gem_id stringlengths 20 25 | id stringlengths 24 24 | title stringlengths 3 59 | context stringlengths 151 3.71k | question stringlengths 1 270 | target stringlengths 1 270 | references list | answers dict |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
gem-squad_v2-train-12400 | 5733c3f34776f419006611d6 | Antibiotics | Several molecular mechanisms of antibacterial resistance exist. Intrinsic antibacterial resistance may be part of the genetic makeup of bacterial strains. For example, an antibiotic target may be absent from the bacterial genome. Acquired resistance results from a mutation in the bacterial chromosome or the acquisition of extra-chromosomal DNA. Antibacterial-producing bacteria have evolved resistance mechanisms that have been shown to be similar to, and may have been transferred to, antibacterial-resistant strains. The spread of antibacterial resistance often occurs through vertical transmission of mutations during growth and by genetic recombination of DNA by horizontal genetic exchange. For instance, antibacterial resistance genes can be exchanged between different bacterial strains or species via plasmids that carry these resistance genes. Plasmids that carry several different resistance genes can confer resistance to multiple antibacterials. Cross-resistance to several antibacterials may also occur when a resistance mechanism encoded by a single gene conveys resistance to more than one antibacterial compound. | What do plasmids do in resistance? | What do plasmids do in resistance? | [
"What do plasmids do in resistance?"
] | {
"text": [
"carry several different resistance genes"
],
"answer_start": [
869
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12401 | 5a65dc17c2b11c001a425d75 | Antibiotics | Several molecular mechanisms of antibacterial resistance exist. Intrinsic antibacterial resistance may be part of the genetic makeup of bacterial strains. For example, an antibiotic target may be absent from the bacterial genome. Acquired resistance results from a mutation in the bacterial chromosome or the acquisition of extra-chromosomal DNA. Antibacterial-producing bacteria have evolved resistance mechanisms that have been shown to be similar to, and may have been transferred to, antibacterial-resistant strains. The spread of antibacterial resistance often occurs through vertical transmission of mutations during growth and by genetic recombination of DNA by horizontal genetic exchange. For instance, antibacterial resistance genes can be exchanged between different bacterial strains or species via plasmids that carry these resistance genes. Plasmids that carry several different resistance genes can confer resistance to multiple antibacterials. Cross-resistance to several antibacterials may also occur when a resistance mechanism encoded by a single gene conveys resistance to more than one antibacterial compound. | What is part of the makeup of bacterial strains? | What is part of the makeup of bacterial strains? | [
"What is part of the makeup of bacterial strains?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12402 | 5a65dc17c2b11c001a425d76 | Antibiotics | Several molecular mechanisms of antibacterial resistance exist. Intrinsic antibacterial resistance may be part of the genetic makeup of bacterial strains. For example, an antibiotic target may be absent from the bacterial genome. Acquired resistance results from a mutation in the bacterial chromosome or the acquisition of extra-chromosomal DNA. Antibacterial-producing bacteria have evolved resistance mechanisms that have been shown to be similar to, and may have been transferred to, antibacterial-resistant strains. The spread of antibacterial resistance often occurs through vertical transmission of mutations during growth and by genetic recombination of DNA by horizontal genetic exchange. For instance, antibacterial resistance genes can be exchanged between different bacterial strains or species via plasmids that carry these resistance genes. Plasmids that carry several different resistance genes can confer resistance to multiple antibacterials. Cross-resistance to several antibacterials may also occur when a resistance mechanism encoded by a single gene conveys resistance to more than one antibacterial compound. | What can be absent from the resistance genes? | What can be absent from the resistance genes? | [
"What can be absent from the resistance genes?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12403 | 5a65dc17c2b11c001a425d77 | Antibiotics | Several molecular mechanisms of antibacterial resistance exist. Intrinsic antibacterial resistance may be part of the genetic makeup of bacterial strains. For example, an antibiotic target may be absent from the bacterial genome. Acquired resistance results from a mutation in the bacterial chromosome or the acquisition of extra-chromosomal DNA. Antibacterial-producing bacteria have evolved resistance mechanisms that have been shown to be similar to, and may have been transferred to, antibacterial-resistant strains. The spread of antibacterial resistance often occurs through vertical transmission of mutations during growth and by genetic recombination of DNA by horizontal genetic exchange. For instance, antibacterial resistance genes can be exchanged between different bacterial strains or species via plasmids that carry these resistance genes. Plasmids that carry several different resistance genes can confer resistance to multiple antibacterials. Cross-resistance to several antibacterials may also occur when a resistance mechanism encoded by a single gene conveys resistance to more than one antibacterial compound. | When does the spread of DNA frequently occur? | When does the spread of DNA frequently occur? | [
"When does the spread of DNA frequently occur?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12404 | 5a65dc17c2b11c001a425d78 | Antibiotics | Several molecular mechanisms of antibacterial resistance exist. Intrinsic antibacterial resistance may be part of the genetic makeup of bacterial strains. For example, an antibiotic target may be absent from the bacterial genome. Acquired resistance results from a mutation in the bacterial chromosome or the acquisition of extra-chromosomal DNA. Antibacterial-producing bacteria have evolved resistance mechanisms that have been shown to be similar to, and may have been transferred to, antibacterial-resistant strains. The spread of antibacterial resistance often occurs through vertical transmission of mutations during growth and by genetic recombination of DNA by horizontal genetic exchange. For instance, antibacterial resistance genes can be exchanged between different bacterial strains or species via plasmids that carry these resistance genes. Plasmids that carry several different resistance genes can confer resistance to multiple antibacterials. Cross-resistance to several antibacterials may also occur when a resistance mechanism encoded by a single gene conveys resistance to more than one antibacterial compound. | What is exchanged between bacterial stains of species via mutations that have this resistance? | What is exchanged between bacterial stains of species via mutations that have this resistance? | [
"What is exchanged between bacterial stains of species via mutations that have this resistance? "
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12405 | 5a65dc17c2b11c001a425d79 | Antibiotics | Several molecular mechanisms of antibacterial resistance exist. Intrinsic antibacterial resistance may be part of the genetic makeup of bacterial strains. For example, an antibiotic target may be absent from the bacterial genome. Acquired resistance results from a mutation in the bacterial chromosome or the acquisition of extra-chromosomal DNA. Antibacterial-producing bacteria have evolved resistance mechanisms that have been shown to be similar to, and may have been transferred to, antibacterial-resistant strains. The spread of antibacterial resistance often occurs through vertical transmission of mutations during growth and by genetic recombination of DNA by horizontal genetic exchange. For instance, antibacterial resistance genes can be exchanged between different bacterial strains or species via plasmids that carry these resistance genes. Plasmids that carry several different resistance genes can confer resistance to multiple antibacterials. Cross-resistance to several antibacterials may also occur when a resistance mechanism encoded by a single gene conveys resistance to more than one antibacterial compound. | What do plasmids do in bacterial chromosomes? | What do plasmids do in bacterial chromosomes? | [
"What do plasmids do in bacterial chromosomes?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12406 | 5733c4ca4776f419006611e4 | Antibiotics | Antibacterial-resistant strains and species, sometimes referred to as "superbugs", now contribute to the emergence of diseases that were for a while well controlled. For example, emergent bacterial strains causing tuberculosis (TB) that are resistant to previously effective antibacterial treatments pose many therapeutic challenges. Every year, nearly half a million new cases of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) are estimated to occur worldwide. For example, NDM-1 is a newly identified enzyme conveying bacterial resistance to a broad range of beta-lactam antibacterials. The United Kingdom's Health Protection Agency has stated that "most isolates with NDM-1 enzyme are resistant to all standard intravenous antibiotics for treatment of severe infections." | What are strains that are resistant to antibiotics called sometimes? | What are strains that are resistant to antibiotics called sometimes? | [
"What are strains that are resistant to antibiotics called sometimes?"
] | {
"text": [
"superbugs"
],
"answer_start": [
71
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12407 | 5733c4ca4776f419006611e5 | Antibiotics | Antibacterial-resistant strains and species, sometimes referred to as "superbugs", now contribute to the emergence of diseases that were for a while well controlled. For example, emergent bacterial strains causing tuberculosis (TB) that are resistant to previously effective antibacterial treatments pose many therapeutic challenges. Every year, nearly half a million new cases of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) are estimated to occur worldwide. For example, NDM-1 is a newly identified enzyme conveying bacterial resistance to a broad range of beta-lactam antibacterials. The United Kingdom's Health Protection Agency has stated that "most isolates with NDM-1 enzyme are resistant to all standard intravenous antibiotics for treatment of severe infections." | What was a once almost controlled disease that is coming back do to resistance? | What was a once almost controlled disease that is coming back do to resistance? | [
"What was a once almost controlled disease that is coming back do to resistance?"
] | {
"text": [
"tuberculosis"
],
"answer_start": [
214
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12408 | 5733c4ca4776f419006611e6 | Antibiotics | Antibacterial-resistant strains and species, sometimes referred to as "superbugs", now contribute to the emergence of diseases that were for a while well controlled. For example, emergent bacterial strains causing tuberculosis (TB) that are resistant to previously effective antibacterial treatments pose many therapeutic challenges. Every year, nearly half a million new cases of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) are estimated to occur worldwide. For example, NDM-1 is a newly identified enzyme conveying bacterial resistance to a broad range of beta-lactam antibacterials. The United Kingdom's Health Protection Agency has stated that "most isolates with NDM-1 enzyme are resistant to all standard intravenous antibiotics for treatment of severe infections." | How many new infections of resistant TB are reported per year? | How many new infections of resistant TB are reported per year? | [
"How many new infections of resistant TB are reported per year?"
] | {
"text": [
"half a million"
],
"answer_start": [
353
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12409 | 5733c4ca4776f419006611e7 | Antibiotics | Antibacterial-resistant strains and species, sometimes referred to as "superbugs", now contribute to the emergence of diseases that were for a while well controlled. For example, emergent bacterial strains causing tuberculosis (TB) that are resistant to previously effective antibacterial treatments pose many therapeutic challenges. Every year, nearly half a million new cases of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) are estimated to occur worldwide. For example, NDM-1 is a newly identified enzyme conveying bacterial resistance to a broad range of beta-lactam antibacterials. The United Kingdom's Health Protection Agency has stated that "most isolates with NDM-1 enzyme are resistant to all standard intravenous antibiotics for treatment of severe infections." | What is the acronym used to describe resistant TB? | What is the acronym used to describe resistant TB? | [
"What is the acronym used to describe resistant TB?"
