gem_id stringlengths 20 25 | id stringlengths 24 24 | title stringlengths 3 59 | context stringlengths 151 3.71k | question stringlengths 1 270 | target stringlengths 1 270 | references list | answers dict |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
gem-squad_v2-train-14100 | 56f8cee09e9bad19000a0555 | Brain | Most of the enlargement of the primate brain comes from a massive expansion of the cerebral cortex, especially the prefrontal cortex and the parts of the cortex involved in vision. The visual processing network of primates includes at least 30 distinguishable brain areas, with a complex web of interconnections. It has been estimated that visual processing areas occupy more than half of the total surface of the primate neocortex. The prefrontal cortex carries out functions that include planning, working memory, motivation, attention, and executive control. It takes up a much larger proportion of the brain for primates than for other species, and an especially large fraction of the human brain. | The prefrontal cortex is the largest in what animals? | The prefrontal cortex is the largest in what animals? | [
"The prefrontal cortex is the largest in what animals?"
] | {
"text": [
"primates"
],
"answer_start": [
616
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14101 | 56f8d2919b226e1400dd108b | Brain | For vertebrates, the early stages of neural development are similar across all species. As the embryo transforms from a round blob of cells into a wormlike structure, a narrow strip of ectoderm running along the midline of the back is induced to become the neural plate, the precursor of the nervous system. The neural plate folds inward to form the neural groove, and then the lips that line the groove merge to enclose the neural tube, a hollow cord of cells with a fluid-filled ventricle at the center. At the front end, the ventricles and cord swell to form three vesicles that are the precursors of the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain. At the next stage, the forebrain splits into two vesicles called the telencephalon (which will contain the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and related structures) and the diencephalon (which will contain the thalamus and hypothalamus). At about the same time, the hindbrain splits into the metencephalon (which will contain the cerebellum and pons) and the myelencephalon (which will contain the medulla oblongata). Each of these areas contains proliferative zones where neurons and glial cells are generated; the resulting cells then migrate, sometimes for long distances, to their final positions. | The precursor of the nervous system is called what in vertebrates? | The precursor of the nervous system is called what in vertebrates? | [
"The precursor of the nervous system is called what in vertebrates?"
] | {
"text": [
"the neural plate"
],
"answer_start": [
253
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14102 | 56f8d2919b226e1400dd108c | Brain | For vertebrates, the early stages of neural development are similar across all species. As the embryo transforms from a round blob of cells into a wormlike structure, a narrow strip of ectoderm running along the midline of the back is induced to become the neural plate, the precursor of the nervous system. The neural plate folds inward to form the neural groove, and then the lips that line the groove merge to enclose the neural tube, a hollow cord of cells with a fluid-filled ventricle at the center. At the front end, the ventricles and cord swell to form three vesicles that are the precursors of the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain. At the next stage, the forebrain splits into two vesicles called the telencephalon (which will contain the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and related structures) and the diencephalon (which will contain the thalamus and hypothalamus). At about the same time, the hindbrain splits into the metencephalon (which will contain the cerebellum and pons) and the myelencephalon (which will contain the medulla oblongata). Each of these areas contains proliferative zones where neurons and glial cells are generated; the resulting cells then migrate, sometimes for long distances, to their final positions. | The neural groove is a hollow cord of cells with what in the center? | The neural groove is a hollow cord of cells with what in the center? | [
"The neural groove is a hollow cord of cells with what in the center?"
