff Koons Finds Permanent Home at Guangzhou One Pengrui.” Associated Press, 19 April 2024. https://apnews.com/press-release/globenewswire-mobile/jeff-koons-visual-arts-ca5def598180330b27a077a9f4381157
Rosa, Amanda. “Jeff Koons launched his art to the moon from Florida. It will be on permanent display.” Miami Herald, 15 February 2024. https://www.miamiherald.com/entertainment/visual-arts/article285520797.html
Schrader, Adam. “Koons Landing! The Artist’s Mini-Sculptures Have Made It to the Moon.” Artnet News, 23 February 2024. https://news.artnet.com/art-world/jeff-koons-moon-phases-space-odysseus-2440372.
Schreffler, Laura. “Jeff Koons Officially Sends Artwork To The Moon.” Haute Living, 19 February 2024. https://hauteliving.com/2024/02/jeff-koons-sends-artwork-to-the-moon/745613/
Short, Stephen. “Jeff Koons and His Thoughts on Space, Pop Culture, and Other Artists.” Prestige Thailand, 19 March 2024. https://www.prestigeonline.com/th/lifestyle/art-plus-design/jeff-koons-koons-moons-balloons/.
Small, Zachary. “Jeff Koons Sculptures Hitch Ride on SpaceX Rocket to the Moon.” The New York Times, 15 February 2024. https://www.nytimes.com/2024/02/15/arts/design/jeff-koons-spacex-moon-rocket.html
Waddoups, Ryan. “Jeff Koons Launches His Art to the Moon, and Other News” Surface Magazine, 21 February 2024. https://www.surfacemag.com/articles/jeff-koons-moon-phases/
Waite, Thom. “Jeff Koons! And Elon Musk! Sending art to the moon! Who cares!” Dazed Magazine, 22 February 2024. https://www.dazeddigital.com/art-photography/article/62019/1/jeff-koons-and-elon-musk-sending-art-to-the-moon-who-cares-spacex-moon-phases
White, David. “Koons’ Moons: American Artist’s Pioneering Moon-Lander Odyssey.” Art Mag, 14 March 2024. https://artmag.co.uk/koons-moons-american-artists-pioneering-moon-lander-odyssey/.
2023
“Across the Koons-verse: artist's balloon animals make cameo in new Spider-Man film.” The Art Newspaper, 9 June 2023. https://www.theartnewspaper.com/2023/06/09/spider-man-across-spider-verse-koons-guggenheim
Brittain, Blake. “Jeff Koons, Sculptor Each Claim Advantage After Warhol Copyright Decision.” Reuters, 30 June 2023. https://www.reuters.com/legal/litigation/jeff-koons-sculptor-each-claim-advantage-after-warhol-copyright-decision-2023-06-30/
Chan, Paul. “Is Jeff Koons America’s Most Religious Artist?” Frieze Magazine, 11 December 2023. https://www.frieze.com/article/paul-chan-column-239.
“'Cultured’ and Almine Rech Usher In a Busy Winter Season With Jeff Koons, the Rubells, and More.” Cultured Magazine, 8 November 2023. https://www.culturedmag.com/article/2023/11/08/almine-rech-jeff-koons-rubell-pablo-picasso
Dhruv Bose, Swapnil. “When John Waters met Jeff Koons to discuss art.” Far Out, 13 June 2023. https://faroutmagazine.co.uk/john-waters-jeff-koons-discuss-art/
Gagliardi, Pino. “Pappi Corsicato on Revealing the Private Jeff Koons.” The Hollywood Reporter, 30 November 2023. https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/movies/movie-news/jeff-koons-documentary-pop-art-1235680809/.
“Hear Jeff Koons, Farah Atassi, Peter Halley, and More Unravel Pablo Picasso’s Legacy.” Cultured, 1 December 2023. https://www.culturedmag.com/article/2023/12/01/jeff-koons-almine-rech-picasso-show.
Holpuch, Amanda. “Art Fair Visitor Breaks a Jeff Koons Balloon Dog Sculpture.” The New York Times, 18 February 2023. https://www.nytimes.com/2023/02/18/arts/jeff-koons-sculpture-broken-miami.html
"Jeff Koons: The 60 Minutes Interview." CBS video, 00:13:24. Posted by CBS News, 21 May 2023. https://www.cbsnews.com/video/artist-jeff-koons-60-minutes-video-2023-05-21/#x
Kakar, Arun. “What Sold at Art Basel in Basel 2023.” Artsy, 20 June 2023. https://www.artsy.net/article/artsy-editorial-sold-art-basel-basel-2023
Koons, Jeff. " Jeff Koons: The 60 Minutes Interview." Interview with Anderson Cooper. CBS video, 00:43:13. Posted by CBS, 21 May 2023. https://www.cbsnews.com/video/artist-jeff-koons-60-minutes-video-2023-05-21/
Lakin, Max. “When Spider-Man Met Jeff Koons.” New York Times, 13 July 2023. https://www.nytimes.com/2023/07/13/arts/design/spider-man-jeff-koons-art.html
Lombard, Amy. “Inside GQ’s Bumping New York Fashion Week Party with Jeff Koons, Thomas Doherty, Leon Bridges, and Many More.” GQ, 13 September 2023. https://www.gq.com/gallery/new-york-fashion-week-party-ss-24.
“Modern artist Jeff Koons on his new form of expression.” CBS News, 16 December 2023. https://www.cbsnews.com/video/modern-artist-jeff-koons-on-his-new-form-of-expression/.
Moynihan, Colin. “Jeff Koons Killed Her Review.” New York Times, 17 December 2023. https://www.nytimes.com/2023/12/17/arts/design/jeff-koons-brooklyn-rail-tulips-golan.html?partner=slack&smid=sl-share.
Munster, Kennedy. “World Renowned Contemporary Artist Jeff Koons Turns Miami Penthouses into Masterpieces.” Haute Residence, 27 January 2023. http://www.hauteresidence.com/world-renowned-contemporary-artist-jeff-koons-turns-miami-penthouses-into-masterpieces/
Olof-Ors, Nathalie. “Basel Defies Forecast Of Art Market Slowdown.” Barron’s Penta, 16 June 2023. https://www.barrons.com/news/basel-defies-forecast-of-art-market-slowdown-af37e7d5
Poterfield, Carlie and Tim Schneider. “VIPS keep market afloat at Art Basel in Miami Beach.” The Art Newspaper, 6 December 2023. https://www.theartnewspaper.com/2023/12/06/vips-keep-market-afloat-at-art-basel-miami-beach.
Rea, Naomi. “Art Basel’s Day-One Sales Show Demand for Fresh Work Is Undented, While Secondary Material Receives More Price Scrutiny.” Artnet News, 13 June 2023. https://news.artnet.com/market/art-basels-day-one-sales-2316815
Rea, Naomi. “‘If It Doesn’t Have Psyche, It Can’t Be Art’: Mega-Collector Dakis Joannou Docks His Famous Yacht to Talk About Collecting in a Chaotic Art World.” Artnet News, 6 July 2023. https://news.artnet.com/market/interview-mega-collector-dakis-joannou-2329229
Riley, Daniel. “Jeff Koons Goes to the Moon.” GQ, 23 February 2023. https://www.gq.com/story/jeff-koons-moon-profile
Sharp, Sarah Rose. “Move Over, Jeff Koons, Another Awful Artwork Is Heading to the Moon.” Hyperallergic, 1 February 2023. https://hyperallergic.com/797467/move-over-jeff-koons-artwork-sacha-jafri-headed-to-moon/
“30 Years After Jeff Koons Was Skewered on ’60 Minutes,’ He Returned to the Show for a Far More Flattering Interview With Anderson Cooper.” Artnet News, 26 May 2023. https://news.artnet.com/art-world/30-years-after-jeff-koons-was-skewered-on-60-minutes-he-returned-to-the-show-for-a-far-more-flattering-interview-with-anderson-cooper-2310315
Yerebakan, Osman Can. “Art Basel Returns with High-Value Sales Inside the Booths and Excitement Beyond.” The National, 15 June 2023. https://www.thenationalnews.com/arts-culture/art-design/2023/06/15/art-basel-returns-with-high-value-sales-inside-the-booths-and-excitement-beyond/?
2022
“Apollo: A sun above Hydra.” The Art Newspaper, 22 June 2022. https://theartnewspaper.gr/epikairotita/apollo-enas-ilios-pano-apo-tin-ydra/
“The Artful Life: 5 Things Galerie Editors Love This Week.” Galerie Magazine, 31 May 2022. https://galeriemagazine.com/artful-life-may-31/
“Art’s true value is to be of service to humanity’ – Jeff Koons on the sale of his sculpture to aid Ukraine.” Christie’s, 27 June 2022. https://www.artnews.com/art-news/news/yves-klein-anna-weyant-christies-london-paris-sales-250-m-1234632998/
Avery, Dan. "A Cryptocurrency Mansion Listed in Beverly Hills, and More Real Estate News." Architectural Digest, 30 April 2021. https://www.architecturaldigest.com/story/cryptocurrency-mansion-listed-in-beverly-hills-and-more-real-estate-news
Berk, Brett. “A Jeff Koons Paint Job on a BMW Canvas” (Rockefeller Center exhibition preview). The New York Times, 17 February 2022: B5. Web version: https://www.nytimes.com/2022/02/17/business/jeff-koons-bmw.html.
Beyer, Eric James. “Moon Phases: An Inside Look At The NFT Project That Will Land on the Moon.” NFT NOW, 23 May 2022. https://nftnow.com/features/jeff-koons-first-nft-project-will-send-sculptures-to-the-moon/
“The best exhibitions of summer 2022 and beyond: Europe.” Christie’s, 2022. https://www.christies.com/features/updated-the-best-exhibitions-from-summer-2022-europe-12386-1.aspx
Beyer, Eric James. “Moon Phases: An Inside Look At The NFT Project That Will Land on the Moon.” NFT NOW, 23 May 2022. https://nftnow.com/features/jeff-koons-first-nft-project-will-send-sculptures-to-the-moon/
Bissat, Bana. “LEAPING INTO THE METAVERSE: THE 3 IRL ART GALLERIES PIONEERING NFTS.” Sound of Life, 26 September 2022. https://www.soundoflife.com/blogs/design/irl-art-galleries-nfts-metaverse
Blakely, Rhys. “A new space race to take an artwork to the moon.” The Times, 13 May 2022. https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/a-new-space-race-to-take-an-artwork-to-the-moon-lm3tcxrgx
Brain, Eric. “The Last Jeff Koons x BMW M850i Gran Coupé Art Car Is Heading to Christie's New York.” Hypebeast, 22 March 2022. https://hypebeast.com/2022/3/the-8-x-jeff-koons-bmw-m850i-gran-coupe-signed-artist-car-christies-new-york-auction.
Bubbers, Matt. “Jeff Koons on His Latest BMW Art Car, Perfectionism, and the Meaning of Life.” Sharp, 1 March 2022. https://sharpmagazine.com/2022/03/01/bmw-art-car-8-x-jeff-koons/.
Cassady, Daniel. “Koons, Ray and De Kooning will lead Christie's marquee November sales in New York.” The Art Newspaper, 4 October 2022. https://www.theartnewspaper.com/2022/10/04/koons-ray-and-de-kooning-will-lead-christies-upcoming-20th-century-and-21st-century-sales-in-new-york
Cassady, Daniel. “Los Angeles is open for business again.” The Art Newspaper, 19 February 2022. https://www.theartnewspaper.com/2022/02/18/los-angeles-is-open-for-business-again.
“Celebrated Interior Designer Lists Tribeca Condo for $8.5 Million; Jeff Koons Sculpture Debuts in Posh West Village Lobby.” LX Collection, 30 April 2021. https://www.lxcollection.com/article/220-central-parknew-york-real-estate-news/
“Christie’s in 2022: a year of memorable masterpieces, great collections and remarkable stories.” Christie’s, 22 December 2022. https://www.christies.com/features/christies-auction-highlights-2022-12591-1.aspx?sc_lang=en
Compton, Nick. “Pop! Pop! Pop!’: Jeff Koons on the drive behind his new limited-edition BMW 8 Series." Wallpaper, 24 April 2022. https://www.wallpaper.com/art/jeff-koons-bmw-8-series.
Crow, Kelly. “Jeff Koons Wants to Land a Sculpture on the Moon.” The Wall Street Journal, 8 April 2022. https://www.wsj.com/articles/jeff-koons-wants-to-land-a-sculpture-on-the-moon-11649432044
“THE 8 X JEFF KOONS: the US artist has created his dream car with BMW.” Associated Press, 16 February 2022. https://apnews.com/press-release/pr-newswire/jeff-koons-beb2150e4450ae2a1183a58e987f2bc8.
Escalante de Mattei, Shanti. “Jeff Koons To Release NFT Project That Will Land on the Moon.” ARTnews, 29 March 2022. https://www.artnews.com/art-news/news/jeff-koons-nft-1234623176/
Ewing, Steven. "BMW's next art car is an 8 Series by Jeff Koons.” CNET, 25 January 2022. https://www.cnet.com/roadshow/news/bmw-8-series-jeff-koons-art-car/.
Freeman, Nate. “Art Basel Miami Beach: What Does the Future Hold for the Most Raucous Week in American Arts?” Vanity Fair, 2 December 2022. https://www.vanityfair.com/style/2022/12/art-basel-miami-twentieth-anniversary-future
Freeman, Nate. “This Summer’s Must-See Contemporary Art Exhibits.” Vanity Fair, 19 July 2022. https://www.vanityfair.com/style/2022/07/this-summers-must-see-contemporary-art-exhibits
Gaskin, Sam. “At NFT.NYC, ‘It’s Not a Bear Market, It’s a Build Market’.” Ocula, 27 June 2022. https://ocula.com/magazine/art-news/at-nftnyc-its-not-a-bear-market-its-a-build-market/
Ghassemitari, Shawn. “Must-See Exhibitions at Art Basel Miami Beach 2022.” Hypebeast, 29 November 2022. https://hypebeast.com/2022/11/must-see-exhibitions-art-basel-miami-beach-2022
Ghassemitari, Shawn. “Jeff Koons Will Launch His Sculptures to the Surface of the Moon.” Hypebeast, 29 March 2022. https://hypebeast.com/2022/3/jeff-koons-moon-phases-pace-verso-announcement
Goldstein, Caroline. “‘Objects Are Metaphors for People’: Watch Jeff Koons Defend Banality and Resist High-Low Dichotomies.” Artnet News, 1 April 2022. https://news.artnet.com/art-world/jeff-koons-art21-
Greenberger, Alex. “Jeff Koons Loses Legal Battle in Italy Over ‘Fake’ Work from Famed ‘Banality’ Series.” ARTnews, 11 March 2022. https://www.artnews.com/art-news/news/jeff-koons-serpents-legal-battle-1234621680/.
“In Pictures: See Jeff Koons’s Luxurious Art Offerings to Apollo, God of the Sun, on the Greek Island of Hydra.” Artnet News, 5 August 2022. https://news.artnet.com/art-world/in-pictures-jeff-koons-hydra-2156061
Irwin, Michael. “Jeff Koons’ Bourbon Train to Lead Christie’s Sale in New York.” Ocula Magazine, 7 October 2022. https://ocula.com/magazine/art-news/jeff-koons-bourbon-train-leads-christies-21st-c/
"Jeff Koons a le projet d'envoyer des sculptures sur la Lune." RTS Culture, 30 March 2022.
“Jeff Koons collaborates with BMW to create limited edition ‘sculptures’ on wheels.” STIRworld, 26 February 2022. https://www.stirworld.com/see-news-jeff-koons-collaborates-with-bmw-to-create-limited-edition-sculptures-on-wheels.
“Jeff Koons turns BMW coupe into art on wheels.” Daily Sabah, 28 February 2022. https://www.dailysabah.com/arts/jeff-koons-turns-bmw-coupe-into-art-on-wheels/news.
Jhala, Kabir. “One giant leap for Jeff Koons: artist to send his sculptures to the moon.” The Art Newspaper, 29 March 2022. https://www.theartnewspaper.com/2022/03/29/jeff-koons-to-send-his-sculptures-to-the-moon-pace-verso-glimcher-space-lunar-art
Kaminer, Michael. “Townhouse Boasts One of the Largest Gardens in Downtown Manhattan.” Mansion Global, 1 November 2022. https://www.mansionglobal.com/articles/townhouse-boasts-one-of-the-largest-gardens-in-downtown-manhattan-01635764892
Kane, Ashleigh. “Debunking the biggest myths around Jeff Koons” (Qatar Museums Gallery, Al Riwaq exhibition review). Dazed Magazine, 21 January 2022. https://www.dazeddigital.com/art-photography/article/55279/1/debunking-the-biggest-myths-around-jeff-koons-lost-in-america-exhibition.
Kim, Bo-Ra. “Corporate sponsors focus on luxury at Frieze Art Fair Seoul in September.” The Korea Economic Daily, 26 August 2022. https://www.kedglobal.com/arts/newsView/ked202208260003.
Koons, Jeff. “Interview: Jeff Koons on His Exhilarating BMW 8 Series Collaboration And More.” Interview with David Graver. Cool Hunting, 16 February 2022. https://coolhunting.com/culture/interview-jeff-koons-on-his-exhilarating-bmw-8-series-collaboration-and-more/.
Koons, Jeff. “Jeff Koons in His Own Words.” Interview with Paul Laster. Ocula Magazine, 5 January 2022. https://ocula.com/magazine/conversations/jeff-koons/.
Laster, Paul. "The 10 Best Art Exhibitions to See Around the World This Summer.” Galerie, 1 August 2022. https://galeriemagazine.com/summer-2022-exhibitions/
Lloyd-Smith, Harriet. “The Andy Warhol Diaries on Netflix reveals his enduring impact on contemporary art.” Wallpaper Magazine, 22 March 2022. https://www.wallpaper.com/art/andy-warhol-contemporary-art-influence.
López, Alejandra. “The first works of art on the Moon will be by Jeff Koons.” Architectural Digest Mexico, 24 June 2022. https://www.admagazine.com/articulos/koons-manda-obras-de-arte-a-la-luna
Lord, Isabel. “The Best of Art Basel Miami Beach 2022.” Forbes, 3 December 2022. https://www.forbes.com/sites/isabellord/2022/12/03/the-best-of-art-basel-miami-beach-2022/
Luo, Shuyin. “Battle Report + Special Feature | Frieze Los Angeles 2022: The West Coast Art Market in the United States Ushers in a Big Breakout”. Artron, 19 February 2022. https://m-news.artron.net/news/20220219/n1953523.html.
McGivern, Hannah. “A giant inflatable Koons, a desert mirror illusion and a giant football goal: seven of the best new sculptures in Qatar.” The Art Newspaper, 1 November 2022. https://www.theartnewspaper.com/2022/11/01/a-giant-inflatable-koons-a-desert-mirror-illusion-and-a-giant-football-goal-seven-of-the-best-new-sculptures-in-qatar
“Moon sculptures, NFTs at futuristic Art Basel fair.” France 24, 19 June 2022. https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20220619-moon-sculptures-nfts-at-futuristic-art-basel-fair
Mun-Delsalle, Y-Jean. “Jeff Koons Believes That Art Is About Generosity And Acceptance.” Forbes, 7 June 2022. https://www.forbes.com/sites/yjeanmundelsalle/2022/06/07/jeff-koons-believes-that-art-is-about-generosity-and-acceptance/?sh=20dae3573d2f
“The Must-Have Amenity in New York City is Art.” Off The MRKT, 30 September 2021. https://www.offthemrkt.com/blogs/the-must-have-amenity-in-new-york-city-is-art
Neira, Juliana. “Jeff Koons Creates a Temple for Apollo at the Deste Foundation in Greece.” Designboom, 1 July 2022. https://www.designboom.com/art/jeff-koons-apollo-deste-foundation-greece-07-01-2022/
Ozturk, Selen. “Jeff Koons to Launch First NFT Project to the Moon.” Whitewall, 12 April 2022. https://whitewall.art/art/jeff-koons-to-launch-first-nft-project-to-the-moon
“Pace Presents Famed Jeff Koons Sculpture” (Pace Gallery exhibition preview). Palm Beach Illustrated, 6 January 2022. https://www.palmbeachillustrated.com/pace-presents-famed-jeff-koons-sculpture/.
“Page A1A” (Pace Gallery exhibition review). Dan’s Papers Palm Beach, 21 January 2022: 26–29, illustrated.
Powell, Matt. “Art on the MOON! World’s second richest artist Jeff Koons will send 125 sculptures to the lunar surface with Elon Musk's SpaceX - after he sells them as NFTs.” Daily Mail, 19 June 2022. https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-10931531/Jeff-Koons-send-125-sculptures-moon-Elon-Musks-SpaceX-sells-NFTs.html
“Qatar Museums announces free admission to all exhibitions including Jeff Koons in March.” The Peninsula Qatar, 6 March 2022. https://thepeninsulaqatar.com/article/06/03/2022/qatar-museums-announces-free-admission-to-all-exhibitions-including-jeff-koons-in-march.
Rivas, Athéna. “Jeff Koons va envoyer des sculptures sur la Lune.” Architectural Digest France, 8 April 2022. https://www.admagazine.fr/adactualites/article/jeff-koons-va-envoyer-des-sculptures-sur-la-lune
Schreffler, Laura. “Jeff Koons’ New Project is Totally Out Of This World: He’s Launching A Permanent Exhibition on The Moon” (Pace Gallery exhibition preview). Haute Living, 28 November 2022. https://hauteliving.com/2022/11/jeff-koons-launching-permanent-space-exhibition/721902/
Sharma, Shanjutka. “Jeff Koons’ NFT art will go to the moon.” MoneyControl.com, 10 July 2022. https://www.moneycontrol.com/news/trends/features/spacex-is-taking-jeff-koons-nft
Smith, Helena. “There’s a raw energy’: Hydra, artists’ haven, still casts its spell.” The Guardian, 7 August 2022. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/aug/07/theres-a-raw-energy-hydra-artists-haven-still-casts-its-spell
Stafford, Eric. “2023 BMW M850i Gran Coupe Gets Colorful Jeff Koons Edition.” Car and Driver, 16 February 2022. https://www.caranddriver.com/news/a39106316/2023-bmw-m850i-gran-coupe-jeff-koons/.
Tomlinson, Peta. "Can an art collection really improve health and wellness in luxury homes? San Francisco’s Four Seasons Private Residences jazz up shared spaces with Kaws and Jeff Koons pieces." South China Morning Post, 6 October 2021. https://www.scmp.com/magazines/style/luxury/article/3151275/can-art-collection-really-improve-health-and-wellness-luxury
Tuchman, Phyllis. “Jeff Koons: Lost in America” (Qatar Museums Gallery exhibition review). The Brooklyn Rail, February 2022. https://brooklynrail.org/2022/02/artseen/Jeff-Koonss-Lost-in-America.
Villa, Angelica. “Koons ‘Balloon Monkey’ Sells for Ukraine Relief, Yves Klein Overperforms at Christie’s London-Paris Sale” ARTnews, 28 June 2022. https://www.artnews.com/art-news/news/yves-klein-anna-weyant-christies-london-paris-sales-250-m-1234632998/
Wagley, Catherine. “What Sold at Frieze Los Angeles 2022.” Artsy, 21 February 2022. https://www.artsy.net/article/artsy-editorial-sold-frieze-los-angeles-2022.
Wooldrige, Jane. “Strong sales, giant eggs and the world’s nosiest ATM: Miami Art Week is back.” Miami Herald, 29 November 2022. https://www.miamiherald.com/entertainment/visual-arts/art-basel/article269222252.html
Yablonsky, Linda. “SUN WORSHIPPERS: Linda Yablonsky around Athens and Hydra.” Artforum, 3 July 2022. https://www.artforum.com/diary/linda-yablonsky-around-athens-and-hydra-88785
Zara, Janelle. “On Greece's After-Party Island of Hydra, Jeff Koons Unveils a Monument to the Sun and Friendship.” Cultured Magazine, 23 June 2022. https://www.culturedmag.com/article/2022/06/23/on-greeces-after-party-island-of-hydra-jeff-koons-unveils-a-momument-to-the-sun-and-friendship
2021
Crow, Kelly. “The Most Shocking Shifts of the Post-Pandemic Art World.” The Wall Street Journal, 6 July 2021. https://www.wsj.com/articles/art-world-koons-ceramics-nft-11625574575
Davis, Ben. “Is Jeff Koons as Passionate About Uniqlo as He Sounds? Why Is This Unicorn Named After Picasso? + Other Questions I Have About the Week’s Art News.” Artnet News, 27 September 2021. https://news.artnet.com/opinion/pacaso-picasso-jasper-johns-michael-crichton-playboy-nft-2014139
Galvis, Nelson. "De los recuerdos." Correo del Caroni (Venezuela), 16 January 2021.
Ghassemitari, Shawn. “Pace Gallery Brought a Star-Studded Lineup to Art Basel 2021.” Hypebeast, 21 September 2021. (opens in a new window) https://hypebeast.com/2021/9/pace-gallery-art-basel-2021
Hamamtzoglou, Anaztasia. "10 πράγματα που δεν γνωρίζαμε για τον Jeff Koons." Monopoli (Greece), 9 January 2021.
“Jeff Koons ‘Shine’ at Palazzo Strozzi until January 30, 2022” (Palazzo Strozzi exhibition review). The Florentine, 30 September 2021. (opens in a new window) https://www.theflorentine.net/2021/09/30/jeff-koons-palazzo-strozzi-florence-october-2021-january-2022/
Jhala, Kabir. “Jeff Koons reveals he is making NFTs, details plans for his Pace Gallery shows and remembers his hotel rendezvous with Salvador Dalí” (Pace Gallery exhibition preview). The Art Newspaper, 9 September 2021. https://www.theartnewspaper.com/news/jeff-koons-nfts-salvador-dali-pace-gallery-venus-sculpture-lawsuit-reveal
Jit, Maroine. "L’exposition de Jeff Koons au Mucem se tiendra à partir du 5 mai." Made in Marseille (France), 4 March 2021.
Kinsella, Eileen and Naomi Rea. “‘Now It’s Just the Real People’: Art Basel Opens Its First Fair in 18 Months With an Among-Friends Vibe (and Steady Sales, Too).” Artnet News, 21 September 2021. (opens in a new window) https://news.artnet.com/market/art-basel-sales-report-2021-2011301?
Koons, Jeff. “Jeff Koons Looks Back on a Life in the Art World.” Interview with Phyllis Tuchman. Town & Country, 20 December 2021. https://www.townandcountrymag.com/leisure/arts-and-culture/a38528663/jeff-koons-qatar-interview/.
Koons, Jeff. “Jeff Koons on Renaissance art” (Palazzo Strozzi exhibition preview). The Financial Times, 20 September 2021. (opens in a new window) https://www.ft.com/content/c0928357-8c4c-46a5-9885-408529949439
Kinsella, Eileen. “Jeff Koons’s Market Is Sliding After Years of Sky-High Prices and Notorious Production Delays. Can Pace, His New Gallery, Revive It?” Artnet News, 29 November 2021. https://news.artnet.com/news-pro/pace-gallery-revive-market-controversial-art-star-jeff-koons-2040845.
Koons, Jeff. “Meet Jeff Koons, the world’s most expensive living artist.” Interview with Kirsty Lang. The Times, 21 November 2021. https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/jeff-koons-interview-most-expensive-living-artist-ns8k5pb55.
Koons, Jeff and Michel Bernardaud. “Jeff Koons on Reimagining His Famed ‘Balloon Dog’ in Porcelain: ‘We Are Balloons Ourselves.” Interview with Shanti Escalante-De Mattei. ARTnews, 15 November 2021. https://www.artnews.com/art-news/artists/jeff-koons-michel-bernardaud-interview-porcelain-balloon-dog-1234610045/.
Koons, Jeff. “At home with Jeff Koons” (Palazzo Strozzi exhibition review). Interview with Harriet Lloyd-Smith. Wallpaper, 22 October 2021. https://www.wallpaper.com/art/at-home-with-jeff-koons-interview
Mannella, Lucia. "“Le sculture di Jeff Koons splendono a Palazzo Strozzi” (Palazzo Strozzi exhibition review). Corriere Della Sera, 4 October 2021. https://living.corriere.it/tendenze/arte/jeff-koons-palazzo-strozzi/
Scovell, Lucy, “What not to miss during Frieze Week 2021.” Harper’s Bazaar, 11 October 2021. (opens in a new window) https://www.harpersbazaar.com/uk/culture/bazaar-art/g37906053/frieze-week-2021-art-highlights/
Su, Sammy. “Jeff Koons To Showcase More Than 60 Artworks Throughout Qatar Museums” (QM Gallery ALRIWAQ exhibition preview). Hypebeast, 15 September 2021. https://hypebeast.com/2021/9/jeff-koons-lost-in-america-exhibition-qatar-museums
Westall, Mark. “New Jeff Koons Exhibition ‘Shine’ to Open in the Autumn” (Palazzo Strozzi exhibition preview). Fad Magazine, 14 July 2021. https://fadmagazine.com/2021/07/14/new-jeff-koons-exhibition-shine-to-open-in-the-autumn/
Whiddington, Richard. “See 7 Artist-Designed Balloons That Took to the Street (and Sky) at the 2022 Macy’s Thanksgiving Day Parade.” Artnet News, 24 November 2022.
Yamashita, Chisato. "Jeff Koons and Bernardaud, a long-established French porcelain maison, collaborate on a new work!" Elle Decor (Japan), 17 January 2021.
Zhanrong, Ou. "Impression Gallery: The Eternal Gift of Jeff Koons." Art Emperor (Taiwan), 27 January 2021.
2020
"Art designer and balloon model creativity, Wen Photography: Xiaomei." KS News (Taiwan), 14 April 2020.
"Bilbao, mascherina anche per il Puppy di Jeff Koons al Guggenheim." Aska News (Italy), 28 October 2020.
Bryant, Nick. "Move over, Blue Poles: Jeff Koons is about to deliver us his startling new artwork." The Sydney Morning Herald (Australia), 5 December 2020.
Cascone, Sarah. "Charlize Theron Convinced Sean Penn to Get Rid of His Gun Collection—So He Asked Jeff Koons to Turn Them All Into a Sculpture." Artnet News, 11 March 2020.
Cohen, Maya. "From Cicciolina to Gaga: Jeff Koons arrives in Israel." Israel Hayom (Israel), 4 February 2020.
Cola, Chiara. "Jeff Koons mette la mascherina a Puppy, la scultura floreale del Guggenheim di Bilbao." Arts Life (Italy), 3 November 2020.
"Colocan mascarilla elaborada con flores a obra de Koons en España." Metro Libre (Panama), 27 December 2020.
Consiglio, Keko. "Como Jeff Koons se tornou o artista queridinho das celebridades de Hollywood." Istoé Independente (Brazil), 20 August 2020.
"Cuarentena por coronavirus: conocé a Jeff Koons, el artista, vivo más caro del mundo-Argentina Noticias Ultima Hora." Noticias por el Mundo (Argentina), 29 March 2020.
Davalos, Lorenzo. "Jeff Koons at the Tel Aviv Museum of Art." Complot Magazine, 7 March 2020.
"David Zwirner defies expectations with $8 million online sale of Jeff Koons sculpture." The Jakarta Post (Indonesia), 22 June 2020.
Dawson, Aimee. “'You will defeat the virus!': Jeff Koons sends video message to Italy." The Art Newspaper, 27 March 2020.
"Dear Living Artist in History: Jeff Koons opens an exhibition in Israel." Maariv (Israel), 4 February 2020.
DeGregory, Priscilla. "Sculptor Jeff Koons settles $13M dispute with investor." New York Post, 31 January 2020.
Delobel, Pantxika. "Musée Guggenheim : Puppy porte un masque par solidarité, Jeff Koons applaudit." Sud Ouest (France), 12 November 2020.
De Rosa, Laura. "Il Puppy di Jeff Koons del Museo Guggenheim di Bilbao ora indossa la mascherina per incoraggiare tutti a proteggersi." Green Me (Italy), 1 November 2020.
Estiler, Keith. "Jeff Koons Spotlight David Zwirner Online Studio." Hypebeast, 16 June 2020.
Fontanesi, Anastasia. "Who is Jeff Koons and What are his most famous works?" Travel on Art (Italy), 19 January 2020.
Frau, Dalmazia. "La Venere Di Jeff Koons e L’Eros Di Vitaldo Conte." L'Opinione delle Libertà (Italy), 3 July 2020.
Gabellec, Gwenola. "Jeff Koons superstar au Mucem de Marseille." La Provence (France), 21 September 2020.
"La galerie Gagosian célèbre les femmes dans sa nouvelle exposition." Art in the City (France), 20 October 2020, online.
Garrigues, Manon. "Jeff Koons : où admirer ses œuvres les plus folles ?" Vogue France, 21 January 2020.
Gassman, Gay. "See How India Mahdavi Is Marking Gagosian Paris’s 10th Anniversary” (exhibition review). Architectural Digest, 9 October 2020, online.
Gorospe, Pedro. "Jeff Koons le pone mascarilla a la mascota de Bilbao." El País (Spain), 10 December 2020.
"Il Puppy di Jeff Koons indossa la mascherina per sensibilizzare tutti." Libreri Amo (Italy), 28 October 2020.
"Jeff Koons brilla a Palazzo Strozzi: l’artista superstar arriva a Firenze." Arts Life (Italy), 14 November 2020.
"Jeff Koons dazzles and provokes his art. His work breaks auction records." Tyden (Czech Republic), 21 January 2020.
"Jeff Koons: ‘The purpose of art is to eliminate anxiety,’" Investory News (Ukraine), 28 July 2020.
"Jeff Koons on Desire, Beauty, the Vastness of the Universe, and the Intimacy of Right Here, Right Now." Artspace, 21 May 2020.
Kamp, Justin. "David Zwirner sold a Jeff Koons sculpture for $8 million through the gallery’s online showroom." Artsy, 18 June 2020.
Kamp, Justin. "Jeff Koons’s Puppy sculpture dons a floral face-mask." Artsy, 30 October 2020.
Klich, Tanya. "Jeff Koons On Collaborating With Bernardaud To Produce $21,000 Limited-Edition Porcelain Versions Of His Iconic ‘Diamond’ Sculpture." Forbes, 11 December 2020.
Maccotta, Federica. "Al Guggenheim di Bilbao la scultura Puppy di Jeff Koons ora indossa la mascherina." Wired (Italy), 2 November 2020.
Mandalia, Bhavi. "Perspective Is Jeff Koons, the richest artist in the world, also the best artist in the world? The documentary found at Yle Areena raises important questions about the value of art." Pledge Times (India), 4 October 2020.
Mastroianni, Chiara. "David Zwirner presenta la nuova Venus rossa di Jeff Koons." Exibart (Italy), 25 June 2020.
Noyes, Chandra. "Jeff Koons Reveals How Duchamp Influenced His Art." Art & Object, 10 March 2020.
Perl, AnnMarie. "A more public arena: Jeff Koons’ Reinvention in the Midst of Reaganism." Association for Art History, June 2020.
Pierce, Michael. "Jeff Koons, the Goat-Footed Balloon Man and the Goddess." Mutual Art (UK), 14 August 2020.
"Puppy se pone mascarilla." Naiz (Spain), 28 October 2020.
Riba, Naama. "Artist Jeff Koons to Attend Opening of His Tel Aviv Museum Exhibit." Haaretz (Israel), 4 February 2020.
Rivas, Indoia, "Puppy se pone la mascarilla para dar la bienvenida en el Museo Guggenheim Bilbao." NIUS Diario (Spain), 28 October 2020.
Ronchi, Giulia. "Guggenheim di Bilbao: Puppy di Jeff Koons indossa la mascherina. Un messaggio per la collettività." Artribune (Italy), 30 October 2020.
Ronchi, Giulia. "Jeff Koons farà ritorno a Firenze nel 2021: annunciata la grande mostra di Palazzo Strozzi." Artribune (Italy), 18 November 2020.
Rossen, Jake. "Jeff Koons's Puppy Sculpture, at the Guggenheim Museum Bilbao, Is Donning a Face Mask." Mental Floss, 29 October 2020.
Sarre, Claudia. "Jeff Koons wird 65 Der König der irrationalen Preise für Kunst." Deutschlandfunk Kultur (Germany), 21 January 2020.
Sawyer, Jonathan. "Jeff Koons Explains His Iconic 'Play-Doh' Sculpture: ‘It's Not for Perfectionism.’" Highsnobiety, 7 April 2020.
Scheer, Ursula. "Warnung vor dem Hund." Frankfurter Allgemeine (Germany), 30 November 2020.
Schneider, Arnette. "Jeff Koons: Artist of the Balloon Dogs is 65." NDR Kultur (Germany), 21 January 2020.
Selvin, Claire. "How Jeff Koons Became One of the Most Famous Artists of Our Time." Artnews, 15 April 2020.
Steinberg, Jessica. "Jeff Koons’s sculptures arrive at Tel Aviv museum, sans artist." The Times Israel (Israel), 9 March 2020.
Steinberg, Jessica. "Pop artist Jeff Koons and sculptures coming to Tel Aviv." The Times Israel (Israel), 5 February 2020.
Sticca, Chiara. "Jeff Koons, tra Cicciolina e il Santo Natale." Metropolitan Magazine (Italy), 9 December 2020.
Taggart, Emma. "Here are six Jeff Koons artworks that showcase how his artistic practice evolved over the years." My Modern Met, 13 September 2020.
"The most objective statement: the art of Jeff Koons and the readymade." Mas de Arte, 10 February 2020.
"’Valor Absoluto’ en el Museo de Arte de Tel Aviv." Aurora (Israel), 20 March 2020.
Westall, Mark. "Now Open—Studio: Jeff Koons." FAD Magazine, 16 June 2020.
"Woof! Jeff Koons’s Puppy at the Guggenheim Museum Bilbao gets its own flowery face mask." The Art Newspaper, 30 October 2020.
Wychowanok, Thibaut. "Pablo Picasso, Cindy Sherman, Urs Fischer: la Galerie Gagosian fête ses 10 ans" (exhibition review). Numéro (France), 4 December 2020, online.
2019
Anspon, Catherine D. "$70 Million Rabbit Captivates the Art World -- and This Bunny Fever is Spreading." Paper City Magazine, 19 April 2019.
Art on View 97, Autumn 2019: cover, 5.
Berlinger, Max. "Jeff Koons's Iconic 'Rabbit' Sculpture is Expected to Fetch up to $70 Million at Auction." Robb Report, 23 April 2019.
Cumming, Laura. “Jeff Koons at the Ashmolean review – a master of deflection.” The Guardian, 10 February 2019.
Douglas, Kate. “Jeff Koons’s art is glitzy, but does it still have power to shock?” Socialist Worker, 19 February 2019.
Eckardt, Stephanie. "Is Jeff Koons Our Marcel Duchamp?" W Magazine, 27 May 2019.
Estiler, Keith. "Jeff Koons' Iconic 'Rabbit' Sculpture to Go on Sale This May." Hypebeast, 19 April 2019.
Freeman, Hadley. “'Wow, $91m!' Jeff Koons on blow-up dogs, record prices and his row with Paris.” The Guardian, 4 February 2019.
Freeman, Nate. "Christie's Will Sell 11 Works up to $130 Million from S.I. Newhouse's Collection." Artsy, 28 March 2019.
Freeman, Nate. "Why Jeff Koons's 'Rabbit' Could Sell for up to $70 Million." Artsy, 19 April 2019.
Freeman, Nate. "Jeff Koons Reclaims the Thrones as World's Most Expensive Living Artist." Artsy, 16 May 2019.
Ffrench, Andrew. “Artist Jeff Koons is to Visit Ashmolean Museum for Exhibition.” Oxford Mail, 25 January 2019.
Frank, Robert. “Skateboard deck collection sells for a record $800,000.” CNBC, 30 January 2019.
“Glenstone, a Maryland museum that blends modern art, nature and contemplation.” CBS News, 20 January 2019.
Gompertz, Will. “The Gompertz guide to... Jeff Koons.” BBC News, 9 February 2019.
Greenberg, Alex. "'Their Work Cannot be Taken at Face Value': Massimiliano Gioni on Curating a Duchamp/Koons Blockbuster for Museo Jumex." Artnews, 4 June 2019.
Gural, Natasha. "Jeff Koons' 'Anti-David' Epitomizing 1980s Excess is Climax of Media Mogul's $130 Million Collection." Forbes, 21 April 2019.
Hensher, Philip. “'It is blazingly hideous. I rather recommend it.' The Ashmolean Museum in Oxford's new Jeff Koons exhibition is well worth a visit." Daily Mail, 9 February 2019.
Holland, Oscar. "Jeff Koons' $91M 'Rabbit' sculpture sets new auction record." CNN, 16 May 2019.
Hughes, Tim. “Jeff Koons Shines at Ashmolean Museum Oxford.” Oxford Times, 14 February 2019.
Hsu, Tiffany. “The Champs-Elysées: Its a Real Fixer-Upper.” New York Times, 27 February 2019, 30.
Ilchi, Layla. "Christie's Auction of S.I. Newhouse Art Expected to Fetch $130 Million." Women's Wear Daily, 29 March 2019.
Januszczak, Waldemar. “Art review: Jeff Koons, Ashmolean Museum, Oxford.” Sunday Times, 10 February 2019.
“Jeff Koons art on display at Ashmolean Oxford.” BBC News, 7 February 2019.
“Jeff Koons interview.” Time Magazine (London), 2 February 2019.
"Jeff Koons Sculpture Smashes Record at Auction for Work by a Living Artist." The Business Times, 17 May 2019.
Jones, Jonathan. “Koons apes the old masters and robots invade Edinburgh – the week in art.” The Guardian (London), 1 February 2019.
Kazakina, Katya. “At Art Basel Miami Beach, a Tale of Two Markets: Lean at the Top, But Robust on the Lower End.” Artnet News, 1 December 2022. https://news.artnet.com/market/art-basel-miami-beach-day-two-report-2213652
“Koons exhibit at Ashmolean features contentious pieces.” The Miscellany News, 13 February 2019.
Lin, Anette. "Why Jeff Koons is a Natural Successor to Marcel Duchamp." Artsy, May 2019.
Loos, Ted. "S.I. Newhouse Jr.'s Collection of Modern Masters Comes to Christie's." The New York Times, 26 March 2019.
"Masterpieces from the Collection of S.I. Newhouse." Christie's, 27 March 2019.
McVeigh, Roisin. “Reflecting on why the art world loves to hate Jeff Koons.” Dazed, 12 February 2019.
Park, Emma. “In his shiny surfaces, Jeff Koons reflects the vanity of our age.” Apollo, 12 February 2019.
Pavia, Will. “How to Turn a Balloon into $58 Million.” Times Magazine, 2 February 2019.
Pelling, Rowan. “Jeff Koons interview: in the studio with art's greatest showman.” Telegraph, 12 January 2019.
Press, Clayton. "Marcel Duchamp + Jeff Koons, Appearance Stripped Bare (Aparencia Desnuda), Museo Jumex, Mexico City." Forbes, 24 May 2019.
"Rabbit by Jeff Koons -- a Chance to Own the Controversy." Christie's, 17 April 2019.
Rea, Naomi. “ Jeff Koons Wants to Teach Brits About Transcendence With His New Show at Oxford—and Tickets Are Selling Out Fast.” Artnet News, 6 February 2019.
“Review: Jeff Koons at the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford.” 5 February 2019.
Reyburn, Scott. "Jeff Koons 'Rabbit' Sets Auction Record for Most Expensive Work by Living Artist." New York Times, 15 May 2019.
Scott, Andrea K. "How Jeff Koons's 'Rabbit' Became Big Game." The New Yorker, 21 May 2019.
Searle, Adrian. “Jeff Koons review –haemorrhoid horrors from the artist who's too expensive to fail.” The Guardian, 6 February 2019.
Shaw, Anny. “Jeff Koons says computer technology allowed him to downsize his New York studio.” Art Newspaper, 6 February 2019.
Smith, Roberta. "Stop Hating Jeff Koons." The New York Times, 15 May 2019.
Solly, Meilan. "Jeff Koons' 'Rabbit' Breaks the Auction Record for Most Expensive Work by Living Artist." Smithsonian Magazine, 17 May 2019.
Sooke, “Jeff Koons, Ashmolean, review: gauche, unfashionable, and impossible to take your eyes off." Telegraph, 2 February 2019.
Tannenbaum, Barbara. "A jornada da fotografia: de enteada a coadjuvante." (Portuguese) Traco 2 (Brazil), 2019, pp. 66-77.
Wamsley, Laurel. "Jeff Koons' 'Rabbit' Fetches $91 Million, Auction Record for Work by a Living Artist." NPR, 16 May 2019.
Westall, Mark. “Jeff Koons heads to university.” FAD Magazine, 15 February 2019.
2018
"20 Million for the Pitch." Exibart.com, 4 April 2018.
Agence France-Presse. "The American Pioneer: Artist Jeff Koons on Money, Risk and Acceptance." Hindustan Times, 31 March 2018.
Agence France-Presse. "Money, Risk, and Acceptance, seen by the Artist Jeff Koons." Daily Mail, March 29, 2018.
Agence France-Presse. "Uncanny Representations of Human Body Examined in 'Like Life.'" Inquirer.net, 18 March 2018.
Angeleti, Gabriella. "Jeff Koons on Transcendence." Art Newspaper, 6 June 2018.
"Art Basel Hong Kong Show: Zwirner Gallery will focus on exhibiting Jeff Koons's work." Tencent Guangdong Guangdong Art Channel, 15 March 2018.
"Artist Koons meets French Minister Over Sculpture Dispute." Seattle Times via the Associated Press, 30 January 2018.
Bellet, Harry. “Jeff Koons, c’est le bouquet!” Le Monde, 25 January 2018.
“Besucher Beschadigt Werk von Jeff Koons.” Franffuter Allgemeine, 8 April 2018.
Bommelaer, Claire. “En pleine polémique sur le Bouquet of Tulips, Françoise Nyssen va recevoir Jeff Koons.” Le Figaro, 25 January 2018.
Brown, Mark. “Oxford students persuade Jeff Koons to stage rare UK art show.” Guardian (London), 26 October 2018.
"'Capturing a Feeling of Creation': Jeff Koons on Play-Doh." Christie's, 16 May 2018.
Catlin, Roger. "Are You Buying What These Artists Are Selling?" Smithsonian.com, 26 February 2018.
"A Closer Look: Piecing Together Play-Doh." Christie's, 9 May 2018.
Codrea-Rado, Anna. "Jeff Koons Sculpture in Honor of Paris Terror Victims Draws Outrage." New York Times, 22 January 2018.
Corbett, Rachel. "See Jeff Koons's Hair-Raising Student Art From the 1970s." Artnet News, 25 June 2018.
Cowen, Trace William. "Lil Uzi Vert Is Jeff Koons' Weighlifting Soundtrack." Complex, 9 March 2018.
Cruz, Valdemar. "From the excesses of Jeff Koons to the photograph of Gilbert & George - Serralves returns to the Sonnabend collection." Expresso, 10 May 2018.
d'Arenberg, Diana. "Art Basel in Hong Kong 2018: A Post-mortem." Ocula, 6 April 2018.
Dafoe, Taylor. "After Three Years of Work, the Getty Villa Prepares to Reopen with a New Look - and Koons's Play-Doh." Artnet News, 13 April 2018.
Dafoe, Taylor. "From Salvador Dali to Jeff Koons, a New Show Reveals the Artists Behind History's Great Album Covers." Artnet News, 14 February 2018.
Dafoe, Taylor. “Jeff Koons’s Production Company Defends His Controversial Paris Memorial Against Fierce Backlash.” Artnet News, 29 January 2018.
Dalley, Jan. "The Big Guns." Financial Times, 24 March 2018.
Da Silva, Jose. “Jeff Koons's balloons, basketballs and ballerinas to head to historic Oxford museum for solo sho.” Art Newspaper, 26 October 2018.
Dellas, Mary. "A Closer Look at the World of Modern Art in the '80s." The Cut, 13 February 2018.
Dellas, Mary. "Jeff Koons's 'Easyfun-Ethereal' Now on Display at the Gagosian." The Cut, 12 March 2018.
Dingfelder, Sadie. "'Brand New' at the Hirshhorn Celebrates and Skewers the '80s." The Washington Post, 15 February 2018.
"Disasters at the Museum: From the Shattered Work of Koons to the Theft of the Stone of Yoko Ono." ArtsLife, 10 April 2018.
“Diversive artist Jeff Koons says he is a risk-taker.” Straits Times, 2 April 2018.
Dobson, Jim. "An Insider's Guide to the Best of Art Basel Hong Kong." Forbes, 22 March 2018.
Estiler, Keith. "Jeff Koons to Display Monumental Artworks at Art Basel Hong Kong 2018." Hypebeast, 9 March 2018.
Gleiberman, Owen. "Film Review: 'The Price of Everything.'" Variety, 1 April 2018.
Grant, Jasmine. "Virgil Abloh Unveils Beyoncé's Customized Louis Vuitton x Jeff Koons Bag." Complex, 15 April 2018.
Guerrero Nakpil, Lisa. "Jeff Koons and the Year of the Dog." Philippine Star, 9 April 2018.
Haffner, Michael. "True/False Film Fest 2018: The Price of Everything." We Are Movie Geeks, 11 March 2018.
Hamilton, Julie M. "Full Frame: The Price of Everything Is a Nuanced Indictment of Art's Relationship to Money." Indy Week, 12 April 2018.
Higgins, Adrian. "At 37 Feet Tall, Jeff Koons’s Flower-Draped ‘Split-Rocker’ Demands a Whole Lotta Love." Washington Post, 18 April 2018.
Hine, Samuel. "The Elusive Lil Uzi Vert Talks Jeff Koons and How He Found His Voice in Fashion." GQ, 14 May 2018.
“‘Hulk’ de Jeff Koons em destaque em Serralves na segunda parte de Colecao Sonnabend.” Nacional, 10 May 2018.
Hypebeast. "Jeff Koons Talks Art, Porn and Philosophy." South China Morning Post Style Magazine, 25 April 2018.
"Jeff Koons at David Zwirner at Art Basel Hong Kong 2018." Blouin Artinfo, 22 March 2018.
"Jeff Koons' 'Hulk' featured in Serralves in the second part of the Sonnabend Collection." DN, 10 May 2018.
“Jeff Koons’s message on a bottle.” Art Newspaper, 24 December 2018.
“Jeff Koons to display artworks at Oxford exhibition.” BBC, 26 October 2018.
Kane, Ashleigh. “A major Jeff Koons exhibition is coming to the UK.” Dazed, 26 October 2018.
Kinsella, Eileen. "From a Sparkly new Jeff Koons Swan to a $35 Million de Kooning, Dealers are Busting Out the Blue Chip for Art Basel Hong Kong." Artnet News, 26 March 2018.
Kinsella, Eileen. "Jeff Koons's Ginat Play-Doh Sculpture Could Fetch $20 Million at Christie's This Spring." Artnet News, 3 April 2018.
Kwon, Ashley. "Full Frame 2018: 'The Price of Everything' Questions the Accessibility of Fine Art." The Chronicle, 11 April 2018.
Lemarquis, Pierre. "Does Loving Jeff Koons Protect Against Alzheimer's Disease?" AgeVillage, 10 April 2018.
"Logic Reversal: Jeff Koons at Galerie de Bellefeuille, Montreal." Blouin Artinfo, 6 March 2018.
Lok, Evelyn. "Art Basel Hong Kong 2018: Here are all the fair highlights you don't want to miss." Lifestyle Asia, 23 March 2018.
Loria, Michael. "Brand New at the Hirshhorn." On Tap Magazine, 22 April 2018.
Martinez, Jamie. "Jeff Koons: Easyfun-Ethereal at Gagosian Gallery." Art Fuse, 18 March 2018.
McCarthy, Ciara. "Jeff Koons Exhibit to Open in Chelsea." Chelsea Patch, 6 March 2018.
McGarrigle, Lia. "Jeff Koons Says He Lifts Weights While Listening to Lil Uzi Vert." Highsnobiety, 9 March 2018.
McHugh, Fionnuala. “Hong Kong-bound Jeff Koons talk ‘plastic art’, selfies and Art Basel.” Post Magazine, 24 March 2018.
McHugh, Fionnuala. "Man of Steel." Post Magazine, 25 March 2018.
Meiselman, Jessica. "How Jeff Koons, 8 Puppies, and a Lawsuit Changed Artists' Right to Copy." Artsy, 14 August 2018.
Miller, M.H. "The Artists Who Defined the East Village's Avant-Garde Scene." New York Times Style Magazine, 17 April 2018.
Moll, Maarten. "Everyone is a Part of the Jeff Koons Stareball." Het Parool, February 15, 2018.
Morgan, Tiernan. "The Decade that Changed the Art World: Money, Media, and Brands in the 1980s." Hyperallergic, 10 May 2018.
Nevins, Jake. "Jeff Koons: 'I think I'll always keep feeling somewhat like an outsider'." Guardian, 9 March 2018.
Obrist, Hans Ulrich. "Jeff Koons on His Five Most Ambitious Unrealized Projects." Artsy, 2 April 2018.
“Paris doit accepter le cadeau de JeffKoons.” Le Monde, 23 February 2018: 21.
"Play-Doh: $20 Million Jeff Koons from Christie's New York." ArtsLife, 4 April 2018.
Podolsky, Erin. "When Big Money and the Arts Collide: Documentaries Explore Beauty and Bucks." Detroit Free Press, 12 April 2018.
Rahman, Abid. "Art Basel Hong Kong Opens to Record Sale, Jeff Koons." Hollywood Reporter, 29 March 2018.
Rangachari Shah, Gayatri. "Koons for Star Power." The Hindu, 30 March 2018.
Rossen, Jake. "This Giant Jeff Koons Play-Doh Sculpture Could Be Yours for $20 Million." Mental Floss, 4 April 2018.
Schjeldahl, Peter. "'Like Life' Shows Seven Hundred Years of the Body." New Yorker, 2 April 2018.
Schneider, Tim. "And Now, a Message From Jeff Koons: David Zwirner Launches a Podcast Focused on the Gallery's Superstar Artists." Artnet News, 28 June 2018.
Shaw, Amy. "Sotheby's Unveils Old Master Painting in the Middle East for the First Time: Will Jeff Koons's Handbags for Louis Vuitton Help Find a Buyer for the Rubens Portrait?" The Art Newspaper, 16 March 2018.
Sjostrom, Jan. "Palm Beach Jewelry, Art & Antique Show opens today with 150 dealers." Palm Beach Daily News, 14 February 2018.
Smith, Roberta. "Real, or Too Real? A Dazzling Show Goes the Way of All Flesh." The New York Times, 22 March 2018.
Stiernon, Stéphanie. "The fair of Art Basel, an artistic giant in Hong Kong." Le Petit Journal, 27 March 2018.
Sussman, Anna Louie. "Jeff Koons on What Artists and Corporations Can Do for One Another." Artsy, 19 June 2018.
Sutton, Benjamin. “Oui Oui! French Cultural Figures Praise Colossal Jeff Koons Bouquet in Op-Ed." Hyperallergic, 26 February 2018.
Troncy, Eric. "The day Claude Monet was as scandalous as Jeff Koons." Numeró, 11 May 2018.
Tsui, Enid. "The Best of Art Basel Hong Kong: Works and Artists to Look Out for at the Fair." Post Magazine, 22 March 2018.
“Les tulipes de Jeff Koons: Anne Hidalgo souhaite l'aboutissement du projet.” Liberation, 2 June 2018.
“Tulipes de Jeff Koons : l'art de faire polémique.” M.R., Les Echos, 2 February 2018: 21.
Vail, H. W. "Jeff Koons, Lourdes Leon, and More Toast David Zwirner’s 25th Anniversary." Vanity Fair, 16 January 2018.
Valys, Phillip. "Art Wynwood returns with Dali, Duchamp and Koons." Southflorida.com, 13 February 2018.
Westall, Mark. "New Jeff Koons 'Easyfun-Ethereal' Exhibition to Open." FAD Magazine, 14 February 2018.
Westall, Mark. "Plato in L.A." FAD Magazine, 17 April 2018.
"When Jeff Koons Met Michelangelo." The Economist, 19 April 2018.
Wolin, Jospeh R. "Review: 'Like Life: Sculpture, Color, and the Body (1300-Now).'" Time Out New York, 2 April 2018.
Yablonsky, Linda. "Artists Bring a Breath of the Contemporary to the Getty Villa." The Art Newspaper, 22 April 2018.
Zelko, Abbey. “The votes are in. York County's most famous living celebrity is...” York Daily, 20 June 2018.
2017
Agence, France-Presse. "Jeff Koons Produces New Works with French Porcelain Maker Bernardaud." Malaymail Online, 10 May 2017.
Agence, France-Presse. "Jeff Koons Unveils Giant Inflatable Ballerina In New York." Malaymail Online, 13 May 2017.
Ahwa, Dan. “Louis Vuitton Unveils New Collaboration with Jeff Koons.” Viva, 11 April 2017.
Argento, Mike. “For Koons, art is everywhere & everything is art.” York Daily Record, 18 January 2017.
Associated Press. "Inflatable Sculpture of Ballerina by Jeff Koons Unveiled." U.S. News, 12 May 2017.
Baeza, Manon. "Scarlett Johansson Narrates This Short Doc About Jeff Koons." Konbini, 16 June 2017.
Beniaris, Katina. "8 Stunning Outdoor Artworks to View In NYC This Summer." Gotham, 23 June 2017.
Bowers, Courtney. "Spot the Seated Ballerina in NYC." Dance Spirit, 15 May 2017.
Bullock, Maggie. “Jeff Koons discusses the old-world inspiration for his new project with Louis Vuitton.” Elle, 27 April 2017.
Butcher, Dwayne. "Jeff Koons Piece on View at the Dixon." Memphis Flyer, 10 March 2017.
Cafolla, Anna. “Marina Ambramovic & Jeff Koons front new online VR gallery.” Dazed, 11 June 2017.
Carlson, Jen. "There's a Giant Jeff Koons Ballerina In Rockefeller Center." Gothamist, 12 May 2017.
Cascone, Sarah. “Jeff Koons Returns to Rockefeller Center With Inflated ‘Seated Ballerina’ Sculpture.” Artnet News, 11 May 2017.
Cascone, Sarah. "Snapchat Unites with Jeff Koons for a Globe-Spanning Augmented Reality Scupture Project." Artnet News, 10 October 2017.
Charney, Noah. "Did Jeff Really Paint that Koons? Working at a Modern Studio Isn't Exactly a Renaissance Apprenticeship." Salon 25, June 2017.
Chow, Andrea R. "Snapchat and Jeff Koons Collaborate on Augmented Reality Art Project." The New York Times, 3 October 2017.
"Cocktail Party for Louis Vuitton's New Masters Collection." Gotham, 27 April 2017.
Codrea-Rado, Anna. "Virtual Vandalism: Jeff Koons's 'Balloon Dog' Is Graffiti-Bombed." The New York Times, 10 October 2017.
Davis, Jeff. "June Art Column." Monrovia Weekly, 20 June 2017.
de Kierk, Amy. "Louis Vuitton Collaborates with Jeff Koons." Harper's Bazaar, 11 April 2017.
Devore, Kim. "Malibu Seen: Art with an Edge." The Malibu Times, 23 April 2017.
di Montereale, Allia Alliata. "Sharon Stone, Sean Penn, Pierce Brosnan, and More Celebrate at MOCA Gala Honoring Jeff Koons." Vogue, 1 May 2017.
Diderich, Joelle. “Stars Converge for Launch of Louis Vuitton Collaboration with Jeff Koons.” WWD, 12 April 2017.
Donadio, Rachel. "Jeff Koons Sent Paris Flowers. Can It Find the Right Vase?" The New York Times, 20 June 2017.
Donnelly, Shannon. "Masters' Remix: Vuitton Replicates Famous Paintings on Handbags." The Shiny Sheet, 1 May 2017.
Dore, Shalini. "John Legend Wow Crowd at MOCA Gala for Jeff Koons." Variety, 30 April 2017.
Duray, Dan. "Is Instagram-Friendly Contemporary Art Killing the Market for Old Masters?" W Magazine, 9 June 2017.
Eckardt, Stephanie. "Jeff Koons Will Collaborate with Anyone, From Louis Vuitton to Phone Cases and Lady Gaga." W Magazine, 11 April 2017.
Ellison, Jo. “Master pieces? Jeff Koons on his first collaboration with Louis Vuitton.” Financial Times, 11 April 2017.
Eustace, Robert. "Sold: 'The Platonic Ideal of a Balloon Dog' - The Wild World of Art Dealing." The Telegraph, 5 February 2017.
Forrest, Nicholas. “Jeff Koons Plays with the Gaze at Almine Rech Gallery London.” Blouin Artinfo, 2 January 2017.
Foxley, David. "Jeff Koons's 'Seated Ballerina' Sculpture In NYC's Rockefeller Center Stands for a Worthy Cause." Architectural Digest, 15 May 2017.
Friedman, Vanessa. “Jeff Koons’s New Line.” The New York Times, 11 April 2017.
Gardner, Chris. "Inside the MOCA Gala Honoring Jeff Koons with John Legend, Sharon Stone and Sean Penn." The Hollywood Reporter, 1 May 2017.
Georgiou, Danielle. "Dancer Depictions." Theater Jones Performing Art News, 19 May 2017.
Geyer, Christina. "Louis Vuitton Taps Another Famed Artist for its New It Girl Bags." PaperCity Magazine, 23 May 2017.
Griffs, Miles. "Paris Hilton, John Legend, and More Celebrate Jeff Koons at the 2017 MOCA Gala." W Magazine, 30 April 2017.
Goldberg, David. "The Giant Ballerina at Rockefeller Plaza Gets an Extension." Time Out New York, 22 June 2017.
Goldstein, Caroline. "Watch Scarlett Johansson Explain Why Jeff Koons Is an Artistic Genius (Really)." Artnet News, 15 June 2017.
Grinnell, Sunhee. “Jeff Koons and Kiehl’s Bring the International Center for Missing and Exploited Children into the Spotlight.” Vanity Fair, 11 May 2017.
Haber, Holly. "Jeff Koons Turns Out at Neimans' in Dallas." WWD, 13 June 2017.
Halio, Grace. "Jeff Koons and George Condo Recall the '80s at New Museum's 40th Anniversary Fete." ARTnews, 7 December 2017.
Harris, Aleesha. "Works of Wearable Art: Louis Vuitton, Jeff Koons Collaboration Brings Priceless Art to Purses." The Province, 26 April 2017.
Hawkins, Laura. “Different strokes: Louis Vuitton and Jeff Koons put a new frame on Old Masters.” Wallpaper*, 11 April 2017.
Heyman, Marshall. "John Legend, Sharon Stone Turn Out for MOCA Gala Honoring Jeff Koons." WWD, 30 April 2017.
Holmes, Brooke. “Keeping it Platonic: A Conversation with Jeff Koons.” 032C, June 2017.
"Jeff Koons." Artnow by Noblesse (Issue 20), Winter 2017.
"Jeff Koons' 45-Foot Inflated Seated Ballerina Takes On Rockefeller Center." Untapped Cities, 12 May 2017.
“Jeff Koons Visits PS 145 in Manhattan to teach Art Class as part of Studio in a School.” ArtFix daily, 19 June 2017.
Jones, Jay. "Check Out Vegas' Remarkable Public Art, from 'Popeye' to a Winged Jackalope." Los Angeles Times, 20 June 2017.
Jones, Jonathan. “Jeff Koons’ Louis Vuitton Bags: A Joyous Art History Lesson.” The Guardian, 12 April 2017.
Kamer, Nimrod. “Jeff Koons’ Louis Vuitton Bags Are Like Marmite.” GQ, 20 April 2017.
Kinsella, Eileen. "Jay-Z Performed in Front of a Giant Jeff Koons Balloon Dog - With the Artist's Blessing." Artnet News, 21 August 2017.
Kobielski, Maciek. "Jeff Koons, the Man Who Invites Art at Louis Vuttion." Vanity Fair France, 11 April 2017.
Koons, Jeff. "The History of Art According to Jeff Koons." 12 October 2017.
"Koons' Paris Artwork Runs Into Controversy." The Straits Times, 26 June 2017.
"Koons Tacks His 'Gazing Ball' on Vuitton Bags." The Nation [Thailand], 13 June 2017.
La Force, Thessaly. "Who Is Jeff Koons?" Vice, 12 June 2017.
Makitalo, Georgia. “Celebrated Artist Jeff Koons Inflated 45-Foot-High ‘Seated Ballerina’ At Rockefeller Center To Offer ‘Hope’.” Inquisitr, 18 May 2017.
Mantor, Cassidy. "Neiman Marcus and Jeff Koons Celebrate Dallas Art Scene." Fashion Network, 14 June 2017.
Mastrandrea, Paige. "Louis Vuitton Releases Jeff Koons Product Collaboration." Haute Living, 28 April 2017.
McCall, Tyler. "Louis Vuitton Drops its Second Collection with Jeff Koons." Fashionista, 12 October 2017.
McGrath, Katherine. "Controversy Erupts Over Jeff Koons's Paris Sculpture." Architectural Digest, 21 June 2017.
McGrath, Katherine. "What Was a Jeff Koons Balloon Dog Doing on Stage with Jay-Z Last Night?" Architectural Digest, 21 August 2017.
McHugh, Jess. "This 45-Foot-Tall Ballerina Is Jeff Koons' Latest Must-See Sculpture." Travel + Leisure, 15 May 2017.
McNearney, Allison. "Whatever Happened To Jeff Koons' $25m NYC Steam Engine?" The Daily Beast, 20 May 2017.
Morgan, Kendall. “Mega-artist Jeff Koons’ balloon art floats into Dallas’ Neiman Marcus.” 16 June 2017.
The New York Times News Service. "New Louis Vuitton Bags Are Literal Work of Art." The Seattle Times, 25 April 2017.
Nucci, Isabella. “Get an Authentic Jeff Koons’ Balloon Animal Sculpture at Neimans.” D Magazine, 21 June 2017.
O'Connor, David. "Jeff Koons to Deliver Address at York College Graduation." Central Penn Business Journal, 12 April 2017.
Pazzanese, Christina. “Jeff Koons: High king of middlebrow.” Harvard Gazette, 10 February 2017.
"Pharrell, Jeff Koons and Elon Musk’s mom are just some of the stars visiting Stockholm for Brilliant Minds – get a sneak peek inside the super-exclusive event." Business Insider Nordic, 9 June 2017.
Phillips, Kaitlin. “Louis Vuitton x Jeff Koons.” Wonderland, 10 July 2017.
Pulos, Will. "A Giant, 45-Foot Inflatable Ballerina Has Been Installed at Rockefeller Center." Time Out New York, 12 May 2017.
Pressler, Alyssa. "Artist Jeff Koons to Speak at York College Graduation." York Dispatch, 3 March 2017.
Rathe, Adam. "The Museum of Contemporary Art Los Angeles Honors Jeff Koons." Town & Country, 1 May 2017.
Romeyn, Katherine. "Jeff Koons Reflects on His Meteoric Art-World Glory." Architectural Digest, 1 May 2017.
Rudig, Stephanie. "At the Hirshhorn, a Survey of Art as Commodity In 'Brand New.'" Washington City Paper, 7 March 2018.
Sadick, Sydney. "W Magazine Celebrates Jeff Koons x Louis Vuitton Collab and Pop-Up Shop." Fashionweek Daily, 1 May 2017.
Samaha, Barry. “Jeff Koons, Kiehl’s and the Art Production Fund Fête the Reveal of ‘Seated Ballerina’ at Rockefeller Center.” Forbes, 15 May 2017.
Sawyer, Sidonie. “Let’s Bag a Jeff Koons!” The Huffington Post, 11 April 2017.
Schreffler, Laura. "Weekend Roundup: Jeff Koons Honored at the 2017 MOCA Gala." Haute Living, 1 May 2017.
Speyer, Tishman. “Kiehl’s Since 1851 and Art Production Fund Present Seated Ballerina by Jeff Koons on view May 12 – June 2, 2017 at Rockefeller Center.” PR Newswire, 12 May 2017.
Stern, Joan. "Jeff Koons for Bernardaud." Pursuitist, June 2017.
Swenson, Eric Minh. "Jeff Koons' Selfie with the City of Los Angeles." Huffington Post, 1 May 2017.
Tarmy, James. "Jeff Koons on the True Price of Being an Artist." Bloomberg Businessweek, 3 November 2017.
Valentine, Claire. "Let Scarlett Johansson Teach You All About Jeff Koons In Short Film." Paper, 15 June 2017.
Vankin, Deborah. “Jeff Koons on his new Gagosian show, his MOCA award and what’s behind those Louis Vuitton bags.” Los Angeles Times, 27 April 2017.
Vankin, Deborah. “MOCA names its spring gala honoree: Jeff Koons.” Los Angeles Times, 7 March 2017.
Vignal, Marion. “Inside Jeff Koons’ controversial collaboration with Louis Vuitton.” Elle, 19 May 2017.
Viswanath, Jake. "Scarlett Johansson Narrates a New Jeff Koons Mini-Doc." V Magazine, 16 June 2017.
Von Hahn, Karen. "Vuitton's Newest Art Collaboration is Brilliantly Meta." Toronto Star Touch, 25 April 2017.
Wakim, Marielle. "Can You Guess Which Jeff Koons Balloon Animal Is Being Built at LACMA as We Speak?" Los Angeles Magazine, 13 December 2017.
Weiss, Zachary. "Jeff Koons Art-Directs an Over-the-Top Halloween Party." Architectural Digest, 31 October 2017.
Westall, Mark. "World's Most Ambitious VR Art Platform to Launch with: Koons, Abramovic & Eliasson." FAD, 11 June 2017.
“Why Streetwear Fans Should Care About Jeff Koons.” Highsnobiety, 27 April 2017.
Williams, Sally. “Jeff Koons on his ‘wild years’… and going from penniless to the world’s most expensive artist.” The Telegraph, 20 April 2017.
Womack, Catherine. “Jeff Koons Isn’t Exactly 'Woke' – but He Has Other Nice Qualities.” LA Weekly, 2 May 2017.
Yablonski, Linda. "Mirror Mirror." Artforum, 2 May 2017.
Young, Michelle. “10 Places to See the Work of Jeff Koons In NYC, Past and Present.” Untapped Cities, 17 May 2017.
Zelko, Abbey. “World-Renowned Artist Koons Inspired by York Upbringing.” York Daily Record, 18 January 2017.
2016
"Les 7 Buzz - Les fleurs de la solidarité." Tele 7 Jours, December 2016.
Abrams, Amah-Rose. “Jeff Koons Gifts Monumental Statue to Paris in Memory of Attack Victims.” ArtNet News, 22 November 2016.
“Aby Rosen’s 11 Howard Teams Up With Groundwell and Artist Mentor Jeff Koons to Create Massive Pubic Mural.” Artfix Daily, 1 March 2016.
Armstrong, Annie. “From Van Gogh To Jeff Koons, Here’s a History of Flowers in Art.” The Creators Project, 13 March 2016.
“Art Market’s Exclusive Interview with Renowned Artist Jeff Koons – The First of Many Future Exclusives.” Digital Journal, 28 March 2016.
“Artist Jeff Koons to deliver Gibbes Museum lecture.” The Post and Courier, 17 August 2016.
Beer, Jeff. “Your Chance To Own Original Jeff Koons Art, Courtesy of Google’s Nexus Live Case Line.” Co.Create, 12 May 2016.
"Behind the Art - Noirmontartproduction." The Maker Magazine, 5 December 2016.
Belknap, Kelly. “Feel Like a Billionaire Art Collector With This $8,000 Plate.” Bloomberg Pursuits, 14 April 2016.
Bellet, Harry. “Jeff Koons fait une fleur à Paris.” Le Monde, 24 November 2016.
Bergliaffa, Mercedes Pérez. “Consejo del artista más caro del mundo: hay que cruzar los límites.” Clarin, 13 April 2016.
Berlinger, Max. “Jeff Koons Designs a Snowboard (With an Assist From Plato).” The New York Times, 6 December 2016.
Betker, Ally. “Jeff Koons, the Google of the Art World, Teams Up with Google." W Magazine, 10 May 2016.
“Bound to fail." Christie’s Magazine, April 2016.
Buck, Louisa. “Jeff Koons: Now at Newport Street Gallery preview." The Telegraph, 13 May 2016.
“Burton Unveils the Philosopher.” Shop Eat Surf, 9 December 2016.
“Le 'Cadeau' de Koons À Paris." Valeurs Actuelles, 1 December 2016.
Cain, Abigail. "These 10 Unrealized Artworks Would Have Been Spectacular." Artsy, 9 December 2016.
Campbell-Johnston, Rachel. “Visual art: Jeff Koons: Now at Newport Street Gallery, SE11.” The Times, 13 May 2016.
Cascone, Sarah. "Controversial Jeff Koons Sculpture Debuts at Sacramento Arena." Artnet News, 27 September 2016.
Cascone, Sarah. "Tony Bennett Wins Shiny Gold Jeff Koons Balloon Rabbit at National Arts Awards." Artnet News, 18 October 2016.
Centenera, Mar. “La bailarina de Koons que deslumbra a Buenos Aires.” El Pais, 15 April 2016.
Chatruc, Celina. “Cayó el velo y la Ballerina de Koons ya danza entre nosotros.” La Nacion, 15 April 2016.
Chatruc, Celina. “Jeff Koons: Los juicios alienan y segregan; todo es perfecto tal cual es.” La Nacion, 14 April 2016.
Chatruc, Celina. “Koons present en sociedad a su Ballerina.” La Nacion, 14 April 2016.
Clavin, Mark. “Designed by Jeff Koons & Jake Burton to Benefit the Chill Foundation.” Snow Boarder, 9 December 2016.
Colin-Thibert, Pierre. "Un malheur n'arrive jamais seul." Pierre Colin-Thibert, 1 December 2016.
“Como una Estrella de rock, Jeff Koons inauguró su obra “Ballerina” en la explanada del Malba.” Télam, 14 April 2016.
Cook, William. “'Wow, I can do this!'” Christie’s Magazine, January 2016.
Corbett, Rachel. “Jeff Koons and Eric Kandel Talk Art and Empathy.” Blouin ArtInfo, 4 October 2016.
Corbett, Rachel. “Jeff Koons On Lady Gaga, His First Job in New York, and Dangling Steam Engines at the High Line.” Blouin Artinfo, 21 April 2016.
Cossins, Malcolm. "Contemporary Conversations with the Old Masters." Christie's, 26 October 2016.
Creahan, D. "Jeff Koons at Almine Rech Gallery Through January 21st, 2017." Art Observed, 25 October 2016.
Cué, Elena. “Interview With Jeff Koons.” The Huffington Post, 1 July 2016.
Cué, Elena. “Jeff Koons: “El arte es una percepción de tus propias posibilidades.” ABC, 25 June 2016.
Dafoe, Taylor. "Controversial Jeff Koons Sculpture Unveiled at Sacramento Stadium, Turner Prize Show Opens at Tate, and More." Blouin Artinfo, 28 September 2016.
Dafoe, Taylor. "Jeff Koons Endorses Hillary Clinton, Anderson Cooper at TEFAF, and More." Blouin Artinfo, 24 October 2016.
“Damien Hirst Pays Tribute To Jeff Koons With Special “NOW” Exhibition.” END, 22 May 2016.
“Damien Hirst puts his personal collection of Jeff Koons artwork on show.” Vogue Paris, 13 May 2016.
“Damien Hirst To Curate Jeff Koons Exhibition At Newport Street Gallery.” Artlyst, 23 March 2016.
De La Fresnaye, Marie-Elisabeth. “In the studio: the artist photographed from Ingres to Jeff Koons.” L’Oeil de la Photographie, 11 April 2016.
De Micco, Luana. “Through the keyhole: photographer’s capture artist’s studios.” The Art Newspaper, 15 April 2016.
DeMattia, Nico. “Top Five best BMW Art Cars.” BMW Blog, 11 March 2016.
Di Palma, Serena. “Jeff Koons litiga con Nardella e si riprende la sua statua.” ArtsLife, 29 January 2016.
Disser, Nicole. “Jeff Koons on His Dream Choo Choo and That Time Lady Gaga ‘Kind of Went Down’ On Him.” Bedford + Bowery, 28 April 2016.
Domirez, Darren. “Google Nexus Features Limited-Edition Jeff Koons Exhibition Live Case, His Cheapest Artwork Price Ever.” University Herald, 12 May 2016.
Donadio, Rachel. “Jeff Koons Is Giving Sculpture to Paris to Remember Terror Victims.” The New York Times, 21 November 2016.
Duponchelle, Valérie. “Jane D. Hartley : J’ai commence avec Jeff Koons, je finis avec Jeff Koons.” Le Figaro, 23 November 2016.
Duray, Dan. “Koons’s kitschy kids and Dubuffet’s beard lead New York sales at Phillips.” The Art Newspaper, 21 April 2016.
Embuscado, Rain. “Jeff Koons Debuts First Live-Action Video Work with Google.” Artnet News, 10 May 2016.
Embuscado, Rain. "Who Said This - Lady Gaga or Jeff Koons?" Artnet News, 17 May 2016.
Ezquiaga, Mercedes. “Jeff Koons: “No nos deben importer los objetos sino las personas." Télam, 13 April 2016.
“Editor’s Picks: 12 Art Events to See in New York This Week.” Artnet News, 18 April 2016.
“Eli and Edye Broad and Motorola Solutions Foundation to be Honored at International Centre for Missing & Exploited Children’s 2016 Gala for Child Protection, May 5; Jeff and Justine Koons to Serve as Honorary Co-Chairs.” Artfix Daily, 2 March 2016.
Elizalde, Molly. “Snapchat Discover Channel: Sweet Culture.” Sweet, 11 May 2016.
Embuscado, Rain. “Who Said This – Lady Gaga or Jeff Koons?” Artnet News, 17 May 2016.
Fenner, Justin. “Jeff Koons Just Released His Most Affordable Work Yet.” GQ, 10 May 2016.
“Les Fleurs du Mâle." Le Figaro, 2 December 2016.
“For $40, you could own a Koons.” The Art Newspaper, 19 May 2016.
Forrest, Nicholas. “Damien Hirst to Curate Jeff Koons Show At Newport Street Gallery.” Blouin Artinfo, 23 March 2016.
Forrest, Nicholas. “The Joy of Jeff Koons at Damien Hirst’s London Gallery.” Blouin Artinfo, 26 May 2016.
Freeman, Nate. "Frieze Openings Begin, With Jeff Koons at Almine Rech, Ed Ruscha at Gagosian - and Monica Lewinsky!" ArtNews, 4 October 2016.
Frisch, Kevin. “Join Jeff Koons in #votingbecause effort.” York Daily Review, 27 September 2016.
Garcia, Patricia. “Jeff Koons’s New Artwork Is Surprisingly Affordable.” Vogue, 9 May 2016.
Gayford, Martin. “Like Rubens, Jeff Koons’s work is about repetition, fertility and sex – and piping.” The Spectator, 11 June 2016.
Georges, Clara. “L’objet de l’époque : le bouquet de Jeff Koons.” Le Monde, 28 November 2016.
“Get your limited-edition Jeff Koons Live Case today.” Android, 10 May 2016.
“Google introduces trio of Jeff Koons-designed Nexus Live Cases.” Phone Arena, 10 May 2016.
“Google teams up with Jeff Koons for limited-edition cases.” Yahoo!, 11 May 2016.
Green, Amanda. “Be Part Of Art History – Win A Signed Jeff Koons Phone Case & A Nexus 6P.” Refinery 29, 2016.
Gumuchian, Marie-Louise. “Damien Hirst hosts fellow artist Koons’ exhibition in London.” Reuters, 17 May 2016.
Heddaya, Mostafa. "Taipei, Koons Top Attendance Charts, Getty Announces $8.45 Million for 'Pacific Standard Time', and More." Blouin Artinfo, 31 March 2016.
Hardaway, Connelly. “The Gibbes Distinguished Lecture Series Presents Jeff Koons this November.” Charleston City Paper, 17 August 2016.
Hardaway, Connelly. “The Millionaire Artist Talks Art, Objectivity, and a Higher Consciousness.” Charleston City Paper, 16 November 2016.
Harris, Gareth. “Jeff Koons unveils plans for a memorial to the victims of the Paris terror attacks.” The Art Newspaper, 22 November 2016.
Hay, Thierry. “Le charme et les secrets des ateliers d’aritstes d’Ingres à Jeff Koons, au Petit Palais.” France TVinfo, 5 April 2016.
Heaney, Joe. “Over 18s only! Damien Hirst shows off racy artworks from Lady Gaga collaborator in Vauxhall.” SW Londoner, 20 May 2016.
Henriette, Hadley. “Jeff Koons on His Passion: Helping Missing and Exploited Children.” Haute Living, 3 June 2016.
Heddaya, Mostafa. “Taipei, Koons Top Attendance Charts, Getty Announces $8.45 Million for ‘Pacific Standard Time,’ and More.” Blouin Artinfo, 31 March 2016.
"Here's a Photo of Jeff Koons's Newly Installed Permanent Sculpture In Sacramento, California." ARTnews, 26 September 2016.
“Hirst hosts Koons in London.” ENCA 17, May 2016.
Hudson, Mark. “Does this new show reveal Jeff Koons’ greatest contribution to art? -review.” The Telegraph, 18 May 2016.
Hughes, Rosalie, Anna Polonyi. “Voices: Where Art Meets Technology.” International New York Times, 24 March 2016.
Hyde, Sarah. “Jeff Koons Kicks Off London Frieze Week with Show at Almine Rech.” ArtNet News, 5 October 2016.
“In Conversation Jeff Koons and Glenn Fuhrman.” Gagosian NOW, 12 May 2016.
“Internationally Renowned Artist Jeff Koons Joins Sacramento Kings To Unveil Sculpture Commissioned For Arena’s Public Plaza.” Golden 1 Center, 26 September 2016.
“Irony in Stainless Steel.” Böllinghaus Steel Stories Magazin V, March 2016.
“Jeff Koons and his Play-Doh pile ‘Now’ in London.” Euronews, 20 May 2016.
“Jeff Koons art… on your phone?” FlipSide PA, 11 May 2016.
"Jeff Koons at Almine Rech Gallery, London." Blouin Artinfo, 15 October 2016.
“Jeff Koons designs Android cases for Google.” Fast Company, 10 May 2016.
"Jeff Koons Gives Giant Bouquet Sculpture to Paris in Honor of Terror Victims." Artfix Daily, 22 November 2016.
"Jeff Koons Is Creating a Memorial Sculpture for Victims of Paris Terror Attacks." Artforum, 21 November 2016.
“Jeff Koons, interview: I feel that art has allowed me to become a better human.” Evening Standard, 19 May 2016.
“Jeff Koons Just Released His Most Affordable Work Yet.” GQ, 10 May 2016.
“Jeff Koons Now Exhibition Opens At Damien Hirst’s Newport Street Gallery.” Artlyst, 18 May 2016.
“Jeff Koons presenta su “Ballerina” en el Malba de Buenos Aires.” El Diario, 15 April 2016.
“Jeff Koons se estrena en la segunda muestra de la galería de Damien Hirst.” La Vanguardia, 18 May 2016.
“Jeff Koons Showcased at Damien Hirst’s Gallery.” Latin American Herald Tribune, 20 May 2016.
“Jeff Koons: Showing The Love For Irony And Pseudo Philosophical Claptrap.” Artlyst, 20 May 2016.
Johnson, Hillary Louise. “Coloring Outside the Lines.” Sactown Magazine, October/November 2016.
Judah, Hettie. “Damien Hirst’s Jeff Koons Show Reeks of Power Play.” Artnet News, 19 May 2016.
Kastrenakes, Jacob. “Google teams up with artist Jeff Koons for limited-edition Nexus phone cases.” The Verge, 10 May 2016.
Kent, Sarah. “Jeff Koons: Now, Newport Street Gallery.” The Arts Desk, 26 May 2016.
Khan, Tabish. “Sexual And Seductive: The Art Of Jeff Koons, Reviewed.” Londonist, 21 May 2016.
“Koons en la Ciudad.” Bazaar Argentina, 2016.
Lafferrière, Justine. “Jeff Koons offre des fleurs géantes à la France, en hommage au 13, novembre.” Grazia, 22 November 2016.
“La statua dorata di Jeff Koons lascia Firenze per tornare in Usa.” La Stampa, 30 January 2016.
Lee, Tyler. “Google Introduces Limited Edition Live Cases By Jeff Koons.” Ubergizmo, 10 May 2016.
Lesauvage, Magali. “Le cadeau peu emballant de Jeff Koons à la Ville de Paris.” Libération, 24 November 2016.
Li, Abner. “Google announces limited-edition Jeff Koons Live Cases for Nexus 5X and 6P.” 9 to 5 Google, 10 May 2016.
Lillis, Ryan and Dale Kasler. “$8 million Piglet-inspired sculpture unwrapped at Golden 1 Center.” The Sacramento Bee, 16 September 2016.
Lillis, Ryan. “Koons sculpture a ‘historic moment’ for Sacramento art.” The Sacramento Bee, 25 September 2016.
"London - Jeff Koons at Almine Rech Gallery Through January 21st, 2017." Art Observed, 25 October 2016.
Lucie-Smith, Edward. “Jeff Koons – The Art Of Not Quite Now By Edward Lucie-Smith.” Artlyst, 20 May 2016.
M., S. “Learning artists’ secrets from their studios.” The Economist, 3 May 2016.
Maiberg, Emanuel. “A Critique of Jeff Koons’ Nexus 6P Case.” Londonist, 21 May 2016.
Maneker, Marion. “Jeff Koons Launches Fourth Balloon Dog Plate.” Art Market Monitor, 4 April 2016.
Masewicz, Natalia. “Hirst, Koons Join Twombly at Galerie Bastian Show in Berlin.” Blouin Artinfo, 23 May 2016.
McAloon, Jonathan. "Has Jeff Koons Earned His Place in Art History?" Apollo, 12 October 2016.
McQueen, Paul. "Jeff Koons Offers Sculpture To Paris in Memory of 2015 Attacks." Culture Trip, 23 November 2016.
Moffitt, Bob. “Jeff Koons’ Piglet Sculpture Unveiled At Golden 1 Center.” Capital Public Radio, 26 September 2016.
Mora, Judith. “Jeff Koons protagoniza la segunda muestra de la galería de Damien Hirst.” EFE, 18 May 2016.
Munro, Cait. “Jeff Koons Will Work With Teenagers on Upcoming Soho Mural.” Artnet News, 19 January 2016.
Myrick, Andrew. “Google and Jeff Koons partner up for a new Nexus Live Cases to be unveiled tomorrow.” Phandroid, 9 May 2016.
Nayeri, Farah. “Damien Hirst to Open a Jeff Koons Show at His London Museum.” The New York Times, 16 May 2016.
Neuendorf, Henri. “Marden, Koons, and Bradford Drive Philips $46.5 Million Evening Sale.” Artnet News, 8 May 2016.
“'One of the most influential works in the history of contemporary art.'” Christie’s, 29 April 2016.
Orfano, Belén Papa. “Koons en Buenos Aires: “Que la Ballerina ayude a la gente a descubrir su potencial y aceptarse.” Ámbito, 14 April 2016.
Parker, Adam. “Artist Jeff Koons, world-famous and controversial, comes to Charleston.” The Post and Courier, 16 November 2016.
Parsons, Elly. “Ready-made success: Jeff Koons reflects at Almine Rech Gallery, London.” Wallpaper*, 7 October 2016.
Pes, Javier, José Da Silva, Emily Sharpe. “Visitor Figures 2015: Jeff Koons is the toast of Paris and Bilbao.” The Art Newspaper, 31 March 2016.
Plummer, Todd. “Jeff Koons’s Tips for the Perfect Selfie.” Vogue, 10 May 2016.
Pogrebin, Robin. “Christie’s Auction: a Rock, a Basketball, Hitler on His Knees.” The New York Times, April 14, 2016.
Polidoro, Federica. “Ecco l’intervista di Jared Leto a Jeff Koons, nella web serie Beyond the Horizon.” Artribune, 21 February 2016.
“Pop Star.” La Razon, 15 April 2016.
Razaq, Rashid. "Jeff Koons: London to Stay Centre of the Art World." Evening Standard, 4 October 2016.
Rottenberg, Silvia. “Jeff Koons showers MALBA with charisma.” Buenos Aires Herald, 15 April 2016.
Sagittarius, Irene. "Koons, Murakami and Vasconcelos in Versailles: Attribution of value and change of values through contextualization." Marburger Jahrbuch für Kunstwissenschaft (Vol. 43), 2016.
Salazar Winspear, Olivia. “Jeff Koons ‘wants to give hope’ to Paris attacks survivors.” France 24, 25 November 2016.
Saviss, Ramona. “Adorn Your Home with These Art Objects by Jeff Koons and Ken Price.” Los Angeles Confidential, 21 June 2016.
Seed, John. “Landseer’s Poodle, Koons’ Balloon Dog and Why Museum Curators Should Hedge Their Bets For the Future.” Huffington Post, 8 May 2016.
Scheffler, Daniel. “Another day that art collided with technology.” Selections, 11 May 2016.
Scher, Robin. “Jeff Koons Collaborates With Community Organization Groundswell On New SoHo Hotel Mural.” Art News, 1 March 2016.
Sidell, Misty White. “Jeff Koons and Google Unveil Phone Case Collaboration.” WWD, 10 May 2016.
Sioudan, Yannis. “Jeff Koons réunifie la France et les Etats-Unis.” FocuSur, 22 November 2016.
Small, Rachel. “Objet D’Art: A Way of Seeing.” Interview Magazine, 13 May 2016.
“Statua Koons lascerà Firenze per gli Usa.” ANSA, 29 January 2016.
Tagino, Florencia. “Jeff Koons en la MALBA.” 15 April 2016.
“The Art & Beauty Connection: Jeff Koons and Jean-Paul Agon Awarded at 2016 Trophee Des Arts Gala.” The Jewish Voice, 2 November 2016.
Torres, JC. “Limited edition Jeff Koons live cases bring art to the Nexus.” Slash Gear, 11 May 2016.
Turner, Rob. “A Train of Thought.” Sactown Magazine, December 2016.
Vaccaro, Adam. "Why on Earth is Popeye the Sailor Man the Centerpiece of Wynn's Everett Casino Lobby?" Boston.com, 24 March 2016.
Viturro, Ines. “Jeff Koons presentó su Ballerina en la Malba.” Vanidades, 14 April 2016.
Vogelsong, Jennifer. “Artist Jeff Koons contributes to $3000 book honoring Ali.” York Daily Record, 4 June 2016.
Waga, Nel-Olivia. “Jeff Koons and Eduardo Constantini On Oceana Bal Harbour’s Multimilion-Dollar Art Collection.” Forbes, 9 December 2016.
Whitwam, Ryan. “Limited Edition Nexus Live Case By Artist Jeff Koons Will Be Available Starting Tomorrow.” Android Police, 10 May 2016.
Willsher, Kim. “New Jeff Koons sculpture is tribute to victims of Paris attacks.” The Guardian, 22 November 2016.
Wong, Jacky. “Wynn Macau Bets Large on Bouquet of Tulips.” The Wall Street Journal, 30 June 2016.
Youssi, Yasmine. “C’est Le Bouquet!” Télérama, 3 December 2016.
Zelko, Abbey. “Jeff Koons to throw first pitch at York Revolution game.” FlipSide PA, 10 August 2016.
Zelko, Abbey. “Jeff Koons attends his York Revolution bobblehead night.” FlipSide PA, 12 August 2016.
Gagosian Quarterly, February–April 2016: 146, illustrated.
“2015’s most popular exhibitions by genre and city.” The Art Newspaper, 31 March 2016.
2015
Albertoni, Eleonora. “Koons all’arengario di Firenze rompe tabù di 500 anni.” Marco Polo News, 2 September 2015.
Amy, Michaël. “A Supreme Trouble-Maker in Crowd-Pleasing Clothes.” Sculpture, March 2015.
Arnaldi, Valeria. “Koons illumine Firenze.” Leggo Milano, 25 September 2015.
Barilli, Renato. “La sintesi estrema nell’arte di Koons.” L’Unità, 11 October 2015.
Betant, Martin. “Ballon Dog de Jeff Koons: la celèbre sculpture disponible chez vous!” Luxe, 4 October 2015.
Bianchi, Stefano. “Jeff Koons in Florence.” Coolmag, October 2015.
Bodin, Claudia. “Bette nicht lachen!” Art Das Kunstmagazin, 12 October 2015.
Bonami, Francesco. “’Michelangelo e Donatello si interesserebbero al mio lavoro’.” La Stampa, 3 October 2015.
Bonami, Francesco. “Oltre le Palle c’è Il Bisogno di Felicità.” Vanity Fair, 30 September 2015.
Braga, Sonia S. “Jeff Koons A Firenze, Tra I Capolavori Del Passato.” Architectural Digest, September 2015.
Brockes, Emma. “Jeff Koons: ‘People respond to banal things – they don’t accept their own history.’" The Guardian, 5 July 2015.
Capelli, Pia. "Jeff Koons e il suo Fauno." Il Sole 24 Ore, 20 September 2015.
Capra, Daniele. “Jeff Koons, Firenze e il Martello Calvinista.” Artribune, 25 December 2015.
Casanova, Marta Elena. "Jeff Koons in Florence. Un dialogo tra Rinascimento e contemporaneità." ArtsLife, 25 September 2015.
Casanova, Silvia. “Lo Chiamano Genio È Un Volpacchione.” Gente, 27 October 2015.
Castagni, Nicoletta. “Jeff Koons e l’antico in piazza a Firenze.” Ansa, 26 September 2015.
Cembalest, Robin. “Jeff Koons’ Masterpiece Theatre at Gagosian.” Observer, 10 November 2015.
Cinque, Fabiola. “Jeff Koons è contro.” Formiche, 16 October 2015.
Colman, David. "Inside the Art-Filled Aspen Home of Collectors Amy and John Phelan." Architectural Digest (6 October 2015): illustrated.
Corbett, Rachel. “Koons at cutting edge with giant stone mills.” The Art Newspaper, 3 March 2015.
Cresti, Daniela. "Jeff Koons, un grande evento artistico. E la Bellezza è servita Opinion leader." Stamp Toscana, 25 September 2015.
Crow, Kelly. "Eli and Edythe Broad Build a Museum for Their Art Collection." in The Wall Street Journal Magazine, 26 May 2015.
Crow, Kelly. "Broad New World." in The Wall Street Journal Magazine, June 2015.
de Martino, Marco. "Mi chiamo Jeff, sollevo pesi." Vanity Fair, 30 September 2015.
de Trione, Vincenzo. "Così sfido (a casa loro) Michelangelo e Donatello." Corriere Della Sera, 23 September 2015.
"Die Macht folgt der Kunst." Kurier, 1 October 2015.
Dino, Chiara. "E dopo il David tocca a Santa Maria Novella." Corriere Fiorentino, 27 September 2015.
D’Urso, Giuliana. “Jeff Koons a Firenze: un dialogo tra passato e presente.” My where, 2 October 2015.
“Ecco Koons, choc giallo in piazza.” Corriere Fiorentino, 26 September 2015.
Edwards Davis, Sylvia. “Reviewed: Jeff Koons at The Centre Pompidou.” France Today, 28 January 2015.
Elliot, Annette. "A conversation with Jeff Koons: 'For me art has never been about money'." Chicago Reader, 25 September 2015.
Elliot, Annette. “Jeff Koons – in the flesh! – at the Art Institute.” Reader, 9 September 2015.
"Emozioni Sull'Arengario Koons E La Sfida Con I Grandi." Corriere Fiorentino, 25 September 2015.
Ewing, Mark. “From Calder to Koons, 40 Years of BMW Art Cars.” Forbes Life, 4 June 2015.
"Exhibition 'Picasso.mania' in Paris, myth and genius revisited by contemporary artists." Ladepeche.fr, 7 October 2015.
Fahs, Anja. "Explosion of Colours: Jeff Koons and the BMW Art Car Collection." Prokom, March 2015.
Fatucchi, Marzio. "Ma per uno strappo vero ci avrei messo Lady Gaga." Corriere Fiorentino, 26 September 2015
Fessler, Anne Katrin and Roman Gerold. "Jeff Koons: 'Vielleicht wäre ich einst Hofkünstler gewesen'." derStandard, 30 September 2015.
"Firenze: L'Arte Contemporanea Cambia Volto A Piazza Della Signoria." Intoscana, 25 September 2015.
Forrest, Nicholas. “Datebook: Jeff Koons Opens at the Norwich Castle Museum & Art Gallery May 9.” Blouin Artinfo, 3 May 2015.
Forrest, Nicholas. "Jeff Koons's Daring Sculptural Intervention in Florence." Blouin ArtInfo, 25 September 2015.
Gardner Jr., Ralph. “The Work and Passions of Jeff Koons.” The Wall Street Journal, 5 May 2015.
Gassmann, Gay. "Jeff Koons's Suggestions for What to See, Read and Do This Summer." The New York Times Style Magazine, 21 July 2015.
Gentile, Fabrizio. “Firenze, Dal 25 Settembre “Pluto and Proserpina” Di Koons A Palazzo Vecchio “Jeff Koons in Florence” è in programma dal 26 settembre fino al 28 dicembre.” In Terris, 21 September 2015.
Giacomelli, Marco Enrico. “Jeff Koons a Bilbao. In attesa dello sbarco a Firenze.” Artribune, 2 September 2015.
Godefroy, Cécile and Vérane Tasseau. “Jeff Koons.” Cahiers d’Art, Special Issue, 2015.
“Guilty Yacht by Jeff Koons.” Opumo 28, August 2015.
Himelfarb, Ellen. “Ubiquitous inflatables: Jeff Koons reveals a new retrospective at the Guggenheim Bilbao.” Wallpaper, 12 June 2015.
“Il mondo novo.” Arena Mediastar Magazine, October 2015.
“Jeff Koons a Firenze.” Vogue Italy, 28 September 2015.
“Jeff Koons alla cena di gala della Biennale dell”Antiquariato.” La Repubblica, 24 September 2015.
“Jeff Koons, cara a cara frente a Miguel Ángel.” El Universal, 3 August 2015.
"Jeff Koons é a Firenze con Pluto e Proserpina." Il Quotidiano Del Lazio, 26 September 2015.
“Jeff Koons e l’antico a Firenze.” La Gazzetta del Mezzogiorno, 26 September 2015.
"Jeff Koons in Florence." Arte.it, 25 September 2015.
“Jeff Koons In Florence.” Biancoscuro, 15 September 2015.
“Jeff Koons In Florence.” Corriere Della Sera, 25 September 2015.
“Jeff Koons in Florence.” The Florentine, 24 September 2015.
“Jeff Koons in Florence.” Quotidiano Arte, 3 September 2015.
"Jeff Koons In Florence, A Cura Di Sergio Risaliti: In Mostra Dal 25 Settembre." Fattitaliani, 2 September 2015.
"Jeff Koons in Florence a Palazzo Vecchio di Firenze." La Nouvelle Vague, 2 September 2015.
“Jeff Koons in Florence: la Città del Fiore capitale dell’arte contemporanea.” Nove Da Firenze, 25 September 2015.
"Jeff Koons in Florence. L'arte contemporanea in dialogo con l'antico." ArtsLife, 1 September 2015.
“Jeff Koons in Florence.” Vanity Fair Italy, 26 September 2015.
“Jeff Koons in piazza della Signoria.” Qui News Firenze, 25 September 2015.
“Jeff Koons Vs. Michelangelo?” Milano Arte Moda, 2 September 2015.
Johnson, Ken. “Jeff Koons: ‘Jim Beam – J.B. Turner Engine and Six Individual Cars’.” The New York Times, 5 March 2015.
Kapos, Shia. “Jeff Koons croons some Zeppelin for the Crowns.” Crain’s, 24 September 2015.
Knights, Emma. “High praise for Jeff Koons exhibition at Norwich Castle.” Eastern Daily Press, 31 May 2015.
Knights, Emma. “Jeff Koons exhibition attracts 50,000 to Norwich Castle.” Eastern Daily Press, 20 August 2015.
Knights, Emma. “Norwich Castle set to host Jeff Koons exhibition.” Eastern Daily Press, 2 May 2015.
"Koons, sfida d'arte in piazza a Firenze." L'Arena, 5 September 2015.
Lillis, Ryan. “Sculpture by world-renowned artist Jeff Koons to appear at Sacramento arena.” 26 February 2015.
L’opera d’arte in Piazza Signoria fa discutere: “Sembra un cartoccio tra I capolavori.” Firenze Today, 5 October 2015.
Lusena, Edoardo. "Ecco Koons, choc giallo in piazza." Corriere Fiorentino, 26 September 2015.
Lusena, Edoardo. "Tocco con mano gli stessi piaceri che toccò Donatello." Corriere Fiorentino, 26 September 2015.
“Major Jeff Koons Exhibition Opens at UK’s Norwich Castle This Spring.” ArtfixDaily, 25 March 2015.
Marsala, Helga. "Jeff Koons a Firenze. Il principe del pop americano incontra la grande statuaria rinascimentale. Mitologie classiche e contemporanee a Palazzo Vecchio." Artribune, 1 September 2015.
Martin, Hannah. "Jeff Koons Collaborates With Bernardaud." Architectural Digest, 30 July 2015.
Mastromattei, Dario. “Jeff Koons in mostra a Firenze dal 26 Settembre al 28 Dicembre 2015.” Arte World, 1 September 2015.
McGivern, Hannah. "Jeff Koons goes head-to-head with Michelangelo." The Art Newspaper, 1 September 2015.
Miller, Leigh Anne. “Puppies and Proselytizing: Jeff Koons in Bilbao.” Art in America, 6 August 2015.
Miller, M.H. “’These Are Works That I Enjoy’: Jeff Koons On His Amazing Blue Balls.” ArtNews, 9 November 2015.
“Monumental Jeff Koons Sculpture at Cannes Auction in amfAR’s Cinema Against AIDS Gala on May 21.” ArtfixDaily, 20 May 2015.
Moore, Susan. "Jeff Koons takes on the Old Masters in Florence." 29 September 2015.
Montanari, Tomaso. “La copia dorata di Jeff Koons che sbeffeggia questa Firenze.” La Repubblica Firenze, 2 October 2015
Mugnani, Olga. "La città invasa dalla Biennale d'antiquariato E Jeff Koons rende tutto contemporaneo." La Nazione Firenze, 25 September 2015.
Murg, Stephanie. “Shine On: Jeff Koons in Bilbao.” Smithsonian, 19 June 2015.
Needham, Alex. “Jeff Koons on his Gazing Ball Paintings: ‘It’s not about copying.’” The Guardian, 9 November 2015.
Neri, Silvia. “Jeff Koons: la grande retrospettiva al Pompidou.” Artribune, 7 January 2015.
Paoletti, Andrea. “Jeff Koons in Florence.” Artblog, 25 September 2015.
Pereira, Lorenzo. “Jeff Koons in Florence to Unveil Pluto and Proserpina Sculpture During Antiques Biennal.” Widewalls, 18 September 2015.
Perlson, Hili. “Jeff Koons Triples Production Capacity at His Giant Stone-Cutting Facility, Antiquity Stone, in Pennsylvania.” Artnet News, March 2015.
Pini, Francesca. "Jeff Koons: 'Sono un uomo rinascimentale.'" Corriere Della Sera, 9 September 2015.
Pirovano, Stefano. "Rispetto all'arte antica io, Koons, sono nulla." Panorama, 7 October 2015.
Pirovano, Stefano. “Interview: what do you know about art collector Jeff Koons?” Conceptual Fine Arts, 25 November 2015.
“Power Up.” Art Review, November 2015.
Pratesi, Ludovico. “La Strana Coppia: Jeff Koons E Il David.” La Repubblica, 25 September 2015.
“Prorogata la mostra di Jeff Koons a Palazzo Vecchio.” Firenze, 23 December 2015.
“Proserpina e il David sfida al passato targata Jeff Koons.” La Repubblica, October 2015.
Quattrone, Raffaele. "Jeff Koons. A Retrospective of a Revolution: A New Approach to the Art World." Wall Street International, 1 March 2015.
Rayon, Fernando. “El major artista del mundo.” ARS, July-September 2015.
Reyburn, Scott. “Florence Turns Up the Celebrity Heat.” The New York Times, 2 October 2015.
Ricupati, Daniela. "Jeff Koons a Firenze. II contemporaneo a confronto con l’arte rinascimentale.” Arte Moderno, 15 September 2015.
Risaliti, Sergio. “Jeff Koons In Florence a Palazzo Vecchio di Firenze.” La Nouvelle Vague, 2 September 2015.
Rizza, Gabriele. “Plutone, Preserpina e il fauno: Firenze si apre a Jeff Koons.” Il Tirreno, 26 September 2015.
Santonocito, Eleonora. “Biennale Internazionale dell’Antiquariato di Firenze 2015: ospite Jeff Koons.” ArtsBlog, 22 September 2015.
Seisdedos, Iker. “Factoria Koons.” El País Semanal (no. 2017 ), 24 May 2015.
Sokoloff, Ana. “Jeff Koons.” ars MAGAZINE, July-September 2015.
Solway, Diane. "Picasso Mania!" W Magazine, 27 October 2015.
Souter, Anna. “Jeff Koons in Florence.” Florence is You, November 2015.
Steiner, Bettina. “Jeff Koons: ‘Ich habe nicht mehr als 2,7 Sekunden’.” Die Presse, 30 September 2015.
“Sull’Arengario Di Palazzo Vecchio ‘Pluto and Proserpina’ Di Koons.” Musei Online, 1 September 2015.
“Tabegna, Laura.” Lo aspetto Koons per la mostra nel 2016.” La Nazione, 27 September 2015.
"The exquisite process of Jeff Koons." Christie's, 21 July 2015.
“The Top 10 Living Artists of 2015.” Artsy, 16 December 2015.
Tonelli, Massimiliano. “Appello a Dario Nardella. Lasciamo Jeff Koons in piazza della Signoria.” Artribune, 16 December 2016.
Trione, Vincenzo. "Così sfido (a casa loro) Michelangelo e Donatello." Corriere Della Sera, 23 September 2015.
Tucker, Nikki. “Haute 100 Update: Jeff Koons Work to Be on Display at New Museum.” Haute Living, 18 September 2015.
Valente, Gabriella. “Jeff Koons a Firenze, accanto a Michelangelo e Donatello.” Fanpage, 30 September 2015.
Yablonsky, Linda. “A Christie’s Auction Brings Together the Art, and History, of Jeff Koons and Martin Kippenberger.” The New York Times Style Magazine, 21 April 2015.
Yotka, Steff. “Jeff Koons’s Iconic Rabbit Now Comes in Jewelry Form.” Vogue, 22 October 2015.
Zaldívar, Ignacio Gutiérrez. “Jeff Koons, de agente de bolsa a uno de los 10 artistas más demandados del mundo.” Cronista, 25 September 2015.
2014
Bindé, Joséphine. “Jeff Koons trop cher pour les musées français.” Télérama, 25 November 2014.
Binet, Violaine. “King Koons.” Vogue Paris, June-July 2014.
Binlot, Ann. “Jeff Koons Creates New Sculpture For Project Perpetual Benefit Auction.” Forbes, 30 October 2014.
Birrell, Alice. “You can buy a Jeff Koons for under $100 courtesy of H&M.” Vogue Australia, 13 June 2014.
Boucher, Brian. “'I Believe In Not Making Judgments': The Jeff Koons Interview.” Art in America, 25 June 2014.
Koons, Jeff. "Jeff Koons’ Philosophy of Perfection." NOWNESS, video, 03:56, 16 June 2014.
https://www.nowness.com/series/reflections/jeff-koons-philosophy-of-perfection
Boucher, Brian. “Koons Sculpture Adorns Lobby at Astor Place.” Art in America, 24 January 2014.
Bruno, Mariapia. “Dossier – Con Jeff Koons il Whitney Museum saluta la sua sede di New York.” Tempi, 10 July 2014.
Budick, Ariella. “Jeff Koons at the Whitney Museum.” Financial Times, 4 July 2014.
Carlson, Jen. “Jeff Koons’s Massive Flowering Plant Coming To Rockefeller Center.” Gothamist, 30 May 2014.
Cascone, Sarah. “Jeff Koons Brings a Giant Flower Sculpture to Rockefeller Center.” Artnet, 30 May 2014.
Charlesworth, J.J. “How to make a balloon dog.” Art Review, January-February 2014.
Chong Johnston, Emma. “You can wear Jeff Koons’ Balloon Dog on a bag.” Elle Malaysia, 13 June 2014.
Cowles, Charlotte. “Jeff Koons.” Harper’s Bazaar, November 2014.
Crow, Thomas. “Jeff Koons: A Retrospecitve.” Artforum, May 2014.
Davis, Ben. “Jeff Koons as the Art World’s Great White Hope.” Artnet, 26 June 2014.
de Pury, Simon. “Simon’s World: Svetlana Kuzmicheva-Uspenskaya and Jeff Koons Unite For Charity.” Artnet, 21 October 2014.
Diderich, Joelle. “H&M Celebrates Jeff Koons at Centre Pompidou.” WWD, 10 December 2014.
“DIVIDE AND RULE.” Harper’s Bazaar Art Korea, April 2014.