] | {
"text": [
"MDR-TB"
],
"answer_start": [
415
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12410 | 5a65ddfcc2b11c001a425d7f | Antibiotics | Antibacterial-resistant strains and species, sometimes referred to as "superbugs", now contribute to the emergence of diseases that were for a while well controlled. For example, emergent bacterial strains causing tuberculosis (TB) that are resistant to previously effective antibacterial treatments pose many therapeutic challenges. Every year, nearly half a million new cases of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) are estimated to occur worldwide. For example, NDM-1 is a newly identified enzyme conveying bacterial resistance to a broad range of beta-lactam antibacterials. The United Kingdom's Health Protection Agency has stated that "most isolates with NDM-1 enzyme are resistant to all standard intravenous antibiotics for treatment of severe infections." | What are strains that are resistant to tuberculosis called sometimes? | What are strains that are resistant to tuberculosis called sometimes? | [
"What are strains that are resistant to tuberculosis called sometimes?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12411 | 5a65ddfcc2b11c001a425d80 | Antibiotics | Antibacterial-resistant strains and species, sometimes referred to as "superbugs", now contribute to the emergence of diseases that were for a while well controlled. For example, emergent bacterial strains causing tuberculosis (TB) that are resistant to previously effective antibacterial treatments pose many therapeutic challenges. Every year, nearly half a million new cases of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) are estimated to occur worldwide. For example, NDM-1 is a newly identified enzyme conveying bacterial resistance to a broad range of beta-lactam antibacterials. The United Kingdom's Health Protection Agency has stated that "most isolates with NDM-1 enzyme are resistant to all standard intravenous antibiotics for treatment of severe infections." | What was a once almost controlled antibiotic that is coming back to do resistance? | What was a once almost controlled antibiotic that is coming back to do resistance? | [
"What was a once almost controlled antibiotic that is coming back to do resistance?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12412 | 5a65ddfcc2b11c001a425d81 | Antibiotics | Antibacterial-resistant strains and species, sometimes referred to as "superbugs", now contribute to the emergence of diseases that were for a while well controlled. For example, emergent bacterial strains causing tuberculosis (TB) that are resistant to previously effective antibacterial treatments pose many therapeutic challenges. Every year, nearly half a million new cases of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) are estimated to occur worldwide. For example, NDM-1 is a newly identified enzyme conveying bacterial resistance to a broad range of beta-lactam antibacterials. The United Kingdom's Health Protection Agency has stated that "most isolates with NDM-1 enzyme are resistant to all standard intravenous antibiotics for treatment of severe infections." | How many new infections of bacteria are reported per year? | How many new infections of bacteria are reported per year? | [
"How many new infections of bacteria are reported per year?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12413 | 5a65ddfcc2b11c001a425d82 | Antibiotics | Antibacterial-resistant strains and species, sometimes referred to as "superbugs", now contribute to the emergence of diseases that were for a while well controlled. For example, emergent bacterial strains causing tuberculosis (TB) that are resistant to previously effective antibacterial treatments pose many therapeutic challenges. Every year, nearly half a million new cases of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) are estimated to occur worldwide. For example, NDM-1 is a newly identified enzyme conveying bacterial resistance to a broad range of beta-lactam antibacterials. The United Kingdom's Health Protection Agency has stated that "most isolates with NDM-1 enzyme are resistant to all standard intravenous antibiotics for treatment of severe infections." | What is the acronym used to describe enzymes? | What is the acronym used to describe enzymes? | [
"What is the acronym used to describe enzymes?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12414 | 5a65ddfcc2b11c001a425d83 | Antibiotics | Antibacterial-resistant strains and species, sometimes referred to as "superbugs", now contribute to the emergence of diseases that were for a while well controlled. For example, emergent bacterial strains causing tuberculosis (TB) that are resistant to previously effective antibacterial treatments pose many therapeutic challenges. Every year, nearly half a million new cases of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) are estimated to occur worldwide. For example, NDM-1 is a newly identified enzyme conveying bacterial resistance to a broad range of beta-lactam antibacterials. The United Kingdom's Health Protection Agency has stated that "most isolates with NDM-1 enzyme are resistant to all standard intravenous antibiotics for treatment of severe infections." | What is a newly identified enzyme conveying bacterial resistance to a broad range of strains and species? | What is a newly identified enzyme conveying bacterial resistance to a broad range of strains and species? | [
"What is a newly identified enzyme conveying bacterial resistance to a broad range of strains and species? "
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12415 | 5733c6d84776f41900661208 | Antibiotics | Inappropriate antibiotic treatment and overuse of antibiotics have contributed to the emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Self prescription of antibiotics is an example of misuse. Many antibiotics are frequently prescribed to treat symptoms or diseases that do not respond to antibiotics or that are likely to resolve without treatment. Also, incorrect or suboptimal antibiotics are prescribed for certain bacterial infections. The overuse of antibiotics, like penicillin and erythromycin, has been associated with emerging antibiotic resistance since the 1950s. Widespread usage of antibiotics in hospitals has also been associated with increases in bacterial strains and species that no longer respond to treatment with the most common antibiotics. | What are the two biggest reasons for resistance? | What are the two biggest reasons for resistance? | [
"What are the two biggest reasons for resistance?"
] | {
"text": [
"Inappropriate antibiotic treatment and overuse"
],
"answer_start": [
0
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12416 | 5733c6d84776f41900661209 | Antibiotics | Inappropriate antibiotic treatment and overuse of antibiotics have contributed to the emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Self prescription of antibiotics is an example of misuse. Many antibiotics are frequently prescribed to treat symptoms or diseases that do not respond to antibiotics or that are likely to resolve without treatment. Also, incorrect or suboptimal antibiotics are prescribed for certain bacterial infections. The overuse of antibiotics, like penicillin and erythromycin, has been associated with emerging antibiotic resistance since the 1950s. Widespread usage of antibiotics in hospitals has also been associated with increases in bacterial strains and species that no longer respond to treatment with the most common antibiotics. | What is a common method of misuse? | What is a common method of misuse? | [
"What is a common method of misuse?"
] | {
"text": [
"Self prescription"
],
"answer_start": [
130
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12417 | 5733c6d84776f4190066120a | Antibiotics | Inappropriate antibiotic treatment and overuse of antibiotics have contributed to the emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Self prescription of antibiotics is an example of misuse. Many antibiotics are frequently prescribed to treat symptoms or diseases that do not respond to antibiotics or that are likely to resolve without treatment. Also, incorrect or suboptimal antibiotics are prescribed for certain bacterial infections. The overuse of antibiotics, like penicillin and erythromycin, has been associated with emerging antibiotic resistance since the 1950s. Widespread usage of antibiotics in hospitals has also been associated with increases in bacterial strains and species that no longer respond to treatment with the most common antibiotics. | What is an example of bad treatment causing resistance? | What is an example of bad treatment causing resistance? | [
"What is an example of bad treatment causing resistance?"
] | {
"text": [
"overuse of antibiotics"
],
"answer_start": [
440
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12418 | 5a65deebc2b11c001a425d89 | Antibiotics | Inappropriate antibiotic treatment and overuse of antibiotics have contributed to the emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Self prescription of antibiotics is an example of misuse. Many antibiotics are frequently prescribed to treat symptoms or diseases that do not respond to antibiotics or that are likely to resolve without treatment. Also, incorrect or suboptimal antibiotics are prescribed for certain bacterial infections. The overuse of antibiotics, like penicillin and erythromycin, has been associated with emerging antibiotic resistance since the 1950s. Widespread usage of antibiotics in hospitals has also been associated with increases in bacterial strains and species that no longer respond to treatment with the most common antibiotics. | What are the two biggest reasons for antibiotics? | What are the two biggest reasons for antibiotics? | [
"What are the two biggest reasons for antibiotics?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12419 | 5a65deebc2b11c001a425d8a | Antibiotics | Inappropriate antibiotic treatment and overuse of antibiotics have contributed to the emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Self prescription of antibiotics is an example of misuse. Many antibiotics are frequently prescribed to treat symptoms or diseases that do not respond to antibiotics or that are likely to resolve without treatment. Also, incorrect or suboptimal antibiotics are prescribed for certain bacterial infections. The overuse of antibiotics, like penicillin and erythromycin, has been associated with emerging antibiotic resistance since the 1950s. Widespread usage of antibiotics in hospitals has also been associated with increases in bacterial strains and species that no longer respond to treatment with the most common antibiotics. | What is a common method of hospitals? | What is a common method of hospitals? | [
"What is a common method of hospitals?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12420 | 5a65deebc2b11c001a425d8b | Antibiotics | Inappropriate antibiotic treatment and overuse of antibiotics have contributed to the emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Self prescription of antibiotics is an example of misuse. Many antibiotics are frequently prescribed to treat symptoms or diseases that do not respond to antibiotics or that are likely to resolve without treatment. Also, incorrect or suboptimal antibiotics are prescribed for certain bacterial infections. The overuse of antibiotics, like penicillin and erythromycin, has been associated with emerging antibiotic resistance since the 1950s. Widespread usage of antibiotics in hospitals has also been associated with increases in bacterial strains and species that no longer respond to treatment with the most common antibiotics. | What is an example of bad treatment causing infections? | What is an example of bad treatment causing infections? | [
"What is an example of bad treatment causing infections?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12421 | 5a65deebc2b11c001a425d8c | Antibiotics | Inappropriate antibiotic treatment and overuse of antibiotics have contributed to the emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Self prescription of antibiotics is an example of misuse. Many antibiotics are frequently prescribed to treat symptoms or diseases that do not respond to antibiotics or that are likely to resolve without treatment. Also, incorrect or suboptimal antibiotics are prescribed for certain bacterial infections. The overuse of antibiotics, like penicillin and erythromycin, has been associated with emerging antibiotic resistance since the 1950s. Widespread usage of antibiotics in hospitals has also been associated with increases in bacterial strains and species that no longer respond to treatment with the most common antibiotics. | What as been associated with increases in suboptimal antibiotics? | What as been associated with increases in suboptimal antibiotics? | [
"What as been associated with increases in suboptimal antibiotics?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12422 | 5a65deebc2b11c001a425d8d | Antibiotics | Inappropriate antibiotic treatment and overuse of antibiotics have contributed to the emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Self prescription of antibiotics is an example of misuse. Many antibiotics are frequently prescribed to treat symptoms or diseases that do not respond to antibiotics or that are likely to resolve without treatment. Also, incorrect or suboptimal antibiotics are prescribed for certain bacterial infections. The overuse of antibiotics, like penicillin and erythromycin, has been associated with emerging antibiotic resistance since the 1950s. Widespread usage of antibiotics in hospitals has also been associated with increases in bacterial strains and species that no longer respond to treatment with the most common antibiotics. | Since when have symptoms and diseases been associated with emerging antibiotic resistance? | Since when have symptoms and diseases been associated with emerging antibiotic resistance? | [
"Since when have symptoms and diseases been associated with emerging antibiotic resistance?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12423 | 5733c81c4776f4190066121c | Antibiotics | Common forms of antibiotic misuse include excessive use of prophylactic antibiotics in travelers and failure of medical professionals to prescribe the correct dosage of antibiotics on the basis of the patient's weight and history of prior use. Other forms of misuse include failure to take the entire prescribed course of the antibiotic, incorrect dosage and administration, or failure to rest for sufficient recovery. Inappropriate antibiotic treatment, for example, is their prescription to treat viral infections such as the common cold. One study on respiratory tract infections found "physicians were more likely to prescribe antibiotics to patients who appeared to expect them". Multifactorial interventions aimed at both physicians and patients can reduce inappropriate prescription of antibiotics. | What is a way of improperly using antibiotics for those traveling? | What is a way of improperly using antibiotics for those traveling? | [
"What is a way of improperly using antibiotics for those traveling?"
] | {
"text": [
"prophylactic antibiotics"
],
"answer_start": [
59
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12424 | 5733c81c4776f4190066121d | Antibiotics | Common forms of antibiotic misuse include excessive use of prophylactic antibiotics in travelers and failure of medical professionals to prescribe the correct dosage of antibiotics on the basis of the patient's weight and history of prior use. Other forms of misuse include failure to take the entire prescribed course of the antibiotic, incorrect dosage and administration, or failure to rest for sufficient recovery. Inappropriate antibiotic treatment, for example, is their prescription to treat viral infections such as the common cold. One study on respiratory tract infections found "physicians were more likely to prescribe antibiotics to patients who appeared to expect them". Multifactorial interventions aimed at both physicians and patients can reduce inappropriate prescription of antibiotics. | What can happen if a doctor doesn't prescribe to a person's weight and prior use? | What can happen if a doctor doesn't prescribe to a person's weight and prior use? | [
"What can happen if a doctor doesn't prescribe to a person's weight and prior use?"