] | {
"text": [
"fluid-filled ventricle"
],
"answer_start": [
468
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14103 | 56f8d2919b226e1400dd108d | Brain | For vertebrates, the early stages of neural development are similar across all species. As the embryo transforms from a round blob of cells into a wormlike structure, a narrow strip of ectoderm running along the midline of the back is induced to become the neural plate, the precursor of the nervous system. The neural plate folds inward to form the neural groove, and then the lips that line the groove merge to enclose the neural tube, a hollow cord of cells with a fluid-filled ventricle at the center. At the front end, the ventricles and cord swell to form three vesicles that are the precursors of the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain. At the next stage, the forebrain splits into two vesicles called the telencephalon (which will contain the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and related structures) and the diencephalon (which will contain the thalamus and hypothalamus). At about the same time, the hindbrain splits into the metencephalon (which will contain the cerebellum and pons) and the myelencephalon (which will contain the medulla oblongata). Each of these areas contains proliferative zones where neurons and glial cells are generated; the resulting cells then migrate, sometimes for long distances, to their final positions. | The forebrain splits during development into vesicles called what? | The forebrain splits during development into vesicles called what? | [
"The forebrain splits during development into vesicles called what?"
] | {
"text": [
"telencephalon (which will contain the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and related structures) and the diencephalon"
],
"answer_start": [
713
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14104 | 56f8d2919b226e1400dd108e | Brain | For vertebrates, the early stages of neural development are similar across all species. As the embryo transforms from a round blob of cells into a wormlike structure, a narrow strip of ectoderm running along the midline of the back is induced to become the neural plate, the precursor of the nervous system. The neural plate folds inward to form the neural groove, and then the lips that line the groove merge to enclose the neural tube, a hollow cord of cells with a fluid-filled ventricle at the center. At the front end, the ventricles and cord swell to form three vesicles that are the precursors of the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain. At the next stage, the forebrain splits into two vesicles called the telencephalon (which will contain the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and related structures) and the diencephalon (which will contain the thalamus and hypothalamus). At about the same time, the hindbrain splits into the metencephalon (which will contain the cerebellum and pons) and the myelencephalon (which will contain the medulla oblongata). Each of these areas contains proliferative zones where neurons and glial cells are generated; the resulting cells then migrate, sometimes for long distances, to their final positions. | The vesicle that contains the cerebral cortex is which one? | The vesicle that contains the cerebral cortex is which one? | [
"The vesicle that contains the cerebral cortex is which one?"
] | {
"text": [
"telencephalon"
],
"answer_start": [
713
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14105 | 56f8d2919b226e1400dd108f | Brain | For vertebrates, the early stages of neural development are similar across all species. As the embryo transforms from a round blob of cells into a wormlike structure, a narrow strip of ectoderm running along the midline of the back is induced to become the neural plate, the precursor of the nervous system. The neural plate folds inward to form the neural groove, and then the lips that line the groove merge to enclose the neural tube, a hollow cord of cells with a fluid-filled ventricle at the center. At the front end, the ventricles and cord swell to form three vesicles that are the precursors of the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain. At the next stage, the forebrain splits into two vesicles called the telencephalon (which will contain the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and related structures) and the diencephalon (which will contain the thalamus and hypothalamus). At about the same time, the hindbrain splits into the metencephalon (which will contain the cerebellum and pons) and the myelencephalon (which will contain the medulla oblongata). Each of these areas contains proliferative zones where neurons and glial cells are generated; the resulting cells then migrate, sometimes for long distances, to their final positions. | The thalamus and hypothalamus are contained in which vesicle? | The thalamus and hypothalamus are contained in which vesicle? | [
"The thalamus and hypothalamus are contained in which vesicle?"
] | {
"text": [
"the diencephalon"
],
"answer_start": [
811
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14106 | 56f8d30f9e9bad19000a05a4 | Brain | Once a neuron is in place, it extends dendrites and an axon into the area around it. Axons, because they commonly extend a great distance from the cell body and need to reach specific targets, grow in a particularly complex way. The tip of a growing axon consists of a blob of protoplasm called a growth cone, studded with chemical receptors. These receptors sense the local environment, causing the growth cone to be attracted or repelled by various cellular elements, and thus to be pulled in a particular direction at each point along its path. The result of this pathfinding process is that the growth cone navigates through the brain until it reaches its destination area, where other chemical cues cause it to begin generating synapses. Considering the entire brain, thousands of genes create products that influence axonal pathfinding. | A growth cone of an axon is made up of a blob of what? | A growth cone of an axon is made up of a blob of what? | [
"A growth cone of an axon is made up of a blob of what?"
