gem_id stringlengths 20 25 | id stringlengths 24 24 | title stringlengths 3 59 | context stringlengths 151 3.71k | question stringlengths 1 270 | target stringlengths 1 270 | references list | answers dict |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
gem-squad_v2-train-12300 | 57301bfca23a5019007fcd84 | Antibiotics | Exposure to antibiotics early in life is associated with increased body mass in humans and mouse models. Early life is a critical period for the establishment of the intestinal microbiota and for metabolic development. Mice exposed to subtherapeutic antibiotic treatment (STAT)– with either penicillin, vancomycin, penicillin and vancomycin, or chlortetracycline had altered composition of the gut microbiota as well as its metabolic capabilities. Moreover, research have shown that mice given low-dose penicillin (1 μg/g body weight) around birth and throughout the weaning process had an increased body mass and fat mass, accelerated growth, and increased hepatic expression of genes involved in adipogenesis, compared to controlled mice. In addition, penicillin in combination with a high-fat diet increased fasting insulin levels in mice. However, it is unclear whether or not antibiotics cause obesity in humans. Studies have found a correlation between early exposure of antibiotics (<6 months) and increased body mass (at 10 and 20 months). Another study found that the type of antibiotic exposure was also significant with the highest risk of being overweight in those given macrolides compared to penicillin and cephalosporin. Therefore, there is correlation between antibiotic exposure in early life and obesity in humans, but whether or not there is a causal relationship remains unclear. Although there is a correlation between antibiotic use in early life and obesity, the effect of antibiotics on obesity in humans needs to be weighed against the beneficial effects of clinically indicated treatment with antibiotics in infancy. | Do antibiotics cause obesity in humans? | Do antibiotics cause obesity in humans? | [
"Do antibiotics cause obesity in humans?"
] | {
"text": [
"unclear"
],
"answer_start": [
858
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12301 | 57301bfca23a5019007fcd85 | Antibiotics | Exposure to antibiotics early in life is associated with increased body mass in humans and mouse models. Early life is a critical period for the establishment of the intestinal microbiota and for metabolic development. Mice exposed to subtherapeutic antibiotic treatment (STAT)– with either penicillin, vancomycin, penicillin and vancomycin, or chlortetracycline had altered composition of the gut microbiota as well as its metabolic capabilities. Moreover, research have shown that mice given low-dose penicillin (1 μg/g body weight) around birth and throughout the weaning process had an increased body mass and fat mass, accelerated growth, and increased hepatic expression of genes involved in adipogenesis, compared to controlled mice. In addition, penicillin in combination with a high-fat diet increased fasting insulin levels in mice. However, it is unclear whether or not antibiotics cause obesity in humans. Studies have found a correlation between early exposure of antibiotics (<6 months) and increased body mass (at 10 and 20 months). Another study found that the type of antibiotic exposure was also significant with the highest risk of being overweight in those given macrolides compared to penicillin and cephalosporin. Therefore, there is correlation between antibiotic exposure in early life and obesity in humans, but whether or not there is a causal relationship remains unclear. Although there is a correlation between antibiotic use in early life and obesity, the effect of antibiotics on obesity in humans needs to be weighed against the beneficial effects of clinically indicated treatment with antibiotics in infancy. | Why do physicians use antibiotics on infants when the relationship has been proven? | Why do physicians use antibiotics on infants when the relationship has been proven? | [
"Why do physicians use antibiotics on infants when the relationship has been proven? "
] | {
"text": [
"weighed against the beneficial effects"
],
"answer_start": [
1541
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12302 | 57328cf2b3a91d1900202e33 | Antibiotics | Exposure to antibiotics early in life is associated with increased body mass in humans and mouse models. Early life is a critical period for the establishment of the intestinal microbiota and for metabolic development. Mice exposed to subtherapeutic antibiotic treatment (STAT)– with either penicillin, vancomycin, penicillin and vancomycin, or chlortetracycline had altered composition of the gut microbiota as well as its metabolic capabilities. Moreover, research have shown that mice given low-dose penicillin (1 μg/g body weight) around birth and throughout the weaning process had an increased body mass and fat mass, accelerated growth, and increased hepatic expression of genes involved in adipogenesis, compared to controlled mice. In addition, penicillin in combination with a high-fat diet increased fasting insulin levels in mice. However, it is unclear whether or not antibiotics cause obesity in humans. Studies have found a correlation between early exposure of antibiotics (<6 months) and increased body mass (at 10 and 20 months). Another study found that the type of antibiotic exposure was also significant with the highest risk of being overweight in those given macrolides compared to penicillin and cephalosporin. Therefore, there is correlation between antibiotic exposure in early life and obesity in humans, but whether or not there is a causal relationship remains unclear. Although there is a correlation between antibiotic use in early life and obesity, the effect of antibiotics on obesity in humans needs to be weighed against the beneficial effects of clinically indicated treatment with antibiotics in infancy. | What can happen if people are exposed to antibiotics at a young age? | What can happen if people are exposed to antibiotics at a young age? | [
"What can happen if people are exposed to antibiotics at a young age?"
] | {
"text": [
"increased body mass"
],
"answer_start": [
57
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12303 | 57328cf2b3a91d1900202e34 | Antibiotics | Exposure to antibiotics early in life is associated with increased body mass in humans and mouse models. Early life is a critical period for the establishment of the intestinal microbiota and for metabolic development. Mice exposed to subtherapeutic antibiotic treatment (STAT)– with either penicillin, vancomycin, penicillin and vancomycin, or chlortetracycline had altered composition of the gut microbiota as well as its metabolic capabilities. Moreover, research have shown that mice given low-dose penicillin (1 μg/g body weight) around birth and throughout the weaning process had an increased body mass and fat mass, accelerated growth, and increased hepatic expression of genes involved in adipogenesis, compared to controlled mice. In addition, penicillin in combination with a high-fat diet increased fasting insulin levels in mice. However, it is unclear whether or not antibiotics cause obesity in humans. Studies have found a correlation between early exposure of antibiotics (<6 months) and increased body mass (at 10 and 20 months). Another study found that the type of antibiotic exposure was also significant with the highest risk of being overweight in those given macrolides compared to penicillin and cephalosporin. Therefore, there is correlation between antibiotic exposure in early life and obesity in humans, but whether or not there is a causal relationship remains unclear. Although there is a correlation between antibiotic use in early life and obesity, the effect of antibiotics on obesity in humans needs to be weighed against the beneficial effects of clinically indicated treatment with antibiotics in infancy. | When do intestinal microbiota develop? | When do intestinal microbiota develop? | [
"When do intestinal microbiota develop?"
] | {
"text": [
"Early life"
],
"answer_start": [
105
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12304 | 57328cf2b3a91d1900202e35 | Antibiotics | Exposure to antibiotics early in life is associated with increased body mass in humans and mouse models. Early life is a critical period for the establishment of the intestinal microbiota and for metabolic development. Mice exposed to subtherapeutic antibiotic treatment (STAT)– with either penicillin, vancomycin, penicillin and vancomycin, or chlortetracycline had altered composition of the gut microbiota as well as its metabolic capabilities. Moreover, research have shown that mice given low-dose penicillin (1 μg/g body weight) around birth and throughout the weaning process had an increased body mass and fat mass, accelerated growth, and increased hepatic expression of genes involved in adipogenesis, compared to controlled mice. In addition, penicillin in combination with a high-fat diet increased fasting insulin levels in mice. However, it is unclear whether or not antibiotics cause obesity in humans. Studies have found a correlation between early exposure of antibiotics (<6 months) and increased body mass (at 10 and 20 months). Another study found that the type of antibiotic exposure was also significant with the highest risk of being overweight in those given macrolides compared to penicillin and cephalosporin. Therefore, there is correlation between antibiotic exposure in early life and obesity in humans, but whether or not there is a causal relationship remains unclear. Although there is a correlation between antibiotic use in early life and obesity, the effect of antibiotics on obesity in humans needs to be weighed against the beneficial effects of clinically indicated treatment with antibiotics in infancy. | Do antibiotics increase the chance of getting fat for humans? | Do antibiotics increase the chance of getting fat for humans? | [
"Do antibiotics increase the chance of getting fat for humans?"
] | {
"text": [
"unclear"
],
"answer_start": [
858
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12305 | 5a65bfbec2b11c001a425d2f | Antibiotics | Exposure to antibiotics early in life is associated with increased body mass in humans and mouse models. Early life is a critical period for the establishment of the intestinal microbiota and for metabolic development. Mice exposed to subtherapeutic antibiotic treatment (STAT)– with either penicillin, vancomycin, penicillin and vancomycin, or chlortetracycline had altered composition of the gut microbiota as well as its metabolic capabilities. Moreover, research have shown that mice given low-dose penicillin (1 μg/g body weight) around birth and throughout the weaning process had an increased body mass and fat mass, accelerated growth, and increased hepatic expression of genes involved in adipogenesis, compared to controlled mice. In addition, penicillin in combination with a high-fat diet increased fasting insulin levels in mice. However, it is unclear whether or not antibiotics cause obesity in humans. Studies have found a correlation between early exposure of antibiotics (<6 months) and increased body mass (at 10 and 20 months). Another study found that the type of antibiotic exposure was also significant with the highest risk of being overweight in those given macrolides compared to penicillin and cephalosporin. Therefore, there is correlation between antibiotic exposure in early life and obesity in humans, but whether or not there is a causal relationship remains unclear. Although there is a correlation between antibiotic use in early life and obesity, the effect of antibiotics on obesity in humans needs to be weighed against the beneficial effects of clinically indicated treatment with antibiotics in infancy. | What is one common result of using genes from a young age? | What is one common result of using genes from a young age? | [
"What is one common result of using genes from a young age?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12306 | 5a65bfbec2b11c001a425d30 | Antibiotics | Exposure to antibiotics early in life is associated with increased body mass in humans and mouse models. Early life is a critical period for the establishment of the intestinal microbiota and for metabolic development. Mice exposed to subtherapeutic antibiotic treatment (STAT)– with either penicillin, vancomycin, penicillin and vancomycin, or chlortetracycline had altered composition of the gut microbiota as well as its metabolic capabilities. Moreover, research have shown that mice given low-dose penicillin (1 μg/g body weight) around birth and throughout the weaning process had an increased body mass and fat mass, accelerated growth, and increased hepatic expression of genes involved in adipogenesis, compared to controlled mice. In addition, penicillin in combination with a high-fat diet increased fasting insulin levels in mice. However, it is unclear whether or not antibiotics cause obesity in humans. Studies have found a correlation between early exposure of antibiotics (<6 months) and increased body mass (at 10 and 20 months). Another study found that the type of antibiotic exposure was also significant with the highest risk of being overweight in those given macrolides compared to penicillin and cephalosporin. Therefore, there is correlation between antibiotic exposure in early life and obesity in humans, but whether or not there is a causal relationship remains unclear. Although there is a correlation between antibiotic use in early life and obesity, the effect of antibiotics on obesity in humans needs to be weighed against the beneficial effects of clinically indicated treatment with antibiotics in infancy. | What are some microbiota that can be used for STAT? | What are some microbiota that can be used for STAT? | [
"What are some microbiota that can be used for STAT?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12307 | 5a65bfbec2b11c001a425d31 | Antibiotics | Exposure to antibiotics early in life is associated with increased body mass in humans and mouse models. Early life is a critical period for the establishment of the intestinal microbiota and for metabolic development. Mice exposed to subtherapeutic antibiotic treatment (STAT)– with either penicillin, vancomycin, penicillin and vancomycin, or chlortetracycline had altered composition of the gut microbiota as well as its metabolic capabilities. Moreover, research have shown that mice given low-dose penicillin (1 μg/g body weight) around birth and throughout the weaning process had an increased body mass and fat mass, accelerated growth, and increased hepatic expression of genes involved in adipogenesis, compared to controlled mice. In addition, penicillin in combination with a high-fat diet increased fasting insulin levels in mice. However, it is unclear whether or not antibiotics cause obesity in humans. Studies have found a correlation between early exposure of antibiotics (<6 months) and increased body mass (at 10 and 20 months). Another study found that the type of antibiotic exposure was also significant with the highest risk of being overweight in those given macrolides compared to penicillin and cephalosporin. Therefore, there is correlation between antibiotic exposure in early life and obesity in humans, but whether or not there is a causal relationship remains unclear. Although there is a correlation between antibiotic use in early life and obesity, the effect of antibiotics on obesity in humans needs to be weighed against the beneficial effects of clinically indicated treatment with antibiotics in infancy. | Do antibiotics cause fasting in humans? | Do antibiotics cause fasting in humans? | [
"Do antibiotics cause fasting in humans?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12308 | 5a65bfbec2b11c001a425d32 | Antibiotics | Exposure to antibiotics early in life is associated with increased body mass in humans and mouse models. Early life is a critical period for the establishment of the intestinal microbiota and for metabolic development. Mice exposed to subtherapeutic antibiotic treatment (STAT)– with either penicillin, vancomycin, penicillin and vancomycin, or chlortetracycline had altered composition of the gut microbiota as well as its metabolic capabilities. Moreover, research have shown that mice given low-dose penicillin (1 μg/g body weight) around birth and throughout the weaning process had an increased body mass and fat mass, accelerated growth, and increased hepatic expression of genes involved in adipogenesis, compared to controlled mice. In addition, penicillin in combination with a high-fat diet increased fasting insulin levels in mice. However, it is unclear whether or not antibiotics cause obesity in humans. Studies have found a correlation between early exposure of antibiotics (<6 months) and increased body mass (at 10 and 20 months). Another study found that the type of antibiotic exposure was also significant with the highest risk of being overweight in those given macrolides compared to penicillin and cephalosporin. Therefore, there is correlation between antibiotic exposure in early life and obesity in humans, but whether or not there is a causal relationship remains unclear. Although there is a correlation between antibiotic use in early life and obesity, the effect of antibiotics on obesity in humans needs to be weighed against the beneficial effects of clinically indicated treatment with antibiotics in infancy. | Why do physicians use antibiotics on mice when the relationship has been proven? | Why do physicians use antibiotics on mice when the relationship has been proven? | [
"Why do physicians use antibiotics on mice when the relationship has been proven?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12309 | 5a65bfbec2b11c001a425d33 | Antibiotics | Exposure to antibiotics early in life is associated with increased body mass in humans and mouse models. Early life is a critical period for the establishment of the intestinal microbiota and for metabolic development. Mice exposed to subtherapeutic antibiotic treatment (STAT)– with either penicillin, vancomycin, penicillin and vancomycin, or chlortetracycline had altered composition of the gut microbiota as well as its metabolic capabilities. Moreover, research have shown that mice given low-dose penicillin (1 μg/g body weight) around birth and throughout the weaning process had an increased body mass and fat mass, accelerated growth, and increased hepatic expression of genes involved in adipogenesis, compared to controlled mice. In addition, penicillin in combination with a high-fat diet increased fasting insulin levels in mice. However, it is unclear whether or not antibiotics cause obesity in humans. Studies have found a correlation between early exposure of antibiotics (<6 months) and increased body mass (at 10 and 20 months). Another study found that the type of antibiotic exposure was also significant with the highest risk of being overweight in those given macrolides compared to penicillin and cephalosporin. Therefore, there is correlation between antibiotic exposure in early life and obesity in humans, but whether or not there is a causal relationship remains unclear. Although there is a correlation between antibiotic use in early life and obesity, the effect of antibiotics on obesity in humans needs to be weighed against the beneficial effects of clinically indicated treatment with antibiotics in infancy. | When do models develop? | When do models develop? | [
"When do models develop?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12310 | 57302106a23a5019007fcdf7 | Antibiotics | The majority of studies indicate antibiotics do interfere with contraceptive pills, such as clinical studies that suggest the failure rate of contraceptive pills caused by antibiotics is very low (about 1%). In cases where antibacterials have been suggested to affect the efficiency of birth control pills, such as for the broad-spectrum antibacterial rifampicin, these cases may be due to an increase in the activities of hepatic liver enzymes' causing increased breakdown of the pill's active ingredients. Effects on the intestinal flora, which might result in reduced absorption of estrogens in the colon, have also been suggested, but such suggestions have been inconclusive and controversial. Clinicians have recommended that extra contraceptive measures be applied during therapies using antibacterials that are suspected to interact with oral contraceptives. | Do antibiotics interact with birth control pills? | Do antibiotics interact with birth control pills? | [
"Do antibiotics interact with birth control pills?"