] | {
"text": [
"failure of medical professionals to prescribe the correct dosage"
],
"answer_start": [
101
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12425 | 5733c81c4776f4190066121e | Antibiotics | Common forms of antibiotic misuse include excessive use of prophylactic antibiotics in travelers and failure of medical professionals to prescribe the correct dosage of antibiotics on the basis of the patient's weight and history of prior use. Other forms of misuse include failure to take the entire prescribed course of the antibiotic, incorrect dosage and administration, or failure to rest for sufficient recovery. Inappropriate antibiotic treatment, for example, is their prescription to treat viral infections such as the common cold. One study on respiratory tract infections found "physicians were more likely to prescribe antibiotics to patients who appeared to expect them". Multifactorial interventions aimed at both physicians and patients can reduce inappropriate prescription of antibiotics. | What are 3 other common forms of bad antibiotic practices? | What are 3 other common forms of bad antibiotic practices? | [
"What are 3 other common forms of bad antibiotic practices?"
] | {
"text": [
"failure to take the entire prescribed course of the antibiotic, incorrect dosage and administration, or failure to rest for sufficient recovery"
],
"answer_start": [
274
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12426 | 5733c81c4776f4190066121f | Antibiotics | Common forms of antibiotic misuse include excessive use of prophylactic antibiotics in travelers and failure of medical professionals to prescribe the correct dosage of antibiotics on the basis of the patient's weight and history of prior use. Other forms of misuse include failure to take the entire prescribed course of the antibiotic, incorrect dosage and administration, or failure to rest for sufficient recovery. Inappropriate antibiotic treatment, for example, is their prescription to treat viral infections such as the common cold. One study on respiratory tract infections found "physicians were more likely to prescribe antibiotics to patients who appeared to expect them". Multifactorial interventions aimed at both physicians and patients can reduce inappropriate prescription of antibiotics. | What happens when a cold is treated with antibiotics? | What happens when a cold is treated with antibiotics? | [
"What happens when a cold is treated with antibiotics?"
] | {
"text": [
"Inappropriate antibiotic treatment"
],
"answer_start": [
419
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12427 | 5733c81c4776f41900661220 | Antibiotics | Common forms of antibiotic misuse include excessive use of prophylactic antibiotics in travelers and failure of medical professionals to prescribe the correct dosage of antibiotics on the basis of the patient's weight and history of prior use. Other forms of misuse include failure to take the entire prescribed course of the antibiotic, incorrect dosage and administration, or failure to rest for sufficient recovery. Inappropriate antibiotic treatment, for example, is their prescription to treat viral infections such as the common cold. One study on respiratory tract infections found "physicians were more likely to prescribe antibiotics to patients who appeared to expect them". Multifactorial interventions aimed at both physicians and patients can reduce inappropriate prescription of antibiotics. | What do doctors usually do when a patient seems to want antibiotics even though they may not be right? | What do doctors usually do when a patient seems to want antibiotics even though they may not be right? | [
"What do doctors usually do when a patient seems to want antibiotics even though they may not be right?"
] | {
"text": [
"prescribe antibiotics"
],
"answer_start": [
621
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12428 | 5a65dfc9c2b11c001a425d93 | Antibiotics | Common forms of antibiotic misuse include excessive use of prophylactic antibiotics in travelers and failure of medical professionals to prescribe the correct dosage of antibiotics on the basis of the patient's weight and history of prior use. Other forms of misuse include failure to take the entire prescribed course of the antibiotic, incorrect dosage and administration, or failure to rest for sufficient recovery. Inappropriate antibiotic treatment, for example, is their prescription to treat viral infections such as the common cold. One study on respiratory tract infections found "physicians were more likely to prescribe antibiotics to patients who appeared to expect them". Multifactorial interventions aimed at both physicians and patients can reduce inappropriate prescription of antibiotics. | What is a way of improperly using rest for those traveling? | What is a way of improperly using rest for those traveling? | [
"What is a way of improperly using rest for those traveling?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12429 | 5a65dfc9c2b11c001a425d94 | Antibiotics | Common forms of antibiotic misuse include excessive use of prophylactic antibiotics in travelers and failure of medical professionals to prescribe the correct dosage of antibiotics on the basis of the patient's weight and history of prior use. Other forms of misuse include failure to take the entire prescribed course of the antibiotic, incorrect dosage and administration, or failure to rest for sufficient recovery. Inappropriate antibiotic treatment, for example, is their prescription to treat viral infections such as the common cold. One study on respiratory tract infections found "physicians were more likely to prescribe antibiotics to patients who appeared to expect them". Multifactorial interventions aimed at both physicians and patients can reduce inappropriate prescription of antibiotics. | What can happen if a doctor doesn't prescribe to a person's traveling? | What can happen if a doctor doesn't prescribe to a person's traveling? | [
"What can happen if a doctor doesn't prescribe to a person's traveling?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12430 | 5a65dfc9c2b11c001a425d95 | Antibiotics | Common forms of antibiotic misuse include excessive use of prophylactic antibiotics in travelers and failure of medical professionals to prescribe the correct dosage of antibiotics on the basis of the patient's weight and history of prior use. Other forms of misuse include failure to take the entire prescribed course of the antibiotic, incorrect dosage and administration, or failure to rest for sufficient recovery. Inappropriate antibiotic treatment, for example, is their prescription to treat viral infections such as the common cold. One study on respiratory tract infections found "physicians were more likely to prescribe antibiotics to patients who appeared to expect them". Multifactorial interventions aimed at both physicians and patients can reduce inappropriate prescription of antibiotics. | What are 3 other common forms of bad viral infections? | What are 3 other common forms of bad viral infections? | [
"What are 3 other common forms of bad viral infections?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12431 | 5a65dfc9c2b11c001a425d96 | Antibiotics | Common forms of antibiotic misuse include excessive use of prophylactic antibiotics in travelers and failure of medical professionals to prescribe the correct dosage of antibiotics on the basis of the patient's weight and history of prior use. Other forms of misuse include failure to take the entire prescribed course of the antibiotic, incorrect dosage and administration, or failure to rest for sufficient recovery. Inappropriate antibiotic treatment, for example, is their prescription to treat viral infections such as the common cold. One study on respiratory tract infections found "physicians were more likely to prescribe antibiotics to patients who appeared to expect them". Multifactorial interventions aimed at both physicians and patients can reduce inappropriate prescription of antibiotics. | What happens when a physician is treated with antibiotics? | What happens when a physician is treated with antibiotics? | [
"What happens when a physician is treated with antibiotics?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12432 | 5a65dfc9c2b11c001a425d97 | Antibiotics | Common forms of antibiotic misuse include excessive use of prophylactic antibiotics in travelers and failure of medical professionals to prescribe the correct dosage of antibiotics on the basis of the patient's weight and history of prior use. Other forms of misuse include failure to take the entire prescribed course of the antibiotic, incorrect dosage and administration, or failure to rest for sufficient recovery. Inappropriate antibiotic treatment, for example, is their prescription to treat viral infections such as the common cold. One study on respiratory tract infections found "physicians were more likely to prescribe antibiotics to patients who appeared to expect them". Multifactorial interventions aimed at both physicians and patients can reduce inappropriate prescription of antibiotics. | What do doctors usually do when a patient seems to want the common cold even though they may not be right? | What do doctors usually do when a patient seems to want the common cold even though they may not be right? | [
"What do doctors usually do when a patient seems to want the common cold even though they may not be right?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12433 | 5733cb484776f41900661256 | Antibiotics | Several organizations concerned with antimicrobial resistance are lobbying to eliminate the unnecessary use of antibiotics. The issues of misuse and overuse of antibiotics have been addressed by the formation of the US Interagency Task Force on Antimicrobial Resistance. This task force aims to actively address antimicrobial resistance, and is coordinated by the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and the National Institutes of Health (NIH), as well as other US agencies. An NGO campaign group is Keep Antibiotics Working. In France, an "Antibiotics are not automatic" government campaign started in 2002 and led to a marked reduction of unnecessary antibiotic prescriptions, especially in children. | What is the name of a US government agency tasked with trying to stop improper use of antibiotics? | What is the name of a US government agency tasked with trying to stop improper use of antibiotics? | [
"What is the name of a US government agency tasked with trying to stop improper use of antibiotics?"
] | {
"text": [
"US Interagency Task Force on Antimicrobial Resistance"
],
"answer_start": [
216
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12434 | 5733cb484776f41900661257 | Antibiotics | Several organizations concerned with antimicrobial resistance are lobbying to eliminate the unnecessary use of antibiotics. The issues of misuse and overuse of antibiotics have been addressed by the formation of the US Interagency Task Force on Antimicrobial Resistance. This task force aims to actively address antimicrobial resistance, and is coordinated by the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and the National Institutes of Health (NIH), as well as other US agencies. An NGO campaign group is Keep Antibiotics Working. In France, an "Antibiotics are not automatic" government campaign started in 2002 and led to a marked reduction of unnecessary antibiotic prescriptions, especially in children. | Which agencies control this task force? | Which agencies control this task force? | [
"Which agencies control this task force?"
] | {
"text": [
"US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and the National Institutes of Health (NIH)"
],
"answer_start": [
364
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12435 | 5733cb484776f41900661258 | Antibiotics | Several organizations concerned with antimicrobial resistance are lobbying to eliminate the unnecessary use of antibiotics. The issues of misuse and overuse of antibiotics have been addressed by the formation of the US Interagency Task Force on Antimicrobial Resistance. This task force aims to actively address antimicrobial resistance, and is coordinated by the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and the National Institutes of Health (NIH), as well as other US agencies. An NGO campaign group is Keep Antibiotics Working. In France, an "Antibiotics are not automatic" government campaign started in 2002 and led to a marked reduction of unnecessary antibiotic prescriptions, especially in children. | When did the French start going after overuse of antibiotics? | When did the French start going after overuse of antibiotics? | [
"When did the French start going after overuse of antibiotics?"