] | {
"text": [
"protoplasm"
],
"answer_start": [
277
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14107 | 56f8d30f9e9bad19000a05a5 | Brain | Once a neuron is in place, it extends dendrites and an axon into the area around it. Axons, because they commonly extend a great distance from the cell body and need to reach specific targets, grow in a particularly complex way. The tip of a growing axon consists of a blob of protoplasm called a growth cone, studded with chemical receptors. These receptors sense the local environment, causing the growth cone to be attracted or repelled by various cellular elements, and thus to be pulled in a particular direction at each point along its path. The result of this pathfinding process is that the growth cone navigates through the brain until it reaches its destination area, where other chemical cues cause it to begin generating synapses. Considering the entire brain, thousands of genes create products that influence axonal pathfinding. | What two structures does a neuron extend when it is in place during development? | What two structures does a neuron extend when it is in place during development? | [
"What two structures does a neuron extend when it is in place during development?"
] | {
"text": [
"dendrites and an axon"
],
"answer_start": [
38
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14108 | 56f8db919b226e1400dd1104 | Brain | In humans and many other mammals, new neurons are created mainly before birth, and the infant brain contains substantially more neurons than the adult brain. There are, however, a few areas where new neurons continue to be generated throughout life. The two areas for which adult neurogenesis is well established are the olfactory bulb, which is involved in the sense of smell, and the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus, where there is evidence that the new neurons play a role in storing newly acquired memories. With these exceptions, however, the set of neurons that is present in early childhood is the set that is present for life. Glial cells are different: as with most types of cells in the body, they are generated throughout the lifespan. | The infant brain contains more of what type of cells in the brain than the adult brain? | The infant brain contains more of what type of cells in the brain than the adult brain? | [
"The infant brain contains more of what type of cells in the brain than the adult brain?"
] | {
"text": [
"neurons"
],
"answer_start": [
128
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14109 | 56f8db919b226e1400dd1105 | Brain | In humans and many other mammals, new neurons are created mainly before birth, and the infant brain contains substantially more neurons than the adult brain. There are, however, a few areas where new neurons continue to be generated throughout life. The two areas for which adult neurogenesis is well established are the olfactory bulb, which is involved in the sense of smell, and the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus, where there is evidence that the new neurons play a role in storing newly acquired memories. With these exceptions, however, the set of neurons that is present in early childhood is the set that is present for life. Glial cells are different: as with most types of cells in the body, they are generated throughout the lifespan. | The olfactory bulb is related to what sense? | The olfactory bulb is related to what sense? | [
"The olfactory bulb is related to what sense?"
] | {
"text": [
"sense of smell"
],
"answer_start": [
362
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14110 | 56f8db919b226e1400dd1106 | Brain | In humans and many other mammals, new neurons are created mainly before birth, and the infant brain contains substantially more neurons than the adult brain. There are, however, a few areas where new neurons continue to be generated throughout life. The two areas for which adult neurogenesis is well established are the olfactory bulb, which is involved in the sense of smell, and the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus, where there is evidence that the new neurons play a role in storing newly acquired memories. With these exceptions, however, the set of neurons that is present in early childhood is the set that is present for life. Glial cells are different: as with most types of cells in the body, they are generated throughout the lifespan. | What area of the hippocampus plays a role in storing new memories? | What area of the hippocampus plays a role in storing new memories? | [
"What area of the hippocampus plays a role in storing new memories?"