] | {
"text": [
"The majority of studies indicate antibiotics do interfere with contraceptive pills"
],
"answer_start": [
0
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12311 | 57302106a23a5019007fcdf8 | Antibiotics | The majority of studies indicate antibiotics do interfere with contraceptive pills, such as clinical studies that suggest the failure rate of contraceptive pills caused by antibiotics is very low (about 1%). In cases where antibacterials have been suggested to affect the efficiency of birth control pills, such as for the broad-spectrum antibacterial rifampicin, these cases may be due to an increase in the activities of hepatic liver enzymes' causing increased breakdown of the pill's active ingredients. Effects on the intestinal flora, which might result in reduced absorption of estrogens in the colon, have also been suggested, but such suggestions have been inconclusive and controversial. Clinicians have recommended that extra contraceptive measures be applied during therapies using antibacterials that are suspected to interact with oral contraceptives. | What percentage of birth control pill failure is attributed to antibiotics? | What percentage of birth control pill failure is attributed to antibiotics? | [
"What percentage of birth control pill failure is attributed to antibiotics?"
] | {
"text": [
"about 1%"
],
"answer_start": [
197
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12312 | 57302106a23a5019007fcdf9 | Antibiotics | The majority of studies indicate antibiotics do interfere with contraceptive pills, such as clinical studies that suggest the failure rate of contraceptive pills caused by antibiotics is very low (about 1%). In cases where antibacterials have been suggested to affect the efficiency of birth control pills, such as for the broad-spectrum antibacterial rifampicin, these cases may be due to an increase in the activities of hepatic liver enzymes' causing increased breakdown of the pill's active ingredients. Effects on the intestinal flora, which might result in reduced absorption of estrogens in the colon, have also been suggested, but such suggestions have been inconclusive and controversial. Clinicians have recommended that extra contraceptive measures be applied during therapies using antibacterials that are suspected to interact with oral contraceptives. | What are the potential effects on intestinal flora? | What are the potential effects on intestinal flora? | [
"What are the potential effects on intestinal flora?"
] | {
"text": [
"reduced absorption of estrogens in the colon"
],
"answer_start": [
563
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12313 | 57302106a23a5019007fcdfa | Antibiotics | The majority of studies indicate antibiotics do interfere with contraceptive pills, such as clinical studies that suggest the failure rate of contraceptive pills caused by antibiotics is very low (about 1%). In cases where antibacterials have been suggested to affect the efficiency of birth control pills, such as for the broad-spectrum antibacterial rifampicin, these cases may be due to an increase in the activities of hepatic liver enzymes' causing increased breakdown of the pill's active ingredients. Effects on the intestinal flora, which might result in reduced absorption of estrogens in the colon, have also been suggested, but such suggestions have been inconclusive and controversial. Clinicians have recommended that extra contraceptive measures be applied during therapies using antibacterials that are suspected to interact with oral contraceptives. | Have these potential effects been proven through testing? | Have these potential effects been proven through testing? | [
"Have these potential effects been proven through testing?"
] | {
"text": [
"inconclusive and controversial"
],
"answer_start": [
666
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12314 | 57302106a23a5019007fcdfb | Antibiotics | The majority of studies indicate antibiotics do interfere with contraceptive pills, such as clinical studies that suggest the failure rate of contraceptive pills caused by antibiotics is very low (about 1%). In cases where antibacterials have been suggested to affect the efficiency of birth control pills, such as for the broad-spectrum antibacterial rifampicin, these cases may be due to an increase in the activities of hepatic liver enzymes' causing increased breakdown of the pill's active ingredients. Effects on the intestinal flora, which might result in reduced absorption of estrogens in the colon, have also been suggested, but such suggestions have been inconclusive and controversial. Clinicians have recommended that extra contraceptive measures be applied during therapies using antibacterials that are suspected to interact with oral contraceptives. | What do physicians recommend to counteract this potential issue? | What do physicians recommend to counteract this potential issue? | [
"What do physicians recommend to counteract this potential issue?"
] | {
"text": [
"extra contraceptive measures"
],
"answer_start": [
731
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12315 | 5731bd47e99e3014001e6236 | Antibiotics | The majority of studies indicate antibiotics do interfere with contraceptive pills, such as clinical studies that suggest the failure rate of contraceptive pills caused by antibiotics is very low (about 1%). In cases where antibacterials have been suggested to affect the efficiency of birth control pills, such as for the broad-spectrum antibacterial rifampicin, these cases may be due to an increase in the activities of hepatic liver enzymes' causing increased breakdown of the pill's active ingredients. Effects on the intestinal flora, which might result in reduced absorption of estrogens in the colon, have also been suggested, but such suggestions have been inconclusive and controversial. Clinicians have recommended that extra contraceptive measures be applied during therapies using antibacterials that are suspected to interact with oral contraceptives. | What do antibiotics interfere with? | What do antibiotics interfere with? | [
"What do antibiotics interfere with?"
] | {
"text": [
"contraceptive pills"
],
"answer_start": [
63
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12316 | 5731bd47e99e3014001e6237 | Antibiotics | The majority of studies indicate antibiotics do interfere with contraceptive pills, such as clinical studies that suggest the failure rate of contraceptive pills caused by antibiotics is very low (about 1%). In cases where antibacterials have been suggested to affect the efficiency of birth control pills, such as for the broad-spectrum antibacterial rifampicin, these cases may be due to an increase in the activities of hepatic liver enzymes' causing increased breakdown of the pill's active ingredients. Effects on the intestinal flora, which might result in reduced absorption of estrogens in the colon, have also been suggested, but such suggestions have been inconclusive and controversial. Clinicians have recommended that extra contraceptive measures be applied during therapies using antibacterials that are suspected to interact with oral contraceptives. | What percent is the failure rate of contraceptive pills? | What percent is the failure rate of contraceptive pills? | [
"What percent is the failure rate of contraceptive pills?"
] | {
"text": [
"about 1%"
],
"answer_start": [
197
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12317 | 5731bd47e99e3014001e6238 | Antibiotics | The majority of studies indicate antibiotics do interfere with contraceptive pills, such as clinical studies that suggest the failure rate of contraceptive pills caused by antibiotics is very low (about 1%). In cases where antibacterials have been suggested to affect the efficiency of birth control pills, such as for the broad-spectrum antibacterial rifampicin, these cases may be due to an increase in the activities of hepatic liver enzymes' causing increased breakdown of the pill's active ingredients. Effects on the intestinal flora, which might result in reduced absorption of estrogens in the colon, have also been suggested, but such suggestions have been inconclusive and controversial. Clinicians have recommended that extra contraceptive measures be applied during therapies using antibacterials that are suspected to interact with oral contraceptives. | Whhat does intestinal flora reduce? | Whhat does intestinal flora reduce? | [
"Whhat does intestinal flora reduce?"
] | {
"text": [
"absorption of estrogens"
],
"answer_start": [
571
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12318 | 5731bd47e99e3014001e6239 | Antibiotics | The majority of studies indicate antibiotics do interfere with contraceptive pills, such as clinical studies that suggest the failure rate of contraceptive pills caused by antibiotics is very low (about 1%). In cases where antibacterials have been suggested to affect the efficiency of birth control pills, such as for the broad-spectrum antibacterial rifampicin, these cases may be due to an increase in the activities of hepatic liver enzymes' causing increased breakdown of the pill's active ingredients. Effects on the intestinal flora, which might result in reduced absorption of estrogens in the colon, have also been suggested, but such suggestions have been inconclusive and controversial. Clinicians have recommended that extra contraceptive measures be applied during therapies using antibacterials that are suspected to interact with oral contraceptives. | In therapy, what does the antibacterial interact with? | In therapy, what does the antibacterial interact with? | [
"In therapy, what does the antibacterial interact with?"
] | {
"text": [
"oral contraceptives"
],
"answer_start": [
845
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12319 | 573296880342181400a2027d | Antibiotics | The majority of studies indicate antibiotics do interfere with contraceptive pills, such as clinical studies that suggest the failure rate of contraceptive pills caused by antibiotics is very low (about 1%). In cases where antibacterials have been suggested to affect the efficiency of birth control pills, such as for the broad-spectrum antibacterial rifampicin, these cases may be due to an increase in the activities of hepatic liver enzymes' causing increased breakdown of the pill's active ingredients. Effects on the intestinal flora, which might result in reduced absorption of estrogens in the colon, have also been suggested, but such suggestions have been inconclusive and controversial. Clinicians have recommended that extra contraceptive measures be applied during therapies using antibacterials that are suspected to interact with oral contraceptives. | Do antibiotics mess with birth control pills? | Do antibiotics mess with birth control pills? | [
"Do antibiotics mess with birth control pills?"
] | {
"text": [
"antibiotics do interfere"
],
"answer_start": [
33
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12320 | 573296880342181400a2027e | Antibiotics | The majority of studies indicate antibiotics do interfere with contraceptive pills, such as clinical studies that suggest the failure rate of contraceptive pills caused by antibiotics is very low (about 1%). In cases where antibacterials have been suggested to affect the efficiency of birth control pills, such as for the broad-spectrum antibacterial rifampicin, these cases may be due to an increase in the activities of hepatic liver enzymes' causing increased breakdown of the pill's active ingredients. Effects on the intestinal flora, which might result in reduced absorption of estrogens in the colon, have also been suggested, but such suggestions have been inconclusive and controversial. Clinicians have recommended that extra contraceptive measures be applied during therapies using antibacterials that are suspected to interact with oral contraceptives. | What is birth control failure rate due to antibiotics? | What is birth control failure rate due to antibiotics? | [
"What is birth control failure rate due to antibiotics?"