] | {
"text": [
"2002"
],
"answer_start": [
654
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12436 | 5a65e0f1c2b11c001a425d9d | Antibiotics | Several organizations concerned with antimicrobial resistance are lobbying to eliminate the unnecessary use of antibiotics. The issues of misuse and overuse of antibiotics have been addressed by the formation of the US Interagency Task Force on Antimicrobial Resistance. This task force aims to actively address antimicrobial resistance, and is coordinated by the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and the National Institutes of Health (NIH), as well as other US agencies. An NGO campaign group is Keep Antibiotics Working. In France, an "Antibiotics are not automatic" government campaign started in 2002 and led to a marked reduction of unnecessary antibiotic prescriptions, especially in children. | What is the name of a US government agency tasked with trying to stop the FDA? | What is the name of a US government agency tasked with trying to stop the FDA? | [
"What is the name of a US government agency tasked with trying to stop the FDA?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12437 | 5a65e0f1c2b11c001a425d9e | Antibiotics | Several organizations concerned with antimicrobial resistance are lobbying to eliminate the unnecessary use of antibiotics. The issues of misuse and overuse of antibiotics have been addressed by the formation of the US Interagency Task Force on Antimicrobial Resistance. This task force aims to actively address antimicrobial resistance, and is coordinated by the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and the National Institutes of Health (NIH), as well as other US agencies. An NGO campaign group is Keep Antibiotics Working. In France, an "Antibiotics are not automatic" government campaign started in 2002 and led to a marked reduction of unnecessary antibiotic prescriptions, especially in children. | Which agencies control France? | Which agencies control France? | [
"Which agencies control France?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12438 | 5a65e0f1c2b11c001a425d9f | Antibiotics | Several organizations concerned with antimicrobial resistance are lobbying to eliminate the unnecessary use of antibiotics. The issues of misuse and overuse of antibiotics have been addressed by the formation of the US Interagency Task Force on Antimicrobial Resistance. This task force aims to actively address antimicrobial resistance, and is coordinated by the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and the National Institutes of Health (NIH), as well as other US agencies. An NGO campaign group is Keep Antibiotics Working. In France, an "Antibiotics are not automatic" government campaign started in 2002 and led to a marked reduction of unnecessary antibiotic prescriptions, especially in children. | When did the French start going after children? | When did the French start going after children? | [
"When did the French start going after children?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12439 | 5a65e0f1c2b11c001a425da0 | Antibiotics | Several organizations concerned with antimicrobial resistance are lobbying to eliminate the unnecessary use of antibiotics. The issues of misuse and overuse of antibiotics have been addressed by the formation of the US Interagency Task Force on Antimicrobial Resistance. This task force aims to actively address antimicrobial resistance, and is coordinated by the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and the National Institutes of Health (NIH), as well as other US agencies. An NGO campaign group is Keep Antibiotics Working. In France, an "Antibiotics are not automatic" government campaign started in 2002 and led to a marked reduction of unnecessary antibiotic prescriptions, especially in children. | What has been adressed by an NGO campaign group? | What has been adressed by an NGO campaign group? | [
"What has been adressed by an NGO campaign group?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12440 | 5a65e0f1c2b11c001a425da1 | Antibiotics | Several organizations concerned with antimicrobial resistance are lobbying to eliminate the unnecessary use of antibiotics. The issues of misuse and overuse of antibiotics have been addressed by the formation of the US Interagency Task Force on Antimicrobial Resistance. This task force aims to actively address antimicrobial resistance, and is coordinated by the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and the National Institutes of Health (NIH), as well as other US agencies. An NGO campaign group is Keep Antibiotics Working. In France, an "Antibiotics are not automatic" government campaign started in 2002 and led to a marked reduction of unnecessary antibiotic prescriptions, especially in children. | What are organizations who are lobbying to other US agencies concerned with? | What are organizations who are lobbying to other US agencies concerned with? | [
"What are organizations who are lobbying to other US agencies concerned with?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12441 | 5733cd2bd058e614000b62b3 | Antibiotics | The emergence of antibiotic resistance has prompted restrictions on their use in the UK in 1970 (Swann report 1969), and the EU has banned the use of antibiotics as growth-promotional agents since 2003. Moreover, several organizations (e.g., The American Society for Microbiology (ASM), American Public Health Association (APHA) and the American Medical Association (AMA)) have called for restrictions on antibiotic use in food animal production and an end to all nontherapeutic uses.[citation needed] However, commonly there are delays in regulatory and legislative actions to limit the use of antibiotics, attributable partly to resistance against such regulation by industries using or selling antibiotics, and to the time required for research to test causal links between their use and resistance to them. Two federal bills (S.742 and H.R. 2562) aimed at phasing out nontherapeutic use of antibiotics in US food animals were proposed, but have not passed. These bills were endorsed by public health and medical organizations, including the American Holistic Nurses' Association, the American Medical Association, and the American Public Health Association (APHA). | When did the EU ban antibiotics for speeding up growth? | When did the EU ban antibiotics for speeding up growth? | [
"When did the EU ban antibiotics for speeding up growth?"
] | {
"text": [
"2003"
],
"answer_start": [
197
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12442 | 5733cd2bd058e614000b62b4 | Antibiotics | The emergence of antibiotic resistance has prompted restrictions on their use in the UK in 1970 (Swann report 1969), and the EU has banned the use of antibiotics as growth-promotional agents since 2003. Moreover, several organizations (e.g., The American Society for Microbiology (ASM), American Public Health Association (APHA) and the American Medical Association (AMA)) have called for restrictions on antibiotic use in food animal production and an end to all nontherapeutic uses.[citation needed] However, commonly there are delays in regulatory and legislative actions to limit the use of antibiotics, attributable partly to resistance against such regulation by industries using or selling antibiotics, and to the time required for research to test causal links between their use and resistance to them. Two federal bills (S.742 and H.R. 2562) aimed at phasing out nontherapeutic use of antibiotics in US food animals were proposed, but have not passed. These bills were endorsed by public health and medical organizations, including the American Holistic Nurses' Association, the American Medical Association, and the American Public Health Association (APHA). | What report caused the UK to worry about resistance? | What report caused the UK to worry about resistance? | [
"What report caused the UK to worry about resistance?"
] | {
"text": [
"Swann report 1969"
],
"answer_start": [
97
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12443 | 5733cd2bd058e614000b62b5 | Antibiotics | The emergence of antibiotic resistance has prompted restrictions on their use in the UK in 1970 (Swann report 1969), and the EU has banned the use of antibiotics as growth-promotional agents since 2003. Moreover, several organizations (e.g., The American Society for Microbiology (ASM), American Public Health Association (APHA) and the American Medical Association (AMA)) have called for restrictions on antibiotic use in food animal production and an end to all nontherapeutic uses.[citation needed] However, commonly there are delays in regulatory and legislative actions to limit the use of antibiotics, attributable partly to resistance against such regulation by industries using or selling antibiotics, and to the time required for research to test causal links between their use and resistance to them. Two federal bills (S.742 and H.R. 2562) aimed at phasing out nontherapeutic use of antibiotics in US food animals were proposed, but have not passed. These bills were endorsed by public health and medical organizations, including the American Holistic Nurses' Association, the American Medical Association, and the American Public Health Association (APHA). | What 3 US organizations have called for the banning of antibiotics in the production of food animals? | What 3 US organizations have called for the banning of antibiotics in the production of food animals? | [
"What 3 US organizations have called for the banning of antibiotics in the production of food animals?"
] | {
"text": [
"American Society for Microbiology (ASM), American Public Health Association (APHA) and the American Medical Association (AMA)"
],
"answer_start": [
246
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12444 | 5733cd2bd058e614000b62b6 | Antibiotics | The emergence of antibiotic resistance has prompted restrictions on their use in the UK in 1970 (Swann report 1969), and the EU has banned the use of antibiotics as growth-promotional agents since 2003. Moreover, several organizations (e.g., The American Society for Microbiology (ASM), American Public Health Association (APHA) and the American Medical Association (AMA)) have called for restrictions on antibiotic use in food animal production and an end to all nontherapeutic uses.[citation needed] However, commonly there are delays in regulatory and legislative actions to limit the use of antibiotics, attributable partly to resistance against such regulation by industries using or selling antibiotics, and to the time required for research to test causal links between their use and resistance to them. Two federal bills (S.742 and H.R. 2562) aimed at phasing out nontherapeutic use of antibiotics in US food animals were proposed, but have not passed. These bills were endorsed by public health and medical organizations, including the American Holistic Nurses' Association, the American Medical Association, and the American Public Health Association (APHA). | Name two US bills that want to ban antibiotics in food production? | Name two US bills that want to ban antibiotics in food production? | [
"Name two US bills that want to ban antibiotics in food production?"
] | {
"text": [
"S.742 and H.R. 2562"
],
"answer_start": [
830
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12445 | 5733cd2bd058e614000b62b7 | Antibiotics | The emergence of antibiotic resistance has prompted restrictions on their use in the UK in 1970 (Swann report 1969), and the EU has banned the use of antibiotics as growth-promotional agents since 2003. Moreover, several organizations (e.g., The American Society for Microbiology (ASM), American Public Health Association (APHA) and the American Medical Association (AMA)) have called for restrictions on antibiotic use in food animal production and an end to all nontherapeutic uses.[citation needed] However, commonly there are delays in regulatory and legislative actions to limit the use of antibiotics, attributable partly to resistance against such regulation by industries using or selling antibiotics, and to the time required for research to test causal links between their use and resistance to them. Two federal bills (S.742 and H.R. 2562) aimed at phasing out nontherapeutic use of antibiotics in US food animals were proposed, but have not passed. These bills were endorsed by public health and medical organizations, including the American Holistic Nurses' Association, the American Medical Association, and the American Public Health Association (APHA). | What 3 medical associations supported the bills? | What 3 medical associations supported the bills? | [
"What 3 medical associations supported the bills?"
] | {
"text": [
"American Holistic Nurses' Association, the American Medical Association, and the American Public Health Association (APHA)"
],
"answer_start": [
1045
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12446 | 5a65e1c2c2b11c001a425da7 | Antibiotics | The emergence of antibiotic resistance has prompted restrictions on their use in the UK in 1970 (Swann report 1969), and the EU has banned the use of antibiotics as growth-promotional agents since 2003. Moreover, several organizations (e.g., The American Society for Microbiology (ASM), American Public Health Association (APHA) and the American Medical Association (AMA)) have called for restrictions on antibiotic use in food animal production and an end to all nontherapeutic uses.[citation needed] However, commonly there are delays in regulatory and legislative actions to limit the use of antibiotics, attributable partly to resistance against such regulation by industries using or selling antibiotics, and to the time required for research to test causal links between their use and resistance to them. Two federal bills (S.742 and H.R. 2562) aimed at phasing out nontherapeutic use of antibiotics in US food animals were proposed, but have not passed. These bills were endorsed by public health and medical organizations, including the American Holistic Nurses' Association, the American Medical Association, and the American Public Health Association (APHA). | When did the EU ban bills for speeding up growth? | When did the EU ban bills for speeding up growth? | [
"When did the EU ban bills for speeding up growth?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12447 | 5a65e1c2c2b11c001a425da8 | Antibiotics | The emergence of antibiotic resistance has prompted restrictions on their use in the UK in 1970 (Swann report 1969), and the EU has banned the use of antibiotics as growth-promotional agents since 2003. Moreover, several organizations (e.g., The American Society for Microbiology (ASM), American Public Health Association (APHA) and the American Medical Association (AMA)) have called for restrictions on antibiotic use in food animal production and an end to all nontherapeutic uses.[citation needed] However, commonly there are delays in regulatory and legislative actions to limit the use of antibiotics, attributable partly to resistance against such regulation by industries using or selling antibiotics, and to the time required for research to test causal links between their use and resistance to them. Two federal bills (S.742 and H.R. 2562) aimed at phasing out nontherapeutic use of antibiotics in US food animals were proposed, but have not passed. These bills were endorsed by public health and medical organizations, including the American Holistic Nurses' Association, the American Medical Association, and the American Public Health Association (APHA). | What report caused the UK to worry about industries? | What report caused the UK to worry about industries? | [
"What report caused the UK to worry about industries?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12448 | 5a65e1c2c2b11c001a425da9 | Antibiotics | The emergence of antibiotic resistance has prompted restrictions on their use in the UK in 1970 (Swann report 1969), and the EU has banned the use of antibiotics as growth-promotional agents since 2003. Moreover, several organizations (e.g., The American Society for Microbiology (ASM), American Public Health Association (APHA) and the American Medical Association (AMA)) have called for restrictions on antibiotic use in food animal production and an end to all nontherapeutic uses.[citation needed] However, commonly there are delays in regulatory and legislative actions to limit the use of antibiotics, attributable partly to resistance against such regulation by industries using or selling antibiotics, and to the time required for research to test causal links between their use and resistance to them. Two federal bills (S.742 and H.R. 2562) aimed at phasing out nontherapeutic use of antibiotics in US food animals were proposed, but have not passed. These bills were endorsed by public health and medical organizations, including the American Holistic Nurses' Association, the American Medical Association, and the American Public Health Association (APHA). | What 3 US organizations have called for the banning of medical organizations and the production of food animals? | What 3 US organizations have called for the banning of medical organizations and the production of food animals? | [
"What 3 US organizations have called for the banning of medical organizations and the production of food animals?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12449 | 5a65e1c2c2b11c001a425daa | Antibiotics | The emergence of antibiotic resistance has prompted restrictions on their use in the UK in 1970 (Swann report 1969), and the EU has banned the use of antibiotics as growth-promotional agents since 2003. Moreover, several organizations (e.g., The American Society for Microbiology (ASM), American Public Health Association (APHA) and the American Medical Association (AMA)) have called for restrictions on antibiotic use in food animal production and an end to all nontherapeutic uses.[citation needed] However, commonly there are delays in regulatory and legislative actions to limit the use of antibiotics, attributable partly to resistance against such regulation by industries using or selling antibiotics, and to the time required for research to test causal links between their use and resistance to them. Two federal bills (S.742 and H.R. 2562) aimed at phasing out nontherapeutic use of antibiotics in US food animals were proposed, but have not passed. These bills were endorsed by public health and medical organizations, including the American Holistic Nurses' Association, the American Medical Association, and the American Public Health Association (APHA). | Name two AMA bills that want to ban antibiotics in food production. | Name two AMA bills that want to ban antibiotics in food production. | [
"Name two AMA bills that want to ban antibiotics in food production."