Edelson, Sharon. “H&M Calls on Jeff Koons.” WWD, 12 June 2014.
Foster, Hal. “At the Whitney.” London Review of Books, 31 July 2014.
Friedlander, Ruthie. “Jeff Koons on 3D Printing, Selfies, and Cats.” Elle, 25 June 2014.
Freeman, Nate. “Behold Garage Magazine’s New Cover Stars: Supermodels as Jeff Koons Bunnies.” New York Observer, 2 September 2014.
Freeman, Nate. “Krowds, Kids and Ring-Kissing at Koons Kocktails.” Gallerist NY, 25 June 2014.
Fujimori, Manami. “Jeff Koons.” YomiTime, 18 July 2014.
Gamerman, Ellen. “Jeff Koons Retrospective To Open at the Whitney.” Wall Street Journal, 19 June 2014.
Garratt, Karen. “Jeff Koons: A Hubris Trickster Creating The Visually Grandoise.” Artlyst, 24 June 2014.
Green, Stephanie. “Jimmy Page and Jeff Koons Rock n’ Roll.” Huffington Post, 4 November 2014.
Gopnik, Blake. “Jeff Koons: A Genius from Day One.” Artnet, 18 August 2014.
Hall, Lorna. “THE WHITNEY PULLS OUT ALL THE STOPS FOR KOONS.” Mind, 23 July 2014.
Heyman, Marshall. “Birkin Bags, Jeff Koons Art on the Charity Auction Block.” Wall Street Journal, 10 November 2014.
Ilnytzky, Ula. “Jeff Koons’ Whimsy Takes Over NYC Museum.” ABC News, 24 June 2014.
Indrisek, Scott. “All Aboard That ‘Great Koonsian Adventure.’” Blouin Artinfo, 26 June 2014.
“Jeff Koons Talks Bronzes at the Frick Thursday Night.” Gallerist NY, 23 April 2014.
“Jeff Koons topiary-like sculpture coming to NYC.” Wall Street Journal, 5 June 2014.
Keats, Jonathon. “Is Jeff Koons’ New Blockbuster Whitney Exhibit Better Than The Colbert Report?” Forbes, 30 June 2014.
Kinsella, Eileen. “Charting Jeff Koons’s Sky-High Market.” Artnet, 17 June 2014.
Kinsella, Eileen. “Crystal Bridges Acquires Koons Sculpture (Yes, Really).” Artnet, 18 February 2014.
Koons, Jeff. “Jeff Koons: Man of the Hour.” W Magazine, 2 June 2014.
Koons, Jeff. “’What Inspires Me Is Feeling’: Jeff Koons.” Art in America, 18 June 2014.
Kozinn, Allan. “A Virtual Jeff Koons Work to Grace Garage Magazine.” New York Times, 2 September 2014.
Kozinn, Allan. “Koons Creating Sculptures for New Philanthropy Project.” New York Times, 8 September 2014.
La Ferla, Ruth. “Art, and Handbags, for the People.” New York Times, 23 July 2014.
Lacayo, Richard. “Show Me the Bunny: As he closes in on 60, Jeff Koons finally gets his really big show.” Time, 7 July 2014.
Lalinde, Jaime. “How to Make a Koons.” Vanity Fair, 16 June 2014.
Lipton, Gabrielle. “1992.” DestinAsian, August-September 2014.
Liucci, Goutnikov. “Jeff Koons: une histoire de goût.” Les Cahiers du Musée national d’art modern, Summer 2014.
Lowe, Laurence. “Jeff Koons, in His Own Words.” Details Magazine, June-July 2014.
Maza, Erik. “Jeff Koons Anniversary Retrospective Opens at the Whitney.” WWD, 25 June 2014.
McCracken, Erin. “YorkArts gets huge response for trips to Jeff Koons retrospective in New York City.” York Daily Record, 7 September 2014.
Melby, Leah. “H&M and Jeff Koons Are Collaborating (and There’s an Amazing Balloon Dog Bag Involved!)” Glamour, 12 June 2014.
Murg, Stephanie. “Jeff Koons’ First Retrospective Debuts.” Gotham, 24 June 2014.
Murg, Stephanie. “Jeff Koons’ Technicolor takeover of the Whitney Museum.” Wallpaper, 26 June 2014.
NG, David. “Jeff Koons strips for Annie Leibovitz in Vanity Fair.” Los Angeles Times, 16 June 2014.
Perl, Jed. “The Cult of Jeff Koons.” New York Review of Books, 25 September 2014.
Polsinelli, Michael and Sasha Burkhanova. “The Words.” Garage Magazine, Fall-Winter 2014.
Koons, Jeff. "Jeff Koons’ Philosophy of Perfection." NOWNESS, video, 03:56, 16 June 2014.
https://www.nowness.com/series/reflections/jeff-koons-philosophy-of-perfection
“Popeye nets an eye-popping $28 million.” The Economic Times, 21 May 2014.
Powers, Bill. “The Time Traveler Jeff Koons.” Muse, Fall 2014.
Rathe, Adam. “Pop Shop.” DuJour Magazine, Summer 2014.
Reardon, Ben. “Four of our Favourite Fashion Designers Quiz Jeff Koons.” i-D, 15 October 2014.
Russeth, Andrew. “Watch the Throne.” Gallerist NY, 26 June 2014.
Saltz, Jerry. “Taking in Jeff Koons, Creator and Destroyer of Worlds.” New York, 25 June 2014.
Schjeldahl, Peter. “Selling Points.” New Yorker, 7 July 2014.
Shatzman, Celia. “Jeff Koons Is Curating An Exhibit At H&M’s Newest Store.” Forbes, 15 July 2014.
Silver, Leigh. “Jeff Koons’ ‘Split Rocker’ Sculpture Is Coming to Rockefeller Center.” Complex Art + Design,
30 May 2014.
Sischy, Ingrid. “Jeff Koons Is Back!” Vanity Fair, July 2014.
Sischy, Ingrid. “Jeff Koons L’ART GONFLÉ.” Vanity Fair France, October 2014.
Smith, Roberta. “Shapes of an Extroverted Life.” New York Times, 26 June
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"Menorca",
"www.facebook.com"
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2016-08-19T13:07:42+00:00
|
Frankfurt is known as business capital of Germany. We reveal other secrets and fun facts about this city - here the 8 Fun Facts Frankfurt.
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en
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MEININGER Hotels
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https://www.meininger-hotels.com/blog/en/fun-facts-frankfurt/
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8 facts you probably didn’t know about Frankfurt
Frankfurt is Germany’s financial capital and home to one of the largest airports in Europe. It might not be the first city you think of for a visit because it is mainly known as a business city. But it’s definitely worth of visiting, Frankfurt is a city in which there is a lot to explore and discover. Get to know the city and find out which are the most interesting fun facts about Frankfurt!
#1 Frankfurt means ford of the Franks
Frankfurt was given the name by Charlemagne, the King of the Franks, who ruled over parts of modern France and Germany in the Middle Ages. After winning a battle against the Saxons, he decided to commemorate his victory and named the place as the ‘Ford of the Franks’ or Frankfurt.
#2 It is the home of the Frankfurter (Hot Dog)
Interestingly, ’Hot Dogs’ are also known as ‘Frankfurters’ and the dish derives its name from the city itself. Frankfurter Würstchen were supposedly distributed to people during special events like imperial coronations.
#3 Goethe was born and raised in Frankfurt
Ever heard of Goethe Institute for German or language classes? Goethe was a prolific writer and statesman in Germany and lived with his family in Frankfurt too. You can visit the Goethe Haus whenever you are in the city and dive into history while walking through the house and reading about him.
#4 14 out of the 15 tallest skyscrapers in Germany stand in Frankfurt
Frankfurt is the fifth largest city of Germany and is also known as ‘Mainhattan’ , since it is located along the river Maine and has some striking skyscrapers. For a good view over the city, you can go up to the 55th floor of the MAIN Tower, which is the ‘Frankfurt’s highest vantage point.’ The tallest one is the Commerzbank tower whit its 260 meters.
#5 Home of Johannes Gutenberg
Frankfurt was home to the inventor of the printing press, Johannes Gutenberg. You can spot a memorial dedicated to him and the early funders of the printing press in the city centre on the Rossmarkt square.
#6 Impressive Central Station
Because of the Frankfurt’s location in the middle of Germany and usage as a transport hub for long and short distance travelling, Deutsche Bahn refers to the Frankfurt Central Station as the most important station in Germany. If you ever find yourself at Frankfurt Hauptbahnhof (Central Railway station), check out of the building from the front and look closely at the main entrance. You will notice the statue of Atlas carrying the Earth on his shoulders!
#7 The Grimm brothers are from the city near Frankfurt
For fairy tale lovers, there is a very special journey into childhood. The Grimm brothers, who compiled fairy tales such as Cinderella, Rapunzel, Snow White and Rose Red, Sleeping Beauty and many others, lived in Hanau, barely 25 kilometers away from Frankfurt. Later, they moved to the city of Marburg, a good 100 kilometers away, to study.
#8 Frankfurt Airport is huge
At some point, you might have had a flight connection via Frankfurt Airport, Europe’s fourth-biggest airport (and Germany’s biggest). It spreads over 2000 hectares of land, has a baggage system equivalent to the length of one and a half marathons, annually receives more than 60 million passengers, handles over 460,000 flights and transports more than 2 million tonnes of cargo.
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https://www.lingoda.com/blog/en/celebrities-who-speak-german/
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en
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9 celebrities who speak German
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2020-02-12T14:32:54+00:00
|
There are many celebrities who speak German. Curious to know who and how they did it? Read more on their background in this article.
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en
|
Lingoda
|
https://www.lingoda.com/blog/en/celebrities-who-speak-german/
|
The German language has quite the stigma of being difficult to learn. With many words for the English word “the”, including the gendered articles of “der, die, and das”, many struggle to learn the language due to its complexity. Nevertheless, there have been many Hollywood celebrities who’ve managed to master it – and even speak it on stage and during interviews. If they can do it, so can you! Here comes our list of celebrities who speak German!
1. Leonardo DiCaprio
You’ll know him from the famous love story alongside co-star Kate Winslet in the movie “Titanic”. While his full name doesn’t sound it, his middle name “Wilhelm”, definitely captures the German spirit. Despite that he doesn’t speak German in the movies, Leonardo Dicaprio has a strong German background. His grandparents on his mother’s side were German, his mum is German, and he often visited Germany up through his grandmother’s death in August 2008. Spending his summers in the small village of Oer-Erkenschwick, he was quite close to his Oma Helene. During a publicity tour for the movie “Gangs of New York”, German TV interviewers were starstruck when he began reminiscing about his time with his beloved Oma, as well as his favourite foods (Wiener Schnitzel and Spätzle) completely in German.
2. Natalie Portman
Natalie Portman has been known as a bit of a perfectionist on and off stage. Famous for her role in “Black Swan”, she not only speaks German, but also Hebrew, Spanish, Japanese, and French. During her publicity tour in Germany for “Star Wars”, she had fluid conversations with interviewers in German. Quite the brainiac in general, she grew up in Israel and then, later on, graduated from Harvard. She was already serious as a kid about knowing exactly what she wanted to learn and did it. She has been quoted as saying “I’m not a perfectionist but I’m definitely, or well, I like discipline. I’m obedient. I’m not a perfectionist.” Six languages later, certainly no one can object!
3. Sandra Bullock
Does Sandra Bullock speak German! YES! Named People’s Most Beautiful Woman in 2015 and one of Time’s 100 most influential people in the world in 2010, the Hollywood superstar is very familiar with the German language due to her German mother. She even had dual American/German citizenship up until 2009. She spent 12 years in Nuremberg during her childhood when her father worked at the military base. Videos of Sandra Bullock speaking on stage in German prove she’s basically like a native speaker, though if you ask her more recently, she says she’s a bit “rusty”.
4. Bruce Willis
Another celebrity speaking German is the famous “Die Hard” actor Bruce Willis was also born in Germany on a US military base and his mother was from Kassel. That being said, the family left Germany when Bruce was only two years old, so it’s hard to tell if he’s retained much up to now. Although German is technically his native language due to this birthplace, German interviewers described his language capability as “broken”.
5. Michael Fassbender
Known for his Irish-German roots, Michael Fassbender actually spoke German in the film “Inglorious Bastards”. Though born in Germany and with a German father, he spent most of his childhood in Killarney, Ireland, so he doesn’t consider himself a German native speaker. While preparing for “Inglorious Bastards” he needed the help of a vocal coach to polish his accent so he didn’t sound so Irish. When German interviewers asked how much he had to prepare for the role, he replied, “Am besten spreche ich Deutsch, wenn ich etwas betrunken bin” (I speak German the best when I’m a bit drunk).
6. Bruce Springsteen
The famous rock’n’roll legend Bruce Springsteen can trace his German language roots back to a speech he gave in 1988 after the fall of the Berlin wall – completely in German. He had written the short speech down on paper phonetically to help with pronunciation. The crowd roared in approval after his 4-hour concert. Though not responsible for taking down the Berlin wall himself, he certainly added major fuel to the fire!
7. Gene Simmons
This rock n roll star definitely speaks fluent German due to his mother’s teachings. Born in Israel as Chaim Witz, he moved to the US at 8 years old and changed his name to Gene. His mother and uncle were Hungarian and survived concentration camps during WWII, so they all were able to speak Hungarian, German, and Hebrew. During German interviews, he does speak German quite fluidly so it seems the language stuck!
8. Tina Fey
Although Tina Fey spoke a decent amount of German for her role in “30 Rock” as Liz Lemon, she isn’t quite capable of speaking German in real life. She also managed to coerce her co-actors to speak German as well. Unfortunately, native German speakers can hear that many of the phrases aren’t quite grammatically correct and she struggles with the pronunciation. But at least she tried!
9. Kim Cattrall
“Sex in the City” star Kim Cattrall was born in Liverpool. However, she spent the 1980s in Frankfurt with her second husband and learnt German. At the time she was quite fluent, but now she says she has forgotten most of it. Since then, she has spoken on stage and done interviews in German, but she avoids it more recently, because she is shy about making mistakes.
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https://www1.villanova.edu/villanova/provost/institutes/augustinianinstitute/ahi.html
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en
|
Augustinian Historical Institute
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https://www1.villanova.edu/etc/designs/villanova/favicon.ico
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https://www1.villanova.edu/etc/designs/villanova/favicon.ico
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Author Index of the Proceedings of the PRM Conference
Volumes 1-20 (1976-1996)
Abraham, Lenore. "Bede's Life of Cuthbert: A Reassessment." 1 (1976), 23-32.
———. "The Devil, the Yew Bow, and the Saxon Archer." 16-17 (1992-93), 1-12.
Alkaaoud, Elizabeth. "Caro, Caritas, and the Role of Samaritan in Piers Plowman." 7 (1982), 39-45.
Asals, Heather. "Davids Successors: Forms of Joy in Art." 2 (1977), 31-38.
Bäck, Allan. "Ibn Sina on the Individuation of Perceptible Substances." 14 (1989), 23-42.
Bakelaar, Bette Lou. "An Episode in the Roman de Meliadus." 1 (1976), 73-79.
Bampton, Alice. "Cardinal Ippolito II d'Este as a Patron of Art." 18 (1993-94), 147-62.
Barker, Lynn K. "Epistola 63 and the Canonical Reform Movement: Keys to Understanding the Typological Exegesis of Ivo of Chartres." 9 (1984), 51-58.
Bartlett, Kenneth R. "English Students at Padua 1521-1588." 4 (1979), 89-106.
Beer, Jeanette. "The Clerc-Lai Opposition in Language—A Stage in the Education of French." 1 (1976), 59-65.
Bell, Dean Phillip. "Anti-Judaism and Anticlericalism in Late Medieval Augsburg." 19-20 (1994-96), 117-24.
Berlin, Gail Ivy. "Grendel's Advance on Heorot: The Functions of Anticipation." 11 (1986), 19-26.
Bilaniuk, Petro. "A Theological Analysis of The Letter of Misael, the Metropolitan-elect of Kiev, to Pope Sixtus IV (on Its 500th Anniversary: 1476-1976)." 1 (1976), 123-36.
———. "Nicholas of Cusa and the Council of Florence." 2 (1977), 59-76.
Black, Deborah L. "The Influence of the De divinis nominibus on the Epistemology of St. Thomas Aquinas." 10 (1985), 41-52.
Bönker-Vallon, Angelika. "The Mathematics of Natural Philosophy in Giordano Bruno's Latin Work: An Example of Early Modern Thought." 19-20 (1994-96), 125-32.
Bourke, Vernon J. "A Millenium of Christian Platonism: Augustine, Anselm and Ficino." 10 (1985), 1-22.
Boyle, John F. "Is the Tertia Pars of the Summa Theologiae Misplaced?" 18 (1993-94), 103-109.
Boyle, Leonard E. "Thomas Aquinas and the Duchess of Brabant." 8 (1983), 25-35.
Brady, Jennifer. "Pre-Texts to Ben Jonson's Sejanus." 16-17 (1992-93), 13-21.
Bragg, Lois. "Color Words in Beowulf." 7 (1982), 47-56.
Brams, Jozef. "The Critical Editing of the Latin Aristotle: The Case of the Physics." 15 (1990), 19-33.
Broeniman, Clifford S. "The Confessiones of St. Augustine and Virgil's Aeneas: a Study in Narrative Design." 16-17 (1992-93), 23-38.
Brown, Montague. "Anselm's Argument for the Necessity of the Incarnation." 16-17 (1992-93), 39-52.
Bruce, Alexander M. "The Questing Beast in Malory's Morte Darthur." 19-20 (1994-96), 133-42.
Brumfield, William Craft. "Structure and Iconography in the Medieval Churches of Vladimir Principality." 19-20 (1994-96), 69-100.
Burrows, Mark S. "Another Look at the Sources of De consolatione philosophiae: Boethius' Echo of Augustine's Doctrine of 'Providentia.'" 11 (1986), 27-41.
Cahill, Michael, CSSp. "The Identification of an Interpolated Homily in an Early Commentary on Mark." 15 (1990), 35-42.
Carman, Charles H. "Leonardo's Paragone and Renaissance Poetics." 18 (1993-94), 133-45.
Carpenter, Dwayne E. "Christian Attitudes toward the Jewish Sabbath in the Light of Medieval Spanish Legal Texts." 4 (1979), 51-62.
Cavadini, John C. "Claudius of Turin and the Augustinian Tradition." 11 (1986), 43-50.
Chazelle, Celia M. "To Whom Did Christ Pay the Price? The Soteriology of Alcuin's Epistola 307." 14 (1989), 43-62.
———. "Images, Scripture, the Church, and the Libri Carolini." 16-17 (1992-93), 53-76.
Chiappelli, Carolyn. "Fals Apparences: Satan and Chaucer's House of Fame." 4 (1979), 107-114.
Cizewski, Wanda. "‘In saeculo quondam cara, nunc in Christo carissima'—Heloise and Spiritual Formation at the Convent of the Paraclete." 9 (1984), 69-75.
———. "Tribuli et Spini: Some Twelfth-Century Interpretations of the Problem of Physical Evil." 14 (1989), 63-74.
———. "Peter Abelard and the Problem of Revelation." 15 (1990), 43-55.
Clark, Elizabeth A. "Perilous Readings: Jerome, Asceticism, and Heresy." 19-20 (1994-96), 15-33.
Clark, John R. "The Traditional Figure of Dina and Abelard's First Planctus." 7 (1982), 117-28.
Clark, Susan L. "Said and Unsaid, Male and Female: Leaving, Left, and Left Out in Heinrich von Veldeke's Eneide." 11 (1986), 51-70.
Clark-Evans, Christine. "On the Comunion of Women: Reading and Writing in the Poetry of Pernette Du Guillet and Louise Labé." 12-13 (1987-88), 67-80.
Classen, Albrecht. "Royal Women in Middle High German Romances." 12-13 (1987-88), 81-100.
Colish, Marcia L. "'...Quae hodie locum non habent': Scholastic Theologians Reflect on Their Authoritites." 15 (1990), 1-17.
Colledge, Edmund, OSA,. "Lay Piety as a Force in Late Mediaeval Spirituality." 1 (1976), 1-21.
Colón, David M. "Martin Luther, the Devil and the Teufelchen: Attitudes Toward Mentally Retarded Children in Sixteenth-Century Germany." 14 (1989), 75-84.
Colvert, Gavin T. "Aquinas and Davidson on Making Bad Choices." 18 (1993-94), 67-101.
Cook, William R. and Accorso, Samuel D. "The Image of the Good Shepherd in pre-Reformation Christianity." 1 (1976), 93-104.
Cormier, Raymond. "From Urbs to Herbs: Illustrations of Amazing Marvels in the Twelfth-Century Scientific Awakening as Found in a Vernacular Adaptation of Virgil's Aeneid." 16-17 (1992-93), 77-89.
Corrigan, Kevin. "Conflict and Consistency in the Theories of Matter in Plotinus and Ibn Gabirol." 12-13 (1987-88), 101-12.
Davis, Scott. "The Unity of the Virtues in Abelard's Dialogues." 11 (1986), 71-82.
De Asúa, Miguel. "Albert the Great and the Controversia inter Medicos et Philosophos." 19-20 (1994-96), 143-56.
Dobbs-Weinstein, Idit. "The Nature of Biblical Language in Maimonides' Guide of the Perplexed: Parabolic Contradictions and Negative Attributions." 12-13 (1987-88), 113-27.
Delp, Mark Damien. "Alcuin: Master and Practitioner of Dialectic." 16-17 (1992-93), 91-103.
Deyermond, Alan. "Structure and Style as Instruments of Propaganda in Juan de Mena's Laberinto de Fortuna." 5 (1980), 159-67.
Donawerth, Jane. "Holofernes, the English Spelling Controversy, and the Renaissance Philosophy of Language." 8 (1983), 79-88.
Donnelly, Dorothy F. "Temporal and Cosmic Order: The Making of a New Vision in Thomas More's Utopia." 9 (1984), 103-16.
———. "An Obscure Seventeenth-Century Tribute to Augustine." 12-13 (1987-88), 129-35.
Dow, Helen J. "The Apse Mosaic of S. Appollinare in Classe." 4 (1979), 35-40.
Eastman, John R. "De Renunciatione Papae: Giles of Rome and His Fidelity to Sources in the Context of Ecclesiological Political Thought." 15 (1990), 57-70.
Eby, Charles T. "Nicholas of Cusa and Medieval Cosmology: An Historical Reassessment." 11 (1986), 83-90.
Echard, Gwenda. "Aspects of Christian Humanism in French Renaissance Prefaces to the Classics." 4 (1979), 41-50.
———. "The String Untuned—Anti-Reformation Aspects of Guillaume Budés De transitu." 11 (1986), 91-99.
Edwards, Burton Van Name. "The Commentary on Genesis Attributed to Walahfrid Strabo: A Preliminary Report from the Manuscripts." 15 (1990), 71-89.
Edwards, Sandra. "Aquinas on Unity and Identity." 3 (1978), 41-50.
Elias, Lorraine. "Augustinian Elements in the Record of Galbert of Bruges." 18 (1993-94), 35-48.
Elliott, Alison Goddard. "The Martyr as Epic Hero: Prudentius' Peristephanon and the Old French Chanson de Geste." 3 (1978), 119-35.
Evans, Barbara. "‘Me prolubiis risum tegit regia vestis': Symbolic Inversion and Tropes of Portraits of Little People in the Late Cinquecento." 14 (1989), 85-98.
Farrell, Anthony J. "Original and Borrowed Words: The Works of Pedro Hurtado de la Vera." 9 (1984), 89-94.
Faughnan, Mary Ellen. "Morality in the Romance of the Rose: The Misunderstood Figure of Nature." 4 (1979), 137-41.
Fifield, Merle. "Marieken van Nijmegan and Its Chapbook Version: A Study in Contrastive Narrative Techniques." 4 (1979), 127-36.
Flansburg, Margaret. "Beato Agostino Novello: A Trecento Saint Restored." 10 (1985), 53-64.
Forhan, Kate Langdon. "A Twelfth-Century ‘Bureaucrat' and the Life of the Mind: The Political Thought of John of Salisbury." 10 (1985), 65-74.
Frederick, Jill. "‘His ansyne waes swylce rosan blostma': A Reading of the Old English Life of St. Christopher." 12-13 (1987-88) 137-48.
Frend, William H. C. "The Exploration of Christian Nubia: Retrospect and Prospects." 6 (1981), 51-74.
Furr, Grover C., III. "France vs. Italy: French Literary Nationalism in 'Petrarch's Last Controversy' and a Humanist Dispute of ca. 1395." 4 (1979), 115-25.
Gaskill, Thomas E. "Was Leibniz an Avicennian? Leibniz and Avicenna on the Principle of Sufficient Reason." 16-17 (1992-93), 105-13.
Geanakoplos, Deno J. "A Reevaluation of the Influences of Byzantine Scholars on the Development of the Studia Humanitatis, Metaphysics, Patristics, and Science in the Italian Renaissance (1361-c.1521)." 3 (1978), 1-25.
George, Marie. "St. Albert the Great on the Role of Poesis in Liberal Education." 15 (1990), 91-101.
Gerke, Robert S. "Fortitude and Sloth in the Wife of Bath's Tale and the Clerk's Tale." 5 (1980), 119-35.
Gertzman, Jay A. "Literature of Courtesy and the Cavalier Persona." 3 (1978), 105-18.
Gnerro, Mark L. "Marian Typology and Milton's Heavenly Muse." 2 (1977), 39-48.
Grant, Marshal S. "The Question of Integrity in the First Continuation of Chrétien de Troyes' Conte du Graal." 11 (1986), 101-25.
Green, Paul D. "The Treatment of Suicide in the Later Books of The Faerie Queene." 2 (1977), 77-85.
Griffith, Sidney H. "Comparative Religion in the Apologetics of the First Christian Arabic Theologians." 4 (1979), 63-87.
Grimes, Donald J. "Petrine Primacy: Perspectives of Two Insular Commentators (A.D. 600-800)." 12-13 (1987-88), 149-58.
Gross, Charlotte. "William of Conches: A Curious Grammatical Argument Against the Eternity of the World." 11 (1986), 127-33.
Hackett, Jeremiah. "The Use of a Text Quotation from Meister Eckhart by Jordan of Quedlinburg (Saxony), O.S.A." 2 (1977), 97-102.
Hackett, Michael B., OSA. "Catherine of Siena and William of England." 5 (1980), 29-47.
———. "The Augustinian Situation in Ireland at the Outset of the American Mission in the 1790's." 19-20 (1994-96), 1-14.
Hala, James. "‘For She is Tikel of Hire Tale': Word-Play in the Lady Mede Episode of Piers Plowman B." 14 (1989), 99-126.
Hale, David G. "'The Glose Was Gloriously Written': The Textuality of Langland's Good Samaritan." 14 (1989), 127-34.
Hamilton, Gertrude. "Ficino's Concept of Nature and the Philosophy of Light." 7 (1982), 67-74.
Hammerling, Roy. "The Pater Noster in Its Patristic and Medieval Context: The Baptismal-Catechetic Interpretation of the Lord's Prayer." 18 (1993-94), 1-24.
Hanson, Craig L. "Religious Minorities in Palaeologan Constantinople: Patriarch Athanasius I and the Jewish Community in the Reign of Andronicus II." 14 (1989), 135-46.
Hanus, Jerome J. "Virture in the Utopias of Thomas More and Charles Fourier." 16-17 (1992-93), 115-26.
Haskin, Dayton. "Matthew, Mary, Luke and John: The Mother of the Word in Milton's Poetry." 10 (1985), 75-86.
Hatlen, Burton. "A World without Absolutes: Dialectic in Shakespeare's Julius Caesar." 3 (1978), 167-82.
Heffner, Blake R. "'God Must Give Godself': A Theological A Priori in Rhineland Mysticism." 12-13 (1987-88), 159-66.
———. "Hadewijch and a Mystical Trajectory of Augustinianism." 16-17 (1992-93), 127-38.
Hill, Melissa. "'A Conversation of Souls': Community and Subjectivity in Margaret Cavendish's Sociable Letters." 16-17 (1992-93), 139-47.
Houghton, John William. "(Re)Sounding Brass: Alcuin's New Castings in the Questions and Answers on Genesis." 16-17 (1992-93), 149-61.
Houser, R. E. "The Place of the First Principle of Demonstration in Avicennian Metaphysics." 6 (1981), 117-34.
Huelsbergen, Helmut E. "Laus Asini: On the Revaluation of an Image in Sixteenth-Century German Literature." 3 (1978), 95-104.
Huseman, William H. "The Zelus domus domini Motif, the Sacred Space of Orthodoxy, and the Phantasmagoria of Heresy: Issues of Centrality and Marginality in the Effort to Define Heresy." 16-17 (1992-93), 163-203.
Jaster, Margaret Rose. "Of Bonnets and Breeches: Sumptuary Codes in Elizabethan Popular Literature." 16-17 (1992-93), 205-11.
Kantra, Robert T. "Jerome and Erasmus in Renaissance Art." 1 (1976), 105-10.
Kaufman, Peter Iver. "Colet, Erasmus, and the Practical Spirituality of the Catholic Reformation." 2 (1977), 19-30.
Keita, Maghan. "Scholarship as a Global Commodity: African Intellectual Communities in the Medieval and Renaissance Periods." 14 (1989), 147-71.
Kem, Judy. "Jean Lemaire de Belges' Illustrations de Gaule et Singularitez de Troye: Revising Medieval Versions of the Trojan Legend." 14 (1989), 173-81.
Keresztes, Paul. "Constantine's Christianity and Patristic Literature." 5 (1980), 49-57.
Kienzle, Beverly M. "The House of the Lord: Hélinand on Superfluous Monastic Construction." 11 (1986), 135-41.
King, James T. "The First Controversy over the Possibility of a Christian Philosophy (A Survey of the Opposing Views of Justin and Tatian)." 1 (1976), 81-92.
Koterski, Joseph W. "The Epistemology of St. Bernard of Clairvaux: Humility and Freedom for Truth." 8 (1983), 47-52.
Krieg, Martha Fessler. "Color Terms in Mediaeval French." 3 (1978), 51-58.
Kries, Douglas. "The Virtue of Religion in the Political Thought of Thomas Aquinas." 15 (1990), 103-15.
Kristeller, Paul Oskar. "The Curriculum of the Italian Universities from the Middle Ages to the Renaissance." 9 (1984), 1-16 .
Lavere, George J. "Camus' Plague and Saint Augustine's Civitas Terrena." 10 (1985), 87-98.
Leichner, Laurel. "Das StraBburger Heldenbuch in Historical, Cultural, and Literary Context." 12-13 (1987-88), 167-78.
Levenson, Jill L. "Romeo and Juliet: Tragical-Comical-Lyrical History." 12-13 (1987-88), 31-46.
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A history of the Rothschilds, a prominent German family that established banking and finance houses in Europe.
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en
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/favicon.ico
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Investopedia
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https://www.investopedia.com/updates/history-rothschild-family/
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The Rothschild family is an influential banking dynasty from Frankfurt. In fact, it is one of the most famous financial houses and was once one of the world's richest families.
Established by Mayer Amschel Rothschild in the 18th century, the empire grew to prominence under his five sons: Nathan Mayer, James Mayer, Salomon Mayer, Carl Mayer, and Amschel Mayer. Mayer Amschel believed that keeping the business in the family ensured its success in the future. And he was right.
The Rothschilds made lucrative investments and developed a solid reputation in financial management throughout Europe. They became pioneers in the development of international finance, with branches in London, Paris, Vienna, and Naples, in addition to their native Frankfurt.
From a small business engaged in trading goods and foreign exchange, the Rothschild family grew its business activities to include:
Merchant banking
Private banking
Asset management
Mergers and acquisitions
Insurance
Venture capital
Pensions and investments
Sovereign debt
Commodities
The Rothschild family has maintained its financial reach even today. It is also invested in major infrastructure projects such as bridges, tunnels, and railways. Perhaps one of its most notable projects is the Suez Canal. Other business interests include hotels, media, transportation, and wine.
Who Is the Rothschild Family?
The Rothschild family is a wealthy and influential banking dynasty originating from Germany. They gained prominence in the 18th century, establishing banking businesses across Europe, particularly in finance and investments. The family's legacy includes significant contributions to finance, philanthropy, and cultural institutions. The Rothschild family currently resides and operates globally, with members living in various countries around the world.
Mayer Amschel Rothschild: The Founder
Mayer Amschel Rothschild (1744–1812) grew up in Frankfurt's Judengasse, the narrow lane where the city's 3,000 Jewish residents were confined to live. Conditions were overcrowded and harsh. Jewish people could not leave at night, on Sundays, and on Christian holidays. They were barred from visiting public gardens or coffee shops, and could not walk in public in groups of more than two.
Mayer Rothschild learned business at a young age. His father, Amschel Moses Rothschild, dealt in silk cloth and exchanged currency. One of Mayer's first jobs was sorting coins acquired through Frankfurt's semi-annual trade fairs, which attracted buyers and sellers throughout the region.
His parents died of smallpox when Mayer was twelve. He lived with relatives, who sent him to Hannover to apprentice with Simon Wolf Oppenheimer, a prominent Jewish banking house. There, Mayer was exposed to foreign trade and finance, and learned about rare coins from places such as ancient Rome, Persia, and the Byzantine Empire. The collectors of these coins were princes and other men of wealth. The Jewish men who transacted with them were called "court Jews," or court factors, meaning they did business with nobility.
The Beginnings of a Banking Empire
Mayer Rothschild returned to Frankfurt in 1763 at the age of 19 and joined his brothers in the trading business started by their father. Mayer became a dealer in rare coins and won the patronage of Crown Prince Wilhelm of Hesse, who had also bought coins from Mayer's father. This was an important business relationship for Mayer, as it grew to include other financial services and helped Mayer to develop ties with other nobles. Crown Prince Wilhelm was heir to immense wealth and later assumed the title Wilhelm IX, Landgrave of Hesse-Kessel.
In 1769, Rothschild asked Wilhelm for the title of court factor, or crown agent. The honorary title signified that Mayer had performed services for royalty and allowed him to hang from his house a shield with the Hesse and Hanau coat of arms that effectively advertised this fact.
In 1770, Mayer married Gutle Schanpper, the daughter of a money changer and court factor. She gave birth to the couple's ten children. They had five sons and five daughters.
Expanding and Controlling the Rothschild Footprint
The Rothschild banking empire grew rapidly during the French Revolution. Mayer Rothschild facilitated payments from Britain for the hiring of Hessian mercenary soldiers.
In the early 1800s, Rothschild sent his sons to live in Naples, Vienna, Paris, and London, in addition to keeping a son in Frankfurt. With Mayer Rothschild's children spread across Europe, the five linked branches became, in effect, the first bank to transcend borders. Lending to governments to finance war operations over several centuries provided the Rothschild family with ample opportunity to accumulate bonds and build additional wealth in a range of different industries.
Before he died, Mayer Rothschild left strict instructions for his heirs on how they should handle family finances. He wanted to keep the fortune within the family and, as such, his will outlined a rigid patrilineal system of succession, whereby title and property could only pass through the male line and female descendants were excluded from any direct inheritance. This had the effect of encouraging marriages among family members.
Between 1824 and 1877, there were 36 marriages of Mayer Rothschild's male descendants. Of these, 30 married within the family. Most married first or second cousins. During this time, only four Rothschild women and two men married partners to whom they were not related.
Nathan Mayer Rothschild: International Financier
Of the four Rothschild sons who ventured out, the third son Nathan (1777–1836) achieved the greatest success. Nathan moved to Manchester, England, in 1798 to set up a textile business. He later moved to London to establish himself as a banker, setting up N M Rothschild in 1810.
N M Rothschild & Sons is still in operation today. In 2022, the bank reported €2.97 billion in revenue and €606 million in net income, with €101.6 billion in assets under management.
Like the other Rothschild banks, N M Rothschild & Sons furnished credit to the British government during times of crisis. During the Napoleonic Wars, the bank managed and financed subsidies the government sent to allies and lent funds to pay British troops, almost single-handedly financing the war effort.
In 1824, Nathan Rothschild and Moses Montefiore cofounded the Alliance Assurance Company, which today is part of the RSA Group. In 1835, Nathan secured the rights to mercury mines in Spain, gaining a virtual world monopoly on the chemical element, which is critical to refining gold and silver. This supply proved invaluable in 1852 when N M Rothschild & Sons began refining gold and silver for the Bank of England and the Royal Mint.
Growing Philanthropic Activities
Nathan Rothschild contributed to many areas in the Jewish community. His family later expanded these charitable efforts to other populations in Paris and London. His earliest efforts went toward synagogues in London. This led to the formation of the United Synagogue, a group that helped streamline the causes of the smaller synagogues. Later, family members supported the development of Israel and helped construct housing and government buildings.
Nathan's youngest child, Louise, and her seven daughters took responsibility for many of the 30 Rothschild charitable foundations in Frankfurt. These foundations included public libraries, orphanages, hospitals, homes for the elderly, and special funds allocated for the purpose of education.
The Jews' Free School in London received extensive financial support. Educational efforts in Austria, France, and Israel were also made possible through the Rothschilds' generosity. In addition to monies put toward education, the family gave an estimated 60,000 pieces of artwork to public institutions. The Rothschild family expanded the creation of social housing in the cities of London and Paris, and the Rothschild Foundation was created to further these efforts.
The House of Rothschild in the 20th Century
Wars, politics, and family rivalries diminished the family fortune over the next 100 years. The Naples branch of the bank closed in 1863, and a lack of male heirs led to the closure of the Frankfurt branch in 1901. The Vienna branch was shuttered in 1938 following the Nazi invasion of Austria and the danger posed to Jews.
The Vichy government in France expropriated Rothschild's Bordeaux properties during the war, and the Nazis confiscated millions of dollars worth of art and other precious objects from the Austrian branch of the family (a portion of these were returned by the Austrian government in 1998). Over the years, palatial Rothschild estates were donated to the British and French governments and other organizations and universities.
By the 1970s, three Rothschild banks remained: the London and Paris branches and a Swiss bank founded by Edmond Adolphe de Rothschild (1926–1997). In 1982, President Francois Mitterrand's socialist government dealt the Paris bank a fatal blow, nationalizing it and renaming it Compagnie Européenne de Banque.
Despite his independence, Edmond came to the aid of his cousin, Baron David René James de Rothschild (1942), who stayed in Paris and in 1987 created Rothschild & Cie Banque. By 2003, the British and French banks were united with David as chair.
In 2008, all of the holdings were reorganized under a single company, a shareholder of Paris Orléans based in France, unifying the family businesses roughly two centuries after the five sons of Mayer Rothschild spread out across Europe.
Moving Into the 21st Century
The family wealth has been divided among descendants and heirs over the years. Today, Rothschild's holdings span a number of industries, including financial services, real estate, mining, energy, and charitable work. The family also owns more than a dozen wineries throughout the world.
Traditionally, the Rothschild fortune is invested in closely held corporations. Today, Rothschild corporations have continued to see success. Most family members are employed by these corporations directly or are invested in operations that generate family wealth.
The remarkable success of the family has largely been due to a strong interest in cooperation, being entrepreneurs, and the practice of smart business principles.
The estate of Nathan Rothschild was intimately tied to the other fortunes of the family and became part of the collective wealth each Rothschild passed to the next generation. Rothschild descendants continue to finance global business operations and contribute to scholarly, humanitarian, cultural, and business endeavors.
The family motto is Concordia, Integritas, Industria, which means harmony, integrity, and industry.
The Bottom Line
The Rothschild family is one of the oldest, wealthiest, and most storied families in history. With roots in banking, the family has continued to grow its wealth in a variety of businesses over the centuries, continuing to wield significant power and money.
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Everything you need to know when you travel to Frankfurt, including 15 things to do Visit Frankfurt with this guide and don't miss anything of this bustling cit
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Although I grew up only 2.5 hours away from Frankfurt I never really explored the city as much as I should have. My first time visiting Frankfurt was only in 2006 during the FIFA World Cup football in Germany.
We slept outside on the grass on the river side in a sleeping bag. It was the adventurous end of an epic night out after Netherlands played against Argentina. That experience has always resonated with me and ever since I am a fan of visiting Frankfurt.
Here are all my travel tips and recommendations to also make your trip to Frankfurt one to remember.
Although Frankfurt is one of the biggest cities in the country it is not really one of the most popular tourist spots in Germany. Cities like Berlin, Munich and Cologne draw more tourists on average than Frankfurt. The city is a business hotspot and most people that travel to Frankfurt are there for business. This is not surprising regarding the fact that Frankfurt is the European banking capital. That said the city definitely has a cosmopolitan vibe and many expats from all over the world live in the big apple of Germany.
In this Frankfurt travel guide you will find multiple Frankfurt travel tips, some facts about the city, 16 unique things to do, a walking tour, an itinerary and some nice hotel recommendations. basically all you need to make the most of your city trip to Frankfurt.
Are you traveling to Frankfurt by plane and looking for the best way to stay connected? You can buy a prepaid sim card on arrival at the airport, but it is not recommended. Check out my guide for buying a sim card at Frankfurt Airport in 2024.
Theere are much better sim card deals and e-sim card plans for Germany and I am sure you will like my article about buying a sim card for Germany in 2024.
Best time to visit Frankfurt
No need to mention that the best months for a trip to Frankfurt are the summer months in Europe. That said, July and August can get hot and since it is the holiday season many people travel to Frankfurt. Good thing about the peak season is that there are events on a daily basis, so it just depends what you are looking for. If you are a fan of Christmas markets then plan your Frankfurt city trip in the weeks before Christmas. Usually they start around the last week of November.
How to get to Frankfurt
Traveling to Frankfurt by train? Pretty sure you found out that can be expensive! The bus is surely a cheaper option. Traveling by bus to Frankfurt is cheap and convenient. Check out the prices below in the public transport search engine.
Powered by 12Go system
The 12Go transportation search engine will give you all the options for you to compare: bus, train, flight and you can directly book online and reserve your seat.
Also check out my article about the best way from Aachen to Cologne for more tips on how to get around in Germany.
Some cool facts about Frankfurt
Frankfurt has a massive forest in the heart of the city and is within walking distance from the old town.
There is only 1 skyscraper in the top 15 highest buildings in Germany that is NOT located in Frankfurt. This is why this is called the Big Apple of Germany.
The headquarters of the European Central Bank is located in Frankfurt.
Frankfurt was heavily bombed in WW2.
This is the city of Goethe. The famous German Poet was born here and lived all his life in Frankfurt.
More than 25% of the people living in Frankfurt are expats.
Frankfurt Airport is the biggest airport in Germany and is the 4th biggest airport in Europe.
16 Things to do in Frankfurt
1. Enjoy a drink in a rooftop bar
As I mentioned before already you have to go up one of the skyscrapers when you visit Frankfurt. There are 3 bars that really stand out.
1.1 City Beach
There is a €4 entrance fee for this rooftop bar on top of a parking lot. Finding the entrance is a little challenging but once you up on the roof the views are good.
There are two small pools, loads of beach chairs, sand and uncomplicated vibes.
1.2 Long Island Summer Lounge
This is the posh version of City Beach with a proper dress code. Officially no flip-flops and shorts allowed. Entrance fee is €6 but the views at Long Beach Summer Lounge are better. The rooftop is higher as City Beach as well.
1.3 Oosten am Main
According to locals the most laid-back skybar is Oosten am Main. Since it is a little walk out of the center it has the best skyline view as well. Uncomplicated local vibe is guaranteed here. Sipping a cocktail for sunset is definitely one of the best things to do in Frankfurt.
2. Hop-on-hop-off bus
A standard things to do in Frankfurt, but quick and easy to see all the tourist spots in Frankfurt when you don’t have that much time. There are several lines to choose from. Buying a ticket online is cheaper than on the bus itself or at the street vendors.
3. Viewing terrace Frankfurt Airport
Often listed as one of the most exciting things to do in Frankfurt with kids is the viewing platform at Frankfurt Airport. This covered area is a great place for spotting airplanes taking off and landing. There is a Food Court and a Mc Donalds if you get hungry.
4. Walk through Old Town
The old part of the city is actually called Romerberg and was rebuilt the traditional way after the second World War. The medieval colorful buildings are a favorite instagram spot in Frankfurt. In summer there are many terraces lined up for having a drink, in winter this place is heaven for Christmas market lovers.
5. Tricycle ride around Frankfurt
For those that are willing to see the best places to visit in Frankfurt from the back of a bike they can take one of the tricycles around the city. Be aware that these guys are expensive! For 30 minutes you already pay more than €22 or 2 kilometer is €8. It is a cool but rather expensive way to explore Frankfurt.
6. Marvel at the Euro sign
This huge sculpture of the Euro stands in front of the European Central Bank on the Willy-Brandt square and is pretty big. Probably about 30 meters high. There is some info about the Euro on the base of the sign, but there also is a Euro information center and book shop next to it. Although it is more like a gift shop.
7. Lock your Love at Eisener Steg bridge
The bridge that also got destroyed during World War 2 was reconstructed straight after and is now famous for people locking their love with a padlock. From this walking bridge you will have a good view over the skyline and the boulevards on both sides. It connects the old town of Frankfurt with Sachsenhausen, the place to go out at night. But more about what to do in Frankfurt at night later!
8. Ignatz-Bubis bridge instagram spot
If you are not going up on one of the rooftop bars then head to the Ignatz-Bubis bridge for the best skyline photos. Also a great Instagram spot in Frankfurt and cool for sunset. Another free thing to do in Frankfurt.
9. Try Apfelwein
Apparently this kind of apple cider is home to Frankfurt and a a popular drink around the city. Frankfurt is home to many idyllic cafes and traditional bars where they happily serve you their signature drink called Apfelwein.
Not sure if this is one of the best Frankfurt travel tips because I did not like it. I much rather had the a normal beer with a Frankfurter wurst on the side! :)
10. Visit the Goethe House
Located just a few minutes walk from Central Station is the Goethe Haus. Here the famous German Poet was born in 1749. There are 4 different floors to explore and learn about his life. Entrance fee is €7 and it is open from 10am to 6pm. A weekend in Frankfurt is not complete without visiting the Goethe House.
11. Viewing platform cathedral tower
On of the best things to do in Frankfurt is to climb up to the viewing platform 66 meter above the city. The cathedral tower is open to the public for the best city views. Costs are €5 and you will have to walk a lot of steps, but the view is worth it.
12. Free walking tour
If you feel like you have crossed off all the things to do in Frankfurt then join one of the free walking tours and get to know the city through the eyes of a local. Free walking tours are tip based tours and depart every day around 10am and 2pm. There are a couple different ones so check your meeting point online.
13. Viewing platform Main Tower
If amazing city views are your thing then head up to the viewing platform of the main tower when you visit Frankfurt. Entrance fee is €7,50 but you will get unobstructed city views!
14. Have breakfast/lunch at the river side
Simply one of the most gorgeous places to visit in Frankfurt is the river side. Big lawns with some trees and a boulevard where active people bike, run and skate. The park on the Main river is a perfect spot to picknick. It is relaxed and one of the best ways to enjoy this city. Definitely add a picknick on the river side to your trip to Frankfurt.
15. Go out at night in Sachsenhausen
The place to go out in Frankfurt at night is Sachsenhausen just across the river. Here many quaint pubs are lined up next to each other and is the bustling heart of the city at night. If you spend a weekend in Frankfurt I am sure you are willing to end up here in one of the many traditional German bars.
16. Enjoy a coffee at a floating restaurant
There are a couple boats where you can grab a drink or have lunch/dinner but not so many. A great one is below the Eisener Steg bridge with great views, also close by is the Döner Boat.
Things to do around Frankfurt
If you are visiting Frankfurt for more than just a weekend then you might be interested in some things to do around Frankfurt. Have a look at these great day trips from Frankfurt.
1. Burg Eltz
This Harry Potter like castle became a popular tourist spot in Germany after it went viral on Instagram. Visiting Burg Eltz is free and can be reached by car from Frankfurt center within 2 hours.
2. Rudesheim
This picturesque town on the banks of the Rhine River actually is a UNESCO world heritage site and less then an hour away from Frankfurt. Walk through the cobblestone streets of the old town and marvel at the castles and vineyards on the hills around you. There also is a cable car for a scenic ride.
3. Michelstadt
Looking for more fairy tale towns then drive towards Michelstadt. This medieval and idyllic town dates back to more than 1,000 years ago. In summer a great spot to have a drink on one of the many terraces. In winter famous for its Christmas markets.
Some more Frankfurt travel tips
Bring cash! Germany is a third world country when it comes to wireless payments. Creditcards nor bankcards are often not accepted.
Don’t take a boat tour on the Main River! Why? Boring!
There is a zoo, but I don’t support this thing to do in Frankfurt.
Events in Frankfurt
Major events in the city are:
Christmas Markets: start end of November
Main Festival: first week of August (pop-up amusement park across the city)
Appel Wine Festival: mid August
Wäldchestag: beginning of June (like summer Christmas markets in the forest)
Wine Festival: begining of September (culinary event)
When I visited Frankfurt the Main Festival was taking place.
How to get around Frankfurt
Going around Frankfurt is made easy by the U-Bahn which goes underground as well as overground. Day tickets cost around €7 and single trip tickets cost €3. Be aware that if you are with two people or more it is cheaper to buy a group ticket for the U-Bahn. Group tickets for up to 5 people valid all around the city cost only €11.
Depending on the kind of Frankfurt city trip you are planning there is no real need to take the public transport. Most of the things to do and places to see in Frankfurt are within walking distance.
How to get from Frankfurt airport to the city center
There is a train called S-Bahn which connects Frankfurt Airport with the city center and takes only 10 minutes. There are loads of lines from the airport to the city for example 1, 8 and 9. Tickets cost €5 for a single trip.
Don’t get fooled by the airport Frankfurt/Hahn if you are planning to travel to Frankfurt. It actually is a 2 hour drive from the city and when you ask me the name of the airport it is a tourist trap. A bus ticket into the city cost €15.
Where to stay in Frankfurt
1. 5 star hotels in Frankfurt
Jumeirah Frankfurt: luxury hotel - click here for the rates on booking or check Agoda.
Sofitel Frankfurt Opera: very central: click here for the rates on booking or check Agoda.
Another iconic place to stay in Frankfurt is the Steigenberger Frankfurter Hof right in the middle of the city. Click here for the Booking rates or the Agoda rates.
2. Boutique hotels
Moxy Frankfurt East: hip and stylish - click here for the booking rates or here for Agoda.
Scandic Frankfurt Museumsufer - click here for their rates on Agoda.
3. Under €50 hotels
EasyHotel Frankfurt City Center - click here for the Booking or Agoda rates.
FreddApp One: click here for the Booking or Agoda rates.
My Frankfurt travel tips
Together with Ave I found a cheap but surprisingly good hotel pretty much in the city center. There were actually a couple nice hotels to choose from with good ratings and great locations. On top of my hotel I also found a couple other Frankfurt budget hotels for less than €50 a night and a rating around 8 out of 10. I will list them all later when talking about where to stay in Frankfurt.
We actually ended up staying in Hotel Primus in Sachsenhausen just across the river from the city center. It was less than €50 a night. In fact Sachsenhausen turned out to be a nightlife hotspot but more about that later in the things to do in Frankfurt section. As I traveled to Frankfurt by car I was happy the hotel offered a parking spot for just €10 per day.
As soon as we arrived we dropped our bags at our room and headed out to not miss the sunset. It was perfectly timed when we crossed the bridge towards the old city as the sun was setting through the skyline of Frankfurt. For this reason Frankfurt is also called the Big Apple of Germany as it has one of the most impressive skylines in Europe. Nothing compared to any American city but hey this is all we have in Europe! LOL
We were lucky that on the days we visited Frankfurt there was actually the MainFest on the river side. In the main street along the river there were loads of eateries, beer gardens and attractions lined up and for food lover Ave it was heaven to see all the different types of Bratwurst and snacks. Of course we had to taste a couple and drink beers.
When traveling to Germany an obvious thing to do is to eat sausages and drink pints!
Slowly waking up the next morning we decided to grab breakfast at the super market and brought a blanket to the river side. There is a lovely lawn with some trees for shadow along the boulevard of the Main river. It was hot this August in Frankfurt and we moved slowly into the shade where we found a great spot to picknick with some of the best views of the skyline.
If you are looking for one of the best places to visit in Frankfurt then surely add this spot to your list.
We continued our Frankfurt city tour across the Eisener Steg bridge famous for its many love locks. No Ave and I are besties, not a couple! We met on a press trip on my birthday last year. It was at the World Travel Writers’ Conference in Maldives. So no love lock for us! LOL
On the other side of the river there is actually a cool floating restaurant called the Döner Boat. Of course Kebab is not a typical German dish, but did you know the Döner Kebab was originally invented in Berlin by a Turkish immigrant? Cool fact right? Anyway if you are looking for a fun place to eat good Döner Kebab in Frankfurt then the Döner Boat is a great place. There is also another proper floating restaurant next to the bridge with the love locks. Great place for a drink with views over the city skyline.
We continued our walking tour of Frankfurt by crossing the bridge back into the center again and we walked up to the massive Euro sign on a big square. Cool place for taking a photo of what is probably the biggest euro sign in the world. Put here because the Central European Bank is located in Frankfurt. It was already time to sit down and have a beer after. It was boiling hot, but we found a good place to have a Weissen Beer on the rooftop terrace of the Galeria Kaufhof.
We enjoyed the great city views before we kept on strolling through the city center. Eating ice cream, snacks and drinking beer on the terraces along the way. We marveled at the colorful houses on the old town square and the narrow streets around the cathedral, one of the coolest places to visit in Frankfurt.
To spend the rest of our afternoon we looked online for what to do in Frankfurt and found two popular rooftop bars. Online we saw that one of these places actually had a city beach. Something I actually expected at the river side like they have in most cities around Europe, but in Frankfurt they have a rooftop beach with amazing views over the city.
If you want to see more about our trip to Frankfurt you can check out Ave’s 100K+ YouTube Channel, I tell you she is funny!
I hope you liked all my Frankfurt travel tips! May there be things that I forgot to mention or that you think I should add to the list then please leave me a comment.
If this Frankfurt travel guide was helpful planning your city trip please pin this on Pinterest or share the link on Facebook. It is a small thing for you to do, but can make a big difference for me. Thank you very much in advance.
I hope you have an awesome trip to Frankfurt!
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2022-03-14T07:49:37+00:00
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Mar 14, 2022 - Explore David Trace's board "Stars, Orders and Medals", followed by 1,899 people on Pinterest. See more ideas about medals, order of the garter, royal jewels.
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Monarchy | Definition, Examples, & Facts
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[] |
[
"monarchy",
"encyclopedia",
"encyclopeadia",
"britannica",
"article"
] | null |
[
"Joseph Kostiner"
] |
1998-07-20T00:00:00+00:00
|
Monarchy, political system based upon the undivided sovereignty or rule of a single person. The term applies to states in which supreme authority is vested in the monarch, an individual ruler who functions as the head of state and who achieves his or her position through heredity.
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en
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/favicon.png
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Encyclopedia Britannica
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https://www.britannica.com/topic/monarchy
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Functions of monarchies
A monarchy consists of distinct but interdependent institutions—a government and a state administration on the one hand, and a court and a variety of ceremonies on the other—that provide for the social life of the members of the dynasty, their friends, and the associated elite. Monarchy thus entails not only a political-administrative organization but also a “court society,” a term coined by the 20th-century German-born sociologist Norbert Elias to designate various groups of nobility (like the British nobility) that are linked to the monarchical dynasty (or “royal” house, as with the House of Windsor) through a web of personal bonds. All such bonds are evident in symbolic and ceremonial proprieties.
During a given society’s history there are certain changes and processes that create conditions conducive to the rise of monarchy. Because warfare was the main means of acquiring fertile land and trade routes, some of the most prominent monarchs in the ancient world made their initial mark as warrior-leaders. Thus, the military accomplishments of Octavian (later Augustus) led to his position as emperor and to the institution of monarchy in the Roman Empire. Infrastructural programs and state-building also contributed to the development of monarchies. The need, common in arid cultures, to allocate fertile land and manage a regime of fresh water distribution (what the German American historian Karl Wittfogel called hydraulic civilization) accounted for the founding of the ancient Chinese, Egyptian, and Babylonian monarchies on the banks of rivers. The monarchs also had to prove themselves as state-builders.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankfurt
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Frankfurt
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankfurt
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Largest city in Hesse, Germany
This article is about the city in Hesse, Germany. For other uses, see Frankfurt (disambiguation).
Not to be confused with Frankfort or Frankfurt (Oder).
City in Hesse, Germany
Frankfurt am Main ( ; German: [ˈfʁaŋkfʊʁt ʔam ˈmaɪn] ⓘ;[5][6] lit. "Frank ford on the[a] Main") is the most populous city in the German state of Hesse. Its 773,068 inhabitants as of 2022 make it the fifth-most populous city in Germany,.[b] Located in the foreland of the Taunus on its namesake Main, it forms a continuous conurbation with Offenbach am Main; its urban area has a population of over 2.7 million. The city is the heart of the larger Rhine-Main metropolitan region, which has a population of more than 5.8 million and is Germany's second-largest metropolitan region after the Rhine-Ruhr region and the fourth biggest metropolitan region by GDP in the European Union. Frankfurt is home to the European Central Bank, one of the institutional seats of the European Union, while Frankfurt's central business district lies about 90 km (56 mi) northwest of the geographic center of the EU at Gadheim in Lower Franconia. Like France and Franconia, the city is named after the Franks. Frankfurt is the largest city in the Rhenish Franconian dialect area.
Frankfurt was a city state, the Free City of Frankfurt, for nearly five centuries, and was one of the most important cities of the Holy Roman Empire, as a site of Imperial coronations; it lost its sovereignty upon the collapse of the empire in 1806, regained it in 1815 and then lost it again in 1866, when it was annexed (though neutral) by the Kingdom of Prussia. It has been part of the state of Hesse since 1945. Frankfurt is culturally, ethnically and religiously diverse, with half of its population, and a majority of its young people, having a migrant background. A quarter of the population consists of foreign nationals, including many expatriates. In 2015, Frankfurt was home to 1,909 ultra high-net-worth individuals, the sixth-highest number of any city. As of 2023, Frankfurt is the 13th-wealthiest city in the world and the second-wealthiest city in Europe (after London).[7]
Frankfurt is a global hub for commerce, culture, education, tourism and transportation, and is the site of many global and European corporate headquarters. Due to its central location in the former West Germany, Frankfurt Airport became the busiest in Germany, one of the busiest in the world, the airport with the most direct routes in the world, and the primary hub for Lufthansa, the national airline of Germany and Europe's largest airline. Frankfurt Central Station is Germany's second-busiest railway station after Hamburg Hbf, and Frankfurter Kreuz is the most-heavily used interchange in the EU. Frankfurt is one of the major financial centers of the European continent, with the headquarters of the European Central Bank, Deutsche Bundesbank, Frankfurt Stock Exchange, Deutsche Bank, DZ Bank, KfW, Commerzbank, DekaBank, Helaba, several cloud and fintech startups, and other institutes. Automotive, technology and research, services, consulting, media and creative industries complement the economic base. Frankfurt's DE-CIX is the world's largest internet exchange point. Messe Frankfurt is one of the world's largest trade fairs. Major fairs include the Music Fair and the Frankfurt Book Fair, the world's largest book fair. With 108 consulates, among which the largest is the US Consulate General, Frankfurt is second to New York City among non-capital cities in regards to consulate seats.
Frankfurt is home to influential educational institutions, including the Goethe University with the Universitätsklinikum Frankfurt (de) (Hesse's largest hospital), the FUAS, the FUMPA, and graduate schools like the FSFM. The city is one of two seats of the German National Library (alongside Leipzig), the largest library in the German-speaking countries and one of the largest in the world. Its renowned cultural venues include the concert hall Alte Oper, continental Europe's largest English theater and many museums, 26 of which line up along the Museum Embankment, including the Städel, the Liebieghaus, the German Film Museum (de), the Senckenberg Natural Museum, the Goethe House and the Schirn art venue. Frankfurt's skyline is shaped by some of Europe's tallest skyscrapers, which has led to the term Mainhattan. The city has many notable green areas and parks, including the Wallanlagen, Volkspark Niddatal, Grüneburgpark, the City Forest, two major botanical gardens (the Palmengarten and the Botanical Garden Frankfurt) and the Frankfurt Zoo. Frankfurt is the seat of the German Football Association (Deutscher Fußball-Bund – DFB), is home to the first division association football club Eintracht Frankfurt, the Löwen Frankfurt ice hockey team, and the basketball club Frankfurt Skyliners, and is the venue of the Frankfurt Marathon and the Ironman Germany.
Distinctions
[edit]
Frankfurt is the largest financial hub in continental Europe. It is home to the European Central Bank, Deutsche Bundesbank, Frankfurt Stock Exchange and several large commercial banks.
The Frankfurt Stock Exchange is one of the world's largest stock exchanges by market capitalization and accounts for more than 90 percent of the turnover in the German market.
In 2010, 63 national and 152 international banks had their registered offices in Frankfurt, including Germany's major banks, notably Deutsche Bank, DZ Bank, KfW, Deka Bank and Commerzbank, as well as 41 representative offices of international banks.[8]
Frankfurt is considered a global city (alpha world city) as listed by the GaWC group's 2012 inventory.[9] Among global cities it was ranked tenth by the Global Power City Index 2011 and 11th by the Global City Competitiveness Index 2012[broken anchor]. Among financial hubs, the city was ranked eighth by the International Financial Centers Development Index 2013 and ninth in the 2013 Global Financial Centres Index.
Its central location in Germany and Europe makes Frankfurt a major air, rail, and road transport hub. Frankfurt Airport is one of the world's busiest international airports by passenger traffic and the main hub for Germany's flag carrier Lufthansa. Frankfurt Central Station is one of the largest rail stations in Europe and the busiest junction operated by Deutsche Bahn, the German national railway company, with 342 trains a day to domestic and European destinations.[10] Frankfurter Kreuz, also known as the Autobahn interchange and located close to the airport, is the most-heavily used interchange in the EU, used by 320,000 cars daily.[11] In 2011 human-resource-consulting firm Mercer ranked Frankfurt as seventh in its annual 'Quality of Living' survey of cities around the world.[12] According to The Economist cost-of-living survey, Frankfurt is Germany's most expensive city and the world's tenth most expensive.[13]
Frankfurt has many downtown high-rise buildings that form its renowned Frankfurt skyline. In fact, it is one of the few cities in the European Union (EU) to have such a skyline, which is why Germans sometimes refer to Frankfurt as Mainhattan, combining the local river Main and "Manhattan". The other well-known nickname is Bankfurt. Before World War II, the city was noted for its unique old town, the largest timber-framed old town in Europe. The Römer area was later rebuilt and is popular with visitors and for events such as Frankfurt Christmas Market. Other parts of the old town were reconstructed as part of the Dom-Römer Project from 2012 to 2018.
Etymology
[edit]
Frankonovurd (in Old High German) or Vadum Francorum (in Latin) were the first names mentioned in written records from 794. It transformed to Frankenfort during the Middle Ages and then to Franckfort and Franckfurth in the modern era. According to historian David Gans, the city was named c. 146 AD by its builder, a Frankish king named Zuna, who ruled over the province then known as Sicambri. He hoped thereby to perpetuate the name of his lineage.[14] This is chronologically incompatible, however, with the archaeologically demonstrated Roman occupation of the area around Nida fortress in modern Heddernheim. The name is derived from the Franconofurd of the Germanic tribe of the Franks; Furt (cf. English ford) where the river was shallow enough to be crossed on foot.
By the 19th century, the name Frankfurt had been established as the official spelling. The older English spelling of Frankfort is now rarely seen in reference to Frankfurt am Main, although more than a dozen other towns and cities, mainly in the United States, use this spelling, including Frankfort, Kentucky, Frankfort, New York, and Frankfort, Illinois. The New York Times first used the Frankfurt spelling for Frankfurt am Main on 24 October 1953 and last used the Frankfort spelling on 10 June 1954.
The suffix am Main has been used regularly since the 14th century. In English, the city's full name of Frankfurt am Main means "Frankfurt on the Main" (pronounced like English mine or German mein). Frankfurt is located on an ancient ford (German: Furt) on the river Main. As a part of early Franconia, the inhabitants were the early Franks, thus the city's name reveals its legacy as "the ford of the Franks on the Main".[15]
Among English speakers, the city is commonly known simply as Frankfurt, but Germans occasionally call it by its full name to distinguish it from the other (significantly smaller) German city of Frankfurt an der Oder in the Land of Brandenburg on the Polish border.
The city district Bonames has a name probably dating back to Roman times, thought to be derived from bona me(n)sa (good table).
The common abbreviations for the city, primarily used in railway services and on road signs, are Frankfurt (Main), Frankfurt (M), Frankfurt a. M., Frankfurt/Main or Frankfurt/M. The common abbreviation for the name of the city is "FFM". Also in use is "FRA", the IATA code for Frankfurt Airport.
History
[edit]
For a chronological guide, see Timeline of Frankfurt.
Early history and Holy Roman Empire
[edit]
At the western borders of Frankfurt lies the Kapellenberg as part of the Taunus with one of the first Stone Age cities in Europe.[16] The Celts had different settlements in the Taunus mountains north of Frankfurt, the biggest one the Heidetrank Oppidum. The first traces of Roman settlements established in the area of the river Nidda date to the reign of Emperor Vespasian in the years 69 to 79 AD. Nida (modern Heddernheim, Praunheim) was a Roman civitas capital (Civitas Taunensium).
Alemanni and Franks lived there, and by 794, Charlemagne presided over an imperial assembly and church synod, at which Franconofurd (alternative spellings end with -furt and -vurd) was first mentioned. It was one of the two capitals of Charlemagne's grandson Louis the German, together with Regensburg. Louis founded the collegiate church, rededicated in 1239 to Bartholomew the Apostle and now Frankfurt Cathedral.[17]
Frankfurt was one of the most important cities in the Holy Roman Empire. From 855, the German kings were elected and crowned in Aachen. From 1562, the kings and emperors were crowned and elected in Frankfurt, initiated for Maximilian II. This tradition ended in 1792, when Francis II was elected. His coronation was deliberately held on Bastille Day, 14 July, the anniversary of the storming of the Bastille. The elections and coronations took place in St. Bartholomäus Cathedral, known as the Kaiserdom (Emperor's Cathedral), or its predecessors.
The Frankfurter Messe ('Frankfurt Trade Fair') was first mentioned in 1150. In 1240, Emperor Frederick II granted an imperial privilege to its visitors, meaning they would be protected by the empire. The fair became particularly important when similar fairs in French Beaucaire lost attraction around 1380. Book trade fairs began in 1478.
In 1372, Frankfurt became a Reichsstadt (Imperial Free City), i.e., directly subordinate to the Holy Roman Emperor and not to a regional ruler or a local nobleman.
In 1585, Frankfurt traders established a system of exchange rates for the various currencies that were circulating to prevent cheating and extortion. Therein lay the early roots for the Frankfurt Stock Exchange.
Frankfurt managed to remain neutral during the Thirty Years' War, but suffered from the bubonic plague that refugees brought to the city. After the war, Frankfurt regained its wealth. In the late 1770s the theater principal Abel Seyler was based in Frankfurt, and established the city's theatrical life.[18]
Frankfurt in 1612
Frankfurt in 1872
Kaiserplatz, c. 1880
Impact of French revolution and the Napoleonic Wars
[edit]
Following the French Revolution, Frankfurt was occupied or bombarded several times by French troops. It remained a Free city until the collapse of the Holy Roman Empire in 1805/6. In 1806, it became part of the principality of Aschaffenburg under the Fürstprimas (Prince-Primate), Karl Theodor Anton Maria von Dalberg. This meant that Frankfurt was incorporated into the Confederation of the Rhine. In 1810, Dalberg adopted the title of a Grand Duke of Frankfurt. Napoleon intended to make his adopted son Eugène de Beauharnais, already Prince de Venise ("prince of Venice", a newly established primogeniture in Italy), Grand Duke of Frankfurt after Dalberg's death (since the latter as a Catholic bishop had no legitimate heirs). The Grand Duchy remained a short episode lasting from 1810 to 1813 when the military tide turned in favor of the Anglo-Prussian-led allies that overturned the Napoleonic order. Dalberg abdicated in favor of Eugène de Beauharnais, which of course was only a symbolic action, as the latter effectively never ruled after the ruin of the French armies and Frankfurt's takeover by the allies.
Frankfurt as a fully sovereign state
[edit]
After Napoleon's final defeat and abdication, the Congress of Vienna (1814–1815) dissolved the grand-duchy and Frankfurt became a fully sovereign city-state with a republican form of government. Frankfurt entered the newly founded German Confederation (till 1866) as a free city, becoming the seat of its Bundestag, the confederal parliament where the nominally presiding Habsburg Emperor of Austria was represented by an Austrian "presidential envoy".
After the ill-fated revolution of 1848, Frankfurt was the seat of the first democratically elected German parliament, the Frankfurt Parliament, which met in the Frankfurter Paulskirche (St. Paul's Church) and was opened on 18 May 1848. In the year of its existence, the assembly developed a common constitution for a unified Germany, with the Prussian king as its monarch. The institution failed in 1849 when the Prussian king, Frederick William IV, declared that he would not accept "a crown from the gutter".
Frankfurt after the loss of sovereignty
[edit]
Frankfurt lost its independence after the Austro-Prussian War in 1866 when Prussia annexed several smaller states, among them the Free City of Frankfurt. The Prussian administration incorporated Frankfurt into its province of Hesse-Nassau. The Prussian occupation and annexation were perceived as a great injustice in Frankfurt, which retained its distinct western European, urban and cosmopolitan character. The formerly independent towns of Bornheim and Bockenheim were incorporated in 1890.
In 1914, the citizens founded the University of Frankfurt, later named Goethe University Frankfurt. This marked the only civic foundation of a university in Germany; today it is one of Germany's largest.
From 6 April to 17 May 1920, following military intervention to put down the Ruhr uprising, Frankfurt was occupied by French troops.[19] The French claimed that Articles 42 to 44 of the peace treaty of Versailles concerning the demilitarization of the Rhineland had been broken.[20] In 1924, Ludwig Landmann became the first Jewish mayor of the city, and led a significant expansion during the following years. During the Nazi era, the synagogues of the city were destroyed and the vast majority of the Jewish population fled or was killed.[21]
During World War II, Frankfurt was the location of a Nazi prison for underage girls with several forced labour camps,[22] a camp for Sinti and Romani people (see Romani Holocaust),[23] the Dulag Luft West transit camp for Allied prisoners of war,[24] and a subcamp of the Natzweiler-Struthof concentration camp.[25]
Frankfurt was severely bombed in World War II (1939–1945). About 5,500 residents were killed during the raids, and the once-famous medieval city center, by that time one the largest in Germany, was almost completely destroyed. It became a ground battlefield on 26 March 1945, when the Allied advance into Germany was forced to take the city in contested urban combat that included a river assault. The 5th Infantry Division and the 6th Armored Division of the United States Army captured Frankfurt after several days of intense fighting, and it was declared largely secure on 29 March 1945.[26] Frankfurt consists to over 40% of buildings from before World War II, besides all destruction.[27]
After the end of the war, Frankfurt became a part of the newly founded state of Hesse, consisting of the old Hesse-(Darmstadt) and the Prussian Hesse provinces. The city was part of the American Zone of Occupation of Germany. The Military Governor for the United States Zone (1945–1949) and the United States High Commissioner for Germany (HICOG) (1949–1952) had their headquarters in the IG Farben Building, intentionally left undamaged by the Allies' wartime bombardment.
Frankfurt was the original choice for the provisional capital city of the newly founded state of West Germany in 1949. The city constructed a parliament building that was never used for its intended purpose (it housed the radio studios of Hessischer Rundfunk). In the end, Konrad Adenauer, the first postwar Chancellor, preferred the town of Bonn, for the most part because it was close to his hometown, but also because many other prominent politicians opposed the choice of Frankfurt out of concern that Frankfurt would be accepted as the permanent capital, thereby weakening the West German population's support for a reunification with East Germany and the eventual return of the capital to Berlin.
Postwar reconstruction took place in a sometimes simple modern style, thus changing Frankfurt's architectural face. A few landmark buildings were reconstructed historically, albeit in a simplified manner (e.g., Römer, St. Paul's Church, and Goethe House). The collection of historically significant Cairo Genizah documents of the Municipal Library was destroyed by the bombing. According to Arabist and Genizah scholar S.D. Goitein, "not even handlists indicating its contents have survived."[28]
The end of the war marked Frankfurt's comeback as Germany's leading financial hub, mainly because Berlin, now a city divided into four sectors, could no longer rival it. In 1948, the Allies founded the Bank deutscher Länder, the forerunner of Deutsche Bundesbank. Following this decision, more financial institutions were re-established, e.g. Deutsche Bank and Dresdner Bank. In the 1950s, Frankfurt Stock Exchange regained its position as the country's leading stock exchange.
Frankfurt also reemerged as Germany's transportation hub and Frankfurt Airport became Europe's second-busiest airport behind London Heathrow Airport in 1961.
During the 1970s, the city created one of Europe's most efficient underground transportation systems.[29] That system includes a suburban rail system (S-Bahn) linking outlying communities with the city center, and a deep underground light rail system with smaller coaches (U-Bahn) also capable of travelling above ground on rails.
In 1998, the European Central Bank was founded in Frankfurt, followed by the European Insurance and Occupational Pensions Authority and European Systemic Risk Board in 2011.
Geography
[edit]
Frankfurt is the largest city in the state of Hesse in the western part of Germany.
Site
[edit]
Frankfurt is located on both sides of the river Main, south-east of the Taunus mountain range. The southern part of the city contains the Frankfurt City Forest, Germany's largest city forest. The city area is 248.31 km2 (95.87 sq mi) and extends over 23.4 km (14.54 mi) east to west and 23.3 km (14.48 mi) north to south. Its downtown is north of the river Main in Altstadt district (the historical center) and the surrounding Innenstadt district. The geographical center is in Bockenheim district near Frankfurt West station.
Frankfurt at the heart of the densely populated Frankfurt Rhine-Main Metropolitan Region with a population of 5.5 million. Other important cities in the region are Wiesbaden (capital of Hesse), Mainz (capital of Rhineland-Palatinate), Darmstadt, Offenbach am Main, Hanau, Aschaffenburg, Bad Homburg vor der Höhe, Rüsselsheim, Wetzlar and Marburg.
Districts
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The city is divided into 46 city districts (Stadtteile), which are in turn divided into 121 city boroughs (Stadtbezirke) and 448 electoral districts (Wahlbezirke). The 46 city districts combine into 16 area districts (Ortsbezirke), which each have a district committee and chairperson.
The largest city district by population and area is Sachsenhausen, while the smallest is Altstadt, Frankfurt's historical center. Three larger city districts (Sachsenhausen, Westend and Nordend) are divided for administrative purposes into a northern (-Nord) and a southern (-Süd) part, respectively a western (-West) and an eastern (-Ost) part, but are generally considered as one city district (which is why often only 43 city districts are mentioned, even on the city's official website).[30]
Some larger housing areas are often falsely called city districts, even by locals, like Nordweststadt (part of Niederursel, Heddernheim and Praunheim), Goldstein (part of Schwanheim), Riedberg (part of Kalbach-Riedberg) and Europaviertel (part of Gallus). The Bankenviertel (banking district), Frankfurt's financial district, is also not an administrative city district (it covers parts of the western Innenstadt district, the southern Westend district and the eastern Bahnhofsviertel district).
Many city districts are incorporated suburbs (Vororte) or were previously independent cities, such as Höchst. Some like Nordend and Westend arose during the rapid growth of the city in the Gründerzeit following the Unification of Germany, while others were formed from territory which previously belonged to other city district(s), such as Dornbusch and Riederwald.
History of incorporations
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Until the year 1877 the city's territory consisted of the present-day inner-city districts of Altstadt, Innenstadt, Bahnhofsviertel, Gutleutviertel, Gallus, Westend, Nordend, Ostend and Sachsenhausen.
Bornheim was part of an administrative district called Landkreis Frankfurt, before becoming part of the city on 1 January 1877, followed by Bockenheim on 1 April 1895. Seckbach, Niederrad and Oberrad followed on 1 July 1900. The Landkreis Frankfurt was finally dispersed on 1 April 1910, and therefore Berkersheim, Bonames, Eckenheim, Eschersheim, Ginnheim, Hausen, Heddernheim, Niederursel, Praunheim, Preungesheim and Rödelheim joined the city. In the same year a new city district, Riederwald, was created on territory that had formerly belonged to Seckbach and Ostend.
On 1 April 1928 the City of Höchst became part of Frankfurt, as well as its city districts Sindlingen, Unterliederbach and Zeilsheim. Simultaneously the Landkreis Höchst was dispersed with its member cities either joining Frankfurt (Fechenheim, Griesheim, Nied, Schwanheim, Sossenheim) or joining the newly established Landkreis of Main-Taunus-Kreis.
Dornbusch became a city district in 1946. It was created on territory that had formerly belonged to Eckenheim and Ginnheim.
On 1 August 1972, Hesse's smaller suburbs of Harheim, Kalbach, Nieder-Erlenbach, and Nieder-Eschbach became districts while other neighboring suburbs chose to join the Main-Taunus-Kreis, the Landkreis Offenbach, the Kreis Groß-Gerau, the Hochtaunuskreis, the Main-Kinzig-Kreis or the Wetteraukreis.
Bergen-Enkheim was the last suburb to become part of Frankfurt on 1 January 1977.
Flughafen became an official city district in 1979. It covers the area of Frankfurt Airport that had belonged to Sachsenhausen and the neighboring city of Mörfelden-Walldorf.
Frankfurt's youngest city district is Frankfurter Berg. It was part of Bonames until 1996.
Kalbach was officially renamed Kalbach-Riedberg in 2006 because of the large residential housing development in the area known as Riedberg.
Neighboring districts and cities
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To the west Frankfurt borders the administrative district (Landkreis) of Main-Taunus-Kreis with towns such as Hattersheim am Main, Kriftel, Hofheim am Taunus, Kelkheim, Liederbach am Taunus, Sulzbach, Schwalbach am Taunus and Eschborn; to the northwest the Hochtaunuskreis with Steinbach, Oberursel (Taunus) and Bad Homburg vor der Höhe; to the north the Wetteraukreis with Karben and Bad Vilbel; to the northeast the Main-Kinzig-Kreis with Niederdorfelden and Maintal; to the southeast the city of Offenbach am Main; to the south the Kreis Offenbach with Neu-Isenburg and to the southwest the Kreis Groß-Gerau with Mörfelden-Walldorf, Rüsselsheim and Kelsterbach.
Together with these towns (and some larger nearby towns, e.g., Hanau, Rodgau, Dreieich, Langen) Frankfurt forms a contiguous built-up urban area called Stadtregion Frankfurt which is not an official administrative district. The urban area had an estimated population of 2.3 million in 2010, and is the 13th-largest urban area in the EU.
Climate
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Frankfurt has a temperate-oceanic climate (Köppen: Cfb). Its climate features cool winters with frequent rain showers and overcast skies, and warm to hot summers. The average annual temperature is 11.4 °C (52.5 °F), with monthly mean temperatures ranging from 2.7 °C (36.9 °F) in January to 20.7 °C (69.3 °F) in July. The descriptions below are based on climate data between 1991 and 2020.
Due to its location at the northern tip of the Upper Rhine Valley in the Southwest of Germany, Frankfurt is one of the warmest and driest major German cities along with Darmstadt, Mannheim, Karlsruhe and Freiburg im Breisgau. Summers in Frankfurt can get quite hot when compared to the rest of the country. On average, it sees 62 days with a daily high temperature above 25 °C and 18 days with a high above 30 °C per year.
Climate change is elevating the number of hot days. In the year of 2018, Frankfurt recorded 108 days with a maximum over 25 °C and 43 days with a high above 30 °C. This is compared to 52 and 13 days on average per year between 1981 and 2010. The overall tendency for higher temperatures can also be seen when comparing the climate data from 1981 to 2010 with the data from 2010 to 2020. Being an urban heat island, Frankfurt sometimes experiences tropical nights, where the temperature does not fall below 20 °C between May and September. This is exacerbated and made more frequent as the density of the city stores daytime heat overnight.
The growing season is longer when compared to the rest of Germany, thus resulting in an early arrival of springtime in the region, with trees typically leafing out already toward the end of March.
Winters in Frankfurt are generally mild or at least not freezing with a small possibility of snow, especially in January and February but dark and often overcast. Frankfurt is, on average, covered with snow only for around 10 to 20 days per year.[31] The temperature falls below 0 °C on about 64 days and the daily maximum stays below freezing for about 10 days on average per year. Some days with lows under −10 °C can occur more often here than at the coasts of Northern Germany, but not as frequently as in Bavaria or the eastern parts of Germany.
Because of the mild climate in the region, there are some well-known wine regions in the vicinity such as Rhenish Hesse, Rheingau, Franconia (wine region) and Bergstraße (route). There is also a microclimate on the northern bank of the river Main which allows palms, fig trees, lemon trees and southern European plants to grow in that area. The area is called the "Nizza" (the German word for the southern French town Nice) and is one of the biggest parks with Mediterranean vegetation north of the Alps.[32]
Climate data for Frankfurt Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Mean No. of days with Maximum temperature => 30.0 °C (86.0 °F) 0 0 0 0 0.5 3.3 6.5 5.4 0.7 0 0 0 16.4 Mean No. of days with Minimum temperature <= 0.0 °C (32.0 °F) 15.8 15 8.8 2.9 0.1 0 0 0 0 1.7 6.2 13.6 64.1 Mean No. of days with Maximum temperature <= 0.0 °C (32.0 °F) 4.6 2.2 0.1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.4 3 10.3 Mean No. of days with snow depth => 1 cm (0.39 in) 4.9 3.3 1.1 0.1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.6 3.3 13.3 Mean number of days with thunder 0.2 0.4 0.7 2.1 4.5 5.3 6.2 5.5 1.6 0.6 0.3 0.1 27.5 Mean number of days with hail 0 0 0 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.1 0 0 0 0 0.8 Mean number of days with fog 3 2.5 1.1 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.3 0.5 1.1 4.4 4.2 3.9 32.2 Number of days with no sunshine 19.9 15.4 14.1 9.9 11 8.8 9.3 7.7 11.1 15 19.2 21.7 163.1 Mean daily daylight hours 9.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 15.0 16.0 16.0 14.0 13.0 11.0 9.0 8.0 12.3 Average Ultraviolet index 1 1 3 4 6 7 7 6 5 3 1 1 3.5 Source 1: NOAA[34] Source 2: Weather Atlas[36]
Demographics
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Population
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Historical populationYearPop.±%13879,600— 152010,000+4.2%175032,000+220.0%187191,040+184.5%1895229,279+151.8%1905334,978+46.1%1925467,520+39.6%1933555,857+18.9%1939553,464−0.4%1945357,737−35.4%1950532,037+48.7%1961685,682+28.9%1970669,635−2.3%1980629,375−6.0%1985595,348−5.4%1990644,865+8.3%1995650,055+0.8%2001641,076−1.4%2011667,925+4.2%2022743,268+11.3%Population size may be affected by changes in administrative divisions.
Largest groups of foreign residents[37] Nationality Population (30 June 2022) Turkey 25,294 Croatia 16,751 Italy 15,120 Poland 12,174 Romania 10,451 Ukraine 9,748 Serbia 9,404 Bulgaria 8,509 India 7,612 Morocco 7,364 Spain 7,133 Greece 6,581 Bosnia and Herzegovina 6,342 Afghanistan 5,114 France 4,719 China 4,632 Algeria 4,087 Portugal 3,991 Japan 3,653 Eritrea 3,374
With a population of 763,380 (2019) within its administrative boundaries[38] and of 2,300,000 in the actual urban area,[39] Frankfurt is the fifth-largest city in Germany, after Berlin, Hamburg, Munich and Cologne. Central Frankfurt has been a Großstadt (a city with at least 100,000 residents by definition) since 1875. With 414,576 residents in 1910, it was the ninth largest city in Germany and the number of inhabitants grew to 553,464 before World War II. After the war, at the end of the year 1945, the number had dropped to 358,000. In the following years, the population grew again and reached an all-time-high of 691,257 in 1963. It dropped again to 592,411 in 1986 but has increased since then. According to the demographic forecasts for central Frankfurt, the city will have a population up to 813,000 within its administrative boundaries in 2035[40] and more than 2.5 million inhabitants in its urban area.
As of 2015, Frankfurt had 1909 ultra high-net-worth individuals, the sixth-highest number of any city in the world.[41] It is also the world's 14th-richest city by total wealth, as of 2017.[42]
During the 1970s, the state government of Hesse wanted to expand the city's administrative boundaries to include the entire urban area. This would have made Frankfurt officially the second-largest city in Germany after Berlin with up to 3 million inhabitants.[43] However, because local authorities did not agree, the administrative territory is still much smaller than its actual urban area.
Moroccan community
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Frankfurt has the largest Moroccan community in Germany, numbering about 8,000 people, and the Rhine-Main area has about 20,000. Many Moroccans came as guest workers in the 1970s. Today Frankfurt has many Moroccan restaurants, companies, shops, mosques and hamams. Due to the popularity of Moroccan culture in Frankfurt, it also led many people from the Maghreb and other African countries to move to Frankfurt. Famous singer Namika was born in Frankfurt to Moroccan parents.
Population of the 46 city districts on 31 December 2009 No.
City district (Stadtteil)
Area in km2[44]
Population[45]
Foreign nationals[45]
Foreign nationals in %[45]
Area district (Ortsbezirk) 01 Altstadt 0.51 3.475 1.122 32.3 01 – Innenstadt I 02 Innenstadt 1.52 6.577 2.529 38.5 01 – Innenstadt I 03 Bahnhofsviertel 0.53 2.125 810 38.1 01 – Innenstadt I 04 Westend-Süd 2.47 17.288 3.445 19.9 02 – Innenstadt II 05 Westend-Nord 1.67 8.854 2.184 24.7 02 – Innenstadt II 06 Nordend-West 3.07 28.808 5.162 17.9 03 – Innenstadt III 07 Nordend-Ost 1.69 26.619 5.580 21.0 03 – Innenstadt III 08 Ostend 5.40 26.955 7.213 26.8 04 – Bornheim/Ostend 09 Bornheim 2.66 27.184 6.240 23.0 04 – Bornheim/Ostend 10 Gutleutviertel 2.20 5.843 1.953 33.4 01 – Innenstadt I 11 Gallus 4.22 26.716 11.012 41.2 01 – Innenstadt I 12 Bockenheim 8.04 34.740 9.034 26.0 02 – Innenstadt II 13 Sachsenhausen-Nord 4.24 30.374 6.507 21.4 05 – Süd 14 Sachsenhausen-Süd 34.91 26.114 4.847 18.6 05 – Süd 15 Flughafen 20.00 211 14 6.6 05 – Süd 16 Oberrad 2.74 12.828 3.113 24.3 05 – Süd 17 Niederrad 2.93 22.954 6.569 28.6 05 – Süd 18 Schwanheim 17.73 20.162 3.532 17.5 06 – West 19 Griesheim 4.90 22.648 8.029 35.5 06 – West 20 Rödelheim 5.15 17.841 4.863 27.3 07 – Mitte-West 21 Hausen 1.26 7.178 2.135 29.7 07 – Mitte-West 22/23 Praunheim 4.55 15.761 3.197 20.3 07 – Mitte-West 24 Heddernheim 2.49 16.443 3.194 19.4 08 – Nord-West 25 Niederursel 7.22 16.394 3.671 22.4 08 – Nord-West 26 Ginnheim 2.73 16.444 4.024 24.5 09 – Mitte-Nord 27 Dornbusch 2.38 18.511 3.482 18.8 09 – Mitte-Nord 28 Eschersheim 3.34 14.808 2.657 17.9 09 – Mitte-Nord 29 Eckenheim 2.23 14.277 3.674 25.7 10 – Nord-Ost 30 Preungesheim 3.74 13.568 3.442 25.4 10 – Nord-Ost 31 Bonames 1.24 6.362 1.288 20.2 10 – Nord-Ost 32 Berkersheim 3.18 3.400 592 17.4 10 – Nord-Ost 33 Riederwald 1.04 4.911 1.142 23.3 11 – Ost 34 Seckbach 8.04 10.194 1.969 19.3 11 – Ost 35 Fechenheim 7.18 16.061 5.635 35.1 11 – Ost 36 Höchst 4.73 13.888 5.279 38.0 06 – West 37 Nied 3.82 17.829 5.224 29.3 06 – West 38 Sindlingen 3.98 9.032 2.076 23.0 06 – West 39 Zeilsheim 5.47 11.984 2.555 21.3 06 – West 40 Unterliederbach 5.85 14.350 3.511 24.5 06 – West 41 Sossenheim 5.97 15.853 4.235 26.7 06 – West 42 Nieder-Erlenbach 8.34 4.629 496 10.7 13 – Nieder-Erlenbach 43 Kalbach-Riedberg 6.90 8.482 1.279 15.1 12 – Kalbach-Riedberg 44 Harheim 5.02 4.294 446 10.4 14 – Harheim 45 Nieder-Eschbach 6.35 11.499 1.978 17.2 15 – Nieder-Eschbach 46 Bergen-Enkheim 12.54 17.954 2.764 15.4 16 – Bergen-Enkheim 47 Frankfurter Berg 2.16 7.149 1.715 24.0 10 – Nord-Ost Frankfurt am Main 248.33 679.571 165.418 24.3
Immigration and foreign nationals
[edit]
According to data from the city register of residents, 51.2% of the population had a migration background as of 2015, which means that a person or at least one of their parents was born with foreign citizenship. For the first time, a majority of the city residents had an at least part non-German background.[46] Moreover, three of four children in the city under the age of six had full or partial immigrant backgrounds,[47] and 27.7% of residents had a foreign citizenship.[48]
According to statistics, 46.7% of immigrants in Frankfurt come from other countries in the EU; 24.5% come from European countries that are not part of the EU; 15.7% come from Asia (including Western Asia and South Asia); 7.3% come from Africa; 3.4% come from North America (including the Caribbean and Central America); 0.2% come from Australia and New Zealand; 2.3% come from South America; and 1.1% come from Pacific island nations. Because of this the city is often considered to be a multicultural city, and has been compared to New York City and London.[citation needed]
Religion
[edit]
Frankfurt was historically a Protestant-dominated city. However, during the 19th century, an increasing number of Catholics moved to Frankfurt. As of 2013 , the largest Christian denominations were Catholicism (22.7% of the population) and Protestantism, especially Lutheranism (19.4%).[49]
The Jewish community has a history dating back to medieval times and has always ranked among the largest in Germany. Over 7,200 inhabitants are affiliated with the Jewish community, making it the second largest in Germany after Berlin.[21] Frankfurt has four active synagogues.[50]
Due to the growing immigration of people from Muslim countries beginning in the 1960s, Frankfurt has a large Muslim community, estimated at 12% in 2006.[51] According to calculations based on census data for 21 countries of origin, the number of Muslim migrants in Frankfurt amounted to about 84,000 in 2011, making up 12.6% of the population.[52] The most prevalent countries of origin were Turkey and Morocco. The Ahmadiyya Noor Mosque, constructed in 1959, is the city's largest mosque and the third largest in Germany. In 2020, the number of Muslims in Frankfurt's total population was 18 percent[53]
Government and politics
[edit]
Mayor
[edit]
Main article: Mayor of Frankfurt
The current Mayor is Mike Josef of the Social Democratic Party, who took the office on 11 May 2023.
The most recent mayoral election was held on 5 March 2023, with a runoff held on 26 March, and the results were as follows:
Candidate Party First round Second round Votes % Votes % Uwe Becker Christian Democratic Union 70,411 34.5 86,307 48.3 Mike Josef Social Democratic Party 49,033 24.0 92,371 51.7 Manuela Rottmann Alliance 90/The Greens 43,502 21.3 Peter Wirth Independent 10,397 5.1 Daniela Mehler-Würzbach The Left 7,356 3.6 Maja Wolff Independent 6,014 2.9 Yanki Pürsün Free Democratic Party 5,768 2.8 Andreas Lobenstein Alternative for Germany 4,628 2.3 Mathias Pfeiffer Citizens for Frankfurt 1,565 0.8 Katharina Tanczos Die PARTEI 1,176 0.6 Khurrem Akhtar Team Todenhöfer 858 0.4 Frank Großenbach dieBasis 744 0.4 Tilo Schwichtenberg Garden Party Frankfurt am Main 661 0.3 Sven Junghans Independent 574 0.3 Yamòs Camara Free Party Frankfurt 487 0.2 Niklas Pauli Independent 340 0.2 Peter Pawelski Independent 325 0.2 Feng Xu Independent 199 0.1 Karl-Maria Schulte Independent 158 0.1 Markus Eulig Independent 102 0.0 Valid votes 204,298 99.6 178,678 99.0 Invalid votes 921 0.4 1,754 1.0 Total 205,219 100.0 180,432 100.0 Electorate/voter turnout 508,510 40.4 510,336 35.4 Source: City of Frankfurt am Main Archived 27 April 2021 at the Wayback Machine
City council
[edit]
The Frankfurt am Main city council (Stadtverordnetenversammlung) governs the city alongside the mayor. It is located in the city's medieval town hall, Römer, which is also used for representative and official purposes. The most recent city council election was held on 14 March 2021, and the results were as follows:
Party Lead candidate Votes % +/- Seats +/- Alliance 90/The Greens (Grüne) Martina Feldmayer 4,894,339 24.6 9.3 23 9 Christian Democratic Union (CDU) Nils Kößler 4,361,942 21.9 2.2 20 2 Social Democratic Party (SPD) Mike Josef 3,385,017 17.0 6.8 16 6 The Left (Die Linke) Dominike Pauli 1,572,333 7.9 0.1 7 1 Free Democratic Party (FDP) Annette Rinn 1,515,646 7.6 0.1 7 ±0 Alternative for Germany (AfD) Patrick Schenk 902,412 4.5 4.4 4 4 Volt Germany (Volt) Eileen O'Sullivan 745,418 3.7 New 4 New Citizens for Frankfurt (BFF) Mathias Mund 395,905 2.0 0.7 2 1 Ecological Left – Anti-Racist List (ÖkoLinX-ARL) Jutta Ditfurth 359,304 1.8 0.3 2 ±0 Die PARTEI (PARTEI) Nico Wehnemann 361,932 1.8 0.4 2 1 Europe List for Frankfurt (ELF) Luigi Brillante 265,914 1.3 0.1 1 ±0 Free Voters (FW) Eric Pärisch 162,122 0.8 0.2 1 ±0 I am a Frankfurter (IBF) Jumas Medoff 166,573 0.8 0.4 1 1 Alliance for Innovation and Justice (BIG) Haluk Yıldız 128,846 0.6 New 1 New Garden Party Frankfurt am Main (Gartenpartei) Tilo Schwichtenberg 126,991 0.6 New 1 New Pirate Party Germany (Piraten) Herbert Förster 123,772 0.6 0.2 1 ±0 Polish Dialogue Initiative for Frankfurt Barbara Lange 88,771 0.4 New 0 New The Frankfurters (dFfm) Bernhard Ochs 73,026 0.4 0.4 0 1 International Vote Frankfurt (ISF) Kerry Reddington 61,772 0.3 New 0 New Climate List Frankfurt (Klimaliste) Beate Balzert 61,526 0.3 New 0 New Free Party Frankfurt (FPF) Benjamin Klinger 40,621 0.2 New 0 New United Democrats (VD) André Leitzbach 30,691 0.2 New 0 New The Social Liberals (SL) Christian Bethke 18,563 0.1 New 0 New Frankfurt Free Voter Group (FFWG) Thomas Schmitt 16,587 0.1 New 0 New Romanians for Frankfurt (RF) Ionut-Vlad Plenz 15,884 0.1 New 0 New Party of Humanists (Die Humanisten) Rüdiger Gottschalk 11,680 0.1 New 0 New Bulgarian Association of Frankfurt (BGF) Daniela Spasova-Mischke 11,488 0.1 New 0 New Sven Junghans, We Frankfurters (WF) Sven Junghans 9,627 0.0 New 0 New Valid votes 221,487 96.0 Invalid votes 9,196 4.0 Total 230,683 100.0 93 ±0 Electorate/voter turnout 512,034 45.1 6.1 Source: Statistics Hesse
Landtag election
[edit]
For elections to the Hesse State Parliament, Frankfurt am Main is split up into six constituencies. In total 15 delegates represent the city in the Landtag in Wiesbaden. The last election took place in October 2018. Six members of parliament were directly elected in their respective constituencies: Uwe Serke (CDU, Frankfurt am Main I), Miriam Dahlke (Greens, Frankfurt am Main II), Ralf-Norbert Bartel (CDU, Frankfurt am Main III), Michael Boddenberg (CDU, Frankfurt am Main IV), Markus Bocklet (Greens, Frankfurt am Main V) and Boris Rhein (CDU, Frankfurt am Main VI).
Delegates from Frankfurt often serve high-ranking positions in Hessian politics, e.g. Michael Boddenberg is Hessian Minister of Finance and Boris Rhein was elected President of the Landtag of Hesse in 2019.
German federal election
[edit]
For federal elections which are held every four years, Frankfurt is split up into two constituencies. In the German federal election 2017, Matthias Zimmer (CDU) and Bettina Wiesmann were elected to the Bundestag by directe mandate in Frankfurt am Main I and Frankfurt am Main II respectively. Nicola Beer (FDP), Achim Kessler (Linke), Ulli Nissen (SPD) and Omid Nouripour (Greens) were elected as well.
Nicola Beer resigned as a member of parliament in 2019 following her election to the European Parliament where she now serves as vice president.
Economy and business
[edit]
Frankfurt is one of the world's most important financial hubs and Germany's financial capital, followed by Hamburg and Stuttgart. Frankfurt was ranked eighth at the International Financial Centers Development Index (2013), eighth at the Worldwide Centres of Commerce Index (2008), ninth at the Global Financial Centres Index (September 2013),[54] tenth at the Global Power City Index (2011), 11th at the Global City Competitiveness Index[broken anchor] (2012), 12th at the Innovation Cities Index (2011),[55] 14th at the World City Survey[broken anchor] (2011) and 23rd at the Global Cities Index (2012).[56]
The city's importance as a financial hub has risen since the eurozone crisis. Indications are the establishment of two institutions of the European System of Financial Supervisors (European Insurance and Occupational Pensions Authority and European Systemic Risk Board) in 2011, and the entry into force in 2014 of European Banking Supervision, by which the European Central Bank has become the central supervisory authority for the euro area banking sector.
According to an annual study by Cushman & Wakefield, the European Cities Monitor (2010), Frankfurt has been one of the top three cities for international companies in Europe, after London and Paris, since the survey started in 1990.[57] It is the only German city considered to be an alpha world city (category 3) as listed by the Loughborough University group's 2010 inventory,[58] which was a promotion from the group's 2008 inventory when it was ranked as an alpha minus world city (category 4).[59]
With over 922 jobs per 1,000 inhabitants, Frankfurt has the highest concentration of jobs in Germany. On work days and Saturdays, one million people commute from all over the Rhein-Main-Area. The GRP per capita was €96,670 in 2019.[60]
The city is expected to benefit from international banks relocating jobs from London to Frankfurt as a result of Brexit to retain access to the EU market.[61][62] Thus far, Morgan Stanley, Citigroup Inc., Standard Chartered Plc and Nomura Holdings Inc. announced they would move their EU headquarters to Frankfurt.[62]
Central banks
[edit]
Frankfurt is home to two important central banks: the German Bundesbank and the European Central Bank (ECB).[63]
European Central Bank
[edit]
The European Central Bank (Europäische Zentralbank) is one of the world's most important central banks with a balance sheet total of around 7 trillion.[64] The ECB sets monetary policy for the Eurozone, consisting of 19 EU member states that have adopted the Euro (€) as their common currency. From 1998 the ECB Headquarters have been located in Frankfurt, first in the Eurotower at Willy-Brandt-Platz and in two other nearby high-rises. The new Seat of the European Central Bank in the Ostend district, consisting of the former wholesale market hall (Großmarkthalle) and a newly built 185-meter skyscraper, was completed in late 2014. The new building complex was designed to accommodate up to 2,300 ECB personnel. The location is a few kilometers away from downtown and borders an industrial area as well as the Osthafen (East Harbor), It was primarily chosen because of its large premises which allows the ECB to install security arrangements without high fences.
The city honors the importance of the ECB by officially using the slogan "The City of the Euro" since 1998.
Deutsche Bundesbank
[edit]
The Deutsche Bundesbank (German Federal Bank), located in Ginnheim, was established in 1957 as the central bank for the Federal Republic of Germany. Until the euro (€) was introduced in 1999, the Deutsche Bundesbank was responsible for the monetary policy of Germany and for the German currency, the Deutsche Mark (DM). The Bundesbank was greatly respected for its control of inflation through the second half of the 20th century. Today the Bundesbank is an integral part of the European System of Central Banks (ESCB) which is formed by all 27 EU member states. Its bilance sheet total is around 2,7 trillion,[65] making it the 4th biggest central bank.
Commercial banks
[edit]
In 2010, 63 national and 152 international banks had a registered office, including the headquarters of the major German banks, as well as 41 offices of international banks.[8] Frankfurt is therefore known as Bankenstadt ("City of the banks") and nicknamed "Mainhattan" (a portmanteau of the local Main river and Manhattan in New York City) or "Bankfurt". 73,200 people were employed at banks in 2010.
Deutsche Bank — Germany's largest commercial bank. It had 15% share of private customers and total assets of €1,900 billion in 2010. Deutsche Bank ranks among the 30 largest banks in the world and the ten largest banks in Europe.[66] Deutsche Bank is listed on the DAX, the stock market index of the 30 largest German business companies at the Frankfurt Stock Exchange. In November 2010 Deutsche Bank bought the majority of shares of competitor Postbank. Its headquarters are located at Taunusanlage in the financial district.
DZ Bank — Central institution for more than 900 co-operative banks (Volksbanken und Raiffeisenbanken) and their 12,000 branch offices in Germany and is a corporate and investment bank. It is Germany's second-largest bank (total assets: €509 billion). The DZ Bank Group defines itself primarily as a service provider for the local Volksbanken and Raiffeisenbanken and their 30 million clients. The DZ Bank headquarters are the Westend Tower and the City-Haus at Platz der Republik. The DZ Bank Group includes Union Investment, DVB Bank and Reisebank, which are also headquartered in Frankfurt.
KfW Bankengruppe — Government-owned development bank formed in 1948 as part of the Marshall Plan. KfW provides loans for approved purposes at lower rates than commercial banks, especially to medium-sized businesses. With total assets of €507 billion (2017), it is Germany's third-largest bank. The KfW headquarters are located in the Westend district at Bockenheimer Landstraße and Senckenberganlage.
Commerzbank — Germany's fourth-largest bank by total assets (2017). In 2009, Commerzbank merged with competitor Dresdner Bank, then the third-largest German bank. Due to the merger and the higher credit risks, Commerzbank was 25% nationalized during the Great Recession. It is listed in the DAX. Its headquarters are at Commerzbank Tower (259 meters), the second-tallest building in the EU, at Kaiserplatz.
Landesbank Hessen-Thüringen – Landesbank Hessen-Thüringen, or short Helaba, is a commercial bank owned by the states of Hesse and Thuringia (Landesbank). As such, it is a service provider for the local Sparkassen. Helaba is one of nine Landesbanken and is the fifth-largest in Germany. It is located in the 200-meter-tall Main Tower in the financial district, the only skyscraper in Frankfurt with an observation desk open to the public.
DekaBank – DekaBank is the central asset manager of the Sparkassen in Germany. The headquarters of DekaBank are located at the Trianon skyscraper at Mainzer Landstraße.
ING Diba Germany – Germany's largest direct bank, headquartered in Bockenheim
Other major German banks include Frankfurter Volksbank, the second-largest Volksbank in Germany, Frankfurter Sparkasse and old-established private banks such as Bankhaus Metzler, Hauck & Aufhäuser and Delbrück Bethmann Maffei.
Many international banks have a registered or a representative office, e.g., Credit Suisse, UBS, Bank of America, Morgan Stanley, Goldman Sachs, Merrill Lynch, JPMorgan Chase & Co., Bank of China, Banco do Brasil, Itaú Unibanco Société Générale, BNP Paribas, SEB, Royal Bank of Scotland and Barclays.
Frankfurt Stock Exchange
[edit]
Main article: Frankfurt Stock Exchange
The Frankfurt Stock Exchange (Frankfurter Wertpapierbörse) began in the ninth century. By the 16th century Frankfurt had developed into an important European hub for trade fairs and financial services. Today the Frankfurt Stock Exchange is by far the largest in Germany, with a turnover of more than 90 percent of the German stock market and is the third-largest in Europe after the London Stock Exchange and the European branch of the NYSE Euronext. The most important stock market index is the DAX, the index of the 30 largest German business companies listed at the stock exchange. The stock exchange is owned and operated by Deutsche Börse, which is itself listed in the DAX. Deutsche Börse also owns the European futures exchange Eurex and clearing company Clearstream. Trading takes place exclusively via the Xetra trading system, with redundant floor brokers taking on the role of market-makers on the new platform.
On 1 February 2012 European Commission blocked the proposed merger of Deutsche Börse and NYSE Euronext. "The merger between Deutsche Börse and NYSE Euronext would have led to a near-monopoly in European financial derivatives worldwide. These markets are at the heart of the financial system and it is crucial for the whole European economy that they remain competitive. We tried to find a solution, but the remedies offered fell far short of resolving the concerns."[67] European competition commissioner Joaquín Almunia said.
It is located downtown at the Börsenplatz. Deutsche Börse's headquarters are formally registered in Frankfurt, but it moved most of its employees to a high-rise called "The Cube" in Eschborn in 2010, primarily due to significantly lower local corporate taxes.
Frankfurt Trade Fair
[edit]
Main article: Frankfurt Trade Fair
Frankfurt Trade Fair (Messe Frankfurt) has the third-largest exhibition site in the world with a total of 578,000 m2 (6,220,000 sq ft). The trade fair premises are located in the western part between Bockenheim, the Westend and the Gallus district. It houses ten exhibition halls with a total of 321,754 m2 (3,463,330 sq ft) of space and 96,078 m2 (1,034,170 sq ft) of outdoor space.
Hosted in Frankfurt are the Frankfurt Motor Show (Internationale Automobil-Ausstellung – IAA), the world's largest auto show, the Frankfurt Book Fair (Frankfurter Buchmesse), the world's largest book fair, the Ambiente Frankfurt, the world's largest consumer goods fair, the Achema, the world's largest plant engineering fair, and many more like Paperworld, Christmasworld, Beautyworld, Tendence Lifestyle or Light+Building.
Messe Frankfurt GmbH, the owner and operator company, organized 87 exhibitions in 2010, 51 thereof in foreign countries.[citation needed] It is one of the largest trade fair companies with commercial activities in over 150 countries.
Aviation
[edit]
Frankfurt Airport is one of the busiest airports in the world and is also the single largest place of work in Germany with over 500 companies which employ 71,500 people (2010).[68]
Fraport is the owner and operator of Frankfurt Airport. It is the airport's second-largest employer (19,800 workers in 2010).[69] Fraport also operates other airports worldwide, e.g., King Abdulaziz International Airport in Jeddah, Jorge Chávez International Airport in Lima and Antalya Airport.
The largest company at Frankfurt Airport is Lufthansa, Germany's flag carrier and Europe's largest airline. Lufthansa employs 35,000 people in Frankfurt.[70][71] The Lufthansa Aviation Center (LAC) is the main operation base of Lufthansa at Frankfurt Airport. The airport serves as Lufthansa's primary hub with 157 worldwide destinations (compared to 110 destinations at Munich Airport, Lufthansa's second-largest hub). Lufthansa Cargo is based in Frankfurt and operates its largest cargo center (LCC) at Frankfurt Airport. Lufthansa Flight Training is also based here.
Condor is a German airline based at Frankfurt Airport.
Other industries
[edit]
Accountancy and professional services
[edit]
Three of the four largest international accountancy and professional services firms (Big Four) are present.
PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC) German headquarters are located at Tower 185. KPMG moved its European Headquarters (KPMG Europe LLP) to The Squaire. Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu are present, while Ernst & Young is located in Eschborn.
Credit rating agencies
[edit]
The three major international credit rating agencies – Standard & Poor's, Moody's and Fitch Ratings – have their German headquarters in Frankfurt.
Investment trust companies
[edit]
DWS Investments is one of the largest investment trust company in Germany and manages €859 billion fund assets. It is one of the ten largest investment trust companies in the world.[72] Other large investment trust companies are Universal Investment,[73] Allianz Global Investors Europe (a division of Allianz SE, and a top-five global active investment manager), Union Investment and Deka Investmentfonds.
Management consultancies
[edit]
Many of the largest international management consultancies are represented, including Arthur D. Little, McKinsey & Company, Boston Consulting Group, Booz & Company, Oliver Wyman, Bearing Point, Capgemini, Bain & Company and Roland Berger Strategy Consultants.
Real estate services companies
[edit]
Located in Frankfurt are the German headquarters of Jones Lang LaSalle and BNP Paribas Real Estate.