] | {
"text": [
"about 1%"
],
"answer_start": [
197
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12321 | 573296880342181400a2027f | Antibiotics | The majority of studies indicate antibiotics do interfere with contraceptive pills, such as clinical studies that suggest the failure rate of contraceptive pills caused by antibiotics is very low (about 1%). In cases where antibacterials have been suggested to affect the efficiency of birth control pills, such as for the broad-spectrum antibacterial rifampicin, these cases may be due to an increase in the activities of hepatic liver enzymes' causing increased breakdown of the pill's active ingredients. Effects on the intestinal flora, which might result in reduced absorption of estrogens in the colon, have also been suggested, but such suggestions have been inconclusive and controversial. Clinicians have recommended that extra contraceptive measures be applied during therapies using antibacterials that are suspected to interact with oral contraceptives. | What should women do if they are using antibiotics and birth control pills? | What should women do if they are using antibiotics and birth control pills? | [
"What should women do if they are using antibiotics and birth control pills?"
] | {
"text": [
"extra contraceptive measures"
],
"answer_start": [
731
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12322 | 5a65c185c2b11c001a425d39 | Antibiotics | The majority of studies indicate antibiotics do interfere with contraceptive pills, such as clinical studies that suggest the failure rate of contraceptive pills caused by antibiotics is very low (about 1%). In cases where antibacterials have been suggested to affect the efficiency of birth control pills, such as for the broad-spectrum antibacterial rifampicin, these cases may be due to an increase in the activities of hepatic liver enzymes' causing increased breakdown of the pill's active ingredients. Effects on the intestinal flora, which might result in reduced absorption of estrogens in the colon, have also been suggested, but such suggestions have been inconclusive and controversial. Clinicians have recommended that extra contraceptive measures be applied during therapies using antibacterials that are suspected to interact with oral contraceptives. | Do antibiotics interact with intestinal flora? | Do antibiotics interact with intestinal flora? | [
"Do antibiotics interact with intestinal flora?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12323 | 5a65c185c2b11c001a425d3a | Antibiotics | The majority of studies indicate antibiotics do interfere with contraceptive pills, such as clinical studies that suggest the failure rate of contraceptive pills caused by antibiotics is very low (about 1%). In cases where antibacterials have been suggested to affect the efficiency of birth control pills, such as for the broad-spectrum antibacterial rifampicin, these cases may be due to an increase in the activities of hepatic liver enzymes' causing increased breakdown of the pill's active ingredients. Effects on the intestinal flora, which might result in reduced absorption of estrogens in the colon, have also been suggested, but such suggestions have been inconclusive and controversial. Clinicians have recommended that extra contraceptive measures be applied during therapies using antibacterials that are suspected to interact with oral contraceptives. | What percentage of birth control pill failure is attributed to estrogens? | What percentage of birth control pill failure is attributed to estrogens? | [
"What percentage of birth control pill failure is attributed to estrogens?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12324 | 5a65c185c2b11c001a425d3b | Antibiotics | The majority of studies indicate antibiotics do interfere with contraceptive pills, such as clinical studies that suggest the failure rate of contraceptive pills caused by antibiotics is very low (about 1%). In cases where antibacterials have been suggested to affect the efficiency of birth control pills, such as for the broad-spectrum antibacterial rifampicin, these cases may be due to an increase in the activities of hepatic liver enzymes' causing increased breakdown of the pill's active ingredients. Effects on the intestinal flora, which might result in reduced absorption of estrogens in the colon, have also been suggested, but such suggestions have been inconclusive and controversial. Clinicians have recommended that extra contraceptive measures be applied during therapies using antibacterials that are suspected to interact with oral contraceptives. | What are the potential effects on antibacterials? | What are the potential effects on antibacterials? | [
"What are the potential effects on antibacterials?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12325 | 5a65c185c2b11c001a425d3c | Antibiotics | The majority of studies indicate antibiotics do interfere with contraceptive pills, such as clinical studies that suggest the failure rate of contraceptive pills caused by antibiotics is very low (about 1%). In cases where antibacterials have been suggested to affect the efficiency of birth control pills, such as for the broad-spectrum antibacterial rifampicin, these cases may be due to an increase in the activities of hepatic liver enzymes' causing increased breakdown of the pill's active ingredients. Effects on the intestinal flora, which might result in reduced absorption of estrogens in the colon, have also been suggested, but such suggestions have been inconclusive and controversial. Clinicians have recommended that extra contraceptive measures be applied during therapies using antibacterials that are suspected to interact with oral contraceptives. | What do control pills recommend to counteract this potential issue? | What do control pills recommend to counteract this potential issue? | [
"What do control pills recommend to counteract this potential issue?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12326 | 5a65c185c2b11c001a425d3d | Antibiotics | The majority of studies indicate antibiotics do interfere with contraceptive pills, such as clinical studies that suggest the failure rate of contraceptive pills caused by antibiotics is very low (about 1%). In cases where antibacterials have been suggested to affect the efficiency of birth control pills, such as for the broad-spectrum antibacterial rifampicin, these cases may be due to an increase in the activities of hepatic liver enzymes' causing increased breakdown of the pill's active ingredients. Effects on the intestinal flora, which might result in reduced absorption of estrogens in the colon, have also been suggested, but such suggestions have been inconclusive and controversial. Clinicians have recommended that extra contraceptive measures be applied during therapies using antibacterials that are suspected to interact with oral contraceptives. | What do oral contraceptives reduce? | What do oral contraceptives reduce? | [
"What do oral contraceptives reduce?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12327 | 57302230a23a5019007fce13 | Antibiotics | Interactions between alcohol and certain antibiotics may occur and may cause side-effects and decreased effectiveness of antibiotic therapy. While moderate alcohol consumption is unlikely to interfere with many common antibiotics, there are specific types of antibiotics with which alcohol consumption may cause serious side-effects. Therefore, potential risks of side-effects and effectiveness depend on the type of antibiotic administered. Despite the lack of a categorical counterindication, the belief that alcohol and antibiotics should never be mixed is widespread. | What is one potential issue with drinking alcohol while taking antibiotics? | What is one potential issue with drinking alcohol while taking antibiotics? | [
"What is one potential issue with drinking alcohol while taking antibiotics?"
] | {
"text": [
"decreased effectiveness"
],
"answer_start": [
94
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12328 | 57302230a23a5019007fce14 | Antibiotics | Interactions between alcohol and certain antibiotics may occur and may cause side-effects and decreased effectiveness of antibiotic therapy. While moderate alcohol consumption is unlikely to interfere with many common antibiotics, there are specific types of antibiotics with which alcohol consumption may cause serious side-effects. Therefore, potential risks of side-effects and effectiveness depend on the type of antibiotic administered. Despite the lack of a categorical counterindication, the belief that alcohol and antibiotics should never be mixed is widespread. | Do all antibiotics interact dangerously with alcohol? | Do all antibiotics interact dangerously with alcohol? | [
"Do all antibiotics interact dangerously with alcohol?"
] | {
"text": [
"moderate alcohol consumption is unlikely to interfere with many common antibiotics"
],
"answer_start": [
147
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12329 | 57302230a23a5019007fce15 | Antibiotics | Interactions between alcohol and certain antibiotics may occur and may cause side-effects and decreased effectiveness of antibiotic therapy. While moderate alcohol consumption is unlikely to interfere with many common antibiotics, there are specific types of antibiotics with which alcohol consumption may cause serious side-effects. Therefore, potential risks of side-effects and effectiveness depend on the type of antibiotic administered. Despite the lack of a categorical counterindication, the belief that alcohol and antibiotics should never be mixed is widespread. | Is it OK to drink alcohol while taking any antibiotic? | Is it OK to drink alcohol while taking any antibiotic? | [
"Is it OK to drink alcohol while taking any antibiotic?"
] | {
"text": [
"there are specific types of antibiotics with which alcohol consumption may cause serious side-effects"
],
"answer_start": [
231
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12330 | 57302230a23a5019007fce16 | Antibiotics | Interactions between alcohol and certain antibiotics may occur and may cause side-effects and decreased effectiveness of antibiotic therapy. While moderate alcohol consumption is unlikely to interfere with many common antibiotics, there are specific types of antibiotics with which alcohol consumption may cause serious side-effects. Therefore, potential risks of side-effects and effectiveness depend on the type of antibiotic administered. Despite the lack of a categorical counterindication, the belief that alcohol and antibiotics should never be mixed is widespread. | How common is the belief that alcohol and antibiotics should never be mixed? | How common is the belief that alcohol and antibiotics should never be mixed? | [
"How common is the belief that alcohol and antibiotics should never be mixed?"
] | {
"text": [
"widespread"
],
"answer_start": [
560
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12331 | 5731be590fdd8d15006c64e1 | Antibiotics | Interactions between alcohol and certain antibiotics may occur and may cause side-effects and decreased effectiveness of antibiotic therapy. While moderate alcohol consumption is unlikely to interfere with many common antibiotics, there are specific types of antibiotics with which alcohol consumption may cause serious side-effects. Therefore, potential risks of side-effects and effectiveness depend on the type of antibiotic administered. Despite the lack of a categorical counterindication, the belief that alcohol and antibiotics should never be mixed is widespread. | What can alcohol and certain antibiotics cause? | What can alcohol and certain antibiotics cause? | [
"What can alcohol and certain antibiotics cause?"
] | {
"text": [
"decreased effectiveness of antibiotic therapy"
],
"answer_start": [
94
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12332 | 5731be590fdd8d15006c64e2 | Antibiotics | Interactions between alcohol and certain antibiotics may occur and may cause side-effects and decreased effectiveness of antibiotic therapy. While moderate alcohol consumption is unlikely to interfere with many common antibiotics, there are specific types of antibiotics with which alcohol consumption may cause serious side-effects. Therefore, potential risks of side-effects and effectiveness depend on the type of antibiotic administered. Despite the lack of a categorical counterindication, the belief that alcohol and antibiotics should never be mixed is widespread. | What is unlikely to interfere with with many common antibiotics? | What is unlikely to interfere with with many common antibiotics? | [
"What is unlikely to interfere with with many common antibiotics?"
] | {
"text": [
"alcohol consumption"
],
"answer_start": [
156
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12333 | 5731be590fdd8d15006c64e3 | Antibiotics | Interactions between alcohol and certain antibiotics may occur and may cause side-effects and decreased effectiveness of antibiotic therapy. While moderate alcohol consumption is unlikely to interfere with many common antibiotics, there are specific types of antibiotics with which alcohol consumption may cause serious side-effects. Therefore, potential risks of side-effects and effectiveness depend on the type of antibiotic administered. Despite the lack of a categorical counterindication, the belief that alcohol and antibiotics should never be mixed is widespread. | What belief should bever be mixed widespread? | What belief should bever be mixed widespread? | [
"What belief should bever be mixed widespread?"
] | {
"text": [
"alcohol and antibiotics"
],
"answer_start": [
511
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12334 | 573299421d5d2e14009ff861 | Antibiotics | Interactions between alcohol and certain antibiotics may occur and may cause side-effects and decreased effectiveness of antibiotic therapy. While moderate alcohol consumption is unlikely to interfere with many common antibiotics, there are specific types of antibiotics with which alcohol consumption may cause serious side-effects. Therefore, potential risks of side-effects and effectiveness depend on the type of antibiotic administered. Despite the lack of a categorical counterindication, the belief that alcohol and antibiotics should never be mixed is widespread. | What common drug can reduce antibiotic effectiveness? | What common drug can reduce antibiotic effectiveness? | [
"What common drug can reduce antibiotic effectiveness?"
] | {
"text": [
"alcohol"
],
"answer_start": [
21
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12335 | 573299421d5d2e14009ff862 | Antibiotics | Interactions between alcohol and certain antibiotics may occur and may cause side-effects and decreased effectiveness of antibiotic therapy. While moderate alcohol consumption is unlikely to interfere with many common antibiotics, there are specific types of antibiotics with which alcohol consumption may cause serious side-effects. Therefore, potential risks of side-effects and effectiveness depend on the type of antibiotic administered. Despite the lack of a categorical counterindication, the belief that alcohol and antibiotics should never be mixed is widespread. | What type of antibiotic is most likely to be a problem with alcohol? | What type of antibiotic is most likely to be a problem with alcohol? | [
"What type of antibiotic is most likely to be a problem with alcohol?"