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12450 | 5a65e1c2c2b11c001a425dab | Antibiotics | The emergence of antibiotic resistance has prompted restrictions on their use in the UK in 1970 (Swann report 1969), and the EU has banned the use of antibiotics as growth-promotional agents since 2003. Moreover, several organizations (e.g., The American Society for Microbiology (ASM), American Public Health Association (APHA) and the American Medical Association (AMA)) have called for restrictions on antibiotic use in food animal production and an end to all nontherapeutic uses.[citation needed] However, commonly there are delays in regulatory and legislative actions to limit the use of antibiotics, attributable partly to resistance against such regulation by industries using or selling antibiotics, and to the time required for research to test causal links between their use and resistance to them. Two federal bills (S.742 and H.R. 2562) aimed at phasing out nontherapeutic use of antibiotics in US food animals were proposed, but have not passed. These bills were endorsed by public health and medical organizations, including the American Holistic Nurses' Association, the American Medical Association, and the American Public Health Association (APHA). | What 3 medical associations supported antibiotics? | What 3 medical associations supported antibiotics? | [
"What 3 medical associations supported antibiotics?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12451 | 5733d178d058e614000b6321 | Antibiotics | There has been extensive use of antibiotics in animal husbandry. In the United States, the question of emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains due to use of antibiotics in livestock was raised by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1977. In March 2012, the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York, ruling in an action brought by the Natural Resources Defense Council and others, ordered the FDA to revoke approvals for the use of antibiotics in livestock, which violated FDA regulations. | What besides sick people are antibiotics used for? | What besides sick people are antibiotics used for? | [
"What besides sick people are antibiotics used for?"
] | {
"text": [
"animal husbandry"
],
"answer_start": [
47
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12452 | 5733d178d058e614000b6322 | Antibiotics | There has been extensive use of antibiotics in animal husbandry. In the United States, the question of emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains due to use of antibiotics in livestock was raised by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1977. In March 2012, the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York, ruling in an action brought by the Natural Resources Defense Council and others, ordered the FDA to revoke approvals for the use of antibiotics in livestock, which violated FDA regulations. | When was resistance first discussed as a problem in the raising of farm animals? | When was resistance first discussed as a problem in the raising of farm animals? | [
"When was resistance first discussed as a problem in the raising of farm animals?"
] | {
"text": [
"1977"
],
"answer_start": [
253
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12453 | 5733d178d058e614000b6323 | Antibiotics | There has been extensive use of antibiotics in animal husbandry. In the United States, the question of emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains due to use of antibiotics in livestock was raised by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1977. In March 2012, the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York, ruling in an action brought by the Natural Resources Defense Council and others, ordered the FDA to revoke approvals for the use of antibiotics in livestock, which violated FDA regulations. | When did a district court order the FDA to stop approving antibiotics in animals? | When did a district court order the FDA to stop approving antibiotics in animals? | [
"When did a district court order the FDA to stop approving antibiotics in animals?"
] | {
"text": [
"March 2012"
],
"answer_start": [
262
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12454 | 5a65e2dec2b11c001a425db1 | Antibiotics | There has been extensive use of antibiotics in animal husbandry. In the United States, the question of emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains due to use of antibiotics in livestock was raised by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1977. In March 2012, the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York, ruling in an action brought by the Natural Resources Defense Council and others, ordered the FDA to revoke approvals for the use of antibiotics in livestock, which violated FDA regulations. | What besides sick people are bacterial strains used for? | What besides sick people are bacterial strains used for? | [
"What besides sick people are bacterial strains used for?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12455 | 5a65e2dec2b11c001a425db2 | Antibiotics | There has been extensive use of antibiotics in animal husbandry. In the United States, the question of emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains due to use of antibiotics in livestock was raised by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1977. In March 2012, the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York, ruling in an action brought by the Natural Resources Defense Council and others, ordered the FDA to revoke approvals for the use of antibiotics in livestock, which violated FDA regulations. | When was resistance first discussed as a problem in the raising of the United States? | When was resistance first discussed as a problem in the raising of the United States? | [
"When was resistance first discussed as a problem in the raising of the United States?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12456 | 5a65e2dec2b11c001a425db3 | Antibiotics | There has been extensive use of antibiotics in animal husbandry. In the United States, the question of emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains due to use of antibiotics in livestock was raised by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1977. In March 2012, the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York, ruling in an action brought by the Natural Resources Defense Council and others, ordered the FDA to revoke approvals for the use of antibiotics in livestock, which violated FDA regulations. | When did a district court order the FDA to stop approving animals? | When did a district court order the FDA to stop approving animals? | [
"When did a district court order the FDA to stop approving animals?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12457 | 5a65e2dec2b11c001a425db4 | Antibiotics | There has been extensive use of antibiotics in animal husbandry. In the United States, the question of emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains due to use of antibiotics in livestock was raised by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1977. In March 2012, the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York, ruling in an action brought by the Natural Resources Defense Council and others, ordered the FDA to revoke approvals for the use of antibiotics in livestock, which violated FDA regulations. | What violated Natural Resources Defense Council regulations? | What violated Natural Resources Defense Council regulations? | [
"What violated Natural Resources Defense Council regulations?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12458 | 5a65e2dec2b11c001a425db5 | Antibiotics | There has been extensive use of antibiotics in animal husbandry. In the United States, the question of emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains due to use of antibiotics in livestock was raised by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1977. In March 2012, the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York, ruling in an action brought by the Natural Resources Defense Council and others, ordered the FDA to revoke approvals for the use of antibiotics in livestock, which violated FDA regulations. | Who ordered the FDA to use antibiotics? | Who ordered the FDA to use antibiotics? | [
"Who ordered the FDA to use antibiotics?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12459 | 5733d2444776f419006612d8 | Antibiotics | Before the early 20th century, treatments for infections were based primarily on medicinal folklore. Mixtures with antimicrobial properties that were used in treatments of infections were described over 2000 years ago. Many ancient cultures, including the ancient Egyptians and ancient Greeks, used specially selected mold and plant materials and extracts to treat infections. More recent observations made in the laboratory of antibiosis between microorganisms led to the discovery of natural antibacterials produced by microorganisms. Louis Pasteur observed, "if we could intervene in the antagonism observed between some bacteria, it would offer perhaps the greatest hopes for therapeutics". The term 'antibiosis', meaning "against life", was introduced by the French bacteriologist Jean Paul Vuillemin as a descriptive name of the phenomenon exhibited by these early antibacterial drugs. Antibiosis was first described in 1877 in bacteria when Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch observed that an airborne bacillus could inhibit the growth of Bacillus anthracis. These drugs were later renamed antibiotics by Selman Waksman, an American microbiologist, in 1942. Synthetic antibiotic chemotherapy as a science and development of antibacterials began in Germany with Paul Ehrlich in the late 1880s. Ehrlich noted certain dyes would color human, animal, or bacterial cells, whereas others did not. He then proposed the idea that it might be possible to create chemicals that would act as a selective drug that would bind to and kill bacteria without harming the human host. After screening hundreds of dyes against various organisms, in 1907, he discovered a medicinally useful drug, the synthetic antibacterial salvarsan now called arsphenamine. | What methods did people use before antibiotics to treat infections? | What methods did people use before antibiotics to treat infections? | [
"What methods did people use before antibiotics to treat infections?"
] | {
"text": [
"medicinal folklore"
],
"answer_start": [
81
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12460 | 5733d2444776f419006612d9 | Antibiotics | Before the early 20th century, treatments for infections were based primarily on medicinal folklore. Mixtures with antimicrobial properties that were used in treatments of infections were described over 2000 years ago. Many ancient cultures, including the ancient Egyptians and ancient Greeks, used specially selected mold and plant materials and extracts to treat infections. More recent observations made in the laboratory of antibiosis between microorganisms led to the discovery of natural antibacterials produced by microorganisms. Louis Pasteur observed, "if we could intervene in the antagonism observed between some bacteria, it would offer perhaps the greatest hopes for therapeutics". The term 'antibiosis', meaning "against life", was introduced by the French bacteriologist Jean Paul Vuillemin as a descriptive name of the phenomenon exhibited by these early antibacterial drugs. Antibiosis was first described in 1877 in bacteria when Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch observed that an airborne bacillus could inhibit the growth of Bacillus anthracis. These drugs were later renamed antibiotics by Selman Waksman, an American microbiologist, in 1942. Synthetic antibiotic chemotherapy as a science and development of antibacterials began in Germany with Paul Ehrlich in the late 1880s. Ehrlich noted certain dyes would color human, animal, or bacterial cells, whereas others did not. He then proposed the idea that it might be possible to create chemicals that would act as a selective drug that would bind to and kill bacteria without harming the human host. After screening hundreds of dyes against various organisms, in 1907, he discovered a medicinally useful drug, the synthetic antibacterial salvarsan now called arsphenamine. | When were some kinds of antimicrobials first used? | When were some kinds of antimicrobials first used? | [
"When were some kinds of antimicrobials first used?"
] | {
"text": [
"over 2000 years ago"
],
"answer_start": [
198
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12461 | 5733d2444776f419006612da | Antibiotics | Before the early 20th century, treatments for infections were based primarily on medicinal folklore. Mixtures with antimicrobial properties that were used in treatments of infections were described over 2000 years ago. Many ancient cultures, including the ancient Egyptians and ancient Greeks, used specially selected mold and plant materials and extracts to treat infections. More recent observations made in the laboratory of antibiosis between microorganisms led to the discovery of natural antibacterials produced by microorganisms. Louis Pasteur observed, "if we could intervene in the antagonism observed between some bacteria, it would offer perhaps the greatest hopes for therapeutics". The term 'antibiosis', meaning "against life", was introduced by the French bacteriologist Jean Paul Vuillemin as a descriptive name of the phenomenon exhibited by these early antibacterial drugs. Antibiosis was first described in 1877 in bacteria when Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch observed that an airborne bacillus could inhibit the growth of Bacillus anthracis. These drugs were later renamed antibiotics by Selman Waksman, an American microbiologist, in 1942. Synthetic antibiotic chemotherapy as a science and development of antibacterials began in Germany with Paul Ehrlich in the late 1880s. Ehrlich noted certain dyes would color human, animal, or bacterial cells, whereas others did not. He then proposed the idea that it might be possible to create chemicals that would act as a selective drug that would bind to and kill bacteria without harming the human host. After screening hundreds of dyes against various organisms, in 1907, he discovered a medicinally useful drug, the synthetic antibacterial salvarsan now called arsphenamine. | What type of things did Egyptians and Greeks use? | What type of things did Egyptians and Greeks use? | [
"What type of things did Egyptians and Greeks use?"