Law firms
[edit]
Frankfurt has the highest concentration of lawyers in Germany, with one lawyer per 97 inhabitants (followed by Düsseldorf with a ratio of 1/117 and Munich with 1/124) in 2005.[74]
Most of the large international law firms maintain offices, among them Allen & Overy, Baker & McKenzie, Bird & Bird, Clifford Chance, Cleary Gottlieb Steen & Hamilton, Debevoise & Plimpton, DLA Piper, Freshfields Bruckhaus Deringer, Hogan Lovells, Jones Day, Latham & Watkins, Linklaters, Mayer Brown, Milbank, Tweed, Hadley & McCloy, Norton Rose, Shearman & Sterling, Sidley Austin, SJ Berwin, Skadden, Arps, Slate, Meagher & Flom, Sullivan & Cromwell, K&L Gates, Taylor Wessing and White & Case.
Advertising agencies
[edit]
Although it is best known for its banks and financial institutions, Frankfurt is also a media hub. Around 570 companies of the advertising industry and 270 public relations companies are there.
According to a ranking of German FOCUS magazine (November 2007) seven of the 48 largest advertising agencies in Germany are based in Frankfurt, including Havas, Dentsu, McCann-Erickson, Saatchi & Saatchi, JWT, and Publicis.[75]
Food
[edit]
Frankfurt is home to the German headquarters of Nestlé, the world's largest food company, located in Niederrad. Other important food companies are Ferrero SpA (German headquarters) and Radeberger Gruppe KG, the largest private brewery group in Germany.
Automotive
[edit]
The South-Korean automobile manufacturer Kia Motors moved its European headquarters to Frankfurt in 2007. In the same year, Italian manufacturer Fiat opened its new German headquarters. The automotive supplier Continental AG has the headquarters and a major manufacturing plant of its Chassis & Safety division (formerly ITT Automotive) located in Frankfurt Rödelheim.
Construction
[edit]
Some of the largest German construction companies have offices, e.g., Bilfinger Berger, Hochtief, Züblin and BAM Deutschland.
Property and real estate
[edit]
Frankfurt has Germany's highest concentration of homeowners. This is partly attributed to the financial sector, but also to its cosmopolitan nature, with expatriates and immigrants representing one-fourth of its population. For this reason, Frankfurt's property market often operates differently than the rest of the country where the prices are generally flatter.
Tourism
[edit]
Frankfurt is one of Germany's leading tourist destinations. In addition to its infrastructure and economy, its diversity supports a vibrant cultural scene. This blend of attractions led 4.3 million tourists (2012) to visit Frankfurt.[76] The Hotels in central Frankfurt offer 34,000 beds in 228 hotels, of which 13 are luxury hotels and 46 are first-class hotels.[77]
Other
[edit]
Frankfurt is home to companies from the chemical, transportation, telecommunication and energy industries. Some of the larger companies are:
Industriepark Höchst — An industrial park in Höchst. It is one of Germany's largest with over 90 companies from the pharmaceutical, the chemical and the biotechnology industry, including Celanese, Clariant, BASF, Merck KGaA and Siemens. It was founded by chemical company Hoechst AG in 1874. At the beginning of the 1980s Hoechst AG was the largest pharmaceutical corporation and Industriepark Höchst was known as "the pharmacy of the world". Hoechst AG merged with Rhône-Poulenc to become Aventis in 1999 and in 2004 Aventis merged with Sanofi-Synthélabo to become Sanofi-Aventis. In 2005, around 22,000 people worked at Industriepark Höchst. In 2011, Ticona now part of Celanese, an international manufacturer of engineering polymers, moved to Industriepark Höchst.
Deutsche Bahn – Deutsche Bahn subsidiaries DB Fernverkehr, DB Regio, DB Stadtverkehr, DB Netz, DB Schenker and the corporate development department of Deutsche Bahn are Frankfurt-based.
Deutsche Telekom – Deutsche Telekom's subsidiary T-Systems is Frankfurt-based.
COLT – telecommunications company with Frankfurt-based German headquarters
Nintendo — In 2014, Nintendo of Europe moved its headquarters from Großostheim to Frankfurt.[78]
CenturyLink — internet service provider with German headquarters in Frankfurt
DE-CIX – Frankfurt is an important location for electronic communication, especially the Internet. It is home to DE-CIX, the world's largest internet exchange point.
Mainova – The largest regional energy supplier in Germany with about one million customers in Hesse. It provides electricity, gas, heat and water. Its headquarters are Frankfurt-based.
In addition, several cloud and fintech startups have their headquarters in Frankfurt.[79]
Urban area (suburban) businesses
[edit]
Within Frankfurt's urban area are several important companies.
The business hub of Eschborn is located right at Frankfurt's city limits in the west and attracts businesses with significantly lower corporate taxes compared to Frankfurt. Major companies in Eschborn include Ernst & Young, Vodafone Germany, Randstad Holding and VR Leasing. Deutsche Börse moved most of its employees to Eschborn in 2010.
Rüsselsheim is internationally known for its automobile manufacturer Opel, one of the biggest automobile manufacturers in Germany. With 20,000 employees in 2003, Opel was one of the five largest employers in Hesse.
Offenbach am Main is home to the European headquarters of automobile manufacturer Hyundai Motor Company, to the German headquarters of automobile manufacturer Honda, to Honeywell Germany and to Deutscher Wetterdienst, the central scientific agency that monitors weather and meteorological conditions over Germany.
Two DAX companies are located in Bad Homburg vor der Höhe, Fresenius SE & Co. KGaA and Fresenius Medical Care. Other major companies are Hewlett-Packard, Bridgestone, Deutsche Leasing and Basler Versicherungen.
Kronberg im Taunus is home of the German headquarters of automobile manufacturer Jaguar Cars as well as the German headquarters of Accenture.
Lufthansa Systems, a subsidiary of Lufthansa, is located in Kelsterbach.
LSG Sky Chefs, another subsidiary of Lufthansa, is located in Neu-Isenburg.
The German headquarters of Thomas Cook Group are based in Oberursel.
Langen is home to Deutsche Flugsicherung, the German air traffic control.
International relations
[edit]
Twin towns – sister cities
[edit]
Frankfurt is twinned with:[80]
Friendly cities
[edit]
Frankfurt has friendly relations with:[80]
Cairo, Egypt (1979)
Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan (2011)
Cityscape
[edit]
Landmarks
[edit]
Römer
Römer, the German word for Roman, is a complex of nine houses that form the Frankfurt city hall (Rathaus). The houses were acquired by the city council in 1405 from a wealthy merchant family. The middle house became the city hall and was later connected with its neighbors. The Kaisersaal ("Emperor's Hall") is located on the upper floor and is where the newly crowned emperors held their banquets. The Römer was partially destroyed in World War II and later rebuilt. The surrounding square, the Römerberg, is named after the city hall.
The former Altstadt (old town) quarter between the Römer and the Frankfurt Cathedral was redeveloped as the Dom-Römer Quarter from 2012 to 2018, including 15 reconstructions of historical buildings that were destroyed during World War II.
Frankfurt Cathedral
Frankfurt Cathedral (Frankfurter Dom) is not a cathedral, but the main Catholic church, dedicated to St. Bartholomew. The Gothic building was constructed in the 14th and 15th centuries on the foundation of an earlier church from the Merovingian time. From 1356 onwards, kings of the Holy Roman Empire were elected in this church, and from 1562 to 1792, Roman-German emperors were crowned there.
Since the 18th century, St. Bartholomew's has been called Dom, although it was never a bishop's seat. In 1867 it was destroyed by fire and rebuilt in its present style. It was again partially destroyed in World War II and rebuilt in the 1950s. Its height is 95 meters. The cathedral tower has a viewing platform open to the public at a height of 66 meters, accessed through a narrow spiral staircase with 386 steps.
St. Paul's Church
St. Paul's Church (Paulskirche) is a national historic monument in Germany because it was the seat of the first democratically elected parliament in 1848. It was established in 1789 as a Protestant church, but was not completed until 1833. Its importance has its roots in the Frankfurt Parliament, which met in the church during the revolutionary years of 1848/49 in order to write a constitution for a united Germany. The attempt failed because the monarchs of Prussia and Austria did not want to lose power. In 1849, Prussian troops ended the democratic experiment by force and the parliament dissolved; the building was once more used for religious services.
St. Paul's was partially destroyed in World War II, particularly its interior, which now has a modern appearance. It was quickly and symbolically rebuilt after the war; today it is used mainly for exhibitions and events.
Archäologischer Garten Frankfurt
The Archaeological Garden contains small parts of the oldest recovered buildings: an ancient Roman settlement and the Frankfurt Royal Palace (Kaiserpfalz Frankfurt) from the sixth century. The garden is located between the Römerberg and the cathedral. It was discovered after World War II when the area was heavily bombed and later partly rebuilt. The remains were preserved and are now open to the public. From 2013 until 2015 an event building, the Stadthaus ("City house"), has been built on top of the garden, but it remains open to the public free of charge.
Haus Wertheim
Wertheim House is the only timbered house in the Altstadt district that survived the heavy bombings of World War II undamaged. It is located on the Römerberg next to the Historical Museum.
Saalhof
The Saalhof is the oldest conserved building in the Altstadt district and dates to the 12th century. It was used as an exhibition hall by Dutch clothiers when trade fairs were held during the 14th and 15th centuries. The Saalhof was partly destroyed in World War II and later rebuilt. Today it serves as a part of the Historical Museum.
Eiserner Steg
The Eiserner Steg (Iron Bridge) is a pedestrian-only bridge across the Main that connects Römerberg and Sachsenhausen. It was built in 1868 and was the second bridge to cross the river. After World War II, when it was blown up by the Wehrmacht, it was quickly rebuilt in 1946. Today some 10,000 people cross the bridge on a daily basis.
Alte Oper
The Alte Oper is a former opera house, hence the name "Old Opera". The opera house was built in 1880 by architect Richard Lucae. It was one of the major opera houses in Germany until it was heavily damaged in World War II. Until the late 1970s, it was a ruin, nicknamed "Germany's most beautiful ruin". Former Frankfurt Lord Mayor Rudi Arndt called for blowing it up in the 1960s, which earned him the nickname "Dynamite-Rudi". (Later on, Arndt said he never had meant his suggestion seriously.)
Public pressure led to its refurbishment and reopening in 1981. Today, it functions as a famous concert hall, while operas are performed at the "new" Frankfurt Opera. The inscription on the frieze of the Alte Oper says: "Dem Wahren, Schönen, Guten" ("To the true, the beautiful, the good").
Eschenheimer Turm
The Eschenheim Tower (Eschenheimer Turm) was erected at the beginning of the 15th century and served as a city gate as part of late-medieval fortifications. It is the oldest and most unaltered building in the Innenstadt district.
St. Catherine's Church
St. Catherine's Church (Katharinenkirche) is the largest Protestant church, dedicated to Catherine of Alexandria, a martyred early Christian saint. It is located downtown at the entrance to the Zeil, the central pedestrian shopping street.
Hauptwache
Although today Hauptwache is mostly associated with the inner-city underground train station of the same name, the name originates from a baroque building on the square above the station. The Hauptwache building was constructed in 1730 and was used as a prison, therefore the name that translates as "main guard-house". Today the square surrounding the building is also called "Hauptwache" (formal: An der Hauptwache). It is situated downtown opposite to St. Catherine's Church and houses a famous café.
Central Station
Frankfurt Central Station (Frankfurt Hauptbahnhof), which opened in 1888, was built as the central train station for Frankfurt to replace three smaller downtown train stations and to boost the needed capacity for travellers. It was constructed as a terminus station and was the largest train station in Europe by floor area until 1915 when Leipzig Central Station was opened. Its three main halls were constructed in a neorenaissance-style, while the later enlargement with two outer halls in 1924 was constructed in neoclassic-style.
Frankfurter Hof
The Frankfurter Hof is a landmark downtown hotel at Kaiserplatz, built from 1872 to 1876. It is part of Steigenberger Hotels group and is considered the city's most prestigious.
St. Leonhard
St. Leonhard, on the Main close to the bridge Eiserner Steg, is a Catholic late Gothic hall church, derived from a Romanesque style basilica beginning in 1425. It is the only one of nine churches in the Old Town that survived World War II almost undamaged. The parish serves the English-speaking community. The church has been under restoration from 2011 until 2019.[82]
Gründerzeit quarters
Around the city centre there are wide spread quarters full of Gründerzeit architecture. Buildings of that typ often sport richly-decorated façades in the form of Historicism such as Gothic Revival, Renaissance Revival, German Renaissance and Baroque Revival.
Timber framed old towns
Around the city center of Frankfurt are several former independent villages, now part of the city, with timber framed centres and even whole old towns like Höchst, Seckbach, Niederursel and Bergen-Enkheim. Overall there are around 14.500 buildings in Frankfurt built before 1919[27] and around 3.000 of them are timber framed houses.[83]
Höchst old town
20th-century architecture
[edit]
Frauenfriedenskirche and Holy Cross Church), both consecrated in 1929, are examples of early modernist church buildings during the time of the New Frankfurt.
Großmarkthalle, built 1926–1928 as a part of the New Frankfurt-project, the former wholesale market hall was repaired after the second world war and integrated into the new seat of the European Central Bank between 2010 and 2014.
Goethe House, rebuilt 1947. The birthplace of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe from 1749 was destroyed in World War II and then rebuilt true to the original.
Junior-Haus, built 1951, an example of early post-World War II architecture located at Kaiserplatz.
Bayer-Haus, built 1952, another example of early post-World War II architecture.
Museum für angewandte Kunst, built 1985, designed by Richard Meier.
IG Farben Building – Also known as Poelzig Building (Poelzig-Bau) after its architect Hans Poelzig, it was built from 1928 to 1930 as the corporate headquarters of I.G. Farbenindustrie AG. It is located in the Westend district and borders Grüneburgpark in the west. Upon its completion, the complex was the largest office building in Europe and remained so until the 1950s. The building served as headquarters for research projects relating to the development of synthetic oil and rubber and the manufacturing of magnesium, lubricating oil, explosives, methanol, and Zyklon B, the lethal gas used in concentration camps.[84][85] After World War II, it served as the headquarters for the Supreme Allied Command and from 1949 to 1952 the High Commissioner for Germany (HICOG). It became the principal location for implementing the Marshall Plan, which largely financed the post-war reconstruction of Europe. The state apparatus of the Federal German Government was devised there. It served as the headquarters for the US Army's V Corps and the Northern Area Command (NACOM) until 1995 when the US Army returned control of the IG Farben Building to the German government. It was purchased on behalf of the Goethe University Frankfurt by the state of Hesse. In October 2001 it became part of the Westend Campus of Goethe University.
21st-century architecture
[edit]
Die Welle (The Wave), built 1998–2003, a complex of three wavelike-formed office buildings next to the Opernplatz.
Alte Stadtbibliothek, rebuilt 2003–2005, reconstruction of the old public library house originally built 1820–1825.
Palais Thurn und Taxis, rebuilt 2004–2009, reconstruction of a palace originally built 1731–1739.
MyZeil, built 2004–2009, shopping mall at the Zeil with an imposing vaulted glass-structure.
The Squaire (portmanteau of square and air), also known as Airrail Center Frankfurt, is a 660 m (2,165.35 ft) long and 45 m (147.64 ft) tall office building located at Frankfurt Airport. It was built from 2006 to 2011 on top of an existing railway station (Frankfurt Airport long distance Station) and has a connecting bridge to Terminal 1 for pedestrians. Its total of 140,000 m2 (1,506,947 sq ft) rentable floor space makes it Germany's largest office building.
Skyscrapers
[edit]
Frankfurt is one of the few European cities with a significant number of skyscrapers, (buildings at least 150 m (492.13 ft) tall). It hosts 20 out of Germany's 21 skyscrapers. Most skyscrapers and high-rise office buildings are located in the financial district (Bankenviertel) near downtown, around the trade fair premises (Europaviertel) and at Mainzer Landstraße between Opernplatz and Platz der Republik, which connects the two areas.
The 20 skyscrapers are:
Commerzbank Tower, 259.0 m (849.74 ft) – The EU's second-tallest building, the tallest building in Europe 1997–2003; Commerzbank headquarters.
Messeturm, 256.5 m (841.54 ft) – The EU's third-tallest building, the tallest building in Europe 1990–1997; main tenant is Goldman Sachs (Germany).
Four I, 233.0 m (764.44 ft)
Westend Tower, 208.0 m (682.41 ft) – DZ Bank headquarters
Main Tower, 200.0 m (656.17 ft) – Landesbank Hessen-Thüringen and Standard & Poor's (Germany) headquarters
Tower 185, 200.0 m (656.17 ft) – PricewaterhouseCoopers (Germany) headquarters
ONE , 191 m (626.64 ft)
Omniturm, 190.0 m (623.36 ft)
Trianon, 186.0 m (610.24 ft) – DekaBank headquarters
Seat of the European Central Bank, 185.0 m (606.96 ft) – European Central Bank headquarters
Grand Tower, 179.9 m (590.22 ft) – Tallest residential tower
Four I, 179.0 m (587.27 ft) – Residential tower
Opernturm, 170.0 m (557.74 ft) – UBS (Germany) headquarters
Taunusturm, 170.0 m (557.74 ft)
Silberturm, 166.3 m (545.60 ft) – Germany's tallest building 1978–1990, Main tenant is Deutsche Bahn.
Westend Gate, 159.3 m (522.64 ft) – Germany's tallest building 1976–1978, Main tenant is Marriott Frankfurt Hotel.
Deutsche Bank I, 155.0 m (508.53 ft) – Deutsche Bank headquarters
Deutsche Bank II, 155.0 m (508.53 ft)
Marienturm, 155.0 m (508.53 ft)
Skyper, 153.8 m (504.59 ft) – Main tenant is DekaBank.
Other high-rise buildings include:
Eurotower, 148.0 m (485.56 ft) – Former European Central Bank headquarters
One Forty West, 145 m (475.72 ft) – Meliá Hotels International, Residential
Frankfurter Büro Center, 142.4 m (467.19 ft) – Main tenant is Clifford Chance (Germany).
City-Haus, 142.1 m (466.21 ft) – Main tenant is DZ Bank.
Gallileo, 136.0 m (446.19 ft) – Main tenant is Commerzbank.
History of high-rise buildings
[edit]
For centuries, St. Bartholomeus's Cathedral was the tallest structure. The first building to exceed the 95-meter-high cathedral was not an office building but a grain silo, the 120 m-high (390 ft) Henninger Turm, built from 1959 to 1961.
The first high-rise building boom came in the 1970s when Westend Gate (then called Plaza Büro Center) and Silberturm were constructed and became the tallest buildings in Germany with a height of 159.3 meters and 166.3 meters, respectively. Around the same time, Frankfurter Büro Center and City-Haus (142.4 meters and 142.1 meters) were constructed at Mainzer Landstraße and Eurotower (148.0 meters) and Garden Tower (127.0 meters; then called Helaba-Hochhaus) were constructed in the financial district.
None of the buildings constructed during the 1980s surpassed Silberturm. The most famous buildings from this decade are the Deutsche Bank Twin Towers at Taunusanlage, both 155.0 meters tall.
The 1990s featured a second wave. Messeturm, built on the trade fair site, reached a height of 256.5 meters (842 ft) and became the tallest building in Europe by 1991. It was overtaken by the 259 m-high (850 ft) Commerzbank Tower in 1997. Other tall buildings from this decade are Westendstrasse 1 (208 meters (682 ft)), Main Tower (200 meters (660 ft)) and Trianon (186 meters (610 ft)).
In 21st-century Frankfurt, more high-rise buildings and skyscrapers (e.g., Skyper, Opernturm, Tower 185, Seat of the European Central Bank, Taunusturm) emerged, but none have surpassed Commerzbank Tower.
Other tall structures
[edit]
Europaturm — The Europe Tower is a telecommunications tower, also known as the Frankfurt TV Tower, built from 1974 to 1979. With a height of 337.5 meters it is the tallest tower and the second tallest structure in Germany after the Fernsehturm Berlin. It was open to the public until 1999, with an entertainment establishment in the revolving top. It is normally referred to by locals as the "Ginnheimer Spargel" (Ginnheim Asparagus), but stands a few meters within Bockenheim district.
Henninger Turm — The Henninger Tower was a 120-mete-high grain silo built from 1959 to 1961 and owned by Henninger Brewery. It was the highest structure until 1974. The Henninger Tower had two rotating restaurants at the height of 101 and 106 meters and an open-air observation deck at the height of 110 meters. The tower closed to the public in October 2002 and was demolished in 2013 to be replaced by a 140 m (459 ft) tall residential tower, which is externally inspired by the old Henninger Turm. The cornerstone for this project was laid in June 2014 and construction was completed in summer 2017. The new tower offers 207 luxury flats[86] and houses the non-rotating restaurant "Franziska". From 1962 to 2008 a famous yearly cycling race was named after the tower, the "Radrennen Rund um den Henninger Turm" (Cycling race around Henninger Tower). The now-renamed race is still a yearly event.
Goetheturm – The Goethe Tower was a 43 m-high (141 ft) tower on the northern edge of the Frankfurt City Forest in Sachsenhausen. It was the fifth tallest wood construction structure in Germany. It was built in 1931 and was a popular place for day-trippers until it burned down in 2017. A faithful reconstruction has been opened to the public on 12 October 2020, exactly three years after the original's destruction.[87]
Shopping streets
[edit]
Zeil – Frankfurt's central shopping street. It is a pedestrian-only area and is bordered by two large public squares, Hauptwache in the west and Konstablerwache in the east. It is the second most expensive street for shops to rent in Germany after the Kaufingerstraße in Munich. 85 percent of the shops are retail chains such as H&M, Saturn, Esprit, Zara or NewYorker. In 2009 a new shopping mall named MyZeil opened there with nearly 100 stores and chains like Hollister. Three more shopping malls occupy the Zeil: UpperZeil (replacing the Zeilgalerie, which was demolished in 2016), Galeria Kaufhof and Karstadt, as well as large fashion retail clothing stores from Peek & Cloppenburg and C&A. During the month before Christmas, the extended pedestrian-only zone is host to Frankfurt Christmas Market, one of the largest and oldest Christmas markets in Germany.
Goethestraße – Frankfurt's most expensive shopping street with prestigious shops like Louis Vuitton, Prada, Gucci, Tiffany, Giorgio Armani, Versace, Cartier, Burberry, Vertu and Bulgari. It is located between the financial district and downtown, running from Goetheplatz to Opernplatz.
Freßgass – (officially Kalbächer Gasse and Große Bockenheimer Straße) is a central pedestrian-only street section between Börsenstraße and Opernplatz. The name translates as "feeding alley" because of its high concentration of gastronomy, but lately prestigious shops (e.g., Apple Store, Hugo Boss, Porsche Design) have moved here due to the lack of space in the neighboring Goethestraße, displacing old, established restaurants, butchers and delicatessens.
Berger Straße – Frankfurt's longest shopping street. It starts in the city center, runs through Nordend and Bornheim and ends in Seckbach. The street is less crowded than the Zeil and offers a greater variety of smaller shops, restaurants and cafés.
Leipziger Straße – Central shopping street in the Bockenheim district starting at Bockenheimer Warte going towards West. High density of shops for daily needs.
Braubachstraße – In the Altstadt district, close to the historic sites of the city, offers a large variety of art galleries, second-hand bookshops and antique shops.
Münchener Straße – In the Bahnhofsviertel district, located between the central station and Willy-Brandt-Platz, is the most multicultural shopping street with many shops selling imported products mainly from Turkey, the Middle East and Asia.
Kaiserstraße – One of the best-known streets and considered one of the most beautiful because of its amount of Gründerzeit-style buildings. It runs parallel to Münchener Straße from the central station to the financial district. Kaiserstraße is still a synonym for Frankfurt's Red-light district although sex-oriented businesses moved to neighboring streets such as Taunusstrasse [de] in the 1990s. Today Kaiserstraße houses many small shops, restaurants and cafés.
Kleinmarkthalle – (literally: Small Market Hall) is a market hall close to Konstablerwache square offering fresh food and flowers. In addition to regional delicacies like green sauce imported goods are offered. The Kleinmarkthalle is the largest public marketplace in Frankfurt.
Green city
[edit]
With a large forest, many parks, the Main riverbanks and the two botanical gardens, Frankfurt is considered a "green city": More than 50 percent of the area within the city limits are protected green areas.[88]
Frankfurter Grüngürtel – The Green Belt is a ring-shaped public green space around the city. With 8,000 ha it covers a third of the administrative area. It includes the Frankfurter Stadtwald (Frankfurt City Forest, Germany's largest forest within a city), the Schwanheimer Düne (Schwanheim Dune), the Niddatal (Nidda Valley), the Niddapark, the Lohrberg (Lohr Mountain, Frankfurt's only vineyard), the Huthpark, the Enkheimer Ried (Enkheim Marsh), the Seckbacher Ried (Seckbach Marsh) and the Fechenheimer Mainbogen (a S-shaped part of the Main river in Fechenheim). The Green Belt is a protected area which means that housing is not allowed. The Green Belt was formally created in 1991 with its own constitution.
Mainuferpark – The Mainuferpark (Main Riverbanks Park) is the common term to describe the inner-city Main riverbanks. It is an auto-free zone with large green areas that is popular with strollers and tourists, especially in the summertime, when it can become crowded. The southern riverbank, which continues further to Offenbach am Main and Hanau, offers the best skyline views. The northern riverbank ends in the west at the former Westhafen (West Harbor, a residential housing area) and is growing to the east: A former industrial-used area between the new Seat of the European Central Bank and the Osthafen (East Harbor) has become a park named Hafenpark (Harbor Park), which offers outdoor courts for basketball, soccer and a skatepark.
Wallanlagen – The Wallanlagen (former ramparts) relate to the former ring-shaped city wall fortifications around the Altstadt and the Innenstadt district (abolished 1804–1812), now a series of parks. Building is not allowed, with a few exceptions, the most famous being the Alte Oper (built 1880) at the Opernplatz. The part between the northern Main riverbank and the Opernplatz, referred to officially as Taunusanlage and Gallusanlage, is locally known as "Central Park" (a reference to the famous park in Manhattan), because of the skyscrapers which stand on both sides.
Nizza Park – At the juncture of the northern Main riverbank and the Wallanlagen is a famous small park called Nizza. The name of the park recalls Nice in southern France, because it is one of the warmest areas with a nearly mediterranean climate. Numerous Mediterranean flora grow there and can survive outside during the winter.
Garten des Himmlischen Friedens – "Garden of Heavenly Peace", named after the Tiananmen Gate in Beijing, is a Chinese-styled park in the Nordend district and part of the larger Bethmannpark. It contains Chinese buildings, with building materials imported from China and built by Chinese workers in the 1980s. Hosts traditional Chinese plants and herbs.
Other parks – The largest parks are the Niddapark (168 ha), the Ostpark (32 ha) and the Grüneburgpark (29 ha).
Culture
[edit]
Museums
[edit]
Main article: Museumsufer
With more than 30 museums, Frankfurt has one of the largest variety of museums in Europe. Most museums are part of the Museumsufer, located on the front row of both sides of the Main riverbank or nearby, which was created on an initiative by cultural politician Hilmar Hoffmann.[89]
Ten museums are located on the southern riverbank in Sachsenhausen between the Eiserner Steg and the Friedensbrücke. The street itself, Schaumainkai, is partially closed to traffic on Saturdays for Frankfurt's largest flea market.
Deutsches Architekturmuseum (German Architecture Museum)
Deutsches Filmmuseum (German Film Museum)
Deutsches Romantik-Museum
Frankfurter Ikonenmuseum (Icon Museum Frankfurt)
Liebieghaus (Museum of sculptures)
Museum Angewandte Kunst (Museum of Applied Arts)
Museum Giersch (Museum for Regional Art)
Museum für Kommunikation (Museum of Communications)
Museum der Weltkulturen (Museum of World Cultures)
Städel, one of the most famous art museums in Germany
Museum für elektronische Musik (Museum of Modern Electronic Music)
Bibelhaus Erlebnis Museum (Bible House Experience Museum)
Two museums are located on the northern riverbank:
Jüdisches Museum Frankfurt (Jewish Museum Frankfurt)
Historisches Museum Frankfurt (Historical Museum Frankfurt)
Not directly located on the northern riverbank in the Altstadt district are:
Museum für Moderne Kunst (Museum of Modern Art)
Schirn Kunsthalle Frankfurt (Schirn Art Gallery Frankfurt)
Frankfurter Kunstverein (Art Association Frankfurt)
Museum Judengasse (Jews' Alley Museum)
Goethe-Haus (Goethe House)
Archäologisches Museum Frankfurt (Archaeological Museum Frankfurt)
Caricatura Museum für Komische Kunst (Caricatura Museum of Comic Art)
Dommuseum Frankfurt (Frankfurt Cathedral Museum)
Another important museum is located in the Westend district:
Naturmuseum Senckenberg (Senckenberg Natural History Museum), the second-largest natural history museum in Germany
Other museums are the Dialogmuseum (Dialogue Museum) in the Ostend district, Eintracht Frankfurt Museum at Deutsche Bank Park, the Frankfurter Feldbahnmuseum (Light Railway Museum Frankfurt) in the Gallus district, the Verkehrsmuseum Frankfurt (Transport Museum Frankfurt) in the Schwanheim district, the Hammer Museum in the Bahnhofsviertel district and the Geldmuseum der Deutschen Bundesbank (Money Museum of the German Federal Bank) in the Ginnheim district. The Explora Museum+Wissenschaft+Technik (Explora Museum of Science and Engineering) in the Nordend district was closed in 2016. Most museums open around 10:00 am local time, and it is possible to comfortably visit four museums in one day, a fact many tourists take advantage of.
Performing arts
[edit]
Music
[edit]
Eurodance and Trance music originated in Frankfurt. In 1989 German producers Michael Münzing and Luca Anzilotti (under the pseudonyms Benito Benites and John "Virgo" Garrett III) formed the Snap! project. Snap! songs combined Rap and Soul vocals adding rhythm by using computer technology and mixing electronic sounds, bass and drums. By doing so a new genre was born: Eurodance.[90] In the early 1990s, DJs including Sven Väth and DJ DAG (of Dance 2 Trance) first played a harder, deeper style of acid house that became popular worldwide over the next decade as Trance music. Some of the early and most influential Eurodance, Trance and Techno acts, e.g., La Bouche, Jam and Spoon, Magic Affair, Culture Beat, Snap!, Dance 2 Trance, Oliver Lieb and Hardfloor, and record labels such as Harthouse and Eye Q, were based in the city in the early 1990s.
Venues
[edit]
Oper Frankfurt – A leading Germany opera company and one of Europe's most important. It was elected Opera house of the year (of Germany, Austria and German-speaking Switzerland) by German magazine Opernwelt in 1995, 1996 and 2003. It was also elected Best opera house in Germany in 2010 and 2011. Its orchestra was voted Orchestra of the year in 2009, 2010 and 2011.[91]
Schauspiel Frankfurt – Theater at Willy-Brandt-Platz in the financial district, next to the Frankfurt Opera.
Frankfurt Radio Symphony (hr-Sinfonieorchester in German) – one of the top symphony orchestras in the world
Festhalle Frankfurt – Multi-purpose hall next to the Messeturm at the grounds of the Frankfurt Trade Fair. It is mostly used for concerts, exhibitions or sport events and can accommodate up to 13,500.
Deutsche Bank Park – Frankfurt's largest sports stadium and the seventh largest in Germany. It is located in the Frankfurt City Forest near Niederrad. It is primarily used for soccer and concerts with a capacity up to 58,000. It opened in 1925 and underwent several major reconstructions. Locals still prefer to call the stadium by its traditional name, Waldstadion (Forest Stadium). Home to Eintracht Frankfurt.
Alte Oper – A major concert hall.
Jahrhunderthalle – Century Hall is a large concert and exhibition hall in Unterliederbach district. Sometimes referred to as "Jahrhunderthalle Höchst", because it was built to celebrate the 100th anniversary of the chemical company Hoechst AG in 1963.
The English Theatre – Located on the ground floor of the Gallileo high-rise building, this is the largest English theater in continental Europe. It was established in 1979.
Tigerpalast – Tiger Palace is a varieté near the Zeil. It was established in 1988 and houses the famous Tiger-Restaurant which was awarded a Michelin star.
Künstlerhaus Mousonturm – House of Artists Mouson Tower has a smaller budget than traditional theaters and uses more unconventional performing methods. It is located in an old factory in the Ostend district.
Die Schmiere – The Grease is a cabaret and Frankfurt's oldest privately owned theater. It is located in the Karmeliterkloster in the Altstadt district. According to its own advertising, it is the worst theater in the world.
Die Komödie – The Comedy is a boulevard theater near downtown Frankfurt's Willy-Brandt-Platz.
Botanical gardens
[edit]
Frankfurt is home to two major botanical gardens:
Palmengarten – Located in the Westend district, it is Hesse's largest botanical garden, covering 22 ha (54 acres). It opened to the public in 1871. The botanical exhibits are organized according to their origin in free-air or in greenhouses that host tropical and subtropical plants, hence the name "Palm Garden".
Botanischer Garten der Goethe-Universität – The university's botanical garden is also an arboretum. It contains about 5,000 species, with special collections of Rubus (45 species) and indigenous plants of central Europe. It is organized into two major areas: The geobotanical area contains an alpine garden, arboretum, meadows, steppes, marsh, and a pond, as well as collections of plants from the Canary Islands, Caucasus, East Asia, Mediterranean, and North America and the systematic and ecological collection includes crop plants, endangered species, ornamental plants, roses, and the Neuer Senckenbergischer Arzneipflanzengarten (New Senckenberg Medicinal Plant Garden), which measures 1,200 m2 (13,000 sq ft). The Botanical Garden, Palmengarten, Grüneburgpark collectively form the largest inner-city green area.
Foreign culture
[edit]
Instituto Cervantes – Named after Miguel de Cervantes, one of the most important Spanish authors, this is the world's largest organization for promoting the study and teaching of Spanish language and culture. 54 such Centros Cervantes across the world offer Spanish language and history courses. The Frankfurt branch was officially opened in September 2008 by Felipe, Prince of Asturias and his wife Letizia, Princess of Asturias. It is located in the so-called Amerika-Haus.
Institut Français – A French public industrial and commercial organization (EPIC), started in 1907 by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs for promoting French, francophone as well as local cultures around the world. The French Institute works closely with the French cultural network abroad consisting of more than 150 branches and nearly 1,000 branches of the Alliance française around the world.
Istituto Italiano di Cultura – A worldwide non-profit organization created by the Italian government. It promotes Italian culture and is involved in the teaching of the Italian language; there are 83 Italian Cultural Institutes throughout major cities around the world.
Confucius Institute – A non-profit public educational organization affiliated with the Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China, whose aim is to promote Chinese language and culture, support local Chinese teaching internationally, and facilitate cultural exchanges. There are over 480 Confucius Institutes worldwide.
Central and Eastern European Online Library – CEEOL is an online archive providing access to full-text articles from humanities and social science scholarly journals on Central, Eastern and South-Eastern European topics. Subject areas include anthropology, culture and society, economy, gender studies, history, Judaic studies, fine arts, literature, linguistics, political sciences and social sciences, philosophy and religion. CEEOL is operated by Questa.Soft GmbH.
Festivals
[edit]
Museumsuferfest – Museums Riverbank Festival is one of Germany's biggest cultural festivals, attracting more than 3 million visitors over three days at the end of August along the Main riverbank downtown. The 20 museums there open far into the night. It offers live music, dance shows, booths for crafts, jewelry, clothes and food stands from around the world.
Dippemess – Frankfurt's oldest folk festival is the Festival of Stoneware, which takes place semi-annually around Easter and the end of September in the eastern area. "Dippe" is a regional Hessian dialect word meaning "pot" or "jar" which would not be understood in most other German regions. Mentioned for the first time in the 14th century as an annual marketplace it is now more of an amusement park. The name of the festival derives from its original purpose when it was a fair where traditionally crafted jars, pots and other stoneware were on offer.
Luminale — The "festival of light" has taken place biannually since 2000, parallel to the Light + building exhibition at the trade fair. Many buildings are specially lit for the event. In 2008, more than 220 light installations could be seen, attracting 100,000 visitors.
Wäldchestag – Day of the forest is known as a regional holiday because until the 1990s it was common that Frankfurt's shops were closed on this day. The festival takes place over four days after Pentecost with the formal Wäldchestag on Tuesday. Its unique location is in the Frankfurt City Forest, south-west of downtown in Niederrad. "Wäldches" is a regional dialect of the German word "Wäldchen", meaning "small forest".
Nacht der Museen – Night of the museums takes place every year in April or May. 50 museums in Frankfurt and in the neighboring city of Offenbach am Main are open until 2:00 am surrounded by special music events, dance performances, readings and guided tours. A free shuttle operates between the museums. In 2010, approximately 40,000 visitors attended.
Nacht der Clubs – Night of the clubs is an event similar to Nacht der Museen: On one night as many as 20 clubs can be visited with a single ticket for €12. Usually, club-door policies are loosened to attract new customers. A free shuttle runs between the clubs. 15,000 people participated in 2008.
Wolkenkratzer Festival — The Skyscraper Festival is unique in Germany. It takes place irregularly, lately in May 2013, and attracted around 1.2 million visitors. For two days most skyscrapers are open to the public. Sky-divers, base jumpers, fireworks and laser shows are extra attractions.
Nightlife
[edit]
Frankfurt offers a variety of restaurants, bars, pubs and clubs. Clubs concentrate in and around downtownand in the Ostend district, mainly close to Hanauer Landstraße. Restaurants, bars and pubs concentrate in Sachsenhausen, Nordend, Bornheim and Bockenheim.
In electronic music, Frankfurt was a pioneering city in the late 1980s and early 1990s, with renowned DJs including Sven Väth, Marc Trauner, Scot Project and Kai Tracid. One of the main venues of the early Trance music sound was the Omen nightclub from 1988 to 1998. Another popular disco club of the 1980s–1990s and a hotspot for Techno/Trance music was the Dorian Gray, which was located within Terminal 1 at Frankfurt Airport from 1978 to 2000. Further popular venues were the U60311 (1998–2012) and the Coocoon Club in Fechenheim (2004–2012). Notable live music venues of the past include the Sinkkasten Arts Club (1971–2011) and the King Kamehameha Club (1999–2013).
Among the most popular active rock and pop concert venues is the Batschkapp in Seckbach, which opened in 1976 as a center for autonomous and left-wing counterculture. Further popular active clubs and music venues include the Velvet Club, The Cave, Cooky's, Nachtleben, Silbergold, Zoom, Tanzhaus West and the Yachtclub.
Domestic culture
[edit]
Frankfurt kitchen – Designed originally in 1926 for the New Frankfurt-project and built in some 10,000 units, the kitchen became a milestone in domestic architecture, considered the forerunner of modern fitted kitchens.
Frankfurt cupboard – The Baroque Frankfurt-style cupboards were used to store the family linen, one of them by Goethe's father, who took one cupboard to Rome. The most luxurious versions have wave-shaped parts, some are made of solid cherry wood inlaid with plumwood.
Culinary specialties
[edit]
See also: Hessian cuisine
Apfelwein – Apple wine or hard cider is regionally known as "Ebbelwoi", "Äppler" or "Stöffsche". It has an alcohol content of 5.5%–7% and a tart, sour taste. It is traditionally served in a glass, typically decorated with lozenges, called "Geripptes", a full glass is then called "Schoppen". Apfelwein is also available in a stoneware jar locally known as "Bembel". A group normally orders a "Bembel" and shares the contents. Apfelwein can be ordered as "sauergespritzer", which is apfelwein blended with 30% mineral water or as "süssgespritzer", which is Apfelwein blended with lemon soda, orange soda or fresh-pressed apple juice (lemon soda being the most common). Most of the pubs which serve Apfelwein are located in Sachsenhausen, which is therefore known as "Ebbelwoi district". Due to its national drink Frankfurt is sometimes called "Big Ebbel" (pronunciation with Hessian dialect), an homage to Big Apple, the famous nickname of New York City.
Grüne Soße – Green sauce is a sauce made with hard-boiled eggs, oil, vinegar, salt and a generous amount of seven fresh herbs, namely borage, sorrel, garden cress, chervil, chives, parsley and salad burnet. Variants, often due to seasonal availability include dill, lovage, lemon balm and spinach. Original green sauce Frankfurt-style is made of herbs that were gathered only on fields within the city limits.
Frankfurter Würstchen – "short Frankfurter" is a small sausage mad
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10 American Celebrities Who Served our Nation in The U.S. Armed Services | Selective Service System
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Some of the worldâs most famous and beloved celebrities have served in the military. Here are 10:
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Selective Service System
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https://www.sss.gov/news/10-american-celebrities-who-served-our-nation-in-the-u-s-armed-services/
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The United States Armed Forces transitioned to an all-volunteer military force on July 1, 1973, in the waning years of the Vietnam War. As part of this decision, the national draft was repositioned as part of Americaâs national defense strategy to serve as a deterrent and support military readiness if the Department of Defense requested additional military personnel.
The success of the all-volunteer force is apparent, this Nation is fortunate to have military heroes who served this great Nation as both volunteers and draftees. In recognition of the 50th anniversary of the last draft call in December 1972 and the conception of the all-volunteer military, we salute those individuals who were drafted or volunteered and served America with great honor, courage and distinction in times of war and peace.
The Storied Lives of 10 American Heroes
Some of these veteran heroes dedicated their time to community service and helping other veterans, while others took up hobbies like painting, golfing, and acting. Some of the worldâs most famous and beloved celebrities have served in the military. Here are 10:
Chuck Norris is a famous actor known for his 1973 role as Bruce Lee. A black belt in Tang Soo Do, Norris was introduced to martial arts while serving in the military. Chuck Norris joined the U.S. Air Force when he was 18 years old and was stationed in South Korea.
Clint Eastwood is an iconic Hollywood actor known for movies such as Heartbreak Ridge, Million Dollar Baby and Gran Torino. He has also produced and directed many famous films, including the Oscar winning film, American Sniper. Eastwood served in the U.S. Army during the Korean War.
Ice-TÂ is a known rapper and actor, whose career in the entertainment industry started in the early 1980s. Prior to this success, he served four years in the U.S. Army with the 25th infantry division in Hawaii.
Morgan Freeman, a world famous actor whose amazing award-winning work in movies like Glory, Invictus and Shawshank Redemption have been recognized over the years with many awards and accolades. He enlisted in the U.S. Air Force in 1955, at the age of 18 and eventually went on to be an Airman First Class before changing paths and pursuing a career in the entertainment industry.
Bob Ross was an American painter, art instructor and television host who created the instructional television program The Joy of Painting. Ross enlisted in the U.S. Air Force at only 18 years old. He moved up in ranking and became a sergeant before retiring in 1981, marking 20 years in the service.
Adam Driver is an actor, best known for his role as Kylo Ren in the Star Wars sequel trilogy. Driver enlisted in the U.S. Marine Corps at the age of 18, motivated by the 9/11 terrorist attacks. He served two years and eight months before an injury led to his medical discharge.
In 1957, Elvis Presley was drafted into the U.S. Army amid his rising fame as a singer. He served as a soldier in Frankfurt, Germany and was promoted to Sergeant before his honorable discharge in 1959.
Bob Barker is famous for his game show career, specifically for hosting The Price Is Right. Before his lengthy history in broadcast television, he served in the U.S. Navy during WWII, training as a fighter pilot.
MC Hammerâs music career began in the late 1980s and peaked in 1990 with his third album release. Before all his success, MC Hammer completed three years in the U.S Navy before receiving an honorable discharge and dedicating himself to his music.
Johnny Cash was an American country singer-songwriter. Cash served in the U.S. Air Force during the Korean war and was assigned to the 12th Radio Squadron Mobile Security Service in Germany. During his time in the military, he served as a Morse Code Intercept Operator.
We thank every man and woman who has served in the U.S. armed forces with honor and distinction for past 246 years, contributing to the defense of our Nation and American history.
Discover more about the History of the Selective Service System
Discover More
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Famous Austrians ➢ From Mozart to Hundertwasser
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Find out more about famous personalities from Austria: ✓ W.A. Mozart ✓ Joseph Haydn ✓ Friedensreich Hundertwasser ✓ Gustav Klimt
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Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart - one of the greatest composers of all times. He created his own distinct style, blending traditional and contemporary.
The 15-year-old Elisabeth, or ‘Sisi,’ was a stunning beauty, radiating a youthful spirit. Emperor Franz Joseph fell in love with her at first sight, and Sisi’s life changed forever. Who could have known that trying to defend her spirit and independence became her destiny?
Legendary actress Hedy Lamarr was known in Hollywood as „the most beautiful woman in the world.” Her career in film started in Vienna, her birthplace. There you can wander in the footsteps of Hedwig Kiesler, as she was known in her youth.
Sigmund Freud was an Austrian doctor, neurologist, psychiatrist, and cultural theorist widely acknowledged as the father of modern psychology and the founder of psychoanalysis.
As one of the leading figures of fin-de-siècle Vienna, Gustav Klimt created a body of works that made him what he is today: the most famous Austrian painter in the world.
Haydn is considered the father of the classical symphony and string quartet, and an innovator in the composition of piano sonatas and trios.
If you had asked passers-by in the narrow alleys of Vienna in the mid-19th century about the importance of Franz Schubert, many of them would probably have replied with a fair-minded frown, ‘Franz who?’ Today, this son of Vienna is world-renowned and his Kunstlieder its own genre in the classical music world.
Margarete Schütte-Lihotzky, one of Austria’s first female architects, was the designer of today’s modern kitchen in the 1920s. Her influence and legacy reveal an intriguing, multi-faceted pre- and post-war Vienna.
Friedensreich Hundertwasser was one of Austria’s most famous avant-garde artists. His artworks reflect his philosophy, which is based on a harmonious interaction between nature and man.
Born in 1824, Anton Bruckner is widely regarded as one of the most influential composers of his time. See why.
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List of people from Frankfurt
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_people_from_Frankfurt
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This list contains notable people both born in Frankfurt and residents of the city, ordered chronologically.
This is a dynamic list and may never be able to satisfy particular standards for completeness. You can help by adding missing items with reliable sources.
Born in Frankfurt
[edit]
9th to 17th centuries
[edit]
Charles the Bald (823–877), King of West Francia, King of Italy and Holy Roman Emperor
William I, Duke of Bavaria (1330–1389), also known as William V, Count of Holland, as William III, Count of Hainaut and as William IV, Count of Zeeland
Jakob Heller (c. 1460—1522), patrician, politician, and merchant
Johann Dietenberger (c. 1475–1537), Catholic Scholastic theologian
Konrad Gobel (c. 1498–1557), craftsman of bells and other metal castings
Sebastian von Heusenstamm (1508–1555), Archbishop-Elector of Mainz
Elijah Loans (1555–1636), rabbi and Kabbalist
Philipp Uffenbach (1566–1636), painter and etcher
Adam Elsheimer (1578–1610), artist
Hendrik van Steenwijk II (c.1580–1649), Baroque painter
Lucas Jennis (1590–1630), engraver
Joachim von Sandrart (1606–1688), Baroque art-historian and painter
Johannes Lingelbach (1622–1674), Dutch Golden Age painter
Jacob von Sandrart (1630–1708), engraver
Abraham Mignon (1640–1679), Dutch golden age painter
Johann Jacob Schütz (1640–1690), lawyer and hymnwriter
Philipp von Hörnigk (1640–1714), civil servant and supporter of the economic theory of mercantilism
Maria Sibylla Merian (1647–1717), naturalist and scientific illustrator
Philipp Peter Roos (1655–1706), Baroque painter
Jacob Christoph Le Blon (1667–1741), painter and engraver
Lorenz Heister (1683–1758), anatomist, surgeon and botanist
18th century
[edit]
Alexander Ferdinand (1704–1773), 3rd Prince of Thurn and Taxis, Postmaster General of the Imperial Reichspost, and Head of the Princely House of Thurn and Taxis
Princess Marie Auguste of Thurn and Taxis (1706–1756), Regent of Württemberg
Johann Christian Senckenberg (1707–1772), physician, naturalist and collector
Susanne von Klettenberg (1723–1774), abbess and writer
Louis Eugene (1731–1795), Duke of Württemberg
Catharina Elisabeth Goethe (1731–1808), mother of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
Karl Anselm (1733–1805), 4th Prince of Thurn and Taxis, Postmaster General of the Imperial Reichspost, and Head of the Princely House of Thurn and Taxis
Johann Zoffany (1733–1810), neoclassical painter
Georg Melchior Kraus (1737–1806), painter
Nathan Adler (1741–1800), kabbalist and rabbi
Mayer Amschel Rothschild (1744–1812), banker and founder of the Rothschild banking dynasty
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749–1832), writer and statesman
Cornelia Schlosser (1750–1777), sister of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
Princess Charlotte of Saxe-Meiningen (1751–1827), Princess of Saxe-Meiningen and Duchess consort of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg
Princess Louise of Saxe-Meiningen (1752–1805), Duchess of Saxe-Meiningen
Abraham Bing (1752–1841), rabbi
Friedrich Maximilian Klinger (1752–1831), dramatist and novelist
Johann Philipp Gabler (1753–1826), Protestant Christian theologian
Karl Wilhelm (1754–1782), Duke of Saxe-Meiningen
Anton Dereser (1757–1827), Discalced Carmelite professor of hermeneutics and Oriental languages
Georg I (1761–1803), Duke of Saxe-Meiningen
Moses Sofer (1762–1839), rabbi
Philipp Karl Buttmann (1764–1829), philologist of French Huguenot ancestry
Margarethe Danzi (1768–1800), composer and soprano
Johann Friedrich von Meyer (1772–1849), senator of Frankfurt
Amschel Mayer von Rothschild (1773–1855), banker of the Rothschild family financial dynasty
Salomon Rothschild (1774–1855), banker in the Austrian Empire and founder of the Austrian branch of the Mayer Amschel Rothschild family
Elisabeth von Adlerflycht (1775–1846), painter
Nathan Mayer Rothschild (1777–1836), London-based banker and financier and one of five sons of the second generation of the Rothschild banking dynasty
Friedrich Carl von Savigny (1779–1861), jurist and historian
Johann Friedrich Heinrich Schlosser (1780–1851), jurist, writer and translator
Dorothea von Ertmann (1781–1849), pianist
Jeanette Wohl (1783–1961), friend and correspondent of Ludwig Börne
Christian Brentano (1784–1851), writer and Catholic publicist
Bettina von Arnim (1785–1859), writer and novelist
Ludwig Börne (1786–1837), political writer and satirist
Johann David Passavant (1787–1861), painter, curator and artist
Franz Pforr (1788–1812), painter
Carl Mayer von Rothschild (1788–1855), banker in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and founder of the Rothschild banking family of Naples
Jakob Alt (1789–1872), painter and lithographer
James Mayer de Rothschild (1792–1868 ), banker and founder of the French branch of the Rothschild family
Carl von Heyden (1793–1866), senator and entomologist
Eduard Rüppell (1794–1884), naturalist and explorer
August von Bethmann-Hollweg (1795–1877), jurist and politician
Johann Friedrich Böhmer (1795–1863), historian
Heinrich Christian Macklot (1799–1832), naturalist
Ferdinand Fellner (1799–1859), painter
Friedrich Wöhler (1800–1882), chemist
19th century
[edit]
1801–1820
[edit]
Joseph Aschbach (1801–1882), historian
Ferdinand Lindheimer (1801–1879), German Texan botanist
Hermann von Meyer (1801–1869), palaeontologist
Frédéric Jules Sichel (1802–1868), French physician and entomologist
Anselm von Rothschild (1803–1874), Austrian banker and member of the Vienna branch of the Rothschild family
Karl Friedrich Hermann (1804–1855), classical scholar and antiquary
Marie d'Agoult (1805–1876), French author
Moritz Abraham Stern (1807–1894), mathematician
Georg Fresenius (1808–1866), physician and botanist
Johann Benedict Listing (1808–1882), mathematician
Ernst Ludwig von Leutsch (1808–1887), classical philologist
George Engelmann (1809–1884), German-American botanist
Jakob Fürchtegott Dielmann (1809–1885), illustrator, genre and landscape painter
Heinrich Hoffmann (1809–1894), psychiatrist and author
Gustav Koerner (1809–1896), revolutionary, journalist, lawyer, politician, judge, statesman in Illinois and Germany and Colonel of the U.S. Army
Abraham Geiger (1810–1874 ), leader of Reform Judaism
Johann Georg von Hahn (1811–1869), Austrian diplomat, philologist and specialist in Albanian history, language and culture
Moritz von Bethmann (1811–1877), banker
Ferdinand Hiller (1811–1885), composer, conductor, writer and music-director
Henri Nestlé (1814–1890), Swiss confectioner and founder of Nestlé, the world's largest food and beverage company
Joseph Hoch (1815–1874), lawyer and benefactor
August Weber (1817–1873), painter
Carl Remigius Fresenius (1818–1897), chemist
Henri Weil (1818–1909), philologist
Heinrich Bernhard Oppenheim (1819–1880), publicist and philosopher
Mayer Carl von Rothschild (1820–1886), banker and politician
Carl Theodor Reiffenstein (1820–1893), landscape and architecture painter
1821–1840
[edit]
Mathilde Marchesi (1821–1913), mezzo-soprano, teacher of singing, and proponent of the bel canto vocal method
Heinrich Frey (1822–1890), Swiss entomologist
Georg Heinrich Mettenius (1823–1866), botanist
Moritz Schiff (1823–1896), physiologist
Willibald Beyschlag (1823–1900), theologian
Peter Burnitz (1824–1886), lawyer and landscape painter
Anton Burger (1824–1905), painter, draftsman and etcher
Karl Otto Weber (1827–1867), surgeon and pathologist
Adolf Schreyer (1828–1899), painter
Wilhelm Carl von Rothschild (1828–1901), banker and financier of the Frankfurt House of Rothschild
Lazarus Geiger (1829–1870), philologist and philosopher
Victor Müller (1829–1871), painter
Heinrich Anton de Bary (1831–1888), surgeon, botanist, microbiologist, and mycologist
Frédéric Émile d'Erlanger (1832–1911), banker and Consul
Mathilde Hannah von Rothschild (1832–1924), baroness, composer and patron of the Jewish faith
Jean Baptista von Schweitzer (1833–1875), politician and dramatic poet
Otto Scholderer (1834–1902), painter
Wilhelm von Scherff (1834–1911), general and military writer
Ernst Georg Ravenstein (1834–1913), geographer cartographer and promoter of physical exercise
Giorgio Sommer (1834–1914), photographer
August Weismann (1834–1914), biologist
Hugo Schiff (1834–1915), chemist
Nathaniel Meyer von Rothschild (1836–1905), member of the Rothschild banking family of Austria
Joseph Maria von Radowitz, Jr. (1839–1912), diplomat
Alexander Riese (1840–1924), classical scholar
1841–1860
[edit]
Karl Binding (1841–1920), jurist
Carl Gräbe (1841–1927), industrial and academic chemist
Karl Lentzner (1842–1905), linguist
Maximilian von Goldschmidt-Rothschild (1843–1940), banker and art collector
Michael Flürscheim (1844–1912), economist and Georgist
Emil Ponfick (1844–1913), pathologist
Hans von Zwiedineck-Südenhorst (1845–1906), historian
Otto Böhler (1847–1913), silhouette artist
Jacob Schiff (1847–1920), American banker, businessman, and philanthropist
Alice Charlotte von Rothschild (1847–1922), socialite and member of the Rothschild banking family of Austria
William Ralph Merton (1848–1916), entrepreneur, social democrat and philanthropist
Otto Bütschli (1848–1920), zoologist
Heinrich Bassermann (1849–1909), Lutheran theologian
Anton Urspruch (1850–1907), composer and pedagogue
Wilhelm Creizenach (1851–1919), historian and librarian
Arthur Schuster (1851–1934), British physicist
Wilhelm von Bismarck (1852–1901), counselor, civil servant and politician
Carl L. Nippert (1852–1904), engineer and politician
Carl Chun (1852–1914), marine biologist
Goby Eberhardt (1852–1926), violinist and composer
Karl Höchberg (1853–1885), social-reformist writer, publisher and economist
Karl Sudhoff (1853–1938), historian of medicine
Moritz von Leonhardi (1856–1910), anthropologist
Hermann Dessau (1856–1931), ancient historian and epigrapher
Siegfried Ochs (1858–1929), choir-leader and composer
Otto Böckel (1859–1923), populist politician
Alfons Mumm von Schwarzenstein (1859–1924), diplomat
Philipp Franck (1860–1944), Impressionist painter
Arthur von Weinberg (1860–1943), chemist and industrialist
1861–1880
[edit]
Franz Joseph von Bülow (1861–1915), writer
Ludwig Fulda (1862–1939), playwright and a poet
Theodor Ziehen (1862–1950), neurologist and psychiatrist
Karl Wilhelm von Meister (1863–1935), politician and diplomat
Karl Schaum (1870–1947), chemist
Rahel Hirsch (1870–1953), doctor and professor
Fritz Klimsch (1870–1960), sculptor
Paul Epstein (1871–1939), mathematician
Bernhard Sekles (1872–1934), composer, conductor, pianist and pedagogue
Alfred Hertz (1872–1942), American conductor
Karl Maria Kaufmann (1872-1951), Biblical archaelogist
Karl Schwarzschild (1873–1916), astronomer and physicist
Otto Loewi (1873–1961), pharmacologist
Eduard Fresenius (1874–1946), pharmacist and entrepreneur
Gerhard Hessenberg (1874–1925), mathematician
Marcel Sulzberger (1876–1941), Swiss composer, pianist and music author
Otto Blumenthal (1876–1944), mathematician and professor
Willy Kaiser-Heyl (1876–1953), film actor
Isaac Heinemann (1876–1957), rabbinical scholar and professor of classical literature, Hellenistic literature and philology
Hermann Fellner (1877–1936), screenwriter and film producer
Arthur Scherbius (1878–1929), electrical engineer
Ottilie Metzger-Lattermann (1878–1943), contralto
Richard Goldschmidt (1878–1958), geneticist
Harry Fuld (1879–1932), entrepreneur whose art collection was looted by Nazis
Hugo Merton (1879–1940), zoologist
F.W. Schröder-Schrom (1879–1956), actor
Otto Hahn (1879–1968), chemist and pioneer in the fields of radioactivity and radiochemistry
Moritz Geiger (1880–1937), philosopher
Karl von Roques (1880–1949), general and war criminal during World War II
Paul Maas (1880–1964), classical scholar
1881–1900
[edit]
Hermann Zilcher (1881–1948), composer and conductor
Wilhelm Dörr (1881–1955), track and field athlete and tug of war competitor
Hans Fischer (1881–1945), organic chemist
Walter Braunfels (1882–1954), composer, pianist, and music educator
Georg von Neufville (1883–1941), Wehrmacht general during World War II
Else Gentner-Fischer (1883–1943), operatic soprano
Hermann Abendroth (1883–1956), conductor
Ludwig Schunk (1884–1947), manufacturer and cofounder of the firm of Schunk und Ebe oHG
Ida Wüst (1884–1958), stage and film actress
Gus Wickie (1885–1947), German-American bass singer and voice actor
Erich Schönfelder (1885–1933), screenwriter, actor and film director
Walther Davisson (1885–1973), violinist and conductor
Ernst May (1886—1970), architect and city planner
Walter Ruttmann (1887–1941), film director and early practitioner of experimental film
Hans Adalbert Schlettow (1887–1945), film actor
Otto Maull (1887–1957), geographer and geopolitician
Oscar Kreuzer (1887–1968), tennis and rugby player
Wilhelm Lenz (1888–1957), physicist
Fritz Becker (1888–1963), football player
Gussy Holl (1888–1966), actress and singer
Caesar Rudolf Boettger (1888–1976), zoologist
Herman Bing (1889–1947), actor
Johanna Kirchner (1889–1944), opponent of the Nazi régime
Ernst Schwarz (1889–1962), zoologist, mammalogist, and herpetologist
Heinrich Jacoby (1889–1964), musician and educator
Siegfried Kracauer (1889–1966), writer, journalist, sociologist, film theorist, and cultural critic
Otto Frank (1889–1980), businessman
Martin Weber (1890–1941), architect
Otto Schmöle (1890–1968), actor
Martha Wertheimer (1890–1942), journalist, writer, and rescuer
Leopold Schwarzschild (1891–1950), author
Karl Ludwig Schmidt (1891–1956), theologian and professor
Felix Schlag (1891–1974), designer of the United States five cent coin in use from 1938 to 2004
Erwin Straus (1891–1975), German-American phenomenologist and neurologist
Hans Leybold (1892–1914), poet
Jakob Weiseborn (1892–1939), SS-Sturmbannführer (major) and commandant of Flossenbürg concentration camp
Friedrich Weber (1892–1955), instructor in veterinary medicine
Eugen Kaufmann (1892–1984), architect
Gus Meins (1893–1940), German-American film director
Ilse Friedleben (1893–1963), tennis player
Ludwig Hirschfeld Mack (1893–1965), artist
Johann Fück (1894–1974), orientalist
Karl Reinhardt (1895–1941), mathematician
Wilhelm Süss (1895–1958), mathematician
Ernst Udet (1896–1941), German flying ace of World War I
Theodor Haubach (1896–1945), journalist, SPD politician, and resistance fighter against the Nazi régime
Walter Peterhans (1897–1960), photographer
Tilly Edinger (1897–1967), paleontologist
Karl Freiherr von Lersner (1898–1943), Wehrmacht general during World War II
Karl Menninger (1898–1963), mathematician
Franz Altheim (1898–1976), historian
Hans Feibusch (1898–1998), painter and sculptor
Willy Messerschmitt (1898–1978), aircraft designer and manufacturer
Ferdinand Kramer (1898–1985), architect and functionalist designer
Nelly Neppach (née Bamberger; 1898–1933), female tennis player
Irnfried Freiherr von Wechmar (1899–1959), Oberst in the Wehrmacht during World War II and an Oberst der Reserve in the Bundeswehr
Ilse Bing (1899–1998), avant-garde and commercial photographer
Paul Leser (1899–1984), ethnologist
Ernst Friedrich Löhndorff (1899–1976), sailor, adventurer, and writer
Erich Fromm (1900–1980), social psychologist, psychoanalyst, sociologist, humanistic philosopher, and democratic socialist
Otto Kahn-Freund (1900–1979), professor of comparative law and scholar in labour law
Erich Klibansky (1900–1942), headmaster and teacher of the first Jewish Gymnasium of Rhineland in Cologne
Leo Löwenthal (1900–1993), sociologist
20th century
[edit]
1901–1910
[edit]
Georg August Zinn (1901–1976), lawyer and politician
Elisabeth Schwarzhaupt (1901–1986), politician
Adolf Weidmann (1901–1997), athlete and sports official
Otto Bayer (1902–1982), industrial chemist
Fritz Bamberger (1902–1984), scholar and editor
Hugo Schrader (1902–1993), television and film actor
Max Rudolf (1902–1995), conductor
Theodor W. Adorno (1903–1969), sociologist, philosopher and musicologist
Julius Eisenecker (1903–1981), fencer
Karl Chmielewski (1903–1991), SS officer and Herzogenbusch concentration camp commandant
Otto Mainzer (1903–1995), writer
Camilla Horn (1903–1996), dancer and film star
Fritz Weitzel (1904–1940), SS soldier
Karl Hessenberg (1904–1959), engineer and mathematician
Milly Reuter (1904–1976), track and field athlete
Günther Gräntz (1905–1945), SA general and politician
Richard Ettinghausen (1906–1979), art historian
Wolfgang Gentner (1906–1980), experimental nuclear physicist
Helmut Landsberg (1906–1985), climatologist
Willibald Kreß (1906–1989), footballer
Ott-Heinrich Keller (1906–1990), mathematician
Karl Holzamer (1906–2007), philosopher, pedagogue and former director general of German television station ZDF
Franka Rasmussen (1907–1994), textile artist
Herman Geiger-Torel (1907–1976), Canadian opera director
Eugen Weidmann (1908–1939), career criminal
Kurt H. Debus (1908–1983), spaceflight scientist
Rudolf Gramlich (1908–1988), football player and chairman
Arthur Dreifuss (1908–1993), film director and occasional producer and screenwriter
Kurt Hessenberg (1908–1994), composer and professor
John Slade (1908–2005), American Olympic field hockey player and Wall Street broker
Edgar Weil (1908–1941), Germanist, dramaturge, and merchant
Ernst vom Rath (1909–1938), diplomat
Andrew Thorndike (1909–1979), documentary film director
Georg Konrad Morgen (1909–1982), SS judge and lawyer
Friedrich Bopp (1909–1987), theoretical physicist
Helm Glöckler (1909–1993), racing driver
Kurt Lipstein (1909–2006), legal scholar and professor
Walter Löber (1909–?), racing cyclist
Tatjana Sais (1910–1981), film actress
Barys Kit (1910–2018), Belarusian-American rocket scientist
Fritz Tillmann (1910–1986), actor
Erwin Walter Palm (1910–1988), scholar, historian, and writer
Richard Plant (1910–1998), writer
Robert H. Goetz (1910–2000), surgeon
Erika Fromm (1910–2003), psychologist
1911–1920
[edit]
Karl Heinz Bremer (1911–1942), historian
Theodor Schneider (1911–1988), mathematician
Bruno Roth (1911–1998), racing cyclist
Tilly Fleischer (1911–2005), athlete
Bruno Beger (1911–2009), racial anthropologist
Hermann Flohn (1912–1997), climatologist
Theo Helfrich (1913–1978), racing driver
Manfred Kersch (1913–1995), athlete
Karl Dröse (1913–1996), field hockey player
Bernhard Frank (1913–2011), Nazi leader
Emil Carlebach (1914–2001), writer, dissident, and journalist
Herbert Cahn (1915–2002), classical archaeologist, numismatist, coin-dealer and antiquities-dealer
Werner Grothmann (1915–2002), SS leader
Wolf Kaiser (1916–1992), theatre and film actor
Karl Wald (1916–2011), football referee
Bernd T. Matthias (1918–1980), American physicist
Toby E. Rodes (1919–2013), business consultant, design-critic, journalist, and lecturer
Eric Koch (1919–2018), Canadian author, broadcaster and professor
Wolfdietrich Schnurre (1920–1989), writer
1921–1930
[edit]
Wilhelm Ringelband (1921–1981), theater critic
Frederick Mayer (1921–2006), educational scientist, philosopher, and creativity expert
Hans Herrman Strupp (1921–2006), American expert in psychotherapy research
Ernest Mandel (1923–1995), revolutionary Marxist theorist
Samson François (1924–1970), French pianist and composer
Ernst B. Haas (1924–2003), political scientist
Marianne Beuchert (1924–2007), florist, gardener, and writer
Jürgen Jürgens (1925–1994), choral conductor and academic teacher
Carlrichard Brühl (1925–1997), historian of medieval history and philatelist
Alfred Grosser (1925–2024), German-French writer, sociologist, and political scientist
Emil Mangelsdorff (1925–2022), jazz musician
Margot Frank (1926–1945), sister of Anne Frank
Herbert Freudenberger (1926–1999), psychologist
Liselott Linsenhoff (1927–1999), equestrian and Olympic champion
Hans Heinz Holz (1927–2011), Marxist philosopher
Charlotte Kerr (1927–2011), director, film producer, actress, writer, and journalist
Marcel Ophüls (born 1927), documentary film maker and former actor
Albert Mangelsdorff (1928–2005), jazz trombonist
Anne Frank (1929–1945), diarist and writer
Erich Böhme (1930–2009), journalist and television host
Robert Aumann (born 1930), Israeli-American mathematician
Ursula Lehr (1930–2022), academic, age researcher, and politician
Michael Rossmann (1930–2019), German-American physicist, microbiologist, and professor
1931–1940
[edit]
Imanuel Geiss (1931–2012), historian
August Hobl (born 1931), former motorcycle road racer
Lis Verhoeven (1931–2019), actress and theatre director
Rainer K. Sachs (born 1932), German-American computational radiation biologist and astronomer
Hans Krieger (1933–2023), writer, essayist, journalist of influential weekly papers, broadcaster, and poet
Mary Bauermeister (1934–2023), artist
Erwin Conradi (born 1935), manager in trade business
Michael Horovitz (1935–2021), German-born British poet, editor, visual artist, and translator
Gisela Kessler (1935–2014),[1] trade unionist
Heinz Riesenhuber (born 1935), politician
Ulrich Schindel (born 1935), classical philologist
Susanne Cramer (1936–1969), film and television actress
Klaus Heymann (born 1936), entrepreneur
Franz Ningel (born 1936), pair skater and roller skater
Klaus Rajewsky (born 1936), immunologist
Dieter Schenk (born 1937), author, former high police officer, and activist
Wolfgang Zapf (1937–2018), sociologist
Günter Lenz (born 1938), jazz bassist and composer
Fritz-Albert Popp (1938–2018), biophysicist
Gerhard Waibel (born 1938), engineer
Gerhard Amendt (born 1939), sociologist and former professor
Gerd Kehrer (born 1939), painter
Wolfram Saenger (born 1939), biochemist and protein crystallographer
Bernhard Sinkel (born 1940), film director and screenwriter
Wolfgang Solz (1940–2017), former professional football winger
Klaus Zehelein (born 1940), dramaturge and professor
1941–1950
[edit]
Brigitte Heinrich (1941–1987), journalist and politician
Ernst-Ludwig Winnacker (born 1941), geneticist, biochemist, and research manager
Ernst Klee (1942–2013), journalist and author
Heidemarie Wieczorek-Zeul (born 1942), politician
Marika Kilius (born 1943), pair skater
Ursula G.T. Müller (born 1944), sociologist specializing in gender studies
Jürgen Roth (1945–2017), publicist and investigative journalist
Gerhard Welz (born 1945), former professional footballer
Gerd Binnig (born 1947), physicist and Nobel laureate
Wolfgang Flür (born 1947), musician
Hans-Joachim Klein (1947–2022), terrorist
Minka Pradelski (born 1947), sociologist and documentary filmmaker
Susan Blakely (born 1948), American film actress
Diethelm Sack (born 1948), financial officer
Rolf Birkhölzer (born 1949), footballer
Horst Dröse (born 1949), former field hockey player
Margot Glockshuber (born 1949), former pair skater
Horst Ludwig Störmer (born 1949), physicist and Nobel laureate
Gert Trinklein (1949–2017), former professional football player
P. J. Soles (born 1950), American film and television actress
1951–1960
[edit]
Hubert Buchberger (born 1951), violinist, conductor, and music university teacher
Roman Bunka (1951–2022), guitarist and composer
Martin Mosebach (born 1951), writer
Peter Ammon (born 1952), diplomat
Cornelia Hanisch (born 1952), former fencer
Johanna Lindsey (1952–2019), American writer of historical romance novels
Susanne Porsche (born 1952), film producer
Horst Stöcker (born 1952), theoretical physicist
Lutz Kirchhof (born 1953), lutenist
Stephan W. Koch (1953–2022), theoretical physicist
Wolfgang Kraus (born 1953), former professional football player
Dagmar Roth-Behrendt (born 1953), lawyer and politician
Jan Zweyer (born 1953), writer
Dietrich Thurau (born 1954), retired professional road bicycle racer
Ellen von Unwerth (born 1954), photographer
Uwe Benter (born 1955), rower
Uli Lenz (born 1955), composer, pianist, and producer creating music in the modern jazz genre
Michael Obst (born 1955), composer and pianist
Ulrike Meyfarth (born 1956), former high jumper
Ronny Borchers (born 1957), former footballer
Juliane Kokott (born 1957), Advocate General and professor
Gerhard Weikum (born 1957), database researcher
Hans Zimmer (born 1957), film composer and music producer
Rainer Zitelmann (born 1957), historian, journalist, and management consultant
Peter Becker (born 1958), molecular biologist
Thomas Duis (born 1958), pianist
Peter Kloeppel (born 1958), journalist and news anchor
Roland Koch (born 1958), jurist and former conservative politician
Thomas Metzinger (born 1958), philosopher and professor
Thomas Reiter (born 1958), retired astronaut and test pilot
Michael Scheffel (born 1958), Germanist
Nicole Brown Simpson (1959–1994), ex-wife of professional football player O. J. Simpson
Martina Hallmen (born 1959), former field hockey player
Michael Sagmeister (born 1959), Jazz guitarist
Pete Namlook (1960–2012), ambient and electronic-music producer and composer
Christoph Franz (born 1960), former Chief Executive Officer of Lufthansa
Michael Gahler (born 1960), politician and Member of the European Parliament
Hannes Jaenicke (born 1960), actor
Gabriele Lesser (born 1960), historian and journalist
Patricia Ott (born 1960), former field hockey player
1961–1970
[edit]
Jens Geier (born 1961), politician
Esther Schapira (born 1961), journalist and filmmaker
Peter Blank (born 1962), javelin thrower
Matthias Röhr (born 1962), guitarist
Inaara Aga Khan (born 1963), second wife of the Aga Khan IV
Ralf Falkenmayer (born 1963), former footballer
Thor Kunkel (born 1963), author
Charlotte Link (born 1963), writer
Marcus Nispel (born 1963), film director and producer
Valentin Schiedermair (born 1963), concert pianist
Jakob Arjouni (1964–2013), author
Beate Deininger (born 1964), former field hockey player
Michael Gross (born 1964), swimmer
Manfred Binz (born 1965), footballer
Armin Kraaz (born 1965), football manager and former player
Martin Lawrence (born 1965), American actor, comedian, and filmmaker
Oliver Reck (born 1965), former footballer
Christine Schäfer (born 1965), soprano
Torsten de Winkel (born 1965), musician, composer, and philosopher
Markus Löffel (1966–2006), disc jockey, musician, and record producer
Eckhart Nickel (born 1966), journalist and author
Stefan Quandt (born 1966), engineer and industrialist
Sven Rothenberger (born 1966), equestrian
Klaus Badelt (born 1967), composer
Jens Beckert (born 1967), sociologist
Antje Boetius (born 1967), marine biologist and professor of geomicrobiology
Johannes Brandrup (born 1967), actor
Katharina Hacker (born 1967), novelist
Eckart von Hirschhausen (born 1967), physician and comedian
Annette Huber-Klawitter (born 1967), mathematician
Peter Oliver Loew (born 1967), historian, translator, and scholar
Stefan Mohr (born 1967), chess grandmaster
Andreas Möller (born 1967), former internationalist association footballer
Inka Parei (born 1967), writer
Peter Thiel (born 1967), American entrepreneur, venture capitalist, and hedge fund manager
Andreas Paulus (born 1968), jurist
Uwe Schmidt (born 1968), composer, musician, and producer of electronic music
Shantel (born 1968), DJ and producer
Carsten Arriens (born 1969), former professional tennis player
Giorgos Donis (born 1969), former professional football player
Oliver Lieb (born 1969), electronic music producer and DJ
Sarah Sorge (born 1969), politician
Marc Trauner (born 1969), DJ and producer
Thomas Zampach (born 1969), former professional footballer
Jo Jo English (born 1970), American NBA basketball player, top scorer in the 1999–2000 Israel Basketball League
Ronald Reng (born 1970), sports journalist and author
Markus Rill (born 1970), singer-songwriter
J. Peter Schwalm (born 1970), composer and music producer
Simone Thomaschinski (born 1970), former professional field hockey defender
1971–1980
[edit]
Jochen Hippel (born 1971), musician
Holger Kleinbub (born 1971), former professional volleyball player
Slobodan Komljenović (born 1971), former Serbian footballer
Moses Pelham (born 1971), rapper and musician
Tony Richardson (born 1971), former American football fullback
Alexander Schur (born 1971), former professional footballer
Tré Cool (born 1972), American drummer
Wilhelm Fischer (born 1972), boxer
Steffi Jones (born 1972), former professional football defender
Anthony Rother (born 1972), electronic music composer, producer, and label owner
Kai Tracid (born 1972), trance DJ and producer
Tilo Wolff (born 1972), musician
Anna Carlsson (born 1973), actress and voice actress
Anna Henckel-Donnersmarck (born 1973), filmmaker and film curator
Klark Kent (born 1973), graffiti artist and music producer
Sonya Kraus (born 1973), television presenter and former model
Christopher Reitz (born 1973), professional field hockey goalkeeper
Kaya Yanar (born 1973), comedian
Michael Aničić (born 1974), former professional football player
Matthias Becker (born 1974), former professional football player
Magnus Gäfgen (born 1974), child murderer
Sinan Şamil Sam (born 1974), Turkish heavyweight professional boxer
Sabrina Setlur (born 1974), singer, rapper, songwriter and occasional actress
Julia Voss (born 1974), journalist and scientific historian
Mandala Tayde (born 1975), award-winning actress and model
Alexander Waske (born 1975), former professional tennis player
Daniel Dölschner (born 1976), poet and Haiku-writer
Tamara Milosevic (born 1976), documentary filmer
Michael Thurk (born 1976), professional football player
Sascha Amstätter (born 1977), professional football player
Birgit Prinz (born 1977), former female professional association football player
Sandra Smisek (born 1977), former female professional football player
Edwin Thomas (born 1977), English historical novelist
Jo Weil (born 1977), actor
Daniel Hartwich (born 1978), actor
Hartmut Honka (born 1978), conservative politician
Susanne Keil (born 1978), female hammer thrower
Mark Medlock (born 1978), singer
Souad Mekhennet (born 1978), journalist
Heinz Müller (born 1978), professional footballer
Silke Müller (born 1978), award-winning field hockey midfielder
Ruben Studdard (born 1978), American R&B, pop, and gospel singer
Meike Freitag (born 1979), former female swimmer
Senna Gammour (born 1979), singer-songwriter and entertainer
Jonesmann (born 1979), rapper
Cha Du-ri (born 1980), South Korean professional footballer
Bakary Diakité (born 1980), German-Malian professional footballer
Patrick Falk (born 1980), professional footballer
Daniel Gunkel (born 1980), professional footballer
Giorgos Theodoridis (born 1980), Greek international footballer
Zaytoven (born 1980), American hip hop DJ and producer
1981–1990
[edit]
Giuseppe Gemiti (born 1981), professional footballer
Jermaine Jones (born 1981), German-American professional soccer player
Saskia Bartusiak (born 1982), professional footballer
Nadja Benaissa (born 1982), recording artist, television personality, and occasional actress
Marijana Marković (born 1982), épée fencer
Carlos Nevado (born 1982), professional field hockey player
Patric Klandt (born 1983), professional footballer
Madeleine Sandig (born 1983), professional road and track racing cyclist
Pia Eidmann (born 1984), professional field hockey player
Patrick Ochs (born 1984), professional footballer
Fouad Brighache (born 1985), German-Moroccan professional footballer
J. Cole (born 1985), American hip hop recording artist, songwriter, and record producer
Fikri El Haj Ali (born 1985), professional footballer
Christian Kum (born 1985), German-Dutch professional footballer
Mounir Chaftar (born 1986), professional football defender
Tim Kister (born 1986), professional footballer
Moritz Müller (born 1986), professional ice hockey defenceman
Jan-André Sievers (born 1987), professional football player
Uğur Albayrak (born 1988), Turkish professional footballer
Niklas Andersen (born 1988), professional football defender
Lisa Bund (born 1988), pop singer, songwriter, radio host, actor, and reality television star
Stefan Hickl (born 1988), professional footballer
Tru Valentino (born 1988), American actor
Timm Klose (born 1988), German-Swiss professional footballer
Björn Thurau (born 1988), professional cyclist
Richard Weil (born 1988), professional footballer
Semih Aydilek (born 1989), German-Turkish professional footballer
Kevin Pezzoni (born 1989), professional footballer
Marcel Titsch-Rivero (born 1989), professional footballer
Timothy Chandler (born 1990), German-American professional soccer player
Steffen Fäth (born 1990), professional handball player
Jan Kirchhoff (born 1990), professional footballer
Romero Osby (born 1990), American professional basketball player for Maccabi Kiryat Gat of the Israeli Basketball Premier League
1991–2000
[edit]
Daniel Döringer (born 1991), professional footballer
Daniel Henrich (born 1991), professional footballer
Namika (born 1991), German-Moroccan singer and rapper
Leon Bunn (born 1992), boxer
Max Ehmer (born 1992), professional footballer
Markus Hofmeier (born 1993), professional footballer
Alice Merton (born 1993), singer
Emre Can (born 1994), professional footballer
Notable residents of Frankfurt
[edit]
8th to 17th centuries
[edit]
Charlemagne (born between 742 and 748; died 814), King of the Franks who united most of Western Europe during the Middle Ages and laid the foundations for modern France and Germany
Fastrada (765–794), East Frankish noblewoman
Louis the German (c. 810–876), grandson of Charlemagne and third son of the succeeding Frankish Emperor Louis the Pious and his first wife, Ermengarde of Hesbaye
Louis the Younger (born between 830 and 835; died 882), second eldest son of Louis the German and Emma who succeeded his father as King of Saxony and his elder brother Carloman as King of Bavaria
Johannes von Soest (1448–1506), composer, theorist, and poet
Conrad Faber von Kreuznach (born c. 1500; died between 1552 and 1553), painter and woodcuts designer
Jacob Micyllus (1503–1558), Renaissance humanist and teacher
Adam Lonicer (1528–1586), botanist
Giordano Bruno (1548–1600), Italian Dominican friar, philosopher, mathematician, poet, and astrologer
Matthäus Merian (1593–1650), Swiss-born engraver and publisher
Johann Schröder (1600–1664), physician and pharmacologist
Jacob Joshua Falk (1680–1756), Talmudist, served as chief rabbi of Frankfurt
Georg Philipp Telemann (1681–1767), Baroque composer and multi-instrumentalist
18th century
[edit]
Johann Philipp Bethmann (1715–1793), merchant and banker
Simon Moritz Bethmann (1721–1782), merchant and banker
Pinchas Horowitz (1731–1805), rabbi
Johann Christian Friedrich Hæffner (1759–1833), composer
Sekl Loeb Wormser (1768–1846), rabbi
Clemens Brentano (1778–1842), poet, novelist, and major figure of German Romanticism
Karoline von Günderrode (1780–1806), Romantic poet
Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860), philosopher
19th century
[edit]
Rudolf Christian Böttger (1806–1881), inorganic chemist
Samson Raphael Hirsch (1808–1888), rabbi
Johann von Miquel (1828–1901), statesman
Leopold Sonnemann (1831–1909), journalist, newspaper publisher, and political party leader
Charles Hallgarten (1838–1908), banker and philanthropist
Paul Ehrlich (1854–1915), physician and scientist who worked in the fields of hematology, immunology, and chemotherapy
Engelbert Humperdinck (1854–1921), composer
Bertha Pappenheim (1859–1936), Austrian-Jewish feminist, social pioneer, and founder of the Jüdischer Frauenbund (League of Jewish Women)
Adolf Bartels (1862–1945), journalist and poet
Alois Alzheimer (1864–1915), Bavarian-born psychiatrist and neuropathologist credited with identifying the first published case of "presenile dementia", later identified as Alzheimer's disease
Georg Voigt (1866–1927), politician
Ludwig Landmann (1868–1945), liberal politician
Oskar Ursinus (1877–1952), aerospace engineer
Max Beckmann (1884–1950), painter, draftsman, printmaker, sculptor, and writer
Magda Spiegel (1887–1944), contralto
Oswald von Nell-Breuning (1890–1991), Roman Catholic theologian and sociologist
Franz Bronstert (1895–1967), engineer and painter
Max Horkheimer (1895–1973), philosopher and sociologist
Paul Hindemith (1895–1963), composer, violist, violinist, teacher, and conductor
Ludwig Erhard (1897–1977), politician affiliated with the CDU and Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) from 1963 until 1966
Margarete Schütte-Lihotzky (1897–2000), first female Austrian architect and an activist in the Nazi resistance movement
20th century
[edit]
1901–1910
[edit]
Kurt Thomas (1904–1973), composer, conductor, and music educator
Hans Bethe (1906–2005), German–American nuclear physicist
Oskar Schindler (1908–1974), industrialist, spy, and member of the Nazi Party who is credited with saving the lives of 1,200 Jews during the Holocaust
Alexander Mitscherlich (1908–1982), psychologist
Bernhard Grzimek (1909–1987), Silesian-German zoo director, zoologist, book author, editor, and animal conservationist
1911–1920
[edit]
Josef Neckermann (1912–1992), equestrian and Olympic champion
Margarete Mitscherlich-Nielsen (1917–2012), psychoanalyst
Horst Krüger (1919–1999), novelist
Marcel Reich-Ranicki (1920–2013), Polish-born literary critic and member of the literary group Gruppe 47
1921–1930
[edit]
Reinhard Goerdeler (1922–1996), accountant instrumental in founding KPMG, a leading international firm of accountants
Arno Lustiger (1924–2012), historian and author
Horst Streckenbach (1925–2001), tattoo artist and historian of the medium
Hilmar Hoffmann (1925–2018), cultural functionary and director
Ignatz Bubis (1927–1999), chairman (and later president) of the Central Council of Jews in Germany (Zentralrat der Juden in Deutschland)
Ruth Westheimer (born Karola Siegel; 1928–2024), German-American sex therapist, talk show host, author, Doctor of Education, Holocaust survivor, and former Haganah sniper.
Karl-Hermann Flach (1929–1973), journalist of the Frankfurter Rundschau, and a politician of the liberal Free Democrats (FDP)
Jürgen Habermas (born 1929), sociologist and philosopher in the tradition of critical theory and pragmatism
Helmut Kohl (1930–2017), conservative politician and statesman
1931–1940
[edit]
Alfred Schmidt (1931–2012), philosopher
Walter Wallmann (1932–2013), politician
Rosemarie Nitribitt (1933–1957), luxury call girl whose violent death caused a scandal in the Wirtschaftswunder years
Michael Grzimek (1934–1959), zoologist, conservationist, and filmmaker
Albert Speer Jr. (1934–2017), architect and urban planner
Pope Francis (born Jorge Mario Bergoglio, 1936), pope of the Catholic Church, spent several months at the Sankt Georgen Graduate School of Philosophy and Theology in Frankfurt
F. K. Waechter (1937–2005), cartoonist, author, and playwright
Robert Gernhardt (1937–2006), writer, painter, caricaturist, and poet
Barbara Klemm (born 1939), photographer, worked for Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung for 45 years
1941–1950
[edit]
Jürgen Grabowski (born 1944), former football player
Petra Roth (born 1944), mayor of Frankfurt from 1995 to 2012
Daniel Cohn-Bendit (born 1945), politician
Bernd Hölzenbein (born 1946), former football player
Johannes Weinrich (born 1947), left-wing political militant and terrorist
Josef Ackermann (born 1948), Swiss banker and former chief executive officer of Deutsche Bank
Joschka Fischer (born 1948), politician
Alfred 23 Harth (born 1949), multimedia artist, band leader, multi-instrumentalist musician, and composer
1951–2000
[edit]
Armin S., independent securities trader
Ahron Daum (born 1951), rabbi, professor, author, and educator
Cha Bum-kun (born 1953), South Korean football manager and former player
Michel Friedman (born 1956), lawyer, former CDU politician, and talk show host
Wolfgang Herold (born 1961), film producer and sound supervisor
Luca Anzilotti (born 1963), Italian DJ/producer of electronic music
Stephan Weidner (born 1963), musician and music producer
Heike Matthiesen (born 1964), classical guitarist
Sven Väth (born 1964), DJ/producer in electronic music
Dave McClain (born 1965), drummer
D-Flame (born 1971), hip hop and reggae musician
Azad (born 1974), rapper
Renate Lingor (born 1975), female former international football player
Pia Wunderlich (born 1975), football midfielder
Aslı Bayram (born 1981), actress and writer
References
[edit]
^ "Abschied von einer kämpferischen Gewerkschafterin". Kommunisten.de. 15 May 2014 .
See also
[edit]
Biography portal
Germany portal
Lists portal
Frankfurt School
List of mayors of Frankfurt
List of Eintracht Frankfurt players
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Leo Burnett Worldwide is a global advertising agency based in Chicago. Learn more about career opportunities, our work, culture and clients.
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https://oll.libertyfund.org/pages/rommen-on-natural-law-in-the-age-of-individualism
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Rommen on Natural Law in the Age of Individualism
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Related Links: Works by Heinrich Rommen Pufendorf, Descartes, Kant, 18thC Topic: Natural Law Related Links: Veatch on Natural Law Bibliography on Natural Law Source: Chapter 4 of Heinrich Rommen's The Natural Law: A Study in Legal and Social History and Philosophy, trans. Thomas R. Hanley. Introduction and Bibliography by Russell Hittinger (Indianapolis: Liberty Fund 1998). CHAPTER IV. The Natural Law in the Age of Individualism and Rationalism The so-called age of natural law did not, properly speaking, commence with Hugo Grotius. It began rather with Pufendorf, who undertook to expound the doctrine of Grotius. The net result of the age was a disastrous setback, from the opening of the nineteenth century, for the natural-law idea among the modern philosophers and practitioners of law who were unacquainted with the older Christian tradition.
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https://oll.libertyfund.org/pages/rommen-on-natural-law-in-the-age-of-individualism
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Source: Chapter 4 of Heinrich Rommen's The Natural Law: A Study in Legal and Social History and Philosophy, trans. Thomas R. Hanley. Introduction and Bibliography by Russell Hittinger (Indianapolis: Liberty Fund 1998).
CHAPTER IV. The Natural Law in the Age of Individualism and Rationalism
The so-called age of natural law did not, properly speaking, commence with Hugo Grotius. It began rather with Pufendorf, who undertook to expound the doctrine of Grotius. The net result of the age was a disastrous setback, from the opening of the nineteenth century, for the natural-law idea among the modern philosophers and practitioners of law who were unacquainted with the older Christian tradition.
The new natural law differed in many respects from the traditional one. It represented a peculiar hypertrophy of the older conception. Numerous factors were responsible for this development, and they arose from the intellectual evolution and political circumstances of the period.
Humanism had declined, and with it had gone exaggerated esteem for antiquity in general and, in particular, for Roman law as ratio scripta. Roman law, in its degenerate form of usus modernus and with its many archaic-sounding formulas, could not satisfy this age of reason.
Deism in theology led to a high regard for the element of law in nature. It led also to an abhorrence of all sorcery, of belief in demons, of any supposed mystical influence of the transcendent Deity upon a world that moves in accordance with unalterable laws. A real enlightenment was declared necessary for a clear knowledge of the laws. Not faith, however, but reason was to provide such enlightenment. For the law lies in reason, and speculative reason is able to derive from itself, from contemplation of its own abstract nature, all laws, all morality, and all right in the form of axioms. Indeed this holds good even if there be no God, who thenceforth appears as merely the ultimate source of morality and law (apart from the continuation of tradition at the hands, for instance, of Leibnitz and the theologians). Whole systems of ethics and law were now worked out in minute detail by scholars who were carried away by a veritable passion for speculation. Such speculation also differed considerably from the prevailing inferior law which still recognized sorcery, belief in demons, and things of a mystical nature.
Furthermore, a jurisprudence adapted to the needs of the administrative machinery of the centralized absolute monarchy seemed, at least in the eyes of the rationalists, out of the question on the basis of the existing law. For this law was split up according to provinces and estates or social classes. Besides, its feudal forms had been rendered antiquated by the rise and growth of capitalism; it had also become rigid and unsuited to the time in the case of privileged guilds, not to mention the monstrosity of imperial law which no less a person than Pufendorf had so thoroughly ridiculed in a work, De statu imperii, that appeared under a pseudonym.
The thesis of the autonomy of human reason, as well as the view that the existing law constituted unwarranted fetters, was closely bound up with the nascent socio-philosophical individualism of the age. The clearest manifestation of this individualistic bent is found in the doctrine of the state of nature, which now became the starting point of natural-law speculation after having been in the Middle Ages but a condition of mankind with theological significance alone. (The difference may be schematized thus: the natural law as the idea of law in and above the necessary positive law—the natural law as law of the state of nature before and above the positive law.)
From the same source stemmed the peculiar methodological starting point of all these systems of natural law. Thinkers did not set out, as in the earlier period, from the essentially social nature of man in which the entire order of social institutions (marriage, family, state, international community) and the basic norms of these exist potentially in such a way that the essence is fulfilled only in the completion and hierarchical ordering of social forms through the various “imperfect” societies up to the “perfect” society. The point of departure was empirical nature discovered by means of abstraction, from whose psychological motive force, viewed as fundamental, the system of ethics and of natural law was deduced in a rationalistic manner. For Hobbes this was selfishness; for Pufendorf, sociableness as mere formal sociality; for Thomasius, happiness, i.e., “praiseworthy, pleasant, carefree life.”
In this way a whole detailed system of natural law was in existence, or was considered to have been in force, before social life, with its essential forms and with the historically contingent particularities of such forms, had worked itself out in history, i.e., had evolved after the manner of an entelechy. This natural law was held to cover the civil law of contracts, the family, inheritance, and property; it was even made to include procedural law and especially constitutional law. Surrounded with the halo of naturalness and reasonableness, the various natural-law systems accordingly signified, in respect to existing conditions that cried out for reform, an ideal which the codifications of the close of the eighteenth century sought to realize, whether in a revolutionary (Rousseau) or conservative (Hobbes) or reformist manner (enlightened despotism). With all this was now readily combined the ancient Stoic glorification of the pre-political state of mankind, except where this condition was construed by Hobbes, as already indeed by Epicurus, as a war of all against all.
To these favorable factors of an ideal order corresponded practical ones that were no less favorable. The Enlightenment was first of all an affair of the ruling class, the nobility and the intellectuals of the age, clerics and men of science. The latter, however, were encouraged by the princes precisely because and so far as these recognized their function of governing as a duty. Enlightened despotism, to use the label current in resentful liberal circles, was a great patron of the natural law or, as it henceforth was usually and quite significantly styled, the law of reason. For this law placed in the hands of the princes the weapons with which to break down the class privileges of the nobility, and perhaps of the guilds and provincial estates as well, which hampered the uniform administration of the state. Furthermore the Enlightenment with its accent on education assigned to the state the task, through the agency of the police, of educating the citizen and of making the state wealthy in the mercantilist sense.
Thus this individualistic natural law was especially adapted to loosen the traditional, hardened social order and to furnish the princes with subjects, not, of course, as mere objects of arbitrary will, but as legal subjects with innate subjective rights. They were then, as objects of education, admirably suited to the higher idea of man that was proper to the Enlightenment. If, therefore, the individualistic root of this natural law was everywhere the same, this was in no way the case regarding the liberalist consequences which resulted from it when deeper thought was given to the matter. These consequences appeared in Rousseau’s system and in the French Revolution, as well as in the natural-law doctrines of Locke and of early German liberalism: what was desired was a bourgeois natural law. They were wanting, however, both in Hobbes’ doctrine and in the natural-law systems of Pufendorf and Thomasius.
Closely connected with this political consequence, whether of the police-state with its educational function or of the liberal state with its restricted function of guaranteeing individual liberty, was a further break with tradition on natural-law grounds. This newer natural law constituted the first attempt to construct a lay or secularist theory of ethics and politics. Hobbes’ purpose in devising his doctrine of natural law was admittedly the destruction of independent ecclesiastical law. His aim was to subordinate the latter to, and incorporate it in, the natural law of the omnipotent and sole person of the state represented by the monarch. Enlightened despotism likewise held the view that the Church, though indeed of importance sociologically and practically, was but a division of the cultural and educational department of the absolute monarchy. The peculiar totalitarian character of the ius naturae of that period, identical as it was with moral philosophy, was the means adopted for forcing the Church into the service of the state.
Moreover, rationalism and the Enlightenment had rendered the old, mystical foundation, which had emerged from the semiobscurity of immediate divine origin, incapable of supporting the state and royal power. Now, however, the doctrine of a state of nature together with the various contract theories concerning the transition to the status civilis afforded a new basis, though an insecure and perilous one. The same intellectual device served Hobbes for laying the foundation of state absolutism; it served Pufendorf for laying the foundation of enlightened despotism, which denied the ancient, traditional right of the people to resist; and it served Rousseau for laying the foundation of the sole admissible omnipotence of the democratic state. The French revolutionaries also made use of it for reducing state functions to a minimum; for establishing the rights, acknowledged also on other grounds, of man and of the citizen; and for vindicating the right to resist the power of the state (Constitutions of 1792 and 1793). “The tamest and lamest theories, no less than the preaching of world betterment through the guillotine and the French wars of conquest, were carried out in the name of the law of reason. Natural law was an intellectual trend, not a uniformly expounded doctrine” (Pfaff and Hoffmann).
For social reformers, that is, for enlightened despots and for social revolutionaries like Rousseau, this magnified natural law based on individualism thus became the starting point. It was set down in constitutions as fundamental law. In the comprehensive codifications of the time it served to break down the organization of society by estates and to build up the modern bourgeois social order. As a special science, however, or as a general conviction, it thereupon vanished just as quickly. This outcome was caused either by the achievement of such eminently political aims of a natural law with reformist or revolutionary overtones; or by the fact that after the climactic orgy of 1793–96 the goddess Reason was deposed and History (Haller, De Maistre, Donoso Cortes) or rather Providence, working in history and discernible in its activity, was again enthroned.
What differentiated this newer natural law from the ius naturale perenne were not of course its political aims alone; these were merely more conspicuous. The essential distinguishing mark was the importance of the doctrine of the state of nature, which attained, as in Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe (1719), such unexpected and widespread popularity. Thence stemmed the pregnant ideas of liberty and equality. And fully in keeping with it was also the comprehensive moral philosophy of deism, which concealed itself under the title of ius naturale and, after first disregarding the eternal law, finally culminated in the complete moral autonomy of reason (Kant).
The individualist starting point led also to a failure to recognize the necessary forms of social life. If the past had looked upon these as, so to speak, germinally contained in the idea of man, they could now, from the standpoint of the free individual, be regarded only as status adventicii, as superadded for various, nonessential reasons: sociality, utility, or mere external perfection. In view of the original freedom, they could no longer be acknowledged as intrinsically necessary; in their contents as well as in their existence they must be founded solely upon free association, upon the free contracts of individuals. For this type of natural law the contractual form is the basis not only for the coming into existence of concrete social forms, but also for their normative contents. The essence of social forms is not something objective; it is rather, like their existence, dependent upon the will of individuals. For the individualist doctrine there exists, as has already been stated, no categorical or a priori sociality of man as such, but only a pure sociability. In keeping with this view was a political theory that manifested itself in the two extremes of Hobbes’ omnipotent monarchy and Rousseau’s omnipotent democracy: the princely police-state with a maximum of functions and the constitutional state of 1789 and later with a minimum of functions. Individual rights belonging to the state of nature were viewed either as definitively surrendered in the political and governmental contract (Hobbes), or as inviolable and hence to be brought over intact into the status civilis.
These natural-law doctrines displayed little understanding of the graduated order of the forms of social life that resides in the nature of man as a social animal. They showed no appreciation for the family as a social institution with an essential end of its own (they dealt only with marriage and the parental relationship). They showed no concern for the occupational-group or corporative structure, hence for the multifarious social forms that in all domains of life lie between the state and the individual. They showed no regard for the well-known principle of subsidiarity, according to which the highest community, the state, should leave to other associations the functions and ends which these should and can fulfill. They knew, in effect, only the harsh antithesis of individual and state. They likewise lacked an understanding of the particular nature of the Church as a “perfect” society: it became either a department of the state or a spiritual free fellowship, not an institution.
These specific types of the newer natural law, so varied in their consequences, manifested themselves most clearly in Hobbes, with his pessimistic view of man; in Rousseau, who took an optimistic view of human nature; in Pufendorf and Thomasius, who lived in the shadow of enlightened despotism; and, finally, to say nothing of the numerous mixed forms, in Kant.
It was here that the definite break with tradition took place. From the time of Pufendorf fun began to be poked at the “fancies of the Scholastics.” From here on, an anti-Aristotelian nominalism became, expressly or tacitly, the basis of philosophy. And it is permissible to believe that this disdain for tradition was later avenged when, in the nineteenth century, this natural-law thinking came in turn to be disparaged. Indeed, the same failure to understand tradition then led the nineteenth century to assume that, by refuting this natural-law doctrine of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, it had overthrown the natural law itself with its philosophical tradition of over two thousand years.
The entire theory of Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679) amounts at bottom to a denial of the natural law. The English thinker, who stands forth as a gloomy fellow-traveler of Epicurus, the cheerful ancient, pictured the state of nature as a savage, lawless condition of war of all against all, as chaos. Here we have another illustration of the relationship that exists between epistemology and moral philosophy. Hobbes, the nominalist of Occam’s school, held that reason is utterly unable to know universals, i.e., ideas. Words denoting universal concepts are mere names. Reason finds itself obliged to devise and assign them arbitrarily, without any foundation in fact and reality, for the purpose of introducing order into the chaos of sense impressions. In moral philosophy, too, the passions hold first place. Man in the depths of his being is what the state of nature shows him to be: a wolf, wicked, devoted solely to self. In the state of nature, consequently, there exist only lawless individuals, in whom is found no natural tendency to live in society; and man’s life is “solitary, poore, nasty, brutish, and short.” The war of all against all is the reverse side of the widely cherished and taught right of all to all things. In reality, no law of the status naturalis exists, as we find it in the dreams of Rousseau and in the fanciful deductions of Pufendorf and many of his disciples.
The same selfishness and the dictates of right reason, that is, the consideration of one’s greater advantage and of peace, determine the individuals to enter by way of a covenant into the status civilis and to give up as many of their rights to everything as may make peace possible. But, that peace may be possible, all contracting parties must yield their rights to the Sovereign, the state personified, whether this be organized through the covenant in a monarchical manner or in a more or less democratic manner; either form is admissible, according to Hobbes. Moreover, properly speaking, only this covenant, which springs from the basic natural-law norm of self-preservation, is natural law. For Hobbes, then, the natural law, despite all the formulas he adopts and cites from time to time, is wholly comprised in the axiom, “Agreements must be kept.” Upon this fundamental principle is based the will of the omnipotent state, so that henceforward all law is but public authority; it is but the positive law of the state, inclusive of Church law. The political aim of the Hobbesian natural law, the ideological justification of absolute government (especially of the Stuart kings), becomes exceedingly plain here. Hobbes, whose individualism led him to insist that contract affords the sole possible basis of rights, derived from the principle that agreements must be kept even a son’s duty to obey his father, and so on. The reckless rationalism of the man found expression both here and in his demand that in speculation one must start by viewing men as beings that have shot forth from the earth like mushrooms, as at once full-grown. From his individualism sprang likewise his antagonism toward corporative organizations like the guilds and other self-governing economic and social groups. As sharers in the absolute power of the sovereign or limitations upon it, he considered such bodies directly opposed to the natural law: they are “like wormes in the entrayles of a naturall man.”
In the hands of Hobbes, therefore, the natural law became, paradoxically enough, a useless law, compressed into the single legal form of the social and governmental contract of subjection. The natural law effectively comprises only the basic norm, “agreements must be kept,” if one disregards the still more paradoxical natural law of the state of nature with its norm of selfishness. All else is pure will. Hobbes’ doctrine is the theodicy of Occam secularized, and the extreme consequence of the proposition that law is will.
Thus Hobbes altered the meaning of the words “nature” and “natural,” a process that characterizes the entire period of modern philosophy from the time of Descartes. “Nature” and “natural” become the opposite of civitas, “reason,” and “order.” In the philosophy of Hobbes and Baruch Spinoza (1632–77) human nature is at bottom governed by the passions and not by reason. The status naturalis is a condition without any obligation or duty. It is a state in which, as Spinoza repeatedly asserts, might is right. This natural state of man is ruled by two things: fear of the might of others and power to instill fear into others. Hobbes denied that man has a natural inclination toward mutual help and love, which St. Thomas speaks of so frequently. Hence law and the order of law cannot be derived from human nature; they become the work of the sovereign. What remains of the older conception of human nature as the source of natural law is the contention that the state originated in the fear of violent death and in the urge to render life and property secure. The state, together with its law which has its source in the absolute will of the sovereign, is the savior of man from the natural law of “might is right”; it affords security and protection by monopolizing all power; and it demands as a price strict obedience and subordination through identification of natural law with positive law.
The older idea of natural law as an ethical system with material contents thus loses all its functions: namely, to serve as a moral basis for positive law; to give men a standard and critical norm for the justice of positive law; to represent the eternal ideal for which the historical state, as lawgiver and protector of justice, ought to strive. As a consequence the state, unlimited because even the revealed divine law is authoritatively interpreted by it, becomes, in Hobbes’ phrase, the “Mortall God.” No appeal from this all-powerful being to natural law is possible, because the state is law in all its plenitude. In reading Hobbes we can feel the solemnity with which he invests the state, the sovereign power, a solemnity which earlier centuries reserved for God Almighty. What Hegel later says of the idea of the state, Hobbes, the nominalist denier of ideas, asserted of the individual historical state. The consequence of this change in the meaning of “nature” is thus clear. Since nature is bad, and since the status naturalis is a condition of “warre of every man against every man,” the state becomes good, and its positive will becomes the supreme norm of justice, admitting of no appeal. The phrase “Mortall God” is to be taken literally, not as a mere figure of speech.
The philosophy of René Descartes underlay another shift in the meaning of human nature. From this shift sprang, as from its source, the individualist and starkly rationalist strains of the newer natural law. According to St. Thomas, it is, properly speaking, neither the intellect nor the senses that understand, but man through both; the natural law is a participation in the eternal law; and the moral law is objectively “given” in human nature and in the essential order of things. For Descartes, on the other hand, man is a res cogitans, a being that thinks. It has indeed been pointed out by Jacques Maritain that Descartes gives man the intellectual power of an angel, that his is an angelic epistemology. Descartes holds that man, from his innate ideas, from the ideas present in his consciousness, can construct the world along the lines of mathematical reasoning, the ideal of science. All that man needs to do is constructively to develop what is in human reason, that is, the innate ideas. The individual intellect or reason thus becomes self-sufficient. It does not need the educative cooperation of other minds. Thus the very spiritual root of sociability is denied. Through his “angelism,” therefore, Descartes became the father of the individualist conception of human nature.
But this is not all. The doctrine of the res cogitans, of self-sufficient human reason that has now become the nature of man, led to a passion for systematic constructions so typical of rationalism. According to St. Thomas, human reason was never the criterion of truth. The ordo rerum, of which man’s nature is a part, is the measure of man’s knowledge. Things themselves, as objective data, measure the human mind. But the angelic qualities of Descartes’ res cogitans, as well as the view that all truth exists germinally in the mind, render the objective ordo rerum superfluous. Suarez’ prediction of what would happen should human reason be made the source of the natural law now came true. Rationalism soon made human reason and its innate ideas the measure of what is. Human reason could now indulge in the uncontrolled construction of systems that has ever characterized the natural law of rationalism.
This process reached its climax in Kant. Human reason now becomes the sovereign architect of the order of knowledge; it becomes the measure of things. The objective basis of natural law, the ordo rerum and the eternal law, has vanished. What was termed natural law is a series of conclusions drawn from the categorical imperative and from the regulative ideas of practical reason, not from the objective and constitutive ordo rerum. These regulative ideas received their somewhat dubious validity from the feeling that without their validity human moral life would be impossible. The ensuing materialism, however, proved only too quickly that this argument lacks force, and that man can live, at least when human nature becomes a purely biological entity, without such regulative ideas. What a fall of the angels! At the beginning of the development lay Descartes’ “angelism”; at the end emerged materialist naturalism: man the angel became man the higher animal. From a being whose reason is the supreme source of morality man became a powerless agent governed by the conditions of economic production.
John Locke (1632–1704) was as individualist in his social philosophy as was Hobbes, though he rejected Hobbes’ glorification of the state as the “Mortall God” and denied that the Leviathan is the exclusive source of law. Although Locke, in opposition to Hobbes and Spinoza, depicts the state of nature as idyllic, as a condition of peace, good will and mutual help, he contends that the state, or rather government, is in practice indispensable. For Hobbes the function of the status naturalis and of the idea of natural law is merely to furnish a basis for the institution of the status civilis and the positive law, whereupon the natural law disappears. For Locke, on the other hand, the function of the state of nature and of the idea of natural law is to establish as inalienable the rights of the individual. But these rights by no means vanish in the status civilis; indeed, the true purpose of the latter is the more perfect preservation and development of such rights. Thus these innate and indefeasible rights of individuals afford an ultimate criterion for judging all acts of the government and all laws of the state. The rights to life, liberty, and estate or property make the law; the law does not create them.
‡Locke’s philosophy of law does not view the law as an objective order of norms out of which individual rights flow by intrinsic necessity; the rights of the individual are prior, and in them originates whatever order exists. Order is consequently the product of contracts between individuals, who are induced by their rather selfish interests to enter into these contractual relations. The status civilis is thus not the objective result of man’s social nature itself: it is not a realization, through man’s moral actions, of the natural order in the universe. The state is the utilitarian product of individual self-interest, cloaked in the solemn and venerable language of the traditional philosophy of natural law. Locke substitutes for the traditional idea of the natural law as an order of human affairs, as a moral reflex of the metaphysical order of the universe revealed to human reason in the creation as God’s will, the conception of natural law as a rather nominalistic symbol for a catalogue or bundle of individual rights that stem from individual self-interest. Any order of law is accordingly the product of the contractual will of the individuals concerned, and it has for its object the protection and promotion of individual self-interest. The characteristic note of individualism (the preponderance of commutative justice and of self-interest over distributive and legal justice and the common good) is obvious in Locke’s thinking.