] | {
"text": [
"specific types of antibiotics with which alcohol consumption may cause serious side-effects"
],
"answer_start": [
241
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12336 | 573299421d5d2e14009ff863 | Antibiotics | Interactions between alcohol and certain antibiotics may occur and may cause side-effects and decreased effectiveness of antibiotic therapy. While moderate alcohol consumption is unlikely to interfere with many common antibiotics, there are specific types of antibiotics with which alcohol consumption may cause serious side-effects. Therefore, potential risks of side-effects and effectiveness depend on the type of antibiotic administered. Despite the lack of a categorical counterindication, the belief that alcohol and antibiotics should never be mixed is widespread. | Should alcohol be used while on antibiotics? | Should alcohol be used while on antibiotics? | [
"Should alcohol be used while on antibiotics?"
] | {
"text": [
"alcohol and antibiotics should never be mixed"
],
"answer_start": [
511
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12337 | 5a65c323c2b11c001a425d43 | Antibiotics | Interactions between alcohol and certain antibiotics may occur and may cause side-effects and decreased effectiveness of antibiotic therapy. While moderate alcohol consumption is unlikely to interfere with many common antibiotics, there are specific types of antibiotics with which alcohol consumption may cause serious side-effects. Therefore, potential risks of side-effects and effectiveness depend on the type of antibiotic administered. Despite the lack of a categorical counterindication, the belief that alcohol and antibiotics should never be mixed is widespread. | What is one potential issue with drinking alcohols while in therapy? | What is one potential issue with drinking alcohols while in therapy? | [
"What is one potential issue with drinking alcohols while in therapy?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12338 | 5a65c323c2b11c001a425d44 | Antibiotics | Interactions between alcohol and certain antibiotics may occur and may cause side-effects and decreased effectiveness of antibiotic therapy. While moderate alcohol consumption is unlikely to interfere with many common antibiotics, there are specific types of antibiotics with which alcohol consumption may cause serious side-effects. Therefore, potential risks of side-effects and effectiveness depend on the type of antibiotic administered. Despite the lack of a categorical counterindication, the belief that alcohol and antibiotics should never be mixed is widespread. | Do all antibiotics interact dangerously with conterindication? | Do all antibiotics interact dangerously with conterindication? | [
"Do all antibiotics interact dangerously with conterindication?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12339 | 5a65c323c2b11c001a425d45 | Antibiotics | Interactions between alcohol and certain antibiotics may occur and may cause side-effects and decreased effectiveness of antibiotic therapy. While moderate alcohol consumption is unlikely to interfere with many common antibiotics, there are specific types of antibiotics with which alcohol consumption may cause serious side-effects. Therefore, potential risks of side-effects and effectiveness depend on the type of antibiotic administered. Despite the lack of a categorical counterindication, the belief that alcohol and antibiotics should never be mixed is widespread. | Is it OK to drink alcohol while taking any risks? | Is it OK to drink alcohol while taking any risks? | [
"Is it OK to drink alcohol while taking any risks?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12340 | 5a65c323c2b11c001a425d46 | Antibiotics | Interactions between alcohol and certain antibiotics may occur and may cause side-effects and decreased effectiveness of antibiotic therapy. While moderate alcohol consumption is unlikely to interfere with many common antibiotics, there are specific types of antibiotics with which alcohol consumption may cause serious side-effects. Therefore, potential risks of side-effects and effectiveness depend on the type of antibiotic administered. Despite the lack of a categorical counterindication, the belief that alcohol and antibiotics should never be mixed is widespread. | What is unlikely to interfere with many common side-effects? | What is unlikely to interfere with many common side-effects? | [
"What is unlikely to interfere with many common side-effects?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12341 | 5a65c323c2b11c001a425d47 | Antibiotics | Interactions between alcohol and certain antibiotics may occur and may cause side-effects and decreased effectiveness of antibiotic therapy. While moderate alcohol consumption is unlikely to interfere with many common antibiotics, there are specific types of antibiotics with which alcohol consumption may cause serious side-effects. Therefore, potential risks of side-effects and effectiveness depend on the type of antibiotic administered. Despite the lack of a categorical counterindication, the belief that alcohol and antibiotics should never be mixed is widespread. | What common drug can reduce interactions? | What common drug can reduce interactions? | [
"What common drug can reduce interactions?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12342 | 5731bff5e17f3d1400422397 | Antibiotics | The successful outcome of antimicrobial therapy with antibacterial compounds depends on several factors. These include host defense mechanisms, the location of infection, and the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of the antibacterial. A bactericidal activity of antibacterials may depend on the bacterial growth phase, and it often requires ongoing metabolic activity and division of bacterial cells. These findings are based on laboratory studies, and in clinical settings have also been shown to eliminate bacterial infection. Since the activity of antibacterials depends frequently on its concentration, in vitro characterization of antibacterial activity commonly includes the determination of the minimum inhibitory concentration and minimum bactericidal concentration of an antibacterial. To predict clinical outcome, the antimicrobial activity of an antibacterial is usually combined with its pharmacokinetic profile, and several pharmacological parameters are used as markers of drug efficacy. | What does the bactericidal activitty of antibacterials depend on what? | What does the bactericidal activitty of antibacterials depend on what? | [
"What does the bactericidal activitty of antibacterials depend on what?"
] | {
"text": [
"bacterial growth phase"
],
"answer_start": [
308
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12343 | 5731bff5e17f3d1400422398 | Antibiotics | The successful outcome of antimicrobial therapy with antibacterial compounds depends on several factors. These include host defense mechanisms, the location of infection, and the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of the antibacterial. A bactericidal activity of antibacterials may depend on the bacterial growth phase, and it often requires ongoing metabolic activity and division of bacterial cells. These findings are based on laboratory studies, and in clinical settings have also been shown to eliminate bacterial infection. Since the activity of antibacterials depends frequently on its concentration, in vitro characterization of antibacterial activity commonly includes the determination of the minimum inhibitory concentration and minimum bactericidal concentration of an antibacterial. To predict clinical outcome, the antimicrobial activity of an antibacterial is usually combined with its pharmacokinetic profile, and several pharmacological parameters are used as markers of drug efficacy. | What does this eliminate? | What does this eliminate? | [
"What does this eliminate?"
] | {
"text": [
"bacterial infection"
],
"answer_start": [
521
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12344 | 5731bff5e17f3d1400422399 | Antibiotics | The successful outcome of antimicrobial therapy with antibacterial compounds depends on several factors. These include host defense mechanisms, the location of infection, and the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of the antibacterial. A bactericidal activity of antibacterials may depend on the bacterial growth phase, and it often requires ongoing metabolic activity and division of bacterial cells. These findings are based on laboratory studies, and in clinical settings have also been shown to eliminate bacterial infection. Since the activity of antibacterials depends frequently on its concentration, in vitro characterization of antibacterial activity commonly includes the determination of the minimum inhibitory concentration and minimum bactericidal concentration of an antibacterial. To predict clinical outcome, the antimicrobial activity of an antibacterial is usually combined with its pharmacokinetic profile, and several pharmacological parameters are used as markers of drug efficacy. | What besides ongoing metabolic activity is required in bactericidal activity? | What besides ongoing metabolic activity is required in bactericidal activity? | [
"What besides ongoing metabolic activity is required in bactericidal activity?"
] | {
"text": [
"division of bacterial cells"
],
"answer_start": [
385
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12345 | 5731bff5e17f3d140042239a | Antibiotics | The successful outcome of antimicrobial therapy with antibacterial compounds depends on several factors. These include host defense mechanisms, the location of infection, and the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of the antibacterial. A bactericidal activity of antibacterials may depend on the bacterial growth phase, and it often requires ongoing metabolic activity and division of bacterial cells. These findings are based on laboratory studies, and in clinical settings have also been shown to eliminate bacterial infection. Since the activity of antibacterials depends frequently on its concentration, in vitro characterization of antibacterial activity commonly includes the determination of the minimum inhibitory concentration and minimum bactericidal concentration of an antibacterial. To predict clinical outcome, the antimicrobial activity of an antibacterial is usually combined with its pharmacokinetic profile, and several pharmacological parameters are used as markers of drug efficacy. | What does the activity of antibacterials depends on? | What does the activity of antibacterials depends on? | [
"What does the activity of antibacterials depends on?"
] | {
"text": [
"concentration"
],
"answer_start": [
605
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12346 | 5733b31dd058e614000b609e | Antibiotics | The successful outcome of antimicrobial therapy with antibacterial compounds depends on several factors. These include host defense mechanisms, the location of infection, and the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of the antibacterial. A bactericidal activity of antibacterials may depend on the bacterial growth phase, and it often requires ongoing metabolic activity and division of bacterial cells. These findings are based on laboratory studies, and in clinical settings have also been shown to eliminate bacterial infection. Since the activity of antibacterials depends frequently on its concentration, in vitro characterization of antibacterial activity commonly includes the determination of the minimum inhibitory concentration and minimum bactericidal concentration of an antibacterial. To predict clinical outcome, the antimicrobial activity of an antibacterial is usually combined with its pharmacokinetic profile, and several pharmacological parameters are used as markers of drug efficacy. | What does a successful treatment using antibiotics entail? | What does a successful treatment using antibiotics entail? | [
"What does a successful treatment using antibiotics entail?"
] | {
"text": [
"host defense mechanisms, the location of infection, and the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of the antibacterial"
],
"answer_start": [
119
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12347 | 5733b31dd058e614000b609f | Antibiotics | The successful outcome of antimicrobial therapy with antibacterial compounds depends on several factors. These include host defense mechanisms, the location of infection, and the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of the antibacterial. A bactericidal activity of antibacterials may depend on the bacterial growth phase, and it often requires ongoing metabolic activity and division of bacterial cells. These findings are based on laboratory studies, and in clinical settings have also been shown to eliminate bacterial infection. Since the activity of antibacterials depends frequently on its concentration, in vitro characterization of antibacterial activity commonly includes the determination of the minimum inhibitory concentration and minimum bactericidal concentration of an antibacterial. To predict clinical outcome, the antimicrobial activity of an antibacterial is usually combined with its pharmacokinetic profile, and several pharmacological parameters are used as markers of drug efficacy. | What does the potency of antibacterials depend upon? | What does the potency of antibacterials depend upon? | [
"What does the potency of antibacterials depend upon?"
] | {
"text": [
"concentration"
],
"answer_start": [
605
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12348 | 5733b31dd058e614000b60a0 | Antibiotics | The successful outcome of antimicrobial therapy with antibacterial compounds depends on several factors. These include host defense mechanisms, the location of infection, and the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of the antibacterial. A bactericidal activity of antibacterials may depend on the bacterial growth phase, and it often requires ongoing metabolic activity and division of bacterial cells. These findings are based on laboratory studies, and in clinical settings have also been shown to eliminate bacterial infection. Since the activity of antibacterials depends frequently on its concentration, in vitro characterization of antibacterial activity commonly includes the determination of the minimum inhibitory concentration and minimum bactericidal concentration of an antibacterial. To predict clinical outcome, the antimicrobial activity of an antibacterial is usually combined with its pharmacokinetic profile, and several pharmacological parameters are used as markers of drug efficacy. | How do you predict the clinical result? | How do you predict the clinical result? | [
"How do you predict the clinical result?"