] | {
"text": [
"mold and plant materials and extracts"
],
"answer_start": [
318
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12462 | 5733d2444776f419006612db | Antibiotics | Before the early 20th century, treatments for infections were based primarily on medicinal folklore. Mixtures with antimicrobial properties that were used in treatments of infections were described over 2000 years ago. Many ancient cultures, including the ancient Egyptians and ancient Greeks, used specially selected mold and plant materials and extracts to treat infections. More recent observations made in the laboratory of antibiosis between microorganisms led to the discovery of natural antibacterials produced by microorganisms. Louis Pasteur observed, "if we could intervene in the antagonism observed between some bacteria, it would offer perhaps the greatest hopes for therapeutics". The term 'antibiosis', meaning "against life", was introduced by the French bacteriologist Jean Paul Vuillemin as a descriptive name of the phenomenon exhibited by these early antibacterial drugs. Antibiosis was first described in 1877 in bacteria when Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch observed that an airborne bacillus could inhibit the growth of Bacillus anthracis. These drugs were later renamed antibiotics by Selman Waksman, an American microbiologist, in 1942. Synthetic antibiotic chemotherapy as a science and development of antibacterials began in Germany with Paul Ehrlich in the late 1880s. Ehrlich noted certain dyes would color human, animal, or bacterial cells, whereas others did not. He then proposed the idea that it might be possible to create chemicals that would act as a selective drug that would bind to and kill bacteria without harming the human host. After screening hundreds of dyes against various organisms, in 1907, he discovered a medicinally useful drug, the synthetic antibacterial salvarsan now called arsphenamine. | What does antibiosis mean? | What does antibiosis mean? | [
"What does antibiosis mean?"
] | {
"text": [
"against life"
],
"answer_start": [
727
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12463 | 5733d2444776f419006612dc | Antibiotics | Before the early 20th century, treatments for infections were based primarily on medicinal folklore. Mixtures with antimicrobial properties that were used in treatments of infections were described over 2000 years ago. Many ancient cultures, including the ancient Egyptians and ancient Greeks, used specially selected mold and plant materials and extracts to treat infections. More recent observations made in the laboratory of antibiosis between microorganisms led to the discovery of natural antibacterials produced by microorganisms. Louis Pasteur observed, "if we could intervene in the antagonism observed between some bacteria, it would offer perhaps the greatest hopes for therapeutics". The term 'antibiosis', meaning "against life", was introduced by the French bacteriologist Jean Paul Vuillemin as a descriptive name of the phenomenon exhibited by these early antibacterial drugs. Antibiosis was first described in 1877 in bacteria when Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch observed that an airborne bacillus could inhibit the growth of Bacillus anthracis. These drugs were later renamed antibiotics by Selman Waksman, an American microbiologist, in 1942. Synthetic antibiotic chemotherapy as a science and development of antibacterials began in Germany with Paul Ehrlich in the late 1880s. Ehrlich noted certain dyes would color human, animal, or bacterial cells, whereas others did not. He then proposed the idea that it might be possible to create chemicals that would act as a selective drug that would bind to and kill bacteria without harming the human host. After screening hundreds of dyes against various organisms, in 1907, he discovered a medicinally useful drug, the synthetic antibacterial salvarsan now called arsphenamine. | Who came up with the term antibiosis? | Who came up with the term antibiosis? | [
"Who came up with the term antibiosis?"
] | {
"text": [
"Jean Paul Vuillemin"
],
"answer_start": [
786
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12464 | 5a65e3e3c2b11c001a425dbb | Antibiotics | Before the early 20th century, treatments for infections were based primarily on medicinal folklore. Mixtures with antimicrobial properties that were used in treatments of infections were described over 2000 years ago. Many ancient cultures, including the ancient Egyptians and ancient Greeks, used specially selected mold and plant materials and extracts to treat infections. More recent observations made in the laboratory of antibiosis between microorganisms led to the discovery of natural antibacterials produced by microorganisms. Louis Pasteur observed, "if we could intervene in the antagonism observed between some bacteria, it would offer perhaps the greatest hopes for therapeutics". The term 'antibiosis', meaning "against life", was introduced by the French bacteriologist Jean Paul Vuillemin as a descriptive name of the phenomenon exhibited by these early antibacterial drugs. Antibiosis was first described in 1877 in bacteria when Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch observed that an airborne bacillus could inhibit the growth of Bacillus anthracis. These drugs were later renamed antibiotics by Selman Waksman, an American microbiologist, in 1942. Synthetic antibiotic chemotherapy as a science and development of antibacterials began in Germany with Paul Ehrlich in the late 1880s. Ehrlich noted certain dyes would color human, animal, or bacterial cells, whereas others did not. He then proposed the idea that it might be possible to create chemicals that would act as a selective drug that would bind to and kill bacteria without harming the human host. After screening hundreds of dyes against various organisms, in 1907, he discovered a medicinally useful drug, the synthetic antibacterial salvarsan now called arsphenamine. | What methods did people use before Robert Koch to treat infections? | What methods did people use before Robert Koch to treat infections? | [
"What methods did people use before Robert Koch to treat infections?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12465 | 5a65e3e3c2b11c001a425dbc | Antibiotics | Before the early 20th century, treatments for infections were based primarily on medicinal folklore. Mixtures with antimicrobial properties that were used in treatments of infections were described over 2000 years ago. Many ancient cultures, including the ancient Egyptians and ancient Greeks, used specially selected mold and plant materials and extracts to treat infections. More recent observations made in the laboratory of antibiosis between microorganisms led to the discovery of natural antibacterials produced by microorganisms. Louis Pasteur observed, "if we could intervene in the antagonism observed between some bacteria, it would offer perhaps the greatest hopes for therapeutics". The term 'antibiosis', meaning "against life", was introduced by the French bacteriologist Jean Paul Vuillemin as a descriptive name of the phenomenon exhibited by these early antibacterial drugs. Antibiosis was first described in 1877 in bacteria when Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch observed that an airborne bacillus could inhibit the growth of Bacillus anthracis. These drugs were later renamed antibiotics by Selman Waksman, an American microbiologist, in 1942. Synthetic antibiotic chemotherapy as a science and development of antibacterials began in Germany with Paul Ehrlich in the late 1880s. Ehrlich noted certain dyes would color human, animal, or bacterial cells, whereas others did not. He then proposed the idea that it might be possible to create chemicals that would act as a selective drug that would bind to and kill bacteria without harming the human host. After screening hundreds of dyes against various organisms, in 1907, he discovered a medicinally useful drug, the synthetic antibacterial salvarsan now called arsphenamine. | When were some kinds of dyes first used? | When were some kinds of dyes first used? | [
"When were some kinds of dyes first used?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12466 | 5a65e3e3c2b11c001a425dbd | Antibiotics | Before the early 20th century, treatments for infections were based primarily on medicinal folklore. Mixtures with antimicrobial properties that were used in treatments of infections were described over 2000 years ago. Many ancient cultures, including the ancient Egyptians and ancient Greeks, used specially selected mold and plant materials and extracts to treat infections. More recent observations made in the laboratory of antibiosis between microorganisms led to the discovery of natural antibacterials produced by microorganisms. Louis Pasteur observed, "if we could intervene in the antagonism observed between some bacteria, it would offer perhaps the greatest hopes for therapeutics". The term 'antibiosis', meaning "against life", was introduced by the French bacteriologist Jean Paul Vuillemin as a descriptive name of the phenomenon exhibited by these early antibacterial drugs. Antibiosis was first described in 1877 in bacteria when Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch observed that an airborne bacillus could inhibit the growth of Bacillus anthracis. These drugs were later renamed antibiotics by Selman Waksman, an American microbiologist, in 1942. Synthetic antibiotic chemotherapy as a science and development of antibacterials began in Germany with Paul Ehrlich in the late 1880s. Ehrlich noted certain dyes would color human, animal, or bacterial cells, whereas others did not. He then proposed the idea that it might be possible to create chemicals that would act as a selective drug that would bind to and kill bacteria without harming the human host. After screening hundreds of dyes against various organisms, in 1907, he discovered a medicinally useful drug, the synthetic antibacterial salvarsan now called arsphenamine. | What type of things did American microbiologists use? | What type of things did American microbiologists use? | [
"What type of things did American microbiologists use?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12467 | 5a65e3e3c2b11c001a425dbe | Antibiotics | Before the early 20th century, treatments for infections were based primarily on medicinal folklore. Mixtures with antimicrobial properties that were used in treatments of infections were described over 2000 years ago. Many ancient cultures, including the ancient Egyptians and ancient Greeks, used specially selected mold and plant materials and extracts to treat infections. More recent observations made in the laboratory of antibiosis between microorganisms led to the discovery of natural antibacterials produced by microorganisms. Louis Pasteur observed, "if we could intervene in the antagonism observed between some bacteria, it would offer perhaps the greatest hopes for therapeutics". The term 'antibiosis', meaning "against life", was introduced by the French bacteriologist Jean Paul Vuillemin as a descriptive name of the phenomenon exhibited by these early antibacterial drugs. Antibiosis was first described in 1877 in bacteria when Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch observed that an airborne bacillus could inhibit the growth of Bacillus anthracis. These drugs were later renamed antibiotics by Selman Waksman, an American microbiologist, in 1942. Synthetic antibiotic chemotherapy as a science and development of antibacterials began in Germany with Paul Ehrlich in the late 1880s. Ehrlich noted certain dyes would color human, animal, or bacterial cells, whereas others did not. He then proposed the idea that it might be possible to create chemicals that would act as a selective drug that would bind to and kill bacteria without harming the human host. After screening hundreds of dyes against various organisms, in 1907, he discovered a medicinally useful drug, the synthetic antibacterial salvarsan now called arsphenamine. | Who came up with the term salvarsan? | Who came up with the term salvarsan? | [
"Who came up with the term salvarsan?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12468 | 5a65e3e3c2b11c001a425dbf | Antibiotics | Before the early 20th century, treatments for infections were based primarily on medicinal folklore. Mixtures with antimicrobial properties that were used in treatments of infections were described over 2000 years ago. Many ancient cultures, including the ancient Egyptians and ancient Greeks, used specially selected mold and plant materials and extracts to treat infections. More recent observations made in the laboratory of antibiosis between microorganisms led to the discovery of natural antibacterials produced by microorganisms. Louis Pasteur observed, "if we could intervene in the antagonism observed between some bacteria, it would offer perhaps the greatest hopes for therapeutics". The term 'antibiosis', meaning "against life", was introduced by the French bacteriologist Jean Paul Vuillemin as a descriptive name of the phenomenon exhibited by these early antibacterial drugs. Antibiosis was first described in 1877 in bacteria when Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch observed that an airborne bacillus could inhibit the growth of Bacillus anthracis. These drugs were later renamed antibiotics by Selman Waksman, an American microbiologist, in 1942. Synthetic antibiotic chemotherapy as a science and development of antibacterials began in Germany with Paul Ehrlich in the late 1880s. Ehrlich noted certain dyes would color human, animal, or bacterial cells, whereas others did not. He then proposed the idea that it might be possible to create chemicals that would act as a selective drug that would bind to and kill bacteria without harming the human host. After screening hundreds of dyes against various organisms, in 1907, he discovered a medicinally useful drug, the synthetic antibacterial salvarsan now called arsphenamine. | Who renamed drugs therapudics? | Who renamed drugs therapudics? | [
"Who renamed drugs therapudics?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12469 | 5733d3334776f419006612e2 | Antibiotics | The effects of some types of mold on infection had been noticed many times over the course of history (see: History of penicillin). In 1928, Alexander Fleming noticed the same effect in a Petri dish, where a number of disease-causing bacteria were killed by a fungus of the genus Penicillium. Fleming postulated that the effect is mediated by an antibacterial compound he named penicillin, and that its antibacterial properties could be exploited for chemotherapy. He initially characterized some of its biological properties, and attempted to use a crude preparation to treat some infections, but he was unable to pursue its further development without the aid of trained chemists. | What type of organism has been reported to have worked on infections? | What type of organism has been reported to have worked on infections? | [
"What type of organism has been reported to have worked on infections?"