The hidden root of this position is, of course, an overconfidence, born of optimism, in the typically individualist presumption that the common good is nothing real, that it is merely the sum of the particular goods or interests of individuals. If this is true, the free pursuit of self-interest on the part of individuals who are restricted only by the like freedom of others must work like the “invisible hand” of Adam Smith and produce, as it were automatically, a sort of social harmony.
The concept of natural law had thus degenerated from an objective metaphysical idea into a political theory which sought to justify and promote definite political changes. But the uselessness of such a degenerate concept, once these political changes had been effected and consolidated, is evident. The idea of natural law, once the eternal objective norm of all social life, served Hobbes as a means of establishing the absolute rule of the state as the “Mortall God.” It served Locke as a means of vindicating the “Glorious Revolution” of 1688–89 and of laying the juridical foundations of bourgeois society. It served rationalism as a means of promoting the codifications of law at the hands of princely absolutism, which was the destroyer of feudalism and medieval constitutionalism, and hence as a means of strengthening the bases of bourgeois society.
But Locke’s empiricism in epistemology undermined the philosophical bases of the natural law at least as much as this political theory endangered its very idea. Thus Locke prepared the way for the destructive criticism of Hume and Bentham. Basically a skeptic in metaphysics, Locke could not attain to certainty in moral philosophy, a prolongation of metaphysics. His moral philosophy, had he ever worked it out, would have ended in a barren utilitarianism of the Benthamite type. But Locke, quite unaware of the implications of epistemological empiricism and oblivious of the consequences of his skepticism concerning metaphysics as the basis of any valid theory of natural law, contented himself with a belief in natural law as a dictate of common sense. His feeling for political realities, as well as the fact that the English common law retained many of the traditional concepts of the natural law, prevented him from drawing the conclusions to which Hume’s acid criticism would later lead. In Locke, therefore, we have an excellent example of the revenge which common sense so frequently takes upon empiricists and philosophical skeptics. Locke allowed his common sense to affirm in practice what his philosophy implicitly denied. In this he was like Karl Marx, the most typical instance of such behavior. Marx was wholly intent upon destroying, as a merely instrumental ideology, the ideas of justice and truth. Yet at the same time he thundered like an Old Testament prophet against the injustices and deceits of bourgeois society and philosophy. He thereby implicitly affirmed justice and truth as objective and transcendent, and not as merely relative to and immanent in the conditions of socio-economic production.
The doctrine of Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712–78) stands almost diametrically opposed to Hobbes and his conception of the natural law. Hobbes’ theory glorifying absolutism had aroused a strong reaction. Although this reaction, led by such thinkers as Locke, Montesquieu, and Hume, did not go so far as democracy, it was transforming the freedom of subjects in the unlimited monarchy into constitutionally guaranteed natural rights (power checks power and creates the condition of freedom). This line of thought attained its harshest expression in Rousseau.
Whereas for Hobbes the state of nature was a “warre of every man against every man,” the Geneva dreamer preached a state of nature that resembled the biblical Paradise. For Hobbes the state, the legal order, and consequently goodness, are, in the interest of mere order, the goal of an historical philosophical movement that wishes to be rid of nature, of the status naturalis, and to attain to the status civilis in which the ruinous liberty of human wolves comes to an end. For Rousseau, on the contrary, the status civilis and the objective, enforced order of unfreedom in the state constitute precisely the condition of corrupt human nature, whereas the state of nature is, taking an optimistic view of man’s nature, exactly what it ought to be. “Back to nature” was, in Rousseau’s teaching, something more than a game played by a bored and snobbish nobility. Civilization, in the literal sense of becoming a civis (citizen), only then does not spell ruin when the original, natural rights of liberty and equality form the essential reservations of the social contract. Men do not have to enter into the social contract. They enter into it freely; they are driven by no mysterious impulse out of the war of all against all into the enforced peace of absolutism. But they can enter into it because it is their will, the will of everyone in the general will that now comes into being.
At bottom, for Rousseau the historical status civilis is the world after man’s fall, whereas the status naturalis was the garden of Eden. Consequently, the state as such, as ordo rerum humanarum, is not a necessary, ethical institution; it is but the minister of human rights. It is for this reason that the right of revolution exists, if natural rights are violated by the positive law. Rousseau’s fanatical passion for liberty, virtue, and right lived on in the men responsible for the Reign of Terror of 1793–94, in men like Robespierre. The highly emotional way Rousseau treated of liberty and man’s unalterable rights accomplished more in this respect than the specific doctrinal passages of his books. Besides, he had less influence upon the thought of the age of natural law, upon the countless treatises of ius naturae et gentium, than upon the publicists and political writers of the time.
The era of natural law as a homogeneous epoch in the history of ideas was determined far more by the jurists and philosophers and their systems than by Rousseau’s emotional philosophizings that were becoming the daily reading matter of the educated classes. Therefore the historical school of law directed its attacks chiefly against the former, whereas the conservative school and the writers inspired by the romantic movement (e.g., Burke, De Maistre, De Bonald, Goerres, Arndt) were more concerned with refuting Rousseau.
This period, celebrated in the history of ideas and of science as par excellence the age of natural law, is chiefly associated with the names of Pufendorf, Thomasius, and Kant. Side by side with these, however, innumerable scholars of lesser renown were active in the professorial chairs established at that time for the ius naturae et gentium. They were filling the libraries of educated people, government officials, and judges with numberless systematic but conflicting expositions of natural law. With few exceptions (e.g., Wolff, Zallinger, Schwarz) these men claimed that they were the first to discover the natural law or to free it from the fancies and verbiage of the Scholastics. It was precisely this break with tradition that was responsible for the confounding of this doctrine of natural law with the perennial idea of the natural law. So it was, then, that the nineteenth century could believe that, with the refutation of this doctrine, the natural law itself had been proved a chimera. This was an extremely fateful fact in the history of the philosophy of law as well as in the history of philosophy in general. Or was it not fateful that Pufendorf was well acquainted with scarcely a single Greek or Scholastic, and that Kant, the watershed from which flow so many and such varied streams of modern thought, knew Aristotle and St. Thomas only from a very imperfect history of philosophy?
The decisive differences between this newer natural law and that of the Scholastics are three in number. The first is the individualistic trait manifesting itself in the predominance of the doctrine of the state of nature as the proper place in which to find the natural law. The second is the nominalist attitude which found expression in the separation of eternal law and natural moral law, of God’s essence and existence, of morality and law. The third is the resultant doctrine of the autonomy of human reason which, in conjunction with the rationalism of this school, led straight to an extravagance of syllogistic reasoning, of deductively constructed systems that served to regulate all legal institutions down to the minutest detail: the civil law governing debts, property, the family, and inheritances as well as constitutional and international law. And, in contrast with the imperfect historical law, these legal systems possessed the inestimable merit and value of emanating from the pure rational nature of man.
These differences especially characterized the leading figures of the new school of natural law, Pufendorf and Thomasius. The latter was particularly concerned with separating morality and law. He thereby stands out in the history of philosophy as a precursor of Kant.
Samuel von Pufendorf (1632–94), in his concept of man’s nature, did not take man in his teleologically determined totality of human nature. Man is not essentially social, so that, as earlier thinkers had held, the essential forms of community living evolve by inherent necessity out of his natural tendency for society. On the contrary, he should develop sociality because it is of advantage to him. Man is an animal sociabile, not sociale. What had for earlier thinkers been but a sign of man’s internal and natural tendency, a realization of his nature itself in time, became in the newer natural law mere capability, mere impulse. Accordingly, empirical nature and any impulse or capacity whatever (sociality or, as in the case of Thomasius, felicity) formed the starting point of speculation. The presupposition of such natural-law thinking is the individual as an isolated being in the state of nature, hence abstracting from the essential forms of human nature as such that find expression in the historical forms of state, law, marriage, and family. Wherefore Pufendorf proceeded to set forth how man in the original state of nature, abstracting from the historical status civilis, from positive law and from the legal order, has as an individual to behave toward God, toward himself, and toward his fellow men.
Pufendorf first draws up a list of duties toward God, i.e., principles of natural religion, and then, in a most exhaustive fashion, a catalogue of duties toward oneself and toward others. Such duties toward others are, for instance, that everyone must keep his word, must not swear falsely, must be sincere in speech. He shows what norms for the acquisition and use of property, for marriage, the family, and inheritance, can and must be deduced from reason alone. He describes the procedural law in the state of nature, and he indicates the norms of distraint which must find application in that state. Thus in reality the entire positive law, so far as it has to do with the civil law and its procedure in lawsuits, is straightway transformed into natural law. It logically becomes supra-historical or prehistorical (in Pufendorf’s case) and in itself unalterable. But the status civilis is a superadded status with laws that in final analysis are only formal.
Because of its revolutionary possibilities, however, the basically critical attitude shifted at once to a conservative one: the existing law is in itself good, and is merely in need of reform. The law of the state of nature is an ideal law, a model law; it is not a law that is actually in force. This follows from the determination of the relationship between positive law and natural law. The former is needed on account of the sinful propensities of men, who cannot adequately be kept in order through mere knowledge of the natural law and solely out of reverence for it. Hence the public authorities enact positive laws in order that the natural law may be observed. As soon, then, as the state is founded as status adventicius in virtue of the original contract, and as soon as a sovereign authority is set up by means of the governmental contract, man must comply with the positive laws by reason of the fundamental principle of natural law, “agreements must be kept.” The distinction between the prescriptions which pertain to the prohibitive and directly binding natural law and the further norms of the hypothetical natural law (the ius naturale permissivum of the older writers) made it possible for Pufendorf to explain all positive laws as hypothetical natural law. In this way the whole body of concrete civil laws (the laws concerning debt, property, the family, and inheritance, in particular the modes of acquiring ownership, conveyance by will and succession, the monetary system and contracts involving monetary considerations), i.e., the entire contents of those positive laws which were viewed as necessary, became natural law. The preceding age, on the other hand, had conceded to only a few basic norms (Decalogue) the dignity and grandeur of natural law.
Pufendorf’s theory of international law throws light on his doctrine of natural law. Princes and states live in the status naturalis, since no status adventicius, no civitas maxima, as yet exists. Hence international law consists merely of natural law. There is no positive international law because there is no sovereign authority. Measured by the contributions of Grotius and the Late Scholastics, this view marks a great stride backward along the path which Hobbes had already taken.
Those of his contemporaries who had not succumbed to the rationalist temper of the period charged Pufendorf with being “not much of a jurist, and a philosopher not at all” (Leibnitz) and with having totally abandoned tradition. As a matter of fact, Pufendorf had never understood the traditional view that moral philosophy with its partial content, the ius naturale, is a continuation of metaphysics, the science of being, which, when applied to the free will of rational man, becomes the science of oughtness. But his unrestrained and unhistorical rationalism arises precisely from this fact. The doctrine of the eternal law he had never grasped. It is true that he encumbers his writings with formulas culled from his readings. Yet they have there a different meaning, because they are torn from their proper intellectual setting. The ius naturale, therefore, is not related to God’s essence as a participation of the eternal law. It is rather, in typically nominalist fashion, placed in God’s will. It has to do with the external order of sociability as an actual fact. It is in force because God has so willed to create man; it was not in force, it did not exist, when man did not as yet exist. It is thus not a participation in the divine law, eternally present in God’s essence. It is “eternal” only so far as it is of the same age as man; hence it has only been in force since man has been in existence, since God created him. This position is diametrically opposed to the view of Arriaga and Grotius, that the natural law would still possess some validity even if there were no God.
This position, however, formed the basis of extreme rationalism. For henceforth not God’s essence, but human nature, viewed existentially as well as merely in the abstract, would be regarded as the source of natural law. Thence also originated the abstruse intellectual sport of a logically deduced law for man in the state of nature, as well as the widespread unhistorical attitude and the inability to comprehend Aristotle’s everlastingly true proposition, that outside the state (not society) man is either a beast or a god. For this line of thinkers the idea of law does not live in the historical legal systems, nor was the eternally valid natural moral law recognized as the essential norm from its exemplification in the legal forms. Rather, the natural law was derived from a purely imaginary state of nature, or from a state of nature that was supposed to have once existed (theoretically and without regard for concrete historical exemplifications). In practice, indeed, the improvements and reforms of the historical positive legislation that were deemed good, useful, and necessary assumed the guise of natural law. That explains the significant politico-legal function of this brand of natural-law philosophy of the Enlightenment.
At the hands of Christian Thomasius (1655–1728) the sociality of Pufendorf received a utilitarian interpretation. The aim of ethics is mastery of the passions, because these endanger the temporal happiness, i.e., the peaceful existence, of the individual. The supreme, central principle is therefore this: “Whatever renders the life of men long and happy is to be done, but whatever makes life unhappy and hastens death is to be avoided.” It is no longer sociality or an appetitus socialis that is the source of natural law, but rather, after the manner typical of the Enlightenment, it is the happiness of the individual. Instead, the forms of community life appear as mere status adventicii, not as essential perfections of man. Happiness consists in a pleasant, carefree life; and evidently it is attainable only through a virtuous, respectable, and just life. A man should live virtuously in order to preserve inner peace; respectably, in order that others may come to his assistance; justly, lest others be provoked and external peace be disturbed. Law is therefore something external and is unrelated to the honestum, to the morally good. It produces only external obligations, whereas morality produces only internal ones. Legal duties are enforceable duties; moral duties are subject to compulsion solely through one’s own conscience.
This conception reacted unfavorably upon the doctrine of the state of nature. The latter was interpreted in a pessimistic sense: legal force can be exerted only by means of self-help and self-defense. Hence the state arose by way of contract, merely out of considerations of individual utility. An external power is a more effective guarantor of external peace than is the individual’s right of self-help. Thus the absurdities mount.
The grandiose pessimism of a Hobbes possesses, by comparison, a consistency that is refreshing. Besides, Thomasius also drags in the old formulas, such as that of God as the ultimate foundation of the natural law. For him, however, this merely means that even the natural law owes its existence to God as the Creator of all things. But the ground of its validity is not God’s will, since in particular cases we know what God’s will is through revelation alone, not by means of natural reason. The principle of the natural law thus remains temporal happiness understood in a highly subjective sense.
The metaphysics of the natural law was by now altogether lost to sight. Deductive, autonomous reason could henceforth, without let or hindrance, evolve natural and detailed systems of law. Into such legal systems were admitted, of course, as unalterable and supreme postulates all those parts of the positive law which the individualistic spirit of the Enlightenment regarded as good, as well as whatever it considered worthy of enactment into law.
In the course of this evolution the individualistic trait grew steadily more pronounced. Pufendorf had already conceived of sociality, not as a category bound up with the nature of man, but as a capacity, a mere potency, a tendency. Marriage, the family, property, and the state are not institutions, derived from natural-law social forms, germinally present in the idea of social animal and proceeding of necessity therefrom (and hence in their essence independent of the will). They were viewed from the standpoint either of the advantage accruing to the individual or of their utility for a happy temporal life taken subjectively. As a consequence, too, it was not the family but marriage “relations” and the relations between parents and children, viewed as relations between individual and individual, that received attention. Such an approach was, of course, incapable of appreciating the position that the institution alone, considered in its essence, possesses natural-law character, whereas the juridical regulation of individual relations can be discovered in various ways from the evolution of society, and the positive law in turn from the whole complex environment; as in the case of paternal authority, forms of ownership, property rights in marriage.
Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) exhibits in his philosophy the individualist natural law in its final, highest form. Among German natural-law thinkers he was the most radical in making freedom of the individual the starting point of his system. Liberty or autonomy is the sole right that belongs originally to every man in virtue of his humanity. Man’s innate equality and the entire list of the other primal rights are comprised in it. As the supreme law of right, emerges the formula: “Act externally in such a manner that the free exercise of thy Will may be able to co-exist with the Freedom of all others, according to a universal Law.”
This is likewise the basis of Kant’s allegedly great achievement: the separation of ethics and law, of morality and legality. That law essentially concerns the external order was, however, a tradition of long standing. Equally ancient was the corresponding view that legal duties are, without any self-contradiction, enforceable by physical means, in contrast to such duties as love, gratitude, and reverence (love of country, for instance, is unenforceable, whereas obedience to the laws of the state can indeed be enforced). But both classes had always been conceived as moral duties. Up to that time there were no merely juridical duties, even though there existed merely ethical duties, e.g., gratitude. Yet no one recognized any mutually exclusive opposition between ethical duties and juridical duties, although people knew how to distinguish them. Juridical duties are enforceable, and they are enforceable because without such enforcement there can be no durability to the social order, through which and in which the idea of man as a social animal finds completion. Permanence is a special attribute of law. Violation of the law is a negation of this order. But precisely because this order must exist, the fulfillment of legal duties is likewise always a moral duty. Consequently the state is not a pure apparatus for compulsion; it is always a moral community, too. Moreover, it does not live by law alone, though it lives in the law; it lives rather by the exercise of all the social virtues. Accordingly thinkers had in the past always assigned to the state as its essential task, to render the citizens virtuous.
Despite such accurate discrimination (precisely for the sake of morality as free fulfillment of duty), this inner connection was first torn asunder by Thomasius in the separation of ethics (equivalent to inner peace of the individual soul) and law (equivalent to external peace of society). Kant, on the other hand, replaced inner peace by autonomous freedom. Inner freedom, the moral autonomy of the individual person, is the sphere of morality. “A person is subject to no other laws than those which he (either alone or jointly with others) gives to himself.” External freedom, according to Kant, requires coercive laws; on this point he found himself in full agreement with tradition. Therefore, Kant infers, the condition of external freedom (i.e., law) is something purely external. Morality and law differ not so much by reason of the diversity of duties (e.g., justice, love of neighbor, filial and parental love) as because of the disparity of legislation. The motive of moral legislation is duty, derived from the autonomy of reason and appearing in the form of the categorical imperative and practically deified by Kant. The motive of juridical legislation is not morality but the keeping of external freedom, the carrying out of the coercive measures that are necessary thereto. The legal order is devoid of moral character. “Hence ethical legislation cannot be external (not even that of a divine will).” Thus the impersonal, formal, categorical imperative takes the place of the eternal law. The natural law, therefore, as part of the lex naturalis, is no longer connected with the eternal law, for the very reason that it can no longer be understood as part of the lex naturalis, of the rational moral law. Furthermore, not enforceability but external physical force is directly and necessarily included in the concept of law.
Freedom as a starting point and first principle of the natural law in its purely formal character renders impossible a material natural law, a natural law with a material content. This follows also from Kant’s pronounced dualism of speculative and practical metaphysics, the coordinated knowledge contents of theoretical and practical reason. Theoretical reason affords no sure knowledge of the essence of things; it can posit the existence of external reality only as a postulate. Practical reason alone yields certitude about the metaphysical. Practical reason “believes” in God, freedom, and immortality, things which theoretical reason is unable strictly and necessarily to know and demonstrate from the world of phenomena; for without them morality would be impossible. This primacy of the practical reason parallels to some extent the nominalist contention that the will is a higher faculty than the intellect and that supernatural faith as well as the positive divine law is the positive rule of knowledge and action. As in the case of the nominalist Occam, on this primacy of practical reason rests Kant’s ethical rationalism, his deductionism uncontrolled by the intellect and consequently by reality. For otherwise the intellect would have to perceive the ideas in things and to be able to present that which is to the will as that which strictly ought to be.
Kant’s formalism, i.e., the theory of mere conditions of knowledge and of moral autonomous freedom, is the main cause of this peculiarity of his ethics. It did not allow him to develop a doctrine of material values, but only the doctrine of conditions under which values can be “given.” The principle of freedom is too formal and hence too unfruitful to permit a material ordo, whether of oughtness or of essential being, to find acceptance, in relation either to knowledge or to volition. Since metaphysical being can thus exercise no control with regard to thinking, deductive free thought loses itself in rationalist constructions. Only too frequently, moreover, it clothes empirical, historical contents with the sheen of pure and absolutely valid deductions from reason. Indeed, this can be verified even in the case of the Neo-Kantian theories of formal and pure law, as, for example, in the writings of Stammler and Kelsen. (However paradoxical it may appear, Karl Bergbohm would actually have uncovered, in virtue of his peculiarly keen scent, abundant traces of natural-law thinking even in Kelsen.) Hence every external mode of action whereby the arbitrary freedom of the citizens is not mutually impaired would have to appear as juridical. That is to say, the joint consent and approval of the citizens would necessarily be able to render, in a positivist fashion, any action whatever a juridical one, quite apart from its material moral quality (here the well-known strong influence of Rousseau upon Kant is discernible). Thus, on the sole condition of the formal freedom of others, it would be possible for such intrinsically immoral actions as usury, theft, and adultery to become juridical, which Occam, who taught the same dualism of theoretical and practical reason, had admitted even in the case of the lex naturalis. The inherently immoral character of an action is no longer of importance for its juridical qualification.
This formalism thereupon led to abstruse deductions that altogether disregard the social value of, for instance, marriage and the family as institutions. To Kant the entire world of law appeared exactly like a variegated, intrinsically uncoordinated aggregate of subjective rights. Marriage becomes for him “the Union of two Persons of different sex for life-long reciprocal possession of their sexual faculties.” The use of another’s sexual organs is, in Kant’s view, a gratification for the sake of which one party gives himself to the other. But thereby a man makes himself a thing, which is contrary to the law of the humanity in his person. Only because the other person similarly acquires another as a thing does he regain himself and recover his personality. “The Acquisition of a part of the human organism being, on account of its unity, at the same time the acquisition of the whole Person, it follows that the surrender and acceptation of, or by, one sex in relation to the other, is not only permissible under the condition of Marriage, but is further only really possible under that condition.” The act of generation is “a process by which a Person is brought without his consent into the world, and placed in it by the responsible free will of others. This Act, therefore, attaches an obligation to the Parents to make their Children—as far as their power goes—contented with the condition thus acquired. Hence Parents cannot regard their Child as, in a manner, a Thing of their own making, for a Being endowed with Freedom cannot be so regarded. Nor, consequently, have they a Right to destroy it as if it were their own property, or even to leave it to chance, because they have brought a Being into the world who becomes in fact a Citizen of the world, and they have placed that Being in a state which they cannot be left to treat with indifference, even according to the natural conceptions of Right.”
In Kant’s thought also the state of nature, which is contrasted not with the social but with the civil or political condition of mankind, plays the same great role that it did in the individualist conception of natural law. Kant held that the state of nature is already social, and that the norms of natural law have force in it as private law. Accordingly the whole body of law derivable from reason (the law covering marriage, the family, inheritance, contracts, property and the ways of acquiring it, as well as trial and verdict) is dealt with in this connection. The status civilis is looked upon as something superadded, not as equally original. It is the domain of public law, in which “through public laws the ‘mine’ and ‘thine’ [is] safeguarded,” hence not created. It has the important function of presenting these norms of private law, which are projected upon or into the state of nature conceived as social, as sacred to the public or positive coercive law of the state. The rights and institutions existing in the state of nature are at most to be protected by the state with its force; they are not to be substantially altered or to be abolished. For what did not previously belong to the law of nature cannot become matter of civil law. The circle of subjective rights, which is continually widening, and the maintenance of these rights in the status civilis form together the contents of the natural law. They are projected into the state of nature in order to protect them from encroachment on the part of the state. In this way the state itself is merely an institution resting on a free contract: it does not result intrinsically and necessarily from the essence and reason of man. At most it arises from eudaemonist and utilitarian motives, so far as the passions, which were generally viewed by rationalism after the Stoic fashion as devoid of value, menace the state of nature in its very existence and hence render coercion necessary.
The era of the individualist natural law, conditioned by the theory of a purely imaginary, unreal world of the state of nature and adopting as a starting point any propensity or attribute whatever of empirical human nature, brought to light nearly as many supreme principles of law and resultant natural-law systems as there were chairs and professors of natural and international law. Such were sociality, external peace, urge for earthly happiness, and, finally, freedom. As Warnkoenig has shown, eight or more new systems of natural law made their appearance at every Leipzig booksellers’ fair since 1780. Thus Jean Paul Richter’s ironical remark contained no exaggeration: Every fair and every war brings forth a new natural law.
The reforming zeal of the eighteenth century considered useful, right, and good its ideal of civil liberty and equality, economic freedom as a condition of social harmony, and liberation from the rigid bonds of guild law and corporations. All this was taken, together with and in addition to the traditional contents, into the natural law and transferred to the state of nature. Thus the particular systems of natural law became compendiums in which the norms of the positive law (only now rationally demonstrated), vindicated by speculative thought and before the bar of reason, appeared side by side with proposals for improvement arising from the criticism of the positive laws. Moreover, in these systems the natural-law norms handed down from the past were dealt with alongside both the ideas of political reform stemming from the spirit of the time and the subjective rights of citizens and men. With these last were combined, with more or less good fortune or skill, the personal and often abstruse desiderata of the individual teacher.
For these reasons Anselm Desing, O.S.B. (1699–1772), who as a Catholic, in contrast to the majority of natural-law teachers, was still in close contact with the Scholastic tradition, could rightly point out that the pretended natural law of his time was in no way a “dictate of reason”; that it was rather a rationalization of the positive law of the period, yes, even of the laws of the nation to which the author belonged; hence that it was not at all derived, as asserted, from reason alone, but was little more than “the civil law adorned with some spoils of philosophy and moral theology.” How are we otherwise to explain the fact that, side by side with the natural right to liberty and equality, a natural law of feudalism was taught; and that, alongside the new French constitution, the constitution of the Holy Roman Empire was shown to belong to the natural law? Or that the postal system was converted into a natural-law institution? Nature, state of nature, natural reason, natural theology, and natural ethics were the dominant ideas and viewpoints of the age. Whoever was desirous of representing something as good and worth while had now to make of it a requirement of the natural law, and to show that it is a conclusion of reason and that it existed in the state of nature.
This individualist natural law of rationalism did not, however, owe its importance in world history to its absurdities. It owed this significance rather to its ethical and politico-economic aims, which were raised to the sublime dignity of natural justice and held in altogether singular esteem by the spirit of the eighteenth century. Through its acid criticism of society, it certainly served to dissolve the traditional and rigid forms of feudal and guild law in the reforming legislation of enlightened despots like Frederick the Great of Prussia and Joseph II of Austria. This causal connection is verified in the authors of these reforms, who lived and taught wholly under the spell of this natural law. Nor did it only smash these forms to pieces in a revolutionary manner, as the Jacobins inspired by Rousseau did in France. It also preserved from ultimate extinction a goodly part of the old national legal heritage by investing much of the latter with the splendor of natural justice. For example, Thomasius rejected the free testamentary disposition of Roman law and opposed to it, as a requirement of natural law, the Germanic system of succession according to blood. Moreover, in conjunction with the Enlightenment, it again did away with the belief in demons, which since the close of the Middle Ages had been working havoc in the sphere of law (witchcraft delusion); and it thus deprived torture of all justification arising from belief in demons, from the supposed “possession” of the criminal. Finally it upheld, in Germany by means of reform, in France through revolution, human and civil rights against a personal absolutism of princes that towered above everything; in this way it once more helped the idea of the constitutional state on to victory. Yet we should not overlook that it likewise vindicated to the point of chicanery the police-state of enlightened despotism along with its tutelage of the citizens.
On the other hand, the separation of morality and law, and the assignment of law alone to the state and of morality to the individual, aided materially in the suppression of the police-state. The state, it was held, is not to concern itself with the morality of the citizens, which is an internal matter. Among the consequences of this view in the moralizing century was not only the victory of civil toleration in matters of religious belief, but also the victory of the liberal constitutional state over the totalitarian educational state, whereof Maria Theresa’s morals commissions still afforded evidence. For, supposing that the Church as a free community pre-eminently concerned with faith and morals is lacking or is not recognized, the identification of morality and law leads readily to a state which no longer respects a sphere of personal moral responsibility or a personal nature and goal which transcend the state.
We can, therefore, readily understand that the rationalist natural law should have lost ever more and more of its importance as its aims were progressively achieved in political life and in positive law. Yet it is a singular thing, and a sort of poetic vengeance for its own betrayal of tradition, that throughout the entire nineteenth century this natural law passed in the scientific world for the natural law par excellence, and that thus the battle against it was regarded as a fight against the natural law. Thus positivism, which was now beginning its triumphal march, obtained its laurels all too easily, since it was indeed able to vanquish this historical form of a philosophy of law which called itself natural law, but not the idea itself of natural law. The latter was carried along by the philosophia perennis even through the centuries flushed with passion for deduction. It sought for fresh confirmation in every historical setting of the problem until, with the exhaustion of positivism, with the resurgence of metaphysics, and with the collapse of the spirit of the nineteenth century, it came back renovated. It returned, not of course absolutely speaking, for it had always been cherished in the shadow of moral theology and the metaphysics of the philosophia perennis, yet return it did even into the realm of jurisprudence, from which positivism had attempted to banish it.
Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, or the Matter, Forme & Power of a Commonwealth, Ecclesiasticall and Civill, ed. by A. R. Waller (Cambridge: The University Press, 1904), Part I, chap. 13.
Hobbes argues as follows: Whereas the agreement of irrational creatures is natural, “that of men, is by Covenant only, which is Artificiall: and therefore it is no wonder if there be somwhat else required (besides Covenant) to make their Agreement constant and lasting; which is a Common Power, to keep them in awe, and to direct their actions to the Common Benefit.
“The only way to erect such a Common Power, as may be able to define them from the invasion of Forraigners, and the injuries of one another, and thereby to secure them in such sort, as that by their owne industrie, and by the fruites of the Earth, they may nourish themselves and live contentedly; is, to conferre all their power and strength upon one Man, or upon one Assembly of men, that may reduce all their Wills, by plurality of voices, unto one Will: which is as much as to say, to appoint one Man, or Assembly of men, to beare their Person; and every one to owne, and acknowledge himselfe to be Author of whatsoever he that so beareth their Person, shall Act, or cause to be Acted, in those things which concerne the Common Peace and Safetie; and therein to submit their Wills, every one to his Will, and their Judgements, to his Judgment. This is more than Consent, or Concord; it is a reall Unitie of them all, in one and the same Person, made by Covenant of every man with every man, in such manner, as if every man should say to every man, I Authorise and give up my Right of Governing my selfe, to this Man, or to this Assembly of men, on this condition, that thou give up thy Right to him, and Authorise all his Actions in like manner. This done, the Multitude so united in one Person, is called a COMMON-WEALTH, in latine CIVITAS. This is the Generation of that great LEVIATHAN, or rather (to speake more reverently) of that Mortall God, to which wee owe under the Immortall God, our peace and defence. For by this Authoritie, given him by every particular man in the Common-Wealth, he hath the use of so much Power and Strength conferred on him, that by terror thereof, he is inabled to forme the wills of them all, to Peace at home, and mutuall ayd against their enemies abroad. And in him consisteth the Essence of the Common-wealth; which (to define it,) is One Person, of whose Acts a great Multitude, by mutuall Covenants one with another, have made themselves every one the Author, to the end he may use the strength and means of them all, as he shall think expedient, for their Peace and Common Defence.
“And he that carryeth this Person, is called SOVERAIGNE, and said to have Soveraigne Power; and every one besides, his SUBJECT” (Leviathan, Part II, chap. 17).
Because of his clarity and pungency of style (not to mention his “scientific” materialism), George H. Sabine regards Hobbes as “probably the greatest writer on political philosophy that the English-speaking peoples have produced” (A History of Political Theory, p. 457). On Hobbes’ political philosophy, cf. especially J. Vialatoux, La cité de Hobbes. Théorie de l’état totalitaire (Paris: J. Gabalda et Compagnie, 1935).
Leviathan, Part II, chap. 29.
Ibid., Part I, chap. 13.
Cf. Jacques Maritain, Three Reformers.Luther-Descartes-Rousseau (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1929), pp. 54 ff.
Cf. A.-H. Chroust, “Hugo Grotius and the Scholastic Natural Law Tradition,” The New Scholasticism, XVII (1943), 122–25.
Immanuel Kant, The Philosophy of Law. An Exposition of the Fundamental Principles of Jurisprudence as the Science of Right, Introduction, C, trans. by W. Hastie (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1887), p. 46. Kant further lays down (p. 45): “Every Action is right which in itself, or in the maxim on which it proceeds, is such that it can co-exist along with the Freedom of the Will of each and all in action, according to a universal Law.”
Immanuel Kant, Introduction to the Metaphysic of Morals, IV, 24, trans. by T. K. Abbott, Kant’s Critique of Practical Reason and Other Works on the Theory of Ethics (6th ed., London–New York: Longmans, Green and Co., 1927), p. 279.
Ibid., III, 19, trans. by T. R. Abbott, op. cit., p. 275.
The Philosophy of Law, Part I, no. 24 (ed. W. Hastie, p. 110).
Ibid., no. 25 (p. 111).
Ibid., no. 28 (pp. 114 f.).
Cf. ibid., nos. 41 and 44 (pp. 155–57, 163–65).
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In his autobiographical work ‘Poetry and Truth’ Johann Wolfgang Goethe writes ‘I was born in Frankfurt am Main on 28th August 1749, just as the clock struck noon’. Goetheplatz, Goethestraße, Goethe University – the people of Frankfurt are extremely proud of the poet who was born in their town. Although he spent a large proportion of his life in Weimar and did not always speak well of Frankfurt, this is where his most important works were written, such as the drama, ‘Goetz von Berlichingen’, and ‘The Sorrows of Young Werther’.
And on many a cosy square in his home city, he broke the hearts of the proudest women. It is hardly surprising that he once claimed he could not imagine a more endearing city, for many reasons, although he left Frankfurt for good in 1775. However, he remained shaped by the spirit of the city of the Main, at least that is how the people of Frankfurt see it. For Goethe had an insatiable curiosity, he was interested in things close by and far away, the things he knew and the things he did not know. He defined the term, world literature, and he overcame boundaries – geographical as well as cultural ones. Truly a global citizen par excellence – from Frankfurt.
The house on Hirschgraben where Goethe was born has, having been destroyed during the war, has been perfectly reconstructed according to its historical predecessor and is visited by more than 130,000 guests every year.
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Karl Anselm, 4th Prince of Thurn and Taxis
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German prince
Karl Anselm Thurn-Taxis
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Language Label Description Also known as English
Karl Anselm, 4th Prince of Thurn and Taxis
German prince
Karl Anselm Thurn-Taxis
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Smarthistory – Abstract art and Theosophy
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[
"Dr. Charles Cramer",
"Dr. Kim Grant"
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The traditional naturalistic style can't elucidate the deep underlying mysteries of the universe—there are truths inaccessible to the scientific method, and a meta-reality beyond the reach of human perception.
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en
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https://smarthistory.org/nitropack_static/MscySDTrZSCOsxwkzHKPDYCZNhgLehrI/assets/images/source/rev-76a672d/smarthistory.org/favicon.ico
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https://smarthistory.org/abstract-art-and-theosophy/
|
On the left, two amorphous pinkish clouds float against a black field; and on the right, a nested set of hard-edged, bisected disks converge toward a tiny equilateral triangle. These images look like they belong in the milieu of mid-twentieth century Abstract Expressionism, but they were actually produced almost half a century earlier by two remarkable women, Annie Besant and Hilma af Klint. They provide the first hints of the way in which abstract art was underwritten by a very surprising
source: an occult spiritualist movement called Theosophy. Many early abstractionists, including Vassily Kandinsky, Piet Mondrian, Kasimir Malevich, and František Kupka, as well as Hilma af Klint, cited Theosophy as a direct source for their ideas and works.
The Theosophical Society, founded in 1875, was probably the most influential spiritualist organization of the late-nineteenth and early-twentieth century. Theosophy was a highly eclectic mixture of religious, philosophical, and occultist ideas. One of the founders, Madame Blavatsky, wrote books that mix elements of Hinduism and Buddhism with Ancient Greek philosophy and modern science.
The Society had no formal dogma or established rituals, and had multiple, sometimes competing, centers and leaders around the world. Its members generally believed that there were truths beyond the reach of science, and that throughout history certain enlightened individuals or Mahatmas (including Abraham, Jesus, Buddha, and Confucius) used spiritual discipline to grasp these truths and obtain supernatural powers.
Symbolism
The connection between Theosophy and formally-innovative modern art begins in the late-nineteenth century, when some artists and writers reacted strongly against the materialism of an age dominated by science and industrialization. In an 1892 essay, the art critic Albert Aurier decried the futility of scientific reasoning in the face of the deeper mysteries of life:
The nineteenth century, after having proclaimed for eighty years, in its infantile enthusiasm, the omnipotence of observation and of scientific deduction, after having affirmed that no mystery could survive its lenses and its scalpels, seems finally to realize the vanity of its efforts, the puerility of its boasts.Albert Aurier, “Les peintres symbolistes,” in Textes critiques, 1889-1892 (Paris: Ecole nationale supérieur des Beaux-Arts, 1995), pp. 29-30 (authors’ translation)
Aurier saw hope for the future in a new art movement called Symbolism, led by Paul Gauguin. Gauguin’s work demonstrates his rejection of science and modernity most obviously in its turn away from the modern, urban subjects preferred by the Impressionists in favor of rural and religious subject-matter. His Vision after the Sermon, which Aurier described as the first masterpiece of the new movement, shows a group of Breton peasant women leaving church and having a collective vision of the Biblical patriarch Jacob wrestling an angel (Genesis 32:22-32).
Equally important is the work’s style, which rejects what had been a constant in Western art since the Renaissance: a basis in naturalism. Anatomy in Gauguin’s work is rendered with the crude simplicity of a medieval woodcut. There is very little chiaroscuro to indicate volume, and the ground is painted a virtually unmodulated red, defying expectations of both spatial recession and naturalistic color choice.
Following Gauguin, a number of Symbolist artists affirmed this linkage of a simplified or abstracted style with higher spiritual content. Prominent among these was a group who called themselves The Nabis, after the Hebrew word for “prophet.” They were influenced by the Theosophist Edouard Schuré, whose book Les Grands Initiés (1889) recounts the esoteric wisdom of an eclectic group of spiritual “initiates,” including Krishna, Hermes, Moses, Pythagoras, Plato, and Jesus.
Paul Sérusier’s Portrait of Paul Ranson shows the Nabi artist in an elaborate blue-and gold robe, holding a gold staff decorated with symbols, and reading from a medieval-style illuminated manuscript. Behind him a red circle creates a mystic halo, and also shows the flat bright colors and abstract designs favored by the Nabis.
Although the juxtaposition of Ranson’s 19th century pince-nez, waxed mustache, and well-trimmed goatee with this Medieval and esoteric regalia is somewhat incongruous (and may well have been intended to be tongue-in-cheek), it does demonstrate the spiritual aspirations of the group.
Spiritual visions
Theosophists often claimed that the “initiated” had an ability to directly perceive spiritual manifestations in the world around us. The Besant and Klint works with which we began were the result of such visions. Besant was a medium who was able to perceive color auras or “thought-forms” emanating from individuals that revealed their emotional and spiritual state. The upper pink cloud of “vague pure affection” was seen issuing from someone who was “happy and at peace with the world, thinking dreamily of some friend,” while the one below shows affection intermixed with “the dull hard brown-gray of selfishness,” and thus indicates affection based upon the pleasure of favors received or anticipated [1].
Klint was a member of a group of five women in Sweden who used séances to communicate with the spirits of deceased Mahatmas in order to recover lost wisdom. She claimed that her series of Paintings for the Temple were
…painted directly through me [by these spirits], without any preliminary drawings, and with great force. I had no idea what the paintings were supposed to depict; nevertheless I worked swiftly and surely, without changing a single brush stroke.as quoted by Moderna Museet
Theosophy and Modernism
Theosophy aligned so well with modern art because it validated the idea that European art’s traditional naturalistic style, which (they believed) merely imitates the surface appearances of nature, is inadequate to explain the deep underlying mysteries of the universe. For the theosophists and the artists who were influenced by them, there are truths inaccessible to the scientific method, and a meta-reality beyond the reach of human perception. Theosophy was a source for many artists who sought higher spiritual truths and a non-perceptual basis for their art, and it validated the idea that a fully spiritual art would leave behind all basis in natural objects and would be fully abstract.
It is important to recognize, however, that the styles inspired by Theosophy were remarkably diverse, ranging from Mondrian’s rigidly rectilinear geometry to Kandinsky’s improvisational painterly exuberance. The spiritual meta-reality appeared to different artists in remarkably diverse guises.
Theosophy was also undoubtedly compelling to some artists because of its suggestion that the artists themselves could be counted among the initiates, and that they had a mission to enlighten humankind. In his treatise Concerning the Spiritual in Art (1909), Kandinsky imagines the spiritual evolution of humankind as an upward-moving triangle articulated with different levels of enlightenment, from the ignorant masses at the base to the few initiates at the apex. Those toward the top of the triangle cannot be understood by those below them – thus helping to explain the poor critical reception of innovative modernist art such as Kandinsky’s – but nonetheless are leading humanity upward in their spiritual evolution.
Notes:
Annie Besant and C. W. Leadbetter, Thought Forms, New York: John Lane, 1905, pp. 40-42.
Additional resources:
Sixten Ringbom. “Art in ‘The Epoch of the Great Spiritual’: Occult Elements in the Early Theory of Abstract Painting.” Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes. vol. 29 (1966), pp. 386–418.
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https://www.wikiwand.com/en/House_of_Urach
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House of Urach
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The House of Urach is a morganatic cadet branch of the formerly royal House of Württemberg. Although the Württemberg dynasty was one of many reigning over small realms in Germany into the 20th century, and despite the fact that marital mésalliances in these dynasties usually disinherited the descendants thereof, the Dukes of Urach unusually managed to elicit consideration for candidacy for the thrones of several European states, viz. the Kingdom of Württemberg, the abortive Kingdom of Lithuania, the Principality of Monaco and even the Principality of Albania. Although none of these prospects came to fruition, they reflected monarchical attempts to accommodate the rapid shifts in national allegiance, regime and international alliances that intensified throughout the 19th century, leading up to and following Europe's Great War of 1914–1918.
|
en
|
Wikiwand
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https://www.wikiwand.com/en/House_of_Urach
|
The House of Urach is a morganatic cadet branch of the formerly royal House of Württemberg. Although the Württemberg dynasty was one of many reigning over small realms in Germany into the 20th century, and despite the fact that marital mésalliances in these dynasties usually disinherited the descendants thereof, the Dukes of Urach unusually managed to elicit consideration for candidacy for the thrones of several European states, viz. the Kingdom of Württemberg, the abortive Kingdom of Lithuania, the Principality of Monaco and even the Principality of Albania. Although none of these prospects came to fruition, they reflected monarchical attempts to accommodate the rapid shifts in national allegiance, regime and international alliances that intensified throughout the 19th century, leading up to and following Europe's Great War of 1914–1918.
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https://royalmusingsblogspotcom.blogspot.com/2014/07/
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en
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Royal Musings
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https://royalmusingsblogspotcom.blogspot.com/favicon.ico
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[
""
] | null |
[
"Marlene Eilers Koenig"
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en
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https://royalmusingsblogspotcom.blogspot.com/favicon.ico
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https://royalmusingsblogspotcom.blogspot.com/2014/07/
| |||||
8320
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dbpedia
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https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Karl_Anselm%252C_4th_Prince_of_Thurn_and_Taxis
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en
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Karl Anselm, 4th Prince of Thurn and Taxis
|
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[
""
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[] | null |
Karl Anselm, 4th Prince of Thurn and Taxis, full German name: Karl Anselm Fürst von Thurn und Taxis was the fourth Prince of Thurn and Taxis, Postmaster General of the Imperial Reichspost, and Head of the Princely House of Thurn and Taxis from 17 March 1773 until his death on 13 November 1805. Karl Anselm served as Prinzipalkommissar at the Perpetual Imperial Diet in Regensburg for Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor and Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor from 1773 to 1797.
|
en
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Wikiwand
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https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Karl_Anselm%2C_4th_Prince_of_Thurn_and_Taxis
|
You can help expand this article with text translated from the corresponding article in German. (November 2009) Click [show] for important translation instructions.
View a machine-translated version of the German article.
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https://www.annefrank.ch/en/family/the-frank-family
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The Frank family
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Anne Frank lebte zusammen mit Mutter Edith, Vater Otto und Schwester Margot in Frankfurt. 1933 flieht die Familie in die vermeintlich sicheren Niederlande.
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On 1 April 1933, a boycott of Jewish shops was announced in all major German cities. This was the start of a barrage of anti-Jewish decrees aimed at excluding Jews from all areas of public life. Boycotts, marginalisation and persecution made life increasingly difficult and dangerous for Jews in Germany. The Nazi book burning took place on 10 May 1933, followed by the passing of the Nuremberg Race Laws in 1935, which prohibited marriage and sexual intercourse between Jews and non-Jews. With the «Kristallnacht» of 9–10 November 1938, the Nazis’ deprivation of the Jews’ civic rights reached a first culmination point.
Erich Elias had married Otto Frank’s sister Leni in 1921 and initially also worked for the family bank. But in autumn 1929 he was on the look-out for a new livelihood. He moved to Basel to establish a Swiss branch of Pomosin / Opekta-Werke, a company producing pectin for jam-making. Two years later, Leni followed with their younger son Buddy, their older son Stephan joined them in 1932, and in October 1933, Alice Frank also moved to Basel. Otto’s youngest brother Herbert lived in France from 1932 onwards, while his older brother Robert settled in England in 1933.
Otto Frank moved to Amsterdam in 1933. With the support of his brother-in-law, Erich Elias, and his cousin, Jean-Michel Frank, he established a Dutch franchise of Opekta. Edith Frank and their daughters spent a few months with Edith’s mother, Rosa Holländer, in Aachen. In late 1933, Edith followed her husband to Amsterdam with Margot, and in February 1934, the family was reunited when Anne arrived. In March 1939, Edith’s mother also flew to Amsterdam, where she lived with the Frank family in Merwedeplein until her death in January 1942.
«After May 1940 the good times were few and far between: first there was the war, then the capitulation and then the arrival of the Germans, which is when the trouble started for the Jews. Our freedom was severely restricted by a series of anti-Jewish decrees: Jews were required to wear a yellow star; Jews were required to turn in their bicycles; Jews were forbidden to use trams; Jews were forbidden to ride in cars, even their own; Jews were required to do their shopping between 3.00 and 5.00 p.m.; Jews were required to frequent only Jewish-owned barbershops and beauty salons; Jews were forbidden to be out on the streets between 8.00 p.m. and 6.00 a.m.; Jews were forbidden to go to theatres, cinemas or any other forms of entertainment; Jews were forbidden to use swimming pools, tennis courts, hockey fields or any other athletic fields; Jews were forbidden to go rowing; Jews were forbidden to take part in any athletic activity in public; Jews were forbidden to sit in their gardens or those of their friends after 8.00 p.m.; Jews were forbidden to visit Christians in their homes; Jews were required to attend Jewish schools, etc. You couldn’t do this and you couldn’t do that, but life went on»
In occupied areas, Jews were drastically restricted in their professional and social lives. In July 1942, the Germans started to deport Dutch Jews, officially for “labour duty in the east”. On 5 July 1942, Margot received the written summons to register for one of these transports. One day later, on 6 July, the family goes into hiding in the secret annex of the Opekta building at Prinsengracht 263. Otto Frank and his helpers had set up the hiding place several months previously.
On 4 August, the eight in hiding are arrested and sent to the Westerbork transit camp. On 3 September, together with her sister and her parents, Anne Frank is deported to the Auschwitz concentration camp on the last transport from Westerbork. The transport in a cattle wagon lasts three days and three nights. On the trackside ramp outside Auschwitz, families are torn apart. At first, the girls remain in the Auschwitz-Birkenau camp with their mother. In October they are separated from their mother and deported to the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp. Edith Frank dies of starvation and exhaustion in Auschwitz-Birkenau on 6 January. Anne and Margot die from disease in March 1945. Otto Frank is the only one of the eight inhabitants of the secret annex to survive the labour and concentration camps.
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https://en.everybodywiki.com/Karl_Anselm,_Duke_of_Urach
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Karl Anselm, Duke of Urach
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EverybodyWiki Bios & Wiki
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https://en.everybodywiki.com/Karl_Anselm,_Duke_of_Urach
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Karl Anselm Franz Joseph Wilhelm Louis Philippe Gero Maria, 4th Duke von Urach, Count von Württemberg (born 5 February 1955) is the former head of the morganatic Urach branch of the House of Württemberg.[1][2] He was the third pretender to the defunct Lithuanian throne following the death of his uncle, Karl Gero.
Biography[edit]
He was born in Regensburg, West Germany, the son of Prince Eberhard von Urach and Princess Iniga of Thurn and Taxis.[3] He is a grandson of Wilhelm, Duke von Urach,[3] who was from 11 July 1918 to November 1918 the King-elect Mindaugas II of Lithuania.[4] The title "Duke of Urach" was abolished alongside all other noble privileges in Germany in 1919, with hereditary titles thereafter being relegated to surnames.[5]
He became an engineer, having studied agronomy at the University of Kiel.[4] Karl Anselm succeeded his childless uncle Karl Gero as fourth Duke von Urach following his death in 1981.[4][6][self-published source?] He held the defunct ducal title until 9 February 1991 when he married a commoner and renounced it.[4] His brother Wilhelm Albert succeeded him as head of the Urach branch of the House of Württemberg.[4] Karl Anselm lives at Niederaichbach Castle, Bavaria, and is the owner of Greshornish Forestry estate in Inverness, Scotland.[1]
Marriage and issue[edit]
He married Saskia Wüsthof (born 1968) on 9 February 1991 at Stuttgart. They had two children before divorcing in 1996.[4]
Wilhelm Karl Gero Eberhard Peter Maria Prinz von Urach, born 8 July 1991
Maximilian Emanuel Wolfgang Luitpold Robert Prinz von Urach, born 5 May 1993
He married Uta Maria Priemer (born 1964, whose daughter Teresa von Bülow married Count Ferenc Kornis de Göncz-Ruszka, grandson of Prince Rasso of Bavaria) on 2 September 2014.[citation needed]
Ancestry[3][edit]
References[edit]
Property website
Karl Anselm, 4th Duke of Urach
Born: 5 February 1955 Titles in pretence Preceded by
Karl Gero, 3rd Duke von Urach — TITULAR —
King of Lithuania
15 August 1981 – 9 February 1981 Succeeded by
Wilhelm Albert, 5th Duke von Urach — TITULAR —
Duke of Urach
15 August 1981 – 9 February 1991
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HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH*
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CHAPTER XIII.
SCHOLASTICISM AT ITS HEIGHT.
 § 106. Alexander of Hales.
Literature: For general works on Scholasticism see § 95. Alex. of Hales: Summa universae theologiae, Venice, 1475, Nürnberg, 1482, Basel, 1502, Cologne, 1611, 4 vols.âWadding: Annal. Min., III.âStöckl: Phil. des Mittelalters, II. 313â326.âK. Müller: Der Umschwung in der Lehre Soon der Busse, etc., Freib., 1892.âThe Doctrinal Histories of Schwane, Harnack, Seeberg, etc., Dict. of Natl. Biogr., I. 272 sq.
The culmination of Scholasticism falls in the thirteenth century. It is no longer as confident in the ability of reason to prove all theological questions as it was in the days of Anselm and Abaelard a hundred years before. The ethical element comes into prominence. A modified realism prevails. The syllogism is elaborated. The question is discussed whether theology is a science or not. The authority of Aristotle becomes, if possible, more binding. All his writings have become available through translations. The teachings of Averrhoes, Avicenna, and other Arabic philosophers are made known. The chief Schoolmen belong to one of the two great mendicant orders. To the Franciscan order belonged Alexander of Hales, Bonaventura, Duns Scotus, Roger Bacon, and Raymundus Lullus. Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas were Dominicans. All these men had to do with the universities.
Alexander of Hales (Halesius or Halensis), called by his pupils the Irrefragable Doctorâdoctor irrefragabilis â and the king of theologiansâmonarcha theologorum â was born at Hales, Gloucestershire, England, and died in Paris, 1245. After reaching the dignity of archdeacon, he went to Paris to prosecute his studies. He entered the order of St. Francis, 1222, and was the first Franciscan to obtain the degree of doctor and to teach in the University of Paris, which he continued to do till 1238.
Alexander was the first Schoolman to whom all the writings of Aristotle were accessible. His chief work, the System of Universal Theology, was completed by one of his pupils, 1252.1469 Â His method was to state the affirmative and negative of a question1470 and then to give the solution. In worldly things, knowledge proceeds from rational conviction; in spiritual things, faith precedes knowledge. Theology is, therefore, rather a body of wisdomâsapientia âthan a scienceâscientia; not so much knowledge drawn from study as knowledge drawn from experience.1471 Â Alexander had a most important part in the definition of some of the characteristic mediaeval dogmas, which passed into the doctrinal system of the Roman Catholic Church. He declared for the indelible character of baptism and ordination. By elaborate argument he justified the withdrawal of the cup from the laity and stated the new doctrine of penance. He is especially famous for having defined the fund of meritâthesaurus meritorum â the vicious doctrine upon which the practice of distributing and selling indulgences was based. He was one of the first to make the distinction between attritio or imperfect repentance, due to fear, timor servilis, and contritio or perfect repentance based upon higher motives. In all these matters he had a controlling influence over the later Schoolmen.1472
 § 107. Albertus Magnus.
Literature: Works. Complete ed. by, Jammy, Lyons, 1651, 21 vols.; revised by Augusti Borgnet, 38 vols. Paris, 1890. Dedicated to Leo XIII., containing a Life and valuable indexes. The De vegetabilibus, ed. by Meyer and Jessen, Berl., 1867.âCom. on Job, ed. by M. Weiss, Freib., 1904.âFullest monograph J. Sighart: Alb. Mag., sein Leben und seine Wissenschaft, Regensb., 1857, based upon the compilation of Peter de Prussia: Vita B. Alb., doctoris magni ex ordine Praedicatorum, etc., Col., 1486.âSighart gives a list of the biogr. notices from Thomas of Chantimpré, 1261.âdâAssaily: Alb. le Grand, Paris, 1870.âG. von Hertling: Alb. Mag., Beiträge zu s. Würdigung, Col., 1880; Alb. Mag. in Gesch. und Sage, Col., 1880, and his art. in Wetzer-Welte, I. 414â419.âUeberweg-Heinze.âStöckl, II. 353â421.âSchwane, pp. 46 sqq. etc.âPreger: Deutsche Mystik, I. 263â268.âHarnack, Seeberg.
The most learned and widely read man of the thirteenth century was Albertus Magnus, Albert the Great. His encyclopaedic attainments were unmatched in the Middle Ages, and won for him the title, Universal Doctorâdoctor universalis. He was far and away the greatest of German scholars and speculators of this era.
Albert (1193â1280) was born at Lauingen in Bavaria, studied in Padua, and, about 1223, entered the order of the Dominicans, influenced thereto by a sermon preached by its second general, Jordanus. He taught in Freiburg, Hildesheim, Strassburg, Regensburg, and other cities. At Cologne, which was his chief headquarters,1473 he had among his pupils Thomas Aquinas.1474 Â He seems to have spent three years in teaching at Paris about 1245. In 1254 he was chosen provincial of his order in Germany. Two years later we find him in Rome, called by Alexander IV. for counsel in the conflict over the mendicant orders with William of St. Amour.
He was made bishop of Regensburg, an office he laid down in 1262.1475 Â His presence at the council of Lyons, 1274, is doubtful.1476 Â One of his last acts was to go to Paris and defend the teachings of Thomas Aquinas, after that theologianâs death. He died at the age of eighty-seven, in Cologne, where he is buried in the St. Andreas Church.
Albert was small of stature and the story is told of his first appearance in the presence of the pope; that the pope, thinking he was kneeling, bade him stand on his feet. A few years before his death he became childish, and the story runs that the archbishop, Siegfried, knocking at the door of his cell, exclaimed, "Albert, are you here?" and the reply came, "Albert is not here. He used to be here. He is not here any more." In early life, Albert was called the dumb ox on account of his slowness in learning, and the change of his intellectual power was indicated by the bon mot. "Albert was turned from all ass to a philosopher and from a philosopher to an ass." In 1880, the six hundredth anniversary of his death, a statue was erected to his memory at his birthplace.
Albertus Magnus was a philosopher, naturalist, and theologian; a student of God, nature, and man. He knew no Greek, but was widely read in the Latin classics as well as in the Fathers. He used the complete works of Aristotle, and was familiar with the Arabic philosophers whom at points he confuted.1477 Â He also used the works of the Hebrews, Isaac Israeli, Maimonides, and Gabirol.1478 Â His large indebtedness to Aristotle won for him the title, Aristotleâs ape,âsimia Aristotelis â but unjustly, for he often disagreed with his teacher.1479
He traversed the whole area of the physical sciences. No one for centuries had been such a student of nature. He wrote on the vegetable kingdom, geography, mineralogy, zoology, astronomy, and the digestive organs. The writings on these themes are full of curious items of knowledge and explanations of natural phenomena. His treatise on meteors, De meteororibus, for example, which in Borgnetâs edition fills more than three hundred pages (IV. 477â808), takes up at length such subjects as the comets, the milky way, the cause of light in the lower strata of air, the origin of the rivers, the winds, lightning, thunder and cyclones, the rainbow, etc. In the course of his treatment of rivers, Albert speaks of great cavities in the earth and spongy regions under its flat surface. To the question, why the sun was made, if the prior light was sufficient to render it possible to speak of "morning and evening" on the first days of creation, he replied, "that as the earlier light amply illuminated the upper parts of the universe so the sun was fitted to illuminate the lower parts, or rather it was in order that the day might be made still more bright by the sun; and if it be asked what became of the prior light, the answer is that the body of the sun, corpus solis, was formed out of it, or at any rate that the prior light was in the same part of the heavens where the sun is located, not as though it were the sun but in the sense that it was so united with the sun as now no more to be specially distinguished from it."1480
Albert saw into a new world. His knowledge is often at fault, but sometimes his statements are prophetic of modern discovery. For example, he said that the poles of the earth were too cold to be inhabited. He knew about the sleep of plants and many of the laws of the vegetable world. He was indefatigable in experimentation, the forerunner of the modern laboratory worker, and had much to do with arsenic, sulphur, and other chemical substances. He knew about gunpowder, but got his knowledge from others.1481 Â The succeeding age associated his name, as also the name of Roger Bacon, with magic and the dark arts, but probably without sufficient reason.
The world has had few such prolific writers as Albertus Magnus. In Borgnetâs edition of thirty-eight volumes, there are, excluding, the valuable indexes, no less than 27,014 pages of two columns each. These writings may be said to take up not only every topic of physical knowledge but to discuss every imaginable subject in religion and philosophy. His activity combined the travail of the original thinker with the toil of the compiler. Twelve volumes in Borgnetâs edition are devoted to philosophy and the natural sciences, one to sermons, one to a commentary on Dionysius the Areopagite, ten to commentaries on books of the Old and New Testaments, and fourteen to theology. He freely used some of his predecessors among the Schoolmen as Anselm, Bernard, and Hugo and Richard of St. Victor, as well as the Fathers and the Greek and Arabic philosophers.
Albertâs chief theological works are a Commentary on the Sentences of the Lombard, a Study of Created Things1482 and an independent summa of theology, which was left unfinished, and stopped with the discussion of sin. These three works, in many subjects of which they treat, run parallel. But each is fresh, elaborate, and has its own peculiar arrangement. The Study of Created Things, or System of Nature is an attempt, whose boldness has never been exceeded, to explain the great phenomena of the visible universe above and below, eternity and time, the stars and the motion of the heavens, angels and devils, man, his soul and body, the laws of his nutrition, sleep, reason, intellect, and other parts of his constitution, and events to which he is subject.
Albertâs commentaries cover the Psalms in three volumes, the Lamentations, Daniel, the Minor Prophets, Baruch, the Gospels, and the Apocalypse. His commentary on the Worthy Woman of Proverbs 31:10â31 is drawn out to two hundred pages of two columns each.
Theology, Albert defined to be a science in the truest sense, and what is more, it is wisdom.1483 Â It is the practical science of those things that pertain to salvation. The being of God is not susceptible of positive a priori proof. It may be proved in an indirect way from the impossible absurdities which would follow from the denial of it.1484 Â The existence of God is not, properly speaking, an article of theology, but an antecedent of all articles. In his Summa he quotes Anselmâs definition. "God is greater than anything else that can be conceived." The objection was made to it that what is above what can be conceived we cannot grasp. He answers the objection by showing that God can be known by positive affirmation and by negation. The cosmological proof was most to Albertâs mind, and he argued at length the proposition that motion demands a prime mover. Matter cannot start itself into motion.1485
The Trinity is matter of revelation. Philosophy did not find it out.1486 Â Albert, however, was not prevented from entering into an elaborate speculative treatment of the doctrine.
Following Augustine, Anselm, and Richard of St. Victor, he argued for the procession of the Spirit from the Son as well as from the Father as a necessity,1487 and laid stress upon love as the chief principle within the sphere of the persons of the godhead.
The usual scholastic list of questions about the angels, good and bad, is treated by Albert with great exhaustiveness. A number of angels, he decides, cannot be in one and the same place at the same time, not because of the spatial inconvenience it might seem to imply, but on account of the possibility of the confusion of activity it might involve. He concludes it to be impossible for an angel to be in more than one place at the same time. He discussed at length the language and vocal organs of the angels.1488 Â Especially elaborate is his treatment of the fall, and the activity and habitation of Lucifer and the demons. In pruriency he is scarcely behind some of the other Schoolmen. Every possible question that might occur to the mind had to be answered. Here are some of the questions. "Do the lost sin in hell?"Â "Do they wish any good?"Â "Is a smoky atmosphere a congenial element for the demons?"Â "What are the age and stature of those who rise from the dead?"Â "Does the sight of the pains of the lost diminish the glory of the beatified?"Â To this last question he replied that such sight will increase the joy of the angels by calling forth renewed thanks for their redemption.1489 Â The serious problem of what it was into which the devil fell occupied Albertâs careful and prolonged argumentation several times.1490 Â The views of the Universal doctor on demonology will be taken up in another chapter. In another place also we shall speak of his answer to the question, what effect the eating of the host has upon a mouse.
The chief and ultimate cause of the creation of man is that he might serve God in his acts, praise God with his mouth, and enjoy God with his whole being. A second cause is that he might fill up the gaps left by the defection of the angels.1491 Â In another place Albert explains the creation of man and angels to be the product of Godâs goodness.1492
Of all the panegyrists of the Virgin Mary before Alphonso da Liguori, none was so fulsome and elaborate as Albert. Of the contents of his famous treatise, The Praises of Mary,âde laudibus B. Mariae Virginis, 1493 â which fills eight hundred and forty-one pages in Borgnetâs edition, a synopsis is given in the section on the Worship of Mary. In the course of this treatment no less than sixty different passages from the Canticles are applied to Mary. Albert leaves her crowned at her assumption in the heavens. One of the questions this indefatigable theologian pursued with consequential precision was Eveâs conception before she sinned.
As for the ecclesiastical organization of the Middle Ages, the pope is to Albert Godâs viceregent, vested with plenary power.1494
Albert astounds us by the industry and extent of his theological thought and labor and the versatility of his mind. Like all the Schoolmen he sought to exhaust the topics he discusses, and looks at them in every conceivable aspect. There is often something chaotic in his presentation of a theme, but he is nevertheless wonderfully stimulating. It remained for Albertâs greater pupil, Thomas Aquinas, to bring a clearness and succinctness to the statement of theological problems, theretofore unreached. Albert treated them with the insatiable curiosity of the student, the profundity of the philosopher, and the attainments of a widely read scholar. Thomas added the skill of the dialectic artist and a pronounced practical and ethical purpose.
 § 108 Thomas Aquinas.
Literature: I. Works.âU. Chevalier: Répertoire under Thomas Aq., pp. 1200â1206, and Supplem., pp. 2823â2827. â S. Thomae Aquinatis Doctoris Angelici opera omnia, jussu impensaque Leonis XIII., P. M., edita, Romae ex typographia polyglotta S. C. de Propaganda Fide, vols. 1â11, 1882â1902, to be completed in 25 vols. For this edition, called from Leoâs patronage editio Leonina, a papal appropriation has been made of 300,000 lire. See vol. I., p. xxv.âOlder edd., Rome, 1570, 18 vols. by order of Pius V., and Venice, 1592â1594; Antwerp, by C. Morelles, 1612 sqq., 18 vols.; Paris, 1660, 23 vols.; Venice, 1786â1790, 28 vols.; with 30 dissertations by B. M. de Rubeis, Naples, 1846â1848, 19 vols.; Parma, 1852 sqq.; Paris, 1871â1880, 33 vols. by Fretté and Maré.âThe Summa theologica has been often separately published as by Migne, 4 vols. Paris, 1841, 1864; *Drioux, 15 vols. Paris, 1853â1856; with French trans., and 8 vols. Paris, 1885. Among the very numerous commentators of the Summa are Cajetan, d. 1534, given in the Leonine ed., Melchior Canus, d. 1560, Dominicus Soto, d. 1560, Medina, d. 1580, Bannez, d. 1604, Xantes Moriales, d. 1666, Mauritius de Gregorii, d. 1666, all Dominicans; Vasquez, d. 1604, Suarez, d. 1617, Jesuits. The most prolix commentaries are by barefooted Carmelites of Spain, viz. the cursus theologicus of Salamanca, 19 vols. repub. at Venice, 1677 sqq., and the Disputationes collegii complutensis at Alcala in 4 vols. repub. at Lyons, 1667 sqq. âSee Werner: D. hl. Thomas, I. 885 sqq.âP. A. Uccelliâs ed. of the contra Gentiles, Rome, 1878, from autograph MSS. in the Vatican, contains a facsimile of Thomasâ handwriting which is almost illegible.âEngl. trans. of the Aurea Catena, Oxford, 1865, 6 vols., and the Ethics by J. Rickaby, N. Y., 1896.âFr. Satolli, in Summam Theol. d. Th. Aq. praelectiones, Milan, 1884â1888.âL. Janssen: Summa Theol. ad modum commentarii in Aquinatis Summam praesentis aevi studii aptatam, Freib. im Br., 5 vols. 1902.âLa théol. affective ou St. Th. dâAq. médité en vue de prédication, by L. Bail, Paris, 12 vols.
II. Lives, etc.âThe oldest Life is by William de Thoco, who knew Thomas personally, reprinted in the ed. Leonina, vol. I. Documents in Chartularium parisiensis.âF. B. de Rubeis: De gestis et scriptis ac doctrina S. Th. Aq. dissertationes crit. et apolog., reprinted in the Leonina.âP. A. Touron: Paris, 1737.âJ. Bareille: 1846, 4th ed. 1862.â*Karl Werner, Rom. Cath. Prof. at St. Pölten, Austria: D. heilige Th. von Aquino, 5 vols. 1858â1859, Regensb. Learned, exhaustive, but ill digested.âR. B. Vaughan Rom. Cath. abp. of Sydney: Life and Labors of St. Th. of Aquino, 2 vols. Lond., 187I-1872, based on Werner.âCicognani: Sulla vita de S. Tomasio, Engl. trans., 1882.âP. Cavenaugh: Life of Th. Aq., the Angelic Doctor. N. Y., 1890.âDidiot: Le docteur angélique S. Th. dâAq., Bruges, 1894.âJourdain: Le Phil. de S. Th. dâAq., 2 vols. Paris, 1861.â*F. X. Leitner: D. hl. Th. von Aq. über d. unfehlbare Lehramt d. Papstes, Freib., 1872.âJ. J. Baumann: D. Staatslehre des hl. Th. von Aq., Leip., 1873.âSchötz: Thomas Lexicon (explanation of technical terms), Paderb., 1881.âEicken. D Philos. d. Th. von Aq. und. d. Kultur d. Neuzeit:, Halle, 1886, 54 pp.; also Th. von Aq. und Kant, ein Kampf zweier Welten, Berlin, 1901.â*F. H. Reusch, Old-Cath.: D. Fälschungen in dem Traktat des Th. von Aq. gegen die Griechen, München, 1889.âF. Tessen-Wesiersky: D. Grundlagen d. Wunderbegriffs n. Th. von Aq. Paderb., 1899, p. 142.âJ. Guttmann: D. Verhältniss des Th. von Aq. zum Judenthum und zur jüdischen Literatur, 1891.âWittmann: D. Stellung d. hl. Th. von Aq. zu Avencebrol, Münster, 1900.âDe Groot: Leo: XIII. und der hl. Th. von Aq., Regensb., 1897.âM. Grabmann: D. Lehre d. hl. Th. v. Aq. v. d. Kirche als Gotteswerk, Regensb., 1903.âJ. Göttler: D. hl. Th. v. Aq. u. d. vortridentin. Thomisten ueb. d. Wirkgn. d Busssakramentes, 1904.âStöckl: Philos. d. Mittelalters, II. 421â728. The Histt. of Doctr. of Schwane, Harnack, III. 422â428, etc., and Loofs, pp. 284â304.âLane-Poole: Illustrations etc., pp. 226 sqq.âBaur: D. Christl. Kirche des M. A., 312â354. âThe art. in Wetzer-Welte, XI. 1626â1661.âT. OâGorman: Life and Works of St. Th. Aq. in Papers of Am. Soc. of Ch. Hist., 1893, pp. 81â97.âD. S. Schaff: Th. Aq. and Leo XIII. in Princeton Rev., 1904, pp. 177â196.âArt. Th. Aq. and Med. Thought. in Dubl. Rev. Jan., 1906.
In an altar piece by Traini, dating from 1341, in the church of St. Caterina, Pisa, Thomas Aquinas is represented as seated in the centre with a book open before him. At the top of the cloth the artist has placed Christ, on one side of him Matthew, Luke, and Paul and on the other, Moses, John, and Mark. Below Thomas Aquinas, and on the left side, Aristotle is represented standing and facing Thomas. Aristotle holds an open volume which is turned towards the central figure. On the right hand Plato is represented, also standing and facing Thomas with an open volume. At the foot of the cloth there are three groups. One at each corner consists of monks looking up admiringly at Thomas. Between them, Averrhoes is represented reclining and holding a closed book. This remarkable piece of art represents with accuracy the central place which has been accorded to Thomas Aquinas in the mediaeval theology. Arabic philosophy closes its mission now that the great exponent of Christian theology has come. The two chief philosophers of the unaided reason offer to him the results of their speculations and do him homage. The body of monks admire him, and Christ, as it were, commends him.
Thomas Aquinas, called the Angelic doctor,âdoctor angelicus, â 1225â1274, is the prince of the Schoolmen, and next to St. Augustine, the most eminent divine of the Latin Church. He was a man of rare genius, wisdom, and purity of life. He had an unrivalled power of orderly and vigorous statement. Under his hand the Scholastic doctrines were organized into a complete and final system. He expounded them with transparent clearness, and fortified them with powerful arguments derived from Scripture, tradition, and reason. Mystical piety and a sound intellect were united in him. As compared with many of the other Schoolmen, notably with Duns Scotus, Thomas was practical rather than speculative. Popes and councils have repeatedly acknowledged his authority as a teacher of Catholic theology. Thomas was canonized by John XXII., 1823, and raised to the dignity of "doctor of the church," 1567. In 1879, Leo XIII. commended him as the corypheus and prince of all the Schoolmen, and as the safest guide of Christian philosophy in the battle of faith and reason against the sceptical and revolutionary tendencies of the nineteenth century,1495 who "set to rest once for all the discord between faith and reason, exalting the dignity of each and yet keeping them in friendly alliance." In 1880 this pope pronounced him the patron of Catholic schools. In the teachings of Thomas Aquinas we have, with one or two exceptions, the doctrinal tenets of the Latin Church in their perfect exposition as we have them in the Decrees of the council of Trent in their final statement.
Thomas of Aquino was born about 1220 in the castle of Rocca Siccaânow in ruinsânear Aquino in the territory of Naples. Through his father, the count of Aquino, he was descended from a princely house of Lombardy. His mother was of Norman blood and granddaughter of the famous Crusader Tancred. At five the boy was sent to the neighboring convent of Monte Cassino from which he passed to the University of Naples. In 1243 he entered the Dominican order, a step his family resented. His brothers who were serving in the army of Frederick II. took the novice by force and kept him under guard in the paternal castle for more than a year. Thomas employed the time of his confinement in studying the Bible, the Sentences of the Lombard, and the works of Aristotle.
We next find him in Cologne under Albertus Magnus. That great Schoolman, recognizing the genius of his pupil, is reported to have said, "He will make such a roaring in theology that he will be heard through all the earth."1496 Â He accompanied Albertus to Paris and in 1248 returned to Cologne as teacher. He again went to Paris and won the doctorâs degree. William de St. Amourâs attack upon the monastic orders drew from him a defence as it also did from Bonaventura. Thomas was called to Anagni to represent the case of the orders. His address called forth the commendation of Alexander IV., who, in a letter to the chancellor of the University of Paris, spoke of Thomas as a man conspicuous by his virtues and of encyclopaedic learning. In 1261, Thomas left the teacherâs chair in Paris and taught successively in Bologna, Rome, and other Italian cities. Urban IV. and Clement IV. honored him with their confidence. The years 1272â1274 he spent at Naples. He died on his way to the oecumenical council of Lyons, March 7, 1274, only forty-eight years of age, in the Cistercian convent of Fossa Nuova near Terracina. Dante and Villani report he was poisoned by order of Charles of Anjou, but the earliest accounts know nothing of this. The great teacherâs body was taken to Toulouse, except the right arm which was sent to the Dominican house of Saint Jacques, Paris, whence, at a later date, it was removed to Rome.
The genuine writings of Thomas Aquinas number more than sixty, and fall into four classes. The philosophical works are commentaries on Aristotleâs Ethics, Metaphysics, Politics, and other treatises. His exegetical works include commentaries on Job, the first fifty-one Psalms, Canticles, Isaiah, the Lamentations, the Gospels, and the Epistles of Paul. The exposition of the Gospels, known as the Golden Chain,âaurea catena,1497 â consists of excerpts from the Fathers. A number of Thomasâ sermons are also extant. The apologetic works are of more importance. The chief among them are works designed to convince the Mohammedans and other unbelievers,1498 and to promote the union of the Greeks and Latins, and a treatise against the disciples of Averrhoes.1499
Thomasâ works on dogmatic theology and ethics are the most important of his writings. The earliest was a commentary on the Sentences of Peter the Lombard. Here belong Expositions of the Apostlesâ Creed, the Lordâs Prayer, the decalogue, the Angelic salutation, and the sacraments. Thomas gave his first independent systematic treatment of the entire realm of theology in his Compendium theologiae. The subject was presented under the heads of the three cardinal virtues,âfaith, hope, and charity. His master-work is his Summa theologica which he did not live to finish and which is supplemented by compilations from the authorâs commentary on the Lombard. Thomas also made important contributions to the liturgy and to hymnology. In 1264 at the request of Urban IV., he prepared the office for the festival of Corpus Christi, in which were incorporated the Pange lingua, Lauda Sion, and other hymns.1500
With Augustine and John Calvin, Thomas Aquinas shares the distinction of being one of the three master theological minds of the Western world. What John of Damascus did for the theology of the Greek Church, that Thomas did for the theology of the mediaeval Church. He gave to it its most perfect form. His commanding eminence rests upon his clearness of method and his well-balanced judgment rather than upon his originality of thought.1501 Â He was not a great scholar and, like Augustine, he knew no Hebrew and little Greek. Abaelard Bonaventura, and Albertus Magnus seem to show a wider familiarity than he with the ancient authors, patristic and profane, but they differ widely. He leaned much upon Albertus Magnus.1502 Â Albertus had an eye more for the works of nature, Thomas for moral action. As was the case with the other Schoolmen, so Thomas had as his chief authorities Augustine and Aristotle, quoting the latter as "the philosopher." He was in full sympathy with the hierarchical system and the theology of the mediaeval Church and at no point out of accord with them.
The Summa theologica, true to its authorâs promise, avoids many of the idle discussions of his predecessors and contemporaries.1503 Â The treasures of the school and Church are here gathered together, sifted, and reduced to an elaborate but inspiring and simple structure. The three books treat respectively of God, man, and the Redeemer, the sacraments being included under the last head. The matter is disposed of in 518 divisions, called questions, and these are divided into 2652 articles. Each article states the negative and positive sides of the proposition under discussion, the arguments for and against it, and then the authorâs solution. The same uniform threefold method of treatment is pursued throughout. This method would become insufferably monotonous but for the precision of Thomasâ statement and the interest of the materials. Each article is a finished piece of literary art. Here is an example on the simplicity of God.1504 Â The question is asked whether God is body, utrum Deus sit corpus. In favor of an affirmative reply is: 1. The consideration that God seems to have a body, for a body has three dimensions, and the Scriptures ascribe to God, height, depth, and length, Job 11:8. 2. Whatever has a figure, has a body. God seems to have a figure, Gen. 1:26, for He said, "Let Us make man in our image." 3. Everything that has parts, has a body. A hand, Job 40:4, and eyes, Ps. 25:15, are ascribed to God. 4. God has a seat and throne, Isa. 6:1. 5. God has a local termination which men may approach, Ps. 24:5.
But on the other hand must be noted what is said in John 4:24, "God is Spirit." The absolute God, therefore, is not a body. 1 No body moves that is not before moved and God is the first mover. 2. God is the first entity, primum ens. 3. God is the noblest among entities.
The answers to the objections are: 1. That the Scripture passages, attributing to God bodily parts, are figurative. 2. The expression "image of God" is used simply to indicate Godâs superior excellency over man and manâs excellence over the beasts. 3. The ascription of corporeal senses, such as the eye, is a way of expressing Godâs intelligence.
Theological speculation is, with Thomas, not an exhibition of theological acumen, but a pious employment pursued with the end of knowing and worshipping God. It is in keeping with this representation that, on his way to Paris, he is reported to have exclaimed, he would not give Chrysostom on Matthew for all the city. It is also related that during his last years in Naples the Lord, appearing to him, asked what reward he desired, for he had written well on theological questions. Thomas replied. "None other, Lord, but Thyself."
Thomas made a clearer distinction between philosophy and religion, reason and revelation, than had been made before by any of the Schoolmen. The reason is not competent by its own powers to discover the higher truths pertaining to God, such as the doctrine of the Trinity.1505 Â The ideas which the natural mind can reach are the praeambula fidei, that is, the ideas which pertain to the vestibule of faith. Theology utilizes the reason, not, it is true, to prove faith, for such a process would take away the merit of faith, but to throw light on doctrines which are furnished by revelation.1506 Â Theology is the higher science, both because of the certainty of its data and on account of the superior excellence of its subject-matter.1507 Â Â There is no contradiction between philosophy and theology. Both are fountains of knowledge. Both come from the same God.
As between the Scriptures and the Fathers, Thomas makes a clear distinction. The Church uses both to arrive at and expound the truth. The Scriptures are necessary and final. The testimony of the Fathers is probable. Thomasâ controlling purpose is to properly present the theology of the Church as he found it and nothing more.1508
Philosophy and theology pursue different methods in searching after truth.1509 Â In philosophy, knowledge based upon the visible creation goes before faith. In theology, or the doctrina fidei, faith looking to God as He is in Himself, precedes knowledge. The existence of God is not exclusively a matter of faith. It has been demonstrated by philosophers by irrefragable proofs. Anselmâs ontological argument, Thomas rejected on the ground that a conception in the mindâesse intellectu â is something different from real existenceâesse in re. He adduced four cosmological arguments, and the argument from design.1510 Â The cosmological arguments are: 1. Motion presupposes an original mover. 2. An infinite series of causes, it is impossible to conceive. Therefore, there must be a First Cause. 3. The conditional demands that which is absolute, and 4. that which is imperfect implies that which is perfect as its standard. As for the teleological argument, objects and events have the appearance of being controlled by an overruling design as an arrow being shot by an archer.1511
Creation was not a necessity for God on account of any deficiency within Himself. It was the expression of His love and goodness. With Aristotle, Thomas agrees that by the natural reason the world cannot be proved to have had a beginning.1512 Â The first four things to be created were the realm of spirits, the empyrean, time, and earthly matter. The garden of Eden was a real place. Geographers do not locate it. It is secluded by the barriers of mountains, seas, and a certain tempestuous region.1513
In discussing the origin of evil, Thomas says that, in a perfect world, there will be all possible grades of being. The weal of the whole is more important than the well-being of any part. By the permission of evil, the good of the whole is promoted. Many good things would be wanting but for evil. As life is advanced by corruption in the natural world, so, for example, patience is developed by persecution.
The natural order cannot bind God. His will is free. He chooses not to work contrary to the natural order, but He works outside of it, praeter ordinem.1514 Â The providence of God includes what to us seems to be accidental. The man digging finds a treasure. To him the discovery is an accident. But the master, who set him to work at a certain place, had this in view.
From the divine providence, as the starting-point, the decree of predestination is elaborated. Thomas represented the semi-Pelagian standpoint. The elect are substituted for the angels who lost their first estate,1515 even as the Gentiles were substituted for the Jews. The number of the elect is unknown, but they are the minority of the race. Reprobation is not a positive act of God. Godâs decree is permissive. God loves all men. He leaves men to themselves, and those who are lost, are lost by their own guilt. Godâs decree of election includes the purpose to confer grace and glory.
In his treatment of the angels, Thomas practised a commendable self-restraint, as compared with Bonaventura and other Summists.
When he takes up man, the Angelic doctor is relatively most elaborate. In the discussion of manâs original condition and his state after the Fall, many questions are proposed which dialectical dexterity must answer in view of the silence of Scripture. Here are examples. Could Adam in his state of innocence see the angels? Did he have the knowledge of all things? Did he need foods? Were the children born in his state of innocence confirmed in righteousness and had they knowledge of that which is perfect? Would original sin have passed down upon Adamâs posterity, if Adam had refused to join Eve in sinning?1516
Thomas rejected the traducian view as heretical, and was a creationist.1517 Â Following Peter the Lombard, he held that grace was a superadded gift to Adam, over and above the natural faculties and powers of the soul and body.1518 Â This gift disposed man to love God above all things.1519
Manâs original righteousness, but for the Fall, would have passed down upon Adamâs posterity. The cause of sin was an inordinate love of self.1520 Â Original sin is a disorder of the moral constitution, and shows itself in concupiscence, that is irrational desire. It has become a fixed condition of the race, a corrupt disposition of the soul,âhabitus corruptus,âjust as sickness is a corrupt condition of the body. The corruption of nature, however, is partial,âa wound, not a total deadness of the moral nature.
Thomas approaches the subject of Christ and redemption by saying that "our Saviour, Jesus Christ, has shown us the way of truth in himself, the way by which we are able to attain through resurrection to the beatitude of immortal life."1521 Â Three main questions are taken up: the person of the Saviour, the sacraments, which are the channels of salvation, and the goal or immortal life. The Anselmic view of the atonement is adopted. The infinitude of human guilt makes it fitting that the Son of God should make atonement. God was not, however, shut up to this method. He can forgive sin as He pleases. Thomas takes up all the main data of Christâs life, from the conception to the crucifixion. Justification is not a progressive process, but a single instantaneous act.1522 Â Faith, working by love, lays hold of this grace.
Scarcely any teaching of Augustine and Thomas Aquinas arouses so much revolt in the Christian theology of this age as the teaching about the future estate of unbaptized children dying in infancy. These theologians agree in denying to them all hope of future bliss. They are detained in hell for the sin of Adam, being in no wise bound to Christ in His passion and death by the exercise of faith and love, as the baptized and the patriarchs of the Old Testament are. The sacrament of faith, that is, baptism, not being applied to them, they are forever lost. Baptism liberates from original sin, and without baptism there is no salvation.1523
The doctrine of the sacraments, as expounded by Thomas, is, in all particulars, the doctrine of the Catholic Church. Christ won grace. The Church imparts it. The sacraments are visible signs of invisible things, as Augustine defined them. The number is seven, corresponding to the seven cardinal virtues and the seven mortal sins. They are remedies for sin, and make for the perfecting of man in righteousness.1524 Â The efficacy lies in a virtue inherent in the sacrament itself, and is not conditioned by faith in the recipient. Three of the sacraments âbaptism, confirmation, and ordinationâhave an indelible character. Every conceivable question pertaining to the sacraments is taken up by Thomas and solved. The treatment of baptism and the eucharist occupies no less than two hundred and fifty pages of Migneâs edition, IV. 600â852.
Baptism, the original form of which was immersion, cleanses from original sin and incorporates into the body of Christ. Children of Jews and infidels are not to be baptized without the consent of their parents.1525 Â Ordination is indispensable to the existence of the Church. In the Lordâs Supper the glorified body of the Redeemer is wholly present essentially, but not quantitatively. The words of Christ, "This is my body" are susceptible of only one interpretationâthe change of the elements into the veritable body and blood of Christ. The substance of the bread undergoes change. The dimensions of the bread, and its other accidents, remain. The whole body is in the bread, as the whole body is also in the wine.1526
Penance is efficacious to the removing of guilt incurred after baptism. Indulgences have efficacy for the dead as well as the living. Their dispensation belongs primarily to the pope, as the head of the Church. The fund of merit is the product chiefly of the superabounding merit of Christ, but also of the supererogatory works of the saints.1527
In regard to the Last Things, the fire of hell will be physical. The blessed will be able to contemplate the woes of the lost without sorrow, and are led, as Albertus had said, by the sight of these woes to praise God supremely for their own redemption. Their beatitude is not increased by this vision. The body of the resurrection will be the same, even to the bowels.1528
In his consideration of ethics, Thomas Aquinas rises far above the other mediaeval writers, and marks an epoch in the treatment of the subject. He devotes to it nearly two hundred questions, or one-third of his entire system of theology. Here his references to the "philosopher" are very frequent.1529 Â It is Thomasâ merit that he proceeds into details in analyzing the conduct of daily life.1530 Â To give an example, he discusses the question of drunkenness, and, with Aristotle, decides that it is no excuse for crime.1531 Â Thomas, however, also allows himself to be led into useless discussions where sophistry has free play, as when he answers the questions, whether a "man should love his child more than his father," or "his mother more than his father."
Thomas opens his ethical treatment with a discussion of the highest good, that is, blessedness,âbeatitudo,âwhich does not consist in riches, honor, fame, power, or pleasure.1532 Â Riches only minister to the body, and the more we have of them, the more are they despised, on account of their insufficiency to meet human needs; as our Lord said of the waters of the world, that whoever drinks of them shall thirst again, John 4:13. Blessedness consists in nothing else than the vision of God as He is in Himself.1533 Â Satisfaction is a necessary concomitant of blessedness, as warmth is a concomitant of fire.
The virtues are the three religious virtues infused by God,âfaith, hope, and love; and the four philosophical or cardinal virtues,âprudence, righteousness, endurance, and continence. These are treated at great length.1534 Â The ethical sections conclude with discussions bearing on the habits of the clerical profession. In committing the same sins as laymen do, clerics sin more grievously. "Ought they to live of alms?"Â This and a multitude of other questions of the same kind are handled with all gravity and metaphysical precision. The essence of Christian perfection is love.1535
In his theory of Church and State also Thomas did not rise above his age.1536 Â He fixed the theological statement concerning the supremacy of the spiritual realm, the primacy of the pope, and the right to punish heretics with death. His views are laid down in his Summa, and in three other writings, on the Rule of Princes,1537 the Errors of the Greeks, and the contra Gentes. Thomasâ argument is that the State exists to secure for man the highest end of his being, the salvation of his soul, as well as for his material well-being in this life. He shows no concern for the separate European states and nationalities.1538 Â As the head of the mystical body of Christ, the pope is supreme over the civil estate, even as the spiritual nature is superior to manâs physical nature. Christian kings owe him subjection, as they owe subjection to Christ himself, for the pope is Peterâs successor and the vicar of Christ.1539 Â The monarchia Christi has taken the place of the old Roman imperium.
As for the Church itself, Rome is the mistress and mother of all churches. To obey her is to obey Christ. This is according to the decision of the holy councils and the holy Fathers.1540 Â The unity of the Church presupposes a supreme centre of authority.1541 Â To the pope, it belongs to determine what is of faith. Yea, subjection to him is necessary to salvation.1542 Â High churchmanship could no further go.
In his declarations about heresy and its treatment, Thomas materially assisted in making the persecution of heretics unto death the settled policy of the Church and the State. At any rate he cleared away all objections as far as it was possible to clear them away. Heresy, as has already been said, he taught, is a crime to be punished like coin-clipping. No one may be compelled to enter the Church, but once having entered it and turned heretic, he must, if necessary, be forced by violent measures to obey the faithâhaeretici sunt compellendi ut fidem teneant. It will thus be seen from this survey, which is supplemented in the chapters on the sacraments, the future state and Mariology, that the theology of the Angelic doctor and the theology of the Roman Catholic Church are identical in all particulars except the immaculate conception. He who understands Thomas understands the mediaeval theology at its best and will be in possession of the doctrinal system of the Roman Church.
Thomas Aquinas was elevated by the Dominican order to the position of authoritative teacher in 1286. His scholars were numerous, but his theology was not universally accepted.
Some of his statements were condemned by the University of Paris as early as 1277, and about 1285 William of Ware,1543 trained at Oxford, which was a citadel of the Franciscans, wrote against the eminent Dominican. Soon after the death of the Franciscan Duns Scotus, the differences between him and Thomas were emphasized, and involved the two orders in controversy for centuries. No less than eighty-six theological differences between these two teachers were tabulated.1544
The theology of Thomas Aquinas controlled Dante. The first printed commentary on the Summa was written by Cardinal Cajetan, Venice, 1507â1522. The Thomists lost by the decree of the immaculate conception of Mary, 1854. That doctrine had been the chief bone of contention between them and the Franciscans. The decision of Leo XIII., making Thomasâ theology and philosophy the standard for all Catholic teaching, has again, as it were, equalized matters.
The Protestant Reformers, in their indignation against the Scholastic theology, could not do justice to Thomas Aquinas. Luther went so far as to call his Summa the quintessence of all heresies, meaning papal doctrines. He spoke of him as "the fountain and original soup of all heresy, error, and Gospel havoc, as his books bear witness."1545 Â "You are much to be condemned," Luther said to Prierias. "for daring to obtrude upon us, as articles of faith, the opinions of that sainted man, Thomas, and his frequent false conclusions." On one occasion, he compared Thomas to the star of the book of Revelation which fell from heaven, the empty speculations of Aristotle to the smoke of the bottomless pit, the universities to the locusts, and Aristotle himself to his master Apollyon.1546
Such polemic extravagances have long since yielded to a more just, historical estimate of this extraordinary man. Thomas merits our admiration by his candor and clearness as a systematic theologian, and by his sincerity and purity as an ethical thinker. In the great fundamentals of the Christian system he was scriptural and truly catholic. His errors were the errors of his age above which he was not able to rise, as three centuries later the clear and logical Protestant theologian, John Calvin, was not able in some important particulars to rise above the beliefs current in his time, and that in spite of his diligent study of the Scriptures and wide acquaintance with their teachings.
The papal estimate, as given expression to in the encyclicals of Leo XIII., is a practical denial of any progress in theology since the thirteenth century, and in effect ignores the scientific discoveries of ages. From the standpoint of an unalterable Catholic orthodoxy, Leo made no mistake in fixing upon Thomas Aquinas as the model expounder of Christian doctrine. Protestants differ, regarding no theologian since the Apostles as infallible. They have no expectation that the Schoolmanâs argumentation will settle the theological and religious unrest of these modern days, which grows out of biblical theories and scientific and religious studies of which that great teacher never dreamed, and worldwide problems which never entered into his mind.
The present age is not at all concerned with many of the curious questions which Thomas and the other Schoolmen proposed. Each studious age has its own problems to settle and its own phases of religious doubt to adjust its fundamental teaching to. The mediaeval systems can no more be expected to meet the present demands of theological controversy than the artillery used on the battlefield of Crécy can meet the demands of modern warfare.1547  The rights of private judgment are being asserted more and more, and, as there is some reason to suppose, even within the pale of the Roman communion. In the broader communion of the whole Church, we are glad to think that both Leo XIII., the wise pope, and Thomas Aquinas, the clear-eyed Schoolman, occupy a high place as members of the company of the eminent Churchmen of all ages; but this is not because they were free from mistakes to which our fallible human nature makes us subject, but because in the essential matters of the Christian life they were expounders of the Gospel.
 § 109. Bonaventura.
Literature: Works. âedd. Strassburg, 1482; Nürnberg 1499, 4 vols.; Rome, 1588â1596, 8 vols. Lyons, 1668, 7 vols. Venice, 1751, 13 vols.; Paris, A. C. Peltier, ed., 1864â1871, 15 vols., and Quaracchi, 1882â1902, prepared by the Franciscans. âB. Bonelli: Prodromus ad omnia opp. S. Bon., Bassani, 1767. âW. A. Hollenberg: Studien zum Bon., Berlin, 1862.âA. M. da Vicenza: D. heil. Bon., Germ. trans. from the Italian, Paderborn, 1874.âJ. Richard: Etude sur le mysticisme speculatif de S. Bon., Heidelberg, 1869.âA trans. of the Meditations of Bon. on the Life of Christ by W. H. Hutchings, London, 1881.âA. Margerie: Essai sur la Phil. de S. Bon., Paris, 1855.âJ. Krause: Lehre d. heil. Bon. über die Natur der geistl. und körperl. Wesen, Paderborn, 1888.âL. de Chérancé: S. Bonaventure, Paris, 1899.âStöckl, II. 880â915.âThe Doctrinal Histories of Schwane, etc.âPreger: Deutsche Mystik, I. 51â43. For other Lit. see Potthast, II. 1216.
Contemporary with Thomas Aquinas, even to dying the same year, was John Bonaventura. Thomas we think of only as theologian. Bonaventura was both a theologian and a distinguished administrator of the affairs of his order, the Franciscans. The one we think of as precise in his statements, the other as poetical in his imagery. Bonaventura 1221â1274, called the Seraphic doctor,âdoctor seraphicus,âwas born in Tuscany. The change from his original name, John Fidanza, was due to his recovery from a sickness at the age of four, in answer to the intercession of Francis dâAssisi. When the child began to show signs of recovery, his mother exclaimed, O buon ventura, good fortune! This is the saintâs own story.1548
The boy entered the Franciscan order, 1238. After having spent three years in Paris under Alexander of Hales, the teacher is reported to have said, "in brother Bonaventura Adam seems not to have sinned." He taught in Paris, following John of Parma, on Johnâs promotion to the office of general of the order of the Franciscans, 1247. He lived through the conflict between the university and the mendicant orders, and in answer to William de St. Amourâs tract, de periculis novissimorum temporum, attacking the principle of mendicancy, Bonaventura wrote his tract on the Poverty of Christ.1549
In 1257, he was chosen head of the Franciscan order in succession to John of Parma. He took a middle position between the two parties which were contending in the Franciscan body and has been called the second founder of the order. By the instruction of the first Franciscan general council at Narbonne, 1260, he wrote the Legenda S. Francisi, the authoritative Franciscan Life of the saint.1550 Â It abounds in miracles, great and small. In his Quaestiones circa regulam and in letters he presents a picture of the decay of the Franciscans from the ideal of their founders. He narrowly escaped being closely identified with English Church history, by declining the see of York, 1265. In 1273 he was made cardinal-bishop of Albano. To him was committed a share in the preparations for the council of Lyons, but he died soon after the opening of the council, July 14, 1274. The sacrament of extreme unction was administered by the pope and the funeral took place in the presence of the solemn assembly of dignitaries gathered from all parts of Christendom. He was buried at Lyons.1551 Â He was canonized in 1482 and declared a "doctor of the church," 1587.
Gerson wrote a special panegyric of Bonaventura and said that he was the most profitable of the doctors, safe and reliable in teaching, pious and devout. He did not minister to curiosity nor mix up secular dialectics and physics with theological discussion.1552 Â Dante places him at the side of Thomas Aquinas,
"who with pure interest
Preferred each heavenly to each earthly aim."1553
These two distinguished men will always be brought into companionship.1554  Stöckl, the historian of mediaeval theology, calls them the illuminating stars on the horizon of the thirteenth century.1555  Neither of them rose so high above his contemporaries as did Bernard a hundred years before. But both cast lustre upon their age and are the most illustrious names of their respective orders, after Francis and Dominic themselves. Thomas had the keener mind, excelling in power of analysis. Bonaventura indulged the habit of elaboration. The ethical element was conspicuous in Thomas, the mystical in Bonaventura. Thomas was the more authoritative teacher, Bonaventura the more versatile writer. Both were equally champions of the theology and organization of the mediaeval Church.
Bonaventura enjoyed a wide fame as a preacher.1556 Â He was also a poet, and has left the most glowing panegyric of Mary in the form of psalms as well as in prose.
Of his theological writings the most notable is his Commentary on the Sentences of the Lombard.1557 Â His Breviloquium and Centiloquium are next in importance. The Breviloquium,1558 which Funk calls the best mediaeval compend of theology, takes up the seven chief questions: the Trinity, creation, sin, the incarnation, the grace of the Holy Spirit, the sacramental medium, and the final state. The Preface gives a panegyric of the Scriptures and states the authorâs views of Scriptural interpretation. Like all the Schoolmen, Bonaventura had a wide acquaintance with Scripture and shows an equipoise of judgment which usually keeps him from extravagance in doctrinal statement. However, he did not rise above his age and he revelled in interrogations about the angels, good and evil, which seem to us to be utterly trivial and have no bearing on practical religion. He set himself to answer more than one hundred of these, and in Peltierâs edition, his angelology and demonology occupy more than two hundred pages of two columns each.1559 Â The questions discussed are such as these: Could God have made a better world? could He have made it sooner than He did? can an angel be in several places at the same time? can several angels be at the same time in the same place?1560 was Lucifer at the moment of his creation corrupt of will? did he belong to the order of angels? is there a hierarchy among the fallen angels? have demons a foreknowledge of contingent events?1561 Â Descending to man, Bonaventura discusses whether sexual intercourse took place before the fall, whether the multiplication of men and women was intended to be equal, which of the two sinned the more grievously, the man or the woman.
Bonaventura differs from Thomas in giving proof that the world is not eternal. The mark of a foot, which represents created matter, is not of the same duration as the foot itself, for the mark was made at some time by the foot. And, following Plato as against Aristotle, he declared that matter not only in its present form but also in its essence is not eternal. The world is not thinkable without man, for it has all the marks of a habitation fitted up for a human being. Christ would not have become incarnate without sin.
In the doctrine of the immaculate conception, Bonaventura agreed with Thomas in denying to Mary freedom from original sin and disagreed with his fellow Franciscan, Duns Scotus, whose teaching has become dogma in the Roman Catholic communion.
It is as a mystic and as the author of the life of St. Francis, rather than as a dogmatician that Bonaventura has a characteristic place among the Schoolmen.1562 Â He evidently drew from the mystics of St. Victor, used their terminology1563 and did not advance beyond them. His mysticism has its finest statement in his Journey of the Mind to God.1564 Â Upon this pilgrimage of the soul to the highest divine mysteries, no one can enter without grace from above. Nor can the journey be continued without earnest prayer, pure meditation, and a holy life. Devout prayer is the mother and beginning of the upward movement towards God. Contemplation leads us first outside ourselves to behold the works of God in the visible world. It then brings us back to consider Godâs image in ourselves arid at last we rise above ourselves to behold the divine being as He is in Himself.1565 Â Each of these activities is twofold, so that there are six steps in the progress of the soul. In the final step, the soul contemplates the Trinity and Godâs absolute goodness.
Beyond these six steps is the state of rapture, the ecstatic vision, as the Sabbath day of rest followed the six days of labor. The doorway to this mystical life is Christ. The experience, which the soul shall have hereafter, is an ocean of beatific ecstasy. No one can know it but the one who receives it; he only receive it who desires it; be only desire it who is inflamed by the baptizing fire of the Holy Spirit. It is a grace not a doctrine, a desire not a concept, a habit of prayer not a studious task, a bride not a teacher. It is of God not of man, a flame of ardent love, transferring us into the presence and being of God.1566 Â As in the case of Bernard, so also in the case of Bonaventura, this mystical tendency found expression in devout hymns.
 § 110. Duns Scotus.
Literature: Works.âComplete ed. by Luke Wadding, 12 vols., Lyons, 1639, with a Life by Wadding, and the glosses of Hugh MacCaghwell (Hugo Cavellus, d. 1626), abp. of Armagh, Maurice OâFihely, abp. of Tuam, etc. *New ed., 26 vols., Paris, 1891â1895, with some changes.âThe Opus Oxoniense, Vienna, 1481, ed. by MacCaghwell together with the Reportata Parisiensia and Quaestiones Quodlibetales and a Life, Antwerp, 1620.âThe Quaestiones Quodlibet., Venice, 1474, 1505, Paris, 1513.âThe Logical Treatises were publ. at Barcelona, 1475, Venice, 1491â1493, and ed. by OâFihely, 1504.âDunsâ system was expounded by Angelo Vulpi in Sacr. theol. Summa Joan. Scoti, 12 vols., Naples, 1622â1640. For biogr. and analytic works publ. before 1800, see Rigg in Dict. Of Natl. Biog. XVI. 216 sqq.âBaumgarten-Crusius: De theol. Scoti, Jena, 1826.âSchneid: D. Körperlehre des J. Duns Sc. und ihr Verhältniss zum Thomismus und Atomismus, Mainz, 1879.â*C. Werner: J. Duns Sc., Vienna, 1881, also S. Thomas von Aquino, III, 3â101.âKahl: D. Primat des Willens bei Augustinus, Duns Sc. und Des Cartes, Strassb., 1886.â*R. Seeberg: D. Theologie des J. Duns Sc., Leip., 1900; also his art. in Herzog, 3d ed. and his Dogmengesch., II. 129 sqq.âRenan: art. Scotus, in Hist. Lit. de France, vol. XXV.â*Döllinger: art. in Wetzer-Welte, X. 2123â2133.âJ. M. Rigg: in Dict. Natl. Biog., XVI. 216â220.â*Schwane: Dogmengesch., pp. 74â76, etc.âHarnack: Dogmengesch., III. 459 sqq.â*A. Ritschl: Rechtfertigung und Versöhnung, I. 58â86; Gesch. des Pietismus, I. 470.âP. Minges: Ist Duns Scotus Indeterminist? Münster, 1905, p. 139.âThe Histt. of Philos.
The last of the scholastic thinkers of the first rank and the most daring of mediaeval logicians is John Duns Scotus. With his death the disintegration of scholastic theology begins. This remarkable man, one of the intellectual prodigies of the race, may have been under forty years of age when death overtook him. His dialectic genius and ingenuity won for him the title of the Subtle doctor, doctor subtilis. His intellectual independence is shown in the freedom with which he subjected his predecessors to his searching and often sophistical criticisms. Anselm, the St. Victors, Albert the Great, Bonaventura, Thomas Aquinas, Henry of Ghent, and other Schoolmen he does not hesitate to mention by name and to assail their views. The discussions of Thomas Aquinas are frequently made the subject of his attack. Duns became the chief theological ornament of the Franciscan order and his theology was defended by a distinct school, which took his name, the Scotists. This school and the Thomists, who followed the teachings of Thomas Aquinas, are the leading schools of theology produced in the Middle Ages and came into violent controversy.
Dunsâ mind was critical rather than constructive. The abstruseness of his style offers difficulties almost insuperable to the comprehension of the modern student.1567 Â He developed no complete system.1568 Â It was his characteristic to disturb faith and to open again questions to which Thomas Aquinas and other Schoolmen were supposed to have given final statements. The sharp distinction he made between faith and knowledge, dogma and reason, and his use of the arguments from silence and probability, undermined confidence in the infallibility of the Church and opened the way for the disrepute into which scholasticism fell. Duns denied that the being of God and other dogmas can be proved by the reason, and he based their acceptance solely upon the authority of the Church. The analytic precision, as well as lucid statement of Thomas and Peter the Lombard, are wanting in the Subtle doctor, and the mystical element, so perceptible in the writings of Anselm, Thomas, and Bonaventura, gives way to a purely speculative interest.
What a contrast Duns presents to the founder of his order, Francis dâAssisi, the man of simple faith and creed, and popular speech and ministries! Of all the Schoolmen, Duns wandered most in the labyrinth of metaphysical subtleties, and none of them is so much responsible as he for the current opinion that mediaeval theology and fanciful speculation are interchangeable terms. His reputation for specious ratiocination has given to the language the term, "dunce."1569
Of his personal history scarcely anything is known, and his extensive writings furnish not a single clew. Even the time and place of his entering the Franciscan order cannot be made out with certainty. The only fixed date in his career is the date which brought it to a close. He died at Cologne, Nov. 8, 1308. The date of his birth is placed between 1265â1274.1570
England, Scotland, and Ireland have contended for the honor of being the Schoolmanâs native land, with the probability in favor of England. Irishmen since the fifteenth century have argued for Dun, or Down, in Ulster. Scotchmen plead for Dunse in Berwickshire, while writers, unaffected by patriotic considerations, for the most part agree upon Dunstane in Northumberland.1571 Â The uncertain tradition runs that he studied at Merton College, Oxford, and became teacher there on the transfer of William of Ware to Paris. In 1304, he was in the French capital, where he won the doctorâs degree. In 1308, be was transferred by the general of his order to Cologne, where he died soon after. The story ran that he was buried alive.1572 Â In 1707, the Franciscans tried in vain to secure his canonization. A monument, reared to Duns in the Franciscan church at Cologne, 1513, bore this inscription:â
Scotia gave me birth, England nursed me,
Gaul educated me, Cologne holds my ashes.1573
Among the stories told of Duns Scotus is the following, behind which more wisdom hides than is found in whole chapters of his labored discussions. On one occasion he stopped to speak to an English farmer on the subject of religion. The farmer, who was engaged in sowing, turned and said: "Why do you speak to me? If God has foreknowledge that I will be saved, I will be saved whether I do good or ill." Duns replied: Then, if God has foreknowledge that grain will grow out of this soil, it will grow whether you sow or withhold your hand. You may as well save yourself the labor you are at."
The works of Duns Scotus include commentaries on Aristotle, an extended commentary on the Sentences of the Lombard, called the Opus oxoniense, his theological lectures delivered at Paris, known as the Reportata parisiensia1574 and his Quaestiones quodlibetales, being sundry discussions on theological and philosophical problems. A commentary on Genesis and one on the Gospels, sermons and other writings of doubtful or denied authenticity are ascribed to Duns.1575
In philosophy Duns was a moderate realist. The universals are not intellectual fictions, fictiones intellectus. Our ideas presuppose their reality.1576 Â The universal is gotten by abstraction and by noting points of agreement in individuals, and in a certain sense it is a creation of the mind. The individual has its individuality, or haecceitas, not by reason of its differentiation from something else but by its own real essence, or quidditas. A stone is an individual by reason of something positive, intrinsic within itself. The individual is the final form of being, ultima realitas entis.
Theology is a practical science and its chief value is in furnishing to the will the materials of faith to lighten it on the path of virtuous action.
The Scriptures contain what is to be believed, but the authority of the Church establishes what these truths are. Articles of faith are to be accepted, not because they are demonstrable by reason. Reason is unreliable or, at best, obscure and many truths it cannot prove, such as the soulâs immortality, the unity of God, and transubstantiation. A doctrine such as the descent into hell, which is not found in the Scriptures is, nevertheless, to be accepted because it is found in the Apostlesâ Creed. Other truths the Church possesses which are not found in the Scriptures. Our belief in the Scriptures rests ultimately on the authority of the Church.1577 Â The doctrines in which Duns differed most from his predecessors were the doctrines of God and transubstantiation. In his treatment of God, Duns shows himself to be the most positive of determinists. The controlling element in the divine nature is the will of God, and to submit to the will of God is the highest goal the human will can reach. Here he differs widely from Thomas Aquinas, who places Godâs intelligence above His will. The sufficient explanation of Godâs action is His absolute will.1578 Â God is good because God wills to be so. The will of God might have made what is now bad good, had God so chosen. He can do all things except what is logically absurd.1579 Â He could have saved Judas after he was condemned, but He cannot make a stone holy or change an event which has already happened.
The will of God determines the salvation of men. The predestination of the elect is an act purely of Godâs determination. The non-elect are reprobated in view of their foreseen demerit. On the other hand, Duns seems to hold fast to the doctrine that the elect merit the eternal reward by good works. Without attempting to exhaust the apparent contradiction between divine foreordination and human responsibility, he confesses the mystery attaching to the subject.1580
Sin is not infinite, for it is connected with finite beings. Original righteousness was a superadded gift, forfeited through the first sin. Eveâs sin was greater than Adamâs, for Adam shrank from offending EveâEve sought to be equal with God. Manâs freedom consists in his ability to choose the contrary. Original sin consists in the loss of original righteousness which Adam owed to God.1581 Â Sin does not pass down to Adamâs descendants by way of infection. Duns separated from Augustine in denying the doctrine of moral inability, the servum arbitrium. It belongs to the very nature of the will to be free. This freedom, however, the will can lose by repeated volitions. Sin is inherent in the will alone, and concupiscence is only an inclination of the will to desire objects of pleasure immoderately.1582
The ultimate questions why God permitted evil, and how He could foreknow evil would occur without also predetermining it, find their solution only in Godâs absolute will. God willed, and that must suffice for the reason.