] | {
"text": [
"several pharmacological parameters are used as markers of drug efficacy"
],
"answer_start": [
942
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12349 | 5a65cdabc2b11c001a425d4d | Antibiotics | The successful outcome of antimicrobial therapy with antibacterial compounds depends on several factors. These include host defense mechanisms, the location of infection, and the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of the antibacterial. A bactericidal activity of antibacterials may depend on the bacterial growth phase, and it often requires ongoing metabolic activity and division of bacterial cells. These findings are based on laboratory studies, and in clinical settings have also been shown to eliminate bacterial infection. Since the activity of antibacterials depends frequently on its concentration, in vitro characterization of antibacterial activity commonly includes the determination of the minimum inhibitory concentration and minimum bactericidal concentration of an antibacterial. To predict clinical outcome, the antimicrobial activity of an antibacterial is usually combined with its pharmacokinetic profile, and several pharmacological parameters are used as markers of drug efficacy. | What does the infection activity of antibacterials depends on? | What does the infection activity of antibacterials depends on? | [
"What does the infection activity of antibacterials depends on?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12350 | 5a65cdabc2b11c001a425d4e | Antibiotics | The successful outcome of antimicrobial therapy with antibacterial compounds depends on several factors. These include host defense mechanisms, the location of infection, and the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of the antibacterial. A bactericidal activity of antibacterials may depend on the bacterial growth phase, and it often requires ongoing metabolic activity and division of bacterial cells. These findings are based on laboratory studies, and in clinical settings have also been shown to eliminate bacterial infection. Since the activity of antibacterials depends frequently on its concentration, in vitro characterization of antibacterial activity commonly includes the determination of the minimum inhibitory concentration and minimum bactericidal concentration of an antibacterial. To predict clinical outcome, the antimicrobial activity of an antibacterial is usually combined with its pharmacokinetic profile, and several pharmacological parameters are used as markers of drug efficacy. | What besides ongoing metabolic activity is required in drug efficacy? | What besides ongoing metabolic activity is required in drug efficacy? | [
"What besides ongoing metabolic activity is required in drug efficacy?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12351 | 5a65cdabc2b11c001a425d4f | Antibiotics | The successful outcome of antimicrobial therapy with antibacterial compounds depends on several factors. These include host defense mechanisms, the location of infection, and the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of the antibacterial. A bactericidal activity of antibacterials may depend on the bacterial growth phase, and it often requires ongoing metabolic activity and division of bacterial cells. These findings are based on laboratory studies, and in clinical settings have also been shown to eliminate bacterial infection. Since the activity of antibacterials depends frequently on its concentration, in vitro characterization of antibacterial activity commonly includes the determination of the minimum inhibitory concentration and minimum bactericidal concentration of an antibacterial. To predict clinical outcome, the antimicrobial activity of an antibacterial is usually combined with its pharmacokinetic profile, and several pharmacological parameters are used as markers of drug efficacy. | What does the activity of defense mechanisms depend on? | What does the activity of defense mechanisms depend on? | [
"What does the activity of defense mechanisms depend on?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12352 | 5a65cdabc2b11c001a425d50 | Antibiotics | The successful outcome of antimicrobial therapy with antibacterial compounds depends on several factors. These include host defense mechanisms, the location of infection, and the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of the antibacterial. A bactericidal activity of antibacterials may depend on the bacterial growth phase, and it often requires ongoing metabolic activity and division of bacterial cells. These findings are based on laboratory studies, and in clinical settings have also been shown to eliminate bacterial infection. Since the activity of antibacterials depends frequently on its concentration, in vitro characterization of antibacterial activity commonly includes the determination of the minimum inhibitory concentration and minimum bactericidal concentration of an antibacterial. To predict clinical outcome, the antimicrobial activity of an antibacterial is usually combined with its pharmacokinetic profile, and several pharmacological parameters are used as markers of drug efficacy. | What does a successful treatment using pharmacological parameters entail? | What does a successful treatment using pharmacological parameters entail? | [
"What does a successful treatment using pharmacological parameters entail?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12353 | 5a65cdabc2b11c001a425d51 | Antibiotics | The successful outcome of antimicrobial therapy with antibacterial compounds depends on several factors. These include host defense mechanisms, the location of infection, and the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of the antibacterial. A bactericidal activity of antibacterials may depend on the bacterial growth phase, and it often requires ongoing metabolic activity and division of bacterial cells. These findings are based on laboratory studies, and in clinical settings have also been shown to eliminate bacterial infection. Since the activity of antibacterials depends frequently on its concentration, in vitro characterization of antibacterial activity commonly includes the determination of the minimum inhibitory concentration and minimum bactericidal concentration of an antibacterial. To predict clinical outcome, the antimicrobial activity of an antibacterial is usually combined with its pharmacokinetic profile, and several pharmacological parameters are used as markers of drug efficacy. | How do you predict the cell division? | How do you predict the cell division? | [
"How do you predict the cell division?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12354 | 5731c1260fdd8d15006c6503 | Antibiotics | Antibacterial antibiotics are commonly classified based on their mechanism of action, chemical structure, or spectrum of activity. Most target bacterial functions or growth processes. Those that target the bacterial cell wall (penicillins and cephalosporins) or the cell membrane (polymyxins), or interfere with essential bacterial enzymes (rifamycins, lipiarmycins, quinolones, and sulfonamides) have bactericidal activities. Those that target protein synthesis (macrolides, lincosamides and tetracyclines) are usually bacteriostatic (with the exception of bactericidal aminoglycosides). Further categorization is based on their target specificity. "Narrow-spectrum" antibacterial antibiotics target specific types of bacteria, such as Gram-negative or Gram-positive bacteria, whereas broad-spectrum antibiotics affect a wide range of bacteria. Following a 40-year hiatus in discovering new classes of antibacterial compounds, four new classes of antibacterial antibiotics have been brought into clinical use in the late 2000s and early 2010s: cyclic lipopeptides (such as daptomycin), glycylcyclines (such as tigecycline), oxazolidinones (such as linezolid), and lipiarmycins (such as fidaxomicin). | Besides sprectrum of activity and chemical structure, how can antibacterial antibiotics classified? | Besides sprectrum of activity and chemical structure, how can antibacterial antibiotics classified? | [
"Besides sprectrum of activity and chemical structure, how can antibacterial antibiotics classified?"
] | {
"text": [
"mechanism of action"
],
"answer_start": [
65
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12355 | 5731c1260fdd8d15006c6504 | Antibiotics | Antibacterial antibiotics are commonly classified based on their mechanism of action, chemical structure, or spectrum of activity. Most target bacterial functions or growth processes. Those that target the bacterial cell wall (penicillins and cephalosporins) or the cell membrane (polymyxins), or interfere with essential bacterial enzymes (rifamycins, lipiarmycins, quinolones, and sulfonamides) have bactericidal activities. Those that target protein synthesis (macrolides, lincosamides and tetracyclines) are usually bacteriostatic (with the exception of bactericidal aminoglycosides). Further categorization is based on their target specificity. "Narrow-spectrum" antibacterial antibiotics target specific types of bacteria, such as Gram-negative or Gram-positive bacteria, whereas broad-spectrum antibiotics affect a wide range of bacteria. Following a 40-year hiatus in discovering new classes of antibacterial compounds, four new classes of antibacterial antibiotics have been brought into clinical use in the late 2000s and early 2010s: cyclic lipopeptides (such as daptomycin), glycylcyclines (such as tigecycline), oxazolidinones (such as linezolid), and lipiarmycins (such as fidaxomicin). | What is another name used for bacterial cell wall? | What is another name used for bacterial cell wall? | [
"What is another name used for bacterial cell wall?"
] | {
"text": [
"penicillins and cephalosporins"
],
"answer_start": [
227
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12356 | 5731c1260fdd8d15006c6505 | Antibiotics | Antibacterial antibiotics are commonly classified based on their mechanism of action, chemical structure, or spectrum of activity. Most target bacterial functions or growth processes. Those that target the bacterial cell wall (penicillins and cephalosporins) or the cell membrane (polymyxins), or interfere with essential bacterial enzymes (rifamycins, lipiarmycins, quinolones, and sulfonamides) have bactericidal activities. Those that target protein synthesis (macrolides, lincosamides and tetracyclines) are usually bacteriostatic (with the exception of bactericidal aminoglycosides). Further categorization is based on their target specificity. "Narrow-spectrum" antibacterial antibiotics target specific types of bacteria, such as Gram-negative or Gram-positive bacteria, whereas broad-spectrum antibiotics affect a wide range of bacteria. Following a 40-year hiatus in discovering new classes of antibacterial compounds, four new classes of antibacterial antibiotics have been brought into clinical use in the late 2000s and early 2010s: cyclic lipopeptides (such as daptomycin), glycylcyclines (such as tigecycline), oxazolidinones (such as linezolid), and lipiarmycins (such as fidaxomicin). | whats another word for cell membrane? | whats another word for cell membrane? | [
"whats another word for cell membrane?"
] | {
"text": [
"polymyxins"
],
"answer_start": [
281
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12357 | 5731c1260fdd8d15006c6506 | Antibiotics | Antibacterial antibiotics are commonly classified based on their mechanism of action, chemical structure, or spectrum of activity. Most target bacterial functions or growth processes. Those that target the bacterial cell wall (penicillins and cephalosporins) or the cell membrane (polymyxins), or interfere with essential bacterial enzymes (rifamycins, lipiarmycins, quinolones, and sulfonamides) have bactericidal activities. Those that target protein synthesis (macrolides, lincosamides and tetracyclines) are usually bacteriostatic (with the exception of bactericidal aminoglycosides). Further categorization is based on their target specificity. "Narrow-spectrum" antibacterial antibiotics target specific types of bacteria, such as Gram-negative or Gram-positive bacteria, whereas broad-spectrum antibiotics affect a wide range of bacteria. Following a 40-year hiatus in discovering new classes of antibacterial compounds, four new classes of antibacterial antibiotics have been brought into clinical use in the late 2000s and early 2010s: cyclic lipopeptides (such as daptomycin), glycylcyclines (such as tigecycline), oxazolidinones (such as linezolid), and lipiarmycins (such as fidaxomicin). | How many new classes of antibacterial antibiotics was introduced in the late 2000's/ | How many new classes of antibacterial antibiotics was introduced in the late 2000's/ | [
"How many new classes of antibacterial antibiotics was introduced in the late 2000's/"
] | {
"text": [
"four"
],
"answer_start": [
928
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12358 | 5733b4cf4776f419006610c9 | Antibiotics | Antibacterial antibiotics are commonly classified based on their mechanism of action, chemical structure, or spectrum of activity. Most target bacterial functions or growth processes. Those that target the bacterial cell wall (penicillins and cephalosporins) or the cell membrane (polymyxins), or interfere with essential bacterial enzymes (rifamycins, lipiarmycins, quinolones, and sulfonamides) have bactericidal activities. Those that target protein synthesis (macrolides, lincosamides and tetracyclines) are usually bacteriostatic (with the exception of bactericidal aminoglycosides). Further categorization is based on their target specificity. "Narrow-spectrum" antibacterial antibiotics target specific types of bacteria, such as Gram-negative or Gram-positive bacteria, whereas broad-spectrum antibiotics affect a wide range of bacteria. Following a 40-year hiatus in discovering new classes of antibacterial compounds, four new classes of antibacterial antibiotics have been brought into clinical use in the late 2000s and early 2010s: cyclic lipopeptides (such as daptomycin), glycylcyclines (such as tigecycline), oxazolidinones (such as linezolid), and lipiarmycins (such as fidaxomicin). | What three ways are antibiotics classified? | What three ways are antibiotics classified? | [
"What three ways are antibiotics classified?"
] | {
"text": [
"mechanism of action, chemical structure, or spectrum of activity"
],
"answer_start": [
65
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12359 | 5733b4cf4776f419006610ca | Antibiotics | Antibacterial antibiotics are commonly classified based on their mechanism of action, chemical structure, or spectrum of activity. Most target bacterial functions or growth processes. Those that target the bacterial cell wall (penicillins and cephalosporins) or the cell membrane (polymyxins), or interfere with essential bacterial enzymes (rifamycins, lipiarmycins, quinolones, and sulfonamides) have bactericidal activities. Those that target protein synthesis (macrolides, lincosamides and tetracyclines) are usually bacteriostatic (with the exception of bactericidal aminoglycosides). Further categorization is based on their target specificity. "Narrow-spectrum" antibacterial antibiotics target specific types of bacteria, such as Gram-negative or Gram-positive bacteria, whereas broad-spectrum antibiotics affect a wide range of bacteria. Following a 40-year hiatus in discovering new classes of antibacterial compounds, four new classes of antibacterial antibiotics have been brought into clinical use in the late 2000s and early 2010s: cyclic lipopeptides (such as daptomycin), glycylcyclines (such as tigecycline), oxazolidinones (such as linezolid), and lipiarmycins (such as fidaxomicin). | What do anitibiotics mostly target? | What do anitibiotics mostly target? | [
"What do anitibiotics mostly target?"
] | {
"text": [
"bacterial functions or growth processes"
],
"answer_start": [
143
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12360 | 5733b4cf4776f419006610cb | Antibiotics | Antibacterial antibiotics are commonly classified based on their mechanism of action, chemical structure, or spectrum of activity. Most target bacterial functions or growth processes. Those that target the bacterial cell wall (penicillins and cephalosporins) or the cell membrane (polymyxins), or interfere with essential bacterial enzymes (rifamycins, lipiarmycins, quinolones, and sulfonamides) have bactericidal activities. Those that target protein synthesis (macrolides, lincosamides and tetracyclines) are usually bacteriostatic (with the exception of bactericidal aminoglycosides). Further categorization is based on their target specificity. "Narrow-spectrum" antibacterial antibiotics target specific types of bacteria, such as Gram-negative or Gram-positive bacteria, whereas broad-spectrum antibiotics affect a wide range of bacteria. Following a 40-year hiatus in discovering new classes of antibacterial compounds, four new classes of antibacterial antibiotics have been brought into clinical use in the late 2000s and early 2010s: cyclic lipopeptides (such as daptomycin), glycylcyclines (such as tigecycline), oxazolidinones (such as linezolid), and lipiarmycins (such as fidaxomicin). | Which two types of antibiotics target the cell wall? | Which two types of antibiotics target the cell wall? | [
"Which two types of antibiotics target the cell wall?"