] | {
"text": [
"mold"
],
"answer_start": [
29
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12470 | 5733d3334776f419006612e3 | Antibiotics | The effects of some types of mold on infection had been noticed many times over the course of history (see: History of penicillin). In 1928, Alexander Fleming noticed the same effect in a Petri dish, where a number of disease-causing bacteria were killed by a fungus of the genus Penicillium. Fleming postulated that the effect is mediated by an antibacterial compound he named penicillin, and that its antibacterial properties could be exploited for chemotherapy. He initially characterized some of its biological properties, and attempted to use a crude preparation to treat some infections, but he was unable to pursue its further development without the aid of trained chemists. | Who noticed in a lab the antibacterial characteristics of mold? | Who noticed in a lab the antibacterial characteristics of mold? | [
"Who noticed in a lab the antibacterial characteristics of mold?"
] | {
"text": [
"Alexander Fleming"
],
"answer_start": [
141
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12471 | 5733d3334776f419006612e4 | Antibiotics | The effects of some types of mold on infection had been noticed many times over the course of history (see: History of penicillin). In 1928, Alexander Fleming noticed the same effect in a Petri dish, where a number of disease-causing bacteria were killed by a fungus of the genus Penicillium. Fleming postulated that the effect is mediated by an antibacterial compound he named penicillin, and that its antibacterial properties could be exploited for chemotherapy. He initially characterized some of its biological properties, and attempted to use a crude preparation to treat some infections, but he was unable to pursue its further development without the aid of trained chemists. | What mold did Fleming notice had antibacterial properties? | What mold did Fleming notice had antibacterial properties? | [
"What mold did Fleming notice had antibacterial properties?"
] | {
"text": [
"penicillin"
],
"answer_start": [
378
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12472 | 5733d3334776f419006612e5 | Antibiotics | The effects of some types of mold on infection had been noticed many times over the course of history (see: History of penicillin). In 1928, Alexander Fleming noticed the same effect in a Petri dish, where a number of disease-causing bacteria were killed by a fungus of the genus Penicillium. Fleming postulated that the effect is mediated by an antibacterial compound he named penicillin, and that its antibacterial properties could be exploited for chemotherapy. He initially characterized some of its biological properties, and attempted to use a crude preparation to treat some infections, but he was unable to pursue its further development without the aid of trained chemists. | What did Fleming initially think a good use would be for it? | What did Fleming initially think a good use would be for it? | [
"What did Fleming initially think a good use would be for it?"
] | {
"text": [
"chemotherapy"
],
"answer_start": [
451
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12473 | 5a65e4c6c2b11c001a425dc5 | Antibiotics | The effects of some types of mold on infection had been noticed many times over the course of history (see: History of penicillin). In 1928, Alexander Fleming noticed the same effect in a Petri dish, where a number of disease-causing bacteria were killed by a fungus of the genus Penicillium. Fleming postulated that the effect is mediated by an antibacterial compound he named penicillin, and that its antibacterial properties could be exploited for chemotherapy. He initially characterized some of its biological properties, and attempted to use a crude preparation to treat some infections, but he was unable to pursue its further development without the aid of trained chemists. | What type of organism has been reported to have worked on penicillin? | What type of organism has been reported to have worked on penicillin? | [
"What type of organism has been reported to have worked on penicillin?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12474 | 5a65e4c6c2b11c001a425dc6 | Antibiotics | The effects of some types of mold on infection had been noticed many times over the course of history (see: History of penicillin). In 1928, Alexander Fleming noticed the same effect in a Petri dish, where a number of disease-causing bacteria were killed by a fungus of the genus Penicillium. Fleming postulated that the effect is mediated by an antibacterial compound he named penicillin, and that its antibacterial properties could be exploited for chemotherapy. He initially characterized some of its biological properties, and attempted to use a crude preparation to treat some infections, but he was unable to pursue its further development without the aid of trained chemists. | Who noticed in a lab the development of chemists? | Who noticed in a lab the development of chemists? | [
"Who noticed in a lab the development of chemists?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12475 | 5a65e4c6c2b11c001a425dc7 | Antibiotics | The effects of some types of mold on infection had been noticed many times over the course of history (see: History of penicillin). In 1928, Alexander Fleming noticed the same effect in a Petri dish, where a number of disease-causing bacteria were killed by a fungus of the genus Penicillium. Fleming postulated that the effect is mediated by an antibacterial compound he named penicillin, and that its antibacterial properties could be exploited for chemotherapy. He initially characterized some of its biological properties, and attempted to use a crude preparation to treat some infections, but he was unable to pursue its further development without the aid of trained chemists. | What mold did Fleming notice had chemotherapy? | What mold did Fleming notice had chemotherapy? | [
"What mold did Fleming notice had chemotherapy?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12476 | 5a65e4c6c2b11c001a425dc8 | Antibiotics | The effects of some types of mold on infection had been noticed many times over the course of history (see: History of penicillin). In 1928, Alexander Fleming noticed the same effect in a Petri dish, where a number of disease-causing bacteria were killed by a fungus of the genus Penicillium. Fleming postulated that the effect is mediated by an antibacterial compound he named penicillin, and that its antibacterial properties could be exploited for chemotherapy. He initially characterized some of its biological properties, and attempted to use a crude preparation to treat some infections, but he was unable to pursue its further development without the aid of trained chemists. | What did Fleming initially think a good use for chemists would be? | What did Fleming initially think a good use for chemists would be? | [
"What did Fleming initially think a good use for chemists would be?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12477 | 5a65e4c6c2b11c001a425dc9 | Antibiotics | The effects of some types of mold on infection had been noticed many times over the course of history (see: History of penicillin). In 1928, Alexander Fleming noticed the same effect in a Petri dish, where a number of disease-causing bacteria were killed by a fungus of the genus Penicillium. Fleming postulated that the effect is mediated by an antibacterial compound he named penicillin, and that its antibacterial properties could be exploited for chemotherapy. He initially characterized some of its biological properties, and attempted to use a crude preparation to treat some infections, but he was unable to pursue its further development without the aid of trained chemists. | What did Fleming use to treat a Petri dish? | What did Fleming use to treat a Petri dish? | [
"What did Fleming use to treat a Petri dish?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12478 | 5733d4364776f419006612f2 | Antibiotics | The first sulfonamide and first commercially available antibacterial, Prontosil, was developed by a research team led by Gerhard Domagk in 1932 at the Bayer Laboratories of the IG Farben conglomerate in Germany. Domagk received the 1939 Nobel Prize for Medicine for his efforts. Prontosil had a relatively broad effect against Gram-positive cocci, but not against enterobacteria. Research was stimulated apace by its success. The discovery and development of this sulfonamide drug opened the era of antibacterials. | What was the first available antibiotic? | What was the first available antibiotic? | [
"What was the first available antibiotic?"
] | {
"text": [
"Prontosil"
],
"answer_start": [
70
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12479 | 5733d4364776f419006612f3 | Antibiotics | The first sulfonamide and first commercially available antibacterial, Prontosil, was developed by a research team led by Gerhard Domagk in 1932 at the Bayer Laboratories of the IG Farben conglomerate in Germany. Domagk received the 1939 Nobel Prize for Medicine for his efforts. Prontosil had a relatively broad effect against Gram-positive cocci, but not against enterobacteria. Research was stimulated apace by its success. The discovery and development of this sulfonamide drug opened the era of antibacterials. | What company developed Prontosil? | What company developed Prontosil? | [
"What company developed Prontosil?"
] | {
"text": [
"IG Farben"
],
"answer_start": [
177
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12480 | 5733d4364776f419006612f4 | Antibiotics | The first sulfonamide and first commercially available antibacterial, Prontosil, was developed by a research team led by Gerhard Domagk in 1932 at the Bayer Laboratories of the IG Farben conglomerate in Germany. Domagk received the 1939 Nobel Prize for Medicine for his efforts. Prontosil had a relatively broad effect against Gram-positive cocci, but not against enterobacteria. Research was stimulated apace by its success. The discovery and development of this sulfonamide drug opened the era of antibacterials. | Who led the team that came up with Prontosil? | Who led the team that came up with Prontosil? | [
"Who led the team that came up with Prontosil?"
] | {
"text": [
"Gerhard Domagk"
],
"answer_start": [
121
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12481 | 5733d4364776f419006612f5 | Antibiotics | The first sulfonamide and first commercially available antibacterial, Prontosil, was developed by a research team led by Gerhard Domagk in 1932 at the Bayer Laboratories of the IG Farben conglomerate in Germany. Domagk received the 1939 Nobel Prize for Medicine for his efforts. Prontosil had a relatively broad effect against Gram-positive cocci, but not against enterobacteria. Research was stimulated apace by its success. The discovery and development of this sulfonamide drug opened the era of antibacterials. | What prize did Domagk get for his work? | What prize did Domagk get for his work? | [
"What prize did Domagk get for his work?"
] | {
"text": [
"1939 Nobel Prize for Medicine"
],
"answer_start": [
232
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12482 | 5a65e56ac2b11c001a425dcf | Antibiotics | The first sulfonamide and first commercially available antibacterial, Prontosil, was developed by a research team led by Gerhard Domagk in 1932 at the Bayer Laboratories of the IG Farben conglomerate in Germany. Domagk received the 1939 Nobel Prize for Medicine for his efforts. Prontosil had a relatively broad effect against Gram-positive cocci, but not against enterobacteria. Research was stimulated apace by its success. The discovery and development of this sulfonamide drug opened the era of antibacterials. | What was the first available cocci? | What was the first available cocci? | [
"What was the first available cocci?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12483 | 5a65e56ac2b11c001a425dd0 | Antibiotics | The first sulfonamide and first commercially available antibacterial, Prontosil, was developed by a research team led by Gerhard Domagk in 1932 at the Bayer Laboratories of the IG Farben conglomerate in Germany. Domagk received the 1939 Nobel Prize for Medicine for his efforts. Prontosil had a relatively broad effect against Gram-positive cocci, but not against enterobacteria. Research was stimulated apace by its success. The discovery and development of this sulfonamide drug opened the era of antibacterials. | What company developed enterobacteria? | What company developed enterobacteria? | [
"What company developed enterobacteria?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12484 | 5a65e56ac2b11c001a425dd1 | Antibiotics | The first sulfonamide and first commercially available antibacterial, Prontosil, was developed by a research team led by Gerhard Domagk in 1932 at the Bayer Laboratories of the IG Farben conglomerate in Germany. Domagk received the 1939 Nobel Prize for Medicine for his efforts. Prontosil had a relatively broad effect against Gram-positive cocci, but not against enterobacteria. Research was stimulated apace by its success. The discovery and development of this sulfonamide drug opened the era of antibacterials. | Who led the team that came up with Bayer Laboratories? | Who led the team that came up with Bayer Laboratories? | [
"Who led the team that came up with Bayer Laboratories?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12485 | 5a65e56ac2b11c001a425dd2 | Antibiotics | The first sulfonamide and first commercially available antibacterial, Prontosil, was developed by a research team led by Gerhard Domagk in 1932 at the Bayer Laboratories of the IG Farben conglomerate in Germany. Domagk received the 1939 Nobel Prize for Medicine for his efforts. Prontosil had a relatively broad effect against Gram-positive cocci, but not against enterobacteria. Research was stimulated apace by its success. The discovery and development of this sulfonamide drug opened the era of antibacterials. | What prize did Prontosil get for its work? | What prize did Prontosil get for its work? | [
"What prize did Prontosil get for its work?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12486 | 5a65e56ac2b11c001a425dd3 | Antibiotics | The first sulfonamide and first commercially available antibacterial, Prontosil, was developed by a research team led by Gerhard Domagk in 1932 at the Bayer Laboratories of the IG Farben conglomerate in Germany. Domagk received the 1939 Nobel Prize for Medicine for his efforts. Prontosil had a relatively broad effect against Gram-positive cocci, but not against enterobacteria. Research was stimulated apace by its success. The discovery and development of this sulfonamide drug opened the era of antibacterials. | What opened the era of Germany? | What opened the era of Germany? | [
"What opened the era of Germany?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12487 | 5733d4c24776f41900661304 | Antibiotics | In 1939, coinciding with the start of World War II, Rene Dubos reported the discovery of the first naturally derived antibiotic, tyrothricin, a compound of 20% gramicidin and 80% tyrocidine, from B. brevis. It was one of the first commercially manufactured antibiotics universally and was very effective in treating wounds and ulcers during World War II. Gramicidin, however, could not be used systemically because of toxicity. Tyrocidine also proved too toxic for systemic usage. Research results obtained during that period were not shared between the Axis and the Allied powers during the war. | What was the first antibiotic developed from nature? | What was the first antibiotic developed from nature? | [
"What was the first antibiotic developed from nature?"