The infinite value of the atonement likewise finds its explanation in the absolute will of God. Christ died as a man, and for that reason his merit of itself was not infinite. An angel, or a man, free from original sin, might have made efficient atonement if God had so willed. Nothing in the guilt of sin made it necessary for the Son of God to die. God determined to accept Christâs obedience and, in view of it, to impart grace to the sinner. Duns follows closely Anselmâs theory, whose principles he carefully states.1583
In his treatment of transubstantiation, Duns vigorously attacked the view of Thomas Aquinas as a transition of the body of Christ into the bread. He argued that if there were such transition, then at celebrations of the eucharist during the three days of Christâs burial the elements would have been changed into his dead body. To avoid this difficulty he enunciated the theory that the body of Christ, as of every man, has more than one form, that is, in addition to the rational soul, a forma mixti sive corporeitatis, which is joined to matter and constitutes it a human body. Into this corporal form of Christ, corporeitas, the elements are transmuted and this form remained with Christâs corpse in the grave. Duns declared that the doctrine of transubstantiation cannot be proved with certainty from the Scriptures, nor at all by the reason. He then argued that it is more probable than any other theory because the Church has accepted it, and the dogma is most in keeping with Godâs omnipotence. The dogma must be accepted on the authority of the Church.1584
The doctrine upon whose development the Subtle doctor had altogether the most influence is the doctrine of the immaculate conception, which he taught in the form in which it was proclaimed a dogma, by Pius IX., 1854. Departing from the statements of Anselm, Bernard, Thomas Aquinas, and Bonaventura, Duns taught that Mary was conceived without sin. His theory is presented at length in the chapter on the Virgin Mary. The story ran that, in championing this theory, at a public disputation at Paris, he controverted Thomasâ position with no less than two hundred arguments.1585 Â Dunsâ frequent attacks upon Thomasâ statements were the sufficient cause of controversy between the followers of the two teachers, and this controversy belongs to the number of the more bitter controversies that have been carried on within the Roman Catholic communion. It was a contest, however, not between orthodoxy and heterodoxy, but between two eminent teachers equally in good standing, and between the two orders they represented.
Döllinger expressed the opinion that the controversy was turned into a blessing for theology by keeping it from "stagnation and petrifaction," and into a blessing for the Church, which took under its protection both systems and kept each from arrogating to itself the right of final authority.
The common view in regard to the place of Duns Scotus in the history of doctrine is that he was a disturber of the peace. Without adding any element of permanent value to theological thought, he shook to its base the scholastic structure upon which Anselm, Thomas Aquinas, and other theologians had wrought for nearly two centuries. The opinion will, no doubt, continue to prevail that Duns was a master in intellectual ingenuity, but that his judgment was unsound.1586 Â It is fair to say that Seeberg of Berlin, in his recent elaborate and thorough monograph on the theology of Duns Scotus, takes an entirely different view. To him Duns was not a disturber of theological thought, but the head of a new period of development and worthy of equal honor with Thomas Aquinas. Yea, he ascribes to him a more profound and extensive influence upon theology than Thomas exerted. He broke a new path, and "was a historical figure of epoch-making importance."1587
By his speculative piquancy, on the one hand, Duns strengthened the desire of certain groups in Europe for a saner method of theological discussion; and on the other hand stimulated pious minds along the Rhine to search along a better way after personal piety, as did Tauler and the German mystics. The succeeding generation of Schoolmen was brought by him as their leader into a disputatious attitude. What else could be expected when Duns, contrary to the fundamental principles of Thomas Aquinas, Albertus Magnus, and other divines, did not shrink from declaring a thing might at the same time be true in philosophy and false in theology?1588
Ockam, who shared Dunsâ determinism, called him "the doctor of our order."Â In the dispute over the immaculate conception in the fifteenth century no divine was more quoted than he. A century later Archbishop MacCaghwell and other Irish theologians warmly expatiated upon his powers, wrote his biography, and edited his works.
One of the works of the Reformation was to dethrone Duns Scotus from his seat of authority as a teacher. Richard Layton wrote to Cromwell, 1535, "We have set Dunce in Bocardo and banished him from Oxford forever, and he is now made a common servant to every man fast nailed up upon posts in all houses of common easement."1589 Â Luther called him the "most arrant of sophists," and he made him responsible for a revival of Pelagianism and exalting the consequent value of good works by emphasizing the freedom of the will and the natural powers.1590 Â Duns had no presentiment of any other order than the papal and said nothing looking toward a reformation in doctrine.
Among the contemporaries with whom Duns had theological affinity were Henry of Ghent and the Englishman, Richard Middleton. Henry of Ghent, named doctor solemnis, a celebrated teacher in Paris, was born at Ghent and died, 1293, in Paris or Tournay. His Quodlibeta and Summa were published in Paris, 1518 and 1520.1591 Â At points Henry combated Thomas Aquinas and prepared the way for Duns Scotus, who adopts some of Henryâs views. Henryâs discussions run far into the region of abstruse metaphysics. He leaned to Platonism and was a realist.
Richard Middleton was supposedly a predecessor of Duns at Oxford. Little is known of his life. He was a Franciscan, a scholar at Paris, and was appointed by the general of his order to examine into the doctrines of Peter Olivi, 1278â1288. He died about 1307. His commentary on the Sentences of the Lombard survived him.1592 Â Middleton was known at Paris as doctor solidus. At the council of Constance he was cited as an authority against Wyclif. His name is inscribed on the tomb of Duns Scotus at Cologne, and the tradition runs that Duns was his pupil. In his teachings regarding the will, which he defined as the noblest of the soulâs faculties, he may have influenced Duns, as Seeberg attempts to prove. Middleton compared the mind to a servant who carries a light in front of his master and does nothing more than to show his master the way, while his master commands and directs as he pleases.
 § 111. Roger Bacon.
Literature: Works.âAmong the early publications were Speculum alchymiae, Nurnb., 1541, Engl. trans. London, 1597; De mirabili potestate artis et naturae, Paris, 1542, Engl. trans. 1659; De retardandis senectutis accidentibus, Oxford, 1590, Engl. trans.; The Cure of Old Age and Preservation of Youth, by the great mathematician and physician, Roger Bacon, ed. by R. Browne, London, 1683; Opus majus (six books only), by Samuel Jebb, London, 1733, reprinted Venice, 1750; Opus minus and Opus tertium, with valuable Preface by J. S. Brewer, London, 1859, Rolls Series; Opus majus, with valuable Preface, by J. H. Bridges, all the seven books, 3 vols., London, 1900.
Biographical: Emile Charles: B. Bacon, sa vie, ses ouvrages, ses doctrines, Paris, 1861.âL. Schneider; R. Bacon, etc., Augsb., 1873-the Prefaces of BREWER and BRIDGES as above.âProfessor R. Adamson, in "Ency. Britt." III. 218â222, and Dict. of Natl. Biog., II. 374â378. White: Warfare of Science and Theol. I. 386â393.
Duns Scotus was a Schoolman and nothing more. Roger Bacon, his contemporary, belongs to a different order of men, though one of the greatest theological thinkers of his age. He did not take up the great questions of theology and seek to justify them by dialectical processes. The most he did was to lay down principles for the study of theology; but it is as the pioneer of modern science and the scientific method of experiment that he has his distinguished place in the mediaeval galaxy of great minds. The fact that he had to suffer for his boldness of speech by imprisonment and enforced silence increases the interest felt in his teachings. His method of thought was out of accord with the prevailing method of his times. He was far ahead of his age, a seer of another era when the study of nature was to be assigned its proper place of dignity, and theology ceased to be treated as a field for dialectical ingenuity.
Born in Somersetshire, England, Roger Bacon, called the Wonderful doctor, mirabilis doctor, 1214(?)-1294, studied in Oxford, where he came into close contact with Robert Grosseteste and Adam Marsh, whom he often mentions with admiration. He went to Paris about 1240, continued his studies, and entered the Franciscan order. He speaks in his Opus tertium of having been engaged more than twenty years in the study of the languages and science, and spending £2000 in these studies and the purchase of books and instruments, or £600 or £700 present value.1593   He went back to Oxford, but was recalled to Paris by his order, at the head of which Bonaventura then stood, and placed in more or less strict confinement, 1257. At first he was denied the privilege of writing, but was allowed to give instruction to young students in the languages.
Clement IV. who, before his elevation to the papal chair and as legate in England, had been his friend, requested copies of his writings. In about eighteen months, 1264â1266, Bacon prepared the Opus majus and then its two appendages, the Opus minus and the Opus tertium, and sent them to the pope. In 1268, he was again in Oxford. In 1278, he was relegated to closer confinement on account of "certain suspected " about which we are not more particularly informed, adduced by the Franciscan general, Jerome of Ascoli, afterwards Nicolas IV. He was set free again in 1292, as we know. His body lies buried in the Franciscan church of Oxford. It was said that his books were nailed to the walls of the library at Oxford and left to perish. The story may be dismissed as untrue, but it indicates the estimate put upon the scholarâs writings.
If we were to depend upon the influence he had upon his age, Roger Bacon would have no place here. At best he was thought of as a dabbler in the dark arts and a necromancer. He had no place of authority among his contemporaries, and the rarest notice of him is found for several centuries. DâAilly, without quoting his name, copied a large paragraph from him about the propinquity of Spain and India which Columbus used in his letter to Ferdinand, 1498. It was not till the Renaissance that his name began to be used. Since the publication of his writings by Samuel Jebb, 1733, he has risen more and more into repute as one who set aside the fantastical subtleties of scholasticism for a rational treatment of the things we see and know, and as the scientific precursor of the modern laboratory and modern invention. Prophetic foresight of certain modern inventions is ascribed to him, but unjustly. He, however, expounded the theory of the rays of light, proved the universe to be spherical, and pronounced the smallest stars larger than the earth.1594 Â With Anaxagoras, he ascribed the Nile to the melting of the snows in Ethiopia.1595 Â He was not the inventor of gunpowder of which the Arabs knew.
Baconâs works, so far as they are published, combine the study of theology, philosophy, and what may be called the physical sciences. His Opus majus in seven books, the Opus minus, and Opus tertium are measurably complete. Of his Scriptum principale or Compendium studii philosophiae, often referred to in the writings just mentioned, only fragments were written, and of these only portions are left. The work was intended to be in four volumes and to include a treatment of grammar and logic, mathematics, physics, and last metaphysics and morals. The Communio naturalium and other treatises are still in manuscript.
The Opus majus in its list of subjects is the most encyclopaedic work of the Middle Ages. It takes up as separate departments the connection of philosophy and theology, astronomy including geography, astrology, barology, alchemy, agriculture, optics or perspective, and moral philosophy, medicine and experimental science, scientia experimentalis.
By agriculture, he meant the study of the vegetable and animal worlds, and such questions as the adaptation of soil to different classes of plants. In the treatment of optics he presents the construction of the eye and the laws of vision. Mathematics are the foundation of all science and of great value for the Church. Alchemy deals with liquids, gases, and solids, and their generation. A child of his age, Bacon held that metals were compound bodies whose elements can be separated.1596 Â In the department of astrology, in accordance with the opinions prevailing in his day, he held that the stars and planets have an influence upon all terrestrial conditions and objects, including man. Climate, temperament, motion, all are more or less dependent upon their potency. As the moon affects the tides, so the stars implant dispositions good and evil. This potency influences but does not coerce manâs free will. The comet of 1264, due to Mars, was related to the wars of England, Spain, and Italy.1597 Â In the department of optics and the teachings in regard to force, he was far ahead of his age and taught that all objects were emitting force in all directions. Experimental science governs all the preceding sciences. Knowledge comes by reasoning and experience. Doubts left by reasoning are tried by experience, which is the ultimate test of truth.
The practical tendency of Baconâs mind is everywhere apparent. He was an apostle of common sense. Speaking of Peter of Maricourt of Paris, otherwise unknown, he praises him for his achievements in the science of experimental research and said: "Of discourses and battles of words he takes no heed. Through experiment he gains knowledge of natural things, medical, chemical, indeed of everything in the heavens and the earth. He is ashamed that things should be known to laymen, old women, soldiers, and ploughmen, of which he is himself ignorant."Â He also confessed he had learned incomparably more from men unlettered and unknown to the learned than he had learned from his most famous teachers.1598
Bacon attacked the pedantry of the scholastic method, the frivolous and unprofitable logomachy over questions which were above reason and untaught by revelation. Again and again he rebuked the conceit and metaphysical abstruseness of the theological writers of his century, especially Alexander of Hales and also Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas. He used, at length, Alfarabius, Avicenna, Algazel, and other Arabic philosophers, as well as Aristotle. Against the pride and avarice and ignorance of the clergy he spoke with unmeasured severity and declared that the morals of Seneca and his age were far higher than the morals of the thirteenth century except that the ancient Romans did not know the virtues of love, faith, and hope which were revealed by Christ.1599 Â He quoted Seneca at great length. Such criticism sufficiently explains the treatment which the English Franciscan received.
This thirteenth-century phiIosopher pronounced the discussion over universals and individuals foolish and meaningless. One individual is of more value than all the universals in the world. A universal is nothing but the agreement between several objects, convenientia plurium individuorum convenientia individui respectu alterius. That which is common between two men and which an ass or a pig does not possess, is their universal.
In the department of philology,1600 and in the interest of a correction of the Vulgate and a new translation of Aristotle is works, he urged the study of Arabic, Hebrew, and Greek. He carried down the history of the translations of the Bible to Jerome.
He recommended the study of comparative religions which he arranges in six classes,âPagan, Idolater, Tartar (Buddhist), Saracen, Jew, and Christian,âand concludes that there can be only one revelation and one Church because there is only one God.1601 Â He finds in miracles especially the power to forgive sins, the chief proof of Christâs divinity, and gives six reasons for accepting the testimony of the Christian writers; namely, sanctity, wisdom, miraculous powers, firmness under persecution, uniformity of faith, and their success in spite of humble origin. It is characteristic of this philosopher that in this treatment he avails himself of the information brought to Europe by William Rubruquis whom he quotes.1602
He regarded philosophy as having been revealed to the Jewish patriarchs, and the Greek philosophy as having been under the guidance of providence, nay, as having been a divine gift, as Augustine said of Socrates.1603 Â Aristotle is the great phiIosopher, and philosophy leads to the threshold of revealed truth, and it is the duty of Christians to avail themselves of it.1604 Â As Solomon, a type of Christ, employed Hiram and other outside workers at the temple, so the Church should utilize heathen philosophers.1605 Â He gives five reasons why the early Church did not make use of Greek philosophy except for the regulation of the calendar and its music,1606 a proposition which would seem very crude to the present advocates of the theory of the dependence of the Apostolic writers upon Hellenic modes of thought. Bacon magnified the supreme authority of the Scriptures in which all truth strikes its roots and which laymen should read. All sciences and knowledge are to be subordinated to the Catholic Church, which is the appointed guardian of human interests. Theology is the science which rules over all the others.1607 Â It seems almost incongruous that Bacon should have brought his Opus majus to a close by arguing for the "sacrament of the altar" as containing in itself the highest good, that is, the union of God with man. In the host the whole of the Deity is contained.
The admirable editor of Baconâs Opus majus, Dr. Bridges, has compared Baconâs procedure to a traveller in a new world, who brings back specimens of produce with the view of persuading the authorities of his country to undertake a more systematic exploration.1608 Â Without entering into the discussion of those great themes which the other Schoolmen so much delighted in, Bacon asserted the right principle of theological study which excludes from prolonged discussion subjects which have no immediate bearing upon the interests of daily life or personal faith, and pronounced as useless the weary systems which were more the product of human ingenuity in combining words than of a clear, spiritual purpose. To him Abaelard is not to be compared. Abaelard was chiefly a scholastic metaphysician; Bacon an observer of nature. Abaelard gives the appearance of being a vain aspirant after scholastic honors; Bacon of being a patient and conscientious investigator.
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Germany
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2013-09-21T13:10:34-05:00
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Your Germany Guide. Important information, general facts like geography and demographics, famous people, languages, and history of Germany.
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Day Translations Blog
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https://www.daytranslations.com/blog/guide/germany
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Famous German People: German Artists, Scientists, Leaders, Musicians, Politicians and Athletes
There is a category of people who changed the past, shaped the modern world and build the future! They are the greatest achievers and the most influential people worldwide. There are many German celebrities, writers and philosophers, singers and actors, world famous composers, politicians, who made a great contribution to the development of our civilization. We are happy to present to you some aspects of a culture rich in diversity. Germany…simply inspiring!
:: List of Famous People from Germany ::
Albert Einstein
“Not everything that counts can be counted, and not everything that can be counted counts.”
Born in Ulm, Germany, Albert Einstein (1879–1955) is one of the most famous scientist and mathematician who contributed to our understanding of the physical reality. He won the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1921 “for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect”. Einstein, also called 20th century Genius, was the embodiment of pure intellect.
Claudia Schiffer
Germany is not only the land of scientists and writers, but also the land of some of the most beautiful women. Claudia Schiffer is a living catwalk beauty, a supermodel who seems to merge perfectly with the breathtaking landscapes of Germany. Claudia was the highest paid model in 1992 after signing a contract with Revlon and she graced the covers of more than 500 magazines, among them: Elle, Cosmopolitan, Vogue, Playboy etc. Being contracted also as an Angel for Victoria’s Secret, this top model caused quite a sensation all through the years!
Johann Wolfgang Goethe
“Dream no small dreams for they have no power to move the hearts of men”
Born on 28 August 1749 in Frankfurt am Main, Goethe is Germany’s “greatest man of letters”. Poet, novelist, playwright, courtier, and natural philosopher, one of the key figures in Western literature, Goethe fascinated the entire world with his exceptionally prolific and versatile writing style. Goethe gained early fame with The Sorrows of Young Werther (1774), but one of the peaks of world literature, his magnum opus is the poetic drama in two parts, FAUST. His influence on German philosophy is immeasurable, having major effect especially on the generation of Hegel and Schelling. He also made important discoveries regarding plant and animal life and evolved a non-Newtonian and unorthodox theory of the character of light and color.
Rudolf Christian Karl Diesel
Rudolf Diesel (1858-1913) is the exceptional German inventor of the diesel engine, an engine with great efficiency. Diesel engine allowed trains and ships to operate more efficiently with oil instead of coal. Diesel engines are now days an integrant part of the mechanical landscape and contributed to the progress of the automotive industry. Rudolf Diesel will always remain in our memory as one of the major inventors in the field of internal combustion engines.
Michael Schumacher
“The greatest driver the sport has ever seen, Schumacher the end of an era”, states the official website of Formula One. Born in Hürth-Hermülheim, Germany, Michael Schumacher, seven-time world champion is not only the most popular driver among Formula One, but also an ambassador for UNESCO and a spokesman for driver safety. Schumacher had exceptional ambition, confidence, intelligence, motivation, dedication and determination. It seems that his great achievements are unlikely to be ever surpassed.
Johann Sebastian Bach
Bach, the greatest composer of the baroque era, was to music what Newton was to science. “The works of the German composer and organist Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750) are the ultimate expression of polyphony. He is probably the only composer ever able to make full use of the possibilities of art available in his time” His most famous works of intellectual depth, moreover, technical and artistic beauty, are: Brandenburg concertos; the Goldberg Variations; the English Suites, French Suites, Partitas, and Well-Tempered Clavier; the Mass in B Minor and many others.
Otto von Bismarck, “The Iron Chancellor of Germany”
“Anyone who has ever looked into the glazed eyes of a soldier dying on the battlefield will think hard before starting a war”
Bismarck dominated Germany and Europe in the second half of the 19th century. Under the leadership of the “Iron Chancellor”, Germany grew from a weak confederation of debilitated states to a strong, unified and feared empire. He won legendaries triumphs and the revolution that he carried out in order to a achieve an unified empire is by historical importance comparable to the French Revolution.
Jeanette Biedermann
Voted in 2006 by the magazine FHM “The sexiest woman in the world”, Jeanette is both a natural German beauty and a very talented solo singer. She was awarded several times in Germany “Best Female Act”, “Best German Act”. Jeanette’s pop rock music fascinated young people all over the world.
Marlene Dietrich
Is the first German actress, singer and entertainer who flourished in Hollywood. What was it that made Marlene Dietrich so famous? For sure her unique way of reinventing herself throughout her career. She was mysterious, glamorous, original, beautiful, and smart. And far ahead for her time. She was a fashion icon to the top designers as well as a screen icon that later stars would follow. Marlene’s first American film, Morocco, directed by von Sternberg, earned an Oscar nomination. The Blue Angel, Shanghai Express, Blonde Venus, The Scarlet Empress and The Devil is a Woman are some of the famous movies in which she acted.
Levi Strauss
The great father of blue jeans, Levi Strauss, was a German entrepreneur, born in 1829. In 1873, Levi Strauss and Nevada tailor Jacob Davis patented the process of putting rivets in pants for strength, and the world’s first jeans – Levi’s® jeans – were born. Today, the Levi’s® trademark is one of the most recognized in the world and is registered in more than 160 countries. “Four core values are at the heart of Levi Strauss & Co: Empathy, Originality, Integrity and Courage”.
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Celebrities Born In Frankfurt, Germany
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Famous people from Frankfurt, Germany including J Cole, Anne Frank, Martin Lawrence, Tim Schaecker, Tre Cool and many more.
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Ancestors & Cousins: Royal, Titled, Noble, and Commoner (over 193,000 names).
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Children
Friedrich Kraft, Graf von Hohenlohe-Neuenstein-Oehringen3 b. 22 Feb 1667, d. 23 Apr 1709
Sophia Eleonore von Hohenlohe3 b. 18 Aug 1668, d. 3 Sep 1728
Eleonora Juliana zu Hohenlohe-Langenburg4 b. 1 Oct 1669, d. 11 Apr 1750
Lt. Col. Johann Ernst, Graf von Hohenlohe-Neuenstein-Oehringen3 b. 24 Mar 1670, d. 16 Nov 1702
Charlotte Luise zu Hohenlohe-Neuenstein-Oehringen3 b. 4 Sep 1671, d. 1 Jun 1697
Maria Christiana Amöna zu Hohenlohe3 b. 29 Aug 1673, d. 10 Mar 1753
Karl Ludwig, Graf von Hohenlohe-Neuenstein-Weikersheim+1 b. 23 Sep 1674, d. 5 May 1756
Sophia Elizabetha von Hohenlohe3 b. 21 May 1676, d. 4 Dec 1676
Augusta Friederika von Hohenlohe+3 b. 30 Oct 1677, d. 2 Jul 1752
Juliane Elizabethe von Hohenlohe3 b. 20 Jan 1679, d. 23 Nov 1679
Wilhelmine Dorothea von Hohenlohe3 b. 20 Feb 1680, d. 1 Mar 1680
Luise Amöne von Hohenlohe3 b. 28 May 1681, d. 21 Sep 1753
Johann Friedrich II, 1st Prince of Hohenlohe-Neuenstein-Öhringen+3 b. 25 Jul 1683, d. 24 Aug 1765
Henriette Amalie von Hohenlohe3 b. 17 Apr 1685, d. 22 Jan 1688
Children
Friedrich Kraft, Graf von Hohenlohe-Neuenstein-Oehringen2 b. 22 Feb 1667, d. 23 Apr 1709
Sophia Eleonore von Hohenlohe2 b. 18 Aug 1668, d. 3 Sep 1728
Eleonora Juliana zu Hohenlohe-Langenburg3 b. 1 Oct 1669, d. 11 Apr 1750
Lt. Col. Johann Ernst, Graf von Hohenlohe-Neuenstein-Oehringen2 b. 24 Mar 1670, d. 16 Nov 1702
Charlotte Luise zu Hohenlohe-Neuenstein-Oehringen2 b. 4 Sep 1671, d. 1 Jun 1697
Maria Christiana Amöna zu Hohenlohe2 b. 29 Aug 1673, d. 10 Mar 1753
Karl Ludwig, Graf von Hohenlohe-Neuenstein-Weikersheim+1 b. 23 Sep 1674, d. 5 May 1756
Sophia Elizabetha von Hohenlohe2 b. 21 May 1676, d. 4 Dec 1676
Augusta Friederika von Hohenlohe+2 b. 30 Oct 1677, d. 2 Jul 1752
Juliane Elizabethe von Hohenlohe2 b. 20 Jan 1679, d. 23 Nov 1679
Wilhelmine Dorothea von Hohenlohe2 b. 20 Feb 1680, d. 1 Mar 1680
Luise Amöne von Hohenlohe2 b. 28 May 1681, d. 21 Sep 1753
Johann Friedrich II, 1st Prince of Hohenlohe-Neuenstein-Öhringen+2 b. 25 Jul 1683, d. 24 Aug 1765
Henriette Amalie von Hohenlohe2 b. 17 Apr 1685, d. 22 Jan 1688
Children
August Wilhelm, Duke of Braunschweig-Bevern, Prussian General of the Infantry, Governor of Stettin1 b. 10 Oct 1715, d. 2 Aug 1781
Christine Sophie von Braunschweig-Bevern1 b. 22 Jan 1717, d. 26 Mar 1779
Friederike Albertine von Braunschweig-Bevern1 b. 21 Aug 1719, d. 5 Aug 1772
Georg Ludwig Friedrich von Braunschweig-Bevern1 b. 2 Jan 1721, d. 6 Sep 1747
Ernestine von Braunschweig-Bevern1 b. 7 Oct 1721, d. 8 Oct 1721
Friedrich Georg von Braunschweig-Bevern1 b. 24 Mar 1723, d. 16 Jul 1766
Amalie Christine von Braunschweig-Bevern1 b. 2 Jun 1724, d. 25 Jun 1726
Karl Wilhelm von Braunschweig-Bevern1 b. 27 Jun 1725, d. 12 Sep 1725
Friedrich August von Braunschweig-Bevern1 b. 3 Aug 1726, d. 30 Mar 1729
Maria Anna von Braunschweig-Bevern1 b. 3 Apr 1728, d. 27 Oct 1754
Friedrich Karl Ferdinand, Duke of Braunschweig-Bevern1 b. 5 Apr 1729, d. 27 Apr 1809
Johann Anton von Braunschweig-Bevern1 b. 16 Feb 1731, d. 16 Jun 1732
Children
August Wilhelm, Duke of Braunschweig-Bevern, Prussian General of the Infantry, Governor of Stettin2 b. 10 Oct 1715, d. 2 Aug 1781
Christine Sophie von Braunschweig-Bevern1 b. 22 Jan 1717, d. 26 Mar 1779
Friederike Albertine von Braunschweig-Bevern2 b. 21 Aug 1719, d. 5 Aug 1772
Georg Ludwig Friedrich von Braunschweig-Bevern2 b. 2 Jan 1721, d. 6 Sep 1747
Ernestine von Braunschweig-Bevern2 b. 7 Oct 1721, d. 8 Oct 1721
Friedrich Georg von Braunschweig-Bevern2 b. 24 Mar 1723, d. 16 Jul 1766
Amalie Christine von Braunschweig-Bevern2 b. 2 Jun 1724, d. 25 Jun 1726
Karl Wilhelm von Braunschweig-Bevern2 b. 27 Jun 1725, d. 12 Sep 1725
Friedrich August von Braunschweig-Bevern2 b. 3 Aug 1726, d. 30 Mar 1729
Maria Anna von Braunschweig-Bevern2 b. 3 Apr 1728, d. 27 Oct 1754
Friedrich Karl Ferdinand, Duke of Braunschweig-Bevern2 b. 5 Apr 1729, d. 27 Apr 1809
Johann Anton von Braunschweig-Bevern2 b. 16 Feb 1731, d. 16 Jun 1732
Children
Viktoria Charlotte von Anhalt-Bernburg+1 b. 25 Sep 1715, d. 4 Feb 1792
Luise Amalie von Anhalt-Bernburg1 b. 10 Oct 1717, d. 1 Sep 1721
Christian von Anhalt-Bernburg1 b. 30 Jun 1720, d. 13 Apr 1758
Karl Ludwig, Prince of Anhalt-Bernburg-Schaumburg+1 b. 16 May 1723, d. 20 Aug 1806
Franz Adolf, Prussian Lieutenant General and Governor of Magdeburg+1 b. 7 Jul 1724, d. 22 Apr 1784
Children
Major General Friedrich von Anhalt-Bernburg1 b. 29 Nov 1741, d. 24 Dec 1812
Sophie Charlotte von Anhalt-Bernburg1 b. 3 Apr 1743, d. 5 Oct 1781
Viktor Amadeus von Anhalt-Bernburg1 b. 21 May 1744, d. 2 May 1790
Karl von Anhalt-Bernburg1 b. 4 Aug 1745, d. 4 Aug 1745
Hedwig Auguste von Anhalt-Bernburg1 b. 6 May 1747, d. 5 Mar 1760
Georg August von Anhalt-Bernburg1 b. 6 Nov 1751, d. 29 Oct 1754
Children
Viktoria Charlotte von Anhalt-Bernburg+1 b. 25 Sep 1715, d. 4 Feb 1792
Luise Amalie von Anhalt-Bernburg4 b. 10 Oct 1717, d. 1 Sep 1721
Christian von Anhalt-Bernburg4 b. 30 Jun 1720, d. 13 Apr 1758
Karl Ludwig, Prince of Anhalt-Bernburg-Schaumburg+4 b. 16 May 1723, d. 20 Aug 1806
Franz Adolf, Prussian Lieutenant General and Governor of Magdeburg+4 b. 7 Jul 1724, d. 22 Apr 1784
Children
Charlotte Luise zu Ysenburg+1,2 b. 31 Jul 1680, d. 2 Jan 1739
Ludwig Ernst von Isenburg-Büdingen2 b. 18 Jul 1681, d. 14 Feb 1682
Ludwig Christoph von Isenburg-Büdingen2 b. 18 Jul 1681, d. 18 Jul 1681
Wilhelmine Magdalene von Isenburg-Büdingen2,5 b. 23 Nov 1682, d. 6 Dec 1749
Christiane zu Isenburg-Büdingen2 b. 23 Dec 1683, d. 19 Jun 1757
Ernestine zu Isenburg-Büdingen2 b. 28 Jan 1685, d. 10 Feb 1757
Wolfgang Ernst III, Prince of Isenburg-Büdingen+2 b. 5 Apr 1686, d. 15 May 1754
Friederike Emilie zu Isenburg-Büdingen2 b. 12 May 1687, d. 28 Aug 1749
Lt. Gen. Wilhelm Moritz II, Graf zu Isenburg-Büdingen-Philippseich+2 b. 23 Jul 1688, d. 7 Mar 1772
Adolf zu Isenburg-Büdingen2 b. 25 Jun 1689, d. 25 Jun 1689
Eleonore zu Isenburg-Büdingen2 b. 25 Jun 1689, d. 25 Jun 1689
Albertine zu Isenburg-Büdingen2 b. 30 Aug 1690, d. 27 Jul 1691
Karoline Henriette zu Isenburg-Büdingen2 b. 30 Aug 1690, d. 13 May 1691
Anna Sophie zu Isenburg-Büdingen2,6 b. 10 Nov 1691, d. 20 Sep 1765
Philippine zu Isenburg-Büdingen2 b. 21 Dec 1692, d. 29 Nov 1693
Johann Philipp zu Isenburg-Büdingen2 b. 19 Dec 1696, d. 18 May 1700
Children
Charlotte Luise zu Ysenburg+1,4 b. 31 Jul 1680, d. 2 Jan 1739
Ludwig Ernst von Isenburg-Büdingen4 b. 18 Jul 1681, d. 14 Feb 1682
Ludwig Christoph von Isenburg-Büdingen4 b. 18 Jul 1681, d. 18 Jul 1681
Wilhelmine Magdalene von Isenburg-Büdingen4 b. 23 Nov 1682, d. 6 Dec 1749
Christiane zu Isenburg-Büdingen4 b. 23 Dec 1683, d. 19 Jun 1757
Ernestine zu Isenburg-Büdingen4 b. 28 Jan 1685, d. 10 Feb 1757
Wolfgang Ernst III, Prince of Isenburg-Büdingen+4 b. 5 Apr 1686, d. 15 May 1754
Friederike Emilie zu Isenburg-Büdingen4 b. 12 May 1687, d. 28 Aug 1749
Lt. Gen. Wilhelm Moritz II, Graf zu Isenburg-Büdingen-Philippseich+4 b. 23 Jul 1688, d. 7 Mar 1772
Adolf zu Isenburg-Büdingen4 b. 25 Jun 1689, d. 25 Jun 1689
Eleonore zu Isenburg-Büdingen4 b. 25 Jun 1689, d. 25 Jun 1689
Albertine zu Isenburg-Büdingen4 b. 30 Aug 1690, d. 27 Jul 1691
Karoline Henriette zu Isenburg-Büdingen4 b. 30 Aug 1690, d. 13 May 1691
Anna Sophie zu Isenburg-Büdingen4,5 b. 10 Nov 1691, d. 20 Sep 1765
Philippine zu Isenburg-Büdingen4 b. 21 Dec 1692, d. 29 Nov 1693
Johann Philipp zu Isenburg-Büdingen4 b. 19 Dec 1696, d. 18 May 1700
Children
Georg Ernst zu Isenburg-Büdingen3 b. 20 Jul 1651, d. 16 Mar 1652
Johann Ludwig zu Isenburg-Büdingen3 b. 5 Aug 1652, d. 5 Apr 1654
Anna Amalia zu Isenburg-Büdingen+1 b. 23 Oct 1653, d. 11 Mar 1700
Philipp Ernst zu Isenburg-Büdingen3 b. 28 Mar 1655, d. 22 Sep 1672
Elizabeth Juliana zu Isenburg-Büdingen3 b. 8 Jul 1656, d. 16 Sep 1656
Friedrich Wilhelm zu Isenburg-Büdingen3 b. 27 Jan 1658, d. 21 Jun 1676
Wolfgang Ernst zu Isenburg-Büdingen3 b. 25 Mar 1659, d. 20 Jun 1676
Johann Casimir, Graf zu Ysenburg-Büdingen+3 b. 19 Jul 1660, d. 23 Sep 1693
Ferdinand Maximilian I, Graf zu Ysenburg-Wächtersbach+3 b. 3 Jan 1662, d. 14 Mar 1703
Georg Albrecht, Graf zu Ysenburg-Büdingen-Meerholz+3 b. 1 May 1664, d. 11 Feb 1724
Luise Albertine zu Isenburg-Büdingen3 b. 25 Aug 1665, d. 18 Jan 1754
Carl August, Graf zu Ysenburg-Büdingen-Marienborn+3 b. 27 Jan 1667, d. 16 Mar 1725
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https://www.annefrank.org/en/anne-frank/who-was-anne-frank/
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Who was Anne Frank?
|
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"persecution of the Jews",
"holocaust",
"diary",
"Amsterdam",
"Second World War"
] | null |
[] | null |
The life of Anne Frank in brief. Watch the video and read more about her diary and her life in hiding in the Secret Annex.
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en
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https://www.annefrank.org/static/ico/favicon.ico
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Anne Frank Website
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https://www.annefrank.org/en/anne-frank/who-was-anne-frank/
|
Anne’s first years
Anne Frank was born in the German city of Frankfurt am Main in 1929. Anne’s sister Margot was three years her senior. Unemployment was high and poverty was severe in Germany, and it was the period in which Adolf Hitler and his party were gaining more and more supporters. Hitler hated the Jews and blamed them for the problems in the country. He took advantage of the rampant antisemitic sentiments in Germany. The hatred of Jews and the poor economic situation made Anne's parents, Otto and Edith Frank, decide to move to Amsterdam. There, Otto founded a company that traded in pectin, a gelling agent for making jam.
Nazi Germany invades the Netherlands
Before long, Anne felt right at home in the Netherlands. She learned the language, made new friends and went to a Dutch school near her home. Her father worked hard to get his business off the ground, but it was not easy. Otto also tried to set up a company in England, but the plan fell through. Things looked up when he started selling herbs and spices in addition to the pectin.
On 1 September 1939, when Anne was 10 years old, Nazi Germany invaded Poland, and so the Second World War began. Not long after, on 10 May 1940, the Nazis also invaded the Netherlands. Five days later, the Dutch army surrendered. Slowly but surely, the Nazis introduced more and more laws and regulations that made the lives of Jews more difficult. For instance, Jews could no longer visit parks, cinemas, or non-Jewish shops. The rules meant that more and more places became off-limits to Anne. Her father lost his company, since Jews were no longer allowed to run their own businesses. All Jewish children, including Anne, had to go to separate Jewish schools.
Anne has to go into hiding in the Secret Annex
The Nazis took things further, one step at the time. Jews had to start wearing a Star of David on their clothes and there were rumours that all Jews would have to leave the Netherlands. When Margot received a call-up to report for a so-called ‘labour camp’ in Nazi Germany on 5 July 1942, her parents were suspicious. They did not believe the call-up was about work and decided to go into hiding the next day in order to escape persecution.
In the spring of 1942, Anne’s father had started furnishing a hiding place in the annex of his business premises at Prinsengracht 263. He received help from his former colleagues. Before long, they were joined by four more people. The hiding place was cramped. Anne had to keep very quiet and was often afraid.
Anne keeps a diary
On her thirteenth birthday, just before they went into hiding, Anne was presented with a diary. During the two years in hiding, Anne wrote about events in the Secret Annex, but also about her feelings and thoughts. In addition, she wrote short stories, started on a novel and copied passages from the books she read in her Book of Beautiful Sentences. Writing helped her pass the time.
When the Minister of Education of the Dutch government in England made an appeal on Radio Orange to hold on to war diaries and documents, Anne was inspired to rewrite her individual diaries into one running story, titled Het Achterhuis (The Secret Annex).
The hiding place is discovered
Anne started rewriting her diary, but before she was done, she and the other people in hiding were discovered and arrested by police officers on 4 August 1944. The police also arrested two of the helpers. To this day, we do not know the reason for the police raid.
Despite the raid, part of Anne’s writing was preserved: two other helpers took the documents before the Secret Annex was emptied by order of the Nazis.
Anne is deported to Auschwitz
Via the offices of the Sicherheitsdienst (the German security police), a prison in Amsterdam, and the Westerbork transit camp, the people from the Secret Annex were put on transport to the Auschwitz-Birkenau concentration and extermination camp. The train journey took three days, during which Anne and over a thousand others were packed closely together in cattle wagons. There was little food and water and only a barrel for a toilet.
Upon arrival at Auschwitz, Nazi doctors checked to see who would and who would not be able to do heavy forced labour. Around 350 people from Anne's transport were immediately taken to the gas chambers and murdered. Anne, Margot and their mother were sent to the labour camp for women. Otto ended up in a camp for men.
Anne dies from exhaustion in Bergen-Belsen
In early November 1944, Anne was put on transport again. She was deported to the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp with Margot. Their parents stayed behind in Auschwitz. The conditions in Bergen-Belsen were horrible too. There was a lack of food, it was cold, wet and there were contagious diseases. Anne and Margot contracted typhus. In February 1945 they both died owing to its effects, Margot first, Anne shortly afterwards.
Anne’s father Otto was the only one of the people from the Secret Annex to survive the war. He was liberated from Auschwitz by the Russians and during his long journey back to the Netherlands he learned that his wife Edith had died. Once in the Netherlands, he heard that Anne and Margot were no longer alive either.
Anne’s diary becomes world famous
Anne's writing made a deep impression on Otto. He read that Anne had wanted to become a writer or a journalist and that she had intended to publish her stories about life in the Secret Annex. Friends convinced Otto to publish the diary and in June 1947, 3,000 copies of Het Achterhuis (The Secret Annex) were printed.
And that was not all: the book was later translated into around 70 languages and adapted for stage and screen. People all over the world were introduced to Anne's story and in 1960 the hiding place became a museum: the Anne Frank House. Until his death in 1980, Otto remained closely involved with the Anne Frank House and the museum: he hoped that readers of the diary would become aware of the dangers of discrimination, racism, and hatred of Jews.
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https://minervawisdom.com/2019/12/09/john-lockes-second-treatise-part-iii-the-origins-of-political-society/
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en
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John Locke’s “Second Treatise,” Part III: The Origins of Political Society
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[
"Paul Krause"
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2019-12-09T00:00:00
|
The sixth Chapter of the Second Treatise is one of Locke’s more self-explanatory chapters. The exoteric reading is very straightforward: the naturality of parental authority is a precursor to civil authority. As Locke writes at the end of the chapter, “it be a sufficient proof of the natural right of fathers to political authority, because…
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en
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Discourses on Minerva
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https://minervawisdom.com/2019/12/09/john-lockes-second-treatise-part-iii-the-origins-of-political-society/
|
The sixth Chapter of the Second Treatise is one of Locke’s more self-explanatory chapters. The exoteric reading is very straightforward: the naturality of parental authority is a precursor to civil authority. As Locke writes at the end of the chapter, “it be a sufficient proof of the natural right of fathers to political authority, because they commonly were those in whose hands we find, de-facto, the exercise of government: I say, if this argument be good, it will as strongly prove, that all princes, nay princes only, ought to be priests, since it is as certain, that in the beginning, ‘the father of the family was priest, as that he was ruler in his own household.’” Locke’s entire commentary on the natural law of obedience to one’s parents was really a set up to establish why authority is something natural.
This is further backed up by his commentary on the tabula rasa which is less noticed in the chapter – especially from readers unfamiliar with philosophy proper. Relying on the parental authority, Locke states that part of the reason why parents serve as guiding hands for children is because children are not yet mature and reasonable creatures. That is, they possess no compass. They are born with blank-slate minds. While this seems very reasonable to assert, we must also remember what the tabula rasa entails: we have no innate ideas of anything. We do not have any comprehension of beauty, love, or nurture. Thus, our ideas of beauty, love, nurture, or anything else, are derivative of the guidance we receive from parents (or the law). This is a complete rejection of innate ideas and a priori epistemology that was common in Western philosophy from Plato through Christianity.
Locke’s positivism is on display with regard to the nature of the law and how it helps mold people toward a desirable end. “For law, in its true notion, is not so much the limitation, as the direction of a free and intelligent agent to his proper interest, and prescribes no farther than is for the general good of those under the law.” Thus, for Locke, law shapes and directs us to our proper interest and serves the general good of all those under the law itself. Without the law, we would be lost. You can see how the law serves as the instrument that informs the mind as to what their proper interest is and what the general good of society is. (This is called “instrumental liberalism in political philosophy.)
In this manner too, parents serve as reflections of the law before the law takes over the responsibility of parents. This is critical to understood. Locke, then, disagrees with Aristotle that family is the basis of civilization and civil society. Law is. Law replaces the family. Much like how civil authority replaces the family. The role of the family is nothing but a precursor – a middle ground – to the formation of civil society out of the state of nature. If we recall, family emerges out of the law of reason (self-preservation). Family serves the purpose of self-preservation until the emergence of civil society from which law and government replaces parents as the natural stewards of guidance. This is why family becomes obsolete and is replaced by law and government – it follows the pattern of progressive evolution toward something superior to the family. In essence, you do not “own” your children. The State does. You do not instill values into your children. The State does. Parents merely acted as precursors to the State before the formation of civil authority. (One might just look at contemporary England as the perfect example of Lockean political thought having reached its internal and logical fruition.)
Chapter 7: Political Society as Self-Preservation Manifested in “Civil Society”
After having established the origins of parental authority as a precursor to the formation of civil authority, Locke turns his attention to how political society forms out of the state of nature. He starts by continuing a commentary on the nature between the family – or conjugal relationships. Locke argues at the beginning of Chapter 7 that marriage is not really a union between male and female for the purpose of wholeness or love, but is instead the coming together of male and female for the preservation of the human species. Thus, marriage itself is about self-preservation. Through a man’s seed, and a woman’s womb, humanity endures.
Sex is about preservation. And political society is about preservation. Locke then compares human behavior, concerning the role of sex, colonies, and preservation, with those of “the birds” and other animals, “The same is to be observed in all birds, whose young needing food in the nest, the cock and hen continue mates, till the young are able to use their wing, and provide for themselves.” The implication here is eventually we become “self-sufficient” or capable of taking care of ourselves. We are, at heart, a-social and solitary animals who only come into the commonwealth, or community, for some means of preservation and nothing more. It is a compromise, a secularized “act of grace” between humans.
Civil society, then, represents the actualization and manifestation of the Law of Nature. This is when multiple persons recognizes the mutuality of preservation among others, and thereby enter the compact of preservation with one another with the promise of maintaining boundaries between each other so each can peacefully work their property without fear or loss. Politics, then, is principally about the use of force for the preservation of property for the end of bodily consumption, “The community comes to be umpire, by settled standing rules, indifferent, and the same to all parties; and by men having authority from the community, for the execution of those rules, decides all the differences that may happen between any members of that society concerning any matter of right; and punishes those offences which any member hath committed against the society, with such penalties as the law has established.”
Furthermore, politics, is about punishment, “And thus the commonwealth comes by a power to set down what punishment shall belong to the several transgressions which they think worthy of it.” More importantly, the commonwealth takes on the power we forfeit to it from the state of nature. This is why the commonwealth accrues power (over time) in Lockean political theory. Yes, it is “minimal” in its original conception, but it grows in power over time. This becomes more visible in the forthcoming chapters. But as Locke writes, “But though every man who has entered into civil society, and is become a member of any commonwealth, has thereby quitted his power to punish offences against the law of nature, in prosecution of his own private judgment; yet with the judgment of offences, which he has given up to the legislative in all cases, where he can appeal to the magistrate, he has given a right to the commonwealth to employ his force.” In reality, the State takes on our will and authority for us. Thus the Lockean conception of the political is “naturalistic.” The State does what we would have done in the state of nature, the only difference is in the social contract we establish magistrates, legislatures, and judicial offices, and other rules via constitutions, to employ the use of force as judge, jury, and executioner, which natural reason dictated to us in the state of nature. But it is a transfer of responsibility. In this way, Locke foreshadows Rousseau’s “general will” (though the two take that concept in different directions).
In this way too, politics – civil society – represents progress because we, as individuals, are no longer burdened by having to take on this responsibility in the state of nature which prevents us from working our property, building up our property, and advancing ourselves through property acquisition and consumption because we are bogged down with “taking matters into our own hands” in the state of nature. Through leaving the state of nature, progress is seen in the formation of political society which produces a modicum of order whereby we work our property and consume the things which we make (which is rightfully ours as Locke argued back in Chapter 5). Preservation writ-large, which actualizes through the force of peace established by the commonwealth’s social contract, is the foundation of political society.
Chapter 8: “The Beginning of Political Society”
Having outlined the movement toward political society and the nature of the political, along with how “family” is really about self-preservation – and especially the preservation of the human species – Locke finally turns his attention to the “beginning of political society.” Chapter 8 starts with a re-affirmation of the solitary nature of humanity, and then turns to outlining what political liberty and what the “will and determination of the majority” means for the political. It is important to remember that Locke’s “natural liberty” of the state of nature is also perfected liberty (an idea he borrows from Augustine: natural liberty vs. perfect liberty) but conflates the two together (whereas in Christianity natural liberty is our state of will/voluntarism and perfect liberty to be found in union with Christ).
Locke, therefore, is arguing that political liberty is not the same as natural liberty, though some natural liberty (like property) gets brought into the political (but only the “essentials” of natural liberty, which is property). “The only way whereby any one divests himself of his natural liberty, and puts on the bonds of civil society, is by agreeing with other men to join and unite into a community, for their comfortable, safe, and peaceable living one amongst another, in a secure enjoyment of their properties, and a greater security against any that are not of it.” Like Hobbes, Locke’s political vision is one that is about peaceable consumption, safety, and security. (Though Locke and Hobbes differ on what type of government best achieves this, they agree on the basic principles; which is why they are viewed as two sides of the same coin in political philosophy circles.)
For Locke, the “will of the majority” is always in the legal right. In this way we can describe Locke as something of a democrat. Much like how ancient theorists saw republicanism as compatible with monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy, we can say that Locke’s “will of the majority” is compatible with monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy. “And thus every man, by consenting with others to make one body politic under one government, puts himself under an obligation to every one of that society to submit to the determination of the majority, and to be concluded by it.” And who and how do we give this consent? Locke later states toward the end of the chapter, “And to this I say, that every man, that hath any possessions, or enjoyment of any part of the dominions of any government, doth thereby give his tacit consent, and is as far forth obliged to obedience to the laws of that government.” We have consented as the preserved offspring of those original founders who established the commonwealth in the first place because we are now reaping the benefits of the social contract that was long-ago established.
Throughout the chapter Locke also examines whether he can provide an answer to the critics looking for such a state of nature which undergirds Locke’s theory. While Locke admits that historical data and writings cannot be found, he argues from political anthropology and by pointing to America as the example of where the state of nature is still visible (vis-à-vis the Native American tribes). As he says, the fact that monarchy seemed to be the historical norm does not violate his political views, instead it affirms it – that is, the need for a government of some type. The simple fact of history that there is government, commonwealths, monarchies, republics, and guilds, and so on, are all evidence for Locke’s basic principles.
Contained in this sub-narrative of chapter 8 is also a proto-historicist argument. In short, Locke is seeing the commonwealth of dispersed authority as progress away from the singular rule of monarchy. Political order, then, progresses even if all political orders – be they monarchies or commonwealths – share the same foundational need coming out of the state of nature. Locke maintains that monarchy is insufficient in comparison to the dispersed and devolved commonwealth. Thus, he is also making a utilitarian argument about politics. The more utilitarian and efficient political order is the best. “Such a constitution as this [speaking of monarchy] would make the mighty leviathan of a shorter duration than the feeblest creatures, and not let it outlast the day it was born in: which cannot be supposed, till we can think that rational creatures should desire and constitute societies only to be dissolved: for where the majority cannot conclude the rest, there they cannot act as one body, and consequently will be immediately dissolved again.” Therefore, Locke’s utilitarianism in politics is predicated on order and stability, which he also associates with what the will of majority seeks.
________________________________________________________________
Support Wisdom: https://paypal.me/PJKrause?locale.x=en_US
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https://www.mdpi.com/2077-1444/5/1/90
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Saint Anselm of Canterbury and Charismatic Authority
|
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[
"William M. Aird",
"William M"
] |
2014-02-10T00:00:00
|
The early career of Archbishop Anselm of Canterbury (c. 1033–1109) provides an opportunity to explore the operation of charismatic authority in a monastic setting. It is argued that the choice of Anselm for the archiepiscopal see of Canterbury in 1093 was the result of his growing reputation cultivated during his years as prior and abbot of the influential Norman monastery of Bec. The article explores various aspects of Anselm’s charismatic authority including his performance of charisma, the charisma derived from his fame as a scholar, and his reputation as a miracle-working holy man.
|
en
|
MDPI
|
https://www.mdpi.com/2077-1444/5/1/90
|
School of History, Classics and Archaeology, University of Edinburgh, William Robertson Wing, Old Medical School, Teviot Place, Edinburgh EH8 9AG, UK
Religions 2014, 5(1), 90-108; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel5010090
Submission received: 29 August 2013 / Revised: 17 December 2013 / Accepted: 20 December 2013 / Published: 10 February 2014
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Charisma, Medieval and Modern)
Abstract
:
The early career of Archbishop Anselm of Canterbury (c. 1033–1109) provides an opportunity to explore the operation of charismatic authority in a monastic setting. It is argued that the choice of Anselm for the archiepiscopal see of Canterbury in 1093 was the result of his growing reputation cultivated during his years as prior and abbot of the influential Norman monastery of Bec. The article explores various aspects of Anselm’s charismatic authority including his performance of charisma, the charisma derived from his fame as a scholar, and his reputation as a miracle-working holy man.
1. Introduction
The election of Anselm (c. 1033–1109), abbot of the monastery of Bec in Normandy, to the archbishopric of Canterbury in the spring of 1093 was a violent affair ([1], pp. 49–71). According to contemporary sources, the majority of which were generated either by Anselm himself, members of his entourage or other later writers sympathetic to him, the abbot of Bec was in England on his monastery’s business and had arrived at the royal court in Gloucester to find the king, William Rufus (ruled 1087–1100), son of William the Conqueror (ruled 1066–1087), dangerously ill. It was thought that Rufus was about to die and the members of his court advised him to make his peace with God by releasing all prisoners, remitting fines, and freeing those churches whose revenues he had kept in his own hands after their incumbents had died. Above all he was urged to appoint an archbishop to Canterbury for, they said, ‘[t]he oppression of that Church is nothing less than the destruction of all Christianity in England, a thing most hateful’ ([2], pp. 31–32). Anselm was summoned to the king’s bedside and he too counselled Rufus to prepare his soul for its encounter with the Almighty. Anselm received the king’s confession and witnessed his pledge that he would make amends for the wrongs he had committed. The promise was written out and verified with the king’s seal. Rufus agreed to release prisoners, remit fines, pardon all offences, and provide his people with good and righteous laws. At this there was great jubilation and fervent prayers were offered for the recovery of ‘so good, so great a king’ ([2], p. 32). Finally, Rufus was urged to appoint an archbishop for Canterbury and he readily agreed to do so because, so he said, he had already been thinking of so doing. But who should be appointed? The king ‘of his own accord’ declared that the best man for the job was the abbot of Bec. At this Anselm ‘turned deathly pale’ with shock at the suggestion ([2], p. 32).
Anselm protested that he did not want the office and he tried to resist ‘with all his might’. The bishops present, who had probably invested much in their advocacy of Anselm, took him to one side and remonstrated with him, pointing out that the English Church was in a state of crisis:
‘You see,’ they said, ‘that all Christianity in England has nearly died out, all has fallen into confusion; abominations of every kind have arisen on all sides, that we ourselves and the Churches of God, which we should rule have fallen into peril of eternal death through the tyranny of this man and do you then, when you could help, not deign to do so? What are you thinking of, you extraordinary man? Where are your wits to? [Quid O mirabilis homo cogitas? Quo fugit sensus tuus?] The Church of Canterbury, whose oppression is the oppression and ruin of us all, calls you, in her troubles implores you, to be her deliverer and ours; and do you, with little regard for her liberty, little regard too for our deliverance, refuse to share the labours of your brethren and care only for your own selfish ease and repose?’
Anselm admitted that there were indeed grave problems, but he pleaded that he was old and ‘unfit for worldly work’ ([2], pp. 32–33; [3], pp. 33–34). The abbot of Bec protested vehemently that he should not be appointed to Canterbury but the bishops dragged him to the king’s beside. Rufus, almost in tears, pleaded with Anselm to remember the friendship he had shown towards his parents and not let him die still holding the archbishopric of Canterbury for fear that this would condemn his soul to torment. Still Anselm refused. Those surrounding the king became angry and accused the abbot of Bec of abandoning a dying man and condemning England to future oppressions. Turning to two of his followers, the monks Baldwin and Eustace, Anselm asked their advice. In tears, Baldwin answered that if it was the will of God, Anselm should obey and at that moment Baldwin’s nose began to bleed ([2], pp. 33–34). The king instructed all those present to kneel at Anselm’s feet in a gesture of supplication, but Anselm also kneeled down and still refused. Finally, the crowd shouted for the pastoral staff to be brought and they bent back Anselm’s fingers when he closed his fist to resist their attempts to force it into his hands. The bishops held the staff against his fist and then he was carried off into a neighbouring church still loudly protesting his objections. He cried out:
‘Do you realize what you are trying so hard to do? You are trying to harness together at the plough under one yoke an untamed bull and an old and feeble sheep. And what will come of it? Why, without doubt the untameable fury of the bull will drag the sheep, which should produce wool and milk and lambs, this way and that through the thorns and the briars; and the bull, if it do not shake itself of the yoke altogether, will so tear the sheep that the sheep, unable to furnish any of these good things, will be of no use either to itself or anyone else. How so? You have thoughtlessly mated the sheep with the bull.
[Quid ita? Inconsiderate ovem tauro copulastis.]’ ([2], pp. 35–36; [3], pp. 35–36)
Anselm continued the metaphor to explain that the Church in England was a plough and that it should be pulled along by two equally matched oxen, namely the king and the archbishop of Canterbury, the one drawing the plough along by his human justice and sovereignty, the other by divine doctrine and authority ([4], pp. 29–45). What Anselm feared was that the young king’s ‘untameable fury’ would eventually destroy the feeble old sheep ([2], p. 36).
Anselm’s dramatic ‘election’ as archbishop of Canterbury in 1093 marked the beginning of his turbulent relationships with successive kings of England, William Rufus and his younger brother Henry I (ruled 1100–1135), ([1], pp. 73–99; 125–66). In each case, Anselm felt obliged to go into exile, thereby abandoning his church to the depredations of the royal officers. Anselm’s election has been the subject of much debate and, from the late eleventh century onwards, questions have been raised as to the sincerity of Anselm’s opposition to his appointment. Soon after his elevation to the archdiocese of Canterbury, he felt it necessary to write to the monks of Bec giving his version of events as there were evidently rumours circulating that he had, in fact, wished for the appointment to the archiepiscopal see ([5], Volume IV, pp. 3–6; [6], Volume II, No. 148, pp. 7–11). An examination of Anselm’s career from his birth around 1033 in Aosta, now in Northern Italy, to the dramatic events of his election in April 1093, provides an opportunity to explore Anselm’s rise to prominence and whether using Weber’s model of charismatic authority can aid an interpretation of these events. Anselm’s monastic career also raises questions about the place of charisma in the monastery and the role it played in the creation and maintenance of abbatial authority. Given Anselm’s fame as an intellectual by 1093, the notion of academic charisma, understood in this context as the social capital and influence he derived from his reputation as a teacher, theologian and philosopher, might also be relevant here ([7], pp. 3–30). It is worth noting at the outset that the medieval sources for Anselm’s life and career display considerable bias in his favour and suggest that Anselm and his followers were careful to manage his public reputation. In addition, from Anselm’s own day forward, the conventions of medieval hagiography have influenced and continue to influence representations of the Archbishop [8,9]. These issues concerning the sources for a study of Anselm are addressed below.
2. Anselm and Charisma
By the spring of 1093, Abbot Anselm of Bec enjoyed a considerable reputation and this influenced those who chose him as the new archbishop for Canterbury, a position vacant since the death of Lanfranc in May 1089 ([10], p. 225). Since 1078 he had been the abbot of Bec, arguably the most influential monastery in Normandy ([1], pp. 23–48). He had served as prior under the monastery’s founder, the charismatic Abbot Herluin, before being elected unanimously by the monks of Bec as abbot ([11], pp. 15–25; [12], pp. 12, 44). When Anselm entered the monastery its affairs were in the hands of another influential figure, Prior Lanfranc, who later served as abbot of the Conqueror’s abbey of Saint-Étienne, Caen, before being appointed, in 1070, to the archdiocese of Canterbury ([10], pp. 11–74). Lanfranc was also a man of European reputation and his pontificate at Canterbury witnessed a period of considerable change in the post-Conquest English Church ([10], pp. 78–174). Lanfranc was Anselm’s mentor, or perhaps it is more appropriate to say that Anselm was Lanfranc’s disciple or follower. Even after his departure for Caen and Canterbury, Lanfranc exercised considerable influence over Anselm ([10], pp. 21–22, 150–51, 175–76, 180–81, 208–13; [13], pp. 39–66). Abbot Herluin and Prior Lanfranc represented contrasting but equally charismatic models for Anselm to emulate as he embarked on his monastic career.
The aim of this paper is to explore whether Anselm possessed the kind of charismatic authority that Weber envisaged in his analysis of the three forms of authority that underpin his theory of legitimate domination ([14], pp. 106–36). Anselm’s modern biographer, R.W. Southern, referred to the ‘remarkable hold that he [Anselm] had on the affection of violent and aggressive magnates’, and to his ‘extraordinary power of winning the love of people of all kinds’, but the word ‘charisma’ is not indexed in his study ([13], pp. 182, 184). As Weber originally borrowed the term from religious—indeed monastic—history and the work of Rudolf Sohm, it seems appropriate to apply it to the career of one of the most prominent ecclesiastical figures of the eleventh century ([15], p. 328; [16], p. 764 and n. 3; [17], pp. 185–97). Can the concepts of charisma and charismatic authority assist an analysis of Anselm’s rise to prominence, and his role as abbot of Bec, as well as providing another perspective on the circumstances of his appointment to Canterbury? It should be noted that Weber reinterpreted the original Pauline conception of charisma. As delineated in Paul’s Epistles to the Romans and to the Corinthians, the charismata did not include the divine gift of leadership and authority. It has been suggested that Paul’s aim was to emphasize that these spiritual gifts were to be understood in communal terms, as binding together early Christian congregations, rather than creating or reinforcing hierarchies ([14], pp. 23–50). For Weber, however, charisma was understood as an almost mystical component of the heroic leader’s authority allowing him to emancipate his peers from the heavily impersonal traditional and rational forms of social authority ([18], Volume II, pp. 1111–57; [14], pp. 106–36). It is thus Weber’s construction of aspects of charismatic authority that informs the following discussion.
Anselm’s individual, personal charisma preceded and influenced his election to a series of offices within the monastery at Bec, before assuring that he was nominated for the vacant archiepiscopal chair at Canterbury. It will be argued that the sources, tinged as they are with shades of hagiographical convention, do indeed indicate that Anselm exhibited certain traits of charismatic authority, but that these operated in conjunction with other forms of authority found in medieval monastic communities. It will also be suggested that Anselm was careful to cultivate a public image or reputation, partly based on his devotional, theological and philosophical writings, and partly on his status as abbot of Bec, which enabled him to make the most of those divine charismata or gifts with which his followers believed he was endowed. In this respect, the appointment to Canterbury may be seen as the culmination of a process of honing those gifts and it cannot be said, pace Weber, that, like other charismatic leaders, he sprang from nowhere to defy traditional authority through offering charismatic leadership ([18], Volume II, p. 1123). The paper concludes with a brief discussion of the dissolution of Anselm’s charismatic authority, at least as far as the kingdom of England is concerned, after 1097 once his followers realised that he could not—or would not—offer the leadership that they had expected at his elevation to Canterbury. The troubles Anselm experienced on his return to England from exile in the early years of Henry I may in part be attributable to the dissolution of his charisma in the preceding reign. However, it is necessary to begin by considering the nature of the main sources for such a study.
3. Biographer and Subject: Eadmer of Canterbury and Anselm of Bec
The main sources for Anselm’s career are Anselm’s own writings, especially his collected letters, and the accounts compiled by his disciple, Eadmer, monk of Canterbury, which contain a great deal of information derived from Anselm himself [2,5,12]. Eadmer was perhaps thirty years Anselm’s junior when he first met his hero in 1079. Eadmer was probably from a Kentish family and was born around 1060 ([13], pp. 402–21; [19], pp. 229–40; [20], pp. xiii–xxxv). He tells us that he was brought up in the cathedral priory of Christ Church Canterbury, which suggests that he entered the monastery as an oblate that is as child to be educated in the monastic life. In his writings, Eadmer refers to events he witnessed in the pontificate of Archbishop Lanfranc (1070 to 1089), but it was the meeting with Anselm and their subsequent relationship which had the most profound effect on his life ([12], I. xxix, pp. 48–50). Eadmer produced two linked accounts of Anselm’s career based on notes he had been compiling during his time with the archbishop [2,12,21,22]. Perhaps around 1100, Anselm asked to see these writings and, at first, corrected and rearranged the materials he was given. A little afterwards Anselm changed his mind and, arguing that he was not worthy of a literary memorial, ordered Eadmer to destroy the texts. Eadmer obeyed his master’s command but also managed to preserve the material by perpetrating an act of pious disobedience. ‘So I observed the letter of his command,’ he tells us, ‘and destroyed those quires, having first copied their contents onto other quires. Perhaps my action was not free from the sin of disobedience, for I carried out his order otherwise than I knew that he intended’ ([12], II. lxxii, pp. 150–51). Anselm’s decision to forbid Eadmer’s work may have been an expression of his humility, or an attempt to control the production of texts that might affect his work and public image. That Anselm was sensitive to such issues is suggested by the fact that in the Preface to his treatise Cur Deus Homo, Anselm noted that ‘[b]ecause of some people who, without my knowledge, began copying out the first parts of this work before it was finished and fully researched, I have been compelled to complete the work that follows, to the best of my ability, in greater haste than would have been opportune from my point of view’ ([5], Volume II, p. 42; [23], p. 261). The first version of the Vita S. Anselmi has been dated to between 1112 and 1114 ([20], p. xxiii). Its companion, Eadmer’s Historia Novorum in Anglia, it has been argued, originally ended with Anselm’s death in 1109, but he added further material ([20], pp. xxiii–ix). These two works form the basis for any study of Anselm’s life, but, as has been noted, they can be supplemented by his letter collection and other contemporary or near-contemporary accounts of his career (e.g., [24]).
Eadmer’s view of Anselm is that of a disciple and biographer and the fact that Anselm, at least as far as Eadmer was concerned, was a living saint should be borne in mind when assessing the evidence presented here ([25], pp. 8–9). Biographers run the risk of identifying themselves too closely with the concerns of their subjects and falling into the temptation of defending their actions at every turn. Eadmer was also a hagiographer and his expectations of the holy men he wrote about may have coloured his portrayal of Anselm and enhanced his sense of his subject’s charisma ([20], pp. xiii–xxxv; [8], pp. 38–71; [25], pp. 29–48). As a fellow monk, younger contemporary, and disciple, Eadmer shared almost the same normative and moral outlook as his subject, namely that of the Rule of St Benedict [26]. It might be assumed that he understood Anselm in ways that the modern historian cannot, no matter how much empathic sensibility is brought to the study. Weber himself wondered whether it was possible to write about religious experience in rational terms at all ([27], p. 233; [28], p. 23; cf. [29], pp. 1–30). There are signs, however, that Eadmer was not an unquestioning devotee of Anselm and the story of his pious disobedience suggests that he had the self-confidence to defy his hero, especially when his own interests as a writer were threatened.
4. Anselm Encounters Monastic Charisma
The account of Anselm’s monastic conversion provides a revealing insight into the level of his ambition. Eadmer, presumably drawing on the archbishop’s own recollections, tells us that Anselm left his home in Aosta (Northern Italy) after he and his father fell out.1 It is clearly implied that the death of Anselm’s mother, Ermenburga, was associated with this rift. Without her, Eadmer tells us, Anselm felt as though ‘the ship of his heart had lost its anchor’ ([12], I. iv, p. 6). Without her influence he may have succumbed to those worldly temptations that her presence had always dissuaded him from indulging in. Certainly, his writings, particularly his Prayers and Meditations, express an acute sense of personal sinfulness that may reflect a dissolute lifestyle in the years between the death of his mother and his monastic conversion ([5], Volume III, pp. 3–91; [31]).
Anselm headed north across the Alps and eventually arrived at Bec, drawn there by the fame of its prior, Lanfranc ([12], I. v, pp. 8–10; [10], pp. 15–24). Anselm recognised Lanfranc’s ‘outstanding wisdom, which shone forth in him’ and he placed himself under his guidance ([12], I. v, p. 8). In other words, Anselm fell under Lanfranc’s charismatic spell and became one of his followers. We are told that ‘Anselm’s devotion to Lanfranc was so great, and his belief in the value of Lanfranc’s advice so strong, that if, while they were going to Rouen through the great wood which lies above Bec, Lanfranc had said to him “Stay in this wood and see that you never come out so long as you live”, without a doubt, as he used to say, he would have obeyed that command’ ([12], I. vi, p. 11). It is no surprise to learn that Anselm looked to Lanfranc for guidance as to the future path his life should take. In a revealing passage Eadmer tells us that Anselm contemplated taking monastic vows at Bec or at the famous and very influential Burgundian abbey of Cluny. However, he hesitated because he feared that he would either be overshadowed by Lanfranc’s brilliance at Bec, or that the rigorous nature of life at Cluny would also condemn him to ‘fruitlessness or insignificance’. Anselm confessed to Eadmer that he recognised how shallow this made him appear, and added in his defence that ‘I was not yet tamed, and there was not yet in me any strong contempt of the world’ ([12], I. v, p. 9). Anselm’s youthful ambition is revealing here and it was only with hindsight that he understood how self-serving it appeared. Anselm was fearful of living in obscurity, his own light put into the shade by the personal charisma of Lanfranc on the one hand, or obscured by the rigorous regime and collective charisma of the monks of Cluny on the other. He was looking, so he told Eadmer, for somewhere to display his knowledge and be of service to others. Here, Anselm seems to have articulated a sense of mission, which consisted of an uneasy combination of the desire for self-promotion and the call to serve others ([12], I. v, p. 9). Anselm’s later embarrassment at this episode suggests that it was the fear of reputational obscurity rather than the missed opportunity for public service that so exercised him. This combination of self-promotion and the desire to serve others so that they might benefit from the charismatic’s personal gifts might be seen as typical of these figures. A charismatic leader needs followers and so obscurity was not an option for Anselm. The trope of service to others is reflected in the use of the formula servus servorum Dei (‘servant of the servants of God’) used by heads of medieval monastic houses, the papacy, and, indeed, by Anselm as abbot of Bec (e.g., [5], Volume III, pp. 232–34; [6], I, No. 101, pp. 252–55). The confidence in his own abilities and indeed the conviction that only he could provide answers for his followers might be indicated by Eadmer’s report of his hero’s demise in 1109. In his final illness, Anselm expressed a concern that, if he died, no-one else would be able to settle the question about the origin of the soul that he had been working on ([12], II. lxvi, p. 142). Anselm himself provided Eadmer with a clue as to the origins of this sense of personal mission. As a boy, Anselm had a vision in which he met and spoke with God in His heavenly court. If Anselm retained this memory for the rest of his adult life, it may have provided the foundation for the confidence in his self-worth that he repeatedly displayed ([12], I. ii, pp. 4–5).
Once he had decided, with the help of Lanfranc and Archbishop Maurilius of Rouen (1055–67), to become a monk at Bec, Anselm, then aged twenty-seven, set his mind to emulating the more religious of the monks ([12], I. vii, pp. 11–13). So successful was he that he became the very pattern of the monastic life. For three years Anselm practised his monastic vocation assiduously and, Eadmer reported, he was rewarded with the gift of insight concerning the divinity of God. One night he was so fixed on trying to understand how it was that the prophets of old ‘could see both past and future as if they were present’, that he seemed to acquire the ability to see through the solid walls of the church and dormitory and watch his fellow monks preparing for matins ([12], I. vii, pp. 12–13). This extraordinary faculty was the mark of the charismatic and it must be assumed that reports of Anselm’s divine gifts became the subject of whispered conversation in Bec’s cloister and perhaps of rumours circulating beyond the monastery walls. Recognition of Anselm’s personal charismata played a role in his elevation as prior on Lanfranc’s departure for Caen in 1063 and then, on the death of Herluin in 1078, as abbot, although, as has been mentioned, authority and leadership were not components of the original Pauline conception of charisma ([12], I, p. 12; I. xxvi, p. 44).
Abbot Herluin was Bec’s charismatic figurehead and as he grew older he relied more and more on Anselm for the day to day running of his monastery [32,33]. In this respect, Anselm might be seen as an agent of the process Weber identified as the ‘routinization of charisma’ ([15], pp. 363–66). In order to deal with the necessary and mundane operations of the monastery some of Herluin’s personal charismatic authority had to be combined with more traditional and legal forms of domination ([34], pp. 287–88). Herluin’s deputy, the prior, ensured that discipline was maintained in the monastic community and that the everyday needs of its members were met. This raises the question of the other kinds of authority functioning within the monastery. The dominant normative monastic text in the Medieval West was the Rule of St Benedict. The Rule prescribed that the monks would obey their abbot, whose authority was derived from his office ([26], Chapter 5, pp. 14–15]. This would seem to align with Weber’s characterisation of ‘rational-legal’ authority in which official functions are bound by rules, or, in this case the Rule ([34], p. 330). That is not to say that the charismatic authority of the individual abbot might not enhance the authority derived from the office exercised by those in positions of power within the medieval monastery. The abbot was also given advice on how to fulfil his role and it is instructive to compare the record of Anselm’s actions with these guide-lines ([26], Chapter 2, pp. 6–9).
According to his biographer, Anselm demonstrated a talent for empathy so that he ‘understood the characters of people of whatever age or sex’. It was claimed that he had the ability to open up the secrets of their hearts and to expose their propensity for virtue or vice. There was no doubt that ‘the spirit of counsel ruled in his heart’ ([12], I. viii, pp. 13–15; cf. [26], pp. 6–9). As well as this aspect of his charisma, Anselm began to perform the bodily discipline expected of a holy man ([12], I. viii, pp. 14–15). Anselm’s charismatic authority was to some extent dependent on this performativity, an aspect that is explored further below. The medieval Church understood the power of outward manifestations of inner spirituality and the monks of Bec seem to have been especially adept in the use of holy tears. Anselm wept along with the best of them and the sincerity of his compunction was demonstrated again and again by the copious tears he shed [35]. Anselm’s bodily comportment and the sheer emotional content of his spirituality as expressed most notably in his Prayers and Meditations enhanced his charismatic authority (e.g., [5], Volume III, pp. 3–91; [31]). This was necessary for Anselm had enemies within the monastery. Eadmer described the extent of the problem:
...some of the brethren of the monastery were his enemies, being envious at seeing him, whom in seniority of profession they judged ought to have come after them, preferred before them. Being thus upset, they upset others; they spread scandal, they made dissensions [scandala movent, dissentiones pariunt], they formed cliques and fostered hatreds.
([12], I. ix, pp. 15–16)
If his exemplary life was not sufficient to prompt his opponents to emulate him, Anselm’s solution was to find another way to reach his enemies. Here we are introduced to the ‘holy guile’ [quadam sancta calliditate] through which he brought his opponents round to his will. Eadmer gives the example of the monk Osbern whom Anselm trained to love him. The technique described involved at first flattering the young monk and indulging his boyish pranks, and then, after winning his trust, gradually refashioning his outlook by withdrawing the indulgences and bringing him round to conformity. That refashioning might involve corporal punishment as well as verbal admonishment. Anselm’s programme had the desired effect and Osbern the rebellious monk became one of his prior’s most devoted followers ([12], I. x, pp. 16–20). The ability of the charismatic leader to inspire love in his followers seems to be demonstrated in Anselm’s reconfiguration of the emotions of the young monk Osbern. The application of this ‘holy guile’ also suggests parallels with the techniques of more modern charismatic leaders such as Jim Jones, the leader of the Peoples Temple ([36], pp. 137–55).
Anselm’s educational techniques have been the subject of detailed investigation [37]. Part of Anselm’s success was due to his ability to reach his followers through the use of effective rhetorical techniques. He was a master of the apt metaphor as his explanation as to why he focused his attention on the education of adolescents makes clear. Drawing his metaphor from the practice of sealing documents with wax, he noted that it was difficult to make an impression on the hardened wax of old men ‘sunk in the vanity of the world’. Similarly, the molten wax of the very young who are unable to distinguish between good and evil will not hold an impression. Only the wax of the adolescent, lying as it does between these extremes will hold the impression one gives it. ‘If you teach him, you can shape him as you wish’ ([12], I. xi, pp. 20–21).
In dealing with opposition within the monastery, Anselm was able to draw on the institutional charismatic authority of his position as prior which, in a monastery such as Bec headed by a charismatic, but administratively passive abbot like Herluin, gave him considerable power. In this respect he emulated the position of his predecessor, Lanfranc, and, as has been noted, embodied that routinization of charisma that Weber envisaged as the inevitable development of charismatic authority. By the time he left Bec in 1092 to come to England, he was accustomed to his personal charisma being reinforced by the institutional charisma and authority of the monastic offices he had held.
Eadmer suggests that long before his elevation to Canterbury, Anselm, then still in Normandy, found the burdens of office wearisome and tearfully petitioned Archbishop Maurilius of Rouen that he might be relieved of his duties. The archbishop refused to countenance the request and Anselm was ordered to retain the office of prior unless his abbot decreed otherwise. In what might be a later addition or interpretation of this exchange, Eadmer wrote that Maurilius predicted that Anselm would not long remain in his current post, but would be elevated to a higher office ([12], I. xii, pp. 21–22). Part of Anselm’s reported reluctance to continue as prior may have stemmed from a desire to continue his theological and philosophical writing unhindered. Anselm’s growing reputation in the period before his election to the see of Canterbury was in no small measure due to the charisma derived from his reputation as a scholar, which provided an added source of authority, and so his complaints about the burden of his administrative duties may have had some force.
5. Anselm’s Scholarly Charisma
By the time of his election as archbishop of Canterbury, Anselm had established a reputation as a theologian and philosopher. As well as his popular and widely circulated Prayers and Meditations, and early writings On Truth, On the Freedom of the Will and On the Fall of the Devil, he also developed a preoccupation with the nature of God which he explored in two influential works ([38]; [5], Volumes I–III; [23]). In his famous text the Monologion completed before 1077, his methodology departed from the usual path of monastic intellectual enquiry in that he ‘put aside all authority of Holy Scripture [and] enquired into and discovered by reason alone what God is, and proved by invincible reason that God’s nature is what the true faith holds it to be, and that it could not be other than it is’ ([12], I. xix, pp. 28–31; [5], Volume I, pp. 1–87; [23], pp. 3–81). As described by Eadmer, Anselm became obsessed with this work and could think of nothing else. Just as he began to worry that his preoccupation might be a trick of the Devil, he experienced a moment of clarity and quickly committed his thoughts to wax tablets. In the context of this discussion of Anselm’s charisma, it is significant that Eadmer reports this revelation in the following manner:
Then suddenly one night during matins the grace of God illuminated his heart, the whole matter became clear to his mind, and a great joy and exultation filled his inmost being.
([12], I. xix, p. 30)
Anselm’s understanding was a gift from God in the original, Pauline, sense of the Apostolic charismata. ([14], pp. 23–50)
Anselm’s ontological proof for the existence of God has since become famous, but his method challenged accepted practice and prompted misgivings in his mentor, Lanfranc, whose approval of an early version of the text was, as one of Anselm’s modern biographers put it, ‘less than lukewarm’ ([12], I. xix, p. 29, n. 2; cf. [5], Volume III, pp. 193–94; [6], Volume I, No. 72, pp. 197–98). Despite his protestations that he would do nothing with the work unless it met with Lanfranc’s approval, Anselm persevered with it and, together with the Proslogion, it became a major component of his reputation as a scholar. There is an interesting story preserved by Eadmer that the wax tablets used by Anselm were ‘lost’ and it might be the case that the monk into whose charge he committed them for safe-keeping found their contents disturbing. Another set of wax tablets were found broken the next morning ([12], I. xix, pp. 30–31). The self-confidence needed to challenge accepted practice in theological matters suggests that Anselm possessed the charismatic self-assurance, or arrogance, to challenge tradition, a trait identified by Weber as characteristic of the charismatic leader. Anselm was lauded and he was invited to preach to clergy and laity alike. He was the guest of honour in monastic houses and the residences of the aristocracy in Normandy, England, and beyond ([12], I. xxii, pp. 39–40). He talked with everyone, great and small, and even set aside time to talk to a mere youth of about nineteen (Eadmer), who would later become his biographer ([12], I. xxix, pp. 48–50; I. xxxi, pp. 54–57). Anselm’s writings were criticized and he was called to defend his texts from charges of unorthodoxy (e.g., [38], p. 24). But such was Anselm’s fame as a scholar that at the Council of Bari in 1098 he was chosen by his friend, Pope Urban II, to speak on behalf of Latin Christendom and refute the ‘errors of the Greeks on the Procession of the Holy Spirit’ ([12], II. xxxiv, pp. 112–13).
6. Signs and Wonders
Anselm’s reputation did not rest on his intellectual achievements alone. His charismatic authority was also strengthened through the perception of his living sanctity and the working of miracles. As has been noted, as a boy, Anselm had reported to all who would listen that he had had a vision in which he met and spoke with God. He was also fed with the pure white bread of Heaven ([12], I. ii, pp. 4–5). Later, as well as that ability to see through walls reported above, Anselm was credited with wonder-working gifts. Eadmer tells us that Anselm was able simply with a look to cure a youth troubled with pain in his genitalia. He was also able to drive off the wolves, which a gravely ill monk imagined were attacking him ([12], I. xiv, pp. 23–24; I. xv, pp. 24–25). In the latter episode the invalid claimed that when Anselm ‘came in the door and raised his hand to make the sign of the cross, he saw a tongue of flame come out of his mouth as if it were a lance hurled at the wolves’ ([12], I. xv, p. 25). The motif of the divine fire was repeated in the story of the monk Riculfus who claimed to have seen Anselm at prayer in the midst of a ball of fire ([12], I. xvi, pp. 25–26). More mundane wonders were performed by Anselm when he miraculously provided food for his companions ([12], I. xvii, pp. 26–27; I. xviii, pp. 27–28). In these cases Anselm demonstrated that he was ‘inspired by the spirit of prophecy’ ([12], I. xviii, p. 28). Further evidence of Anselm’s visionary gift was reported by Eadmer. During an illness, Anselm was ‘caught up in the spirit of ecstasy’ and was shown a raging torrent into which all the filth of the world flowed. The river sucked in men and women of all status and he was shocked to discover that they drank the filthy water and positively revelled in their fate. Anselm’s spirit guide allowed him to view the true monastic vocation symbolised by a shining silver cloister with silvery grass underfoot. Eadmer assures his reader that Anselm understood that only the true monastic life was for him and he committed himself thenceforth to it. Interestingly, Eadmer tells us that Anselm was also committed to understanding the rational basis for the monastic life and communicating that to others ([12], I. xxi, pp. 35–36).
As portrayed by his biographer, Anselm was a miracle worker and Eadmer assures his readers that he might have included many more accounts of cures effected through the water in which Anselm had washed his hands and the morsels of food that had been secretly removed from his plate ([12], I. xxxv, pp. 61–62). Anselm’s reputation for sanctity, his fama sanctitatis, enhanced his charismatic appeal and drew crowds of the laity as well as members of the Church in search of his help ([12], I. xxxii, pp. 57–59). Indeed, his fame crossed the divisions between faiths. Eadmer tells us that during Anselm’s time in Southern Italy in 1098, the archbishop’s saintly reputation was recognised by the Muslim troops in the service of Count Roger I of Sicily:
Some of them, I say, were stirred by the report of his goodness which circulated among them to frequent our lodging. They gratefully accepted offerings of food from Anselm and returned to their own people making known the wonderful kindness which they had experienced at his hands. As a result he was from this time held in such veneration among them, that when we passed through their camp—for they were all encamped together—a huge crowd of them, raising their hands to heaven, would call down blessings on his head; then kissing their hands, as they are wont, they would do him reverence on their bended knees giving thanks for his kindness and liberality.
Eadmer goes on to say that many of the Muslims would have converted there and then, had not the Count of Sicily threatened them ([12], II. xxxiii, pp. 111–12).
7. Anselm and the Economics of Charisma
Anselm, like many others identified as medieval charismatics, rejected the personal use of money. As a Benedictine monk he was vowed to poverty, but, it must be remembered, many monastic houses were among the wealthiest institutions in medieval society and those in positions of responsibility perforce had to deal with the acquisition and disbursement of money and the pressures of commercial transactions. However, it is argued that one of the ways that a charismatic leader obtained legitimate authority was to reject attachment to mundane routines. In this respect the tenets of medieval monasticism would seem to have provided the perfect foundation for such a leader. In a sense he was able to draw on the collective charisma of the monastic order itself. This collective charisma already marked out its adherents as standing outside the routine expectations of everyday life. One of the paradoxes of medieval monasticism, especially relating to new or reformed monastic orders, was that the very espousal of Apostolic poverty attracted wealth in the form of pious donation ([12], I. xxii, pp. 39–40). Patrons recognised that this purer form of monasticism was preferred as more efficacious for the soul’s welfare. Thus, reconciling the financial success of a monastery with its spiritual mission became a problem for monastic authorities.
Anselm was careful to ensure that none of Bec’s resources were seen to be his private property. Eadmer’s text is interesting, but contradictory here because, at the same time as he explains that Anselm ensured that resources that had been assigned for his use during journeys made on the abbey’s business were to be put at the disposal of anyone making such a journey, the abbot ‘never held back from supplying the necessities of others from his own store’ ([12], I. xxiii, p. 40). Great sums of gold and silver were offered to Anselm, but he made sure that they were given to the abbey and its monks. Eadmer suggested that this may have cost Bec some revenues as one donor made it clear that the gifts were for Anselm alone ([12], I. xxiii, p. 41). There is a hint in Eadmer’s text that Anselm’s professed abhorrence of wealth might not have been universally believed. In describing Anselm’s preaching tours, Eadmer reported the story of the knight Cadulus who wanted to take up the monastic life. He was intercepted by the devil on his way to meet Anselm and asked why he wanted to see that ‘hypocrite prior. Certainly his reputation is at variance with his manner of life...For this hypocrisy has already deceived many and, having buttered them up with vain hopes, has stripped them and left them destitute’ ([12], I. xxv, p. 43). It may be significant that Anselm helped Cadulus find his monastic vocation, but persuaded him to become a monk at Marmoutier:
For it was Anselm’s custom, notwithstanding any hope of advantage, never to persuade anyone who wished to renounce the world, to do so at his own monastery rather than elsewhere. And the consideration which led him to act thus was as follows: if anyone entered the monastery except as a result of his own deliberation, and then—as might happen—found it irksome and began to disparage it, he might attribute his own scandalized and impatient grumbling to Anselm’s persuasion, and so make serious divisions between him and the others.
([12], I. xxv, p. 43)
This might be seen as ensuring the continued harmony of the abbey under Anselm’s control, but it could also be interpreted as an attempt to minimize the potential for damage to Anselm’s reputation, should the monastic recruit prove less than satisfactory.
8. Performing Charisma
It has been observed that charisma demands an audience and it is thus important to recognise the performative aspect of charismatic authority ([16], pp. 767–68). The rituals and ceremonies that were expressive of, and constitutive of, medieval monasticism allowed those occupying positions in the monastic hierarchy to demonstrate their authority. Their words and actions were, in this respect, naturally the focus of the attention of their subordinates. If that attention wandered, there were officers empowered to remind the monks of their duty ([39], pp. 168–86). An aspect of Anselm’s performance of charismatic authority was his ability to draw attention to himself through silence and inactivity. A passage in the Life of St Anselm describes his management of the secular affairs of the monastery of Bec. Eadmer pictures Anselm, by then abbot of the monastery, delegating most of the mundane business. However, whenever he was called to attend judicial assemblies, he adopted surprising tactics:
…when he was in a crowd of litigants and his opponents were laying their heads together, discussing the crafts and wiles by which they could help their own case and fraudulently injure his, he would have nothing to do with such things; instead, he would discourse to those who would listen about the Gospels or some other part of the Bible, or at least about some subject tending to edification. And often, if there was no-one to listen to such talk, he would compose himself, in the sweet quietness of a pure heart, to sleep. Then sometimes, when the frauds which had been prepared with intricate subtlety were brought to his notice he would immediately detect and disentangle them, not like a man who had just been sleeping, but like one who had been wide-awake, keeping a sharp watch.
([12], I. xxvii, p. 46)
When his attempts to remind his adversaries that part of his authority lay in his command of the interpretation of Scripture were ignored, Anselm seems to have feigned indifference to the proceedings and this charismatic hauteur subsequently enabled him to catch off-guard his litigious opponents. This was a tactic that he was to employ later during his difficulties with the king (e.g., [2], p. 58). This suggests the charismatic leader’s confidence in his own judgement and his willingness to flout convention and challenge tradition. Whether Anselm was asleep or not, his followers and those who found themselves faced with this sleeping monk in court, evidently noticed this singular display and were presumably disconcerted by it (cf. [40], pp. 51–55). Anselm’s inaction was, in fact, highly effective engagement with his audience.
When he was unanimously elected as Herluin’s successor as abbot of Bec, Anselm resisted the appointment with all his might. After reasoned argument failed, Anselm resorted to physical displays of supplication. Demonstrative bodily comportment was utilised in an attempt to appeal to the emotions of the monks of Bec. He threw himself down at their feet and with ‘tears and pitiable sobs he begged and prayed, in the name of Almighty God, that if they had any bowels of mercy in them, they would act towards him with the mercy of God before their eyes, abandoning their attempt and allowing him to remain free of so great a burden.’ However, the monks were equally versed in such rituals and similarly skilled in demonstrations of this sort. They, too, prostrated themselves ‘and begged him to have mercy on the monastery and on themselves rather than on himself, lest putting aside the common good he should be convicted of loving himself alone before all others.’ Eventually Anselm was instructed by Archbishop Maurilius of Rouen to accept the burden of office ([12], I. xxvi, pp. 44–45). The parallels with Anselm’s election to the see of Canterbury are instructive and when that later episode is borne in mind, Eadmer's comment that ‘such then was the violence with which he was made abbot’ takes on something of a critical note ([12], I. xxvi, p. 45). There is a similar ironic twist in a letter from Abbot Fulk of Saint Pierre-sur-Dives to Anselm. Abbot Fulk quoted verbatim from a letter which Anselm had sent him on his own election to the abbacy, reminding him of his duty to accept the burden of office ([5], Volume III, pp. 213–14; [6], Volume I, No. 88, pp. 227–28). Was there a wry smile on Fulk’s face as he composed his letter of encouragement to Anselm and dictated, ‘It is indeed a wonderful victory to prevail over somebody with his own weapons’?
9. Charisma and Fame: Anselm in England
Anselm’s fame preceded him when he made his first visit to England in 1079, the year of his consecration as abbot of Bec. It is at this point in the Vita Anselmi that its author, Eadmer, moves from being mere biographer to eye-witness and participant in events. ‘It was at this time,’ he tell us, ‘that I too was found worthy to come to the notice of his holiness [et ego ad sanctitatis ejus notitiam pervenire merui] and, considering my insignificance—for I was only a youth—I enjoyed no small share of the blessing of his friendship.’ The fact that Eadmer was a youth was important as it has been noted how Anselm paid special attention to the education of young men. Biographers occasionally find it difficult not to enhance their own standing by associating themselves with the virtues of their subjects, and it is thus significant that Eadmer added this autobiographical note just after telling his readers that Anselm was in the habit of talking privately with the more intelligent monks [cum iis qui profundioris ingenii erant] of Christ Church, Canterbury ([12], I. xxix, p. 50).
One of the main reasons for Anselm’s visit to England was to inspect the estates of the abbey of Bec and to receive the oaths of homage from the monastery’s tenants. On his travels, Anselm was a guest in many communities of monks, nuns and canons, as well as receiving the hospitality of certain noblemen. According to Eadmer, Anselm was cheerful and approachable, with the result that:
...the hearts of all, being wonderfully moved to love him, were seized with a ravenous hunger to hear his words. For he adapted his words to every class of men, so that his hearers declared that nothing could have been spoken that was more appropriate to their station. He spoke to monks, to clerks, and to laymen, ordering his words to the way of life of each.
Therefore the attraction of Anselm’s sermons was that he preached ad status that is to the particular interests of his audience, winning them over as followers. He enabled his audience to understand complex ideas by drawing on metaphors culled from everyday life. His rhetorical skills and the force of his performance are reported as considerable, as was his ability to connect emotionally with his audience. His style, Eadmer suggests, departed from the usual:
And when we say that he admonished or instructed or taught these things, he did it not as others are wont to teach, but far differently; he set forth each point with familiar examples in daily life, supporting them with evidence of solid reason, and leaving them in the minds of his hearers, stripped of all ambiguity. Everyone therefore who could enjoy his conversation was glad to do so, for on any subject they wished he had heavenly counsel ready for them. Hence men and women of every age admired and loved him, and the more powerful and distinguished they were the more anxious and ready they were to serve him.
([12], I. xxxi, p. 55)
Anselm’s preaching was evidently directed at the interests of the different ranks of his audience, a technique known as ad status preaching (e.g., [41]). Such was Anselm’s appeal that even the most prominent in secular society were also won over. Most notably the powerful king, William the Conqueror, a man with charisma of his own, who appeared intimidating, ‘nevertheless unbent and was amiable with Anselm, so that to everyone’s surprise he seemed an altogether different man when Anselm was present’ ([12], I. xxxi, p. 56; [42]). The abbot of Bec, according to his biographer, made a considerable impact on England and the Normans who had settled there. ‘The good report of Anselm thus became known in every part of England and he was beloved by everyone as a man to be revered for his sanctity’ ([12], I. xxxi, p. 57). Fame adheres to the charismatic leader and might be judged an essential attribute given the leader’s need for devoted followers. Fame also needs to be cultivated. The distinction between Weberian and popular charisma has been recognised, but here it is difficult to separate the concepts ([16], pp. 764–65). Did Anselm’s sermons entertain as well as provide spiritual food for his audience? Could the people Eadmer writes about have been ‘fans’ of Anselm’s preaching instead of, or as well as, followers of the man himself? Could they understand his words, or was his delivery, his performance, of sufficient strength to render the ability to understand his words irrelevant? Whether Anselm ever made use of the ‘techniques of frenzy’ is doubtful ([36], pp. 102–06), but whatever the answer to these questions, Anselm’s reputation was assured and when the English Church faced a crisis during the reign of the Conqueror’s successor, it was to the famously holy abbot of Bec that the people and clergy turned for help.
10. Conclusions: Failed Charisma
After a decade or more since his last recorded visit in 1079, Anselm returned to England in September 1092. Anselm’s letters as abbot of Bec demonstrate that he had maintained contacts with England in the years between his visits, perhaps preparing the ground for his eventual elevation to Canterbury ([5], Volume III, pp. 213–94; [6], Volume I, pp. 225–334). However, several specific reasons are cited for his arrival in 1092: Hugh of Avranches, earl of Chester and many other noblemen in England had chosen Anselm as their spiritual physician and protector. He also had duties connected with Bec’s estates in England ([12], II. i, p. 63; [2], pp. 27–29). Anselm arrived in Canterbury on 7 September 1092 and the next morning he set off for a meeting with the king before making his way to Chester. Eadmer tells us that the monks at Canterbury had welcomed Anselm and had immediately acclaimed him as archbishop, ‘as if foretelling the future’. At Christmas that year he stayed in London, probably with his friend and pupil Gilbert Crispin the abbot of Westminster and another of the Bec alumni who formed a mutual support network throughout the Anglo-Norman regnum ([1], pp. 23–48). When Anselm attended the royal court he was welcomed eagerly by all the nobility and William Rufus himself rose from his throne and met him at the threshold of his hall joyfully ([12], II. i, pp. 63–64). Anselm spoke privately with the king and rebuked him for the things that were being reported about him, which ‘by no means befitted the dignity of a king.’ He then left for Chester ([12], II. i, p. 64). There he gave advice to the earl about plans to bring monks from Bec to the abbey of St Werburgh. It was during Anselm’s stay with Earl Hugh that King William was struck down with the illness mentioned at the beginning of this paper.
There has been considerable debate about Anselm’s investiture as archbishop of Canterbury, but here the focus is on the motives of those who put him forward for the post, rather than on the sincerity of Anselm’s refusal to accept the office (e.g., [13], pp. 186–94). The medieval sources suggest that Anselm was an obvious candidate to succeed Lanfranc as archbishop. He was well-known to the English Church hierarchy and had found followers among the secular aristocracy. Even the king showed him respect and tolerated his moral criticisms. For the English Church this was a time of crisis, although whether Christianity itself was under threat is doubtful. Weber suggested that it is in moments of distress that charismatic saviours often emerge as natural leaders offering a path out of the crisis ([18], Volume II, pp. 1111–12; [14], p. 122). At just such a time of distress the collective will of the secular and ecclesiastical communities of England was that Anselm should become archbishop of Canterbury, and ‘not a single voice was raised in objection’ ([12], II. ii, p. 65). Anselm’s authority was recognised and it was hoped that this saintly man, as a recognised charismatic leader, fortified with the added charisma of his monastic office and his reputation as a scholar, could guide the English Church out of its tribulations. In addition, Anselm’s status as an ‘adopted Norman’ and his presumed command of the French language, as well as his relationship with the ducal and then royal house, would have ensured his acceptability to members of the Norman ruling class, both ecclesiastical and secular.2 Anselm was, as Eadmer noted, ‘the man most fitted for the work’ ([12], II. ii, p. 64). There were, however, dissenting voices and these belonged to the monks of Bec, Anselm’s equally devoted followers in Normandy, who feared the loss of their charismatic abbot. The monks of Bec had a prior emotional and institutional claim on Anselm and he recognised the distress that his departure caused. The strength of feeling of the monks of Bec is understandable as, in a very real sense, they had been instrumental in fashioning Anselm’s charismatic reputation. But despite their protests, Anselm submitted to the will of God, as he wrote in one of his letters, and accepted his elevation to Canterbury ([5], Volume IV, pp. 17–24; [6], II, No. 156, pp. 28–36). Their abbot, in whom they had invested so much, had abandoned the monks of Bec. In taking up the archiepiscopal office Anselm’s charismatic authority, at least in the Norman abbey of Bec, began to dissolve just as it was being formed by the monks’ counterparts in Christ Church, Canterbury.
This analysis of the early part of Anselm’s career has attempted to make use of Weber’s model of charismatic authority. Anselm’s charisma operated on many levels and together these various manifestations of authority combined to make him one of the most influential figures of his day. However, his position as archbishop of Canterbury proved precarious and before the end of 1097 he was forced into exile ([12], II. xxii, p. 98; [2], pp. 87–88). As his relationship with William Rufus deteriorated, Anselm increasingly faced opposition from those who had seen in him a chance to restore the fortunes of the English Church. With each setback, the power of Anselm’s charismatic authority, with the exception of his scholarly reputation, dwindled. Eventually, in England, just as in 1093 in the abbey of Bec, the spell was broken and there seems to have been no popular outcry at his treatment at the hands of the king and his officers. In 1097, Anselm fled the kingdom abandoning the English Church as he had abandoned the monks of Bec. His charismatic authority could not withstand the pressure applied by the king, an individual who also combined the charisma of office with personal charisma to expose and exploit the instability of his archbishop’s pretensions to leadership. The archbishop may, after all, have been right to highlight the inequality in the relationship between the ‘wild, untamed bull’ William Rufus and the ‘feeble, old sheep’ Anselm. The governance of the medieval Church in any principality inevitably threw into sharp relief the charismatic foundations of the authority of the king and that of his leading prelates. This period in the history of the Latin Church is characterized by the sometimes violent search for a modus vivendi between what we might somewhat anachronistically term Church and State [43].
The crucial blow to Anselm’s position was delivered by his followers in England, who simply lost faith in his charismatic authority. For Anselm it was a relief: ‘being now out of England, [Anselm] rejoiced exceedingly and gave thanks repeatedly to God because he saw that he had escaped as from the great furnace of Babylon, and had attained a sort of peak of calmness and rest’ ([12], II. xxiv, p. 100). The failure of Anselm’s charismata to prevent the deterioration of his relationship with the king, nobles and clergy of England highlights the precarious nature of this type of authority. Resting as it does as much in the perceptions of the followers of charismatic figures and their continued faith in their leader, as on the actions of the object of their devotion, this manifestation of authority is prone to sudden and devastating dissipation.3
1It is interesting to note that Weber too had an argument with his father after which he never saw him again. News of his father’s death seems to have triggered a mental breakdown ([28], p. 14). For the suggestion that personal trauma is a source of charismatic motivation, see [30].
2My thanks to Gary Dickson (personal communication) for this point.
3After the completion of this article, Professor Judith Green drew my attention to Samu Niskanen’s study of the letters collections of Archbishop Anselm [44].
Acknowledgements
I should like to record my thanks to Gary Dickson for inviting me to offer this article in response to the special edition of the journal and for his judicious comments on an earlier draft of this article. Thanks are also due to those who reviewed this article and made valuable suggestions for its improvement. Any faults that remain are the author’s alone.
Conflicts of Interest
The author declares no conflict of interest.
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Kathleen G Cushing. Reform and the Papacy in the Eleventh Century: Spirituality and Social Change. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 2005. [Google Scholar]
Samu Niskanen. The Letter Collections of Anselm of Canterbury (Instrumenta Patristica et Mediaevalia). Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols, 2011. [Google Scholar]
© 2014 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/).
Share and Cite
MDPI and ACS Style
Aird, W.M. Saint Anselm of Canterbury and Charismatic Authority. Religions 2014, 5, 90-108. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel5010090
AMA Style
Aird WM. Saint Anselm of Canterbury and Charismatic Authority. Religions. 2014; 5(1):90-108. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel5010090
Chicago/Turabian Style
Aird, William M. 2014. "Saint Anselm of Canterbury and Charismatic Authority" Religions 5, no. 1: 90-108. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel5010090
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https://vb.com/tech/
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the journey of VB.com / Cremerie de Paris
|
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[
"vb",
"vb.com",
"pop up store paris",
"expo location",
"villeroy",
"bourbon",
"very beautiful",
"cremerie de paris",
"pop uo store",
"center of paris",
"two letter dot com"
] | null |
[] | null |
VB.com, is a historic Pop Up Expo location in Paris and a meeting place of the World's most famous brands.
|
en
|
favicon.ico
| null |
La Poste going from 38 rue des Bourdonnais
to 11 rue des Dechargeurs in the heart of Paris 1671 January 21
The Villeroy family sells the Hôtel de Villeroy Bourbon VB
as Louis XIV had invited his childhood friends
Catherine de Villeroy (1639 - 1707)
and François de Villeroy (1644 - 1730)
to live at his future house,
the Place of Versailles which is still under construction.
The buyers
Leon Pajot I (1625 est - 1668)
and Louis Rouille (1630 - 1694)
come from the city of Tours.
They had grown up in two families
involved in transport activities.
The two friends have the project,
create a postal service
similar to the one the Thurn & Taxis had developed
in the Habsbourg territories
(today Belgium, Germany, Italy)
Their parents help to finance the project.
1677 the children of the company founders
get married
Louis Pajot II (1647 - 1708)
is the son of Louis Pajot I
Marie Anne Rouillé (1659 - 1694)
the daughter of Leon Rouillé
1694 Louis Pajot II
2nd generation
Louis Pajot II (1647 - 1708) becomes the next
Maitre des Postes / Postmaster.
1708 Louis Leon Pajot
3rd Generation
1708 Louis Leon Pajot (1678 - 1754)
becomes Maitre des Postes
He is the common grandson
of both company founders
Louis I Pajot and Leon Rouillé
As a young boy Louis Leon
is not of good physical condition
but he is very bright.
He spends his childhood reading books
Educated by the Jesuits
he develops a strong interest in science ...
Travelling he meets
some of the most recognised scientists of their times.
Under the management of Louis Leon Pajot
from VB are cordinated
900 Post Relais
located all around the Bourbon Territories
with some outlets in Italy.
The Pajot and the Rouille families
connect all their children,
sons, daughters, sons in law,
grand-children and cousins
to work in their Postal Company.
Louis Leon has six brothers and two sisters,
all working in the Postal company
Alexandre Pajot, Pierre Maximilian Pajot,
Jean Baptiste Pajot, Antoine Pajot,
Anne Marie Pajor, Maria Anna Pajot,
and Francois Pajot.
Louis Leon Pajot
studies all possible ways
to optimise post transport
at a time electricity and phones do not jet exist.
He starts a collection
of mesuring instruments .
Drawing by Louis Bretez and his students.
The Hotel de Villeroy Bourbon VB
also called Hotel de la Poste
is a hotspot in Paris
Foreign visitors want to meet with
Louis Leon Pajot
and see his amazing collection of mesuring instruments
Among his visitors are Tsar Alexander of Russia
The problem is international mail.
Louis Leon Pajot needs a partner
covering territories
beyong the frontiers of the Bourbons
1926 June 5 was born in Bavaria
Johannes Thurn & Taxis
Grandfather Albert 8th Prince of Thurn & Taxis
(1867 - 1952)
educated his grandsons
on the unique Postal history of the TT family
1952 Johannes 11th Prince of Thurn & Taxis
inherits directly from his grandfather
the main part of the Postal fortune.
He is the 6 x great grandson of Anselm Franz
mentioned above
Johannes has a strong interest
in everything related to PTT,
under control of State monopolies.
He dreams of reinvesting
in technology industries.
1986 January Fashion Week
Thurn & Taxis comes to Paris
and meets a young student
who works as a host in fashion shows.
He is amused by the student's
interest in crazy and funny stories
about his ancestores
carrying letters with horses.
1986 May Thurn and Taxis returns to Paris
and decides to show the student
VB, the old Hôtel de Villeroy Bourbon,
the only place still in exisitence
from the times of the old Postal Services.
The place is in poor conditions
but nothing seams to have changed ...
Walking around
Thurn and Taxis has the impression
that
Spirit of Technology
fallen asleep 248 years ago
is still around
in the old walls of VB
back in 1738
the place was
one of the three avant-garde
centers of a global
Telecom network
Leaving the VB mansion
70 m down the street
Thurn and Taxis and the student
walk by a small shop
11 rue des Halles
with a sign
"Bail à ceder / Lease for sale"
Thurn and Taxis walks into an opposit cafe
(mobile phone did not exit yet)
and immediatly calls the number
Hangig up the phone:
"This is not even half of what my wife
spends on a dress,
I want to buy this place
for you
and you have the mission
to find a new idea
in the field of
Telecommunications ...
I will enjoy to observe
what you will be doing
with what might be one Thaler
coming from the old postmasters.
You will see
there will be many changes
in Telecom Industry
and there will be many opportunities ..."
1986 Thurn and Taxis with his friend Aimée de Heeren
and the young student.
1987 opening of a small Sony Phone Boutique,
today Cremerie de Paris No2
Well when you are just 20
and you have the chance
someone gives you the keys
of a little Boutique in Paris
many adventures are
waiting for you ...
Laws connected to
Telecom monopoly made it impossible
to sell the phones,
but no laws forbidd to create a Service Center.
The Boutique started to work quickly.
Telephone Lovers statred to buy
the avant-garde phone
while travelling to the US or to Asia
and soon they started to pour into the store.
AudioVisual people,
photographers, fashion models,
movies stars, Lady Diana
According to Akio Morita,
founder of Sony
No other electronics store
had comperable glamour.
1990 Aug opens what is today
Cremerie de Paris No6.
1990 Dec 14 Sadly Thurn & Taxis died
so he could only see the very beginning
of what his Post Thaler
had made possible.
1991 Screenshot
of Cremeries first website
published on the French Minitel System
1991 a first "web" site is designed,
not yet on the web
but on the Minitel
an avant-garde French competitor
af the American invented Internet.
View on the first Sony Boutique
specialised in phones and Walkman.
|
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https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/anne-frank-biography
|
en
|
Anne Frank Biography: Who was Anne Frank?
|
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[
""
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[] | null |
Anne Frank is among the most well-known of the six million Jews who died in the Holocaust. Discover who Anne Frank was and what happened to her.
|
en
|
/favicon.ico
|
https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/anne-frank-biography
|
- [credit=f628fb9b-6a23-4013-ad3f-87292d776230]
Who was Anne Frank?
Anne Frank was a German girl and Jewish victim of the Holocaust who is famous for keeping a diary of her experiences. Anne and her family went into hiding for two years to avoid Nazi persecution. Her documentation of this time is now published in The Diary of a Young Girl.
Early Years
She was born Annelies Marie Frank on June 12, 1929, in Frankfurt am Main, Germany. Her parents were Otto and Edith Frank.
For the first 5 years of her life, Anne lived with her parents and older sister, Margot, in an apartment on the outskirts of Frankfurt. After the Nazis came to power in 1933, Otto Frank fled to Amsterdam in the Netherlands, where he had business connections. The rest of the Frank family soon followed, with Anne being the last of the family to arrive in February 1934 after staying with her grandparents in Aachen.
The Fate of Jews in Amsterdam
The fate of the Frank family and other Jews in Amsterdam was wrapped up with the German occupation of the city, which began in May 1940. In early 1942, the Germans began preparations to deport Jews from the Netherlands to killing centers in the east. At this time, they required all Dutch Jews to be concentrated in Amsterdam. They also decided to intern all non-Dutch Jews in Westerbork transit camp. From Westerbork, German officials deported the Jews to Auschwitz-Birkenau and Sobibor killing centers in German-occupied Poland. The first deportation transport left Westerbork on July 15, 1942, for Auschwitz-Birkenau. These deportations and the escalating anti-Jewish measures alarmed many Jews in the Netherlands, including the Franks.
In Hiding
During the first half of July 1942, Anne and her family went into hiding. They were eventually joined by four other Jews as well—Hermann, Auguste, and Peter van Pels, and Fritz Pfeffer. For two years, they lived in a secret apartment at 263 Prinsengracht Street. The apartment was located behind the business offices where Otto Frank had worked as company director. Anne referred to the hiding place in her diary as the Secret Annex. Otto Frank's friends and colleagues, Johannes Kleiman, Victor Kugler, Johan Voskuijl, Bep Voskuijl, Jan Gies, and Miep Gies, had helped to prepare the hiding place and smuggled food and clothing to the Franks at great risk to their own lives.
While in hiding, Anne kept a diary in which she recorded her fears, hopes, and experiences.
What Happened to Anne Frank and Her Family?
On August 4, 1944, the German SS and police discovered the hiding place. It has been long thought that the authorities acted after being tipped off by an anonymous Dutch caller. But a more recent theory is that the Germans discovered the hiding place by chance, while investigating reports that illegal work and fraud with ration coupons were occurring at the house.
That day, an SS Sergeant (Hauptscharführer) named Karl Silberbauer and two Dutch policemen arrested the Franks. The Gestapo sent the family to Westerbork transit camp on August 8. One month later, on September 3, 1944, SS and police authorities placed the Franks and the four others hiding with them on a train transport to Auschwitz-Birkenau in German-occupied Poland. This was the last transport from Westerbork to Auschwitz.