] | {
"text": [
"penicillins and cephalosporins"
],
"answer_start": [
227
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12361 | 5733b4cf4776f419006610cc | Antibiotics | Antibacterial antibiotics are commonly classified based on their mechanism of action, chemical structure, or spectrum of activity. Most target bacterial functions or growth processes. Those that target the bacterial cell wall (penicillins and cephalosporins) or the cell membrane (polymyxins), or interfere with essential bacterial enzymes (rifamycins, lipiarmycins, quinolones, and sulfonamides) have bactericidal activities. Those that target protein synthesis (macrolides, lincosamides and tetracyclines) are usually bacteriostatic (with the exception of bactericidal aminoglycosides). Further categorization is based on their target specificity. "Narrow-spectrum" antibacterial antibiotics target specific types of bacteria, such as Gram-negative or Gram-positive bacteria, whereas broad-spectrum antibiotics affect a wide range of bacteria. Following a 40-year hiatus in discovering new classes of antibacterial compounds, four new classes of antibacterial antibiotics have been brought into clinical use in the late 2000s and early 2010s: cyclic lipopeptides (such as daptomycin), glycylcyclines (such as tigecycline), oxazolidinones (such as linezolid), and lipiarmycins (such as fidaxomicin). | Which type of antibiotic goes after the cell membrane? | Which type of antibiotic goes after the cell membrane? | [
"Which type of antibiotic goes after the cell membrane?"
] | {
"text": [
"polymyxins"
],
"answer_start": [
281
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12362 | 5733b4cf4776f419006610cd | Antibiotics | Antibacterial antibiotics are commonly classified based on their mechanism of action, chemical structure, or spectrum of activity. Most target bacterial functions or growth processes. Those that target the bacterial cell wall (penicillins and cephalosporins) or the cell membrane (polymyxins), or interfere with essential bacterial enzymes (rifamycins, lipiarmycins, quinolones, and sulfonamides) have bactericidal activities. Those that target protein synthesis (macrolides, lincosamides and tetracyclines) are usually bacteriostatic (with the exception of bactericidal aminoglycosides). Further categorization is based on their target specificity. "Narrow-spectrum" antibacterial antibiotics target specific types of bacteria, such as Gram-negative or Gram-positive bacteria, whereas broad-spectrum antibiotics affect a wide range of bacteria. Following a 40-year hiatus in discovering new classes of antibacterial compounds, four new classes of antibacterial antibiotics have been brought into clinical use in the late 2000s and early 2010s: cyclic lipopeptides (such as daptomycin), glycylcyclines (such as tigecycline), oxazolidinones (such as linezolid), and lipiarmycins (such as fidaxomicin). | What 3 types go after protein synthesis? | What 3 types go after protein synthesis? | [
"What 3 types go after protein synthesis?"
] | {
"text": [
"(macrolides, lincosamides and tetracyclines"
],
"answer_start": [
463
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12363 | 5a65cfcfc2b11c001a425d57 | Antibiotics | Antibacterial antibiotics are commonly classified based on their mechanism of action, chemical structure, or spectrum of activity. Most target bacterial functions or growth processes. Those that target the bacterial cell wall (penicillins and cephalosporins) or the cell membrane (polymyxins), or interfere with essential bacterial enzymes (rifamycins, lipiarmycins, quinolones, and sulfonamides) have bactericidal activities. Those that target protein synthesis (macrolides, lincosamides and tetracyclines) are usually bacteriostatic (with the exception of bactericidal aminoglycosides). Further categorization is based on their target specificity. "Narrow-spectrum" antibacterial antibiotics target specific types of bacteria, such as Gram-negative or Gram-positive bacteria, whereas broad-spectrum antibiotics affect a wide range of bacteria. Following a 40-year hiatus in discovering new classes of antibacterial compounds, four new classes of antibacterial antibiotics have been brought into clinical use in the late 2000s and early 2010s: cyclic lipopeptides (such as daptomycin), glycylcyclines (such as tigecycline), oxazolidinones (such as linezolid), and lipiarmycins (such as fidaxomicin). | Besides spectrum of activity and chemical structure, how can protein synthesis be classified? | Besides spectrum of activity and chemical structure, how can protein synthesis be classified? | [
"Besides spectrum of activity and chemical structure, how can protein synthesis be classified?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12364 | 5a65cfcfc2b11c001a425d58 | Antibiotics | Antibacterial antibiotics are commonly classified based on their mechanism of action, chemical structure, or spectrum of activity. Most target bacterial functions or growth processes. Those that target the bacterial cell wall (penicillins and cephalosporins) or the cell membrane (polymyxins), or interfere with essential bacterial enzymes (rifamycins, lipiarmycins, quinolones, and sulfonamides) have bactericidal activities. Those that target protein synthesis (macrolides, lincosamides and tetracyclines) are usually bacteriostatic (with the exception of bactericidal aminoglycosides). Further categorization is based on their target specificity. "Narrow-spectrum" antibacterial antibiotics target specific types of bacteria, such as Gram-negative or Gram-positive bacteria, whereas broad-spectrum antibiotics affect a wide range of bacteria. Following a 40-year hiatus in discovering new classes of antibacterial compounds, four new classes of antibacterial antibiotics have been brought into clinical use in the late 2000s and early 2010s: cyclic lipopeptides (such as daptomycin), glycylcyclines (such as tigecycline), oxazolidinones (such as linezolid), and lipiarmycins (such as fidaxomicin). | What is another name used for target specificity? | What is another name used for target specificity? | [
"What is another name used for target specificity?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12365 | 5a65cfcfc2b11c001a425d59 | Antibiotics | Antibacterial antibiotics are commonly classified based on their mechanism of action, chemical structure, or spectrum of activity. Most target bacterial functions or growth processes. Those that target the bacterial cell wall (penicillins and cephalosporins) or the cell membrane (polymyxins), or interfere with essential bacterial enzymes (rifamycins, lipiarmycins, quinolones, and sulfonamides) have bactericidal activities. Those that target protein synthesis (macrolides, lincosamides and tetracyclines) are usually bacteriostatic (with the exception of bactericidal aminoglycosides). Further categorization is based on their target specificity. "Narrow-spectrum" antibacterial antibiotics target specific types of bacteria, such as Gram-negative or Gram-positive bacteria, whereas broad-spectrum antibiotics affect a wide range of bacteria. Following a 40-year hiatus in discovering new classes of antibacterial compounds, four new classes of antibacterial antibiotics have been brought into clinical use in the late 2000s and early 2010s: cyclic lipopeptides (such as daptomycin), glycylcyclines (such as tigecycline), oxazolidinones (such as linezolid), and lipiarmycins (such as fidaxomicin). | What is another word for interfere? | What is another word for interfere? | [
"What is another word for interfere?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12366 | 5a65cfcfc2b11c001a425d5a | Antibiotics | Antibacterial antibiotics are commonly classified based on their mechanism of action, chemical structure, or spectrum of activity. Most target bacterial functions or growth processes. Those that target the bacterial cell wall (penicillins and cephalosporins) or the cell membrane (polymyxins), or interfere with essential bacterial enzymes (rifamycins, lipiarmycins, quinolones, and sulfonamides) have bactericidal activities. Those that target protein synthesis (macrolides, lincosamides and tetracyclines) are usually bacteriostatic (with the exception of bactericidal aminoglycosides). Further categorization is based on their target specificity. "Narrow-spectrum" antibacterial antibiotics target specific types of bacteria, such as Gram-negative or Gram-positive bacteria, whereas broad-spectrum antibiotics affect a wide range of bacteria. Following a 40-year hiatus in discovering new classes of antibacterial compounds, four new classes of antibacterial antibiotics have been brought into clinical use in the late 2000s and early 2010s: cyclic lipopeptides (such as daptomycin), glycylcyclines (such as tigecycline), oxazolidinones (such as linezolid), and lipiarmycins (such as fidaxomicin). | How many new classes of glycylcyclines was introduced in the late 2000's? | How many new classes of glycylcyclines was introduced in the late 2000's? | [
"How many new classes of glycylcyclines was introduced in the late 2000's?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12367 | 5a65cfcfc2b11c001a425d5b | Antibiotics | Antibacterial antibiotics are commonly classified based on their mechanism of action, chemical structure, or spectrum of activity. Most target bacterial functions or growth processes. Those that target the bacterial cell wall (penicillins and cephalosporins) or the cell membrane (polymyxins), or interfere with essential bacterial enzymes (rifamycins, lipiarmycins, quinolones, and sulfonamides) have bactericidal activities. Those that target protein synthesis (macrolides, lincosamides and tetracyclines) are usually bacteriostatic (with the exception of bactericidal aminoglycosides). Further categorization is based on their target specificity. "Narrow-spectrum" antibacterial antibiotics target specific types of bacteria, such as Gram-negative or Gram-positive bacteria, whereas broad-spectrum antibiotics affect a wide range of bacteria. Following a 40-year hiatus in discovering new classes of antibacterial compounds, four new classes of antibacterial antibiotics have been brought into clinical use in the late 2000s and early 2010s: cyclic lipopeptides (such as daptomycin), glycylcyclines (such as tigecycline), oxazolidinones (such as linezolid), and lipiarmycins (such as fidaxomicin). | What three ways are bacteria classified? | What three ways are bacteria classified? | [
"What three ways are bacteria classified?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12368 | 5731c2fd0fdd8d15006c6515 | Antibiotics | With advances in medicinal chemistry, most modern antibacterials are semisynthetic modifications of various natural compounds. These include, for example, the beta-lactam antibiotics, which include the penicillins (produced by fungi in the genus Penicillium), the cephalosporins, and the carbapenems. Compounds that are still isolated from living organisms are the aminoglycosides, whereas other antibacterials—for example, the sulfonamides, the quinolones, and the oxazolidinones—are produced solely by chemical synthesis. Many antibacterial compounds are relatively small molecules with a molecular weight of less than 2000 atomic mass units.[citation needed] | Besides semisytetic modifications, what advances in medicinal chemistry regarding antibacterials? | Besides semisytetic modifications, what advances in medicinal chemistry regarding antibacterials? | [
"Besides semisytetic modifications, what advances in medicinal chemistry regarding antibacterials?"
] | {
"text": [
"various natural compounds"
],
"answer_start": [
100
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12369 | 5731c2fd0fdd8d15006c6516 | Antibiotics | With advances in medicinal chemistry, most modern antibacterials are semisynthetic modifications of various natural compounds. These include, for example, the beta-lactam antibiotics, which include the penicillins (produced by fungi in the genus Penicillium), the cephalosporins, and the carbapenems. Compounds that are still isolated from living organisms are the aminoglycosides, whereas other antibacterials—for example, the sulfonamides, the quinolones, and the oxazolidinones—are produced solely by chemical synthesis. Many antibacterial compounds are relatively small molecules with a molecular weight of less than 2000 atomic mass units.[citation needed] | What is the molecular weight loss of antibacterial compounds? | What is the molecular weight loss of antibacterial compounds? | [
"What is the molecular weight loss of antibacterial compounds?"
] | {
"text": [
"2000 atomic mass units"
],
"answer_start": [
621
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12370 | 5731c2fd0fdd8d15006c6517 | Antibiotics | With advances in medicinal chemistry, most modern antibacterials are semisynthetic modifications of various natural compounds. These include, for example, the beta-lactam antibiotics, which include the penicillins (produced by fungi in the genus Penicillium), the cephalosporins, and the carbapenems. Compounds that are still isolated from living organisms are the aminoglycosides, whereas other antibacterials—for example, the sulfonamides, the quinolones, and the oxazolidinones—are produced solely by chemical synthesis. Many antibacterial compounds are relatively small molecules with a molecular weight of less than 2000 atomic mass units.[citation needed] | What is included in the beta-lactam antibiotics? | What is included in the beta-lactam antibiotics? | [
"What is included in the beta-lactam antibiotics?"
] | {
"text": [
"penicillins"
],
"answer_start": [
202
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12371 | 5731c2fd0fdd8d15006c6518 | Antibiotics | With advances in medicinal chemistry, most modern antibacterials are semisynthetic modifications of various natural compounds. These include, for example, the beta-lactam antibiotics, which include the penicillins (produced by fungi in the genus Penicillium), the cephalosporins, and the carbapenems. Compounds that are still isolated from living organisms are the aminoglycosides, whereas other antibacterials—for example, the sulfonamides, the quinolones, and the oxazolidinones—are produced solely by chemical synthesis. Many antibacterial compounds are relatively small molecules with a molecular weight of less than 2000 atomic mass units.[citation needed] | What is penicillins produced by? | What is penicillins produced by? | [
"What is penicillins produced by?"
] | {
"text": [
"fungi"
],
"answer_start": [
227
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12372 | 5733b6a2d058e614000b6122 | Antibiotics | With advances in medicinal chemistry, most modern antibacterials are semisynthetic modifications of various natural compounds. These include, for example, the beta-lactam antibiotics, which include the penicillins (produced by fungi in the genus Penicillium), the cephalosporins, and the carbapenems. Compounds that are still isolated from living organisms are the aminoglycosides, whereas other antibacterials—for example, the sulfonamides, the quinolones, and the oxazolidinones—are produced solely by chemical synthesis. Many antibacterial compounds are relatively small molecules with a molecular weight of less than 2000 atomic mass units.[citation needed] | What are antibiotics in chemical terms? | What are antibiotics in chemical terms? | [
"What are antibiotics in chemical terms?"