] | {
"text": [
"tyrothricin"
],
"answer_start": [
129
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12488 | 5733d4c24776f41900661305 | Antibiotics | In 1939, coinciding with the start of World War II, Rene Dubos reported the discovery of the first naturally derived antibiotic, tyrothricin, a compound of 20% gramicidin and 80% tyrocidine, from B. brevis. It was one of the first commercially manufactured antibiotics universally and was very effective in treating wounds and ulcers during World War II. Gramicidin, however, could not be used systemically because of toxicity. Tyrocidine also proved too toxic for systemic usage. Research results obtained during that period were not shared between the Axis and the Allied powers during the war. | When was tyrothricin created? | When was tyrothricin created? | [
"When was tyrothricin created?"
] | {
"text": [
"1939"
],
"answer_start": [
3
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12489 | 5733d4c24776f41900661306 | Antibiotics | In 1939, coinciding with the start of World War II, Rene Dubos reported the discovery of the first naturally derived antibiotic, tyrothricin, a compound of 20% gramicidin and 80% tyrocidine, from B. brevis. It was one of the first commercially manufactured antibiotics universally and was very effective in treating wounds and ulcers during World War II. Gramicidin, however, could not be used systemically because of toxicity. Tyrocidine also proved too toxic for systemic usage. Research results obtained during that period were not shared between the Axis and the Allied powers during the war. | What also happened in 1939 besides tyrothricin? | What also happened in 1939 besides tyrothricin? | [
"What also happened in 1939 besides tyrothricin?"
] | {
"text": [
"start of World War II,"
],
"answer_start": [
29
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12490 | 5733d4c24776f41900661307 | Antibiotics | In 1939, coinciding with the start of World War II, Rene Dubos reported the discovery of the first naturally derived antibiotic, tyrothricin, a compound of 20% gramicidin and 80% tyrocidine, from B. brevis. It was one of the first commercially manufactured antibiotics universally and was very effective in treating wounds and ulcers during World War II. Gramicidin, however, could not be used systemically because of toxicity. Tyrocidine also proved too toxic for systemic usage. Research results obtained during that period were not shared between the Axis and the Allied powers during the war. | Who discovered tyrothricin? | Who discovered tyrothricin? | [
"Who discovered tyrothricin?"
] | {
"text": [
"Rene Dubos"
],
"answer_start": [
52
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12491 | 5733d4c24776f41900661308 | Antibiotics | In 1939, coinciding with the start of World War II, Rene Dubos reported the discovery of the first naturally derived antibiotic, tyrothricin, a compound of 20% gramicidin and 80% tyrocidine, from B. brevis. It was one of the first commercially manufactured antibiotics universally and was very effective in treating wounds and ulcers during World War II. Gramicidin, however, could not be used systemically because of toxicity. Tyrocidine also proved too toxic for systemic usage. Research results obtained during that period were not shared between the Axis and the Allied powers during the war. | What was tyrothricin used for during the war? | What was tyrothricin used for during the war? | [
"What was tyrothricin used for during the war?"
] | {
"text": [
"wounds and ulcers"
],
"answer_start": [
316
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12492 | 5a65e676c2b11c001a425dd9 | Antibiotics | In 1939, coinciding with the start of World War II, Rene Dubos reported the discovery of the first naturally derived antibiotic, tyrothricin, a compound of 20% gramicidin and 80% tyrocidine, from B. brevis. It was one of the first commercially manufactured antibiotics universally and was very effective in treating wounds and ulcers during World War II. Gramicidin, however, could not be used systemically because of toxicity. Tyrocidine also proved too toxic for systemic usage. Research results obtained during that period were not shared between the Axis and the Allied powers during the war. | What was the first antibiotic developed from wounds? | What was the first antibiotic developed from wounds? | [
"What was the first antibiotic developed from wounds?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12493 | 5a65e676c2b11c001a425dda | Antibiotics | In 1939, coinciding with the start of World War II, Rene Dubos reported the discovery of the first naturally derived antibiotic, tyrothricin, a compound of 20% gramicidin and 80% tyrocidine, from B. brevis. It was one of the first commercially manufactured antibiotics universally and was very effective in treating wounds and ulcers during World War II. Gramicidin, however, could not be used systemically because of toxicity. Tyrocidine also proved too toxic for systemic usage. Research results obtained during that period were not shared between the Axis and the Allied powers during the war. | When was Gramicidin created? | When was Gramicidin created? | [
"When was Gramicidin created?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12494 | 5a65e676c2b11c001a425ddb | Antibiotics | In 1939, coinciding with the start of World War II, Rene Dubos reported the discovery of the first naturally derived antibiotic, tyrothricin, a compound of 20% gramicidin and 80% tyrocidine, from B. brevis. It was one of the first commercially manufactured antibiotics universally and was very effective in treating wounds and ulcers during World War II. Gramicidin, however, could not be used systemically because of toxicity. Tyrocidine also proved too toxic for systemic usage. Research results obtained during that period were not shared between the Axis and the Allied powers during the war. | Who discovered systematic usage? | Who discovered systematic usage? | [
"Who discovered systematic usage?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12495 | 5a65e676c2b11c001a425ddc | Antibiotics | In 1939, coinciding with the start of World War II, Rene Dubos reported the discovery of the first naturally derived antibiotic, tyrothricin, a compound of 20% gramicidin and 80% tyrocidine, from B. brevis. It was one of the first commercially manufactured antibiotics universally and was very effective in treating wounds and ulcers during World War II. Gramicidin, however, could not be used systemically because of toxicity. Tyrocidine also proved too toxic for systemic usage. Research results obtained during that period were not shared between the Axis and the Allied powers during the war. | What was tyrothricin used for during toxicity? | What was tyrothricin used for during toxicity? | [
"What was tyrothricin used for during toxicity?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12496 | 5a65e676c2b11c001a425ddd | Antibiotics | In 1939, coinciding with the start of World War II, Rene Dubos reported the discovery of the first naturally derived antibiotic, tyrothricin, a compound of 20% gramicidin and 80% tyrocidine, from B. brevis. It was one of the first commercially manufactured antibiotics universally and was very effective in treating wounds and ulcers during World War II. Gramicidin, however, could not be used systemically because of toxicity. Tyrocidine also proved too toxic for systemic usage. Research results obtained during that period were not shared between the Axis and the Allied powers during the war. | Rene Dubos was not shared between who? | Rene Dubos was not shared between who? | [
"Rene Dubos was not shared between who?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12497 | 5733d5f24776f41900661314 | Antibiotics | Florey and Chain succeeded in purifying the first penicillin, penicillin G, in 1942, but it did not become widely available outside the Allied military before 1945. Later, Norman Heatley developed the back extraction technique for efficiently purifying penicillin in bulk. The chemical structure of penicillin was determined by Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin in 1945. Purified penicillin displayed potent antibacterial activity against a wide range of bacteria and had low toxicity in humans. Furthermore, its activity was not inhibited by biological constituents such as pus, unlike the synthetic sulfonamides. The discovery of such a powerful antibiotic was unprecedented, and the development of penicillin led to renewed interest in the search for antibiotic compounds with similar efficacy and safety. For their successful development of penicillin, which Fleming had accidentally discovered but could not develop himself, as a therapeutic drug, Ernst Chain and Howard Florey shared the 1945 Nobel Prize in Medicine with Fleming. Florey credited Dubos with pioneering the approach of deliberately and systematically searching for antibacterial compounds, which had led to the discovery of gramicidin and had revived Florey's research in penicillin. | When was penicillin G first purified? | When was penicillin G first purified? | [
"When was penicillin G first purified?"
] | {
"text": [
"1942"
],
"answer_start": [
79
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12498 | 5733d5f24776f41900661315 | Antibiotics | Florey and Chain succeeded in purifying the first penicillin, penicillin G, in 1942, but it did not become widely available outside the Allied military before 1945. Later, Norman Heatley developed the back extraction technique for efficiently purifying penicillin in bulk. The chemical structure of penicillin was determined by Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin in 1945. Purified penicillin displayed potent antibacterial activity against a wide range of bacteria and had low toxicity in humans. Furthermore, its activity was not inhibited by biological constituents such as pus, unlike the synthetic sulfonamides. The discovery of such a powerful antibiotic was unprecedented, and the development of penicillin led to renewed interest in the search for antibiotic compounds with similar efficacy and safety. For their successful development of penicillin, which Fleming had accidentally discovered but could not develop himself, as a therapeutic drug, Ernst Chain and Howard Florey shared the 1945 Nobel Prize in Medicine with Fleming. Florey credited Dubos with pioneering the approach of deliberately and systematically searching for antibacterial compounds, which had led to the discovery of gramicidin and had revived Florey's research in penicillin. | When did penicillin G become available outside of military use? | When did penicillin G become available outside of military use? | [
"When did penicillin G become available outside of military use?"
] | {
"text": [
"1945"
],
"answer_start": [
159
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-12499 | 5733d5f24776f41900661316 | Antibiotics | Florey and Chain succeeded in purifying the first penicillin, penicillin G, in 1942, but it did not become widely available outside the Allied military before 1945. Later, Norman Heatley developed the back extraction technique for efficiently purifying penicillin in bulk. The chemical structure of penicillin was determined by Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin in 1945. Purified penicillin displayed potent antibacterial activity against a wide range of bacteria and had low toxicity in humans. Furthermore, its activity was not inhibited by biological constituents such as pus, unlike the synthetic sulfonamides. The discovery of such a powerful antibiotic was unprecedented, and the development of penicillin led to renewed interest in the search for antibiotic compounds with similar efficacy and safety. For their successful development of penicillin, which Fleming had accidentally discovered but could not develop himself, as a therapeutic drug, Ernst Chain and Howard Florey shared the 1945 Nobel Prize in Medicine with Fleming. Florey credited Dubos with pioneering the approach of deliberately and systematically searching for antibacterial compounds, which had led to the discovery of gramicidin and had revived Florey's research in penicillin. | Who came up with a way to quickly produce penicillin? | Who came up with a way to quickly produce penicillin? | [
"Who came up with a way to quickly produce penicillin?"
] | {
"text": [
"Norman Heatley"
],
"answer_start": [
172
]
} |
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