The transport arrived in Auschwitz two days later with 1,019 Jews on board. Men and women were separated. All of the Secret Annex residents were selected for forced labor.
Like other Jews selected for labor, the women chosen from this transport, including Anne, Edith, and Margot, were tattooed with prisoner numbers. Records indicating their exact numbers have not been preserved. Although Anne Frank's death certificate documents her movement between camps, it does not include her tattoo ID number.
Anne and her sister, Margot were transferred to the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp in northern Germany in early November 1944.
The Fate of the Frank Family: How and When Did Anne Frank Die?
Anne Frank died in February or March 1945, shortly before British troops liberated Bergen-Belsen on April 15, 1945. Anne Frank died at the age of 15. Margot Frank died at the age of 19, also in February or March 1945. Both Margot and Anne died of typhus.
SS officials also selected Anne's parents for labor. Anne's mother, Edith died in Auschwitz in early January 1945.
The home where the Franks hid in Amsterdam continues to attract a large audience. Now known as the Anne Frank House, it drew more than 1.2 million visitors in 2017.
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https://dokumen.pub/anselm-of-canterbury-and-his-theological-inheritance-9780754639114-0754639118.html
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en
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Anselm of Canterbury and his Theological Inheritance 9780754639114, 0754639118
|
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Anselm of Canterbury is one of the most famous of medieval Christian thinkers, who left a considerable political and int...
|
en
|
dokumen.pub
|
https://dokumen.pub/anselm-of-canterbury-and-his-theological-inheritance-9780754639114-0754639118.html
|
Table of contents :
Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
Dedication
1 Introduction
2 The Beatific Vision: The Ecstasy of Thought and Prayer
3 Words: Neither Void nor Vain
4 Justifying the Ways of God to Men
5 In Dialogue with the Divine
6 Nailed to the racking cross ... So did I win a kingdom
7 Conclusion
Bibliography
Index
Citation preview
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| 39
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https://exhibitions.ushmm.org/americans-and-the-holocaust/personal-story/otto-frank
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en
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Americans and the Holocaust
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Otto Frank escaped Nazi Germany with his wife and two daughters soon after Hitler came to power in 1933. They lived a peaceful life in Amsterdam until May 1940, when Nazi Germany invaded the Netherlands. Otto, determined to leave Europe with his family, contacted an old college friend in the United States for help.
|
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https://exhibitions.ushmm.org/americans-and-the-holocaust/personal-story/otto-frank
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https://oregonconfluence.com/2018/03/01/raiders-of-the-lost-archive-body-of-evidence-uli-edel-1993/
|
en
|
RAIDERS OF THE LOST ARCHIVE Body of Evidence (Uli Edel, 1993)
|
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[
"Oregon Film"
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2018-03-01T00:00:00
|
Fair warning intrepid Archivists - this one is adult-themed and, well, (retro)(un)sexy. Be warned. This week we pay a visit to a lightning bolt of 80's ...
|
en
|
The Confluence
|
https://oregonconfluence.com/2018/03/01/raiders-of-the-lost-archive-body-of-evidence-uli-edel-1993/
|
Fair warning intrepid Archivists – this one is adult-themed and, well, (retro)(un)sexy. Be warned.
This week we pay a visit to a lightning bolt of 80’s and 90’s love/hate iconography; that vamp and Diva, strike-a-pose devotress: Madonna. For those of us who lived through the days of trying to determine if the aluminum clad, coffee table, button-pusher “Sex” was (self)exploitation or art, we know that any and all Madonna movies are to be taken with their own particular grain of salt(iness), and this week’s Raid to the Oregon Film vaults is no exception.
(And make sure you read to the end where a film this humble intro-host worked on oh-too-many-years-ago that he felt would never be mentioned again, is not only mentioned but lauded. Who knew Last Exit to Brooklyn had fans? I guess that makes standing on the freezing streets of Red Hook before it was hip…well, now hip. Thanks for that.)
And, don’t forget, Madonna may be just-this-side of a memory with a faux-British accent these days, but Willem Defoe was just nominated for an Oscar. And, not only that, Joe Mantegna’s daughter was in town last summer shooting a series here.
We’ve come a long way, baby.
When Macbeth heard the three witches’ dismal predictions about his future, he took care of business so that he might avoid losing his head on the way to the throne, making sure that their prophecy couldn’t come true. But in the back of his mind, he always knew that something was amiss: he can never shake his “horrible imaginings” of a vague dark fate waiting him in the future, regardless of how well prepared he thinks he is. He knows something bad is coming his way. He feels it and dreads it, until the day it arrives, carrying a sword with Macbeth’s name on it.
I must confess that your humble Raider has harbored horrible imaginings of his own. I’ve lived in fear of my own dreaded vanquisher, and like Mac’s nemesis Macduff, my specter is “no man of woman born” either.
It’s a woman. Madonna, to be precise. And even more specifically, her dreaded film Body of Evidence.
Body of Evidence (or BoE, as cultists might refer to it — or they would, if there were cultists masochistic enough to revere it) has a reputation that precedes it: it’s roundly scorned as one of the worst movies of the ‘90s. It was nominated for most categories at the 14th Annual Golden Raspberry Awards in 1994, although it only “won” for Madonna’s performance as the art gallery owner-cum-Black Widow, Rebecca Carlson (in retrospect, it’s a good thing for director Uli Edel that Razzies voters hated Jennifer Lynch’s Boxing Helena slightly more).BoE has a Rotten Tomatoes score of “8%,” with most critics finding it unintentionally funny (at best) and an unsexy chore (at worst). Worst of all, at least to me, was the suggestion that it was a bore. Fearing its reputation, I’d grab at any junky movie to watch instead of confronting its infamy, and cracking open the DVD case. But I always knew that it was out there. And I also knew that, sooner or later, Madonna would be coming for me.
And last week, she did. The DVD found its way into my player, and I finally watched it, in time for the 25th Anniversary of its release (January 15, 1993).
Was BoE worth the decades of dread; was it as bad as it was purported to be?
Let me tease you with a tiny bit of context first. Three months before BoE hit theaters, Madonna had released her notorious coffee-table soft-core picture book, Sex. While it may be hard to believe for those of you who think of Madonna as someone your grandma used to like (she’ll be turning 60 in August, to GenXer’s horror), she was once widely perceived as an avatar of postmodernity by cultural critics, and her nekkid photo sessions for Sex, which included mild S&M (by contemporary internet standard) and leather play, were thought of as provocative and challenging. (Anybody else take books like Georges-Claude Guilbert’s Madonna As Post-Modern Myth seriously in Grad School?) In other words, when BoE was hyped, audiences were led to believe that the shocking Material Girl was going to bring pop-culture sexual provocation to an entirely new level.
I let Madonna’s envelope-pushing reputation and the film’s original promotional campaign lure me into thinking that BoE might be naughty fun, even if it were a little,uh, bad. Which is why it saddens me to report that after all of the years of anticipation and dread, after all of the hype and provocations, BoE fell a little flat; not good-bad or terrible, but mostly sort of tedious.
Oh sure, there’s lots of nudity, highlighted by plenty of celebrity skin — not just the birthday suits of Madonna and co-star Willem Dafoe, but those of Julianne Moore (!) and Anne Archer (!!) too — and plenty of kinky sex (if this sentence enticed you into checking it out despite my reservations, make sure you rent the unrated version of the film for a couple of more minutes of “adult” content). Most famously, there’s the scene in which Madonna’s character introduces Dafoe’s unfaithfully married attorney, Frank Delaney, to the alternative painful-pleasures of seared flesh by dripping hot candle wax onto his chest and nether region (a game which looks pretty unfun to me, but I suspect was added to the personal repertoire of more-than-a-few ‘90s cineastes nonetheless).
The sex scenes seem mostly unpleasant to me — especially a nonconsensual episode that resolves into a consensual one, rendering the sexual politics of the movie loathsome — but de gustibus non diputandum est, and if waxy coupling sounds like a fun movie rental to you, you won’t be disappointed. Really, it’s everything else in the film that’s boring. You may need a thumb on the FF> button to zip you through the plot, which is a dry courtroom drama that offers a series of uninteresting twists on the way to finding Rebecca guilty or not guilty of “fornicating a man to death.” Does the plaintiff target old, rich dudes with weak hearts, using her body as murder weapon to score their insurance money? Or does she just prefer the company of thrill-seeking, confident men, like defense attorney Dafoe, who crave a little jolt of S&M to spice up their sex lives? If you’ve seen any film noir, you will have guessed the end of the film’s mystery pretty quickly, perhaps even by the end of this sentence.
The good news, though, is that the movie’s Oregon setting and location is largely unscathed. We see lovely postcard views of Portland’s bridges and the Pittock Mansion, a glimpse of an herb shop in Chinatown, impressive vistas of the city’s architecture through the windows of a law firm’s windows, and lovely shots of Rebecca’s spendy-looking houseboat on the Willamette (I don’t know if it’s upstream or downstream from Raquel Welch’s dumpier houseboat in Kansas City Bomber, but it’s definitely several notches above it on the economic ladder). We hear about a “mental hospital” at Mount Hood too, but don’t see it (and the dull courthouse scenes were shot in Olympia, WA, so that’s their cross to bear).
BoE does suggest, though, that behaviorally Portland might be on the cutting edge (so to speak) of sexual experimentation. Frank opines that “people here have very conservative views about sex”; as Rebecca/Madonna counters, “No they don’t. They just don’t talk about it.” Rebecca can scan a room and let her sex-radar help pick out the kinkiest people within a 20-foot radius, while later she tells the prosecuting attorney that “Portland’s a small city. I even dated a man who dated a woman who you dated” (with “dating” being a coyly loaded term for Madonna’s weaponized body maneuvers).BoE hints that there’s no shortage of weak-hearted old men with too much money in Portland; it’s probably a good thing for the city’s upper crust headcount that BoE didn’t inspire either a sequel or real-world local copycats.
Body of Evidence is ultimately a ‘90s trash flick upgraded with some top-tier dramatic talent. And Madonna too. Rent it from those lowered expectations, and you’ll get what you want, if not what you deserve; and as a cop explains near the film’s finale, “People usually get what they deserve. Except for lawyers.”
Watch: Body of Evidence was released by MGM as a 2-DVD set in 2002; the first disc is the theatrical rated-R version, and the second is the “unrated” one. I’m assuming that no one who has rented the box set has ever actually watched the theatrical version. The set is apparently a collector’s item, and is currently going for almost fifty bucks on Amazon(!). I decided to rent the movie from Movie Madness. I searched the store for a “Madonna” section, then for an Uli Edel section (Edel had directed the fantastic and acclaimed Last Exit to Brooklyn in 1989; after BoE, he was relegated to 20 years of making TV movies). No dice. I gave up my own search, and asked the woman at the counter for help. “Oh, that’s in the EROTIC THRILLER section,” she announced to the store, loudly, so that every customer there could hear. “Yep, EROTIC THRILLERS. Go to the back of the store on the right, near the SPECIAL INTEREST section and the EROTIC section, and you’ll see the EROTIC THRILLERS.” Just try to get that kind of personal treatment(/scorn) out of Netflix!
Watch: Madonna and Willem Dafoe pay homage to their roles in Body of Evidence, kind of, in the singer’s music video for “Bad Girl,” which was shot the week that the film premiered in theaters (in January 1993). There are some people who like the music video, perhaps lured by David Fincher’s “moody” direction; I think it’s hilariously bad, as sex-negative-masquerading-as-“sexy” an execution as Looking for Mr. Goodbar. It’s worth watching, though, because you’ll get to see Madonna licking her finger after spooning out a bowl of cat food and Dafoe dancing around by himself (in two unrelated scenes; importantly, Madonna uses a breath spray before kissing Dafoe later in the video, masking an unpleasantly Friskie smooch).
|
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https://screenrant.com/full-metal-jacket-behind-scenes-facts-stanley-kubrick-movie/
|
en
|
Born To Kill: 10 Behind-The-Scenes Facts About Full Metal Jacket
|
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[
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] | null |
[
"Ben Sherlock",
"Brennan Klein",
"Kyle McLeod",
"Angel Shaw",
"David Miller",
"Ben Protheroe",
"Sophie Evans"
] |
2020-01-25T21:30:10+00:00
|
Many critics consider Stanley Kubrick's Full Metal Jacket to be the best war movie ever. Here's some offscreen trivia about the making of the film.
|
en
|
/public/build/images/favicon-48x48.af4c7131.png
|
ScreenRant
|
https://screenrant.com/full-metal-jacket-behind-scenes-facts-stanley-kubrick-movie/
|
Stanley Kubrick’s Full Metal Jacket is more darkly comedic than the average war film, but its portrayal of war is as shocking and terrifying and bleak as you’ll find in any other entry in the genre. Praised by contemporary critics for its complex themes, gorgeous visuals, and powerful performances, Full Metal Jacket was an instant classic that captivated audiences.
RELATED: Full Metal Jacket: 5 Reasons It's The Best War Movie (And 5 It's Apocalypse Now)
At the 60th Academy Awards, Kubrick and his co-writers were nominated for the Oscar for Best Adapted Screenplay. And the script was just the first stage of a long, complicated production process. Here are 10 Behind-The-Scenes Facts About Full Metal Jacket.
Matthew Modine inadvertently convinced Stanley Kubrick to change the ending
Pvt. Joker was originally going to die at the end. In a 2017 radio interview on Philadelphia station WMMR’s Preston & Steve Show, Matthew Modine detailed how he inadvertently convinced Stanley Kubrick to change the ending of Full Metal Jacket. During a creative discussion, Modine blurted out that Joker should survive the movie.
Kubrick told him to explain why, and Modine said that after watching his friends die and killing a teenager in battle, Joker should have to live with those experiences, because that would be even worse than dying, and that’s “the real horror of war.” Kubrick agreed and changed the ending of the movie on the spot.
R. Lee Ermey yelled at Stanley Kubrick to get the role of Gunnery Sgt. Hartman
Due to his experience in the Marines as a drill instructor, R. Lee Ermey was a consultant on the realism of the military procedures depicted in Full Metal Jacket. Ermey didn’t believe that the actors hired lived up to real military standards, and asked Stanley Kubrick if he could play Gunnery Sgt. Hartman himself.
When Kubrick refused, Ermey yelled an order at Kubrick to stand up when he was being spoken to, and a shocked Kubrick instinctively jumped to his feet. This earned Ermey the role. In order to keep Hartman’s scenes authentic, Kubrick limited the amount of time that Ermey fraternized with the actors playing his recruits.
Denzel Washington was up for the role of Eightball
Some major movie stars were up for parts in Full Metal Jacket. Denzel Washington was under consideration for the role of Eightball, and has since said that he regrets missing out on it. Arnold Schwarzenegger was offered the role of Animal Mother, but he turned it down to play the lead role in The Running Man.
Val Kilmer auditioned to play Pvt. Joker and reportedly confronted Matthew Modine in a restaurant and threatened him physically, feeling that Modine had stolen the part from him. Oddly enough, Modine didn’t even have the role yet. This was how he learned about it, and subsequently contacted Kubrick and ended up landing it.
A deleted scene saw Marines playing soccer with a human head
Full Metal Jacket was the first Stanley Kubrick film to be edited on a computer as opposed to being spliced together from pieces of celluloid by hand. As with any movie, a few moments got cut here and there, but there was also a pretty significant scene that got entirely cut from the film.
RELATED: 10 Most Disturbing Stanley Kubrick Scenes, Ranked
It saw a group of Marines playing soccer, with a shocking reveal at the end showing that they weren’t kicking a soccer ball around; they were playing soccer with a human head. A similar scene ended up in Seth Rogen and Evan Goldberg’s apocalyptic comedy This is the End, albeit with a more slapstick-y bent.
Stanley Kubrick crashed a car when he got distracted by a location he liked
During the location scout, Stanley Kubrick was driving his wife’s new SUV around the jungle with R. Lee Ermey and cinematography Douglas Milsome. The director spotted a location out the window that he wanted to use for the film, and while he was explaining to Milsome what he envisioned shooting there, he got distracted from his driving and crashed into a ditch that was six feet deep.
The SUV rolled onto its side during the collision. No one was hurt too badly, and apparently, as the three guys clambered out of the wreckage of the vehicle, Kubrick continued talking to Milsome about the location.
Vincent D’Onofrio gained a record-breaking amount of weight for the movie
In preparation for Full Metal Jacket, Vincent D’Onofrio broke the record for most weight gained by an actor for a film role. The record was previously held by Robert De Niro, who gained 60 lbs to play boxer Jake LaMotta in Raging Bull. D’Onofrio gained 70 lbs to play Pvt. Pyle. It took him seven months to gain the weight and a further nine months to take it off again after filming was complete.
The extra weight affected D’Onofrio’s physical movements, and as a result, he tore ligaments in his knee on the obstacle course. R. Lee Ermey once said that he believed D’Onofrio’s performance was the movie’s finest.
Cinematographer Douglas Milsome threw the camera’s shutter off sync for the battle scenes
One of the aspects of Full Metal Jacket that has been unanimously praised by critics is its bleak, brutal, horrifying depiction of battle scenes. It’s impossible to properly depict the horrors of war in a completely realistic way, but Full Metal Jacket comes pretty close.
This was the result of some interesting experimentation by cinematographer Douglas Milsome. When he was shooting the battle scenes, Milsome deliberately threw the camera’s shutter off sync to create a disorienting effect. Fellow cinematographer Janusz Kamiński would later replicate this technique to shoot equally brutal and disorienting battle sequences for Steven Spielberg’s Saving Private Ryan.
R. Lee Ermey ad-libbed some of his dialogue
It’s a common misconception that R. Lee Ermey improvised all of his dialogue for Full Metal Jacket, but he did improvise some of it. This was practically unheard of for a Stanley Kubrick film. He was the kind of director who would call cut if an actor missed out an “um” that was in the script, or substituted “y’know” for “you know.”
RELATED: The 10 Most Memorable Stanley Kubrick Characters, Ranked
One example of an ad-libbed line is Hartman’s mention of “a reach-around” to Pvt. Cowboy. Kubrick interrupted the take so he could ask Ermey, “What the hell is a reach-around?” Ermey explained what it meant, Kubrick laughed, and they went back to shooting.
Vincent D’Onofrio thought the call saying he’d been cast was a prank
When he heard about the auditions for Full Metal Jacket from Matthew Modine, Vincent D’Onofrio was a barely experienced actor working as a bouncer at a nightclub. He rented a video camera and found some army fatigues to shoot an audition tape for the role of Pvt. Pyle and sent it to Stanley Kubrick.
He didn’t expect much to come from the audition, and when Kubrick’s people called him to tell him he’d gotten the part, D’Onofrio hung up the phone, thinking it was one of his friends pulling a prank. The actor credits this casting with giving him his career.
Related: Full Metal Jacket Cast & Character Guide: Where Else The Actors Are From
Stanley Kubrick almost didn’t let Matthew Modine leave the set for his wife’s delivery
In his memoir, Matthew Modine chronicled a rather shocking story about Stanley Kubrick’s commitment to the work on Full Metal Jacket. One day, during shooting, Modine’s wife went into labor. Naturally, he wanted to leave the set and go to the hospital to be at her side for the delivery of their child. But Kubrick wouldn’t let him leave.
Modine apparently had to threaten to injure himself so he could get off the set and to the hospital, before Kubrick finally allowed him to leave. Kubrick was a dedicated auteur, but come on, that was the birth of Modine’s child!
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2020-09-18T10:49:33+00:00
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FacebookTweetPinLinkedIn Stanley Kubrick is truly an expert craftsman when tackling certain film genres. He took...
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en
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Filmhounds Magazine
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https://filmhounds.co.uk/2020/09/duality-of-man-full-metal-jacket-4k-blu-ray-review/
|
Stanley Kubrick is truly an expert craftsman when tackling certain film genres. He took the sci-fi genre to new heights with the mesmerising 2001: A Space Odyssey, got under our skin with the seeping psychological horror of The Shining, and examined a criminally-warped mind in A Clockwork Orange. It was only a matter of time before Kubrick decided to tackle the topics of war and the psychological effects it can have on certain individuals, which is what we have with Full Metal Jacket, a beautifully crafted anti-war movie that sees Private Joker going from a raw recruit in a boot camp to being a war reporter in Vietnam.
It’s a brutally effective movie that explores duality as reflected by Private Joker’s statement about the “duality of man”, symbolised by wearing a peace symbol in his jacket while having “Born to Kill” written on his combat helmet. The characters in this film, in particular those who arrive in the depths of Vietnam in the second half, have two different sides to them. They may be highly-trained killers ready for war, but their sense of friendly camaraderie and humanity hasn’t been completely stripped away from them despite the brutal harsh reality of war and the boot camps. We also have moments of characters losing their sense of sanity, as depicted both by Private Pyle’s slow descent into insanity, as well as the moment where a Vietnamese corpse is used as a “guest of honour” amongst the American soldiers.
The performances completely sell the movie’s themes with Matthew Modine perfectly nailing the right balance of light-hearted humour with intense vulnerability and subtle trauma. Vincent D’Onofrio is utterly superb as he nails the slow descent into madness, while R. Lee Ermey is a total scene-stealer as the tough-as-nails Gunnery Seargeant, delivering some of the movie’s most quotable lines. The score also plays a very pivotal part in the film with Vivian Kubrick (Credited as ‘Abigail Mead’) delivering haunting metallic drones that foreshadows the movie’s most intense scenes, while the movie’s more agreeable moments are accompanied by hip 60’s tunes like The Dixie Cups’ “Chapel of Love” or The Trashmen’s “Surfin’ Bird”.
Full Metal Jacket is another one of Kubrick’s masterpieces, boasting phenomenal direction as well as featuring several iconic and memorable characters played by extremely talented performers. Even Marines themselves have commented on how this film perfectly captures what war is like and what life in the Marine Corps is all about, which just goes to show how much of a talented craftsman Kubrick is. Full Metal Jacket is both one of the greatest war movies ever made, as well as one of Kubrick’s very best.
Dir: Stanley Kubrick
Scr: Stanley Kubrick, Michael Herr, Gustav Hasford
Cast: Matthew Modine, Adam Baldwin, Vincent D’Onofrio, R. Lee Ermey, Dorian Harewood, Arliss Howard, Kevyn Major Howard, Ed O’Ross
Prd: Stanley Kubrick
DOP: Douglas Milsome
Music: Abigail Mead
Country: UK, US
Year: 1987
Run time: 116 mins
Full Metal Jacket will be released on Ultra-HD 4K Blu-Ray on September 21st
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Douglas Milsome
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See Douglas Milsome full list of movies and tv shows from their career. Find where to watch Douglas Milsome's latest movies and tv shows
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TVGuide.com
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https://www.tvguide.com/celebrities/douglas-milsome/credits/3000336429/
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Join or Sign In
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2016-10-20T00:00:00
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In my 2012 essay for SUNCHASER, director Michael Cimino’s 1996 feature film, I wrote that the notoriously reclusive and mercurial filmmaker probably had one or two great films left in him, but I also concluded that he probably wouldn’t seize the opportunity. It saddens me to know that I was right-- Cimino died of unknown…
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https://s1.wp.com/i/favicon.ico
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THE DIRECTORS SERIES
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https://directorsseries.net/2016/10/20/michael-cimino-a-debriefing/
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In my 2012 essay for SUNCHASER, director Michael Cimino’s 1996 feature film, I wrote that the notoriously reclusive and mercurial filmmaker probably had one or two great films left in him, but I also concluded that he probably wouldn’t seize the opportunity. It saddens me to know that I was right– Cimino died of unknown causes on July 2nd, 2016, at the age of 77. His body was discovered lying in his bed at his home in Beverly Hills, after friends had not been able to reach him for several days (1). This left the poorly-received SUNCHASER as his final feature effort, and a short contribution to 2007’s TO EACH HIS OWN CINEMA project, “NO TRANSLATION NEEDED” as his final completed work overall. Throughout the operatic sweep of Cimino’s career from prodigy to pariah, critics and fans alike chose to believe in his innate talent, wishing for one final masterpiece that would redeem his ruinous career and restore his standing amongst the pantheon of great American directors. Now, we know for certain that final masterpiece will never come; leaving Cimino’s legacy to the Icaresque fall from grace that was often invoked in numerous essays and think-pieces– the ultimate cautionary tale.
Cimino’s career– indeed his entire life– was nothing less than the glory and the ruin of the American Dream, seemingly cut from the same operatic cloth as his cinematic epics. Born in 1939 in New York City, the young Cimino was regarded as something of a student prodigy, but he also earned an equally-notorious reputation as a troublemaker and a schoolyard brawler. His intellect and natural curiosity about the world enabled his admission to Yale, where he studied painting, architecture, and art history. His love for the films of John Ford, Luchino Visconti, and Akira Kurosawa enabled his postgraduate rise as a highly sought-after director of commercials in New York during the 60’s. Some of his best known work from this period, including spots for United Airlines and Pepsi, established several of his signature traits as an artist, such as elaborate set design and the iconography of Americana. It was also during this period that Cimino met perhaps the most influential figure in his life: on-again/off-again producing (and life) partner, Joan Carelli (2). Carelli was actually the one who encouraged Cimino to jump into writing for feature films– she sensed a potential in him that was almost immediately realized when he moved to Los Angeles in the 1970’s and began writing scripts for actor/director Clint Eastwood. Eastwood was so impressed with Cimino’s work on a little heist script called THUNDERBOLT & LIGHTFOOT that he offered up his directing chair to the budding filmmaker. The surprise success of that film emboldened Cimino to swing for the fences with his next film– 1978’s THE DEER HUNTER. This film saw the synchronization of Cimino’s ambition with his talent, generating a staggering, once-in-a-lifetime master work that dominated the Oscars and catapulted him into an nearly-unparalleled echelon of prestige. The runaway success of THE DEER HUNTER made it quickly apparent to everyone that Cimino had fulfilled his initial promise as a bonafide prodigy.
Unfortunately, Cimino would never reach these lofty heights again. His reign at the top would end just as quickly as it had begun. Up until this point, Cimino’s ego and confidence had worked in his favor– THE DEER HUNTER is undoubtedly the product of a self-assured director who knows how to mold his vision in the shape of Greatness. However, there’s a fine line between vision and megalomania. Given full creative control and a virtually unlimited budget, Cimino capitalized on his success to make HEAVEN’S GATE— a sweeping, epic Western that he envisioned as a serious contender for the mantle of “Greatest Film Of All Time”. Anything– the cast, the sets, time, money, virtually everything— was disposable in service to achieving his ambitious vision. He gained a reputation as something of a tyrant– or a fascist– on set, leading to crew members calling him “The Ayatollah” behind his back. Despite numerous budget and schedule overruns, Cimino eventually finished HEAVEN’S GATE, but the damage had already been done. In his persistence to craft the Perfect Story, he had lost control of his own narrative– months of damning set reports in the press led to the film accumulating the stink of failure before it was even released, and audiences followed suit. The financial loss of HEAVEN’S GATE was so great that it almost single-handedly bankrupted its studio, United Artists, and essentially closed the door on the New Hollywood era of director-driven films.
That Cimino’s own career was thrown into ruin amidst all this devastation is something of afterthought. Claims that he was a one-sided and factually-inaccurate storyteller positioned him as a politically-incorrect relic on the fringes of an increasingly-PC culture. He languished in this state of exile for the next 5 years, suffering no shortage of aborted attempts to mount another film. The making of 1985’s YEAR OF THE DRAGON offered a chance for Cimino to redeem himself with a lean, pulpy crime thriller, and his genuine attempts made for a modest success; a beacon of hope. However, he would not make the most of his second chance. His next effort– 1987’s THE SICILIAN— fell prey to his ego-driven indulgences, despite compelling subject matter and a deeply personal connection to Cimino’s heritage as an Italian American laying the foundation for what could have been a great film. THE SICILIAN’s failure signaled the beginning of Cimino’s permanent downturn as a filmmaker. 1990’s DESPERATE HOURS claimed the dubious distinction as his last film to be released theatrically, its failure kicking off another period of extended exile. When Cimino finally returned with SUNCHASER in 1996, he had been an irrelevant filmmaking force for nearly two decades. Despite receiving a prestigious screening slot at Cannes, the film would ultimately go straight to video. A mismatched buddy / road film like THUNDERBOLT & LIGHTFOOT, SUNCHASER found Cimino working from a burst of newfound inspiration that suggested he might still yet find redemption. It could’ve been that SUNCHASER came somewhat full circle with the beginning of his career, or that he was shooting in the same dramatic landscapes as the classic John Ford westerns that captivated his imagination in his youth, but Cimino’s final feature seemed to be in possession of a palpable energy that had otherwise been missing.
The director’s final years saw some flashes of creativity– aside from his short film for Cannes’ TO EACH HIS OWN CINEMA project, he became a novelist in 2001 with the publication of his book, “Big Jane”, which he followed up in 2003 with another book titled “Conversations En Miroir”– but his work was overshadowed by furtive rumors and gossip. Because he rarely gave interviews, he become regarded as a reclusive eccentric, and a drastic, almost-overnight change in his facial features generated hushed whispers all over town that he had butchered himself with plastic surgery, or that he was undergoing a sex change operation. Of course, Cimino didn’t try too hard to dispel these rumors himself– he was notorious for giving contradictory information about his personal life in what could be construed as a bid to inject an air of mystique around his celebrity.
For all his faults as a storyteller, Cimino’s visual aesthetic drew a consistent crowd of admirers. Fundamentally inspired by Ford’s Monument Valley westerns, he utilized America’s striking vistas and landscapes to his own benefit, giving his work a dramatic Cinemascope backdrop that infused his stories with the potent aura of myth and folklore. His scholastic background in architecture and art history fueled an impeccable intuition for composition, but it also informed his sense of narrative structure– for instance, the organization of THE DEER HUNTER’s three distinct acts recalls the conventions of triptych. His camerawork favored the classical techniques of old-fashioned studio epics, often rendering his elaborate sets and bustling locations in sweeping, romantic crane or dolly moves. This majestically-minded aesthetic reached its apex with HEAVEN’S GATE, where Cimino’s insistence on an immersive environment led to his crew effectively building out an entire town for him to swoop and soar through. The catastrophic failure of HEAVEN’S GATE would impact his style with a palpable loss of confidence in YEAR OF THE DRAGON and onward, but his aspiration for visual grandeur would remain.
Critics might have derided Cimino as a tyrannical fascist, but the fact remains: the success of his artistic vision depended on the strength of his collaborators. Throughout his career, he developed a rather eclectic group of collaborators on both sides of the camera. His most influential collaborator was Carelli– although she only officially served as a producer on HEAVEN’S GATE and THE SICILIAN, she was instrumental in putting Cimino on the road towards filmmaking in the first place, and she remained a close friend and confidant for the rest of his life. Composer David Mansfield boasted the highest quantity of partnerships with Cimino, having shaped the distinct musical character of HEAVEN’S GATE, YEAR OF THE DRAGON, THE SICILIAN, and DESPERATE HOURS. Mickey Rourke was the closest thing Cimino had to his own DeNiro, headlining YEAR OF THE DRAGON and DESPERATE HOURS after his slight cameo in HEAVEN’S GATE. Jeff Bridges and Christopher Walken also put in two tours of duty eac, appearing separately in Cimino’s first two features before sharing the bill on HEAVEN’S GATE. Whereas most visually-esteemed directors owe a debt of gratitude to their partnership with a singular cinematographer, Cimino cultivated fruitful relationships with no less than three. The venerated DP Vilmos Zsigmond is responsible for Cimino’s visual hallmarks: THE DEER HUNTER & HEAVEN’S GATE. Alex Thompson replaced Zsigmond on YEAR OF THE DRAGON and THE SICILIAN– two films that were admired for their visuals if not for their storytelling. Douglas Milsome saw Cimino through to the end of his filmography, countering the bland beige environs of DESPERATE HOURS with the vibrant vistas of THE SUNCHASER.
As a third generation Italian American, Cimino was deeply fascinated with the immigrant experience in America– a conceit that gives his filmography a unique bent that’s at once both patriotic and deeply critical of his homeland (some would argue that to be deeply critical is to be patriotic). Films like THE DEER HUNTER and HEAVEN’S GATE explored the unique contributions that Eastern Europeans have made to American history, while YEAR OF THE DRAGON portrays the Chinese-American perspective as deeply-tied to the heritage of the country’s railroad system. His only film to not take place in America– THE SICILIAN— still manages to work its way into this conceit with its narrative drive to establish an American state in Sicily. A deep nostalgia runs through Cimino’s filmography; a subliminal undercurrent of loss and mourning for an era long gone. Especially within his first three films, his characters are relics trapped in a world that no longer has any use for them. Again, HEAVEN’S GATE is a prime example of this conceit in action: it’s a story about the closing of the frontier; the end of the Wild West. The arrival of the railroad brings with it an influx of civilization, and the homesteaders valiantly struggle to maintain their way of life in the face of great upheaval and change. The iconography of Americana that peppers Cimino’s films belies a conservatively-minded patriotism that sees the past through rose-tinted glasses. Indeed, I suspect that Cimino just might have been a fan of Donald Trump’s campaign to “Make America Great Again”.
Cimino’s artistic voice was distinctly masculine– his films exclusively featured male protagonists, but this wasn’t necessarily a product of sexism or even simply a disinterest in female-oriented narratives. He was genuinely interested in exploring the peculiar dynamics of platonic male-to-male relationships. His protagonists often possessed shades of complexity underneath their surface machismo, and their individual inner journeys often coincided with masculine ideals and virtues. THUNDERBOLT & LIGHTFOOT is framed as a buddy comedy, but the film resonates as a tender portrait of brotherly bonds, giving new meaning to the phrase “thick as thieves”. THE DEER HUNTER explored the idea of male friendship as fractured by profound loss, filtered through the prisms of loyalty, responsibility and patriotism. HEAVEN’S GATE mostly portrays antagonistic male relationships, illustrating how actions and reactions are codified by a common sense of honor and natural law. THE SICILIAN further tackles these conceits while complicating them via a loose father/son relationship between hero and villain. DESPERATE HOURS is fundamentally concerned with patriarchal dynamics, using the template of the home invasion thriller to examine the distinct responsibility a man has to his family as both the breadwinner and the protector.
Religion, ritual, and spirituality is yet another common theme uniting Cimino’s disparate works. The Italian immigrant experience in America is fundamentally informed by its rich heritage with the Roman Catholic faith, and like his generational peer Martin Scorsese, Cimino shows great interest in how spirituality guides human interaction. Whereas Scorsese’s work tends to grapple with the inherent conflict of religious belief, Cimino’s cinematic interpretations of faith are explored through ritual and ceremony. THE DEER HUNTER is the most obvious example; beginning with a wedding and ending with a funeral, the cycle of life portrayed in the film is one marked by distinct milestones and sacraments. Despite being a meditation on the law of man as informed by the wilderness, HEAVEN’S GATE riffs on the ceremonial nature of this signature by positioning the town skating rink as a de facto community center, town hall, and cathedral. YEAR OF THE DRAGON compared and contrasted western religious tenets with those of the Far East in a bid to find the common ground that dictates their interactions. THE SICILIAN is perhaps Cimino’s most direct reckoning with Christianity, heavily dealing in Old World dogma and its history of religious persecution. In THUNDERBOLT & LIGHTFOOT and SUNCHASER especially, Cimino also shows a deep interest in an elemental, indigenous spirituality that is more connected with nature and the landscape than the religious constructs of civilization. The protagonists in those films are able to tap into the energy of the world around them and harness that power for their own benefit. Cimino is at his most poetic in these scenes– the final shot of SUNCHASER, showing a dying man racing to the magical lake that will purportedly save his life and instantly disappearing save for his splashing footsteps on the water, is a sublimely ambiguous conclusion that tips its hat towards the mysterious forces of nature.
The list of Cimino’s unrealized projects suggests the same sense of grandeur as his completed work. At the height of his career, Cimino dreamed of adapting Ayn Rand’s THE FOUNTAINHEAD, even going so far as to develop a screenplay after the success of THUNDERBOLT & LIGHTFOOT (3). During this period, he also worked towards realizing biopics on Janis Joplin and the infamous mafia boss, Frank Costello (4). After the catastrophic reception of HEAVEN’S GATE, Cimino tried to resurrect his career by getting himself hired on films like THE POPE OF GREENWICH VILLAGE and FOOTLOOSE, only to then get himself fired when his egotistical pursuits got the best of him. Still other unmade films include a biopic on 1920’s Irish rebel Michael Collins and SANTA ANA WINDS (5), which would have been a contemporary romantic drama set in Los Angeles (6). It’s clear that Cimino did not intend for SUNCHASER to be his final film– as late as 2001, he was in China scouting locations for a planned 3-hour epic about the origins of the Chinese Revolution called MAN’S FATE (7). An abandoned or aborted film in any filmmaker’s career is a small tragedy, but in the case of a career like Cimino’s, which brilliantly flamed out almost as soon as it had begun, any chance he had at restoring his luster was one he could not afford to squander. Unfortunately, it appears he did on several occasions.
Whatever the final word on his legacy may be, his Oscars and Film Registry induction for THE DEER HUNTER cannot be taken away. They can be reconsidered from a critical standpoint, sure, but they cannot be physically recalled. Those achievements alone make Cimino an important figure in the cinematic landscape, and the dizzying highs and nauseating lows of his career further merit careful study from film historians and students alike. Ego is an extremely powerful tool in any master director’s toolbox, but it also a dangerous vice that must be monitored and kept in check. Cimino indulged his ego too much, to the point that his sense of personal infallibility severed his connection to the emotional truths he needed to convey. While his director’s cut of HEAVEN’S GATE has re-emerged as a lost classic on par with earlier work like THE DEER HUNTER, it nevertheless clearly marks the point where he began buying into his own hype, beginning a long tailspin from which he would never recover. For all his strengths, vision, and promise as a filmmaker, he ultimately failed because he repeatedly abandoned the narrative at hand to tell the story he found more interesting: himself.
Ironically enough, many critics suggest that a biopic on Cimino’s own life and career would itself make a great film.
References:
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Body of Evidence on Moviebuff.com
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Release Date: 15 Jan 1993. Body of Evidence is directed by Uli Edel, and stars Madonna Louise Ciccone and Michael Forest.
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Moviebuff.com
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https://www.moviebuff.com/body-of-evidence
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Body of Evidence is exactly the kind of movie Madonna and Willem Dafoe made in their younger years when they were more sexy, beauty and daring, and they hope everybody would not remember it years after its release. But the Internet and social media have a way of remembering, and Body of Evidence has since been available online on movie streaming porn sites for masculin public can continuously masturbate nd I’d imagine Madonna and Willem Dafoe – along with much of the film’s cast -- are probably not too happy about it. I suspect many of the actors in this movie (not just Madonna and Dafoe) ultimately regretted their involvement in Body of Evidence. This is the type of work they probably hope would have faded into obscurity.
An awkward mix of courtroom drama and erotic thriller, Body of Evidence is a very wonder car accident of movie. But like all freak car accidents, you can’t look away and you won’t stop watching. Body of Evidence was the "50 Shades of Grey" of its time.
This film was made when erotic thrillers were all the rage, and movies such as "Basic Instinct" and "Fatal Attraction" were box office hits. Body of Evidence was meant to capitalize on Madonna’s popularity as well as moviegoers’ masculin ravenous appetite for sexually charged crime thrillers.
Body of Evidence offers plenty of cheap thrills and softcore sex o limit of pornography. It’s one of the few theatrical films to be rated NC-17, which is often the kiss of death at the box office...
There’s plenty of sex scenes to pique your voyeuristic curiosity. Madonna gets naked in this movie. A lot. And yes, you get full frontal nude shots of Madonna in action. She has a beautiful figure, sexy, very sexy... literally to die for.
There’s some strong sexual content in this movie. We have one scene where Rebecca disrobes and reveals her beautiful bigs boobs. She then licks her fingers and starts masturbating. Frank grabs a pair of handcuffs and secures her on a bedpost. He then removes her panties and the two have intense anal sex.
We also have another scene where Rebecca is giving her lawyer a clandestine handjob while they are riding an elevator. Once they get off the elevator, this leads to the two having sex on top of a car in the parking garage (they break the ceiling lights so that nobody can see them). Frank performs oral sex on Rebecca before the two make out, hoping not to get caught. Oh my God !It’s the thrill of having sex in a public place...
But, the very best sex scene...is actually when the two have sex for the first time. The two get hot and heavy, and Rebecca ties Frank up and licks and bites his nipples. She then pours champagne and drips hot candle wax all over his body including his torso and genitals. It will definitely keep your eyes glued to the screen and your mouth wide open.
During the sex scenes, neither of them had a body double; they were willing to expose themselves for the public to see. I admit it takes some real guts to do those scenes. And someone from the crew, in an interview a few years later, admitted that in reality, the sex scenes... were 100% real... ;)
Body of Evidence only feeds the voyeur in you !!!
The one dimensional portrayal of all the characters is something common to the genre and is to be taken with a pinch of salt.
It comes across as a very poor imitation of the sexy thriller genre. Although in the end it is quite funny and makes you spend a pleasant 1 hour and 38 minutes quietly.
Madonna as always is tasty and juicy but acting is not something that she excels in ; she just widens her eyes and stands still in the courtroom scenes and says stupid things... But deep down Dino de Laurentiis (a master in creating B-Movies) had chosen Madonna, not for this!! Her job here was to… “harden” the male viewers,… by stripping, displaying her amazingly sculpted, naked body and gorgeous boobs, while riding with “healthy, pleasurable enthusiasm,” Micheal Forrest premiere and then the lucky and unprofessional lawyer Willem Dafoe... And in this was what was really Oscar-winning for best performance as a whore appeared on the screen.
So hold on to the towel and hand spray, we're going for a ride
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Body of Evidence (1992): Where to Watch and Stream Online
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1992-12-25T00:00:00+00:00
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Find out where to watch Body of Evidence online. This comprehensive streaming guide lists all of the streaming services where you can rent, buy, or stream for free
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en
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https://reelgood.com/movie/body-of-evidence-1993
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Where to Watch
Watch on Apple TV+
Available to rent or buy
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Currently you are able to watch Body of Evidence streaming on Roku, Tubi, PlutoTV, and The Roku Channel. It is also possible to buy Body of Evidence on VUDU, and Apple TV or rent it on VUDU, and Apple TV.
'Body of Evidence' Streaming: How to Watch Anywhere
Currently, Body of Evidence is available in Canada, and the US
If Body of Evidence is not available in your country or you're traveling, useExpressVPNto access it anywhere. Plus, Reelgood users get3 months free, making it easier to enjoy your favorite content without interruptions.
CountryServicesAccess withExpressVPNUnited StatesThe Roku Channel, Roku, Tubi, PlutoTV✅United KingdomNot Available❌AustraliaNot Available❌CanadaTubi✅New ZealandNot Available❌
Streaming availability last updated: 03:01:12 AM, 08/12/2024 PST
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2020-09-14T14:00:41+00:00
|
en
|
Neil Oseman
|
https://neiloseman.com/tag/framing/
|
I’m certainly glad you could join me today. It’s a fantastic day here and I hope it is wherever you’re at. Are you ready to read a fantastic little blog post? Good, then let’s get started.
For twelve years, across 400 episodes, Bob Ross entertained all generations of Americans with his public access TV series, The Joy of Painting. Although he floated up to join the happy little clouds in 1995, in recent years YouTube and Twitch have brought his shows to a new audience, of which I am a humble member. Bob’s hypnotic, soft-spoken voice, his unfailingly positive attitude, and the magical effects of his wet-on-wet oil-painting technique make his series calming, comforting and captivating in equal measure.
Having watched every episode at least twice now, I’ve noticed several nuggets of Bob Ross wisdom that apply just as well to cinematography as they do to painting.
1. “The more plains you have in your painting, the more depth it has… and that’s what brings the happy buck.”
Bob always starts with the background of his scene and paints forward: first the sky with its happy little clouds; then often some almighty mountains; then the little footy hills; some trees way in the distance, barely more than scratches on the canvas; then perhaps a lake, its reflections springing forth impossibly from Bob’s brush; the near bank; and some detailed trees and bushes in the foreground, with a little path winding through them.
Just as with landscape painting, depth is tremendously important in cinematography. Creating a three-dimensional world with a monoscopic camera is a big part of a DP’s job, which starts with composition – shooting towards a window, for example, rather than a wall – and continues with lighting. Depth increases production value, which makes for a happy producer and a happy buck for you when you get hired again.
2. “As things get further away from you in a landscape, they get lighter in value.”
Regular Joy of Painting viewers soon notice that the more distant layers of Bob’s paintings use a lot more Titanium White than the closer ones. Bob frequently explains that each layer should be darker and more detailed than the one behind it, “and that’s what creates the illusion of depth”.
Distant objects seem lighter and less contrasty because of a phenomenon called aerial perspective, basically atmospheric scattering of light. As a DP, you can simulate this by lighting deeper areas of your frame brightly, and keeping closer areas dark. This might be achieved by setting up a flag to provide negative fill to an object in the foreground, or by placing a battery-powered LED fixture at the end of a dark street. The technique works for night scenes and small interiors, just as well as daytime landscapes, even though aerial perspective would never occur there in real life. The viewer’s brain will subconsciously recognise the depth cue and appreciate the three-dimensionality of the set much more.
3. “Don’t kill the little misty area; that’s your separator.”
After completing each layer, particularly hills and mountains, Bob takes a clean, dry brush and taps gently along the bottom of it. This has a blurring and fading effect, giving the impression that the base of the layer is dissolving into mist. When he paints the next layer, he takes care to leave a little of this misty area showing behind it.
We DPs can add atmos (smoke) to a scene to create separation. Because there will be more atmos between the lens and a distant object than between the lens and a close object, it really aids the eye in identifying different plains. That makes the image both clearer and more aesthetically pleasing. Layers can also be separated with backlight, or a differentiation of tones or colours.
4. “You need the dark in order to show the light.”
Hinting at the tragedy in his own life, Bob often underlines the importance of playing dark tones against light ones. “It’s like in life. Gotta have a little sadness once in a while so you know when the good times come,” he wisely remarks, as he taps away at the canvas with his fan-brush, painting in the dark rear leaves of a tree. Then he moves onto the lighter foreground leaves, “but don’t kill your dark areas,” he cautions.
If there’s one thing that makes a cinematic image, it’s contrast. It can be very easy to over-light a scene, and it’s often a good idea to try turning a fixture or two off to see if the mood is improved. However bright or dark your scene is, where you don’t put light is just as important as where you do. Flagging a little natural light, blacking out a window, or removing the bubble from a practical can often add a nice bit of shape to the image.
5. “Maybe… maybe… maybe… Let’s DROP in an almighty tree.”
As the end of the episode approaches, and the painting seems complete, Bob has a habit of suddenly adding a big ol’ tree down one or both sides of the canvas. Since this covers up background layers that have been carefully constructed earlier in the show, Bob often gets letters complaining that he has spoilt a lovely painting. “Ruined!” is the knowing, light-hearted comment of the modern internet viewer.
The function of these trees is to provide a foreground framing element which anchors the side of the image. I discussed this technique in my article on composing a wide shot. A solid, close object along the side or base of the frame makes the image much stronger. It gives a reason for the edge of the frame to be there rather than somewhere else. As DPs, we may not be able to just paint a tree in, but there’s often a fence, a pillar, a window frame, even a supporting artist that we can introduce to the foreground with a little tweaking of the camera position.
The ol’ clock on the wall tells me it’s time to go, so until next time: happy filming, and God bless, my friend.
If you’re keen to learn more about cinematography, don’t forget I have an in-depth course available on Udemy.
I once had an argument with a director about the composition of a wide shot. I wanted to put the horizon nearer the top of the frame than the bottom, and he felt that this was the wrong way around. In reality there is no right and wrong in composition, only a myriad of possibilities that are all valid and can all make your viewers feel different ways. In this article I will take a metaphorical ramble through these possibilities, and ponder their effects.
You would think that the most natural position for the horizon would be in the vertical centre of the frame. After all, in our day-to-day life, when we look straight ahead, this is where it appears to be.
In practice, a central horizon is not a popular choice. This article by Art Wolfe, for example, argues that it robs the image of dynamism, sending the eye straight to the horizon rather than letting it wander around the frame. The technique is also at odds with the Rule of Thirds, though as I’ve written before, that’s not a rule I place much stock in.
The talented photographer and vlogger Arian Vila, however, describes the merits of a central horizon when composing for a square aspect ratio. And this is an excellent reminder that the horizon does not exist in a vacuum; like anything else, it must be judged in the context of the aspect ratio and the other compositional elements of the frame.
For Leon Chambers’ Above the Clouds (out now on Amazon Prime and other platforms!), I placed the horizon centrally several times:
This was a deliberate echo of the painting “Above the Clouds” which appears in the film and provides the thematic backbone.
A year or two after shooting Clouds, I came across Photograms of the Year: 1949 in a charity shop. Amongst its pages I found another diptych, one created by the book designer rather than the two entirely separate photographers:
These two images, perfectly paired, demonstrate contrasting horizon placement. At Grey Dawn emphasises the sky by placing the horizon low in the frame, creating a sense of space. Meanwhile, Homeward Bound positions its horizon somewhere beyond the trees near the top of frame, drawing attention to the sand and the wheel ruts and indeed to the figures of the caravan itself, rather than to the destination or surroundings.
Horizon placement is closely tied to two other creative choices: headroom, which I dedicated a whole article to, and lens height, i.e. is this a low or a high angle? Even a GCSE media student can tell you that a low angle imbues power while a high angle implies vulnerability, but these are terms most applicable to closer shots. When we think of horizon placement we are probably concerned with big wides, where creating a mood for the scene or setting is more important than visualising a character’s power or lack thereof.
Breaking Bad is an example of a series that predominantly chooses low horizons to show off the big skies of its New Mexico locations. “[Showrunner] Vince [Gilligan] is a student of cinema and knows movies like the back of his hand,” says DP Michael Slovis, ASC. “It was always in his mind that this was a Western in the style of Sergio Leone and the Italian Neo-realists.”
Incidentally, there’s an amazing desert scene in the episode “Crawl Space” where a sunlit close-up cuts to a big wide. The wide holds as clouds roll over the sun. The action continues and the shot still holds, the line between sunlight and shade visible as it rolls away across the desert, until finally a new line slides under the camera and sun breaks over the actors once more. Only then are we permitted to see the scene up close again.
This creative choice, to set the character’s small concerns against the vast immutability of nature, comes from the same place as the choice to put the horizon low in frame.
Returning to Photograms of the Year: 1949, my eyes light upon another pair of contrasting images:
Despite its title, Towards the Destination shows us little of where the sailors are heading, by placing the horizon high in the frame and focusing on the water and the reflections therein. Rendezvous at Chincoteague, by placing its horizon low in the frame, radiates a feeling of isolation that is in contrast to the meeting of the title.
As we consider the figures in these photographs I am forced to concede that the argument I alluded to in the introduction may have been less about the position of the horizon and more about the position of the actor. I think the director felt that it was unnatural for an person to appear in the top half of the frame rather than the bottom half.
I can see his point. The vision of our naked eyes is definitely framed along the bottom by the ground, while the top remains open and unlimited – outdoors, at least. So if a person is standing on the ground, we naturally expect them to appear low down in an image.
But this – like nose room, the Rule of Thirds, the 180° Rule, short-key lighting, so many things in cinematography – is merely a guideline. There are times when it just isn’t helpful, when it can lead to wasted opportunities.
Here is a shot of mine from The Gong Fu Connection (dir. Ted Duran) where the horizon and the cast are placed in the upper half of frame:
Would it really have been better to frame them lower, losing out on the reflections and the foreround rushes, and gaining just empty sky? I think not. This composition was especially important to me, because the film’s titular connection is all about man and the natural world. By showing the water and greenery, we root the characters in it. A composition with more sky might have made them seem dwarfed by nature, lost in it.
This article has been something of a stream of consciousness, but the point I’m trying to make is this: always consider the content and meaning of your shot; reflecting those in your composition is infinitely more important than adhering to any guidelines.
If you enjoyed this, you may be interested in some of my other articles on composition:
Composing a Wide Shot
Composing a Shot-Reverse
Headroom
Lead Room, Nose Room or Looking Space
9 Uses for Central Framing
2:39:1 Composition
Is the Rule of Thirds Right for 2.39:1?
I used to be a casual follower of superhero films, until I was inducted into the Marvel Cinematic Universe via a movie marathon. Despite different directors for each instalment, the MCU has a fairly consistent look and feel, so I was a little surprised when we got to The Avengers to note that it differs visually in one significant way from all of its predecessors. Whereas the five previous films (and indeed most of the subsequent ones) were in the 2.39:1 aspect ratio, The Avengers was presented in the taller 1.85:1 ratio.
This initially struck me as counterintuitive. 2.39:1 was introduced in the 1950s to tempt watchers of the new-fangled TV back into the cinemas, and ever since then it has been associated with the biggest, most epic, most cinematic of movies. It seems like the natural choice for a superhero franchise, so it’s no surprise that the MCU adopted this ratio for most of its instalments. But if wider images mean a more epic movie, then surely The Avengers, the climax of Phase One and the coming-together of a whole team of superheroes, should be, if anything, even wider than its 2.39:1 predecessors?
I’m certainly not the first person to be nonplussed by the choice. A quick google later on threw up plenty of forums where fans complained that The Avengers was “not cinematic enough” because of its aspect ratio. Some linked the choice of ratio to director Joss Whedon’s TV background, claiming he was more comfortable with that shape of frame.
The real reason for Whedon’s decision became clear as the action ramped up into the third act. The battle of New York is not a two-dimensional conflict; Thor and Iron Man are flying around, the Hulk climbs up buildings, the Chitauri ships float above the streets, and Stark Tower plays a key part in the action. The extra frame height of 1.85 was essential to tell that story.
“I wanted to feel the space around us, and use wider lenses,” said Whedon. “That’s why I went 1.85 instead of wider. In IMAX, I wanted it to fill your eyeball completely.”
Continuing the movie marathon, the MCU does not return to 1.85 until Ant-Man, and director Peyton Reed initially encountered resistance from the studio when he advocated this ratio. “It’s a big conversation because it affects production design. It affects everything. And it felt to me… that shrinking was a vertical act and it was going to serve the movie even more. And I had to make a case for the fact that it was still going to be epic.”
I wonder if the days of wider aspect ratios being perceived as more epic are numbered. IMAX sequences are becoming more and more common in blockbusters, including the Marvel films. Digital IMAX has an aspect ratio of 1.90:1, very similar to the 1.85 which is so often perceived as the small-scale, poor man’s ratio. (To confuse matters, the 1.90 sequences are often cropped to 2.39 for ordinary cinemas and home entertainment release.) An epic feel is very much what the IMAX brand is selling, so the traditional perception is being turned on its head. Both Avengers: Infinity War and the recent Endgame were shot entirely in Imax 1.90:1, and are sure to be the very definition of epic for a while to come.
Things seem to be going the same way over in the DC universe too. On the social media platform Vevo, director Zak Snyder had this to say about Batman v. Superman and Justice League: “I had so much fun shooting the IMAX sections of my movie (BvS) [that I] sort of fell in love with that giant less rectangular aspect ratio and so that’s why I shot JL 1:85”.
Image size may have something to do with this shifting trend. After all, a larger image is surely more epic than a smaller one. In theory, 2.39 should result in the largest image, with curtains or masks at the sides of a cinema screen opening up for these widescreen presentations. In practice though, many smaller multiplex auditoria mask the top and bottom of their screens for 2.39, making for a smaller overall image than 1.85, just like when you watch 2.39 content at home on your TV or monitor (which is 1.78:1). My local multiplex recently converted its largest auditorium to IMAX, which involved no change to the width of the screen, but an increase in height.
Add to this the fact that 2.39 overtook 1.85 as the most common aspect ratio for top-grossing films over a decade ago, and it’s small wonder that filmmakers seeking to make their work stand out from the crowd are turning to taller frames.
However the trend of aspect ratios ends up going, it’s important to remember that there’s no wrong or right. I’ve done jobs where directors have told me, “It’s a movie, it’s got to be 2.39,” or, “It’s a series, it’s got to be 1.78,” but there is always a choice. Are your sets tall or wide? Are your lead characters similar or dissimilar in height? Are landscapes or body language most important to this story? It’s factors like these that should really determine the best ratio for your movie, just as Whedon and Reed both realised.
See also:
Aspect Ratios
The 2:1 Aspect Ratio
2.39:1 Composition
The 4:3 Aspect Ratio is not Dead
The Rule of Thirds is the most well-known guide for framing an image. Simply imagine the frame divided into equal horizontal and vertical thirds – or don’t even bother imagining, just turn on your camera’s built-in overlay – and place your subject on one of those lines to get a pleasantly composed picture every time. Some filmmakers believe in the Rule so much that they refuse to even consider any other type of composition.
As I’ve previously written, I find the Rule of Thirds grossly overrated. In particular, when composing for a widescreen aspect ratio like Scope (CinemaScope, i.e.. 2.39:1), the Rule often doesn’t work for me at all.
In this post I’m going to look at an alternative compositional technique, but first let’s step back and find out where the Rule of Thirds actually comes from and why it’s so popular.
Origins of the Rule of Thirds
The first known appearance of the term “Rule of Thirds” is in a 1797 treatise Remarks on Rural Scenery by the English painter John Thomas Smith. It seems he read too much into a simple statement by fellow artist Sir Joshua Reynolds to the effect that, if a picture has two clear areas of differing brightness, one should be bigger than the other. Hardly a robust and auspicious start for a rule that dominates the teaching and discussion of composition today.
I suspect that the Rule has gained strength over the last two centuries from the fact that it encourages novice painters, designers and photographers to overcome their natural tendency to frame everything centrally. Another factor in the Rule’s ubiquity is undoubtedly its similarity to a much older and more reasoned rule: the Golden Ratio.
The Golden Ratio and the Phi Grid
A mathematical concept that’s been around since the time of the ancient Greeks, the Golden Ratio is approximately 1.6:1. It’s a special ratio because if you add the two numbers together, 1.6+1, you get 2.6, and 2.6:1.6 turns out to be, when boiled down, the same ratio you started with, 1.6:1.
Wikipedia puts it this way:
Two quantities are in the Golden Ratio if their ratio is the same as the ratio of their sum to the larger of the two quantities.
It’s difficult to get your head around, I know!
The Golden Ratio is found in nature, in the spiral leaves of some plants for example, and even in certain crystals at the atomic level. There is a long history of artists believing that using the Ratio produces a more aesthetically pleasing image.
The Golden Ratio is most simply applied to composition in the form of a Phi Grid, which resembles a Rule of Thirds grid, but in different proportions, namely 1.6:1:1.6 rather than 1:1:1.
The Rule of Thirds and the Phi Grid both feel quite limiting in Scope because out of all that horizontal space you’ve only got two vertical lines to place your subject on. There is another technique though, one which provides more options.
The Squares within the rectangle
In his book The Mind of the Photographer, Michael Freeman writes about a composition guideline which dates back to the Middle Ages. You imagine two squares, the same height as the frame, and aligned with either side of the frame, then place your subject on the centre or inner edge of one of these squares.
Applied to a Scope frame it looks like this:
We can simplify it down to this:
When I first read about this technique, it really chimed with me. I’ve long believed that a “Rule of Fifths” would be a more effective guide for Scope composition than the Rule of Thirds, and the above diagram isn’t far away from fifths.
Below I’ve overlaid this grid on a few shots from Scope movies that won Best Cinematography Oscars: There Will Be Blood (DP: Robert Elswit, ASC), Slumdog Millionaire (Anthony Dod Mantle, DFF, ASC, BSC), Inception (Wally Pfister, ASC), The Revenant (Emmanuel Lubezki, ASC, AMC) and Blade Runner 2049 (Roger Deakins, CBE, ASC, BSC).
Let me provide a disclaimer first, though. You could draw any grid you wanted and find some shots from movies that matched it. The purpose of this article is not to convince you to ditch the Rule of Thirds and start following this “rule of squares within a rectangle” instead. (For a start, that name is never going to catch on.) This “rule” chimes with me because it’s similar to the way that I was already instinctively composing, but if it doesn’t work for you then don’t use it. Develop your own eye. It’s a creative medium, so compose creatively, not like a robot programmed with simple rules.
I’ll leave you with this quote from the great photographer Ansel Adams:
The so-called rules of photographic composition are, in my opinion, invalid, irrelevant and immaterial.
See also:
2.39:1 Composition
Composing a Wide Shot
Composing a Shot-Reverse
Lead Room, Nose Room or Looking Space
And if you want to read a thorough debunking of the Rule of Thirds, check out this article on Pro Video Coalition.
At the end of last summer I started a regular #ShotOfTheWeek on my Twitter feed. It’s very simple: each week I post a frame grab (or sometimes a GIF if I can find one) of a great shot from a film or series I’ve been watching. Sometimes these are new productions, just out, and sometimes they’re older pieces which I’m revisiting or viewing for the first time.
For those of you who aren’t among the Twitterati, here is a round-up of last year’s Shots of the Week. On the other hand, if you are a Twitterist, why not post your own inspirational frame grabs, using the hashtag #ShotOfTheWeek?
Powerful Close-ups
Cinema is arguably at its most potent when showing us the tiny nuances of emotion that only a big close-up can provide.
This example from the moving Netflix series Anne with an E makes the most of Anne’s freckled face and puts us right in her headspace… literally. Shots like this were captured with a 27mm Primo, as opposed to the vintage Panavision glass used for other coverage. For more on the cinematography of Anne with an E, check out the Varicam section in my report from Camerimage 2017.
I love the shadows in this shot by legendary DP Jack Cardiff; they almost suggest a crucifix or prison bars. Either would be appropriate for this story of a nun sent to a remote Indian palace to establish a school and hospital. The low-angle eye-light adds to the unsettling feel.
The key promotional art for The Crown is an edge-lit profile shot of the Queen, evoking the regal image on stamps and coins. Here DP Stuart Howell has paid homage to the artwork, channelling the same connotations of a figurehead carrying a country on her shoulders.
What can I say? I’m a sucker for a good profile shot. The hellish colours here are perfect given what the erstwhile Lovejoy has just done. (I won’t give you any spoilers, but let’s just say it doesn’t involve cheeky antiques dealing.)
Symbolism
This was the shot that inspired me to start #ShotOfTheWeek. The Handmaid’s Tale is set in a Christian fundamentalist society, so evoking classical religious paintings with the angel-wing-like headboard and the muted, brown colour scheme was a clever move.
This classic spy thriller has a lot of unusual compositions with domineering foreground objects. Here the cross and circle shapes of the light-shade suggest the crosshairs of a gun, while the bulb tastefully obscures the actual bullet wound.
This one is almost too on-the-nose to be called symbolism. Only a drama as quirky as Mr Robot could get away with this kind of (literal) signposting, but I love how bold it is. The rigid geometric lines and excessive headroom used throughout the series are also in evidence here, reflecting how we’re seeing everything from Elliot’s mentally ill point of view.
Negative Space
A forgettable film, but a shot with much to admire. The dark back of the bench creates negative space in the composition, reducing the already-wide Scope frame to a ratio of about 4:1, echoing the short, wide shape of the House of Commons. On the lighting front, negative fill has been employed to render both that bench and the cast very dark, almost silhouettes, imparting a lot of depth to an otherwise flat image.
Again, negative space here creates a geometrical frame within a frame. What I particularly liked was the placement of the bulb above the sheriff’s head, rather than on the right of frame, which would have produced a more balanced but much less interesting shot.
Every time Better Call Saul returned to this location I scanned the background of each angle, trying to figure out what on earth could be motivating the bold slash of light on the right of this image. It remains a mystery! The show is full of uncompromisingly dark images with crisp, pure blacks, but perhaps none so overtly noirish as this one.
Intersecting Lines
All credit to Otto Hunte, the production designer on this 1920s sci-fi classic, as every line in this set leads us to the figure of Maria, fittingly for a character who has captured the imaginations of the dystopian underclass. The cinematographers have helped by framing her centrally and making her the brightest part of the image.
Jardin d’hiver was sponsored by CW Sonderoptic to promote their new large-format Leica Thalia glass (see my Camerimage post for more info). I have to admit that most of the film’s imagery did nothing for me, but this shot of bold, contrasty lines softened by the milkiness of the foreground window has a graphical quality I find very appealing.
This is a shot of two halves: the upper half busy, confused and oppressive, the lower half reassuringly simple with its one-point perspective. It was only after filming wrapped on Above the Clouds that I realised just how much this shot and others like it in Little Miss Sunshine had influenced my cinematography of Leon Chambers’ comedy road movie. (Check out the second still on the Above the Clouds page and you’ll see what I mean!)
Iconic Reveals
“The 39 Steps” (1935) DP: Bernard Knowles
Richard Hannay and the audience both discover the cause of Annabella’s distress simultaneously, in a reveal that’s shocking and also funny! The chiaroscuro of the lighting beautifully highlights the bright knife against the deep shadows of the background.
“Terminator 2: Judgment Day” DP: Adam Greenberg
These two gifs are both parts of the same shot, which cranes up from the shockingly unexpected crushing of the skull to reveal the endoskeleton puppet in mid-shot as a perfectly timed explosion goes off in the background. As well as being a remarkable technical achievement, the arts and sciences of cinematography, practical effects and animatronics all working in harmony, it’s a great piece of visual storytelling.
And finally…
A Ghost Story didn’t get a very wide release, and won’t be to everyone’s taste. A lyrical meditation on the nature of time, its slow pace becomes glacial during a grief-filled, ten-minute pie-eating scene containing only one cut. There is plenty of time to consider the composition, and I loved how casually the ghost is placed within the frame, with the top of his head even cut off. (I later discovered he was composited in, to reduce the chances of anything spoiling the ultra-long, ultra-emotional take.) The lines of the cupboards lead our eyes always back to Rooney Mara, the painterly splash of light on the wall (which I believe was natural) throwing her profile into relief. When she starts to cry, it takes a while to spot the tears, but somehow that makes it all the more powerful.
It’s interesting to note that no fewer than four aspect ratios are represented by all these Shots of the Week: from the traditional Academy ratio of 4:3, through the standard 16:9, to the Netflix-favoured 2:1 and of course 2.39:1 Cinemascope. It’s an exciting time to be working in cinematography, when we have so many choices open to us to create the most fitting images for any given story. Here’s to many more inspiring #ShotOfTheWeek images in 2018. Follow me on Twitter to see them first!
Stanley Kubrick’s 1975 period epic Barry Lyndon, although indifferently received upon its original release, is considered a masterpiece by many today. This is largely due to its painterly photography with strong, precisely composed frames that leave the viewer feeling more like they’ve wandered through an art gallery than watched a movie. Today I’m going to look at eight methods that Kubrick and his team used to create this feel. It’s an excellent example of how a director with a strong vision can use the many aspects of filmmaking to realise that vision.
1. Storytelling
The American Cinematographer article on Barry Lyndon notes that “Kubrick has taken a basically talky novel and magically transformed it into an intensely visual film.” You have only to look at a series of frame-grabs from the movie to see just how much of the story is contained in the images. Just like a painter, Kubrick reveals a wealth of narrative within a single frame. The shot above, for example, while recalling the landscapes of artists like Constable in its background and composition, also clearly tells the story of a courtship threatened by a third party with violent designs.
2. Design
Kubrick was keen for Lyndon to feature the type of rich fabrics which are often seen in 18th century art. He referred costume designer Milena Canonero to various painters of the period. “Stanley wanted beautiful materials,” she recalls in the documentary Stanley Kubrick: A Life in Pictures, “because as he quite rightly said, that’s why in those paintings they gave that wonderful light.”
3. Aspect ratio
There was much confusion and controversy surrounding Kubrick’s intended ratio for Lyndon. The negative was apparently hard-masked to 1.6:1, with the result that VHS and DVDs used this ratio, while the images were vertically cropped to 1.78:1 for the later Blu-ray release. However, the discovery in 2011 of a letter from Kubrick to cinema projectionists finally proved that 1.66:1 was the ratio he wanted audiences to see the film in.
1.66:1 was a standard ratio in parts of Europe, but unusual in the UK and USA. It’s not far off the golden ratio (1.6180:1) – a mathematically significant ratio which some artists believe to be aesthetically pleasing. There is evidence that Kubrick was not a fan of wide aspect ratios in general, perhaps because of his background as a photographer, but it can be no coincidence that Lyndon distances itself from the cinematic ratios of 1.85 and 2.39, and instead takes a shape closer to that of a typical painting.
(Most of the images in this post come from Evan Richards’ Cinematographers Index, and he in turn grabbed them from the 1.78:1 Blu-ray. The image above is in 1.66:1 but shows the 1.78:1 crop-lines.)
4. Composition
“The actual compositions of our setups were very authentic to the drawings of the period,” says DP John Alcott, BSC in his interview with American Cinematographer. Perhaps the film’s most obvious compositional nod to classical art is the large amount of headroom seen in the wide shots. As this article by Art Adams explains, the concept of placing the subject’s head at the top of the frame is fairly new in the history of image creation. Plenty of traditional art includes lots of headroom, and Lyndon does the same.
5. Camera movement
There is little camera movement in Barry Lyndon, but there are 36 zoom shots. Unlike a physical dolly move, in which the parallax effect causes different planes of the image to shrink or enlarge at differing rates, a zoom merely magnifies or reduces the whole image as a single element. This of course only serves to enhance the impression of a two-dimensional piece of art. In fact, the zooms resemble nothing so much as the rostrum camera moves a documentary filmmaker might make across a painting – what today we’d call a Ken Burns effect.
It’s interesting to note that, although Barry Lyndon is famous for its fast lenses – the f/0.7 Zeiss Planar primes – the movie also used a very slow lens, a custom-built T9 24-480mm zoom. From various accounts, other zooms used seem to include a Cooke T3.1 20-100mm and possibly a 25-250mm of some description. Of course, none of the zoom lenses were anywhere near fast enough for the candlelit scenes, so in those instances the filmmakers were forced to use a Planar and pull back physically on a dolly.
6. Lighting
“In preparation for Barry Lyndon we studied the lighting effects achieved in the paintings of the Dutch masters,” Alcott says. “In most instances we were trying to create the feeling of natural light within the houses, mostly stately homes, that we used as shooting locations.” The DP closely observed how natural light would come in through the windows and emulate that using diffused mini-brutes outside. This made it possible to shoot long days during the British winter when natural light was in short supply. Last week I covered in detail the technical innovations which allowed Alcott and Kubrick to shoot night scenes with just genuine candlelight, as 18th century painters would have seen and depicted them.
7. Contrast
Film stock in the seventies was quite contrasty, so Alcott employed a few methods to adjust his images to a tonal range more in keeping with 18th century paintings. He used a Tiffen No. 3 Low Contrast Filter at all times, with an additional brown net for the wedding scene “where I wanted to control the highlights on the faces a bit more,” he explains. He also used graduated ND filters (as in the above frame) both outdoors and indoors, if one side of the room was too bright. Most interestingly, he even went so far as to cover white fireplaces and doorways with fine black nets – not on the lens but on the objects themselves.
8. Blocking
The blocking in Barry Lyndon is often static. While this is certainly a creative decision by Kubrick, again recalling painted canvases and their frozen figures, it was also technically necessary in the candlelit scenes. Whenever the f/0.7 lenses were in use, the cast were apparently instructed to move as little as possible, to prevent them going out of focus. As one YouTube commenter points out, the stillness imposed by these lenses mirrors the stillness required of a painter’s model.
A couple of weeks ago I wrote a post on lead room, the amount of horizontal space the subject is given in front of them in the frame. Commonly the subject is placed to one side or the other, but there can be times when sitting that actor bang in the middle of the screen is most appropriate and effective. Here are some reasons you might want to do it.
1. To show immersion in the environment
When you surround a character with equal amounts of the background on both sides, you embed them into that background, creating a strong connection between them and their environment. This can be seen to great effect in the above frames from Road to Perdition and Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid (DP: Conrad Hall, ASC) and The Revenant (DP: Emmanuel Lubezki, ASC, AMC).
2. To create power
Central framing can give a subject tremendous power and dominance, particularly in combination with a low angle, as seen in the above examples from House of Cards (DP: David M. Dunlap) and Django Unchained (DP: Robert Richardson, ASC).
3. To suggest formality or rigidity
These scenes from American Beauty (DP: Conrad Hall, ASC) use central framing to emphasise the formality of Lester’s performance review, and the stilted, suffocating nature of his home life.
4. To create order
Kubrick used central framing with strong single-point perspective to create worlds of perfect order… so perfect that they would have to come crashing down sooner or later. The above examples are from Full Metal Jacket (DP: Douglas Milsome, BSC, ASC) and 2001: A Space Odyssey (DP: Geoffrey Unsworth, OBE, BSC).
This shot from The Matrix (DP: Bill Pope, ASC) also uses central framing to symbolise order, the calculatingly perfect order of the machines.
5. To suggest duality
When you shoot a shot-reverse with both parties centred, the two characters appear to replace each other on screen every time you cut. This can suggest a strong connection between the characters, or a strong conflict as they battle for the same piece of screen. Donnie Darko (DP: Steven B. Poster, ASC, ICG) uses this technique to set up the antagonism of the rabbit, while also suggesting he’s a part of Donnie, a figment of his imagination.
6. For humour
Centre framing is of course a huge part of Wes Anderson’s style, as in The Life Aquatic with Steve Zissou and The Grand Budapest Hotel (DP: Robert Yeoman, ASC). But I don’t think it’s stylisation for stylisation’s sake; his movies all have the feeling of tall tales told by ageing relatives with the aid of a scrapbook full of dorky, posed photos. The symmetry helps create the dorkiness, and from thence – as Lee & Herring used to say – the humour arises. The same is true of this classic scene from Garden State (DP: Lawrence Sher, ASC).
7. For faster cutting
Mad Max: Fury Road (DP: John Seale, ACS, ASC) was framed centrally in service of the editing. Director George Hill realised that if he put everyone in the same place in frame, the audience wouldn’t need to search the screen for the subject after every cut, allowing him to edit faster without making the action incomprehensible. See this post for more on the cinematography of Fury Road.
8. For impact
When used judiciously, central framing can have a big impact, giving a character their moment in the spotlight, putting them centre stage. It can underline a key character or story beat. The examples above are from Hugo (DP: Robert Richardson, ASC), Rogue One (DP: Greig Fraser, ACS, ASC) and American Beauty again.
9. To Break the fourth wall
And finally, if your subject is looking into the lens, addressing the audience, then central framing is the natural composition. It’s not the only composition though; often the subject will be framed to one side so we can see the action continuing in the background even as it is narrated to us. But if the shot is just about the narrator, often central framing will be the most effective, as in the above shots from Amélie (DP: Bruno Delbonnel, AFC, ASC) and A Series of Unfortunate Events (DP: Bernard Couture).
Last autumn I wrote a post about aspect ratio, covering the three main ratios in use today: 16:9, 1.85:1 and 2.39:1. The post briefly mentioned a few non-standard ratios, including 2:1. Since then, I’ve noticed this ratio popping up all over the place. Could it be on its way to becoming a standard?
Today I’ll give you a little background on this ratio, followed by a gallery of frame grabs from 2:1 productions. The aim is simply to raise awareness of this new(ish) tool in the aspect ratio toolkit. As ever, it’s up to the director and DP to decide whether their particular project is right for this, or any other, ratio. However, I would caution low-budget filmmakers against picking what is still not a common ratio without considering that smaller distribution companies may crop your work to a more standard ratio either because of convenience or negligence.
Vittorio Storaro, ASC, AIC – the highly-regarded cinematographer of Last Tango in Paris and Apocalypse Now amongst many others – began championing the 2:1 ratio around the turn of the millennium. It was one of the most complicated times in the history of aspect ratios. The horror of pan-and-scan (butchering a movie to fit its 1.85:1 or 2.39:1 ratio into 4:3 without bars) was starting to recede with the introduction of DVD, which was in fact still 4:3 but could contain squeezed 16:9 content. Widescreen television sets were starting to build in popularity, but some programmes and films were being broadcast in the middle-ground ratio of 14:9 so as not to offend the majority of viewers who still had 4:3 sets. And Storaro recognised that HD would soon supplant celluloid as the primary capture and exhibition method for cinema, likely bringing with it fresh aspect ratio nightmares.
Storaro proposed “Univisium”, a 2:1 aspect ratio that fell between the two cinema standards of 1.85:1 and 2.39:1. It was a compromise, designed to make everyone’s life easier, to produce images that would need only minor letterboxing no matter where or how they were screened. However, the industry did not share his vision, and until recently 2:1 productions were relatively rare, most of them lensed by Storaro himself, such as Frank Herbert’s Dune, Exorcist: The Beginning and Storaro’s first digital picture, Café Society.
Perhaps the biggest 2:1 movie to date is Jurassic World. DP John Schwartzman, ASC wanted to shoot anamorphic 2.39:1, while Steven Spielberg, exec producing, advocated 1.85:1 (like his original Jurassic Park) to provide more height for the dinosaurs. 2:1 was arrived at, again, as a compromise.
And compromise is likely what has driven the recent explosion in 2:1 material – not in the cinema, but online. Recent shows produced in this ratio include The Crown, A Series of Unfortunate Events, Stranger Things and House of Cards on Netflix, and Transparent on Amazon. I expect the producers of these series were looking to give their audience a more cinematic experience without putting off those who dislike big black bars on their screen, not unlike the reasoning behind the 14:9 broadcasts in the noughties.
2:1 may be a ratio born out of compromise, but then so was 16:9 (invented by SMPTE in the early eighties as a halfway house between 2.35:1 and 4:3). It certainly doesn’t mean that shooting in 2:1 isn’t a valid creative choice. Perhaps its most interesting attribute is its lack of baggage; 16:9 is sometimes seen as “the TV ratio” and 2.39:1 as “the big movie ratio”, but 2:1 has no such associations. One day perhaps it may be thought of as “the streaming ratio”, but for now it is simply something other.
Anyway, enough of the history and theory. Here are some examples of the cinematography that can be achieved in 2:1.
Cafe Society
DP: Vittorio Storaro, ASC, AIC
Jurassic World
DP: John Schwartzman, ASC
House of Cards
Season 5 DP: David M. Dunlap
Stranger Things
Season 1 DP: Tim Ives
The Crown
Season 1 DPs: Adriano Goldman, ASC, ABC & Ole Bratt Birkeland
Broadchurch
Season 3 DP: Carlos Catalan
A Series of Unfortunate Events
Season 1 DP: Bernard Couture
Like headroom, last week’s topic, lead room is one of the first concepts we are introduced to when we begin learning camera operation. And like headroom, it’s a rule that’s made to be broken. If a character is looking screen-left, certainly it’s most common to place them on the right of frame – giving them lead room (a.k.a. nose room or looking space) on the left, but that is not the only option. In certain situations it’s more appropriate, or simply more aesthetically pleasing, to place them on the left, or in the centre. And although The Rule of Thirds suggests how far to the left or right they will commonly be placed (a third, or two-thirds of the way across the frame) it is, again, far from the only option.
Below I’ve compiled a spectrum of lead room: a series of examples showing the whole range of horizontal positions within a frame where a subject could be placed. (Note: I’ve flopped some of the images to maintain the screen direction.) All of these examples are from 1.78:1 or 1.85:1 productions, but of course with the 2.39:1 Cinemascope format there is an even greater range of options. On the righthand side, to aid comparison, I’ve placed different crops of the same photo (by Richard Unger).
No composition is fixed in motion picture production. Actors move around, miss their marks; it’s difficult for a DP to be precise about where the subject appears in the shot, so reading a particular intention into an individual frame is dangerous. But if, within a film, there is a trend of characters, or a specific character, being placed in one particular part of the frame, then it’s fair to assume that the filmmakers were deliberately trying to create a particular effect.
With that in mind, the thoughts below are not intended to analyse why that specific shot in that specific production was composed the way it was, but rather to consider in general terms what meanings and emotions that kind of composition might convey.
This is the maximum lead room you can give an actor in 1.85:1 without cutting off part of their head (which you may want to do in certain extreme circumstances, but that’s a subject for another post). This is someone backed into a corner, isolated. They have full cognisance of their situation – they can see it all in front of them. What you choose to place on the other side of frame is very important with an extreme composition like this. Negative space, as in the above example, creates an unbalanced frame, suggesting someone in a precarious situation, whereas another person or object would appear to dominate the subject.
This is widely considered to be the ideal framing, with the subject placed according to The Rule of Thirds. Assuming that Keira is looking at another actor here, and that that actor’s single is framed with him in the left half of frame, the brain can comfortably merge the two shots into one, creating – subconsciously – a split-screen like a phone conversation in an old sitcom. The shot-reverse will be pleasingly balanced, and no tension will be created – at least not by the lead room.
On more than one occasion I’ve tried to frame a shot like this, only to be told by the director that the subject is “too close to the centre”, it’s “wrong” and the subject must be placed on a third. What I should have done is shown them this frame, said, “If it’s good enough for Roger Deakins….” and then coughed in a way that sounded suspiciously like “thirteen Oscar nominations”. What’s interesting about this composition is the visual tension it creates when edited with the reverse. If the other actor is similarly close to the centre, their images start to overlap, almost like they’re duking it out, and if the other actor is placed further from the centre, they will seem trapped by their interlocutor. Or maybe composing the shot this way sometimes just allows for the best range of movement from the actor and the most pleasing frame.
Placing someone in the centre of frame can be very powerful. It suggests someone in control, balanced, dominant. Now of course, that is not at all an accurate description of Bill Murray’s character in Lost in Translation. But notice that big, bright practical light so close to his head; it completely unbalances the composition. This just goes to show that the subject’s position relative to background elements can be of equal or greater importance to their position within the frame. I aim to do a whole post about centre-framing in the near future.
Although short-sided, the boy still has some lead room, in fact an amount of lead room that would be perfectly normal in a 4:3 composition. Personally, I would be comfortable with this composition for purely aesthetic reasons, but it could also be used to create some visual tension, suggesting things unknown behind the subject, waiting to creep up on them figuratively or literally. It could also suggest the character is weak, particularly if intercut with another character who is more traditionally framed.
Now we are into territory that many will find uncomfortable. A character short-sided like this may seem unbalanced, lost, trapped, wrong-footed or isolated. Or they might simply be deep in thought; you can easily imagine another character entering in the background of the above frame, breaking Crowe’s reverie, restoring the compositional balance and turning it into a deep two-shot.
Imagine someone walking into a room and standing right up against the wall, facing it. You would think them strange, disturbed. You might wonder if they were looking at something imaginary. This is the effect created by extreme short-siding. It also serves to make the subject look completely alone, even though they might be speaking to someone just inches in front of them. Mr. Robot is the only place I’ve ever seen composition this unusual, though I’m sure there are other examples out there.
Next time you watch a film or a TV show, pay attention to the lead room. You may be surprised to find that non-standard compositions are employed more often than you thought.
Thanks again to evanrichards.com, where I found most of the frame grabs.
One of the first things that amateur photographers and cinematographers are taught is “correct” headroom. Don’t put people’s heads in the middle of the frame, we’re told, but at the top. Rules are made to be broken though, and here are three examples of beautiful cinematography which do just that.
Broadchurch
“A town wrapped in secrets” is the tag-line of this critically-acclaimed ITV detective serial. In classic murder mystery fashion, every character is hiding something, causing suspicion to rest on each of them for a little while until the the person hiding the right secret is found.
David Tennant’s DI Alec Hardy complains of the small coastal town’s “endless sky”, an observation which could equally apply to the cinematography, framing the action as it often does with expansive headroom. While this may be partly an attempt to emphasise the isolation of the titular town, where people are small in the face of nature, its primary effect is to evoke the secrecy so integral to the storyline. Just as the police – and viewers – are figuratively misdirected by the suspects’ lies, so the camera is literally misdirected. The message from Matt Gray, BSC’s cinematography is: look at the beautiful sky and the paintings high up on the wall, because if you look too hard at what’s in front of you, you’ll see that the surface perfection of the bucket-and-spade idyll is built on foundations of sand.
Utopia
This stylish, stunningly-photographed thriller ran for two seasons on Channel 4 in 2013 and 2014. It featured a group of disparate characters following clues in a cult graphic novel to uncover a chilling conspiracy. It was the first TV show I’d ever seen in 2.39:1, it had a garish, digitally-manipulated palette, and its composition broke all the rules.
Amongst Utopia‘s visual hallmarks was the use of plentiful headroom. Characters were frequently crushed into the lower half of the frame, a symbol of the powerful conspiracy looming over them. The overall look crafted by director Marc Munden and DP Ole Bratt Birkeland placed the viewer completely outside of the comfort zone of TV’s visual conventions, into a world where you couldn’t trust or rely on anything. (The Amazon series Mr. Robot uses similar techniques for similar reasons.)
Both seasons of Utopia can be viewed free at channel4.com
IDA
The makers of the Oscar-winning Polish indie feature Ida also chose an unusual aspect ratio; 4:3 had not been commonly used in features for decades. It was director Pawel Pawlikowski who wanted to try framing his subjects low down within the boxy ratio, leaving lots of headroom.
DP Lukasz Zal, PSC embraced the idea. “We saw that [the odd framing] created the feeling of loss, isolation and that it wasn’t just a strange mannerism but it conveyed so much more,” he told The LA Times.
Many interpretations have been placed on the meaning of the extra headroom in this tale of a young novitiate nun who comes to question her lifestyle. Most commonly it is seen as implying heaven above and therefore the nuns’ thoughts of the divine. To me it also conveys a sense of helplessness, of free will being overcome by larger forces above and around Ida.
Read this post on the ASC website for more on the cinematography of Ida.
If you want to delve deeper into the topic of headroom, I highly recommend this article by Art Adams: A Short History of Headroom, and How to Use It.
I’ll leave you with Pawel Pawlikowski’s thoughts on the ambiguity of his framing in Ida…
Some audiences have said the sky was crushing them. When you do something that’s formally strong, it elicits all kinds of responses. When you make these decisions, they’re kind of intuitive. You don’t intellectualize what it means; it feels right.
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"Body of Evidence (1992)"
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A millionaire is found dead of heart failure handcuffed to the bed with a home video tape of him and his lover. When cocaine is found in his system, a
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https://ww4.yts.nz/https%3A%2F%2Fyts.mx%2Fmovies%2Fbody-of-evidence-1992
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Really don't get why this film got such bad reviews. It's an okay thriller, nothing mind blowing but decent enough for a watch. And Madonna is hot af in it!
Remember this coming on late one night when I was flicking through the channels as a teenage boy, was like striking gold. So it gets an extra star for that ? Personally I prefer it over Basic Instinct which it's often compared to. Just found it more interesting for some reason , and Madonna was a better seductress. Which is what the movies are mainly about really.
And the cast was actually better too. Frank Langella and Julian Moore in supporting roles!
A dated rip-off of BASIC INSTINCT, riding the wave of the psycho thriller genre's popularity in the early 1990s. I remember this one being mildly controversial back in the day due to the explicitness of the sex scenes, but it simply isn't a very good movie. Madonna gives a wooden turn as a Hitchcockian femme fatale who may or may not be responsible for the murder of an aged lover; Willem Dafoe's her lawyer. The near-the-knuckle sex scenes stand out to better or worse effect, but the courtroom drama is rather turgid and good supporting cast members are wasted.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_Milsome
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Douglas Milsome
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] |
2007-04-02T00:38:43+00:00
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_Milsome
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English cinematographer
Douglas Milsome BSC, ASC (born 1939) is an English cinematographer. A former camera operator for John Alcott on films like A Clockwork Orange, Barry Lyndon, and The Shining, Milsome became a collaborator with director Stanley Kubrick following Alcott's death in 1986. His filmography includes numerous genre films including Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves, Highlander: Endgame, Dungeons & Dragons, and Dracula III: Legacy. He has also worked with Jean-Claude Van Damme on films such as Legionnaire and The Hard Corps.
Biography
[edit]
Milsome was born in Hammersmith, London, England, in 1939.
Sometimes credited as Doug Milsome, perhaps his most-widely seen work is Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves. He collaborated with Stanley Kubrick and John Alcott in the 1970s, as camera operator and second-unit photographer, and became Kubrick's director of photography for Full Metal Jacket. Known for his mastery of difficult focus techniques, tested especially with the idiosyncratic lenses used on Barry Lyndon to film scenes by candlelight, he was consulted for Kubrick's final project, Eyes Wide Shut.[1]
Milsome has gravitated toward genres such as science fiction and fantasy, where he is known for his brooding style. He is member of both the American and British Societies of Cinematographers.
His son, Mark Milsome (1963–2017), was also a camera operator, and was killed during a shoot.[2] At the inquest, the coroner ruled it an "accidental death".[3]
Selected filmography
[edit]
Cinematographer
[edit]
Camera Operator/Assistant
[edit]
References
[edit]
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https://www.fandango.com/body-of-evidence-88877/cast-and-crew
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A Message To Our Fans
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A Message To Our Fans
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Sorry, Fandango is not available outside the United States.
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https://www.blu-ray.com/movies/Body-of-Evidence-Blu-ray/327120/
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Body of Evidence Blu
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Body of Evidence Blu-ray Release Date January 30, 2023. Blu-ray reviews, news, specs, ratings, screenshots. Cheap Blu-ray movies and deals.
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Body of Evidence Blu-ray
Final Cut Entertainment | 1993 | 101 min | Rated BBFC: 18 | Jan 30, 2023
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Mystery
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Codec: MPEG-4 AVC (33.00 Mbps)
Resolution: 1080p
Aspect ratio: 1.85:1
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English: LPCM 2.0 (48kHz, 16-bit)
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List price: £9.99
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Body of Evidence
(1993)
Screenshots from another edition of Body of Evidence Blu-ray
A millionaire is found dead of heart failure handcuffed to the bed with a home video tape of him and his lover. When cocaine is found in his system, and his will leaves $8 million to his lover, they arrest her on suspicion of murder.
Director: Uli Edel
Writer: Brad Mirman
Starring: Madonna, Willem Dafoe, Anne Archer, Julianne Moore, Joe Mantegna, Michael Forest
Producers: Dino De Laurentiis, Martin Moszkowicz, Stephen Deutsch, Bernd Eichinger, Melinda Jason, Herman Weigel
» See full cast & crew
Body of Evidence Blu-ray Review
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Body of Evidence Blu-ray, News and Updates
• Body of Evidence Blu-ray - November 10, 2022
British label Final Cut Entertainment will celebrate the 30th anniversary of Uli Edel's thriller Body of Evidence (1993) with a brand new Blu-ray release of the film, which will be available for purchase on January 30th.
• Body of Evidence Blu-ray Detailed - May 14, 2018
Shout Factory has detailed its upcoming Blu-ray release of release of Uli Edel's erotic thriller Body of Evidence (1993), starring Madonna, Willem Dafoe, Anne Archer, Julianne Moore, and Joe Mantegna. The release will be available for purchase on June 12.
• Body of Evidence Blu-ray - March 2, 2018
U.S. label Shout Factory has announced that it is preparing a Blu-ray release of Uli Edel's erotic thriller Body of Evidence (1993), starring Madonna, Willem Dafoe, Anne Archer, Julianne Moore, and Joe Mantegna. The release will be available for purchase on June ...
» Show more related news posts for Body of Evidence Blu-ray
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• Body of Evidence (1993) (
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Body of Evidence Blu-ray
£9.99 £9.99
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Physiological and Biochemical Zoology
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Physiological and Biochemical Zoology
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https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/toc/pbz/2023/96/6
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To maximize energy savings, entry into torpor should involve a fast reduction of metabolic rate and body temperature (Tb); that is, animals should thermoconform. However, animals often defend against the decrease in Tb via a temporary increase in thermoregulatory heat production, slowing the cooling process. We investigated how thermoregulating or thermoconforming during torpor entry affects temporal and thermoenergetic aspects in relation to body mass and age in juvenile and adult fat-tailed dunnarts (Sminthopsis crassicaudata; Marsupialia: Dasyuridae). During torpor entry, juvenile thermoconformers cooled twice as fast as and used less energy during cooling than juvenile thermoregulators. While both juvenile and adult thermoconformers had a lower minimum Tb, a lower torpor metabolic rate, and longer torpor bouts than thermoregulators, these differences were more pronounced in the juveniles. Rewarming from torpor took approximately twice as long for juvenile thermoconformers, and the costs of rewarming were greater. To determine the difference in average daily metabolic rate between thermoconformers and thermoregulators independent of body mass, we compared juveniles of a similar size (∼13 g) and similarly sized adults (∼17 g). The average daily metabolic rate was 7% (juveniles) and 17% (adults) less in thermoconformers than in thermoregulators, even though thermoconformers were active for longer. Our data suggest that thermoconforming during torpor entry provides an energetic advantage for both juvenile and adult dunnarts and may aid growth for juveniles. While thermoregulation during torpor entry is more costly, it still saves energy, and the higher Tb permits greater alertness and mobility and reduces the energetic cost of endogenous rewarming.
How do large and small reptiles defend against infections, given the consequences of body mass for physiology and disease transmission? Functionally equivalent mammalian and avian granulocytes increased disproportionately with body mass (i.e., scaled hypermetrically), such that large organisms had higher concentrations than expected by a prediction of proportional protection across sizes. However, as these scaling relationships were derived from endothermic animals, they do not necessarily inform the scaling of leukocyte concentration for ectothermic reptiles that have a different physiology and evolutionary history. Here, we asked whether and how lymphocyte and heterophil concentrations relate to body mass among more than 120 reptile species. We compared these relationships to those found in birds and mammals and to existing scaling frameworks (i.e., protecton, complexity, rate of metabolism, or safety factor hypotheses). Both lymphocyte and heterophil concentrations scaled almost isometrically among reptiles. In contrast, functionally equivalent granulocytes scaled hypermetrically and lymphocytes scaled isometrically in birds and mammals. Life history traits were also poor predictors of variation in reptilian heterophil and lymphocyte concentrations. Our results provide insight into differences in immune protection in birds and mammals relative to that in reptiles through a comparative lens. The shape of scaling relationships differs, which should be considered when modeling disease dynamics among these groups.
By allowing for increased absorption or reflectance of solar radiation, changes in pigmentation may assist ectotherms in responding to immune challenges by enabling a more precise regulation of behavioral fever or hypothermia. Variation in epigenetic characteristics may also assist in regulating immune-induced pigmentation changes and managing the body’s energetic reserves following infection. Here, we explore how dorsal pigmentation, metabolic rate, and DNA methylation in the Florida scrub lizard (Sceloporus woodi) respond to two levels of immune challenge across two habitat types. We found changes in pigmentation that are suggestive of efforts to assist in behavioral fever and hypothermia depending on the intensity of immune challenge. We also found correlations between DNA methylation in liver tissue and pigmentation change along the dorsum, indicating that color transitions may be part of a multifaceted immune response across tissue types. The relationship between immune response and metabolic rate supports the idea that energetic reserves may be conserved for the costs associated with behavioral fever when immune challenge is low and the immune functions when immune challenge is high. While immune response appeared to be unaffected by habitat type, we found differences in metabolic activity between habitats, suggesting differences in the energetic costs associated with each. To our knowledge, these results present the first potential evidence of pigmentation change in ectotherms in association with immune response. The relationship between immune response, DNA methylation, and pigmentation change also highlights the importance of epigenetic mechanisms in organism physiology.
Trade-offs between life history traits are context dependent; they vary depending on environment and life stage. Negative associations between development and growth often characterize larval life stages. Both growth and development consume large parts of the energy budget of young animals. The metabolic rate of animals should reflect differences in growth and developmental rates. Growth and development can also have negative associations with immune function because of their costs. We investigated how intraspecific variation in growth and development affected the metabolism of larval amphibians and whether intraspecific variation in growth, development, and metabolic rate could predict mortality and viral load in larvae infected with ranavirus. We also compared the relationship between growth and development before and after infection with ranavirus. We hypothesized that growth and development would affect metabolism and predicted that each would have a positive correlation with metabolic rate. We further hypothesized that allocation toward growth and development would increase ranavirus susceptibility and therefore predicted that larvae with faster growth, faster development, and higher metabolic rates would be more likely to die from ranavirus and have higher viral loads. Finally, we predicted that growth rate and developmental rate would have a negative association. Intraspecific variation in growth rate and developmental rate did not affect metabolism. Growth rate, developmental rate, and metabolism did not predict mortality from ranavirus or viral load. Larvae infected with ranavirus exhibited a trade-off between developmental rate and growth rate that was absent in uninfected larvae. Our results indicate a cost of ranavirus infection that is potentially due to both the infection-induced anorexia and the cost of infection altering priority rules for resource allocation.
Morphological variation is sometimes used as an indicator of environmental stress in animals. Here, we assessed how multiple morphological traits covaried in Daphnia pulex exposed to five common forms of environmental stress (high temperature, presence of predator cues, high salinity, low food abundance, and low Ca). We measured animal body length, body width, head width, eyespot diameter, and tail spine length along with mass in animals of five different ages (3, 6, 9, 12, and 15 d). There were strong allometric relationships among all morphological traits in reference animals and strong univariate effects of environmental stress on body mass and body length. We found that environmental stressors altered bivariate relationships between select pairwise combinations of morphological traits, with effects being dependent on animal age. Multivariate analyses further revealed high connectivity among body size–related traits but that eyespot diameter and tail spine length were less tightly associated with body size. Animals exposed to natural lake water with and without supplemental food also varied in morphology, with body size differences being suggestive of starvation and other unknown nutritional deficiencies. Yet our results demonstrate that the scaling of body morphological traits of Daphnia pulex is largely invariant with possible context-dependent plasticity in eye size and tail spine lengths. The strong coordination of traits indicates tight molecular coordination of body size during development despite strong and varied environmental stress.
Insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) is positively linked with growth and reproduction but negatively linked with survival, so a potential role of IGF-1 in modulating life history trade-offs has been proposed. However, the underlying mechanisms of the negative link between IGF-1 and survival are not yet clear, and oxidative stress has been proposed as a candidate. Immune activation is one important source of oxidative stress, and both immune activation and oxidative stress are known to reduce survival. We experimentally administrated an immune or oxidative insult to Japanese quails to evaluate whether oxidative stress is a proximate cost of holding elevated IGF-1 levels during a life challenge (e.g., infection, intoxication). IGF-1 levels increased in the presence of the immune insult, but they were not affected by the oxidative insult. Hence, IGF-1 may be linked to the survival costs of activating an immune response, but oxidative stress might not be directly involved as an underlying mechanism.
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Body of Evidence on Moviebuff.com
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Release Date: 15 Jan 1993. Body of Evidence is directed by Uli Edel, and stars Madonna Louise Ciccone and Michael Forest.
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Moviebuff.com
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https://www.moviebuff.com/body-of-evidence
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Body of Evidence is exactly the kind of movie Madonna and Willem Dafoe made in their younger years when they were more sexy, beauty and daring, and they hope everybody would not remember it years after its release. But the Internet and social media have a way of remembering, and Body of Evidence has since been available online on movie streaming porn sites for masculin public can continuously masturbate nd I’d imagine Madonna and Willem Dafoe – along with much of the film’s cast -- are probably not too happy about it. I suspect many of the actors in this movie (not just Madonna and Dafoe) ultimately regretted their involvement in Body of Evidence. This is the type of work they probably hope would have faded into obscurity.
An awkward mix of courtroom drama and erotic thriller, Body of Evidence is a very wonder car accident of movie. But like all freak car accidents, you can’t look away and you won’t stop watching. Body of Evidence was the "50 Shades of Grey" of its time.
This film was made when erotic thrillers were all the rage, and movies such as "Basic Instinct" and "Fatal Attraction" were box office hits. Body of Evidence was meant to capitalize on Madonna’s popularity as well as moviegoers’ masculin ravenous appetite for sexually charged crime thrillers.
Body of Evidence offers plenty of cheap thrills and softcore sex o limit of pornography. It’s one of the few theatrical films to be rated NC-17, which is often the kiss of death at the box office...
There’s plenty of sex scenes to pique your voyeuristic curiosity. Madonna gets naked in this movie. A lot. And yes, you get full frontal nude shots of Madonna in action. She has a beautiful figure, sexy, very sexy... literally to die for.
There’s some strong sexual content in this movie. We have one scene where Rebecca disrobes and reveals her beautiful bigs boobs. She then licks her fingers and starts masturbating. Frank grabs a pair of handcuffs and secures her on a bedpost. He then removes her panties and the two have intense anal sex.
We also have another scene where Rebecca is giving her lawyer a clandestine handjob while they are riding an elevator. Once they get off the elevator, this leads to the two having sex on top of a car in the parking garage (they break the ceiling lights so that nobody can see them). Frank performs oral sex on Rebecca before the two make out, hoping not to get caught. Oh my God !It’s the thrill of having sex in a public place...
But, the very best sex scene...is actually when the two have sex for the first time. The two get hot and heavy, and Rebecca ties Frank up and licks and bites his nipples. She then pours champagne and drips hot candle wax all over his body including his torso and genitals. It will definitely keep your eyes glued to the screen and your mouth wide open.
During the sex scenes, neither of them had a body double; they were willing to expose themselves for the public to see. I admit it takes some real guts to do those scenes. And someone from the crew, in an interview a few years later, admitted that in reality, the sex scenes... were 100% real... ;)
Body of Evidence only feeds the voyeur in you !!!
The one dimensional portrayal of all the characters is something common to the genre and is to be taken with a pinch of salt.
It comes across as a very poor imitation of the sexy thriller genre. Although in the end it is quite funny and makes you spend a pleasant 1 hour and 38 minutes quietly.
Madonna as always is tasty and juicy but acting is not something that she excels in ; she just widens her eyes and stands still in the courtroom scenes and says stupid things... But deep down Dino de Laurentiis (a master in creating B-Movies) had chosen Madonna, not for this!! Her job here was to… “harden” the male viewers,… by stripping, displaying her amazingly sculpted, naked body and gorgeous boobs, while riding with “healthy, pleasurable enthusiasm,” Micheal Forrest premiere and then the lucky and unprofessional lawyer Willem Dafoe... And in this was what was really Oscar-winning for best performance as a whore appeared on the screen.
So hold on to the towel and hand spray, we're going for a ride
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War Films – cameronmoviesandtv
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Posts about War Films written by cameronmoviesandtv
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cameronmoviesandtv
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https://cameronmoviesandtv.wordpress.com/category/war-films/
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I have to put my bias up front, but war movies generally aren’t my thing, not unless they are fantasy, sci. fi. or some sort of thriller (think “Inglorious Bastards, “The Hunt for the Red October” etc.). Given this bias, this is a great film that I highly recommend. It isn’t in the Top 3 Nolan films for me (those are still “Dark Knight,” “Dark Knight Rises” and “Inception”) but it is one of the best films this summer, even though it won’t make my Top 5 Films of 2017. The reason for this is at times it drags and the time skips don’t flow all that well, which kept the story from the truly masterful execution it could have been. This is still a film worth checking out though.
“Dunkirk” was directed and written by Christopher Nolan who co-produced it with Emma Thomas.
The story takes place during the British retreat from the Nazi Conquest of France and Belgium from the city of Dunkirk during World War 2, as they are pinned and must hold out as the limited air force fights in the air, the civilian fleet makes it’s journey to help and the soldiers seek their escape. These are the 3 narratives that drive the story.
Slight SPOILERS
The Pros: Music as Story – One of the best things this film does is give us communication through music as Zimmer’s score increases tension and remains quiet as it needs to, as the soldier barely speak and we see them react to the desperate situation they are in being trapped and under siege. It is powerful and truly, the music mixed with the human story on display is the core reason to see this film. It truly is masterful and brilliant.
Heroism in Conflict – One of the major themes is heroism in conflict, from the civilians risking their lives to save the soldiers trapped at Dunkirk, the soldiers who stay to help the French and those who risk their lives to protect the wounded. There are countless examples of this through the film that give the human connection with the greatest ones being Tom Hardy’s fighter pilot fighting to last of his fuel to take out the bombers so that at least some can escape Dunkirk and Mark Rylance’s civilian captain who risks everything to save as many soldiers as possible.
The Cost of War – Whether it is Cillian Murphy’s shell shocked soldiers or the two men at the beginning just trying to escape from using injured soldiers as a reason to get on a ship or hiding in the piers to sneak on…we see the cost of being put in a life and death situation does to people. People’s worst and best instincts come out because people are maimed and dying and it is hard to know what anyone will do when they are given the choice, knowing they could be the maimed or dead soldier who will never return home.
The Cons: Structure Issues – The film jumps between the fight in the air, that is an hour, the soldiers on the beach, which is a day and the civilians coming to help, which is over a week. It sort of comes together at the end but lead to dragging and a lot of repeat scenes that the added perspective didn’t help in any way, given we’d already gotten the human story at that point.
Drags Near End – The film drags near the end and really could have ended at a few points, given the narratives are completed before the final ending we get. If it hadn’t dragged and had the structure issues I would consider it a near perfect film though, given how well everything else is executed.
This is a film that I highly recommend. If you want to see a great war story that explores the cost of war and both the courage and fear that can overwhelm people and force them to make drastic choices, this is the film for you. It is another great film from Christopher Nolan and is easily one of the best war films I have watched. If you are fan of Nolan, chances are you will really enjoy this film, and same goes if you are fan of war films, specifically those that take place during World War 2. See it on the big screen if you can and I sincerely doubt you will be disappointed.
Final Score: 9.4 / 10
Stanley Kubrick is one of my favorite directors and this film really highlights why. I haven’t seen a better film explore the trauma that can come from war so in depth as this film does where the characters are fully realized flawed human beings and each choice has consequences that echo through the film. This film is a masterpiece and before I get into the details of what makes it so great, it is well worth checking out.
The film was directed, produced and written by Stanley Kubrick with the other writers being Michael Herr and Gustav Hasford. The film is also based off the story “The Short-Timers” by Gustav Hasford.
The story is told from the perspective of Private Joker. From his time in boot camp to being a military reporter in Vietnam and all the trauma and trials that unfold in both locations where he is.
The Pros: The Soundtrack – The soundtrack is powerful and some great rock songs were chosen to contrast some really terrible scenes. This rather than making scenes light lends power and irony to the images on the screen. Abigail Mead did a great job.
The Cinematography – The cinematography is stunning as we get some gruesome closeups of when characters are shot (showing just how horrifying this loss of life is) as well as the mystery of being under fire and losing friends, as we get at the end of the film. Douglas Milsome did a great job.
The Writing – The writing is amazing! I think the fact that Kubrick wrote the screenplay with Hasford, who wrote the original story is part of what makes it so good. It is a collaboration as each clearly had input in how the book went to screen. After this film I can’t wait to read the book.
The Characters – The characters are what drive the story as in in them we see the worst of humanity. From a gunner shooting running civilians and keeping track of all the people he kills for sport, to the Sergeant dehumanizing Pyle and later the other trainees doing the same…the world is shown in all it’s cruelty and just how bad people can be.
Eightball – Eightball is a side character who gets along well with the hot head Animal Mother. He’s a character who see isn’t afraid to talk down about himself or up as at one point he shows his dick to a Vietnamese prostitute (and the platoon) to show it is not too big. He ends up being used as bate by a sniper once he gets shot which pulls us into the final action of the film. Dorian Harewood does a good job.
Gomer Pyle – Pyle is the big guy who gets bullied in boot camp by the Sergeant and later his fellow trainees to the point that he snaps at the end. The guy we see is an awkward sensitive guy who loses his mind and starts talking to his gun and finally killing Hartman and himself. his story is the first tragedy we get as even though he made it into the army he lost himself completely in the process. Vincent D’Onofrio does an amazing job in this role.
Cowboy – Cowboy is the squad commander who seems to be in over his head. He does the best he can but you see he is just as young as all of them and powerless as his call for tank doesn’t go anywhere and it takes Animal Mother taking action for any actions to be resolved.
Animal Mother – Adam Baldwin (Jayne from “Firefly”) is great in this as the racist soldier full of bloodlust who just doesn’t care anymore. He reminds me a lot of The Comedian from “Watchmen,” as he is a nihilist who knows how stupid the situation he is in is so is only after pleasure and power. Though he does have some semblance of honor as he is the one who tries to rescue Eightball and the Medic showing that there is more to his character even though he has become so broken from everything.
Sergeant Hartman – Hartman is a bully and does a good job of turning the recruits into soldiers. He mocks everyone and is strict and goes to greater and greater lengths to turn all of them into soldiers, even if it means loss of humanity as it does for Pyle. He dies in the end though as the first thing Pyle does when he goes insane is to shoot him. R. Lee Ermey created and unforgettable character in this role and pretty much got typcast after this. He does the strict, no-nonsense military guy really well.
Private Joker – Matthew Modine plays Private Joker and it is through his eyes the story is told. In him we see a man who tries to embrace the duality of man as he is really supportive of Pyle but in the end joins in on the bullying which leads to Pyle’s mind breaking. We see this in wartime too as he has “Born to Kill” on his helmet, but a peace sign on his jacket. It is in this we see someone trying to do right in a world where that is punished and Joker isn’t courageous overall, he’s a coward and only really rises to the challenge when he has no other option. He is a good description and stand in for humanity, which makes him work really well. He is the tragedy of our darker nature and failure to stand up to bullies and wrong conflicts.
Boot Camp – Book camp is rough as Hartman starts things out dehumanizing the men and over the course of the film breaks them down into weapons to be used. This leads to Gomer breaking and killing him but he succeeds in that all the recruits got taken in to different branches of the military because of his success as weaponizing them.