] | {
"text": [
"semisynthetic modifications"
],
"answer_start": [
69
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12373 | 5733b6a2d058e614000b6123 | Antibiotics | With advances in medicinal chemistry, most modern antibacterials are semisynthetic modifications of various natural compounds. These include, for example, the beta-lactam antibiotics, which include the penicillins (produced by fungi in the genus Penicillium), the cephalosporins, and the carbapenems. Compounds that are still isolated from living organisms are the aminoglycosides, whereas other antibacterials—for example, the sulfonamides, the quinolones, and the oxazolidinones—are produced solely by chemical synthesis. Many antibacterial compounds are relatively small molecules with a molecular weight of less than 2000 atomic mass units.[citation needed] | What type of antibiotics include penicilin? | What type of antibiotics include penicilin? | [
"What type of antibiotics include penicilin?"
] | {
"text": [
"beta-lactam antibiotics"
],
"answer_start": [
159
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12374 | 5733b6a2d058e614000b6124 | Antibiotics | With advances in medicinal chemistry, most modern antibacterials are semisynthetic modifications of various natural compounds. These include, for example, the beta-lactam antibiotics, which include the penicillins (produced by fungi in the genus Penicillium), the cephalosporins, and the carbapenems. Compounds that are still isolated from living organisms are the aminoglycosides, whereas other antibacterials—for example, the sulfonamides, the quinolones, and the oxazolidinones—are produced solely by chemical synthesis. Many antibacterial compounds are relatively small molecules with a molecular weight of less than 2000 atomic mass units.[citation needed] | What are the type of antibiotics which are taken from still living things? | What are the type of antibiotics which are taken from still living things? | [
"What are the type of antibiotics which are taken from still living things?"
] | {
"text": [
"aminoglycosides"
],
"answer_start": [
365
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12375 | 5733b6a2d058e614000b6125 | Antibiotics | With advances in medicinal chemistry, most modern antibacterials are semisynthetic modifications of various natural compounds. These include, for example, the beta-lactam antibiotics, which include the penicillins (produced by fungi in the genus Penicillium), the cephalosporins, and the carbapenems. Compounds that are still isolated from living organisms are the aminoglycosides, whereas other antibacterials—for example, the sulfonamides, the quinolones, and the oxazolidinones—are produced solely by chemical synthesis. Many antibacterial compounds are relatively small molecules with a molecular weight of less than 2000 atomic mass units.[citation needed] | How are the slufonamides,quinolones, and oxazolidinones created? | How are the slufonamides,quinolones, and oxazolidinones created? | [
"How are the slufonamides,quinolones, and oxazolidinones created?"
] | {
"text": [
"synthesis"
],
"answer_start": [
513
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12376 | 5a65d0fec2b11c001a425d61 | Antibiotics | With advances in medicinal chemistry, most modern antibacterials are semisynthetic modifications of various natural compounds. These include, for example, the beta-lactam antibiotics, which include the penicillins (produced by fungi in the genus Penicillium), the cephalosporins, and the carbapenems. Compounds that are still isolated from living organisms are the aminoglycosides, whereas other antibacterials—for example, the sulfonamides, the quinolones, and the oxazolidinones—are produced solely by chemical synthesis. Many antibacterial compounds are relatively small molecules with a molecular weight of less than 2000 atomic mass units.[citation needed] | What is the molecular weight loss of chemical synthesis? | What is the molecular weight loss of chemical synthesis? | [
"What is the molecular weight loss of chemical synthesis?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12377 | 5a65d0fec2b11c001a425d62 | Antibiotics | With advances in medicinal chemistry, most modern antibacterials are semisynthetic modifications of various natural compounds. These include, for example, the beta-lactam antibiotics, which include the penicillins (produced by fungi in the genus Penicillium), the cephalosporins, and the carbapenems. Compounds that are still isolated from living organisms are the aminoglycosides, whereas other antibacterials—for example, the sulfonamides, the quinolones, and the oxazolidinones—are produced solely by chemical synthesis. Many antibacterial compounds are relatively small molecules with a molecular weight of less than 2000 atomic mass units.[citation needed] | What is included in the natural compounds? | What is included in the natural compounds? | [
"What is included in the natural compounds?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12378 | 5a65d0fec2b11c001a425d63 | Antibiotics | With advances in medicinal chemistry, most modern antibacterials are semisynthetic modifications of various natural compounds. These include, for example, the beta-lactam antibiotics, which include the penicillins (produced by fungi in the genus Penicillium), the cephalosporins, and the carbapenems. Compounds that are still isolated from living organisms are the aminoglycosides, whereas other antibacterials—for example, the sulfonamides, the quinolones, and the oxazolidinones—are produced solely by chemical synthesis. Many antibacterial compounds are relatively small molecules with a molecular weight of less than 2000 atomic mass units.[citation needed] | What are cephalosporins produced by? | What are cephalosporins produced by? | [
"What are cephalosporins produced by?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12379 | 5a65d0fec2b11c001a425d64 | Antibiotics | With advances in medicinal chemistry, most modern antibacterials are semisynthetic modifications of various natural compounds. These include, for example, the beta-lactam antibiotics, which include the penicillins (produced by fungi in the genus Penicillium), the cephalosporins, and the carbapenems. Compounds that are still isolated from living organisms are the aminoglycosides, whereas other antibacterials—for example, the sulfonamides, the quinolones, and the oxazolidinones—are produced solely by chemical synthesis. Many antibacterial compounds are relatively small molecules with a molecular weight of less than 2000 atomic mass units.[citation needed] | What are compounds in chemical terms? | What are compounds in chemical terms? | [
"What are compounds in chemical terms?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12380 | 5a65d0fec2b11c001a425d65 | Antibiotics | With advances in medicinal chemistry, most modern antibacterials are semisynthetic modifications of various natural compounds. These include, for example, the beta-lactam antibiotics, which include the penicillins (produced by fungi in the genus Penicillium), the cephalosporins, and the carbapenems. Compounds that are still isolated from living organisms are the aminoglycosides, whereas other antibacterials—for example, the sulfonamides, the quinolones, and the oxazolidinones—are produced solely by chemical synthesis. Many antibacterial compounds are relatively small molecules with a molecular weight of less than 2000 atomic mass units.[citation needed] | What type of antibiotics include sulfonamides? | What type of antibiotics include sulfonamides? | [
"What type of antibiotics include sulfonamides?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12381 | 5731c593e17f3d14004223c5 | Antibiotics | The emergence of resistance of bacteria to antibiotics is a common phenomenon. Emergence of resistance often reflects evolutionary processes that take place during antibiotic therapy. The antibiotic treatment may select for bacterial strains with physiologically or genetically enhanced capacity to survive high doses of antibiotics. Under certain conditions, it may result in preferential growth of resistant bacteria, while growth of susceptible bacteria is inhibited by the drug. For example, antibacterial selection for strains having previously acquired antibacterial-resistance genes was demonstrated in 1943 by the Luria–Delbrück experiment. Antibiotics such as penicillin and erythromycin, which used to have a high efficacy against many bacterial species and strains, have become less effective, due to the increased resistance of many bacterial strains. | What does emergence of resistance reflect? | What does emergence of resistance reflect? | [
"What does emergence of resistance reflect?"
] | {
"text": [
"evolutionary processes"
],
"answer_start": [
118
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12382 | 5731c593e17f3d14004223c6 | Antibiotics | The emergence of resistance of bacteria to antibiotics is a common phenomenon. Emergence of resistance often reflects evolutionary processes that take place during antibiotic therapy. The antibiotic treatment may select for bacterial strains with physiologically or genetically enhanced capacity to survive high doses of antibiotics. Under certain conditions, it may result in preferential growth of resistant bacteria, while growth of susceptible bacteria is inhibited by the drug. For example, antibacterial selection for strains having previously acquired antibacterial-resistance genes was demonstrated in 1943 by the Luria–Delbrück experiment. Antibiotics such as penicillin and erythromycin, which used to have a high efficacy against many bacterial species and strains, have become less effective, due to the increased resistance of many bacterial strains. | What is the purpose of antibiotic treatment? | What is the purpose of antibiotic treatment? | [
"What is the purpose of antibiotic treatment?"
] | {
"text": [
"survive high doses of antibiotics"
],
"answer_start": [
299
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12383 | 5731c593e17f3d14004223c7 | Antibiotics | The emergence of resistance of bacteria to antibiotics is a common phenomenon. Emergence of resistance often reflects evolutionary processes that take place during antibiotic therapy. The antibiotic treatment may select for bacterial strains with physiologically or genetically enhanced capacity to survive high doses of antibiotics. Under certain conditions, it may result in preferential growth of resistant bacteria, while growth of susceptible bacteria is inhibited by the drug. For example, antibacterial selection for strains having previously acquired antibacterial-resistance genes was demonstrated in 1943 by the Luria–Delbrück experiment. Antibiotics such as penicillin and erythromycin, which used to have a high efficacy against many bacterial species and strains, have become less effective, due to the increased resistance of many bacterial strains. | When was antibacterial-resistance demonstrated? | When was antibacterial-resistance demonstrated? | [
"When was antibacterial-resistance demonstrated?"
] | {
"text": [
"1943"
],
"answer_start": [
610
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12384 | 5731c593e17f3d14004223c8 | Antibiotics | The emergence of resistance of bacteria to antibiotics is a common phenomenon. Emergence of resistance often reflects evolutionary processes that take place during antibiotic therapy. The antibiotic treatment may select for bacterial strains with physiologically or genetically enhanced capacity to survive high doses of antibiotics. Under certain conditions, it may result in preferential growth of resistant bacteria, while growth of susceptible bacteria is inhibited by the drug. For example, antibacterial selection for strains having previously acquired antibacterial-resistance genes was demonstrated in 1943 by the Luria–Delbrück experiment. Antibiotics such as penicillin and erythromycin, which used to have a high efficacy against many bacterial species and strains, have become less effective, due to the increased resistance of many bacterial strains. | Who made the demonstration in 1943? | Who made the demonstration in 1943? | [
"Who made the demonstration in 1943?"
] | {
"text": [
"Luria–Delbrück"
],
"answer_start": [
622
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12385 | 5733bc38d058e614000b6187 | Antibiotics | The emergence of resistance of bacteria to antibiotics is a common phenomenon. Emergence of resistance often reflects evolutionary processes that take place during antibiotic therapy. The antibiotic treatment may select for bacterial strains with physiologically or genetically enhanced capacity to survive high doses of antibiotics. Under certain conditions, it may result in preferential growth of resistant bacteria, while growth of susceptible bacteria is inhibited by the drug. For example, antibacterial selection for strains having previously acquired antibacterial-resistance genes was demonstrated in 1943 by the Luria–Delbrück experiment. Antibiotics such as penicillin and erythromycin, which used to have a high efficacy against many bacterial species and strains, have become less effective, due to the increased resistance of many bacterial strains. | What is a modern common occurence with antibiotics? | What is a modern common occurence with antibiotics? | [
"What is a modern common occurence with antibiotics?"
] | {
"text": [
"resistance of bacteria"
],
"answer_start": [
17
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12386 | 5733bc38d058e614000b6188 | Antibiotics | The emergence of resistance of bacteria to antibiotics is a common phenomenon. Emergence of resistance often reflects evolutionary processes that take place during antibiotic therapy. The antibiotic treatment may select for bacterial strains with physiologically or genetically enhanced capacity to survive high doses of antibiotics. Under certain conditions, it may result in preferential growth of resistant bacteria, while growth of susceptible bacteria is inhibited by the drug. For example, antibacterial selection for strains having previously acquired antibacterial-resistance genes was demonstrated in 1943 by the Luria–Delbrück experiment. Antibiotics such as penicillin and erythromycin, which used to have a high efficacy against many bacterial species and strains, have become less effective, due to the increased resistance of many bacterial strains. | What is resistance to antibiotics a cause of? | What is resistance to antibiotics a cause of? | [
"What is resistance to antibiotics a cause of?"
] | {
"text": [
"evolution"
],
"answer_start": [
118
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12387 | 5733bc38d058e614000b6189 | Antibiotics | The emergence of resistance of bacteria to antibiotics is a common phenomenon. Emergence of resistance often reflects evolutionary processes that take place during antibiotic therapy. The antibiotic treatment may select for bacterial strains with physiologically or genetically enhanced capacity to survive high doses of antibiotics. Under certain conditions, it may result in preferential growth of resistant bacteria, while growth of susceptible bacteria is inhibited by the drug. For example, antibacterial selection for strains having previously acquired antibacterial-resistance genes was demonstrated in 1943 by the Luria–Delbrück experiment. Antibiotics such as penicillin and erythromycin, which used to have a high efficacy against many bacterial species and strains, have become less effective, due to the increased resistance of many bacterial strains. | When was the Luria-Delbruck experiment? | When was the Luria-Delbruck experiment? | [
"When was the Luria-Delbruck experiment?"