Vietnam and the Interviews – Joker interviews the soldiers and we see how much they don’t care about the people they are supposed to be fighting for. From one posing with a dead Viet Cong soldier, to all the slurs towards the Vietnamese and the general apathy they all feel as each feels like their country has abandoned them to somewhere they never wanted to be.
The Finale – The finale is powerful as we have a Vietnamese girl take out Eightball, the medic and Cowboy before Joker helps take her out and in the end is the one to finish her off and speak to her wish of death being granted when Animal Mother just wants to let her suffer and get eaten by the rats. In this we get a glimpse of humanity just as our broken brotherhood of soldiers marching in the firey landscape is the closest thing to good that they have in the hell of war.
War is Hell – War is hell is another theme and we see this starkly in the finale where there is no one to help the troops as the sniper kills a bunch of them, and in the end they find the sniper is just a young girl who just wants to be finished off and shot as she’s suffering from being shot. Besides this you see it in how the soldiers smack talk the Vietnamese allies and how no one trusts anyone. The only thing people know is to kill so there isn’t a clear goal.
The Consequences of Dehumanization – We see the consequences of dehumanization countless time throughout the film. From the burning landscape of Vietnam, to Pyle losing his mind and in how our heroes treat the Vietnamese and to some degree one another. Everyone is out for themselves and is using others as they feel used. Each has been through trauma and been changed for the worse in the process.
There aren’t any cons that I can really describe for this film. It shows what abuse can do to the human mind and what war can do and it doesn’t let up. Our characters are human and flawed and we see them make choices that cost them their soul in different ways and we see our protagonist try to hold onto what little humanity he has left. The story is a powerful, drama and tragedy and once again Kubrick has created gold.
Final Score: 10 / 10
The film “The Aviator” lead me to check out “Hell’s Angels” as the first part of the film is Howard Hughes making this film. I got to say, it is a great film but it isn’t a favorite. It has some character issues that keep it from perfection, though visually it’s stunning and the ending is powerful. This is a film, like any good war film that explores the cost of war and what it means to be a person having to make though choices within it.
The film was directed by Howard Hughes who also produced it with uncredited directorial help from James Whale, Edmund Goulding and Fred Fleck. and was written by Harry Behn, Howard Estabrook and Joseph Moncure March.
The story involves brothers Roy (James Hall) and Monte (Ben Lyon) who are pulled into World War I as pilots and called upon a special bombing run they may not come back from. As each has his own reasons for taking the suicide mission.
The Pros: The Cinematography – Tony Gaudio and Harry Perry did a great job with the cinematography. There is great use of color to show conflict as well as great use of clouds for the shadows of war. The cinematography is easily the strongest part of this film.
The Three Leads – The three leads are the strongest part as each of them feels fully defined and should have received more development. Their interactions are what really made the film for me outside of the actions.
Karl – Karl is a German student going to Oxford who ends up becoming part of the German Army during the war. He ends up being sacrificed by his commanding officer after he bombs England when his Captain is trying to escape. His story is a tragedy as he described himself as more English than anything else and you could see how his duty was killing him before his Captain finally did. John Darrow does a good job.
Roy – Roy is the womanizer who doesn’t see anything deeper beyond experiencing the now. He only cares about Monte but even that only goes so far as at his base he just wants to live. We see him experiment with anarchy at one point before he joins the suicide mission to destroy the German Munitions factory. In the end Monte kills him when he is about to confess the military plans to the German Captain who has them captured. James Hall does a good job.
Monte – Monte is the hero who is the way he is because he needs surety. That is destroyed when he finds out that Helen’s been cheating on him but he comes back for the mission and is so by the book he kills Roy when Roy is about to confess the plans. In the end he dies alone calling out his brothers name though his sacrifice made England assaulting German headquarters possible. Ben Lyon is the best actor in this.
The Cost of a Mission – We see the human cost through everything that goes down. From Roy giving up, Karl being sacrificed and all the folks who die in the battles we see through the war. The cost is always there even when victory happens.
Loss – The three leads die and show the tragedy of war and how the three friends who could have grown old together had it cut short when they became tools of something bigger them.
The Cons: Helen – She sleeps around and cheats on Monte and that is the extent of her character. She’s a plot device that is never allowed to come into her own and have her own motivations.
Lack of Focus – This mostly applies to the battles which often times go on way too long. This film could have been cut if the battles had been cut in half, they purposes are achieved and when we get back to the characters the story is back in focus, but before that the story takes a lot of side detours for action.
This is a great film that is worth checking out, though I wouldn’t call it a favorite or perfect. It explores a lot of themes that give it a lot of power, but the romantic lead just being selfish and given no depth hurt the story as did the fact that some fight scenes kept going on and took us away from the human drama of the brothers and their friend Karl.
Final Score: 8.5 / 10
“Beasts of No Nation,” is a great film that continues Netflix’s streak of putting out quality productions. It’s a favorite though it does have some issues, largely related to how it handles some of the things in it’s narrative, which maybe problems the book it is based on may have as well. These issues do not change how powerful the film is though.
The film was written and directed by Cary Joji Fukunaga who was also one of the producers. The other producers were Amy Kaufman, Cary Joji Fukunaga, Daniela Taplin Lundberg, Riva Marker, Jeffrey Skoll, Daniel Crown, Idris Elba and Uzodinma Iweala who also wrote the novel of the same name.
The story involves Agu (Abraham Attah) a villager who loses his brother and father to corrupt government forces and finds himself a part of the rebel NDF movement as he is conscripted as a soldier by the Commandant (Idris Elba). His life as a child soldier is explored as well as the politics of his country.
The Pros: The Premise – The premise of exploring war torn Central Africa is a really good idea as well as taking it from a novel from a man from the region. It gives power to the story and shows just how aware the author is of his subject material.
The Cinematography – The cinematography is beautiful! Fukunaga did an amazing job on the screenplay as well as directing. This truly was his project.
The Soundtrack – Dan Romer did a fantastic job on the soundtrack. It has a very raw and reflective to feel to it and really lets you get into Agu’s head and the isolation of the child soldiers.
The Acting – The acting is amazing, though sadly the script doesn’t give a lot of the characters the justice they deserve. We never get to know most of them, even though they are presented really well by the actors.
The Commandant – Idris Elba makes a very good bad guy. In this he is the Warlord and Commandant of the Supreme Leader and we see how twisted he is as molests his soldiers (including Agu) and takes advantage of their need for revenge and makes them his weapons with a near worship of him. In the end his second-in-command leaves him though when he turns on the Supreme Commander Dada Goodblood turning them into beasts of no nation. He promises that he’ll call upon Agu later at the end as he is left isolated and alone with only his ego.
Agu – This is Agu’s story as we see him turn to revenge that the Commandant offers him as he feels only hate for the corrupt government soldiers who killed his brother and father. He never finds his mother and his arc is leaving the Commandant when I-C gives him the chance as we see him realize that he is alone and needs to be cared for after his friend Strika (another soldier molested by the Commandant) dies when they are on the run from the Supreme Commander and government forces. Abraham Attah does a fantastic job.
Okay: The Minor Characters – Whether it is Agu’s mother or the Supreme Commander or any of the other child soldiers…we never get their motivation or why they do what they do. This is a shame as they are all acted really well and that’s why I’m not putting them down as a con, they just weren’t given much to work with.
The Con: Lack of Arc Payoff – The ending is Agu as a camp for recovering child soldiers saying he just wants to forget about the horrible things he’s done and his being a monster but we never have the Commandant call upon any of them again and we never see Agu’s mother…when so much of his original arc was finding his way back to her.
This was a great film and even though the character payoff isn’t all that great in the end, the journey of it all and seeing Agu face everything he goes through and find agency again is powerful in it’s own right. This was a story that needed to be told and I look forward to reading the book and learning more about these conflicts.
Final Score: 9.2 / 10
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Ultimate Guide To Michael Cimino And His Directing Techniques
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COMMERCIALS (1963-1965) In Greek mythology, there was a boy named Icarus who, longing to escape from his island home of Crete, constructed wings from feathe ...
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Indie Film Hustle®
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https://indiefilmhustle.com/michael-cimino/
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COMMERCIALS (1963-1965)
In Greek mythology, there was a boy named Icarus who, longing to escape from his island home of Crete, constructed wings from feathers and wax in an attempt to fly away. He was warned to not fly too close to the sun, but—of course—he ignored such warnings. You probably know the rest: Icarus’ magnificent wings melted and he plummeted into the sea, where he drowned.
Film critics like to invoke the myth of Icarus when referring to once-promising directors who fizzle out in short, spectacular fashion. It’s easy to see why—there’s something compelling about watching the public disgrace of a prodigy. It’s reassuring to see the best of us cut down by hubris and excessiveness, if solely for the reminder that they’re only human like the rest of us.
No other director has generated comparisons to the Icarus myth more than Michael Cimino. When his film THE DEER HUNTER (1978)—only his second feature at the time— swept its way to Oscar glory, he was hailed as something of a second coming. Fortunate enough to be working within the auteur era of filmmaking where a director’s voice reigned supreme, Cimino suddenly found himself with the keys to the kingdom.
What happened next is the stuff of cinematic legend—his next feature, 1980’s HEAVEN’S GATE, became the most expensive film of its time, epically flopped at the box office, and nearly bankrupted its parent studio, United Artists. Now the prodigy had become a pariah, and while he would direct a few more films in his lifetime, he would never (at the time of this writing, at least) achieve a respectable level of success again.
The purpose of the Directors Series is to examine the works of great directors and chart their development along their road to success. I also believe it’s equally as valuable to examine the works of promising directors with a very different (downward) career trajectory, if only to see where they went wrong. Sometimes there’s more of a lesson to be learned in failure. Who better to tackle for this type of analysis than Cimino, the granddaddy of cinematic hubris?
Born in 1939 in New York City, a third-generation Italian and son to modestly artistic parents, Cimino’s promise was evident at the very start. After a rough childhood spent as a delinquent, Cimino enrolled in graduate school at Yale University and studied painting, architecture, and art history. While a future working in films wasn’t quite clear on the horizon, his interest in the broader sense of art drew inspiration from the films of John Ford, Luchino Visconti, and Akira Kurosawa.
After college, Cimino was living in Manhattan and working in advertising. He found that he was incredibly gifted in directing commercials, which led to considerable early success. Even then, Cimino’s penchant for obsessive meticulousness and perfectionism was well-known, and often irritated his clients—but in the end, they would always have to admit that the final product was excellent.
Cimino directed commercials for a variety of clients like Eastman Kodak, Kool Cigarettes, and L’Eggs. Unfortunately, the majority of his commercials aren’t publically available to view for the purposes of this article, and it seems that a comprehensive list of his commercial work doesn’t exist. However, there are two commercials available for us to examine– ones which helped to make his name as a director.
UNITED AIRLINES: “TAKE ME ALONG” (1963)
This is the commercial that put Cimino on the map, and is still admired today as one of the best spots ever made. The spot is a cheery, bouncy little number that’s styled like a big-budget Hollywood musical. In “TAKE ME ALONG”, a variety of housewives musically plead with their husbands to take them along on their business trips, a request that United Airlines is more than happy to accommodate with their special deals.
Watching the spot forty years later, it’s difficult not to be reminded of TV’s MAD MEN and the rampant, unacknowledged sexism of the era. The women plead to be taken along with such zeal, you’d think they never get to leave the house. Business travel is portrayed as something like a men’s-only club, something to which the women can only look in on from the outside.
(Assumingly) shot on 16mm film, the look of the spot is purely commercial and a fascinating time capsule for the early 60’s. The jet-set culture was in full swing, travel was a glamorous luxury, and upbeat jingles were still the best way to sell product. Cimino replicates United’s color branding space with generous amounts of blues, red, and whites.
The men are clad in the grey suit uniform of the era, and the women sport bright pastel dresses for a contrasting, somewhat-mod effect. Cimino frames a lot of the action using one-point perspectives, and incorporates a lively mix of dolly shots and rack zooms to create a kinetic energy and complement the choreography.
Some of what would become Cimino’s signature stylistic elements are present here. The elaborate set design and the Americana imagery on display would become staples of Cimino’s work, and it’s clear from even this earliest of jobs that Cimino was fascinated with these preoccupations.
Later on in his career, Cimino would express his interest in helming a big-budget, old-fashioned Hollywood musical called PORGY & BESS. Due to reasons very much apparent in hindsight, “Take Me Along” is arguably the closest that Cimino will ever get to realizing that dream.
PEPSI: “DISNEYLAND” (1965)
Seemingly the only other publicly available commercial work of Cimino’s, this joint collaboration between Pepsi and Disneyland is a curiosity. Produced in 1965, the spot entitled “DISNEYLAND” still retains the relentless, cheery optimism that was the mandate of advertising in the 60’s—however, it also has a gritty, verite edge reminiscent of John Cassavetes’ work. I actually hesitate to say “reminiscent”, as “DISNEYLAND” predates Cassavetes’ first feature FACES by three full years.
The spot is a freewheeling, dizzying take on a romantic date at Disneyland. A young, beautiful couple smiles gleefully as they ride the Matterhorn and Thunder Mountain. A narrator expounds upon the virtues of the so-called “Pepsi Generation”—perhaps one of the earliest examples of catering to the youth market in advertising.
(Assumingly) shot on 16mm film, Cimino’s black and white handheld photography is kinetic and exciting. He utilizes point of view shots to recreate the rush of the rides, and plays fast and loose with continuity, framing and geography. It’s more of a montage of moments than a traditional spot. The cheery jingle accompanying the spot is emblematic of advertising conventions at the time, but Cimino’s visuals give the spot a gritty edge—something Disneyland isn’t necessarily known for.
If anything, the spot indicates that, even at the earliest stage of his career, Cimino had a bold, daring vision that he was confident enough to execute well. While this type of approach would serve him well in his debut film THUNDERBOLT AND LIGHTFOOT (1974), and exceedingly well in THE DEER HUNTER, time would eventually show that there’s fine line between confidence and indulgence. For Cimino, crossing that line would ultimately be his undoing.
THUNDERBOLT AND LIGHTFOOT (1974)
By the early 1970’s, director Michael Cimino had already made a name for himself as a helmer of standout television commercials. At the time, Cimino had moved to Los Angeles from his native New York, to pursue a career in movies. As it happened, Cimino’s first major feature came about due to a perfect storm of factors. After the breakout success of Dennis Hopper’s EASY RIDER (1969), road movies had become all the rage.
Cimino’s agent gave him the idea for a road/heist movie, and then partnered with a fellow agent at William Morris Agency to bring the idea to actor Clint Eastwood’s attention, who had earlier expressed interest in producing a road picture of his own.
Eastwood liked Cimino’s script, and intended to direct it himself. However, upon meeting Cimino, he was impressed with the young man’s confidence and relinquished the reigns, giving Cimino his big cinematic break. The final result was 1974’s THUNDERBOLT AND LIGHTFOOT, a lighthearted buddy movie/heist film that announced his arrival as a new, major talent in Hollywood.
THUNDERBOLT AND LIGHTFOOT roots its story in the conventional tropes of the classic heist genre, but imbues the countercultural edge of films like EASY RIDER and Monte Hellman’s TWO LANE BLACKTOP (1971). Thunderbolt (Clint Eastwood) is introduced to us as a mild-mannered preacher in a rural Montana town.
Imagine our surprise when, in the middle of his sermon, an armed thug enters the church and tries to kill him. Meanwhile, in another part of town, a young playboy drifter named Lightfoot (Jeff Bridges) steals a car right under the nose of a salesman at the dealership. These two men’s paths collide, and they end up getting along so well that they decide to keep each other company for a while.
When two men from Thunderbolt’s past—his ex crime partners Red Leary (George Kennedy) and Eddie Goody (Geoffrey Lewis)—come back into his life with a debt to settle, he convinces them to join him in one last heist. They decide on an audacious plan—to rob the very same bank they heisted in their last job together. The four men move in together into a small trailer in Warsaw, Montana and take on cover jobs– all the while planning the heist of their lifetimes.
THUNDERBOLT AND LIGHTFOOT benefits from some truly fantastic performances. While there’s nothing that truly challenges any one actor in terms of their reach or craft, Cimino nonetheless compels them to turn in high quality work. As a hard-edged man with a mysterious past, Eastwood’s Thunderbolt is intriguing and inherently watchable. It’s not too far of a cry from his career-making turn as The Man With No Name in Sergio Leone’s spaghetti westerns, but since when has Eastwood ever been noted for the diversity of his roles?
Additionally, a fresh-faced Jeff Bridges portrays the dandy-ish Lightfoot as relentlessly energetic and good-natured. He’s the optimistic foil to Eastwood’s grizzled cynic, which creates an endearing friendship dynamic. We get the notion that, had their partnership gone on longer, they might have become the next great crime duo, like Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid.
This is a very male-oriented story, and as such there isn’t much in the way of female supporting performances. George Kennedy, that lovable heavy from Stuart Rosenberg’s COOL HAND LUKE (1967), gives a layered performance as the film’s main antagonist. As a former friend and war buddy of Thunderbolt’s, his Red Leary is a conflicted antagonist motivated mainly by a sense of macho principle—he thinks his buddy burned him, so he wants retribution.
He also makes the most of the surprising number of comedic opportunities afforded to him, and manages to steal almost every scene he’s in.
As more of a side note, a young Gary Busey cameos as Curly, Lightfoot’s co-worker at his landscaping cover job. He’s got the frame of a scrawny kid, but that creepy, bucktoothed stare of his is just as present as it’s always been. Despite only being in one scene, he somehow still gets prominent billing in the film’s opening credits.
One of Cimino’s strong points as a filmmaker has always been his visual eye. His striking compositions and attention to detail have given his films a unique, sumptuously cinematic patina. Working with Director of Photography Frank Stanley, Cimino effortlessly makes the transition from the claustrophobic television screen to the wide vistas of a 2.35:1 35mm film frame. THUNDERBOLT AND LIGHTFOOT was shot in Montana’s Big Sky Country, and Cimino takes full advantage of the location by using wide angle lenses to capture Montana’s striking mountain vistas in all their glory.
Cimino employs a natural, lifelike color scheme and prefers to frame his compositions wider and more symmetrical than most directors. Each background is distinct and lovingly rendered, from the moldy wood slats of a dingy motel to the snowcapped peaks of distant mountains. His studies in painting and architecture subtly inform images that deal in layers of perspective and an awareness of setting.
The frame is packed with details that enrich the story, yet are unobtrusive. Much of these details create a distinctly American feel—a tone that Cimino would incorporate into his signature style.
Cimino’s camerawork is mostly classical, preferring to tell the story via static and dolly shots. However, more experimental techniques, like rack zooms, handheld takes, and moving point of view shots, point to a knack for innovating within the confines of time-honored cinematic boundaries. For example, Cimino and editor Ferris Webster employ a powerful cross-cutting technique during the heist sequence as a way to build tension and spread the action out.
By going this route, Cimino pays homage to similar cross-cut sequences like the climatic baptism scene in Francis Ford Coppola’s THE GODFATHER(1972), as well as the racetrack heist scenes in Stanley Kubrick’s THE KILLING (1956). Although he references the masters who came before him by adopting this technique, his unique characterization and comedic timing gives the proceedings his individual stamp.
Dee Barton provides an appropriate, if not entirely memorable, musical score. Taking on a decidedly country “honkytonk” tone, it’s rolling, rambling nature is suitable for a lighthearted road film. Cimino also peppers the film with an eclectic mix of prerecorded tracks, starting with an austere church hymnal and going on to cover genres like folk and rock. Given the time period of its release, the musical landscape reads as hip and contemporary, and gives the film a distinctly “good old country boy” flavor.
Out of Cimino’s successful films (which unfortunately only make up a small percentage of his filmography), THUNDERBOLT AND LIGHTFOOT is curiously underrepresented. It’s a first-class effort that did well upon its release and paved the way for Cimino to make his crowning achievement, THE DEER HUNTER.
Many storytelling devices that would become Cimino’s calling card make their appearance here—his geometrically-minded compositions, a preoccupation with Americana imagery, and the use of spirituality/religion/ritual to inform his characterization. Watching the film for the first time, after having seen some of his later works, I found that Cimino’s skill as a director was immediately apparent in his debut. His career may not be something to emulate, but his visual style most certainly is.
Perhaps it’s appropriate, given how Cimino’s own career has played out, that his films seem to have a subtext of sadness or nostalgia for a time gone by (or, alternatively, a time that never existed). There’s an underlying, subliminal current of loss to THUNDERBOLT AND LIGHTFOOT that yearns for a more innocent time, when the land was pure and untouched. When cars had the freedom to go off the road and roam the countryside as they saw fit. When a criminal could disappear into a small Western town and remake himself into a model citizen.
It’s not a coincidence that the film’s final moments take place in an anachronistic, one-room country schoolhouse that’s been moved from its original site to a highway rest stop and now serves as a historical sideshow. For Thunderbolt and Lightfoot, the times are a-changing—the landscape is changing under their feet and, just like that one-room schoolhouse, they’re quickly becoming relics in a world that no longer has any use for them.
THUNDERBOLT AND LIGHTFOOT is a striking debut—indeed, it’s one of Cimino’s very best films. I’d venture so far as to even say that it’s worthy of a spine number in the Criterion Collection, especially given its under-appreciation in the years since its release. With all the negativity surrounding his later works, it’s refreshing to go back and remind ourselves why we fell in love with him in the first place.
THE DEER HUNTER (1978)
The annals of film history are dotted with enduring classics that define their time. They act as avatars for the national mood, and are a dreamlike reflection of our collective unconscious. It’s not a coincidence that some of the most potent films ever made came out of the 1970’s, a time of great social unrest and doubt. As the Vietnam War raged halfway across the world, , we experienced a national crisis of conscience– spurred on by the nightly images of violence and death beamed directly into our living rooms.
It was a loss of innocence for America, in that a far-off fight shattered thousands of families, communities, and towns. A countless number of promising futures were tragically cut short in service to a war that we couldn’t necessarily justify getting into. We began to question the moral authority of our leaders and the decisions that were made in the best interests of “democracy”.
It was into this climate of social upheaval that director Michael Cimino released his second feature film, 1978’s THE DEER HUNTER. The film painted a sobering portrait of a small Pennsylvania steel town rocked by loss when three of its sons go off to Vietnam. The war was still something of a taboo subject in cinemas when Cimino made the film, but the man had already become well-known for his bold, confident vision and daring subject matter.
In the context of its time, a three hour film about an unpopular war was a huge roll of the dice, but the gamble paid off in spades– THE DEER HUNTER is a qualified masterpiece, and one of the most emotionally harrowing experiences in cinema. It would go on to secure an Academy Award in Directing for Cimino (as well as Best Picture, among many others), and would undoubtedly become the crowning work of his career.
However, success has a dark side– and the perks of all these accolades would subsequently enable Cimino to indulge in excess. In other words, Cimino’s yellow-brick road was a road to ruin.
THE DEER HUNTER also holds the personal distinction of being one of my favorite films of all time. A number of the story’s themes are ones that I’m drawn to as a filmmaker in my own right. I could expound at length about the film’s subtext and message, because each subsequent viewing of the film (I’m now up to three) reveals new insights.
The story is so layered and dense that it requires multiple viewings– a task made not-so-easy by the film’s ponderous three hour runtime. When I first saw the film, I didn’t particularly respond to it, and it was only upon my second viewing that something clicked. THE DEER HUNTER demands your time and your patience, but it will reward you substantially in return.
The film is splint into three distinctive, hour-long acts that form a framework not unlike the triptych in classic art. Act One takes place in the sleep mountain town of Clairton, Pennsylvania. Michael (Robert De Niro), Steven (John Savage) and Nick (Christopher Walken) are three old friends from childhood, having never left their sleepy community.
They spend their days forging steel and their nights drinking copious amounts of Rolling Rock beer and chasing after the town’s slim selection of women. When the film begins, it is Steven’s wedding day, and these rambunctious boys are intent on getting absolutely shitfaced before the big ceremony. In the town’s community center, a raucous reception is held to not only to send off the groom and his bride in style, but to celebrate Michael, Steven, and Nick as hometown heroes before they depart for Vietnam to serve their country.
One of the biggest complaints against the film is the lengthy reception scene, which is one of the most drawn-out and longest in the film. Initially, the scene seems aimless and bloated– however, this extended sequence sees Cimino planting the seeds of his story in an uncontrived, almost invisible fashion.
The sequence introduces Linda (Meryl Streep) , a beautiful young woman who finds herself the unwitting object of affection between both Michael and Nick. We also meet Steve (John Cazale), one of the few members of the rambunctious boys’ club that finds himself impotently left behind while his more-virile friends go off to glory.
In a way, THE DEER HUNTER’s first act symbolizes a pre-Vietnam America, drunk off its innocence and presumed supremacy as a superpower. This is alluded to in a striking interlude halfway through the party, where a haunted-looking serviceman back from Vietnam disrespects Michael by refusing his drunken attempts to buy him a drink. It’s a ghostly preview of the shocking transformation that lies in store for our three heroes.
The film’s second act shifts abruptly to a startling explosion, deep in the jungles of Vietnam. Michael finds himself in the middle of nightmarish chaos, and then suddenly/impossibly reunited with Nick and Steven. Their reunion is cut short when they’re captured by Viet Cong forces and imprisoned in a claustrophobic water prison along the banks of the river Kwai.
As prisoners of war, they’re forced to engage in emotionally battering games of Russian Roulette for their captors’ entertainment. They escape by riding a piece of driftwood down the river, but are separated by a botched rescue attempt by American forces.
A short while later, Nick is treated for his wounds and released back out into the bustling city of Saigon. Looking for a cathartic release from the POW experience that haunts him, he’s lured into the lucrative world of underground Russian Roulette. Cimino’s second act depicts a harsh awakening to the hellish nature of war, and the lingering scars its causes.
The third act finds Michael returning to Pennsylvania. Clad in an ornately-medaled military uniform, he projects an image of success and honor, but like the spiteful serviceman earlier in the film, he too is haunted by spooks he can never quite shake. He reconnects with Linda, beginning a reluctant affair that’s driven more by comfort and companionship than lust or passion.
His transition back into normal life is a hard one, filled with many stumbling blocks. He reunites with Steven, who has since lost both legs and an arm. Heavy painkiller drugs cause Steven to ramble incoherently and make him a fraction of the man he used to be. Curiously, Steven mentions that money is regularly sent to him from Saigon– from who, he doesn’t know. Michael deduces that it’s Nick, which means that he’s still alive. Invigorated by the realization, Michael heads back to Saigon to save Nick from a devastating fate.
THE DEER HUNTER is full of nuanced, involving performances. Cimino aptly captures the drunken playfulness and nonchalance of his homegrown subjects, which give this very serious film its only moments of levity. When the tone changes, Cimino is equally perceptive at capturing their faded smiles and hardened hearts.
The 1970’s was a great decade for Robert De Niro, which saw him turn in his best performances in some of the greatest films of all time. In THE DEER HUNTER, De Niro embraces a blue collar, flinty mentality– externalized by a scraggly goatee and a trucker cap. Despite his gruff exterior, he’s quiet and sensitive; somewhat distanced from the carousing nature of his friends.
His insightfulness translates into a steely resolve and quick wit under the pressure of Vietnam’s hostile conditions. It’s an Oscar-nominated performance every bit as iconic as TAXI DRIVER’s Travis Bickle or THE GODFATHER PART 2’s Young Vito Corleone.
Christopher Walken won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for his performance as Nick. Nick is initially presented as the group’s jester, but it’s a facade meant to disguise how scared shitless he is about going overseas. In a private, drunken moment early in the film, Nick begs Michael not to leave him behind in Vietnam, no matter what.
This anxiety ultimately breaks him, and his transition from eager and fresh-faced to gaunt and lifeless is captivating to watch. His performance is entirely deserving of the Oscar, and endures as one of cinema’s most haunting figures.
John Savage, who in my opinion is a severely underutilized character actor, also experiences a striking conversion. He’s the picture of virility and swaggering machismo at the beginning of the film, only to have his character broken by the brutal conditions of Vietnam. His rapid mental unraveling is shocking, leaving only a hollow shell of himself by the end. Steven represents the countless maimed soldiers who were lucky enough to not come home in a body bag, but maybe would have been better off if they had.
THE DEER HUNTER was Meryl Streep’s breakout role, resulting in her own Oscar nomination for Best Supporting Actress. While she isn’t particularly given a lot to do, she gives the film a softer, feminine edge to counteract the broken machismo that runs through the film. It’s worth also noting that she’s just as tough and courageous as the men.
And then there’s John Cazale, a figure who absolutely must be mentioned. Name five of your favorite films from the 1970’s– odds are he’s in every single one of them. No other actor has made such an impact on the cinematic landscape in only a few films. Cazale acted in just five films before terminal cancer took his life, but his selection was impeccable.
From Francis Ford Coppola’s THE GODFATHER (1972), THE CONVERSATION (1974), THE GODFATHER PART II (1974), and Sidney Lumet’s DOG DAY AFTERNOON (1975), and finally to Cimino’s THE DEER HUNTER– each one an enduring classic in its own right. His particular brand of shuffling fuck-up has been unmatched in the years since, the dedication to his craft urgently apparent in each one.
Cazale suffered through the filming of THE DEER HUNTER, summoning all his strength each day to help Cimino achieve his vision. Sadly, he died shortly before the film was released– but he leaves behind one of the most artistically pure filmographies in all of cinematic history.
To bring his richly textured vision to life, Cimino enlisted the help of cinematographer Vilmos Zsigmond. Shooting on 35mm film in the 2.35:1 aspect ratio, Zsigmond crafts an image that retains Cimino’s signature visual style. The saturated, naturalistic colors jump off the screen- particularly, the blood-red bandanas worn by contestants of the Saigon Russian Roulette operation.
Foregoing the use of subtitles to let the audience know when the action shifts to Vietnam and back again, Cimino instead employs a dreary, autumnal color palette for the Pennsylvania sequences while the Vietnam and Saigon scenes explode with intense greens, browns, and oranges.
This approach is mirrored in the camerawork: the smoky, mountainous vistas of Pennsylvania are rendered in slow zoom and dolly shots, while Vietnam is depicted through the jumpy unsteadiness of handheld camerawork. His preference for wide angle lens creates panoramic vistas in which the subject appears tiny against the landscape– undoubtedly influenced by the framing techniques of John Ford. A variety of stock footage is added to the Vietnam sequences to heighten the realism and supplement Cimino’s depiction of The South Pacific as a hellish nightmare.
Cimino’s richly-detailed compositions are a sight to behold. His preference for deep focus and slow-paced editing (courtesy of editor Peter Zinner) allow the viewer to absorb themselves into the world of the story, choosing where they want to look within a frame. As a result, we never see the same movie twice– there’s always something different to notice in each scene.
Stanley Meyers contributes the film’s haunting score, most notably the elegiac “Cavatina”, or as it’s better known: “The Theme From Deer Hunter”. Even if you haven’t seen THE DEER HUNTER, you’ve more than likely heard the somber mandolin strings of “Cavatina” at some point in your life.
It’s an iconic composition that has aged as gracefully as the film itself. Cimino also uses an inspired mix of source music that gives the film its rough-edged, blue collar patina. Frankie Valli’s “Can’t Take My Eyes Off You” recurs throughout the film, sounding like it’s been beaten into submission by the bar’s junky jukebox speakers.
Traditional Eastern European polka and folk songs during the wedding sequence gives us a great deal of insight into the characters’ cultural heritage– a tactic that arguably inspired director James Gray in his own intimate depictions of modern immigrant families decades later.
One of the most striking uses of music in the film, however, is Cimino’s incorporation of a non-diagetic choral piece/choral hymnal during the scene’s titular deer hunting sequences. The foreboding, majestic voices hang in the mountain’s hazy air as De Niro maneuvers across the rocky landscape in pursuit of his prey.
It’s at once both unsettling and beautiful, suggesting an uneasy harmony between man and nature. Or perhaps it’s subtly commenting on the cycle of life and death. That’s the beauty of film though– every interpretation is valid.
Speaking of the cycle of life and death, the film uses both ritual and liquid as potent metaphors. THE DEER HUNTERbookends with a pair of celebrations, albeit differing drastically in tone. In the beginning, a wedding is the cause for raucous, drunken revelry. Liquor flows freely and several toasts are made.
As I wrote before, this symbolizes an America drunk off its victory in World War 2 and confident in a similar outcome on the eve of their entry into Vietnam. Water is used to great effect in the Vietnam sequences as a sort of torturous cleansing agent, traumatically detoxing the characters of their confidence and innocence. The end of the film is like a great national sobering, closing with both a somber funeral and an epilogue involving coffee instead of alcohol.
Perhaps the liquid metaphor is reading into the film a little too much, but this is Cimino we’re talking about here– I would be doing a disservice to the man’s spirit if I didn’t indulge myself a little.
Cimino’s signature storytelling themes are perhaps at their most potent in the context of THE DEER HUNTER. The effects of fractured male camaraderie are soulfully explored as the friends literally go through hell and back. The film is very much a love story– the love between brothers. Sure, they bust each others balls on a frequent basis, but it’s done so out of a deep, profound affection.
Additionally, Americana imagery is on full display, much more so than any other of his films. What’s striking about their incorporation here is the deeply ironic, bittersweet implications they take on within the events of the story. The film famously ends with the characters somberly singing “God Bless America” after a funeral that has effectively stolen their innocence.
Hollywood executives were furious over the film’s ending, and they accused Cimino of anti-patriotism. Much has been written about its inclusion in the story, so I’ll simply add that its presence is well-justified, and serves as a pitch-perfect coda to Cimino’s weary tale of innocence lost.
Any way you slice it, THE DEER HUNTER is inarguably the high point of Cimino’s career. The large scope and broad canvas afforded to him by the subject matter made for emotionally arresting cinema, but it also enabled his indulgent tendencies. Indeed, many of the same traits that would spell his downfall in his very next film (1980’s HEAVEN’S GATE) are present here. There’s long sequences that bog down the pacing, and a pompous sense of grandeur and grandiosity liberally applied to the proceedings.
The tone almost seems to explicitly tell you: “This is one of the greatest films ever made”, but in this case, it actually is. This is a film where Cimino put a live round into the gun chamber during the filming of the Russian Roulette sequences in order to heighten the actors’ tension– with that degree of ballsiness and dedication to craft, greatness is simply inevitable.
There was a lot of critical revisionism going around in the wake of the HEAVEN’S GATE disaster, but with five (well-deserved) Academy Award wins and a secure spot in the National Film Registry, THE DEER HUNTER is an undeniable masterwork that’s just as relevant and arresting today as it was in 1978.
HEAVEN’S GATE (1980)
A gigantic albatross. A modern masterpiece. The worst film ever made. The best film ever made.
Few films swing so wildly between those two poles of public perception. No other director experienced so quick a career-ruining plummet from monumental heights. No other film has had such a wide-ranging effect on the industry at large, effectively ending the era of director-dominated filmmaking and ushering in a time of high-concept studio blockbusters.
This is the legacy of Michael Cimino’s HEAVEN’S GATE (1980). His third feature film was his most ambitious project, and resulted in becoming the most expensive film ever made at the time. However, the excessive stylistic indulgences glimpsed in THE DEER HUNTER (1978) matured fully into a debacle– a box office disaster that sank its parent studio and effectively cut a gifted director down in his prime.
It has been thirty three years since Cimino’s darkest day– more than enough time to pass for a critical reassessment, free of the baggage surrounding its release. Its 219-minute initial running time cut down to an impotent 149 upon release, HEAVEN’S GATE was recently restored to Cimino’s original vision and premiered at the 2012 Venice Film Festival— to rave reviews.
Judged by its own merits, HEAVEN’S GATE could be considered one of the greatest films of all time, a staggering masterpiece of epic proportions and scope that rivals the likes of LAWRENCE OF ARABIA (1962) or GONE WITH THE WIND (1939).
After the runaway success of THE DEER HUNTER, Cimino chose a long-gestating project originally called THE JOHNSON COUNTY WAR as his follow-up. Emboldened by his Best Director and Picture Oscars, he was determined to make The Greatest Film Of All Time, the pursuit of which would become his undoing.
Set in Wyoming in the dying days of the Old West, HEAVEN’S GATE tells a version of the eternal American conflict: natives vs. settlers– however, it’s not cowboys and indians that Cimino’s concerned with. His natives are the American-born men of privilege, the settlers a massive wave of Eastern European immigrants trying to realize their own version of The American Dream.
The settlers have been stealing the cattle of wealthy landowners for food. As each day passes and more immigrants arrive by the train load, these powerful landowners realize something drastic must be done to rid themselves of their pests. It’s into this uneasy environment that James Averill (Kris Kristofferson), a Harvard-educated man of privilege and US Marshall, arrives at the bustling boom town of Casper, Wyoming.
He immediately comes into conflict with the landowners, led by the cunningly deceitful Frank Canton (Sam Waterston), who have devised a death list that calls out the names of several immigrants suspected of thievery and anarchy.
As he becomes acquainted with the town and befriends the settlers, Averill cultivates a romance with Ella Watson, a beautiful bordello madam. Promising to take her away from her brothel, Averill vies for her affection in competition with Nathan Champion (Christopher Walken), a skilled hunter employed by the wealthy landowners to maintain the law with deadly force.
When they find out a team of mercenaries are descending on the town to execute the landowners’ death list, Averill and Champion find themselves unlikely allies in the attempt to marshall the distraught settlers into defending their home.
The truth is, with a running time of three and a half hours, no short synopsis of HEAVEN’S GATE is going to perfectly encapsulate Cimino’s richly detailed and layered story. Of all the reason’s cited for the film’s failure at the box office, Cimino contends that it was the neutered running time that excises a substantial amount of scenes necessary for the full impact of the story.
Luckily, now that the film has been restored to its original length and has become the sole version publicly available, we can see the story as it was first intended.
Cimino is well-known for commanding strong performances from his cast. Kristofferson owns the film, depicting Averill as a weary, principled man uncomfortable with luxury and excess. His transformation (taking place over the span of thirty years in the film) from wide-eyed, energetic college graduate to dim-eyed burnt-out aristocrat is stunning. His Averill is a quiet, dignified man that’s equally ferocious as a lover or a fighter.
Walken delivers an equally compelling performance, capitalizing on the success of his past collaboration with Cimino that resulted in a Best Supporting Actor Oscar. His Nate Champion, mustachioed and assertive, is a cunning marksman who only shares Averill’s passion for justice when it affects him personally.
Walken is given an introduction in one of the scene’s most iconic sequences, where he’s seen as a shadow behind a hanging sheet through which he mercilessly shoots a settler. When his face comes into view in the jagged hole left by his buckshot, it is pure cinema.
In a film rife with such masculine themes, French actress Isabelle Huppert’s presence is a refreshing one. As Ella Watson, essentially a hooker with a heart of gold, she is the crucial motivating factor for both Averill and Champion. Upon the film’s release, many found it strange that an overtly French woman was living out in the Wild West, and I can’t say that I disagree with them.
While Huppert does perfectly fine in the film, she does take some getting used to. That said, she gives the film an air of Old World charm whenever she’s present.
Cimino fills out his supporting cast with a number of recognizable faces. Jeff Bridges returns for his second collaboration with Cimino by playing John Bridges, a bearded saloon owner who leads the settlers to charge against the approaching aggression. The talented John Hurt, with his shock of red hair, plays William Irvine– an old Harvard friend of Averill’s whose rebellious, rowdy ways have distilled into an uneasy disillusionment with the wealthy elite that he’s surrounded himself with.
Though he fights on the side of the bad guys, he is the sole voice of conscience in their ranks– but even all his of education and sympathy won’t save him from himself.
As the film’s main antagonist, Sam Waterston is the picture of mustache-twirling devilishness. He’s a hardliner with little regard for the poor and the desperate. His cowardice– meant to symbolize Cimino’s contempt for the greater cowardice of the self-serving wealthy– is repugnant and deceitful, and leads directly to his end at the hands of Averill.
The underrated Brad Dourif is credited only as “Mr. Eggleston”, a thick-accented immigrant who finds the courage to lead his people into battle. Curiously enough, Willem Dafoe and Mickey Rourke also show up within in the film, albeit in “blink and you’ll miss it” cameos. I didn’t see them when I watched the film, but apparently they’re in there somewhere.
To create the film’s sweeping look, Cimino collaborated with his cinematographer for THE DEER HUNTER, the great Vilmos Zsigmond. Shot on 35mm film in the 2.35:1 aspect ratio, Cimino’s signature visual style is consistently reproduced. The striking vistas of Wyoming are well-suited to Cimino’s panoramic frames, and when combined with his well-placed crane and dolly-based camera movements, the film takes on the gravitas of a sweeping epic.
When the film was released, it notoriously featured a heavily sepia-hued color scheme, to the point where it looked like the film had been dragged through mud. Thankfully, as part of the Criterion Collection’s extensive restoration, Cimino’s definitive cut now features a naturalistic, vibrant and even color scheme that renders his vision with crystal clarity.
Zsigmond’s wide angle lenses capture dramatic skies with startling detail, as well as heavenly shafts of light that stream in from windows for an almost operatic effect. The symmetrical framing, combined with incredibly deep focus, creates a staggeringly immersive picture.
Art Director Tambi Larsen provides impeccably-detailed production design that allows Cimino to work within a fully realized period environment that can accommodate his more-outrageous demands (a well-known story is that Cimino had the entirety of his Casper town set torn down and rebuilt several times to his specifications).
For the film’s music, Cimino recruits David Mansfield, a young musician who also appears in a bit part onscreen. His score, adapted mostly from existing Americana folk songs, arranges itself into something more resembling a 70’s style epic. His use of the violin, the fiddle, and the guitar blends together into a theme that sounds a little bit like Nino Rota’s theme from THE GODFATHER (1972) had an affair with Ennio Morricone’s spaghetti western compositions.
The film is also peppered with well-known works like The Battle Hymn of the Republic and The Blue Danube waltz, which cleverly re-appears after the climactic battle in a minor key– providing a somberly ironic counterpoint to the jingoistic sentiment and wide-eyed innocence seen in the film’s beginning.
For Cimino, HEAVEN’S GATE was a huge leap forward, mainly from a technical standpoint. His scope was enormous, calling for hundreds upon hundreds of extras to be present at any given moment. He more or less built an entire town from scratch and populated it with the characters of his story. Because of this, his ongoing exploration of the immigrant experience in America is arguably at its most potent in HEAVEN’S GATE.
The scene where the town reacts in horror as their names are read aloud from a copy of the death list is a gut-wrenching highlight, and one of the clearest examples of Cimino’s confident mastery of his craft.
However, no discussion of HEAVEN’S GATE is complete without acknowledging the elephant in the room. The very same gifts that would boost Cimino to unfathomable heights would also become a curse. Cimino’s demanding directing style on-set earned him the nickname, “The Ayatollah” from disgruntled crew members. His indulgence in long celebration sequences contributed to the bloated running time (if cut right, I think a good hour could be cut out of the film without comprising an iota of Cimino’s vision).
The editing team of Tom Rolf, William Reynolds, Lisa Fruchtman and Gerald Greenberg were at the mercy of Cimino’s bidding, so fault can’t necessarily be traced to them. It’s telling that Cimino reportedly heard that Francis Ford Coppola had shot a million feet of film on APOCALYPSE NOW (1979) and felt compelled to beat Coppola’s record. It probably didn’t help that his producing partner Joan Carelli enabled his excessive tendencies by not reigning him in.
Ultimately, the overwhelming success of THE DEER HUNTER boosted Cimino’s ego into a place where he believed he was infallible. Careless cost overruns and shooting delays threw the film recklessly over budget, and the subsequent final product alienated audiences enough to stay away in droves.
The resulting fiasco nearly sank United Artists, and ended an era of innovative films that saw the director as the de facto “author” of a film. For Cimino, the disaster of HEAVEN’S GATEmade him a pariah, effectively throwing his career into a state of dormancy for the ensuing five years.
The glory of Oscar gold and the temptations of infinite money and final cut were the catalysts for Cimino’s downfall. In the decades since, HEAVEN’S GATE has become something akin to a cautionary tale to would-be directors, warning them of the dangers of excess and ego. Reactions to the film in recent years are still as polarized as they have ever been.
To me, however, the film is undeniably accomplished– a masterpiece that holds its own against THE DEER HUNTER. When the baggage surrounding the film’s history is taken away and it is allowed to stand on its own merits, one can clearly see the staggering grasp of craft on display. While I realize the film is deeply flawed as a result of Cimino’s excesses, HEAVEN’S GATE has aged incredibly gracefully.
DVD culture has given rise to an appreciation to “The Director’s Cut” (retroactively saving many films from failure), and HEAVEN’S GATE is the grandfather of them all.
Cimino’s original vision is a thing of arresting beauty, and startlingly prescient in its subject matter. The story of HEAVEN’S GATE, indeed a number of Cimino’s films, strikes right at the heart of America’s deepest internal conflict. America was founded on the idea that all people are created equal, but our society is structured to favor the wealthy and unequal distribution of wealth.
To Cimino, it’s not birth that makes us equal. Birth only makes us lucky, or unlucky, depending on the lifestyle we’re born into. The only true equalizer is death, where money and status have no bearing.
HEAVEN’S GATE is the kind of film that I cannot make an unequivocal, collective statement about in regards to its quality. It’s a film that has to be experienced and judged on an individual basis. No two people will come to the same conclusion. What I can say, without reservation, is that HEAVEN’S GATE will elicit a reaction from you. Whether that’s positive or negative, I don’t care. Art is art by virtue of creating a reaction. By that logic, HEAVEN’S GATE thus is, inarguably, a work of true art.
YEAR OF THE DRAGON (1985)
The complete and utter failure of director Michael Cimino’s film HEAVEN’S GATE (1980) left a number of bodies in its wake, not the least of whom was Cimino himself. The next five years would be the darkest time of his career– a forced, unwanted sabbatical in which he couldn’t get any films off the ground.
He floated noncommittally between various projects like THE POPE OF GREENWICH VILLAGE and BORN ON THE FOURTH OF JULY. In that time, his biggest success as a director was managing to get hired to helm FOOTLOOSE, only to be fired before production started when his excessive set design demands led studio executives to believe they were making another HEAVEN’S GATE.
Finally, in 1985, Cimino returned to cinemas with a completed picture. Titled YEAR OF THE DRAGON, Cimino collaborated on the script with Oliver Stone, under the supervision of producer Dino De Laurentiis. Set in contemporary New York City, YEAR OF THE DRAGON tells the story of Stanley White (Mickey Rourke), a Vietnam veteran and decorated lawman working the city’s Chinatown beat.
He comes into conflict with Joey Tai (John Lone), an ambitious young businessman who violently assumes control of the city’s Triad operations. As a shaky ceasefire between the Triads and the police bubbles over into violence, White finds his family drawn into the conflict and his pursuit of Tai becomes a personal vendetta.
This was my first viewing of YEAR OF THE DRAGON, and had I not watched in the context of Cimino’s career, I probably wouldn’t have thought much of it. In an approach that’s unexpectedly un-Cimino, the film doesn’t pretend to be anything more than what it is– which is a gritty, pulpy noir film that capitalizes on the 1980’s (and Oliver Stone’s) fascination with Asian culture. In that light, and considering the disaster of Cimino’s previous film, YEAR OF THE DRAGON arguably holds up well.
The craft is strong and competent, but there’s something missing in the execution. There seems to be a degree of reserve– Cimino’s direction doesn’t have the same kind of confidence that it used to. It’s akin to a war veteran who walks with a limp: the functionality and drive is still there, but the malady hobbles its operation; a limp that impedes the reaching of its full potential.
Cimino eschews most of his regular collaborators, opting for a creative refreshing both in front of and behind the camera. While Rourke previously appeared in HEAVEN’S GATE, he was so underutilized that he might as well have never been in it. Given the limelight here, Rourke does his best Bruce Willis impersonation as the grizzled, emotionally fractured Stanley White.
He’s not exactly a savory protagonist– his experiences in Vietnam led to a head of grey hair and a particularly vocal distaste for Asians. It’s interesting to see him in a pre-boxing career performance, where his face hasn’t been pounded into hamburger. Ultimately, though, it’s a bizarrely eccentric performance that does neither Rourke or Cimino any favors.
As the ruthless Joey Tai, Lone is suave and poised. He’s sophisticated and elegant, but its a facade that hides a ruthless monster who would decapitate a member of his own family– and that’s not a metaphor, he actually does that. The character is a decent villain, but it’s nothing we haven’t seen before. Ariane (no last name is credited to her in the film) plays Tracy Tzu, an ambitious and street-smart television reporter that starts a love affair with the married White.
Films in the 80’s and early 90’s seem to have an obsession with the overbearing TV reporter character– April O’ Neill from TEENAGE MUTANT NINJA TURTLES (1990) being a prime example. Ariane was an unknown when Cimino cast her, and for good reason– she’s quite simply a terrible actress. Her delivery is wooden, hollow, and stilted. Her apartment in the film is awesome, but her physical presence in the film distracts from the main narrative– providing only a half-baked romantic arc for Rourke.
The supporting cast is lackluster. Not that the actors are miscast or deliver bad performances, it’s just their characters don’t have much to do. Caroline Kava plays Connie, Rourke’s screeching harpy of a wife. She’s supposed to only be thirty five in the film, but she looks like she’s closer to fifty.
She spends most of the film wallowing around, feeling sorry for herself that her marriage to White is crumbling, and when she’s killed halfway through the film, it had no emotional resonance for me at all. I was actually glad to see her character bow out. Ray Barry shares a couple scenes with Rourke as Louis Bukowski, White’s colleague and closest confidant.
However, his character is a stock figure too. He’s just someone for Rourke to bounce lines off of and discourage him from completing his arc. Barry is believable in the role, but his character isn’t given much of a chance to shine.
For the look of the film, Cimino switches up some key elements while retaining the core of his signature visual style. YEAR OF THE DRAGON is Cimino’s first collaboration with new Director of Photography Alex Thompson. Shooting on 35mm film in Cimino’s preferred 2.35:1 aspect ratio, they depict a claustrophobic, gritty New York by using wide lenses in tight spaces.
While Cimino employs dolly, zoom, and crane shots to add scale to the story, there is much more of a pared-down aesthetic at work. Colors are naturalistic, yet drab– save for the bright pop of reds, which are an appropriate visual motif considering the Chinese imagery that the story requires. The deep focus renders decrepit slums and postmodern penthouses alike with staggering amounts of detail.
There are no panoramic mountain vistas to be seen here (save for the film’s scenes set in China), so instead Cimino swaps snow-capped peaks for the gleaming steel towers of Manhattan.
Music is provided by David Mansfield, who previously supplied the score for HEAVEN’S GATE. For YEAR OF THE DRAGON, Mansfield constructs a score that blends Asian influences with string-based compositions not unlike THE DEER HUNTER’s Cavatina. It’s not particularly memorable, but it adheres to Cimino’s preferred musical palette quite well.
Cimino also employs a variety of source cues like rock and choral church hymns, as well as those strange synth-based traditional/pop tunes you typically hear in hole-in-the-wall Chinese restaurants.
By abandoning any pretense of Great Filmmaking (the likes of which sunk HEAVEN’S GATE), Cimino turns in a fairly entertaining (albeit neutered) film. Action is explosive, often appearing out of nowhere (a shooting in a crowded Chinatown club is especially heart-stopping). The pacing charges along, never meandering like it did in Cimino’s previous works (a first time collaboration with editor Francoise Bonnot might be to thank for that).
The final shootout is moody and expressionistic– one of the most clever showdowns in recent memory. It’s a sublime moment of cinema and a reminder of the pure talent Cimino holds within himself. Overall, there seems to be a real sense of lessons learned where it counts.
Cimino also finds plenty of opportunity to indulge in his thematic preoccupations. Americana imagery is seen in the form of American flags, and references to railroads– an apt allusion considering Chinese Americans’ own experience in that chapter of history. The immigrant experience in America is front and center. Their spiritual ceremonies– mainly funerals– are worked into the story and rendered in striking detail.
Cimino’s fascination with Christian imagery also re-appears here, in the form of Stanley White’s own religious convictions (or lack thereof) in a cathedral during his wife’s funeral. Throughout YEAR OF THE DRAGON, Cimino uses funerals as an effective focal point on which to compare East and West cultures.
YEAR OF THE DRAGON sees Cimino crafting a story set in his own hometown, so it naturally benefits from the tactile sense of place Cimino brings to the film– an ironic notion, considering the majority of the film sees Cimino eschewing his preference for location shoots, and choosing instead to use studio sets and backlots.
The set design, courtesy of Production Designer Wolf Kroeger, was apparently so authentic-looking that Stanley Kubrick (who had attended the premiere) did not believe Cimino himself when told that none of the locations actually existed in real life. Little anecdotes like this go a long way towards illustrating Cimino’s unparalleled attention to detail.
Negative criticisms of the film were plenty upon the film’s release, as has become the standard for Cimino’s work. A lot of the controversy centered around his supposedly false and blatantly racist depiction of New York’s Chinatown, and Chinese culture at large. Criticism of this sort helped undermine any shot of success for HEAVEN’S GATE, when it was found Cimino recklessly warped the truth behind historical figures and events entirely into the realm of fiction to suit his narrative.
Indeed, there’s many justifications for similar criticism in YEAR OF THE DRAGON, but Cimino contends that the subject matter of his story demanded a degree of damning treatment. It’s not exactly the best defense on his part, and helps explain why he fell out of favor increasingly politically correct world.
All in all, YEAR OF THE DRAGON marks Cimino’s return to filmmaking after five years of exile. By eschewing his grand, operatic pretensions, the back-to-basics approach works to create a modestly effective and lean thriller. That said, the film suffers from a profound hesitancy; a doubt in confidence that impedes the story from realizing its full potential.
Whether Cimino exhausted all his remarkable talent in the making of HEAVEN’S GATE remains to be seen, but for the time being, YEAR OF THE DRAGON stands as an underrated film that would be an exceptionally strong effort by most other directors’ standards.
THE SICILIAN (1987)
After YEAR OF THE DRAGON’s (1985) modest success, director Michael Cimino again found himself as an employable filmmaker. While it didn’t reach the heights that THE DEER HUNTER (1978) or even THUNDERBOLT AND LIGHTFOOT(1974) did, Cimino could at least show that he was able to overcome the catastrophe that was HEAVEN’S GATE (1980). However, that success was short-lived, as it further emboldened Cimino’s indulgent eccentricities and led him further down the path of obscurity.
Two years after YEAR OF THE DRAGON, Cimino re-teamed with his HEAVEN’S GATE producer, Joann Carelli, to make his fifth feature film– THE SICILIAN. With a story based off a novel by Mario Puzo that was considered the true literary sequel to “The Godfather”, expectations for another cinematic masterpiece like Francis Ford Coppola’s 1972 adaptation were understandably high.
The producers took a gamble by hiring Cimino, believing that he still was capable of delivering a film on par with THE DEER HUNTER. To hedge their bets, they brought an uncredited Gore Vidal on as the screenwriter (final credit went to Steve Shagan). Unfortunately, their faith was misplaced– the final result was an incoherent mess capped with a bizarre lead performance that continued Cimino’s road to ruin.
Puzo’s source novel was a much sought-after film property, as it fleshed out Michael Corleone’s exile in Sicily and his encounters with Salvatore Guiliano, a bandit turned folk hero. Due to copyright issues, however, the cinematic adaptation had to sever any connection to THE GODFATHER whatsoever. As a result, Vidal’s screenplay shifted the focus to Guiliano himself, depicting his rise and fall as a transformative figure in Sicilian history.
As filmed by Cimino, the story follows Guiliano (Christopher Lambert) and his loosely organized militia during the early 1950’s as they try to subvert the Italian government and established Sicily as an American state— weird, I know. Like Robin Hood, Guiliano roams the countryside, stealing from wealthy property owners and giving back to the poor.
As his infamy spreads, his ego gets the best of him (something tells me Cimino didn’t realize the irony here). This leads to the ruthless assassination of his own men, whom he suspects of betraying him. His megalomania grows to a point where he believes himself to be more powerful than his financial benefactor, the Mafia Don Masino Croce (Joss Ackland). Enraged by Guiliano’s hubris, the Don conspires with Pisciotta (John Turturro), Guilano’s cousin and closest friend, to put Guiliano down for good.
There is a great movie in this material, but it is not this film. The story is hamstrung by a frankly bizarre performance by Highlander himself, Christopher Lambert. He certainly looks the part as the courageous, dashing hero, but there’s a strange, dead intensity in his eyes that comes off as off-putting. It’s like a vanity performance by someone who thinks they’re more charismatic and talented than they actually are.
His laughable delivery manifests in barking his lines with an off-kilter intensity that sounds border-line mentally challenged. Even taking into account Cimino’s eccentric direction, Lambert still is the film’s weakest link. There’s a reason he fell off the acting map after the mid-90’s.
The supporting cast fares much better. The always-impeccable Terence Stamp plays Prince Borsa, a dandy aristocrat who finds himself the frequent target of Guiliano’s crusade. He spends much of the film reclining in an opulent watchtower attached to his country estate, listening to old opera records. Stamp depicts Borsa as a smart man whose distance from the hardscrabble peasants have made him out of touch and irrelevant.
It’s a reserved performance, to be sure, but Stamp never hits a wrong note. As Don Masino Croce, Joss Ackland cultivates a strange father/son-friend/enemy relationship with Guiliano. He thinks of Salvatore like a son, but the Mafia code of honor dictates a degree of respectful animosity when he breaks rank. Croce ultimately comes off as a dignified, almost sympathetic antagonist.
John Turturro has perhaps the meatiest role in the film– that of Pisciotta, Guiliano’s cousin and best friend. Initially presented as somewhat of a fool, he transforms into a hardened killer in the service of Guiliano’s mission. However, he ends up being more of a Judas, becoming the instrument of Guiliano’s downfall when he realizes their fight can’t be won.
He receives his comeuppance in a very satisfying way that ties into Guiliano’s earlier methods of branding traitors. These moments are where the influence of Puzo and THE GODFATHER are the most potent.
The supporting cast is rounded out by fine performances from Richard Bauer, a seasoned character actor, as Guiliano’s crippled godfather, Hector, and the fire-headed Giulia Boschi as Giovanna, Guiliano’s wife. It’s a little perplexing when Cimino’s supporting players are well-cast, but his lead is completely wrong for the part. However, we should come to expect odd casting choices from Cimino by now.
To capture Sicily’s expansive vistas, Cimino again works with cinematographer Alex Thomson. I’m aware that the film was shot on 35mm on the 2.35:1 aspect ratio, but I unfortunately was not able to see it in the way Cimino intended– the only available home video release of THE SICILIAN was released at the dawn of DVD, when lazy pan-and-scan presentations were the norm.
However, many of Cimino’s signature visual elements are present: deep focus, symmetrical frames, dramatic mountain expanses, and a masterful sense of epic scope achieved with dolly, crane, zoom, and moving POV/on-rails camerawork. Indeed, THE SICILIAN marks somewhat of a return to form for Cimino’s grand, romantic style of filmmaking.
Early in the film, Cimino employs an interesting cutting technique that he never revisits again. He symmetrically frames an image with the subject in the center, as we’re tracking forward or away from him/her. Then, he cuts right on the 180 degree line, flipping to front and back views in a disorienting jumble of visual information.
While the technique is a little strange, it seems to come from a true creative drive within Cimino– a vitality and willingness to experiment that hasn’t been since since THE DEER HUNTER. It’s too bad that this courage doesn’t persist through the remainder, as it could have resulted in a very different, very dynamic experience.
Warm color tones complement a naturalistic lighting scheme, despite claims upon the film’s release that its visuals were smeared and muddy. Ultimately, despite the high production value, the look of the film feels somewhat neutered. It’s as if THE SICILIAN was a TV Movie Of The Week blessed with an unusually large budget. Overwrought dialogue and a weird sense of dramaturgy contribute to a tone that’s off-balance and uneven. As a result, the whole experience feels lackluster, strange, and decidedly un-cinematic.
David Mansfield once again provides music for the film, crafting a sweeping, romantic score that evokes Nino Rota’s iconic work for THE GODFATHER– which is appropriate given the source material. Well-placed opera tracks also dot the soundscape, in addition to the unexpected inclusion of swing music. One of my favorite musical moments was during the wedding scene, which takes place on top of a mountain.
Since they have no instruments or record players, Guiliano’s poor guerrillas loudly (and horribly) sing the swing music themselves. It’s a sublime moment that wordlessly communicates the themes of the story and endears us to the characters.
It’s easy to see why Cimino was lured to the story of THE SICILIAN, besides the intention of making the next GODFATHER. It’s an unconventionally personal film for Cimino, in which the action takes place in the land of his ancestors. There is a clear love and exploration of his heritage at play here, which allows him to focus his preoccupation with cultural persecution on a subset of people he identifies with. Ritualistic ceremonies like weddings and funerals are all important story events that allow Cimino to explore his own relationship with religion.
This being a Cimino film, there is a lot of detail to soak in. One of the film’s strongest aspects is the production design, by recurring collaborator Wolf Kroeger. Together, Kroeger and Cimino craft an authentic and immersive portrait of mid-twentieth century Sicily, a land of great natural beauty and history. But even in a setting that’s half a world away from America, Cimino finds regular occurrence to reference the United States.
He even goes so far as to prominently highlight one of the more eccentric goals of Guiliano’s crusade, which was to make Sicily an American state. Personally speaking, I found this to be a very strange, naive goal– even if it was true in history (Cimino has a habit of playing fast and loose with historical events to fit his purposes).
States like Alaska and Hawaii already are stretching the conceptual boundaries of American statehood by virtue of not being connected to the contiguous US, so the notion of establishing an Italian island halfway across the world as the 51st state is, frankly, nonsense. However, it is an effective subplot if its aim is to communicate the insular, megalomaniac nature of the story’s protagonist. If he thinks that’s a realistic goal, he’s crazy.
Upon its release, THE SICILIAN was essentially a flop. It made less than half of its budget back, and was entangled in a nasty lawsuit that pitted Cimino against his producers in a battle over running time. The production echoed that of HEAVEN’S GATE, with the film falling behind budget and schedule, and Cimino fighting his backers over final cut.
The finished film clocked in at just under two hours, while Cimino’s cut ran almost twenty minutes more. However, the longer version of THE SICILIAN wasn’t fated to have the same critical re-appreciation that HEAVEN’S GATE was blessed with. Even in the director’s cut I screened, the final result is a jumbled, largely incoherent exercise in complacency.
There’s a few sparks of true inspiration and glimmers of greatness, but they are too few and far between to surmount the film’s profound flaws. Barring an exhaustive restoration on par with HEAVEN’S GATE, I can’t imagine THE SICILIAN’s place in cinema garnering a better standing anytime soon.
THE SICILIAN is currently available on a standard definition DVD via MGM, but I wouldn’t recommend it. Due to being dumped as a minor catalog release in the format’s early days, Cimino’s original widescreen framing and other details are lost to a claustrophobic pan-and-scan scan formatted for older television sets.
DESPERATE HOURS (1990)
Ever since the disaster of 1980’s HEAVEN’S GATE, director Michael Cimino had been in a career tailspin from which he could not recover. Each successive, new project (themselves many years apart from each other) were met with an increasing chorus of negativity and a diminishing box office take. Despite his best efforts, an increasingly vain self-image and eccentric vision continued to betray him. His sixth feature, 1990’s DESPERATE HOURS, could’ve been a bid to reclaim his former glory with a gritty, contained thriller.
Unfortunately, it was met with a profound indifference, signaling the dying throes of Cimino’s relevance. As of this writing, DESPERATE HOURS was the last film of Cimino’s to ever be released in cinemas.
A remake of the 1955 film (and hit Broadway play) of the same name, DESPERATE HOURS features Mickey Rourke as Michael Bosworth, a charismatic criminal that stages a shockingly simple jailbreak and takes over an elegant, comfortable house in the suburbs as his hideout.
While they wait for Bosworth’s lawyer-turned-lover to spirit them away to freedom, Bosworth and his posse hold the house’s inhabitants– the fractured Cornell family– hostage and subjects them to several days’ worth of psychological trauma.
DESPERATE HOURS marks Rourke’s third collaboration with Cimino, and it’s not a good sign when he’s one of the most watchable things about the movie. He paints Bosworth as a civilized psychopath; a whip smart man with thuggish instincts and a dime-turn ferocity. He calmly commands his hostages to do his bidding in a manner that’s so respectful it’s unnerving. While it’s an original characterization, Rourke ultimately can’t transcend the well-worn material and Cimino’s overwrought sense of drama.
Anthony Hopkins is one of the best actors of his generation, but his sole collaboration with Cimino as Tim, the Cornell family patriarch, is puzzlingly underwhelming. I’d even go as far as to say that Hopkins is utterly miscast in the role. Tim Cornell is a sophisticated man of taste, enabled by a lawyer’s salary.
He’s also a philander and a bad husband/father– when we first meet Tim, he’s in the midst of a messy divorce with his wife, Nora (Mimi Rogers). As the man who must live up to his responsibilities and deliver his family to safety, his arc is theoretically the more interesting one in the film, but Hopkin’s delivery falls flat. I don’t discredit Hopkins with that statement, as he obviously is giving it his all– rather, it’s once again a reflection on Cimino’s uninspiring direction.
The supporting cast doesn’t fare much better. Elias Koteas, who is perhaps my favorite character actor, was the sole highlight of the film for me. He plays Wally Bosworth, Michael’s jittery younger brother. His performance has a greaser-vibe to it, channeling a countercultural energy and spirit that brightens the dour mood every time he appears on-screen.
David Morse is equally sympathetic as Albert, the third wheel of the criminal posse and the emotional wild card. Morse plays Albert as an impotently frustrated man who yearns to be smarter than he actually is. This complicates the fact that he has much more of an imposing frame than his two counterparts, which adds a layer of tension where the viewer wonders if he might bite the hand that feeds him, so to speak.
Morse conveys depths of information about his character without the luxury of dialogue, which leads me to believe that his is the most accomplished performance in the entire film.
Cimino’s stories are decidedly muscular and brawny– which usually means women are placed predominantly into supporting character roles. As Nora, the Cornell family matriarch, Mimi Rogers is as strong, if not stronger than her husband. This strength initially comes across as a little off-putting during her early squabbles with Tim, but it soon morphs into a rock-solid determination and desire to see her family safely through the ordeal. As Bosworth’s lover Nancy Breyers,
Kelly Lynch is appropriately sexualized to match the brutish sensibilities of her paramour. Her feminism is strikingly different from Rogers’– it’s a dainty, delicate feminism that is easily manipulated and broken down. Lynch spends most of the running time delivering her lines in between sobs, but manages to transcend her situation to become one of the key agents of Bosworth’s demise.
Additionally, Lindsay Crouse appears as FBI Agent Chandler, a laughably ridiculous stereotype of your typical gruff police chief. Barking every line like she’s an angry Danny Glover, Crouse is the most curious aspect of the entire movie. She’s doggedly determined, kind’ve like an angry poodle that won’t stop barking.
Her approach to policework is dodgy as well, manifested best in the scene where she announces her presence to Tim– the very man she’s trying to save– by pointing a gun to his head. This is the kind of bad, ill-advised performance that people make drinking games out of.
To bring Cimino’s home invasion potboiler to life, he enlists the services of a new cinematographer, Doug Milsome. While shot on 35mm film, this is the first of Cimino’s works not to be photographed in the 2.35:1 aspect ratio. Instead, Milsome composes a 1.85:1 frame that suggests the distinctive air of a second-rate television film.
Make no mistake, DESPERATE HOURS is one of ugliest, if not the ugliest, film done by a director otherwise noted for visual flair. The narrower frame takes away from the power of Cimino’s mountain vistas– a major disservice to a film that places itself firmly within the natural beauty of Utah. The colors are natural, albeit subdued and drab.
Instead of using well-composed frames to convey narrative and information, Cimino’s restless camera changes angles on an whim by utilizing unmotivated dolly or zoom moves. The deep focus provides for ample opportunities to show off the details of Victoria Paul’s production design, but Cimino takes no such opportunities. Visually, DESPERATE HOURS is an exercise in lazy filmmaking of the highest order.
The music, provided by regular Cimino collaborator David Mansfield, is laughably inappropriate. Criticized as one of the film’s biggest flaws upon its release, Mansfield’s score comes across as an incoherent oddity. The intent is present– it’s obvious that Cimino and Mansfield fancied a big, brassy old-school thriller score that harkened back to the 1950’s– but it feels woefully out of place amidst Cimino’s blandly modern visuals.
It barnstorms across the film’s running time, barely ceasing to bludgeon us over the head with proclamations of “atmosphere” and “drama”. As of this writing, this score would become Cimino and Mansfield’s last collaboration. Much like Cimino’s career itself, their partnership started off strong in HEAVEN’s GATE, but quickly descended into depths of incoherence and indulgence that it could not transcend.
DESPERATE HOURS, also the last of Cimino’s collaborations with producer Dino De Laurentiis, still manages to maintain some of Cimino’s thematic preoccupations. Just like Rourke’s Stanley White character in YEAR OF THE DRAGON (1985), his character in DESPERATE HOURS is a Vietnam vet that lives uneasily with his wartime experiences.
While this manifests itself in the former film as a vicious volatility, the latter film fosters an ideological, megalomaniacal bent in which Rourke’s character breathlessly pontificates on the sad state of American affairs while providing no alternative solutions.
The gorgeous Rocky Mountain locales provide Cimino with ample opportunity to employ his dramatic mountain vistas that creates a mise-en-scene dripping with detail. But Cimino’s films are infamous for their inaccuracies and one-sided storytelling, and some dramatic details– like the presence of motor checkpoints at a state border– are downright ridiculous.
Like his other films, Cimino employs a deliberate sense of pacing, courtesy of editor Peter Hunt. In fact, this is the first film of Cimino’s since THUNDERBOLT AND LIGHTFOOT (1974) to run under two hours– thanks to Cimino eschewing his tendency to dwell unnecessarily on big setpieces. Unfortunately, Cimino and Hunt aren’t able to channel this newfound brevity into anything resembling suspense– a fatal flaw that ultimately sinks the picture.
DESPERATE HOURS is a largely forgettable film, undone by the overcooked dramaturgy of a tragically deluded director. The lack of creative inspiration on display gives the sense that it was a journeyman, for-hire job on Cimino’s part– a lazy bid to get out of “director jail”. Whether he genuinely wasn’t trying, or if his talent has truly left him, it’s impossible to say.
It’s clear that everyone involved was trying to do their best work, but they are ultimately a sacrifice to the fire of Cimino’s pretensions. If DESPERATE HOURS is anything, (and there’s a strong case to be made that it’s nothing), it is the final nail in the coffin of Cimino’s once-promising career, and the squandered last chance to reclaim his place amongst the greats.
SUNCHASER (1996)
After the dismal reception of DESPERATE HOURS in 1990, director Michael Cimino again went into a self-imposed exile from the screen. It would be six years until he was able to put together another film. By all accounts, Cimino was a washed-out has-been; an irrelevant filmmaking force for almost twenty years. In 1996, he broke his silence with the release of SUNCHASER, a film that initially got Cimino’s hopes up with its inclusion into competition at the 1996 Cannes Film Festival.
However, the film was received by US test audiences so poorly that it was never released theatrically. With this development, Cimino was dealt a killing blow. The once-great director of THE DEER HUNTER (1978) saw his last film condemned straight to video, and his career’s tragic fate was sealed.
In a move that comes full circle with his debut film THUNDERBOLT AND LIGHTFOOT (1974), SUNCHASER is a modern road film starring mismatched “buddies” who rage against the American landscape in roaring muscle cars. The story follows Michael Reynolds (Woody Harrelson), a young, mild-mannered doctor on the verge of a big promotion.
When he’s kidnapped by his patient– a teenage convict with terminal abdominal cancer named Blue (Jon Seda)– he’s forced at gunpoint to drive his hostage-taker out into Najavo Country in search of a mystical mountain lake with healing powers. Along the way, they form an unlikely bond, and Reynolds decides to risk everything to bring his captor to his destination.
The characters, as written by screenwriter Charles Leavitt, are oftentimes stereotypical and one-dimensional. Even Harrelson and Seda, whose characters actually undergo a transformation, have to contend with cliché plot developments and archetypes. As a man made cynical by virtue of his intelligence, Harrelson is convincing in the role of Dr. Reynolds.
It’s not a particularly memorable performance, but it never feels false either. There’s no doubt that Harrelson is an excellent performer, and – like a consummate professional– he gives everything he has to the lackluster material he’s got to work with.
As a foul-mouthed gangster with a spiritual side, Jon Seda is the most compelling character in the story. He’s overly intense and mean, but one suspects it’s a façade meant to cover up at the sheer terror he feels internally at the prospect of only having two months to live.
He assumes the symptoms of his disease convincingly, and the earnestness in which he believes in the healing lake ultimately renders his character endearing and sympathetic. He’s a by-the-book foil to Harrelson, subverting him and providing conflict at every turn.
The only other cast member worth mentioning is the venerable Anne Bancroft, in an appearance that amounts to a glorified cameo. She plays Reneta Baumbauer, an elderly New-Age hippie who shares a brief ride with Michael and Blue. While her screen time is scant, it’s a testament to Bancroft’s talent that she remains one of the film’s most memorable characters. Unfortunately, Leavitt’s characterization and dialogue leave her with a fairly stock granola-cruncher persona that doesn’t have a whole lot to do other than reinforce the film’s stereotypical New Age themes.
After the visual coma that was DESPERATE HOURS, Cimino returns to the screen with a surprising energy that harkens back to the style that made his name. I’d even go so far as to say that it’s his most visually impressive film since 1980’s HEAVEN’S GATE. Cimino re-teams with his Director of Photography from DESPERATE HOURS, Doug Milsome. Shooting on 35mm film, Cimino makes his grand return to his preferred 2.35:1 aspect ratio.
He maintains other signature elements of his style, such as deep focus, wide compositions, and a mix of steadicam, dolly, and crane camera movements to add scope. He even incorporates a few aerial shots for good measure. Colors, while natural, favor a flat palette of pastels and earth tones that seems more appropriate for an 80’s film, but they don’t detract from the visual majesty of the film’s desert locales. Other signature visual elements, like dramatic vistas and Americana imagery, complete Cimino’s roll call of aesthetics.
For the film’s music, Cimino works for the first time with Maurice Jarre, who contributes a bombastic, old-school big orchestra score that’s at odds with Cimino’s modern, gritty visuals. Many times, it sounds laughably off-tone, as if it’s being played for comedic effect. Jarre also crafts a secondary theme with a variety of synths that evokes one of those medical monitoring machines—a nice idea, but lacking in execution. Cimino also sprinkles a variety of hip-hop and rap songs throughout the film that helps to flesh out Blue’s hard-knock life.
Despite being a straight-to-video release, I found SUNCHASER to be a surprisingly decent film—much better than DESPERATE HOURS or THE SICILIAN (1987). The six years away afforded Cimino ample time to creatively refresh himself, and his renewed energy generates brief flashes of greatness. Starting with some gnarly neon/day-glo opening titles, the film clips along at a distinctively un-Cimino-esque speed. He even incorporates some expressionistic techniques, like black and white flashbacks and cross-cutting between simultaneously occurring-sequences.
Some of Cimino’s biggest influences were the Monument Valley westerns of John Ford. SUNCHASER sees Cimino directing in the same iconic locales that his idol made famous, which gives Cimino added inspiration. It’s also somewhat comforting to see Cimino’s film career end with a closing shot that echoes the cinematic brilliance of his earlier works. The shot in question tracks Blue running breathlessly towards the fabled lake, his own body fighting him as his cancer shuts it down.
It’s a tense moment where it’s uncertain that he’ll make it. And just as his feet splash into the water, he slowly disappears into thin air. Invisible, splashing feet peter out, and once again the lake is calm and still. It’s a sublime, supernatural ending to a film concerned with faith and spirituality. All around, just a really nice touch.
Small moments of true inspiration like that are few and far between in SUNCHASER, but when they happen, I’m reminded of why Cimino was hailed as a great director in the first place. However, his best efforts weren’t enough to salvage his career- SUNCHASER recouped only thirty thousand dollars of its $31 million budget, thus becoming the biggest flop of Cimino’s career and effectively rendering him unemployable. The film was swiftly forgotten, and, unfortunately, so was Cimino.
Watching it for the first time sixteen years after its release, I found SUNCHASER to be a highly erratic and flawed, yet somewhat underrated film. Given the downward trajectory of Cimino’s film quality thus far, I was expecting an entirely different experience– so I was impressed to see Cimino look like he was truly trying to recapture success.
As of this writing, Cimino has remained relatively silent since the failure of SUNCHASER. In 2007, he contributed a new short film, NO TRANSLATION NEEDED, to a little-seen anthology film , TO EACH HIS OWN CINEMA. Since I was unable to procure that for the purposes of this project, SUNCHASER has to serve as the final development in a remarkable career. Of course, the man is still alive and well, and might have another one or two great films in him yet—however, given his current sixteen-year absence from screens, I’m compelled to think that probably won’t be the case.
When I first started writing about Cimino’s body of work, I invoked the myth of Icarus—the boy who flew too close to the sun and plummeted into the sea. In the grand scheme of things, maybe it was a fluke that Cimino made one of the best films ever made. Maybe he just got lucky. I think the more likely narrative is that Cimino was, and still is, a brilliant filmmaker of the highest order. But like the Gods in Greek myth, his fatal flaw brought him back down to earth, condemned to live amongst us mere mortals as punishment for his hubris.
Ultimately, the story of Cimino’s career is a cautionary tale. Young filmmakers drunk on their own successes would do well to remember the lessons that Cimino (to his own peril) could not. Filmmaking is enough of an egomaniacal pursuit as it is without tyrannical personalities thinking that they are infallible.
That being said… even if he never made another film, Cimino would leave the world of cinema with an unimpeachable treasure (THUNDERBOLT AND LIGHTFOOT), a bonafide masterpiece (THE DEER HUNTER), and a misunderstood, controversial epic that has gained appreciation with time (HEAVEN’S GATE). Regardless of whatever tarnish his later films wrought, those three films are a cinematic legacy that anyone could be proud of.
A DEBRIEFING
In my 2012 essay for SUNCHASER, director Michael Cimino’s 1996 feature film, I wrote that the notoriously reclusive and mercurial filmmaker probably had one or two great films left in him, but I also concluded that he probably wouldn’t seize the opportunity. It saddens me to know that I was right– Cimino died of unknown causes on July 2nd, 2016, at the age of 77. His body was discovered lying in his bed at his home in Beverly Hills, after friends had not been able to reach him for several days (1).
This left the poorly-received SUNCHASER as his final feature effort, and a short contribution to 2007’s TO EACH HIS OWN CINEMA project, “NO TRANSLATION NEEDED” as his final completed work overall. Throughout the operatic sweep of Cimino’s career from prodigy to pariah, critics and fans alike chose to believe in his innate talent, wishing for one final masterpiece that would redeem his ruinous career and restore his standing amongst the pantheon of great American directors.
Now, we know for certain that final masterpiece will never come; leaving Cimino’s legacy to the Icaresque fall from grace that was often invoked in numerous essays and think-pieces– the ultimate cautionary tale.
Cimino’s career– indeed his entire life– was nothing less than the glory and the ruin of the American Dream, seemingly cut from the same operatic cloth as his cinematic epics. Born in 1939 in New York City, the young Cimino was regarded as something of a student prodigy, but he also earned an equally-notorious reputation as a troublemaker and a schoolyard brawler. His intellect and natural curiosity about the world enabled his admission to Yale, where he studied painting, architecture, and art history.
His love for the films of John Ford, Luchino Visconti, and Akira Kurosawa enabled his postgraduate rise as a highly sought-after director of commercials in New York during the 60’s. Some of his best known work from this period, including spots for United Airlines and Pepsi, established several of his signature traits as an artist, such as elaborate set design and the iconography of Americana. It was also during this period that Cimino met perhaps the most influential figure in his life: on-again/off-again producing (and life) partner, Joan Carelli (2).
Carelli was actually the one who encouraged Cimino to jump into writing for feature films– she sensed a potential in him that was almost immediately realized when he moved to Los Angeles in the 1970’s and began writing scripts for actor/director Clint Eastwood. Eastwood was so impressed with Cimino’s work on a little heist script called THUNDERBOLT & LIGHTFOOT that he offered up his directing chair to the budding filmmaker. The surprise success of that film emboldened Cimino to swing for the fences with his next film– 1978’s THE DEER HUNTER.
This film saw the synchronization of Cimino’s ambition with his talent, generating a staggering, once-in-a-lifetime master work that dominated the Oscars and catapulted him into an nearly-unparalleled echelon of prestige. The runaway success of THE DEER HUNTER made it quickly apparent to everyone that Cimino had fulfilled his initial promise as a bonafide prodigy.
Unfortunately, Cimino would never reach these lofty heights again. His reign at the top would end just as quickly as it had begun. Up until this point, Cimino’s ego and confidence had worked in his favor– THE DEER HUNTER is undoubtedly the product of a self-assured director who knows how to mold his vision in the shape of Greatness. However, there’s a fine line between vision and megalomania.
Given full creative control and a virtually unlimited budget, Cimino capitalized on his success to make HEAVEN’S GATE— a sweeping, epic Western that he envisioned as a serious contender for the mantle of “Greatest Film Of All Time”. Anything– the cast, the sets, time, money, virtually everything— was disposable in service to achieving his ambitious vision. He gained a reputation as something of a tyrant– or a fascist– on set, leading to crew members calling him “The Ayatollah” behind his back.
Despite numerous budget and schedule overruns, Cimino eventually finished HEAVEN’S GATE, but the damage had already been done. In his persistence to craft the Perfect Story, he had lost control of his own narrative– months of damning set reports in the press led to the film accumulating the stink of failure before it was even released, and audiences followed suit. The financial loss of HEAVEN’S GATE was so great that it almost single-handedly bankrupted its studio, United Artists, and essentially closed the door on the New Hollywood era of director-driven films.
That Cimino’s own career was thrown into ruin amidst all this devastation is something of afterthought. Claims that he was a one-sided and factually-inaccurate storyteller positioned him as a politically-incorrect relic on the fringes of an increasingly-PC culture. He languished in this state of exile for the next 5 years, suffering no shortage of aborted attempts to mount another film.
The making of 1985’s YEAR OF THE DRAGON offered a chance for Cimino to redeem himself with a lean, pulpy crime thriller, and his genuine attempts made for a modest success; a beacon of hope. However, he would not make the most of his second chance. His next effort– 1987’s THE SICILIAN— fell prey to his ego-driven indulgences, despite compelling subject matter and a deeply personal connection to Cimino’s heritage as an Italian American laying the foundation for what could have been a great film.
THE SICILIAN’s failure signaled the beginning of Cimino’s permanent downturn as a filmmaker. 1990’s DESPERATE HOURS claimed the dubious distinction as his last film to be released theatrically, its failure kicking off another period of extended exile. When Cimino finally returned with SUNCHASER in 1996, he had been an irrelevant filmmaking force for nearly two decades. Despite receiving a prestigious screening slot at Cannes, the film would ultimately go straight to video.
A mismatched buddy / road film like THUNDERBOLT & LIGHTFOOT, SUNCHASER found Cimino working from a burst of newfound inspiration that suggested he might still yet find redemption. It could’ve been that SUNCHASER came somewhat full circle with the beginning of his career, or that he was shooting in the same dramatic landscapes as the classic John Ford westerns that captivated his imagination in his youth, but Cimino’s final feature seemed to be in possession of a palpable energy that had otherwise been missing.
The director’s final years saw some flashes of creativity– aside from his short film for Cannes’ TO EACH HIS OWN CINEMA project, he became a novelist in 2001 with the publication of his book, “Big Jane”, which he followed up in 2003 with another book titled “Conversations En Miroir”– but his work was overshadowed by furtive rumors and gossip.
Because he rarely gave interviews, he become regarded as a reclusive eccentric, and a drastic, almost-overnight change in his facial features generated hushed whispers all over town that he had butchered himself with plastic surgery, or that he was undergoing a sex change operation. Of course, Cimino didn’t try too hard to dispel these rumors himself– he was notorious for giving contradictory information about his personal life in what could be construed as a bid to inject an air of mystique around his celebrity.
For all his faults as a storyteller, Cimino’s visual aesthetic drew a consistent crowd of admirers. Fundamentally inspired by Ford’s Monument Valley westerns, he utilized America’s striking vistas and landscapes to his own benefit, giving his work a dramatic Cinemascope backdrop that infused his stories with the potent aura of myth and folklore.
His scholastic background in architecture and art history fueled an impeccable intuition for composition, but it also informed his sense of narrative structure– for instance, the organization of THE DEER HUNTER’s three distinct acts recalls the conventions of triptych. His camerawork favored the classical techniques of old-fashioned studio epics, often rendering his elaborate sets and bustling locations in sweeping, romantic crane or dolly moves.
This majestically-minded aesthetic reached its apex with HEAVEN’S GATE, where Cimino’s insistence on an immersive environment led to his crew effectively building out an entire town for him to swoop and soar through. The catastrophic failure of HEAVEN’S GATE would impact his style with a palpable loss of confidence in YEAR OF THE DRAGON and onward, but his aspiration for visual grandeur would remain.
Critics might have derided Cimino as a tyrannical fascist, but the fact remains: the success of his artistic vision depended on the strength of his collaborators. Throughout his career, he developed a rather eclectic group of collaborators on both sides of the camera. His most influential collaborator was Carelli– although she only officially served as a producer on HEAVEN’S GATE and THE SICILIAN, she was instrumental in putting Cimino on the road towards filmmaking in the first place, and she remained a close friend and confidant for the rest of his life.
Composer David Mansfield boasted the highest quantity of partnerships with Cimino, having shaped the distinct musical character of HEAVEN’S GATE, YEAR OF THE DRAGON, THE SICILIAN, and DESPERATE HOURS. Mickey Rourke was the closest thing Cimino had to his own DeNiro, headlining YEAR OF THE DRAGON and DESPERATE HOURS after his slight cameo in HEAVEN’S GATE.
Jeff Bridges and Christopher Walken also put in two tours of duty eac, appearing separately in Cimino’s first two features before sharing the bill on HEAVEN’S GATE. Whereas most visually-esteemed directors owe a debt of gratitude to their partnership with a singular cinematographer, Cimino cultivated fruitful relationships with no less than three. The venerated DP Vilmos Zsigmond is responsible for Cimino’s visual hallmarks: THE DEER HUNTER & HEAVEN’S GATE.
Alex Thompson replaced Zsigmond on YEAR OF THE DRAGON and THE SICILIAN– two films that were admired for their visuals if not for their storytelling. Douglas Milsome saw Cimino through to the end of his filmography, countering the bland beige environs of DESPERATE HOURS with the vibrant vistas of THE SUNCHASER.
As a third generation Italian American, Cimino was deeply fascinated with the immigrant experience in America– a conceit that gives his filmography a unique bent that’s at once both patriotic and deeply critical of his homeland (some would argue that to be deeply critical is to be patriotic). Films like THE DEER HUNTER and HEAVEN’S GATE explored the unique contributions that Eastern Europeans have made to American history, while YEAR OF THE DRAGON portrays the Chinese-American perspective as deeply-tied to the heritage of the country’s railroad system.
His only film to not take place in America– THE SICILIAN— still manages to work its way into this conceit with its narrative drive to establish an American state in Sicily. A deep nostalgia runs through Cimino’s filmography; a subliminal undercurrent of loss and mourning for an era long gone. Especially within his first three films, his characters are relics trapped in a world that no longer has any use for them.
Again, HEAVEN’S GATE is a prime example of this conceit in action: it’s a story about the closing of the frontier; the end of the Wild West. The arrival of the railroad brings with it an influx of civilization, and the homesteaders valiantly struggle to maintain their way of life in the face of great upheaval and change. The iconography of Americana that peppers Cimino’s films belies a conservatively-minded patriotism that sees the past through rose-tinted glasses. Indeed, I suspect that Cimino just might have been a fan of Donald Trump’s campaign to “Make America Great Again”.
Cimino’s artistic voice was distinctly masculine– his films exclusively featured male protagonists, but this wasn’t necessarily a product of sexism or even simply a disinterest in female-oriented narratives. He was genuinely interested in exploring the peculiar dynamics of platonic male-to-male relationships. His protagonists often possessed shades of complexity underneath their surface machismo, and their individual inner journeys often coincided with masculine ideals and virtues.
THUNDERBOLT & LIGHTFOOT is framed as a buddy comedy, but the film resonates as a tender portrait of brotherly bonds, giving new meaning to the phrase “thick as thieves”. THE DEER HUNTER explored the idea of male friendship as fractured by profound loss, filtered through the prisms of loyalty, responsibility and patriotism. HEAVEN’S GATE mostly portrays antagonistic male relationships, illustrating how actions and reactions are codified by a common sense of honor and natural law.
THE SICILIAN further tackles these conceits while complicating them via a loose father/son relationship between hero and villain. DESPERATE HOURS is fundamentally concerned with patriarchal dynamics, using the template of the home invasion thriller to examine the distinct responsibility a man has to his family as both the breadwinner and the protector.
Religion, ritual, and spirituality is yet another common theme uniting Cimino’s disparate works. The Italian immigrant experience in America is fundamentally informed by its rich heritage with the Roman Catholic faith, and like his generational peer Martin Scorsese, Cimino shows great interest in how spirituality guides human interaction. Whereas Scorsese’s work tends to grapple with the inherent conflict of religious belief, Cimino’s cinematic interpretations of faith are explored through ritual and ceremony.
THE DEER HUNTER is the most obvious example; beginning with a wedding and ending with a funeral, the cycle of life portrayed in the film is one marked by distinct milestones and sacraments. Despite being a meditation on the law of man as informed by the wilderness, HEAVEN’S GATE riffs on the ceremonial nature of this signature by positioning the town skating rink as a de facto community center, town hall, and cathedral.
YEAR OF THE DRAGON compared and contrasted western religious tenets with those of the Far East in a bid to find the common ground that dictates their interactions. THE SICILIAN is perhaps Cimino’s most direct reckoning with Christianity, heavily dealing in Old World dogma and its history of religious persecution. In THUNDERBOLT & LIGHTFOOT and SUNCHASER especially, Cimino also shows a deep interest in an elemental, indigenous spirituality that is more connected with nature and the landscape than the religious constructs of civilization.
The protagonists in those films are able to tap into the energy of the world around them and harness that power for their own benefit. Cimino is at his most poetic in these scenes– the final shot of SUNCHASER, showing a dying man racing to the magical lake that will purportedly save his life and instantly disappearing save for his splashing footsteps on the water, is a sublimely ambiguous conclusion that tips its hat towards the mysterious forces of nature.
The list of Cimino’s unrealized projects suggests the same sense of grandeur as his completed work. At the height of his career, Cimino dreamed of adapting Ayn Rand’s THE FOUNTAINHEAD, even going so far as to develop a screenplay after the success of THUNDERBOLT & LIGHTFOOT (3). During this period, he also worked towards realizing biopics on Janis Joplin and the infamous mafia boss, Frank Costello (4).
After the catastrophic reception of HEAVEN’S GATE, Cimino tried to resurrect his career by getting himself hired on films like THE POPE OF GREENWICH VILLAGE and FOOTLOOSE, only to then get himself fired when his egotistical pursuits got the best of him. Still other unmade films include a
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A new $1,500 book offers never-seen 'Shining' ephemera. Are you obsessed enough?
|
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[
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"Lee Unkrich",
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] | null |
[
"Charles Arrowsmith",
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2023-03-17T14:00:01+00:00
|
'Coco' director Lee Unkrich is a 'Shining' aficionado. He walks us through his new box set of revelations and ephemera on Stanley Kubrick's 'The Shining.'
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en
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https://www.aol.com/news/treasure-trove-obsessive-fans-shining-140001148.html
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I can’t drive, so when I went to Oregon in 2016 I had to convince friends that borrowing a car to ascend Mt. Hood and see the Timberline Lodge would be “fun.” If the name’s unfamiliar, the hotel probably isn’t: The Timberline is the model for the facade of the Overlook in Stanley Kubrick’s horror classic “The Shining.” It’s where Jack Torrance (Jack Nicholson) takes a job as winter caretaker, accompanied by his wife (Shelley Duvall) and psychically gifted son (Danny Lloyd), and where, under the malevolent influence of the hotel, he tries to axe-murder his family. For me, if not for my friends, it was an exciting day.
I’m not alone in my mania. Legion are the admirers of “The Shining,” bewitched by its mysteries, all of which seem to encourage obsessive attention. Rodney Ascher and Tim Kirk’s “Room 237” (2012) offered a glimpse into some of the more outré fan theories: Did Kubrick fake the moon landings? (No) Is the film surreptitiously about the genocide of Native Americans? (Actually… maybe a bit.)
I recently spoke to someone whose love for “The Shining” leaves mine in the foothills. Lee Unkrich, the Oscar-winning director of “Toy Story 3” and “Coco,” has been called “the world’s foremost 'Shining' aficionado.” He is the “caretaker” of a long-running Tumblr devoted to the film and now the author of “Stanley Kubrick’s ‘The Shining,’” the ultimate completists’ guide to the film's lore and visual ephemera. Written with J.W. Rinzler, it draws on extensive interviews and archival research and is being released by Taschen as part of a lavish box set, with a 900-page “making of” as its centerpiece. (The collector’s edition of this behemoth sells for $1,500 a pop, but based on the success of Taschen’s other Kubrick books, it seems safe to predict a more affordable trade edition one day soon.)
Crammed with unseen materials and photographs — Unkrich estimates that 75% of the featured images, excluding film stills, will be new even to serious enthusiasts — this collector’s dream sets a new high bar for Kubrick fetishism. Unkrich and I chatted ahead of a March 17 screening of “The Shining” at the Academy Museum which will officially launch the box set, his enthusiasm undimmed even after a decade-plus writing the book and more than 40 years since he first checked in at the Overlook.
“I first saw ‘The Shining’ when I was 12 years old,” Unkrich says. “I grew up with my mom taking me to see a lot of films that were probably too old for me.”
For the imaginative only child of a “difficult marriage,” the film struck a personal chord. He soon acquired the Stephen King book on which it’s based and an obsession was born. But it wasn’t just that he identified with the material. Kubrick, he suggests, designed “The Shining” to obsess. “There's an anecdote in the book that I love where Stanley has just finished a shot and he turns to a crew member and winks and says, ‘Let the French film critics figure that one out.’”
Kubrick is notorious for his perfectionism — “The Shining” holds the Guinness World Record for “most retakes for one scene with dialogue” — and the book is filled with tales of devotion (or submission) to his obsessive vision. “There are times you put Stanley first and you’re second,” says focus puller Douglas Milsome, whose hand once froze to the camera lens during filming. When one of the sets burned down late in production, Danny Lloyd worried they’d be there for years while it was rebuilt. Even after the movie wrapped, Kubrick’s personal assistant, Leon Vitali, traveled to Malta, where Duvall was filming “Popeye,” to record some “wild track” for the snowball sequence — only for Kubrick to decide he didn’t need it.
But it’s Kubrick’s relationship with Duvall that receives the most attention today. His daughter Vivian captured footage of them arguing in her 1980 documentary about “The Shining,” and more recent talk of cruel behavior has cast a shadow over the film. But based on his interviews with people who were there, Unkrich says such rumors have been “exponentially exaggerated steadily over the years.” Kubrick was perfectly happy for his clashes to appear in Vivian’s documentary, he points out.
“It was right at the end of production, and everyone was crispy,” Unkrich says. “Were there things done that maybe would not be OK, by today's standards? Yeah, probably. It was the late 1970s.” (As recently as 2021, Duvall said Kubrick had been “very warm and friendly” to her.)
Preconceptions about Kubrick are challenged by other revelations in the book. “People put Stanley up on a pedestal as this brilliant filmmaker, which he of course was,” Unkrich told me, “but they also imagine that every last thing was worked out ahead of time, and that he just then flawlessly executed these films. And that's not what happened.”
As in Michael Benson’s terrific “Space Odyssey,” about the making of “2001,” and Matthew Modine’s “Full Metal Jacket Diary,” readers will learn that Kubrick started shooting without a clear sense of how the film would end. “He didn't even know he was going to have [psychic chef Dick] Hallorann killed until much later in production,” Unkrich reveals. “ I think that these stories … are emblematic and illustrative of something that really pierces the myth of Stanley Kubrick.”
The process of writing the book was also long and occasionally rocky. Rinzler and Unkrich initially made two separate proposals to Kubrick’s estate, but once introduced they quickly discovered they were “kindred spirits.” Immersion in the Kubrick archive gave Unkrich a sense of the breadth of what they’d find, though it took many years to track down the dozens of people interviewed for the book, including Duvall, who hadn’t acted since 2002, and Lloyd, by then a teacher in Kentucky.
It was Unkrich’s relationship with Lloyd and his parents that led to the “mother lode” that sets the book apart from previous “Shining” analyses. Their family album, and hundreds of negatives from their basement, gave the writers a cache of material they’d never dreamed of (“my jaw hit the floor,” recalls Unkrich). Other discoveries in the Kubrick archive included negatives from scenes later cut from the movie, such as a hospital-set epilogue briefly seen in early screenings but hand-excised from every print before the film was released nationwide. These images are just some of the book’s major contributions to Kubrick studies.
The 12 years of the book’s gestation have not been without sadness. Rinzler passed away in 2021. (“He will always be the Caretaker,” Unkrich writes fondly in the acknowledgments.) Vitali, whose devotion to Kubrick was captured in the documentary “Filmworker,” died last summer. “He'd been carrying the mantle of Stanley's wishes for so long,” Unkrich recalls.
Kubrick died in 1999. Given his legendary attention to detail, it seems likely he’d have approved the methods that produced this new “Shining” history. And while this private man may have been less keen on such a guts-out examination of his process, he could surely have had no concerns regarding the sanctity of the film’s mysteries. Despite all the revelations, for fans of “The Shining,” it will never fully yield its secrets.
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100 Best Thriller Movies Of All Time To Watch Now, Ranked
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[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[
"Matthew Singer",
"Joshua Rothkopf",
"Phil de Semlyen"
] |
2024-06-23T23:00:00+00:00
|
From Fincher’s Seven to Hitchcock’s The 39 Steps, take a journey to Hollywood’s dark, suspenseful side with our countdown of the 100 greatest thrillers
|
en
|
/static/images/favicon.ico
|
Time Out Worldwide
|
https://www.timeout.com/film/best-thriller-movies
|
If there’s a thriller out there more exhilarating, sexier or packed with iconic moments than this one, we’ve yet to see it. The greatest joy in Alfred Hitchcock’s spy caper is how effortless it all feels: a gliding magic-carpet ride from New York to Mount Rushmore, via Chicago and a Midwestern bus stop, as Cary Grant’s ad man suffers a potentially fatal outbreak of Wrong Man-itis. Of course, making a movie this effortless is hard work. It’s all a tribute to Hitch and his ensemble of behind-the-camera talents, including screenwriter Ernest Lehman, Saul Bass (designer of the iconic title sequence) and Bernard Herrmann, whose score lends menace and levity in equal measure. And the cast? Eva Marie Saint, James Mason, Martin Landau and Jessie Royce Landis – heroes, villains and worried mothers, they’re all having a ball. But it’s Grant’s movie: a Hollywood A-lister happy to be the punchline when the scene calls for it.
The killer moment: It has to be the crop-duster sequence, which begins like a Western standoff and ends with the suavest man in cinema face down in the dirt.
Phil de Semlyen
Global film editor
Several real-life child murderers, cannibals and serial killers – their nicknames are grisly enough: the Butcher of Hanover, the Vampire of Düsseldorf – terrorised Germany in the 1920s. Berlin's most moneyed and celebrated director, Fritz Lang, was drawn to the subject, which would become the spine of his first sound film, in many ways the commercial birth of the modern psychothriller. M is cinema's darkest landmark: a portrait of awful appetites that was revolutionary for also being an oblique mirror on society at large. (Filmed under the working title Murderer Among Us, Nazi party members refused Lang studio space.) The movie is immortal for Peter Lorre's career-defining performance as Hans Beckert, trapped by sweaty urges and a dragnet of cops and mobsters. Lang also turned Edvard Grieg's ‘In the Hall of the Mountain King’ – whistled by Beckert, but not Lorre, who couldn't whistle – into an instant signature of aural menace.
The killer moment: In front of a wanted poster, a dark silhouette appears. Leaning down, Beckert lures a child into conversation: ‘What a pretty ball you have there.’
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The absolute zenith of New Hollywood's 1970s-era adventurousness (it was all downhill from here), Roman Polanski's majestic conspiracy thriller is the ultimate L.A. movie, locating seediness under the sun – even in the water. Robert Towne's well-researched screenplay about land grabs, murder and one ‘nosy fellow’ remains the gold standard for aspiring writers hoping to grab a whiff of sociocultural currency; watching Chinatown is, for some Angelenos, like learning that you live in a stolen paradise, or hell itself. But for all the movie's substance, it took a rascally Jack Nicholson, an absorbingly skittish Faye Dunaway, a fearsome John Huston and Polanski himself (working at the peak of his powers) to sock it over on audiences. The movie shimmers like a '30s period romance but its veins pump black bile: a toxic masterpiece.
The killer moment: A withering Noah Cross makes his sole priority clear to our hero: ‘The future, Mr. Gittes! The future!’
Set in a post-World War II Vienna filled with canted angles and stark shadows, The Third Man is expressionist perfection. Orson Welles’ performance as Harry Lime – thought to be dead by his childhood friend, Holly (Joseph Cotten), a down-and-out novelist, only to make a dramatic return – is one of cinema’s best. Welles swaggers through the film with cool self-assurance and delivers many an iconic line in his famous baritone. Faking one’s death is, of course, a risky proposition, and it’s challenging to present it believably. Director Carol Reed invests us totally in Lime’s fate, thrilling us with every plot twist. After watching this utterly engaging film, you’ll never look at tunnels or Ferris wheels (or hear zither music) the same way again.
The killer moment: After riding the wheel, Welles makes his famous quip (ad-libbed on the day), comparing violent Italy under the Borgias with peace-loving Switzerland. ‘And what did that produce? The cuckoo clock.’
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Nothing about Quentin Tarantino’s breakthrough was exactly new: the suits were pure Rat Pack, the dialogue was Scorsese intensified and even the plot was lifted from a Hong Kong crime flick called City on Fire. But like household ingredients blended to make a bomb, the result was incendiary. Reservoir Dogs changed cinema, and we’re still dealing with the aftershocks (see the smooth criminals of Baby Driver or the entire career of Three Billboards director Martin McDonagh for evidence). But even if none of that were true, it’s still such a joyful film to experience and re-experience: every line crackles like electricity, every performance is punchy perfection and every shot feels like a bracing bucket of water in the face. Tarantino hasn’t come close to it since – but neither has anyone else.
The killer moment: Too many to mention, but the off-camera ear-slicing scene set to the peppy ‘Stuck in the Middle with You’ will go down in history.
Tom Huddleston
Arts and culture journalist
Famously, Orson Welles’s involvement in this magnificently sleazy borderlands crime flick was meant to be strictly in front of the camera: he was hired to play Hank Quinlan, the grotesque corrupt sheriff, and nothing more. It was star Charlton Heston who lobbied for Welles to be handed the directorial reins, and who backed him – at least initially – against interference by the studio, Universal. The result was an impossibly rich Welles movie that could be held up to Citizen Kane: a brutal, explicitly sexual crime story; a satire on race and prejudice; a sad-eyed lament for wild pre-conformist America; and one of the most gorgeously directed films of all time – even the dialogue scenes play like ballet. Not that Universal noticed. They eventually recut the film against Welles’s wishes. It’s only in the past two decades that we’ve been able to appreciate this masterpiece nearly as its creator intended.
The killer moment: The legendary opening tracking shot – an uninterrupted three-and-a-half-minutes following a bomb’s delivery in a car trunk – is the obvious choice (and the correct one).
Tom Huddleston
Arts and culture journalist
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Set in a troubled America that hides an undercurrent of violence under its skin, Jonathan Demme’s taut serial-killer procedural borders on Grand Guignol horror. Unconventionally finding its saviour in the shoes of a female law enforcer – FBI trainee Clarice Starling (Jodie Foster, blending strength and vulnerability) – The Silence of the Lambs divides its terrors between grotesque moths, a blood-curdling butcher of women and the cannibalistic Dr. Hannibal Lecter (Anthony Hopkins), a nightmarishly manipulative collaborator with a taste for liver and fava beans. Featuring exceptional cross-cutting leading up to its grand finale (a twisty reveal sends shivers down your spine), Lambs is one of the greatest movies of the ’90s, and the rare thriller to be recognised at the Oscars in a major way.
The killer moment: Using night vision, Buffalo Bill pursues Clarice in the dark. In the seconds that follow, no one dares to breathe.
Robert Towne once raved that ‘all contemporary escapist entertainment begins with The 39 Steps’ – and as the man who wrote Chinatown, he’d definitely know what he’s talking about. The magic in this endlessly re-enjoyable Hitchcock effort, an early blueprint for Hitch classics to come, comes via its fine balance between the looming menace and frothy sense of fun. The Master knew how to make his stars’ chemistry work to counterbalance the deathly predicaments he placed them in, and he rarely found a more perfect squabbling-flirting double act than Robert Donat and Madeleine Carroll.
The killer moment: When the respectable Professor Jordan shows Hannay that part of his finger is missing, revealing that he’s an enemy agent and that Hannay is properly up the loch without a paddle.
Phil de Semlyen
Global film editor
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John Huston’s magnificent adaption of Dashiell Hammett’s noir has so much going for it, it’s hard to know which parts to praise first: The plotting is drum-tight; the villains are indelibly slippery (especially Sydney Greenstreet’s ‘Fat Man’ and Peter Lorre’s Joel Cairo); Mary Astor’s femme fatale is a sexy, amoral joy; and the titular MacGuffin, a black statuette, is so iconic, the prop itself fetched $4 million at auction. (That’s a lot for a 12-inch bird that was once dropped on Humphrey Bogart’s foot during shooting.) How about the hero, then? Sam Spade is everything you want from a noir gumshoe: whip-smart, hard-bitten, cocky and unfazed by that pea-shooter you’ve got pointed at him. It’s not even that he’s a particularly good guy, it’s that everyone else around him is so much worse. Bogie’s Spade was the embodiment of a new kind of Hollywood protagonist to emerge during the war years: a man who can slip from heroism to obnoxiousness and back again, all during the same slug of whisky.
The killer moment: ‘What is it?’ a detective asks of the falcon. Spade answers, immortally: ‘The stuff that dreams are made of.’
Phil de Semlyen
Global film editor
A creepy boarding school, a monstrous headmaster, his quietly fed-up wife, another disgruntled lover – thrillers rarely come better stocked for suspense. France’s own Alfred Hitchcock, Henri-Georges Clouzot, subversively teams up the timid spouse (Véra Clouzot, the director's wife, playing a plain Jane in braids) with the hedonistic mistress (Simone Signoret, sporting a contrastingly provocative look) for a vengeful murder scheme against their common enemy. Clouzot uses every device at his disposal: eerie corridors, grimy swimming pools, ear-splitting kids. The result is a truly scary thriller that influenced Psycho. Clouzot’s fiendish nail-biter climaxes with such a domino chain of reversals, it even had a title card at the end asking the audience to not spoil the film for others. Don’t expect to know who’s deceiving whom until the last frame.
The killer moment: Unforgettably, the headmaster’s white-eyed corpse rises up above the surface of a bath – but not as the ladies planned.
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Film noir doesn’t get more iconic than Billy Wilder’s tale of an insurance salesman (Fred MacMurray) roped into a devious scheme by a femme fatale (Barbara Stanwyck) intent on murdering her husband. To watch the film, with its shadows and Stanwyck’s swaggering seduction, is to lose oneself in a gritty and mysterious world that has influenced countless movies since.
The killer moment: In a brightly lit Los Angeles supermarket aisle that’s suddenly ominous, Stanwyck purrs, ‘It’s straight down the line for both of us,’ setting the template for women up to no good.
Scraping up against the limits of knowability, David Fincher's mind-blowing crime thriller targets the truth itself as a serial killer's final victim. Zodiac is the definitive movie of its troubled decade, showing us good men thwarted by the elusive spirit of a murderous ghost. The real-life exploits of California’s Zodiac Killer haunted Fincher as a child; his film is an expression of obsession, onscreen and off.
The killer moment: We're seated in a break room with a creep who's full of unsettling excuses (the ominous John Carroll Lynch). His watch has the killer's target symbol on it, but that's not enough for these cops to pounce. ‘I am not the Zodiac,’ he says. ‘And if I were, I certainly wouldn’t tell you.’
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Film noir's most unsettling nightmare ends in a flaming nuclear disaster – and if that anxiety weren't enough, there's also off-screen torture, ferocious desk-clerk slapping and the casual destruction of a beloved opera record. Robert Aldrich's perverse masterpiece brings Mickey Spillane's vicious Mike Hammer (a grinning Ralph Meeker) to life: a vain bottom feeder prone to using his fists. He's the sourest of antiheroes. Los Angeles has made him that way.
The killer moment: ‘I want half,’ Lily Carver demands, wielding a gun. Soon enough, she's hovering over the most influential suitcase in movies (see also Pulp Fiction and Repo Man), one she can't help but open.
When people say ‘they don’t make ‘em like they used to’, they’re mainly talking about The Fugitive, a blockbuster murder-mystery set on a big canvas that boasts sophisticated character work, complex motivations and action-movie thrills. Headlining it all, of course, is Harrison Ford as Dr Richard Kimble, who is framed for the murder of his own wife, only to escape while in transit to prison. Ford brings a stewing rage to this ’80s reprise of the Wrong Man archetype, while a perfectly cast and Oscar-winning Tommy Lee Jones plays the unblinking, relentless cop on his trail – and delivers that much-imitated ‘hen house’ monologue). Nowadays, its more outlandish turns would be delivered with a knowing wink (and Kimble’s protests that ‘a one-armed man’ killed his wife would launch a thousand memes), but it works so well because of its sincerity. It’s Hitchcock with a straight face.
The killer moment: Gerard finally has Kimble cornered, where his choices are to either surrender or take his chances plunging into the raging water flowing off a massive dam. If you don’t know what happens next, you didn’t grow up in the ’90s.
Phil de Semlyen
Global film editor
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Often regarded as cinema’s greatest achievement, Vertigo presents the peak of Hitchcock’s psychosexual fixations in gloriously shot Technicolor. Playing Judy Barton – or is it Madeleine Elster? – Kim Novak personifies twisty femininity. Jimmy Stewart’s ‘Scottie’ Ferguson, an ex-detective increasingly consumed by her, is a perfect subversion of the actor’s wholesome image.
The killer moment: Writhing in his sheets, Scottie plunges into a wordless, psychedelic nightmare: an unforgettable jolt of creepy graveyard shots, wild colours, Bernard Herrmann’s seesawing score and Stewart’s disembodied head.
David Lynch’s uncrackable masterpiece meets at the intersection of Hollywood dreams and dream logic. In Lynch’s crazy-quilt Tinsel Town, anything can be lurking around the corner, be it a grime-caked urban ghoul, mysterious puppetmasters in cowboy hats, splintered realities, hapless gangsters or a cuckolding Billy Ray Cyrus. Mulholland Drive’s legacy will always be its lucidity, but in all the conversations about what the hell it means, people tend to lose track of the fact that it thrills from beginning to end: it’s a puzzle box with no answers that still functions as a masterful noir, a compelling mystery and an ethereal horror yarn.
The killer moment: Winkie’s Diner hides the film’s most jarring moment, but the Club Silencio sequence is an uncut bump of pure Lynch so deliriously callibrated you can practically feel the director yanking at the rug beneath your feet.
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An agitated sociopath gains access to a firearm and decides to make America great again. Sound familiar? Nearly 50 years later, Martin Scorsese’s masterful portrait of alienation and male delusion still manages to shock and disturb – in fact, it’s probably more shocking and disturbing now than it was then. It’s certainly just as relevant: you could be sure that if Robert De Niro’s Vietnam vet-turned-vigilante antihero Travis Bickle existed today, he would definitely have turned up inside the Capitol Building on January 6.
The killer moment: while preparing for a rampage, Bickle confronts his own reflection in a mirror and asks the immortal question: ‘You talkin’ to me?’
Matthew Singer
Film writer and editor
Here's the pivot point for David Fincher – the inflection at which he transitioned from being a maker of super-stylish Madonna videos into something more substantial. Seven certainly delivers a signature gloom, from those powerhouse opening credits to its rainy urban hellscape. But beyond the gloss, the movie feels as subversive as a Fritz Lang thriller, indicting the police as thoroughly as it does its moralising serial killer. Andrew Kevin Walker's script contrasts theoretical bookishness with impulsive action, but Fincher's genius is to show those modes for what they really are: survival strategies that only get you so far.
The killer moment: The sloth victim traumatised us, but the movie's small piece of immortality happens in the desert, where the tables are turned: ‘What's in the box?’
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Fear of Soviet domination may have engulfed America in the early 1950s but in Hollywood, things weren’t so simple. In the wake of the Joseph McCarthy hearings, filmmakers knew they had just as much to fear from their own government as they did from some shady foreign power. The Manchurian Candidate is the clearest expression of that anxiety, a razor-sharp study in manipulation filmed in stark monochrome, a paradox for a movie in which nothing is black and white.
The killer moment: Suddenly we realise that lovely Angela Lansbury isn’t just playing a domineering mom, but a ruthless monster.
Tom Huddleston
Arts and culture journalist
Staple anxieties of classic ’50s noir often get rebooted for contemporary audiences. But Curtis Hanson’s genre homage dared something even grander by going back to the source and recreating the bloody era itself, in an immaculately shot saga of knee-deep Tinseltown corruption. It’s a deceptive labyrinth of self-serving cops, movie-star wannabes and one priceless Lana Turner cameo; Hanson does the films that came before him proud.
The killer moment: Guy Pearce’s straight-laced sergeant earns his nickname, Shotgun Ed, at a cost while pursuing a murder suspect.
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Released between the twin giants of The Godfather and The Godfather: Part II, Francis Ford Coppola’s relatively small and quiet character study remains largely overlooked, but it is a highlight not just of Coppola’s career, but the entire era. That’s due in large part to Gene Hackman’s emotionally walled-off yet deeply compelling lead performance as Harry Caul, a private surveillance expert who knows better than anyone that the concept of privacy in the modern world is illusory. Plagued by guilt over his chosen profession, he’s driven to paranoid self-destruction after capturing what he believes to be a murder confession on tape. While it scanned as a Watergate allegory at the time, it’s just as relevant in the modern era of doorbell cameras, smart devices and targeted advertising.
The killer moment: After tearing his apartment apart in search of a bug, Caul sits alone in the wreckage, playing a mournful saxophone.
Matthew Singer
Film writer and editor
Stanley Kubrick’s racetrack heist movie helped inspire a swathe of crime flicks – not least Reservoir Dogs – and it still stands up as a sharp-edged morality tale elevated by unorthodox structure, amoral characters and a third act that twists like a drunk blackjack player. Sterling Hayden, ever the embodiment of the stand-up guy gone to seed, is the meticulous robber who has thought of everything, except for the one variable that’s going to bring the whole scheme crashing down.
Killer moment: What’s that tiny dog doing on the tarmac? An accident results in the most expensive baggage-check fee ever levied.
Phil de Semlyen
Global film editor
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Film noir comes to France (the country that first invented the term for a specific kind of Hollywood thriller), as blacklisted American director Jules Dassin turns out a flawless Paris-shot thriller on a budget of about ten centimes. Rififi laid out the ground rules for the heist movie: a mismatched gang, an intricate plan, a grindingly tense break-in and, of course, a disastrous final act in which it all falls apart.
The killer moment: It’s the single best heist sequence in movie history – so convincing, it actually inspired a series of copycat crimes.
Tom Huddleston
Arts and culture journalist
This Raymond Chandler adaptation may be best known for being almost impossible to follow, but that doesn’t make it any less potent. Humphrey Bogart and Lauren Bacall bring their legendary charisma to a convoluted tale of criminality filled with noir intrigue. Co-written by William Faulkner and featuring much pervy evasion of contemporary production codes, Howard Hawks’s classic is truly the kind of thriller they don’t make anymore.
The killer moment: A sexually charged bookstore encounter between Bogart and a bespectacled clerk (the unforgettable Dorothy Malone) is just as invigorating as any of the wider mysteries presented elsewhere.
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Calling Blue Velvet a thriller is like calling the Mona Lisa a portrait: It’s 100 percent true but hardly the whole story. Fueled by coffee, hamburgers and transcendental meditation, David Lynch crafted one of the 1980’s true masterpieces, a haunted cruise into a netherworld of desperate damsels, corrupt cops, underworld crooners and well-dressed fuckin’ men. Impossible to describe, harder still to fully comprehend, it’s more nightmare than film.
The killer moment: Dean Stockwell leans into the light and brings the Roy Orbison-scored menace: ‘A candy-colored clown they call the sandman tiptoes to my room every night…’
Tom Huddleston
Arts and culture journalist
Alfred Hitchcock’s housebound thriller took on fresh relatability at the height of the pandemic: after all, few of us had anything better to do than stare out the window and get a little too invested in the lives of our neighbours. James Stewart is a New York photojournalist laid up in his Greenwich Village apartment with a leg injury. As he spends his days peering across the courtyard, he becomes convinced one of his fellow residents has committed a horrific crime, and enlists his girlfriend, Grace Kelly, to help investigate. Big mistake. Hitchcock had staged claustrophobic mysteries before – see 1948’s Rope – but pound for pound, this might be his greatest achievement as cinema’s ‘master of suspense’: a movie that manages to induce stomach-knotting levels of tension while staying in essentially one place. You’ll recognise the feeling.
The killer moment: Grace Kelly gets caught snooping around the suspected killer’s apartment – and all James Stewart can do is watch.
Matthew Singer
Film writer and editor
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Sidney Lumet’s NYC crime thriller was revolutionary in its day for its matter-of-fact representation of marriage equality and a supportive stance on trans rights. It follows the true account of an attempted bank robbery on a red-hot summer day. With uncompromising tension and flashes of humour, it also examines the ever-exploitative American media that loves a good circus.
The killer moment: ‘Attica! Attica!’ In the infamous scene, Al Pacino leads a riot outside of the bank, delivering one of his fiercest onscreen outbursts.
Many thrillers are beloved; some have become classics. But only one can claim to have kicked off a five-decade-and-counting spy franchise grossing billions of dollars worldwide. Ground Zero for the James Bond phenomenon, Dr No explodes out of the chamber with casual Rat Pack insouciance, brutal action and Ursula Andress in a bikini. Sean Connery holds it all together with scowling attitude; his future installments would perfect the formula but there’s simply no devaluing the first outing, a culture-changing effort.
The killer moment: So hard to pick. Is it our first sight of those gun-barrel opening credits? The first use of the twangy guitar theme? We like Connery’s lazy line delivery at the baccarat table: ‘Bond, James Bond.’
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The premise itself is a thrill: A jaded photographer (David Hemmings) may have captured a murder in the background. Michelangelo Antonioni’s reality-altering ‘Swinging London’ yarn is a scrupulously composed slow-burn of eye-popping mod fashions, mischievous nudity and a smashing Yardbirds cameo. Bonus: The art-house sensation helped instigate an era of serious stateside moviemaking with European sensibilities, prompting today’s ratings system.
The killer moment: Come for the murder, stay for the greatest mime scene in film history: a tennis game with an imaginary ball.
It’s one of the most perfect plot concepts in action cinema: Four desperate men are hired to drive a pair trucks of highly explosive nitroglycerin across the Amazon rainforest to the site of a raging oil fire. If they make it, they get big money. If they don’t, they’re dust. Henri-Georges Clouzot’s bruising masterpiece takes its time – there’s an awful lot of grim, sweaty negotiation before the trucks start rolling. But as the jungle closes in around them, the clammy hand of fear exerts its grip.
The killer moment: In the blink of an eye, half the cast is wiped out. The rest press on regardless.
Tom Huddleston
Arts and culture journalist
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Moving with the ominous velocity of a freight train, Park Chan-wook’s Oldboy stands as an epochal contribution to the genre. A tragedy fuelled by adrenaline – like Shakespeare on steroids – it follows stoic salaryman Oh Dae-su, played by the brilliant Choi Min-sik, as he seeks to uncover the reasons (and people) behind the inexplicable 15-year imprisonment he’s just suffered. Cue a wreaking of terrible vengeance on those that stole his life. Bloody hammers, thug-filled hallways and at least one wriggling octopus spearhead a revenge tale with a body count that goes up … and up. The film’s ending lands like a punch in the solar plexus.
Killer moment: Clutching only a hammer, Dae-su’s brutal beatdown of a horde of thugs in an equally beaten-up hallway is a high-water mark for both movie fight scenes and DIY equipment.
Yes, it’s harder to watch in the wake of recent news regarding both director Bryan Singer and leading man Kevin Spacey, but let’s focus on the film itself. Taking its title from a Casablanca quote, The Usual Suspects blends old-school Hollywood style with a modern playfulness and unpredictability, weaving a web of crime, coincidence and flat-out lies. The cast is phenomenal, from mumbling Benicio del Toro to smooth Gabriel Byrne, spiky Kevin Pollak to ominous Pete Postlethwaite.
The killer moment: ‘Man, you’re a slob,’ one detective tells another, looking over the detritus of a junky office. The shoe is just about to drop.
Tom Huddleston
Arts and culture journalist
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On top of a list of brilliantly twisted European thrillers that got really bad Hollywood remakes (Diabolique, Open Your Eyes, etc.), you’d find George Sluizer’s tar-black study of obsession and evil most ordinary. It follows Dutchman Rex (Gene Bervoets) as he tries to uncover the fate of his girlfriend, Saskia (Johanna ter Steege), who disappeared from a rest-stop service station years earlier. The ending is a jaw-dropper.
The killer moment: A psychopath practices his abduction techniques, even going so far as to chloroform an imaginary victim in his passenger seat.
Phil de Semlyen
Global film editor
Alfred Hitchcock plays twisted games with the very concept of decency, as Ingrid Bergman’s desperate daughter of a Nazi scientist is prostituted to the enemy by Cary Grant’s smooth, unflappable government agent – and ends up falling for him anyway. Set in Rio right after the war, ‘Notorious’ is all glamour on the surface, as Bergman and Grant swan through a selection of spectacular aristocratic mansions. But the undertones are grotesque and still challenging: a story of sexual exploitation, murder, manipulation and state-sanctioned cruelty.
The killer moment: People don’t think of ol’ Hitch as a purveyor of erotic work, but this could be the single greatest screen kiss of all time: lusty, lingering, loaded with the unspoken.
Tom Huddleston
Arts and culture journalist
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British acting legend Charles Laughton’s sole film as a director is part grim fairy tale, part adventure and part serial-killer thriller, long before that last term was even invented. Working with cinematographer Stanley Cortez, who shot The Magnificent Ambersons for Orson Welles, Laughton crafted a story of fear and flight steeped in Southern Gothic and Bible allegory, as Robert Mitchum’s murderous preacher – a killer of women (‘Perfume-smellin' things, lacy things, things with curly hair’)–attempts to hunt down two children who hold the secret to a hidden treasure.
The killer moment: Mitchum’s reverend tells us about the story of ‘right hand, left hand, good and evil.’ The monologue was so good, Spike Lee used it for Do the Right Thing.
Tom Huddleston
Arts and culture journalist
A genius orchestrator of meandering conversations, Robert Altman left behind a string of classics, from Nashville and 3 Women to The Player and Gosford Park. But can this shaggy-dog private-eye movie – a delicious perversion of Raymond Chandler’s 1953 novel – be Altman’s most lasting achievement? You can see its influence in everything from The Big Lebowski to Inherent Vice, and any L.A. thriller that wends its way into a haze of pot-scented trouble. Elliott Gould’s scuzzy Philip Marlowe, buying cat food in the middle of the night in between solving crimes, is an iconic ’70s creation.
The killer moment: Neurotic gangster Marty Augustine (played by future On Golden Pond director Mark Rydell) brings his beautiful mistress into the room to make a savage point to Marlowe with the help of a Coke bottle: ‘Now that's someone I love! You, I don't even like.’
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The simplest of thriller conceits – cops and robbers as two sides of the same coin – is elevated to a showstopping new level in Michael Mann’s loose remake of his own TV pilot, LA Takedown. Helmed by masterful, winningly showy, performances by Al Pacino and Robert De Niro, Mann’s crime epic combines philosophical rumination with OTT machismo (think Pacino’s ‘great ass’ moment) to paint a compelling but bleak picture of life outside the law. This winning combination slings us through each intricate, explosive set-piece to create a crime opus that’s still revered nearly three decades on.
Killing moment: It can only be the quiet, yet loaded diner confrontation between Pacino and De Niro. In contrast to the rest of the movie – a violent game of cat and mouse – this is two lone wolves – and two Corleones – marking their territory over coffee.
Director John Boorman, had only made one feature – a breezy vehicle for the Dave Clark Five. Actor Lee Marvin, meanwhile, had just won an Oscar for Cat Ballou. The latter believed in the former’s talent, using his star power to support Boorman’s vision: a radical departure for the double-cross thriller in both form and content. Along with Bonnie and Clyde (released only two weeks earlier), Point Blank signals the moment at which Hollywood boldly leapt into sex, violence and a new kind of radically disjointed storytelling.
The killer moment: The granddaddy of hallway scenes has Marvin striding through a nondescript office. His heels echo hypnotically and Boorman takes off, cutting away from the action but never losing that forward momentum.
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Italy’s tradition of the giallo thriller – so-called for deriving from yellow-covered pulp novels – is as significant as film noir was to Hollywood: a major evolution of onscreen style linked to a cultural malaise of ennui and free-floating amorality. Inspired director Dario Argento perfected the form with Deep Red, a diabolical killing machine marked by leather-gloved hands (often Argento’s), shiny objects, lavish spurts of blood and the prog-rock tinklings of Goblin.
The killer moment: Oh, so the puppet in Saw scared you? Poor thing. Wait until you see this guy, wheeling out of a dark corner with a canned laugh.
Louis Malle’s narrative-feature debut is a gorgeously atmospheric crime tale, featuring a score by Miles Davis. Taking place over the course of a single night, this grim story of a murder plan gone awry holds us rapt, thanks in large part to the glamorous yet weary visage of screen legend Jeanne Moreau.
The killer moment: Moreau makes wandering aimlessly thrilling, as she walks the Paris streets at night, calling her lover’s name in a moody, doomed funk.
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Hitchcock rated this blackly comic suburban thriller as one of his very best, and who are we to argue? He embroiders it with little details: blink-and-you’ll-miss-it evidence that builds up to a portrait of breathtaking sociopathy in the lady-killing Uncle Charlie (Joseph Cotten). To his teenage niece – the young, bored, yearning-to-be-elsewhere Charlotte ‘Charlie’ Newton (Teresa Wright) – his visit is a welcome diversion. At least until she realises that he’s actually a cold-blooded murderer.
The killer moment: In his first unguarded moment (a terrifying camera creep), Uncle Charlie shares his real feelings about elderly widows: ‘fat, wheezing animals’.
Phil de Semlyen
Global film editor
The sweat-soaked feature debut of the Coen brothers hints at much of what would come: the half-smart schemers of Fargo, the explosive violence of No Country for Old Men and – making her first screen appearance – Frances McDormand, a force of nature. Blood Simple is still scrappy and surprising: a Texas-shot thriller of limited means but maximum punch, and an indie that still plays beautifully decades later.
The killer moment: In a sweltering office filled with the sound of crickets, the gun goes off. Excruciatingly we watch dark red trickle down a white shirt. ‘Who looks stupid now?’ the shooter asks a corpse.
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Novelist Jim Thompson was a genius of hardboiled crime fiction: his books are lean and gripping, generally following a rugged, amoral, none-too-bright hero as he’s messed with by a sharp-witted woman with a lust for cash. This Martin Scorsese-produced, Stephen Frears-directed black comedy is one of the strongest adaptations of his work. John Cusack plays the lunk in question, a con-man who thinks he can get one over on his own mother, played with delicious savagery by Anjelica Huston. Needless to say, it doesn’t quite pan out.
The killer moment: A dagger-eyed hospital showdown between Huston and Annette Bening (as Cusack’s outrageously oversexed partner in crime) supplies enough fireworks for a shelf of thrillers.
Tom Huddleston
Arts and culture journalist
Roman Polanski’s subtle thriller takes a sail through the waterlogged cracks of a marriage rocked by a handsome vagabond (Zygmunt Malanowicz). An allegory for upper-crust privilege and masculine arrogance – intensified by a hypnotizing score by Krzysztof Komeda –‘Knife in the Water landed on the cover of Time magazine (‘Cinema as an International Art’) and scored an Oscar nomination, launching Polanski’s career in earnest.
The killer moment: The film’s title clues us into the fate of the drifter’s precious pocket knife, but there’s even more that goes overboard.
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Taking cues from Italian neorealism and the French new wave, director William Friedkin’s punchy police procedural follows ‘Popeye’ Doyle (Gene Hackman) and his partner ‘Cloudy’ Russo (Roy Scheider), two NYC detectives attempting to bust up a heroin-smuggling ring. Based loosely on actual events, the film brought a bracing verisimilitude to the cop flick, as Popeye bellows and brutalises his way through a criminal fraternity. The sequel is every bit as good.
The killer moment: Eat it, Bullitt – this one’s got the best car chase in movies, largely shot from a bumper-level perspective.
Tom Huddleston
Arts and culture journalist
Brian De Palma’s reworking of the ’60s thinker Blow-Up is a superbly stylised tale of paranoia, featuring John Travolta as a movie sound-effects technician who believes he’s captured a political assassination in his recordings. The film is bolstered by a number of high-strung set pieces; its combination of slasher-flick imagery, political intrigue and tragedy is intoxicating.
The killer moment: De Palma’s camera lurks through a tawdry B-movie women’s dorm, until a showering co-ed screams unconvincingly: cut to the men mixing the movie.
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Pure panache and an admitted inspiration on such nobodies as Jim Jarmusch, Walter Hill and John Woo, Jean-Pierre Melville's cryptic thriller channels an almost abstract sense of fate and beauty. (If you liked Drive, you've got homework.) At its core is actor Alain Delon's hitman: trenchcoat-clad, chiseled, a dude of few words. He glides through the film as if doomed; there's not an inch of fat on this plot, which never get sentimental, only colder and more aggressively on target.
The killer moment: Delon's assassin cruises on and off several Metro lines, even jumping a moving walkway to shake several different pursuers. The guy is smooth.
If there’s one film here that deserves wider exposure, it’s this. In his most honest and heartfelt performance, the late Bill Paxton plays Dale Dixon, a small-town sheriff who dreams of escaping to the city. When word comes that a gang of notorious killers are headed his way, Dale tools up for battle, High Noon-style. But playing the hero isn’t the same as actually being one. Balancing clear-eyed observations on race and class with nerve-shredding tension and a bottomless sense of empathy, ‘One False Move’ is a small, sharp masterpiece.
The killer moment: The opening home invasion is still shocking in its offhand brutality.
Tom Huddleston
Arts and culture journalist
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A decade before his class-warfare masterpiece Parasite struck a global nerve, South Korean auteur Bong Joon-ho tapped his inner Hitchcock with this small-scale whodunit. A coldly calculating procedural punctuated with devastating tenderness, Bong’s film follows a fiercely protective back-alley herbalist (South Korean national treasure Hye-ja Kim) playing detective in an attempt to absolve her mentally vulnerable son of a heinous murder. Like its protagonist, the film is unafraid to explore the dark recesses of society, following Mother through a labyrinth of desperation, dead ends and, eventually, moral decay. It’s a heartbreaking, clenched-jaw mystery from front to back. But the greatest trick Bong pulls is forging an unquestioning empathy for the family at its center, even as things take an impossibly dark turn in the third act.
The killer moment: Mom takes a well-earned bus tour to the countryside and samples her own medicine as the credits roll.
The average presidential tweet packs more controversy these days than anything in Kathryn Bigelow’s geopolitical thriller, so it’s strange to think that when it came out, it spawned a litany of think pieces and even threats of a congressional inquiry. The main accusation leveled at Bigelow – that she condoned the use of torture in her depiction of the hunt for Osama bin Laden – is hardly borne out in a deeply unmisty-eyed look at U.S. foreign policy. A smart thriller that doesn’t skimp on the pyrotechnics when the time comes, it’s basically The Bourne Ultimatum for people who read The Atlantic.
The killer moment: Overlooking a table model of Obama’s hideout, CIA agents believe their years of searching are about to pay off. ‘Who are you?’ asks the director of an operative (Jessica Chastain). ‘I’m the motherfucker that found this place,’ she replies, ‘sir.’
Phil de Semlyen
Global film editor
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Orson Welles’s tale of betrayal, lust and murder, in which he stars as a naive Irish sailor alongside Rita Hayworth as a captivating femme fatale, is filled with visual flourishes and hard-boiled twists. As one of cinema’s great masters, it’s no surprise that Welles made crime films that became so enduring.
The killer moment: The shootout in the hall of mirrors is a breathless achievement of cinematic illusion and mise-en-scène. Only Welles could pull off this literal fracturing of the image so confidently.
The allegedly Buddhist opening epigraph is fake (writer-director Jean-Pierre Melville simply made it up), but the sense of Zen purity that runs through this flawless French heist movie is wonderfully convincing. Melville’s stylish, crumpled leading man, Alain Delon (also of Le Samouraï), plays Corey, a career crook who is released from prison, drives back to Paris and immediately starts setting up his next job. As lean and meticulous as Japanese calligraphy, this is precision-tooled filmmaking.
The killer moment: The silent robbery sequence is a 30-minute master class in sustained tension.
Tom Huddleston
Arts and culture journalist
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An upright but rash cop (Glenn Ford) declares war on organised crime in Fritz Lang’s unrelenting noir of ‘vice, dice and corruption’. This brutal, rug-pulling revenge classic ushered the way for the likes of Chinatown and L.A. Confidential, and still stings like a cigarette burn, with its string of victimised femmes and menacing final line, ‘Keep the coffee hot.’
The killer moment: Gloria Grahame’s angelic face becomes the target of a sinister attacker with a boiling pot of joe. Mercifully, it happens off-screen.
An oblique allegory for England’s precariousness on the brink of World War II, Alfred Hitchcock’s breezy, chatty train thriller has its roaring locomotive echoing in almost every train movie since, from Silver Streak to The Girl on the Train. Plus, it introduced the world to the cricket-obsessed comedic characters Charters and Caldicott, who went on to many more films and even a TV series.
The killer moment: Is Michael Redgrave the original Ethan Hunt or what? He fearlessly hangs out of his carriage’s window and faces a fast-approaching train.
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Denis Villeneuve’s devastating Incendies warned us what to expect from this chilly drug-war thriller: no moral certainties and no happy endings. Like Alice in a narco wonderland, Emily Blunt’s greenhorn FBI agent disappears down the rabbit hole and into a violent world of realpolitik on the Mexican border. Villeneuve mounts spectacular set pieces (the convoy sequence, shot by the great Roger Deakins, is a pulse-pounding standout), while also painting a bleaker picture of the lawless badlands than even Trump can muster.
The killer moment: Benicio del Toro’s avenging cartel man sits down to a very short dinner with a drug lord and his family.
Phil de Semlyen
Global film editor
Brian De Palma burnishes his Hitchcock fixation to a high sheen in this supremely confident New York City-set thriller, which features something of a surrogate character for the director himself: a teenage tech whiz (Keith Gordon) obsessed with cameras and spying devices who's bent on avenging the unsolved murder of his glamorous mother (Angie Dickinson). Trans movies have come a long way since this one.
The killer moment: It's one of De Palma's purest sequences of total craft: a wordless flirtation between two strangers at the Metropolitan Museum of Art (actually shot in Philly) that becomes a missed connection, a painful rejection, then a chase.
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The dramatic world of ballet is fertile ground for an exploration of professional jealousy and obsession. Darren Aronofsky’s lurid psychological horror film delves into the compellingly creepy idea of doppelgangers, via committed performances from Natalie Portman and Mila Kunis, who push the backstage maneuvering to dizzying extremes.
The killer moment: Warring prima donnas grapple in an intense, shape-shifting fight scene. With such over-the-top delirium, who could ever think of ballet as prissy?
The Godfather and Goodfellas play more like studies in power than straight-up thrillers. No such quibbles, though, with Brian De Palma’s stylised, semi-fictional slice of Chicago crime-fighting lore, which ticks every box on the thriller checklist. With its brilliant, bloody set pieces, tons of quotable dialogue (‘You’re nothing but a lot of talk and a badge’) and a jittery Ennio Morricone score that amps up the tension, it’s De Palma knocking it out of the park.
The killer moment: The unbearably suspenseful Battleship Potemkin-homaging Union Station shootout still sends our systolic readings through the roof.
Phil de Semlyen
Global film editor
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A treatise on the act of remembering, a study in loss and grief, and a story told both backward and forward, Memento ought to be impenetrable: a movie for the art house, not the multiplex. So it’s a testament to the craftsmanship of writer-director Christopher Nolan that the film wasn’t just a solid hit, but launched one of the most successful filmmaking careers in contemporary Hollywood. Huge respect is also due to leading man Guy Pearce, who at times seems to be holding the whole project together through sheer force of will.
The killer moment: Vicious Carrie-Anne Moss circles our hero, taunting him for his amnesia, knowing he’ll forget everything in a matter of minutes.
Tom Huddleston
Arts and culture journalist
Where is Linda Fiorentino these days? Her Lauren Bacall-level cool in John Dahl’s erotic neo-noir (the Gone Girl of its year) is sorely missed. Watching her sleek seductress Bridget double-cross an abusive husband and manipulate her naive small-town boy toy with a playful shrug is a turn-on in itself. Her effortless villainy is just as steamy as the film’s sex.
The killer moment: A nosy private eye falls for Bridget’s cunning ways and voluntarily unzips his pants during a drive – but guess who lives to tell the tale?
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Jane Fonda gives an iconic performance as Bree, a prostitute who finds herself involved in a missing-person case being investigated by the titular detective (Donald Sutherland). Bree is a fascinating mix of liberated yet vulnerable ’70s womanhood and the film is filled with paranoia and corruption. New York City’s streets make for a perfect moody backdrop.
The killer moment: Late at night, Bree lies in bed as her phone rings and rings, and the camera zooms out slowly. It’s an eloquent, ominous depiction of the threat she faces.
Never discount our need to laugh, especially when thrillers are involved. Nick and Nora Charles – crime-busting couple, doting dog owners and constant drinkers – are two of the wittiest creations to ever grace the genre. William Powell and Myrna Loy were never better than they were in this film and its sequels. One might erroneously call The Thin Man a light entertainment but can you find a more romantic depiction of a working partnership, sass and all?
The killer moment: All the murder suspects are gathered at a dinner table, as Nick holds court in a big reveal that goes sideways.
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Yes, the base thrills of John Boorman’s wilderness survival film are primal as two alphas (Jon Voight and Burt Reynolds) and a pair of betas (Ned Beatty and Ronny Cox) experience the canoe trip from hell. Want conflict? Take your pick between man vs nature, man vs hillbilly and man vs self. But for all the hicksploitation trappings and Bear Grylls set pieces, it’s the constant battle between man and his own masculinity that weighs the heroes down throughout the tragic, meditative survivalist yarn.
The killer moment: Following the infamous ‘squeal like a pig’ sequence, a post-traumatic canoe accident renders Reynolds’ grown boy scout incapacitated… completely shifting the group dynamic as things turn deadly.
Whenever Robert Mitchum’s revenge-thirsty ex-con Max Cady occupies the screen with his fedora, cigar and signature sleazy grin (accompanied by Bernard Hermann’s alarming orchestra score), we’re seeing a baddie for the ages. J. Lee Thompson’s incendiary adaptation of John D. MacDonald’s 1957 novel The Executioners avoids the word rape entirely, but Cady’s spine-chilling sexual offences can be detected in Mitchum’s terrifyingly dim stare.
The killer moment: In the film’s operatic conclusion by the river, Cady cracks an egg and suggestively smears it on his next potential victim.
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Humphrey Bogart is a Dixon Steele, a tempestuous screenwriter who may have committed a murder in this Hollywood-set slice of noirish excellence. Dixon and his neighbour turned lover, Laurel (Gloria Grahame), make for a compelling and tricky pair, and the fog of moral ambiguity that surrounds them keeps us on our toes until a dramatic final twist.
The killer moment: Bogart recites a fatalistically romantic line he’s written for a script, and then has Grahame repeat it: ‘I was born when she kissed me. I died when she left me. I lived a few weeks while she loved me.’
As Hitchcockian as ultra-chic blondes come, the rough-edged murder suspect Catherine Tramell made Sharon Stone an ageless star overnight. It might not be the finest erotic thriller of the ’90s, but Paul Verhoeven’s sweltering, controversial whodunit is among the most legendary with its no-holds-barred sex scenes between Stone’s bisexual novelist and Michael Douglas’s understandably powerless detective.
The killer moment: No ice picks necessary: Stone’s tyrannical (and much-parodied) leg-cross in the iconic white dress shows her interrogators who’s on top.
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Blending the beautiful expansiveness of the sea with the claustrophobia of a ship’s cabin overtaken by a madman, Dead Calm creates a tense setting for a twisty two-hander between Nicole Kidman and Billy Zane. With her husband (Sam Neill) stranded on a distant sinking boat, our flame-haired heroine gets resourceful, with plenty of shocks along the way.
The killer moment: Husband and wife, each in an unstable vessel, attempt to communicate by radio and every word, barely heard, could be their last.
Ultimately a breaker of one of the most central tenets of the home-invasion thriller (no telling), Michael Haneke's sickening landmark of pure nihilism remains the hardest of his films to squirm through – and this is the guy who made The Piano Teacher. Advice: If a pair of preppy strangers appears at your door asking to borrow some eggs, turn them away. Haneke truly believes in indicting our bloodlust; he remade this film, shot for shot, with Naomi Watts in 2007.
The killer moment: Already a winking Ferris Bueller who talks directly to the lens, ruthless Paul (Arno Frisch) reveals himself to be nothing less than an evil god when his plan goes awry and he grabs the TV's remote control, ‘rewinding’ the scene we just watched and starting over.
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A cultural depth charge of vigilante-cop brutality, neo-High Noon cynicism and an extra long .44 Magnum (‘You’ve got to ask yourself one question: “Do I feel lucky?” Well, do ya, punk?’), Don Siegel's crime thriller didn't play by the rules of police procedurals, infusing them instead with the dead-end desperation of the unsolved Zodiac murders. It also made a huge star out of Clint Eastwood, hardened into iconic fury.–
The killer moment: Chased down in an empty football stadium, the perp squeals like a pig – ‘I have the right to a lawyer!’ – as Harry steps on his leg wound and the camera helicopters up to a foggy, nightmarish stalemate.
The third Dr Mabuse film came nearly 30 years after The Testament of Dr Mabuse and more than four decades after the malevolent medic unleashed his first foul scheme in Dr Mabuse: The Gambler. Director Fritz Lang dispenses with his anti-Nazi allegories to craft a byzantine story in which the not-so-good doctor (Wolfgang Preiss) has every room in a hotel under surveillance. With gadgets aplenty and paranoia rife, it feels like a forebear to a whole generation of techno-thrillers: Enemy of the State and even, dare we say it, Sliver.
The killer moment: A sniper takes out a TV reporter who’s behind the wheel of his car. A high-angle shot isolates the suddenly motionless car.
Phil de Semlyen
Global film editor
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With its Rashomon-esque structure of shifting perspectives, Costa-Gavras’s Z (based on the true story of a liberal Greek official’s assassination) revolutionised political thrillers with its maximalist punch: both entertaining and incessantly suspenseful. Its essential theme – the need to seek the truth – exemplifies the chaotic, activism-defined moment in which it was released, and rings urgently true in our era of fake news and government corruption.
The killer moment: Right-wing thugs in a truck speed toward a circle of protestors and beat a peaceful politician with a club.
Just when we thought of erotic thrillers as forbidden fruit of a bygone era, along came Park Chan-wook’s gothic stunner set in 1930s Korea. The luxuriant visual pleasures of The Handmaiden aren’t exactly male-gaze-proof, but the film’s juicy payoff is a devious slap in the face of any self-appointed abusers.
The killer moment: Bodily fluids flow freely during an ‘educational’ multi-position sexual rendezvous between female bedfellows.
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This classic boy’s-own thriller features the cool-as-fuck double act of Richard Burton and Clint Eastwood – the dialogue mostly involves growling – giving Hitler a headache by rescuing a captured general held in a Bavarian mountaintop schloss. At least, that’s the plan: even the twists have twists here. It’s one of those rare war films that keeps getting better with age (even if we still don’t know who’s ‘Broadsword’ and who’s ‘Danny Boy’).
The killer moment:A cable-car fight is an exercise in white-knuckle excitement, despite looking like it was rear-projected in the MGM parking lot.
Phil de Semlyen
Global film editor
A central piece of Watergate-era thrill-mongering, The Parallax View joins director Alan Pakula's earlier Klute and later All the President's Men in a trilogy with no equal for state-of-the-nation gloominess. Warren Beatty plays a crusading reporter who takes a deep dive into a secret organisation of political assassins; unwittingly, he has no idea how much they'd like to welcome him among their ranks.
The killer moment: Beatty's Joe Frady goes for an interview: He's led to a screening room where, Ludovico-style, he's subjected to one of the most radical silent montages ever presented by a Hollywood film.
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Two men meet, entirely by chance. Both have someone they want to get rid of, but they’re terrified of getting caught. Why don’t they swap murders? Alfred Hitchcock’s film adaptation of Patricia Highsmith’s most celebrated novel may play fast and loose with the book but it does retain one of her key themes, offering a subtextual portrait of closeted homosexuality in an era of McCarthyite conformity. The result is witty, strange and endlessly fascinating.
The killer moment: After a movie’s worth of circling, the climactic struggle on an out-of-control carousel is dizzying.
Tom Huddleston
Arts and culture journalist
Set in French West Africa in the 1930, Bertrand Tavernier’s story of a bumbling, humiliated police chief (Philippe Noiret) who turns murderous offers a caustic look at colonialism and masculinity. The thrills here leave a high body count, but are tempered by a sizable dose of existentialism, and the reliably great Isabelle Huppert brings welcome mischief to the role of a young mistress.
The killer moment: Huppert practices shooting a gun while saying, ‘I’ll never use it.’ We know she will – it’s only a matter of when.
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This Gotham-set ’70s thriller is salted with cynicism and a contempt for authority – and that’s just the good guys. Walter Matthau is jowly Transit Authority cop Zachary Garber, whose bad day suddenly gets worse when Robert Shaw’s posse hijacks one of his trains. Quentin Tarantino tipped his hat to these villains – Mr. Blue, Mr. Green, Mr. Grey and Mr. Brown – in Reservoir Dogs. Unforgivably, the 2009 Tony Scott remake ditched the brilliant final twist.
The killer moment: Cinema’s greatest sneeze: ‘Gesundheit!’
Phil de Semlyen
Global film editor
No man has ever looked better on screen than Alain Delon in this French adaptation of author Patricia Highsmith’s The Talented Mr Ripley. That’s not just a shallow observation – his hotness is crucial to this take on Tom Ripley. He’s a smokeshow using his absurd good looks as a smokescreen, hiding an icy duplicitousness beneath a veneer of tan-and-chiselled beauty. It only makes his psychopathy more disturbing when it gradually comes into view under the blazing Mediterranean sun. In comparison to Anthony Minghella’s take years later, director René Clément takes more liberties with Highsmith’s novel, churning out a suave stolen-identity thriller. But for all its handsomeness, it still manages to leave viewers feeling vaguely icky by the end.
The killer moment: Ripley’s first kill – further proof that you should never go yachting with a mysterious stranger, no matter how handsome they are.
Tom Huddleston
Arts and culture journalist
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Tokyo, 1949. A heat wave rips through the city, and a rookie policeman has his gun stolen by a pickpocket on a crowded trolley. Shamed into action, he pursues the weapon across the city, uncovering a major gun-running ring. Just four years after the end of World War II, Akira Kurosawa’s second major film (following 1948’s yakuza picture Drunken Angel) focuses as much on place and social context as plot and character, utilising documentary footage of the bombed-out city and exploring how ordinary Japanese citizens were coming to terms with their shock defeat.
The killer moment: In a grungy, mud-caked showdown in the woods, who’s more desperate, cop or crook?
Tom Huddleston
Arts and culture journalist
Wim Wenders isn’t exactly synonymous with the genre, but he spins out Patricia Highsmith’s Ripley’s Game into an winningly off-kilter thriller. It has Dennis Hopper in the Ripley role as a rich American drifter who latches onto Bruno Ganz’s dying German picture framer and persuades him to start doing hits for a criminal gang. The plotting is not what you’d call Hitchcockian but Wenders is more interested in the existential fog that envelops his characters – and their conspiratorial bond – than the motives behind their crimes. It’s film noir as murky buddy movie.
The killer moment: Ganz’s unlikely assassin carries out his first hit on the Parisian Métro.
Phil de Semlyen
Global film editor
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A brutal outlier within director Shane Meadows’ warm, humanist filmography, this revenge thriller is a British exploitation flick with real emotional weight. Paddy Considine plays ex-soldier Richard, bringing a touch of Travis Bickle to the Peak District; Toby Kebbell is his abused, vulnerable brother, Anthony, preyed upon by drug dealers who don’t know what’s coming. Watch this one with Kill List for a rural England double-bill that’ll have you sticking close to the city.
The killer moment: A spooky raid in which Richard wears a nightmare-inducing gas mask is straight out of an Otto Dix painting.
Phil de Semlyen
Global film editor
Funny Games director Michael Haneke understands the hidden guilt of the blissful bourgeois, tormented by outside forces – in this case, an unknown stalker with a camera. Among the auteur’s masterpieces, this Juliette Binoche-starrer agitates through its meticulously concealed anxiety, culminating in a political statement on the contemporary residues of historical violence and racism.
The killer moment: Husband Daniel Auteuil doesn’t see it coming (neither do we) when a gruesome splash of blood slits open a heretofore sterile film.
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Ben Wheatley’s DIY debut Down Terrace was a blast, but nothing could have prepared us for his second feature. Like a DVD-bin thriller given a massive jolt of quality, Kill List takes the basic elements of low-rent Britcrime-bickering hit men, a shady aristo crime boss, dreary suburban locations – and transforms them into art. With its improvised dialogue, pin-drop sound design and shocking violence, the result is terrifying, occasionally frustrating and utterly compelling.
The killer moment: If you can watch the hammer scene without wincing, you’re made of stone.
Tom Huddleston
Arts and culture journalist
Hounded out of the U.S. by the ‘reds-under-the-bed’ brigade, filmmaker Jules Dassin plied his trade on the other side of the Atlantic in the ’50s. Hollywood’s loss was Europe’s gain as he made his two greatest movies there: the seminal heist flick Rififi and this London noir featuring a career-best turn from the perennially underrated Richard Widmark. Sheened in sweaty desperation, Widmark’s hustler Harry Fabian is an antihero for the ages as he weaves a web in the criminal underworld so tangled, he eventually becomes caught in it.
The killer moment: A climactic foot chase along the Thames shows off Hammersmith in way that’s never looked cooler.
Phil de Semlyen
Global film editor
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Meg Ryan is cast intriguingly against type in director Jane Campion’s dark spin on the erotic thriller. As Frannie, a teacher who becomes entangled with a detective investigating a series of murders, Ryan is basically the opposite of a cute rom-com heroine, and Campion creates a world of sexual menace, thick with violence yet never played for exploitation.
The killer moment: Early on, Frannie witnesses a woman going down on a man in the back room of a bar. This startling, surprisingly graphic moment sets the voyeuristic plot in motion.
Outside of fairy tales and erotic thrillers, truly maniacal female villains like Annie Wilkes (Kathy Bates) – Misery’s unhinged fangirl turned torturer – are sadly in short supply. We need more of them. Unorthodox, hilarious and increasingly frightening, Rob Reiner’s Stephen King adaptation is a plunge into the lonely, melancholic corners of celebrity obsession, set against the ticking clock of the deadliest deadline.
The killer moment: Annie’s shockingly violent ‘hobbling’ of her bed-bound houseguest remains a tough watch.
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In some key way the crux of Christopher Walken's spooky, stilted persona, Abel Ferrara's louche gangster picture has come to occupy a central piece of NYC iconography. Walken plays Frank White, a vacant-eyed coke lord who, immediately upon release from prison, resumes his high-flying lifestyle – and idle mayoral aspirations – from a headquarters at the swank Plaza Hotel.
The killer moment: We all know Walken can dance, but you haven't seen how weirdly electric and menacing he can be until you've seen his flapping bird.
Over five decades, the James Bond franchise has morphed from Cold War thrills to globe-trotting action, via whatever the heck Moonraker was. This instalment, the best of the Roger Moore days, is a fantastically entertaining breakwater between those two phases: escapist fun before the gadget-drenched silliness to come. Special props go to Ken Adam, the production designer charged with creating an oceanic evil lair on a Pinewood backlot.
The killer moment: 007 and man-mountain Jaws (Richard Kiel) face off in Egypt’s ancient Temple of Karnak.
Phil de Semlyen
Global film editor
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This Melbourne-set crime thriller packs all the energy of an early Scorsese picture, while bringing something fresh and distinctively Aussie to the genre. David Michôd’s feature debut has its roots in the real-life slaying of two cops in the late ’80s, and those incidents’ recreation is just one of the bursts of violence in a movie that carefully picks its moments for maximum shock. Caught in the middle is wide-eyed innocent Joshua (James Frecheville), wondering who he can trust in the clan of criminals he’s been adopted into. The answer? No one, least of all Jacki Weaver’s Smurf, a matriarch of real menace.
The killer moment: The odious but oddly charismatic Pope (Ben Mendelsohn, before he became Hollywood’s go-to villain) seethes in his living-room chair plotting evil, while Air Supply’s ‘All Out of Love’ makes an ironic counterpoint.
Phil de Semlyen
Global film editor
Clint Eastwood’s directorial debut is a potent portrait of obsession. Characteristically cool, he plays Dave, a California DJ dealing with an increasingly unhinged fan-turned-hookup-turned-stalker (Jessica Walter). The dark impulses on display make for an intriguing contrast with the sun-dappled, ultra-’70s aesthetic; the device of the single-minded madwomen, pushing the thrills close to horror, would prove highly influential.
The killer moment: Hell-bent on getting closer to her lust object, Evelyn (Walter) breaks into Dave’s bachelor pad and vandalises his possessions – the aftermath is as bad as you’d expect.
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Swinging London must be partying elsewhere than in this paranoid spy film, transplanted from the pages of Len Deighton’s novel with the help of a jazzy John Barry score. Behind it all was James Bond producer Harry Saltzman, who gave us Michael Caine’s Harry Palmer, the antithesis of 007. He’s an insubordinate trickster and womaniser (okay, so not completely different), but he wears glasses and – shocker of shockers – cooks. He’s also the deeply cool central cog in this magnificently calibrated espionage thriller.
The killer moment: The brainwashing sequence is a trippy foreshadow to a similar scene in The Parallax View.
Phil de Semlyen
Global film editor
There’s a reason why the concept of gaslighting is forever potent: The image of emotional abuse presented in this film is viscerally uncomfortable. Charles Boyer is the viciously manipulative husband; Ingrid Bergman plays his victimised wife; and the audience is left desperately hoping for the cycle of mind games to finally end.
The killer moment: ‘Are you trying to tell me I’m insane?’ Bergman asks Boyer, crawling out of her skin and lunging for a real answer. It’s the film’s dark psychological predicament in a single line.
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Berlin makes an unforgiving industrial backdrop in Tom Tykwer’s techno-scored time twister. Lola (Franka Potente) needs to find a fortune in 20 minutes or her petty criminal boyfriend gets the chop. Cue three wildly different scenarios that play out like a cross between a video game, an infinitely more gonzo Sliding Doors and a ‘Choose Your Own Adventure’ story. There’s even a Simpsons homage to it, which you can’t say about many low-budget Euro-thrillers.
The killer moment: Lola’s first attempt at boyfriend-rescuing ends very badly.
Phil de Semlyen
Global film editor
Deliriously nuts and a treat for fans of the double cross, Gillian Flynn's 2012 bestseller found the ideal adapting filmmaker in David Fincher, whose doomy way with a thriller proved a ruse in itself. The noose tightens around Nick (Ben Affleck, impressively shifty), a bar owner and former hot-shot journalist whose wife, Amy (Rosamund Pike, revelatory), a minor celebrity, has disappeared from their Missouri home.
The killer moment: Fed up and vicious, Amy coos from the afterlife – or maybe it's much closer – about the ‘cool girl’ she was required to be.
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Michael Mann’s breakthrough noir stars James Caan as an expert safecracker dreaming of leaving the criminal business and going straight, while simultaneously aware that a dream is all it can ever be. Caan gives a tremendous, livewire performance, throwing on a heavy Chicago accent and coming across something like Joe Pesci channelling Ric Flair. Mann, meanwhile, shows off the stylistic trademarks that’d make him one of Hollywood’s coolest auteurs: moody, neon-lit cinematography, icy electronic score (courtesy of Tangerine Dream) and loads of tension that builds toward a violent climax.
The killer moment: on a coffee date with Tuesday Weld, the woman he hopes will drag him out of his life of crime, Caan bares his soul and reveals he left most of it behind in prison. It’s a scene with no big explosions or heisty action, but it’s gripping all the same.
Matthew Singer
Film writer and editor
Literature’s Tom Ripley, a con artist, gets captured in René Clément’s Purple Noon, but he murders his way to a grimmer finale in Anthony Minghella’s handsome spin on Patricia Highsmith’s novel. This sun-dappled thriller glimmers with a first-rate cast led by Matt Damon, enviable real estate and a complex gay protagonist (still a mainstream rarity) whose reflection on a polished piano splits apart in a mind-blowing shot. All hail cinematographer John Seale.
The killer moment: Suspicious of the title character, Freddie (Philip Seymour Hoffman, superbly obnoxious) repeatedly pounds on a high-pitched piano key, shredding away at Tom’s patience.
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You know the plot, because Martin Scorsese used it for his Oscar-winning remake, The Departed. As entertaining as that movie is, the Hong Kong original is even better. Tony Leung and Andy Lau play moles: the former, a cop infiltrating a vicious triad; the latter, a criminal rising through the police ranks. Blazing its way through gunplay and excruciating scenes of hazardous undercover work, Infernal Affairs is the thriller fan’s John Woo.
The killer moment: Inevitably, both men stand on a rooftop, sizing each other up, profile to profile. Leo and Matt were never this subtle.
John Mackenzie’s Cockney crime-athon is packed with chances to unleash your best Bob ’oskins impression (‘The Mafia? I’ve shit ’em!’). But thanks to gutsy performances by Hoskins as ambitious gangland fixer Harold Shand and Helen Mirren as his icy moll, it never lapses into cliché, slowly cranking up from blood-splashed character study to strangely affecting tragedy. If Shakespeare grew up in post-war Stepney, Shand could have been his Macbeth.
The killer moment: A lingering tight shot on Hoskins, complex emotions playing across his face as he’s driven to a date with destiny, is some of the best wordless acting in movies.
Phil de Semlyen
Global film editor
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Not perhaps as polished or as enduring as The Lady From Shanghai, the thriller Orson Welles would make a year later, this potboiler is nonetheless a rollicking good time in a Blue Velvet-y dark-side-of-smalltown-America kind of way. Welles plays a high-ranking Nazi (and amateur horologist) masquerading as a history professor in New England with the perfect cover of a devoted wife (Loretta Young). Edward G Robinson is the war crimes hunter who has his number. It’s a winning blend of clammy tension-building and Welles’s innovative filmcraft. If you’re a fan of clocks, you’ll love it.
The killer moment: Edward G Robinson’s shows Loretta Young’s haunted newlywed footage from the Nazi death camps – the first time Holocaust footage has been used in a Hollywood movie.
Phil de Semlyen
Global film editor
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https://theasc.com/articles/quantum-of-solace-forging-a-new-bond
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en
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The American Society of Cinematographers
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2024-04-20T07:00:00-07:00
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Roberto Schaefer, ASC, AIC and director Marc Forster continue their filmmaking partnership with the 22nd James Bond feature.
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en
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The American Society of Cinematographers
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https://theasc.com/articles/quantum-of-solace-forging-a-new-bond
|
“When Marc told me he had been offered this movie, my response was, ‘How could you not do a Bond film?’” recalls Schaefer, who has shot all of Forster’s films. “He wasn’t sure because the script didn’t really exist at that time, but I told him that to be part of a Bond film is every boy’s dream. Our editor, Matt Chesse, said exactly the same thing. The dream of doing Bond sort of sucked us into the reality of it.”
Once onboard, Forster envisioned a stylistic approach that combined elements of early Bond films with a more contemporary look. “I loved the Bond films with Ken Adam’s production design,” says the director. “Those movies were so much about style, design and clothing. I wanted to go back to that and yet still make a modern Bond.”
Crucial to achieving this look was production designer Dennis Gassner (The Golden Compass, AC Dec. ’07), who was making his first foray into the world of 007. “Dennis is really collaborative, maybe more so than anyone I’ve ever worked with,” notes Schaefer. “So often on films, there are incredible sets, but [shots] end up being fairly close and you don’t really see them. When I see beautiful architecture, I want to show it off; without being gratuitous, I like to find a way to work good sets into a film.” In practical terms, this meant frequently using the wider end of the filmmakers’ set of Arri/Zeiss Master Primes. According to A-camera operator George Richmond, “Our hero sizes were between a 21mm and a 35mm. We would use them to show the sets and develop master shots, and then we might punch in and use longer lenses to bring the performances out for key moments in a scene.”
Another of the filmmakers’ ideas was to deliberately compose partially obscured frames, in the spirit of Roman Polanski’s famous shot of Ruth Gordon sitting half-concealed by a door in Rosemary’s Baby (1968). “I think those sorts of obscurities increase tension, because everything you don’t see is left to the imagination of the audience,” explains Forster. “It applies not just to framing, but also to characters and the things they reveal or don’t reveal. That’s what makes Bond so interesting: he is hidden from us.”
Schaefer encouraged various departments to let things be obscured occasionally, but found “it sort of goes against everyone’s instincts, so we had to fight to let things stack up in the frame without people moving them out of the way. We probably didn’t get quite as much of that as we hoped to, but we also didn’t want the first-unit material to stand out from the second-unit footage.”
As is typical on a Bond film, the second unit’s work was extensive, and this influenced the filmmakers’ decision to shoot Super 35mm. (The second unit was led by director Dan Bradley and director of photography Shaun O’Dell, collaborators on The Bourne Ultimatum.) Schaefer initially considered 2-perf, which was ruled out because of the unforgiving lack of space between frames, and anamorphic, a favorite on previous Bond films. “Marc and I really wanted anamorphic, and the effects team could have worked with it, but in the end, we went with spherical because the post schedule was so tight we knew they’d be delivering effects up to the last day of my final grade,” says the cinematographer. “We didn’t want to be a week away from the film being shown and still getting effects shots delivered that we weren’t happy with yet.
“On the other hand, my difficulty with spherical and specifically the digital-intermediate [DI] process is that anybody can go in and change everything — editors can reframe to make an edit work without paying sufficient attention to composition,” he continues. “If you shoot anamorphic, you’ve got the top and bottom of the frame, and that’s it. Spherical was a double-edged sword; certain things worked to my advantage, but I was also fighting to protect my compositions.”
While the main unit shot 3-perf Super 35mm, the second unit shot 4-perf using a centered 2.40:1 ground glass. “I couldn’t be sure they would frame to my liking, and that gave me a lot of room to rack up and down,” explains Schaefer. “Also, there was a lot of action, so if a fast-moving object goes out of your frame and then comes back again, there’s something you can do about it later.”
An Arricam Studio served as the A camera, and an Arricam Lite was the B, which was used both for studio and handheld setups. A second Lite was dedicated to Steadicam work, while an Arri 235 was employed in particularly demanding handheld situations. In addition, several Arri 435s were used for high-speed filming. George Richmond and his brother, focus puller Jonathan “Chunky” Richmond, have a unique way of configuring the 235 to give them as much maneuverability as possible. “We use a bag strap that enables you to wear the camera almost like a banjo, with handles attached to each side,” says George. “We take the eyepiece off and use a monitor instead. If you’re nimble, you can get lens heights from just below the knees to just above the eyes all in one go. It’s basically a very stripped-down version of the camera, with a small lightweight battery and a transmitter that keep us free and untethered. Chunky was on remote focus, and we could dart around the actors to get interesting positions very quickly.”
Although many scenes required multiple cameras, the filmmakers shot one-camera setups whenever they could. “I like shooting single-camera,” notes Schaefer. “The idea of using two cameras often comes up for cross-dialogue shooting because it saves time and helps the actors, but it’s just awful for the lighting, and it’s a challenge to keep each camera out of the other’s shot. With two cameras, I’d rather shoot two different focal lengths from the same direction, but then the sound department says it can’t get a microphone in for the tight shot because you’re shooting wide as well. Of course, [sound] is the last thing you think about as a cinematographer, but I try to help them, and I have a good relationship with [production sound mixer] Chris Munro.”
Since Monster’s Ball (2001), Schaefer and Forster have made a habit of setting aside several weeks during prep to draw up detailed schematics of how they intend to shoot every single scene. “On the blueprint of a location, I’ll draw in the camera position and direction, specifying the lens and the shot number,” explains the cinematographer. “Next to that will be a list describing the shot from beginning to end; if there’s a dolly, I’ll mark the tracks, or if there’s a crane, I’ll show the movement. It’s like a storyboard that uses overhead schematics instead of pictures.”
These schematics become a guidebook for the entire shoot, and copies of the pages relevant to each day’s filming are circulated with the daily call sheets. “It’s a very good way of working because we communicate to the crew exactly what we want,” says Forster. “Our first assistant director can use the pages to do a lot of the logistical planning, and that gives me time to work with the actors.” Schaefer describes the preparation as “more mentally exhausting than the shoot, just because it’s such a feat of imagination and memory to sit in a room and map out every different angle and shot of every different location. But it pays off.
“Of course, being in the actual space can throw up new perspectives or problems, so we do sometimes stray from our plans,” he continues. “If I see an angle or a camera move that simply works better, I’ll show it to Marc, and as long as he can make it flow with the scenes that come before and after, he’ll go for it.” On Quantum, Forster had a PL-mount viewfinder with either a 15-40mm or 28-76mm Angenieux Optimo zoom and a very small monitor attached to it so he could discuss how shots would work with Schaefer and others; Schaefer had the zooms marked up to exactly match the Master Prime set, so when Forster selected a focal length from his finder, there was no discrepancy between what he saw and what the camera would shoot.
One of the most dramatic sequences in Quantum is an aerial chase involving a Marchetti turboprop military aircraft and a Douglas DC-3 piloted by Bond. Bradley, aerial director of photography David B. Nowell, ASC, and aerial camera operator Ron Goodman traveled to Mexico to film exteriors, some of which were captured by SpaceCam’s new SnakeHead, a stabilized optical system that mounts to the nose and tail of a Piper Aerostar plane. “The SnakeHead allowed us to get shots at speeds and angles we have never had the chance to get before,” says Nowell. “It was the perfect camera setup for shooting this exciting chase sequence, which involves fixed-wing aircraft flying down through very narrow canyons.” Also in Mexico, visual-effects designer Kevin Tod Haug (The Kite Runner; AC Nov. ’07) oversaw the photography of plate shots that would later be composited with the aircraft interiors to be shot at Pinewood Studios in England. “We knew that by the time we came to shoot the DC-3 interiors, it would be too late to go back to Mexico,” says Haug. “So we were running up and down canyons with a SpaceCam/Imax rig and a 30mm lens that gave us a 170-degree field of view, shooting everything we could. From that, we could carve out any section we might need later, depending on the lenses that we chose, to use as an undistorted background.”
Once the second unit’s work on this sequence was complete, “my editor put the footage together so we could decide where we would cut to the DC-3 interior,” says Forster. “We had part of a plane on a gimbal at Pinewood, and we programmed it according to the cuts so the gimbal would move exactly like the plane moved in the exterior footage.” Inside the plane, three remote-head rigs were built for a few specific shots; for everything else, the Richmond brothers were trying to stay on their feet with the Arri 235. “It was very claustrophobic but very energetic — the camera being independent of the plane’s movement really gave the footage life,” says George Richmond. “At one stage, I was strapped to the nose of the plane with the 235 strapped to me, I was looking through the window, and we had the plane go from horizontal to almost vertical. Our key grip, Dave Appleby, was instrumental on all the rigs and made it safe for me to do that kind of work.”
Forster is a great proponent of location filming, and, given Bond’s jet-setting lifestyle, this meant the production traveled all over the world, making long stops in Panama and Chile. “I think you feel the texture and character of a real location, and it’s very hard to re-create that on a stage,” says Forster. “I will often find a place I love that is very small and really challenging for Roberto to light, and the great thing about Roberto is that he values real locations and understands why I want to shoot in them. He adapts with all sorts of methods and is always prepared to take the chance and go with it.”
“There were some restrictive locations on this film,” observes Schaefer. “For example, some of the old city streets in Panama are very narrow, and it was hard to do the cabling or get cranes in there. For lighting, we relied on Wendys, Dinos and 18Ks — pretty standard stuff. My general approach to lighting was to use a lot of fall-off. This movie features a lot more dramatic use of darkness than other Bond films.”
One particularly cramped location was a run-down building in Colon that doubled for a hotel in Haiti. Bond gets caught up in a violent knife fight, and because the rooms were so small and the action so extensive, Schaefer’s only option was to light from outside. “I’d planned to use Condors with Arrimax lights and MaxMovers outside the windows, but when we got there, it was too windy,” he recalls. “One of the lights broke, and then the remote stirrups didn’t want to work. In the end, we used just one light locked in one position and secured to the surrounding buildings with wires to keep it from swaying.”
The kinetic action and limited space provided George Richmond with another opportunity to make use of his 235 rig, supplemented by the B camera, operated by Mark Milsome. “The way the fight was choreographed meant the actors were everywhere,” he recalls. “We were free to dance around with the cameras as long as we didn’t get in front of the windows. The B camera would stand on the outside of the action and get individual cuts on longer lenses, up to a 65mm. I was in there, just outside of the B camera’s frame line, with an 18mm or a 21mm. When an arm moves in front of a wide lens, it travels at a great speed over a vast part of the screen, so it really makes it feel like you’re there.”
In most situations, Schaefer was trying to maintain a stop of T2.8, though he often opened up to a T2. “There was a little bit of T1.3 when it was necessary,” he says. “Kodak’s [Vision3 500T] 5219 is pretty forgiving, so you can underexpose it a bit and still get a really solid negative. We only used two stocks on this film, 5219 and [Vision2 200T] 5217. When you have that many cameras in all those locations and you start using three or four stocks, it becomes a nightmare for the loaders.
“When we scouted Chile and Panama, I decided to use 5219 and then either 5217 or [Vision2 100T] 5212 as my other stock,” he continues. “I was drawn to 5212 for its finer grain, but I was worried about having to push it a bit too far when we were shooting into the late afternoon or when I wanted to use a polarizer, so I decided to go with 5217 and throw in an extra ND [filter]. The visual-effects team preferred 5212 for greenscreen work, but they were okay with 5217.”
Roughly half the picture involves visual effects of some type, according to Haug. The effects shots were split between Haug’s in-house team and a number of mainly London-based facilities. “Double Negative had worked with Dan Bradley before and were familiar with his style of shooting, so it made sense to use them,” says Haug. “They’re also very strong in R&D, and they did fairly intense R&D for a complex skydiving sequence. [See sidebar.] Framestore CFC has great matte painters, so they were tasked with re-creating Siena, where we shot a foot chase. Machine Effects is an all-rounder and easy to work with for the smaller stuff that just comes up, and Moving Picture Co. came in at the end because it has really solid fluid-dynamics software.”
In order to ensure the various effects would blend into the rest of the film, Schaefer was in constant communication with Haug from prep onwards. “I always make sure I see all the effects before they’re finalized to check that they’re not headed in the wrong direction,” says Schaefer. “Just the other day, we did some additional debris, flames and smoke in the big explosion sequences where we couldn’t get the fire too close to Daniel. While we were shooting, we shot plates with a separate camera that was 4 stops underexposed so they had every detail in all the flames. We were delivered some effects that were too burned out, but we were able to bring [the look] back to where we wanted it. A lot of communication really helps you cut down on the surprises.”
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https://neiloseman.com/tag/directing/
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directing Archives
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2022-09-05T14:00:07+00:00
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en
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Neil Oseman
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https://neiloseman.com/tag/directing/
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A master is a wide shot that covers all the action in a scene. The theory is that, should you run out of time or your lead actor suddenly gets injured or some other calamity prevents you shooting any coverage, at least you’ve captured the whole scene in a useable, if not ideal, form.
I have always been a fan of shooting masters. I remember once reading about a Hollywood film with a lot of puppets – it might have been Walter Murch’s 1985 Return to Oz – which fell seriously behind schedule. A producer or consultant was dispatched to the set to get things back on track, and concluded that part of the problem was a lack of masters. The director had been avoiding them because it was impossible to hide the puppeteers and rigging in wide shots, and instead was shooting scenes in smaller, tighter pieces. As a consequence, the cast and crew never saw the whole scene played out and struggled to understand how each piece fitted in, causing mistakes and necessitating time-consuming explanations.
For me, that’s the key benefit of masters: getting everyone on the same page so that the coverage goes faster.
You can dig yourself into holes if you don’t start with a wide. A small part of the set gets dressed and lit, a small part of the scene gets rehearsed, and then when you come to do the next part you realise it’s not going to fit together. A key prop that should have been in the background was forgotten because it wasn’t relevant to the first small piece; now you can’t put it in because you’ll break continuity. A light source that looked beautiful in that mid-shot is impossible to replicate in a later wide without seeing lamps or rigging. However much you might plan these things, inevitably in the heat of filming you get tunnel vision about the shot in front of you and everything else fades away. And it’s easy for a director, who has the whole film running on a cinema screen in their head, to forget that everyone else can’t see it as clearly.
Not starting with a wide also robs a DP of that vital, low-pressure time to light the whole set, getting all the sources in place that will be needed for the scene, so that re-lights for coverage can be quick and smooth. It also ties the editor’s hands somewhat if they haven’t got a wide shot to fall back on to get around problems.
So there are many benefits to masters. But lately I’ve been wondering if it’s dogmatic to say that they’re essential. I’ve worked with a few directors who have shot scenes in small, controlled pieces with great confidence and success.
Last year I worked on a comedy that has a scene set at a school play, the main action taking place in the audience. Jonnie Howard, the director, was not interested in shooting a master of the hall showing the audience, the stage and the whole chunk of play that is performed during the action. All he wanted of the play was to capture certain, specific beats in mid-shots. He didn’t even know what was happening on stage the rest of the time. He knew exactly when he was going to cut to those shots, and more importantly that it would be funnier to only ever see those random moments. He also recognised that it was easier on the child actors to be given instructions for short takes, shot by shot, rather than having to learn a protacted performance.
Not shooting masters saved us valuable time on that film. It’s not the right approach for every project; it depends on the director, how well they’re able to visualise the edit, and how much flexibility they want the editor to have. It depends on the actors too; some are more able to break things down into small pieces without getting lost, while others always like to have the run-up of “going from the top”.
There is a halfway house, which is to rehearse the whole scene, but not to shoot it. This requires clear communication with the 1st AD, however, or you’ll find that certain actors who aren’t in the first shot are still tied up in make-up when you want to rehearse. Like any way of working, it’s always best to be clear about it with your key collaborators up front, so that the pros can be maximised, the cons can be minimised, and everyone does their best work most efficiently.
A thorough plan for shots and lighting can save lots of time on set, but no battle plan survives contact with the enemy. To what extent should a DP prepare?
How much camera angles are planned – and by whom – varies tremendously in my experience. Some directors will prepare a complete shot-list or storyboard and send it to the DP for feedback; others will keep it close to their chest until the time of shooting. Some don’t do one at all, either preferring to improvise on the day in collaboration with the DP, or occasionally asking the DP to plan all the shots alone.
A shot-list can be hard to interpret by itself, particularly if there’s a lot of camera movement. Overhead blocking diagrams, perhaps done in Shot Designer or a general graphics app, make things a lot clearer. Storyboards are very useful too, be they beautifully and time-consumingly drawn, or hastily scribbled thumbnails.
On a feature I shot last year, we were afforded the luxury of extensive rehearsals with the cast on location. I spent the time snapping photos with Artemis Pro, the viewfinder app, and ultimately output PDF storyboards of every scene; the 1st AD distributed these with the call-sheets every morning. That level of preparedness is rare unless complex stunts or VFX are involved, but it’s incredibly useful for all the departments. The art department in particular were able to see at a glance what they did and didn’t need to dress.
Beware though: being prepared can kill spontaneity if you’re not careful. Years ago I directed a film that had a scene supposedly set at the top of a football stadium’s lighting tower; we were going to cheat it on a platform just a few feet high, and I storyboarded it accordingly. When we changed the location to a walkway in a brewery – genuinely 20ft off the ground – I stuck to the storyboards and ended up without any shots that showcased the height of the setting.
If the various departments have prepared based on your storyboards, not keeping to them can make you unpopular. So storyboards are a double-edged sword, and expectations should be carefully managed regarding how closely they will be adhered to.
The amount of planning that the DP puts into lighting will vary greatly with budget. On a micro-budget film – or a daytime soap like Doctors – you may not see the location until the day you shoot there. But on a high-end production shooting in a large soundstage you may have to agree a detailed lighting plot with the gaffer and pre-rigging crew days or weeks in advance.
Having enough crew to pre-rig upcoming scenes is one of the first things you benefit from as a DP moving up the ladder of budgets. Communicating to the gaffer what you want to achieve then becomes very important, so that when you walk onto the set with the rest of the cast and crew the broad strokes of the lighting are ready to go, and just need tweaking once the blocking has been done.
Blocking is usually the biggest barrier to preparedness. Most films have no rehearsals before the shoot begins, so you can never quite know where the actors will feel it is best to stand until they arrive on set on the day. So a lighting plan must be more about lighting the space than anything else, just trying to make sure there are sources in roughly the right places to cover any likely actor positions suggested by the script, director or layout of the set.
Whether a detailed lighting plan needs to be drawn up or not depends on the size and complexity of the set-up, but also how confident you feel that the gaffer understands exactly what you want. I often find that a few recces and conversations along with some brief written notes are enough, but the more money that’s being spent, the more crucial it is to leave no room for misunderstandings.
Again, Shot Designer is a popular solution for creating lighting plans, but some DPs use less specialised apps like Notability, and there’s nothing wrong with good old pencil and paper.
Overall, the best approach is to have a good plan, but to keep your eyes and mind open to better ideas on the day.
For more about apps that DPs can use to help them prep and shoot, see my article “Tools of the Trade” on britishcinematographer.co.uk.
With the runaway success of the first instalment, there was no way that Universal Pictures weren’t going to make another Back to the Future, with or without creators Bob Gale and Robert Zemeckis. So after confirming that Michael J. Fox and Christopher Lloyd were willing to reprise their roles as Marty McFly and Doc Emmett Brown, the producer and director got together to thrash out story ideas.
They knew from the fan mail which had been pouring in that they had to pick up the saga where they had left off: with Doc, Marty and his girlfriend Jennifer zooming into the future to do “something about your kids!” They soon hit upon the idea of an almanac of sport results being taken from 2015 into the past by Marty’s nemesis Biff Tannen (Thomas F. Wilson), resulting in a “Biff-horrific” alternate 1985 which Marty and Doc must undo by journeying into the past themselves.
Gale’s first draft of the sequel, written up while Zemeckis was away in England shooting Who Framed Roger Rabbit?, had Biff giving the almanac to his younger self in 1967. Marty would don bell-bottom trousers and love beads to blend into the hippy culture, meet his older siblings as very young children and his mother Lorraine as an anti-war protestor, and endanger his own existence again by preventing his parents going on the second honeymoon during which he was conceived.
Upon returning from England and reading the draft, Zemeckis had two main notes: add a fourth act set in the Wild West, and how about 1955 again instead of 1967? “We could actually do what the audience really, really wants, which is to go back and revisit the movie they just saw,” Zemeckis later explained. “That is the thing that excited me most, this idea of seeing the same movie from a different angle.”
Adding the Wild West act ballooned the script to over two-and-a-half hours with an estimated budget of $60 million, far more than Universal wanted to spend. So Gale revised the screenplay, expanding it further with a neat point in the middle where it could be split in half. As two films, each budgeted at $35 million but shot back-to-back over 11 months, the project was much more appealing to the studio. However, it was still a bold and unusual move for Universal to green-light two sequels simultaneously, something that it’s easy to forget in these days of long-form movie franchises planned out years in advance.
A sticking point was Crispin Glover. As Marty’s father George McFly he had been a difficult actor to work with on the first film, and now he was demanding more than a ten-fold pay increase to appear in the sequels. “Crispin… asked for the same money that Michael J. Fox was receiving, as well as script approval and director approval,” according to Gale. He gave Glover’s agent two weeks to come back with a more realistic offer, but it didn’t come. Glover would not be reprising his role.
Gale accordingly made George dead in the Biff-horrific 1985, and Zemeckis employed several tricks to accomplish his other scenes. These included the reuse of footage from Part I, and hanging cheap replacement actor Jeffrey Weissman upside-down in a futuristic back brace throughout the 2015 scenes. Life casts of Glover’s face taken for the ageing effects in Part I were even used to produce prosthetic make-up appliances for Weissman so that he would resemble Glover more closely. “Oh, Crispin ain’t going to like this,” Fox reportedly remarked, and he was right. Glover would go on to successfully sue the production for using his likeness without permission, with the case triggering new Screen Actors Guild rules about likeness rights.
Make-up was a huge part of the second film, since all the main actors had to portray their characters at at least two different ages, and some played other members of the family too. A 3am start in the make-up chair was not unusual, the prosthetics became hot and uncomfortable during the long working days, and the chemicals used in their application and removal burnt the actors’ skin. “It was a true psychological challenge to retain enough concentration to approach the character correctly and maintain the performance,” said Wilson at the time.
Filming began in February 1989 with the ’55 scenes. To save time and money, only one side of the Hill Valley set – still standing on the Universal backlot – was dressed for this period. The company then shot on stage for a few weeks before returning to the backlot in March, by which time production designer Rick Carter and his team had transformed the set into a gangland nightmare to represent Biff-horrific 1985. In May the company revisited the Hill Valley set once more to record the 2015 scenes.
When the real 2015 rolled around, many were quick to compare the film’s vision of the future to reality, but Gale always knew that he would fail if he tried to make genuine predictions. “We decided that the only way to deal with it was to make it optimistic, and have a good time with it.” Microwave meals had begun to compete with home cooking in the ‘80s, so Gale invented a leap forward with the pizza-inflating food hydrator. Kids watched too much TV, so he envisaged a future in which this was taken to a ridiculous extreme, with Marty Jr. watching six channels simultaneously – not a million miles from today’s device-filled reality.
While the opening instalment of the trilogy had been relatively light on visual effects, Part II required everything from groundbreaking split-screens to flying cars and hoverboards. This last employed a range of techniques mostly involving Fox, Wilson and three other actors, plus five operators, hanging from cranes by wires. While every effort was made to hide these wires from camera – even to the extent of designing the set with a lot of camouflaging vertical lines – the film went down in VFX history as one of the first uses of digital wire removal.
But perhaps the most complex effect in the film was a seemingly innocuous dinner scene in which Marty, Marty Jr. and Marlene McFly all share a pizza. The complication was that all three roles were played by Michael J. Fox. To photograph the scene and numerous others in which cast members portrayed old and young versions of themselves, visual effects wizards Industrial Light & Magic developed a system called VistaGlide.
Based on the motion control rigs that had been used to shoot spaceships for Star Wars, the VistaGlide camera was mounted on a computer-controlled dolly. For the dinner scene, Fox was first filmed as old Marty by a human camera operator, with the VistaGlide recording its movements. Once Fox had switched to his Marty Jr. or Marlene costume and make-up, the rig could automatically repeat the camerawork while piping Fox’s earlier dialogue to a hidden earpiece so that he could speak to himself. Later the three elements were painstakingly and seamlessly assembled using hand-drawn masks and an analogue device called an optical printer.
The technically challenging Part II shoot came to an end on August 1st, 1989, as the team captured the last pieces of the rain-drenched scene in which Marty receives a 70-year-old letter telling him that Doc is living in the Old West. Four weeks later, the whole cast and crew were following Doc’s example as they began filming Part III.
In order to have open country visible beyond the edges of 1885’s Hill Valley, the filmmakers opted to leave the Universal backlot and build a set 350 miles north in Sonora, California. The town – which had appeared in classic westerns like High Noon and Pale Rider – was chosen for its extant railway line and its genuine 19th century steam locomotive which would form a pivotal part of the plot.
Joining the cast was Mary Steenburgen as Doc’s love interest Clara. Initially unsure about the role, she was persuaded to take it by her children who were fans of the original film. “I confess to having been infatuated with her, and I think it was mutual,” LLoyd later admitted of his co-star. Though the pair never got involved, Part III’s romantic subplot did provide the veteran of over 30 films with his first on-screen kiss.
By all accounts, an enjoyable time was had by the whole cast and crew in the fresh air and open spaces of Sonora. Fox, who had simultaneously been working on Family Ties during the first two films, finally had the time to relax between scenes, even leading fishing trips to a nearby lake.
The set acquired the nickname “Club Hill Valley” as a volleyball court, mini golf and shooting range were constructed. “We had a great caterer,” recalled director of photography Dean Cundey, “but everybody would rush their meal so that they could get off to spend the rest of their lunch hour in their favourite activity.”
There was one person who was not relaxed, however: Robert Zemeckis. Part II was due for release on November 20th, about halfway through the shoot for Part III. While filming the action-packed climax in which the steam train propels the DeLorean to 88mph, the director was simultaneously supervising the sound mix for the previous instalment. After wrapping at the railway line, Zemeckis would fly to Burbank and eat his dinner on the dubbing stage while giving the sound team notes. He’d then sleep at the Sheraton Universal and get up at 4:30am to fly back to Sonora.
The train sequence had plenty of other challenges. Multiple DeLoreans had been employed in the making of the trilogy so far, including a lightweight fibreglass version that was lifted on cables or hoisted on a forklift for Part II’s flying scenes, and two off-road versions housing Volkswagen racing engines for Part III’s desert work. Another was now outfitted with railway wheels by physical effects designer Michael Lantieri. “One of the scariest things to do was the DeLorean doing the wheelie in front of the train,” he noted in 2015. “We had cables and had it hooked to the front of the train… A big cylinder would raise the front of the car.”
The film’s insurance company was unhappy about the risks of putting Michael J. Fox inside a car that could potentially derail and be crushed by the train, so whenever it was not possible to use a stunt double the action was played out in reverse; the locomotive would pull the DeLorean, and the footage would subsequently be run backwards.
The makers of Mission: Impossible 7 recently drove a full-scale mock-up of a steam locomotive off an unfinished bridge, but Back to the Future’s team opted to accomplish a very similar stunt in miniature. A quarter-scale locomotive was constructed along with a matching DeLorean, and propelled to its doom at 20mph with six cameras covering the action. Marty, of course, has returned safely to 1985 moments earlier.
Part III wrapped on January 12th, 1990 and was released on May 25th, just six months after Part II. Although each instalment made less money than its predecessor, the trilogy as a whole grossed almost $1 billion around the world, about ten times its total production cost. The franchise spawned a theme park ride, an animated series, comics and most recently a West End musical.
But what about Part IV? Thomas F. Wilson is a stand-up comedian as well as an actor, and on YouTube you can find a track of his called “Biff’s Questions Song” which humorously answers the most common queries he gets from fans. The penultimate chorus reveals all: “Do you all hang out together? No we don’t / How’s Crispin Glover? Never talk to him / Back to the Future IV? Not happening / Stop asking me the question!”
Spaceman from Pluto is a 1985 sci-fi comedy starring Eric Stoltz and Christopher Lloyd. Lloyd plays Professor Brown, an eccentric scientist with a pet chimp, who builds a time machine out of an old fridge. Stoltz portrays a teenage video pirate, Marty McFly, who is accidentally sent back to the 1950s in the machine. After almost wiping himself from existence by endangering his parents’ first meeting, Marty returns to his own time using the power generated by an atomic bomb test in the Nevada desert.
Fortunately this movie was released in some alternate version of history. In our timeline it went through a number of changes in writing and production to become the blockbuster classic Back to the Future.
For co-writer and producer Bob Gale it all started when he came across his father’s highschool yearbook and realised that, had he and his father been peers, they would never have been friends. Spotting the comedy potential in the concept of a teenager going to school with his parents, Gale sat down with co-writer and director Robert Zemeckis to develop a script.
The pair knew they needed a time machine and decided that it would be created by a backyard inventor rather than some government organisation. “I can’t really put my finger on when I stumbled on the idea of time travel,” said Gale in 2002, “whether it was from watching The Twilight Zone, reading Superman comics, or when the H.G. Wells Time Machine – the George Pal movie – came out, but I do remember being totally fascinated by that film.”
Getting Back to the Future made proved challenging. Most of the studios that Gale and Zemeckis approached found the script too sweet and innocent compared with the typical R-rated teen movies of the time. Disney, on the other hand, felt that the mother-falls-for-son plot was too taboo.
Making matters worse was the duo’s less than spectacular track record. Their first two feature films, I Wanna Hold Your Hand and Used Cars, were both box office flops. They even had the dubious honour of writing the least successful film of Steven Spielberg’s directorial career so far, 1941.
Everything changed when Michael Douglas hired Zemeckis to direct 1984’s Romancing the Stone. The adventure romp was a hit and suddenly everyone in the notoriously fickle Hollywood wanted Back to the Future. Spielberg, who had always loved the script, signed on as executive producer and – after a false start at Columbia – the movie was green-lit by Universal Pictures.
Studio president Sid Sheinberg requested a number of script changes. Professor Brown became “Doc” and his chimp became a dog. Marty’s video piracy (which would have explained his possession of the camcorder with which he films the time machine’s test run) was written out, as the studio were understandably unwilling to promote the revenue-slashing crime.
Sheinberg also hated the title Back to the Future and wanted it changed to Spaceman from Pluto, a reference to the comic clutched by the Peabody children after the DeLorean crashes into their barn on arriving in 1955. Zemeckis and Gale turned to Spielberg to help them dodge this title without offending Sheinberg; his solution was to send a memo saying what a big laugh they all got out of Sheinberg’s joke. The studio president never mentioned it again.
The title Back to the Future was retained, but the barn scene did prompt another change. By this point the writers had realised that an immobile fridge was not dramatic or practical as a time machine, and were searching for a suitable vehicle for Doc to build it into. They chose the slick, stainless steel DeLorean with its futuristic gull-wing doors so that the Peabody family could mistake it for a UFO.
Budget concerns drove the elimination of the A-bomb scene. Shooting on location and building the miniatures of the bomb and its test tower were estimated to cost $1 million. Switching the power source to a lightning bolt not only saved this money by keeping all the action in Hill Valley, it enhanced the time metaphor represented by the clock tower as well as giving Doc an active part in the climax rather than being stuck in a blast bunker with a walkie-talkie.
The filmmakers’ first choice for the role of Marty McFly was Michael J. Fox, the 23-year-old star of sitcom Family Ties. But that show’s creator, Gary David Goldberg, refused to even let Fox see the Back to the Future script, fearing the actor would love it and resent Goldberg for not releasing him from his Family Ties commitment.
A disappointed Zemeckis accordingly began screen-testing other actors, eventually narrowing the choice down to C. Thomas Howell (best known for the coming-of-age drama The Outsiders) and Eric Stoltz (who had appeared in Fast Times at Ridgemont High and The Wild Life). It seems that Sid Sheinberg was Stoltz’s most vocal advocate. Gale recalled the studio president declaring: “I’m so convinced that Eric is going to be great in this part, if it doesn’t work out you can recast it and start all over again.”
No-one expected that to actually happen.
Filming began on November 26th, 1984. The logistics of transforming a real town into Hill Valley in both 1955 and 1985 were daunting, so instead production designer Lawrence G. Paull adapted the town square set on Universal Studios’ backlot, which had originally been built for the 1948 film noir An Act of Murder.
Special effects supervisor Kevin Pike had taken three DeLoreans and, working to concept art by the legendary Ron Cobb amongst others, fitted them with a variety of aircraft surplus parts and other junk to create the iconic time machine. The “Mr. Fusion” generator added to the vehicle in the final scene started life as a coffee grinder.
Cast in the role of Doc Brown was Christopher Lloyd, whose prior roles included a Klingon commander in Star Trek III: The Search for Spock, a psychiatric patient in One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest and five years in the sitcom Taxi. In another alternate timeline he wasn’t involved in Back to the Future either, having binned the script in favour of a stage role in New York; it was his wife who made him reconsider.
Basing the character on the conductor Leopold Stokowski, Lloyd made the Doc larger than life. Eric Stoltz had a very different approach, a method approach, focusing on the serious aspect of Marty’s out-of-time predicament and apparently ignoring the fact that he was starring in a comedy. “Eric didn’t get it,” camera assistant Clyde E. Bryan remembered in 2015. “Eric didn’t understand the physical, pratfall type of humour that Bob [Zemeckis] was looking for.”
By the sixth week of filming, almost halfway through the schedule, Zemeckis knew he had a huge problem. After conferring with Gale and his fellow producer Neil Canton, the director asked Spielberg to come to the editing suite and watch the 45-minute rough cut of everything that had been shot so far. All the filmmakers agreed that Stoltz had to go.
Unwilling to have Universal shut down the film and suffer the attendant negative press, Zemeckis kept filming with Stoltz for another week, with most of the cast and crew unaware of the situation. Meanwhile, behind the scenes, Canton worked out exactly how much reshoots would cost ($4 million) while Zemeckis and Gale went back to Goldberg at Family Ties, begging him to let Michael J. Fox take the role. Goldberg agreed on condition that the TV show would take priority. Fox himself claims to have merely weighed the script in his hand before agreeing to do it.
During the lunch break on Thursday, January 10th, 1985, halfway through filming the DeLorean’s test run in the car park of the Twin Pines Mall, Zemeckis called Stoltz into his trailer and broke the bad news. By the following Monday, Michael J. Fox was Marty McFly.
The young actor’s schedule was exhausting. He would wake at 9am, work on Family Ties from 10am to 6:30pm, get driven to Universal and shoot Back to the Future until 2:30am. Any scenes that required Marty in daylight had to be filmed at weekends.
Nonetheless, Fox somehow managed to squeeze in guitar lessons in preparation for Marty’s performance at the Enchantment Under the Sea Dance. He already had some experience with the instrument, but was determined to learn to play “Johnny B. Goode” note for note so that he could finger-sync perfectly to the pre-recorded track. Marty’s singing voice was provided by Mark Campbell, while the energetic choreography of his performance incorporated the signature moves of Pete Townshend, Jimi Hendrix and Eric Clapton as well as Chuck Berry.
The scene is one of the most memorable in the movie, but Zemeckis and Gale were very worried about it during editing. “It’s the only scene that doesn’t advance story or character, and we didn’t know how that was going to play,” said Gale. A preview screening in San Jose removed any doubts; the audience loved “Johnny B. Goode” and everything else about the movie.
After a second preview, this time with Sid Sheinberg in attendance, Universal realised they were onto a winner and moved the film’s release date up to the July 4th weekend, paying through the nose to accelerate post-production.
“I want it to be violent,” Zemeckis told the animators creating the effect of the DeLorean breaking the time barrier, “something akin to a Neanderthal sitting on the hood of the car, chipping away at the fabric of time in front of him.” The hand-drawn cell animation combined with built-in lighting on the car and actual fire trails that had been captured on location, plus additional pyrotechnics overlaid after the fact, created the signature effect.
Meanwhile, Alan Silvestri assembled the largest orchestra in Universal’s history to record Back to the Future’s iconic score, and a tie-in single was provided by Huey Lewis and the News. The latter took a couple of attempts to get right; Lewis’ first submission was a minor-key track that didn’t work at all, according to Zemeckis. It was only after the filmmaker showed Lewis the skateboarding scene that he understood the upbeat mood required and composed “The Power of Love”.
Fox was away filming a Family Ties special in England when Back to the Future was released. He was surprised to get a call from his agent telling him that it was the biggest film in America. It spent 12 weeks at the top of the US box office charts and quickly became part of popular culture, with even Presidents Reagan and Bush Senior giving speeches about taking the country “back to the future”. To date it has grossed almost $400 million.
Summing up the film’s appeal in 2002, Gale offered: “There’s something very special about this story that everyone can identify with, the idea of trying to imagine what your parents were like when they were kids – that just touches everybody.”
When Back to the Future was released on VHS in May 1986, fans noticed a small change from the theatrical version. There as expected was the DeLorean’s lift-off and departure to the future – originally intended by Zemeckis and Gale simply as a joke on which to end the story. But now, sandwiched between that final scene and the end credits, was a caption.
The caption read: “To be continued…”
“I’m going to carve your heart out with a spoon!”
“Why a spoon, cousin? Why not an ax or a…?”
“Because it’s dull, you twit! It’ll hurt more!”
Alan Rickman’s scenery-chomping Sheriff of Nottingham may be widely considered the best thing in Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves, but there is plenty more to enjoy in this classic action romp even now, 31 years on from its release.
“There was gold on the page,” claimed executive producer David Nicksay of the screenplay by Pen Densham and John Watson, which he read in early 1990. Both Fox and Tri-Star were working on their own Robin Hood movies, so Nicksay’s comparatively small company, Morgan Creek Productions, had to move fast to avoid being buried at the box office.
Director Kevin Reynolds was hired for his previous collaborations with Kevin Costner, having given the star his big break on 1988’s Fandango as well as directing part of Dances With Wolves. Following a scant ten weeks of prep, Reynolds launched into shooting Prince of Thieves against the ticking clock of the approaching winter.
The English weather was as cooperative as you might imagine, but no-one could have predicted that unusual winds would cause Heathrow to divert all its flights over the Buckinghamshire forest standing in for Sherwood, playing havoc with the sound.
Kevin Costner – who had coincidentally been offered and turned down Fox’s Robin Hood – arrived from the Dances With Wolves editing room just three days before filming began. His very first scene required him to jump out of a rowboat on the Sussex coast and wade to shore, even as his woollen cloak soaked up half his bodyweight in water. Later he spent four days immersed in the freezing waters of Aysgarth Falls, North Yorkshire, for the sequence in which his character battles Little John.
The crew also shot in Wiltshire, Northumberland and even Carcassonne in France, but never set foot in Nottinghamshire. The film’s most derided geographical anomaly is the stop-off at Hadrian’s Wall, which somehow falls on Robin’s route from Dover to Nottingham.
The character’s accent is also geographically challenged, partly due to a disagreement between the two Kevins about whether an English Costner would be distracting for audiences. The result is best summed up by the man himself on the DVD commentary: “Well, there’s my dumb-ass accent. It was something I wanted to do, and I wasn’t very good at it.”
Test screenings were positive but showed that Rickman’s sheriff – whose part had been beefed up by Reynolds in last-minute rewrites – was more popular than Costner’s hero. The producers insisted on redressing the balance in the edit, leading to Reynolds storming out and a 2009 director’s cut that reinstated Rickman’s extra material. (The two Kevins got over their differences in time for 1995’s Waterworld… and I’m sure they’re both very glad about that.)
Legendary cinematographer Doug Milsome ensured that Prince of Thieves’ visuals were beyond reproach. To capture sweeping views of the forest hideout he mounted a Wescam – a camera stabiliser typically used for helicopter shots – to a truss erected between the trees.
The famous arrow POV shot, hurtling through the woods, took a week to plan and execute. A static arrow was blue-screened over a travelling forest plate photographed at a stately one frame per second. Originally intended just for the trailer, the shot caused such a buzz amongst the public that it was written into the film itself.
Another highlight is the score by Michael Kamen, who based his love theme on an actual medieval tune. For the tie-in single, Bryan Adams and his keyboardist Mutt Lange took that same theme and added lyrics, turning it into the power ballad “(Everything I Do) I Do It For You”. The track garnered an Oscar nomination and won a Grammy, and spent 16 weeks at the top of the UK charts, a run still unbeaten today.
The achievements of the film itself were more mixed. Alan Rickman bagged a Bafta for his spirited turn as the Sheriff of Nottingham, while Kevin Costner won a Golden Raspberry for Worst Actor, and Christian Slater was nominated for Worst Supporting Actor. The lacklustre reviews did no harm to the box office though; Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves was the second-highest grossing film of 1991, surpassed only by Terminator 2: Judgment Day.
And what about the other Robin Hood films that Reynolds and co had raced to beat? Tri-star’s project never left the starting blocks, while Fox’s effort, starring Patrick Bergin and Uma Thurman and exec-produced by Die Hard’s John McTiernan, went straight to television. In fact the only film to challenge Prince of Thieves for many years was the Mel Brooks comedy, Robin Hood: Men in Tights. This parody is surely the ultimate evidence of Prince of Thieves’ cultural impact.
For five decades in a row, Citizen Kane was voted the greatest film of all time in Sight & Sound’s International Critic’s Choice poll. Although pipped to the top spot by Vertigo in the latest poll, there are still plenty of filmmakers, academics and fans who consider actor-director Orson Welles’ 1941 debut the very pinnacle of cinematic accomplishment.
The spoilt son of a hotelier and a concert pianist, Orson Welles found fame in 1938 when he directed and starred in a radio adaptation of The War of the Worlds which was so convincing that thousands thought it was real and fled their homes. Not long afterwards, RKO, one of the five big studios of Hollywood’s Golden Age, offered a generous two-picture deal to the 24-year-old who had never made a film before and didn’t much want to.
12 months and two abandoned concepts later, Welles teamed with screenplay-fixer Herman J. Mankiewicz, whose past projects included The Wizard of Oz, to script the rise and fall of a powerful newspaper magnate based on William Randolph Hearst. The pair went through five drafts, making changes for creative, financial and legal reasons (hoping to avoid a lawsuit from Hearst).
The story’s fictionalised press baron, Charles Foster Kane, dies in the opening scene, but his mysterious last word – “Rosebud” – spurs a journalist to investigate his life. The journalist’s interviews with Kane’s friends and associates lead the viewer into extended flashbacks, an innovative structure for the time.
Welles himself took the title role, spending many hours in the make-up chair to portray Kane from youth to old age. Inventive, non-union make-up artist Maurice Seiderman developed new techniques to create convincing wrinkles that would not restrict the actor’s facial expressions. Sometimes Welles would be called as early as 2:30am, holding production meetings while Seiderman worked on him.
“I was just as made-up as a young man as an old man,” Welles said later, noting that he wore a prosthetic nose, face-lifting tape and a corset to satisfy both his own vanity and the demands of the studio for a handsome leading man.
The young auteur – who directed part of the film from a wheelchair after fracturing his ankle – was not easy to work with. Editor Robert Wise said: “He could one moment be guilty of a piece of behaviour that was so outrageous it would make you want to tell him to go to Hell and walk off the picture. Before you could do it he’d come up with some idea that was so brilliant that it would literally have your mouth gaping open, so you never walked. You stayed.”
Welles was keen for his film to look different from others, drawing on his experience of directing theatre. The leading DP of the time, Gregg Toland, jumped at the chance to break the rules. Influenced by German Expressionism, he was not afraid of silhouettes and bright shafts of light.
Welles cast many of his Mercury Players – a theatre repertory company he had set up himself – who he knew could handle long takes. He insisted on a large depth of field and often shot from low angles to mimic the experience of a theatre-goer, specifically someone in the front row looking up at the cast. This required many of the sets to have ceilings, unconventionally, and these were made of fabric in some cases so that the boom mic could record through them.
Special effects were used extensively to reduce set-building costs and avoid location shooting wherever possible. One example is a crane-up from a theatre’s stage to a pair of technicians watching from the flies above; the middle part of the shot is a matte painting, bridging the two live-action set pieces. In another scene, the camera travels through a neon sign on the roof of a building and down through the skylight; the rooftop is a miniature, the sign is rigged to split apart as the camera moves through it, and a flash of lightning eases the transition into the live-action set.
“We were under schedule and under budget,” Welles proudly stated in a 1982 interview. He cheated though, because he asked the studio for ten days of camera tests, citing his inexperience behind the lens, and used those ten days to start shooting the movie!
When Citizen Kane was premiered in May 1941, William Randolph Hearst was not fooled by the script tweaks and took the title character as an unflattering portrayal of himself. While he was unable to suppress the film’s release – though not for the want of trying – a smear campaign in his publications ensured it only enjoyed moderate success and that Welles would never have the filmmaking career that such a startling debut should have sparked. It wasn’t until the 1950s that Citizen Kane received the critical acclaim which it still holds today, 81 years on.
Released 40 years ago, Terry Gilliam’s surreal sci-fi adventure Time Bandits remains a supremely imaginative film, defying conventions of plot and never talking down to its target audience of children. Let’s take a time portal back to 1981 and find out how it was made.
“I was broke. I had to write something fast,” Gilliam once said of the film’s origins. By other accounts he conceived Time Bandits when Brazil’s development stalled due to financier Denis O’Brien “not getting it”. (O’Brien was George Harrison’s partner at Handmade Films, which had originally been set up to fund the Monty Python feature Life of Brian.)
After dreaming up the idea of a knight on horseback bursting out of a child’s wardrobe, Gilliam jotted down a mere two sides of notes under the characteristically whimsical heading, “The film that dares not speak its name: a treatment… not a cure”. After describing the opening sequence, in which ten-year-old Kevin is whisked through a time portal by a rabble of robber dwarves while pursued by God, the treatment brazenly states: “And so starts this terrific attempt to get the movie moneybags to part with a few million bucks.”
The moneybags were not convinced, however. O’Brien took Gilliam’s script, co-written with Michael Palin, around LA and returned empty-handed. It was then that O’Brien and Harrison decided to put up the film’s $5 million budget themselves, with the ex-Beatle even mortgaging his office building to do so.
The script was ambitious, featuring as it did a tour of historical settings from the Napoleonic Wars, through Sherwood Forest and ancient Greece, to the deck of the Titanic, and from there into the “Time of Legends”. This last sequence finds the protagonists aboard a boat which turns out to be a hat worn by a giant. Although this might seem a classic product of a Python’s imagination, Gilliam in fact admits to stealing the idea from a book by fantasy artist Brian Froud, who would go on to be a conceptual designer on Time Bandits’ nearest thematic neighbour, the Terry Jones-scripted Labyrinth (1986).
Palin wrote the part of Robin Hood for himself, but O’Brien insisted on casting John Cleese to improve the film’s box office prospects. Palin instead took the role of Vincent, hapless lover of Shelley Duvall’s Pansy. It was Duvall who was hapless, however, when Gilliam climbed some scaffolding to demonstrate to his cast how to fall correctly and ended up landing on her.
Amongst the actors playing the eponymous Time Bandits were Kenny Baker, best known as R2-D2 in the first six Star Wars films, Jack Purvis, who played a number of Jawas and Ewoks in the same franchise, and David Rappaport, whose extensive credits include episodes of The Young Ones, The Goodies and Not the Nine O’Clock News. A seventh bandit, Horseflesh, was cut over fears that Disney might perceive a Snow White rip-off and sue.
“I always thought of it like the mini Pythons,” said Gilliam of the bandit gang. “There was the leader, then there was the second one who really thought he could do it better…”
Meanwhile, the screenplay specifically called for the Greek king Agamemnon to be “none other than Sean Connery, or an actor of equal but cheaper stature”. O’Brien, who played golf with Connery, simply offered the part to the man himself. The cheeky Pythons accordingly updated the stage direction to read: “none other than Sean Connery, who it turns out we can afford”.
Nonetheless, creativity was in much greater supply than money, and Gilliam employed clever editing, reverse shots and miniatures to capture his vision within the budget. “I don’t think that there was anyone in America who believed that film cost less than 15 if not 20 million dollars,” O’Brien opined in a 1989 documentary.
O’Brien was not always supportive, however. He wanted to cut certain controversial moments like Vermin (Tiny Ross) eating rats, but Gilliam fought him. “There was a point where I threatened to burn the negative,” the director admitted in the same documentary.
O’Brien particularly hated the famously downbeat ending. Kevin wakes up in his own bed during a house fire, and is rescued by none other than Sean Connery. Connery himself suggested this second role after he proved unavailable to film Agamemnon’s scripted reappearance (and death) in the showdown at the Fortress of Ultimate Darkness.
The controversial moment comes after Connery’s firefighter departs; Kevin’s parents touch a piece of concentrated evil and immediately explode. O’Brien was forced to withdraw his objections to this shocking twist, however, when a test-screening audience chose the ending as their favourite part of the movie. While many fans of Time Bandits might agree, Gilliam believed that the test audience were simply trying to say that they were glad the movie was over!
At Christmas 1978, when Superman: The Movie opened to enthusiastic reviews and record-breaking box office, it was no surprise that a sequel was in the works. What was unusual was that the majority of that sequel had already been filmed, and stranger still, much of it would be re-filmed before Superman II hit cinemas two years later.
Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster’s comic-book icon had made several superhuman leaps to the screen by the 1970s, but Superman: The Movie was the first big-budget feature film. Producer Pierre Spengler and executive producer father/son team Alexander and Ilya Salkind purchased the rights from DC Comics in 1974 and made a deal to finance not one but two Superman movies on the understanding that Warner Bros. would buy the finished products. Salkind senior had unintentionally pioneered back-to-back shooting the previous year when he decided to split The Three Musketeers – originally intended as a three-hour epic – into two shorter films.
After packaging Superman I and II with A-listers Marlon Brando (as Kryptonian patriarch Jor-El) and Gene Hackman (as the villainous Lex Luthor), the producers hired The Omen director Richard Donner to helm the massive production. Donner cast the unknown Christopher Reeve in the title role, while John Williams was signed to compose what would prove to be one of the most famous soundtracks in cinematic history. Like many big genre productions of the time – Star Wars and Alien to name but two – Superman set up camp in England, with cameras rolling for the first time on March 24th, 1977.
“We were shooting scenes from the two films simultaneously, according to production conveniences,” explained creative consultant Tom Mankiewicz in a 2001 documentary. “So when we had Gene Hackman we were shooting scenes from II and scenes from I, or when we were in the Daily Planet we were shooting scenes from both pictures in the Daily Planet, while you were in that set.”
Today – largely thanks to Peter Jackson’s Lord of the Rings trilogy – we are used to enormous, multi-year productions with crew numbers in four figures, but the scale of the dual Superman shoot was unprecedented at the time, eventually reaching nineteen months in duration. It was originally scheduled for eight.
“Dick [Donner] never in the course of the picture got a budget; he never got a schedule,” claimed Mankiewicz. “He was constantly told that he was over schedule, way over budget, but nobody told him what that budget was or how much he was over that budget.”
Given that overspends were funded by Warner Bros. in return for more distribution rights, Spengler and the Salkinds were watching the value of their huge investment trickle away. So despite Donner’s popularity with the rest of the cast and crew, his relationship with the producers became ever more strained, to the point where they weren’t even on speaking terms.
Ilya Salkind suggested bringing in The Three Musketeers director Richard Lester, who agreed on condition that he would be paid monies still owed to him from that earlier film. By some accounts his role on Superman was that of a mediator between the director and the producers, by others he was a co-producer, second unit director or even a back-up director in case Donner cracked under the pressure of the endless shoot. “Where does this leave… Donner?” asked a newspaper report of the time. “‘Nervous,’ a cast member says.”
Eventually, with the first movie’s release date looming, the filmmakers decided on a change of plan. Superman II would be placed on the back burner in order to prioritise finishing Superman: The Movie – and get it earning money as quickly as possible. At this point, three quarters of the sequel was already in the can, including all scenes featuring Brando and Hackman, both of whom had had contractual wrap dates to meet.
Superman: The Movie was a hit, but Donner would not direct the remainder of its sequel. “They have to want me to do it,” he said of the producers at the time. “It has to be on my terms and I don’t mean financially, I mean control.” Of Spengler specifically, Donner was reported to bluntly state, “If he’s on it – I’m not.”
And indeed Donner was not. The Salkinds had no intention of acceding to his demands. Instead, the former mediator Richard Lester was hired to complete Superman II, and Donner received a telegram telling him that his services were no longer required. “I was ready to get on an airplane and kill,” he recalled years later, “because they were taking my baby away from me.”
Meanwhile Brando was trying (unsuccessfully) to sue the producers over royalties, and demanded a significant cut of the box office gross from the sequel. Rather than pay this, the producers elected to re-film his scenes, replacing Jor-El with Superman’s mother Lara, as played by Susannah York.
It was far from the only reshooting of Superman II footage that took place. Ironically, given the earlier budget concerns, Lester was permitted to redo large chunks of Donner’s material with a rewritten script in order to earn a credit as director under guild rules. Major changes included a new opening sequence on the Eiffel Tower, Lois Lane’s realisation of Clark Kent’s true identity after he trips and falls into a fireplace, and a different ending in which a magic kiss from Clark erases that realisation from her memory.
Some of the reshoots included Lex Luthor material, but Hackman declined to return out of loyalty to Donner; the result is the fairly obvious use of a double in the climactic Fortress of Solitude scene. The deaths of Geoffrey Unsworth and John Barry, plus creative differences between Lester and John Williams, meant that the sequel team also featured a new DP (Robert Paynter), production designer (Peter Murton) and composer (Ken Thorne) respectively, although significant contributions from all of the original HODs remain in the finished film.
Comparing his own directing style with Donner’s, Lester told interviewers, “I think that Donner was emphasising a kind of grandiose myth… There was a type of epic quality which isn’t in my nature… I’m more quirky and I play around with slightly more unexpected silliness.” Indeed his material is characterised by visual gags and a generally less serious approach, which he would continue into Superman III (1983).
Although some of the unused Donner scenes were incorporated into TV screenings over the years, it was not until the 2001 DVD restoration of the first movie that interest began to build in a release for the full, unseen version of the sequel. When Brando’s footage was rediscovered a few years later, it could finally become a reality.
“I don’t think there is [another] film that had so much footage shot and not used,” remarked editor Michael Thau. A vast cataloguing and restoration effort was undertaken to make useable the footage which had been sitting in Technicolor’s London vault for a quarter of a century. Donner and Mankiewicz returned to oversee and approve the process, which used only the minimum of Lester material necessary to tell a complete story, plus footage from Reeve’s and Margot Kidder’s 35mm screen tests.
Released on DVD in 2006, the Donner Cut suffers from the odd cheap visual effect used to plug plot holes, and a familiar turning-back-time ending which was originally scripted for the sequel but moved to the first film at the last minute. However, for fans of Superman: The Movie, this version of Superman II is much closer in tone and ties in much better in story terms too. The Donner Cut is also less silly than the theatrical version, though it must be said that Lester’s humour contributed in no small part to the sequel’s original success.
Whichever version you prefer, 40 years on from its first release, Superman II is still a fun and thrilling adventure with impressive visuals and an utterly believable central performance from the late, great Christopher Reeve.
We’re all familiar with the “good/fast/cheap” triangle. You can pick any two, but never all three. When it comes to lighting films, I would posit that there is a slightly different triangle of truth labelled “beautiful/realistic/cheap”. When you’re working to a tight budget, a DP often has to choose between beautiful or realistic lighting, where a better-funded cinematographer can have both.
I first started thinking about this in 2018 when I shot Annabel Lee. Specifically it was when we were shooting a scene from this short period drama – directed by Amy Coop – in a church. Our equipment package was on the larger side for a short, but still far from ideal for lighting up a building of that size. Our biggest instrument was a Nine-light Maxi Brute, which is a grid of 1KW par globes, then we had a couple of 2.5K HMIs and nothing else of any signifcant power.
The master shot for the scene was a side-on dolly move parallel to the central aisle, with three large stained-glass windows visible in the background. My choices were either to put a Maxi Brute or an HMI outside each window, to use only natural light, or to key the scene from somewhere inside the building. The first option was beautiful but not realistic, as I shall explain, the second option would have been realistic but not beautiful (and probably under-exposed) and the third would have been neither.
I went with the hard source outside of each window. I could not diffuse or bounce the light because that would have reduced the intensity to pretty much nothing. (Stained-glass windows don’t transmit a lot of light through them.) For the same reason, the lamps had to be pretty close to the glass.
The result is that, during this dolly shot, each of the three lamps is visible at one time or another. You can’t tell they’re lamps – the blown-out panes of glass disguise them – but the fact that there are three of them rather gives away that they are not the sun! (There is also the issue that contiguous scenes outside the church have overcast light, but that is a discontinuity I have noticed in many other films and series.)
I voiced my concerns to Amy at the time – trying to shirk responsibility, I suppose! Fortunately she found it beautiful enough to let the realism slide.
But I couldn’t help thinking that, with a larger budget and thus larger instruments, I could have had both beauty and realism. If I had had three 18K HMIs, for example, plus the pre-rig time to put them on condors or scaffolding towers, they could all have been high enough and far enough back from the windows that they wouldn’t have been seen. I would still have got the same angle of light and the nice shafts in the smoke, but they would have passed much more convincingly as a single sun source. Hell, if I’d had the budget for a 100KW SoftSun then I really could have done it with one source!
There have been many other examples of the beauty/realism problem throughout my career. One that springs to mind is Above the Clouds, where the 2.5K HMI which I was using as a backlight for a night exterior was in an unrealistic position. The ground behind the action sloped downwards, so the HMI on its wind-up stand threw shafts of light upwards. With the money for a cherry-picker, a far more moon-like high-angle could have been achieved. Without such funds, my only alternative was to sacrifice the beauty of a backlight altogether, which I was not willing to do.
The difference between that example and Annabel Lee is that Clouds director Leon Chambers was unable to accept the unrealistic lighting, and ended up cutting around it. So I think it’s quite important to get on the same page as your director when you’re lighting with limited means.
I remember asking Paul Hyett when we were prepping Heretiks, “How do you feel about shafts of ‘sunlight’ coming into a room from two different directions?” He replied that “two different directions is fine, but not three.” That was a very nice, clear drawing of the line between beauty (or at least stylisation) and realism, which helped me enormously during production.
The beauty/realism/cost triangle is one we all have to navigate. Although it might sometimes give us regrets about what could have been, as long we’re on the same page as our directors we should still get results we can all live with.
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