] | {
"text": [
"1943"
],
"answer_start": [
610
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12388 | 5733bc38d058e614000b618a | Antibiotics | The emergence of resistance of bacteria to antibiotics is a common phenomenon. Emergence of resistance often reflects evolutionary processes that take place during antibiotic therapy. The antibiotic treatment may select for bacterial strains with physiologically or genetically enhanced capacity to survive high doses of antibiotics. Under certain conditions, it may result in preferential growth of resistant bacteria, while growth of susceptible bacteria is inhibited by the drug. For example, antibacterial selection for strains having previously acquired antibacterial-resistance genes was demonstrated in 1943 by the Luria–Delbrück experiment. Antibiotics such as penicillin and erythromycin, which used to have a high efficacy against many bacterial species and strains, have become less effective, due to the increased resistance of many bacterial strains. | Which two antibiotics that have high efficacy are much less useful now? | Which two antibiotics that have high efficacy are much less useful now? | [
"Which two antibiotics that have high efficacy are much less useful now?"
] | {
"text": [
"penicillin and erythromycin"
],
"answer_start": [
669
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12389 | 5a65d2b2c2b11c001a425d6b | Antibiotics | The emergence of resistance of bacteria to antibiotics is a common phenomenon. Emergence of resistance often reflects evolutionary processes that take place during antibiotic therapy. The antibiotic treatment may select for bacterial strains with physiologically or genetically enhanced capacity to survive high doses of antibiotics. Under certain conditions, it may result in preferential growth of resistant bacteria, while growth of susceptible bacteria is inhibited by the drug. For example, antibacterial selection for strains having previously acquired antibacterial-resistance genes was demonstrated in 1943 by the Luria–Delbrück experiment. Antibiotics such as penicillin and erythromycin, which used to have a high efficacy against many bacterial species and strains, have become less effective, due to the increased resistance of many bacterial strains. | What does emergence of bacteria reflect? | What does emergence of bacteria reflect? | [
"What does emergence of bacteria reflect?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12390 | 5a65d2b2c2b11c001a425d6c | Antibiotics | The emergence of resistance of bacteria to antibiotics is a common phenomenon. Emergence of resistance often reflects evolutionary processes that take place during antibiotic therapy. The antibiotic treatment may select for bacterial strains with physiologically or genetically enhanced capacity to survive high doses of antibiotics. Under certain conditions, it may result in preferential growth of resistant bacteria, while growth of susceptible bacteria is inhibited by the drug. For example, antibacterial selection for strains having previously acquired antibacterial-resistance genes was demonstrated in 1943 by the Luria–Delbrück experiment. Antibiotics such as penicillin and erythromycin, which used to have a high efficacy against many bacterial species and strains, have become less effective, due to the increased resistance of many bacterial strains. | What is the purpose of bacterial strains? | What is the purpose of bacterial strains? | [
"What is the purpose of bacterial strains?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12391 | 5a65d2b2c2b11c001a425d6d | Antibiotics | The emergence of resistance of bacteria to antibiotics is a common phenomenon. Emergence of resistance often reflects evolutionary processes that take place during antibiotic therapy. The antibiotic treatment may select for bacterial strains with physiologically or genetically enhanced capacity to survive high doses of antibiotics. Under certain conditions, it may result in preferential growth of resistant bacteria, while growth of susceptible bacteria is inhibited by the drug. For example, antibacterial selection for strains having previously acquired antibacterial-resistance genes was demonstrated in 1943 by the Luria–Delbrück experiment. Antibiotics such as penicillin and erythromycin, which used to have a high efficacy against many bacterial species and strains, have become less effective, due to the increased resistance of many bacterial strains. | When were bacterial species and strains invented? | When were bacterial species and strains invented? | [
"When were bacterial species and strains invented?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12392 | 5a65d2b2c2b11c001a425d6e | Antibiotics | The emergence of resistance of bacteria to antibiotics is a common phenomenon. Emergence of resistance often reflects evolutionary processes that take place during antibiotic therapy. The antibiotic treatment may select for bacterial strains with physiologically or genetically enhanced capacity to survive high doses of antibiotics. Under certain conditions, it may result in preferential growth of resistant bacteria, while growth of susceptible bacteria is inhibited by the drug. For example, antibacterial selection for strains having previously acquired antibacterial-resistance genes was demonstrated in 1943 by the Luria–Delbrück experiment. Antibiotics such as penicillin and erythromycin, which used to have a high efficacy against many bacterial species and strains, have become less effective, due to the increased resistance of many bacterial strains. | What is a modern occurrence with high doeses? | What is a modern occurrence with high doeses? | [
"What is a modern occurrence with high doeses?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12393 | 5a65d2b2c2b11c001a425d6f | Antibiotics | The emergence of resistance of bacteria to antibiotics is a common phenomenon. Emergence of resistance often reflects evolutionary processes that take place during antibiotic therapy. The antibiotic treatment may select for bacterial strains with physiologically or genetically enhanced capacity to survive high doses of antibiotics. Under certain conditions, it may result in preferential growth of resistant bacteria, while growth of susceptible bacteria is inhibited by the drug. For example, antibacterial selection for strains having previously acquired antibacterial-resistance genes was demonstrated in 1943 by the Luria–Delbrück experiment. Antibiotics such as penicillin and erythromycin, which used to have a high efficacy against many bacterial species and strains, have become less effective, due to the increased resistance of many bacterial strains. | What is resistance to genes a cause of? | What is resistance to genes a cause of? | [
"What is resistance to genes a cause of?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12394 | 5731c904b9d445190005e551 | Antibiotics | Several molecular mechanisms of antibacterial resistance exist. Intrinsic antibacterial resistance may be part of the genetic makeup of bacterial strains. For example, an antibiotic target may be absent from the bacterial genome. Acquired resistance results from a mutation in the bacterial chromosome or the acquisition of extra-chromosomal DNA. Antibacterial-producing bacteria have evolved resistance mechanisms that have been shown to be similar to, and may have been transferred to, antibacterial-resistant strains. The spread of antibacterial resistance often occurs through vertical transmission of mutations during growth and by genetic recombination of DNA by horizontal genetic exchange. For instance, antibacterial resistance genes can be exchanged between different bacterial strains or species via plasmids that carry these resistance genes. Plasmids that carry several different resistance genes can confer resistance to multiple antibacterials. Cross-resistance to several antibacterials may also occur when a resistance mechanism encoded by a single gene conveys resistance to more than one antibacterial compound. | What is part of hje the make up of bacterial strains? | What is part of hje the make up of bacterial strains? | [
"What is part of hje the make up of bacterial strains?"
] | {
"text": [
"Intrinsic antibacterial resistance"
],
"answer_start": [
64
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12395 | 5731c904b9d445190005e552 | Antibiotics | Several molecular mechanisms of antibacterial resistance exist. Intrinsic antibacterial resistance may be part of the genetic makeup of bacterial strains. For example, an antibiotic target may be absent from the bacterial genome. Acquired resistance results from a mutation in the bacterial chromosome or the acquisition of extra-chromosomal DNA. Antibacterial-producing bacteria have evolved resistance mechanisms that have been shown to be similar to, and may have been transferred to, antibacterial-resistant strains. The spread of antibacterial resistance often occurs through vertical transmission of mutations during growth and by genetic recombination of DNA by horizontal genetic exchange. For instance, antibacterial resistance genes can be exchanged between different bacterial strains or species via plasmids that carry these resistance genes. Plasmids that carry several different resistance genes can confer resistance to multiple antibacterials. Cross-resistance to several antibacterials may also occur when a resistance mechanism encoded by a single gene conveys resistance to more than one antibacterial compound. | What can be absent from the bacterial genome? | What can be absent from the bacterial genome? | [
"What can be absent from the bacterial genome?"
] | {
"text": [
"antibiotic target"
],
"answer_start": [
171
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12396 | 5731c904b9d445190005e553 | Antibiotics | Several molecular mechanisms of antibacterial resistance exist. Intrinsic antibacterial resistance may be part of the genetic makeup of bacterial strains. For example, an antibiotic target may be absent from the bacterial genome. Acquired resistance results from a mutation in the bacterial chromosome or the acquisition of extra-chromosomal DNA. Antibacterial-producing bacteria have evolved resistance mechanisms that have been shown to be similar to, and may have been transferred to, antibacterial-resistant strains. The spread of antibacterial resistance often occurs through vertical transmission of mutations during growth and by genetic recombination of DNA by horizontal genetic exchange. For instance, antibacterial resistance genes can be exchanged between different bacterial strains or species via plasmids that carry these resistance genes. Plasmids that carry several different resistance genes can confer resistance to multiple antibacterials. Cross-resistance to several antibacterials may also occur when a resistance mechanism encoded by a single gene conveys resistance to more than one antibacterial compound. | When does the spread of antibacterial resistance frequently occurs/ | When does the spread of antibacterial resistance frequently occurs/ | [
"When does the spread of antibacterial resistance frequently occurs/"
] | {
"text": [
"vertical transmission"
],
"answer_start": [
581
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12397 | 5731c904b9d445190005e554 | Antibiotics | Several molecular mechanisms of antibacterial resistance exist. Intrinsic antibacterial resistance may be part of the genetic makeup of bacterial strains. For example, an antibiotic target may be absent from the bacterial genome. Acquired resistance results from a mutation in the bacterial chromosome or the acquisition of extra-chromosomal DNA. Antibacterial-producing bacteria have evolved resistance mechanisms that have been shown to be similar to, and may have been transferred to, antibacterial-resistant strains. The spread of antibacterial resistance often occurs through vertical transmission of mutations during growth and by genetic recombination of DNA by horizontal genetic exchange. For instance, antibacterial resistance genes can be exchanged between different bacterial strains or species via plasmids that carry these resistance genes. Plasmids that carry several different resistance genes can confer resistance to multiple antibacterials. Cross-resistance to several antibacterials may also occur when a resistance mechanism encoded by a single gene conveys resistance to more than one antibacterial compound. | What is exchanged between between bacterial strains or species via plasmids that have this resistance? | What is exchanged between between bacterial strains or species via plasmids that have this resistance? | [
"What is exchanged between between bacterial strains or species via plasmids that have this resistance?"
] | {
"text": [
"antibacterial resistance genes"
],
"answer_start": [
712
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12398 | 5733c3f34776f419006611d4 | Antibiotics | Several molecular mechanisms of antibacterial resistance exist. Intrinsic antibacterial resistance may be part of the genetic makeup of bacterial strains. For example, an antibiotic target may be absent from the bacterial genome. Acquired resistance results from a mutation in the bacterial chromosome or the acquisition of extra-chromosomal DNA. Antibacterial-producing bacteria have evolved resistance mechanisms that have been shown to be similar to, and may have been transferred to, antibacterial-resistant strains. The spread of antibacterial resistance often occurs through vertical transmission of mutations during growth and by genetic recombination of DNA by horizontal genetic exchange. For instance, antibacterial resistance genes can be exchanged between different bacterial strains or species via plasmids that carry these resistance genes. Plasmids that carry several different resistance genes can confer resistance to multiple antibacterials. Cross-resistance to several antibacterials may also occur when a resistance mechanism encoded by a single gene conveys resistance to more than one antibacterial compound. | What does some resistance come from? | What does some resistance come from? | [
"What does some resistance come from?"
] | {
"text": [
"mutation"
],
"answer_start": [
265
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12399 | 5733c3f34776f419006611d5 | Antibiotics | Several molecular mechanisms of antibacterial resistance exist. Intrinsic antibacterial resistance may be part of the genetic makeup of bacterial strains. For example, an antibiotic target may be absent from the bacterial genome. Acquired resistance results from a mutation in the bacterial chromosome or the acquisition of extra-chromosomal DNA. Antibacterial-producing bacteria have evolved resistance mechanisms that have been shown to be similar to, and may have been transferred to, antibacterial-resistant strains. The spread of antibacterial resistance often occurs through vertical transmission of mutations during growth and by genetic recombination of DNA by horizontal genetic exchange. For instance, antibacterial resistance genes can be exchanged between different bacterial strains or species via plasmids that carry these resistance genes. Plasmids that carry several different resistance genes can confer resistance to multiple antibacterials. Cross-resistance to several antibacterials may also occur when a resistance mechanism encoded by a single gene conveys resistance to more than one antibacterial compound. | What method of spread can occur in antibacterial resistance? | What method of spread can occur in antibacterial resistance? | [
"What method of spread can occur in antibacterial resistance?"
] | {
"text": [
"vertical transmission of mutations"
],
"answer_start": [
581
]
} |
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