] | {
"text": [
"dentate gyrus of the hippocampus"
],
"answer_start": [
386
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14111 | 56f8db919b226e1400dd1107 | Brain | In humans and many other mammals, new neurons are created mainly before birth, and the infant brain contains substantially more neurons than the adult brain. There are, however, a few areas where new neurons continue to be generated throughout life. The two areas for which adult neurogenesis is well established are the olfactory bulb, which is involved in the sense of smell, and the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus, where there is evidence that the new neurons play a role in storing newly acquired memories. With these exceptions, however, the set of neurons that is present in early childhood is the set that is present for life. Glial cells are different: as with most types of cells in the body, they are generated throughout the lifespan. | Which type of cells in the brain are generated throughout your lifetime? | Which type of cells in the brain are generated throughout your lifetime? | [
"Which type of cells in the brain are generated throughout your lifetime?"
] | {
"text": [
"Glial cells"
],
"answer_start": [
636
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14112 | 56f8db919b226e1400dd1108 | Brain | In humans and many other mammals, new neurons are created mainly before birth, and the infant brain contains substantially more neurons than the adult brain. There are, however, a few areas where new neurons continue to be generated throughout life. The two areas for which adult neurogenesis is well established are the olfactory bulb, which is involved in the sense of smell, and the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus, where there is evidence that the new neurons play a role in storing newly acquired memories. With these exceptions, however, the set of neurons that is present in early childhood is the set that is present for life. Glial cells are different: as with most types of cells in the body, they are generated throughout the lifespan. | Neurogenesis is the process of what? | Neurogenesis is the process of what? | [
"Neurogenesis is the process of what?"
] | {
"text": [
"neurons continue to be generated throughout life"
],
"answer_start": [
200
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14113 | 56f8dc869b226e1400dd1122 | Brain | The functions of the brain depend on the ability of neurons to transmit electrochemical signals to other cells, and their ability to respond appropriately to electrochemical signals received from other cells. The electrical properties of neurons are controlled by a wide variety of biochemical and metabolic processes, most notably the interactions between neurotransmitters and receptors that take place at synapses. | The electrical properties of neurons are controlled by what? | The electrical properties of neurons are controlled by what? | [
"The electrical properties of neurons are controlled by what?"
] | {
"text": [
"neurotransmitters and receptors that take place at synapses"
],
"answer_start": [
357
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14114 | 56f8dc869b226e1400dd1123 | Brain | The functions of the brain depend on the ability of neurons to transmit electrochemical signals to other cells, and their ability to respond appropriately to electrochemical signals received from other cells. The electrical properties of neurons are controlled by a wide variety of biochemical and metabolic processes, most notably the interactions between neurotransmitters and receptors that take place at synapses. | What type of signals do neurons transfer from one another? | What type of signals do neurons transfer from one another? | [
"What type of signals do neurons transfer from one another?"
] | {
"text": [
"electrochemical"
],
"answer_start": [
72
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14115 | 56f96f189e9bad19000a0901 | Brain | Neurotransmitters are chemicals that are released at synapses when an action potential activates them—neurotransmitters attach themselves to receptor molecules on the membrane of the synapse's target cell, and thereby alter the electrical or chemical properties of the receptor molecules. With few exceptions, each neuron in the brain releases the same chemical neurotransmitter, or combination of neurotransmitters, at all the synaptic connections it makes with other neurons; this rule is known as Dale's principle. Thus, a neuron can be characterized by the neurotransmitters that it releases. The great majority of psychoactive drugs exert their effects by altering specific neurotransmitter systems. This applies to drugs such as cannabinoids, nicotine, heroin, cocaine, alcohol, fluoxetine, chlorpromazine, and many others. | Chemicals called neurotransmitters are released at what part of the brain? | Chemicals called neurotransmitters are released at what part of the brain? | [
"Chemicals called neurotransmitters are released at what part of the brain?"
] | {
"text": [
"synapses"
],
"answer_start": [
53
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14116 | 56f96f189e9bad19000a0902 | Brain | Neurotransmitters are chemicals that are released at synapses when an action potential activates them—neurotransmitters attach themselves to receptor molecules on the membrane of the synapse's target cell, and thereby alter the electrical or chemical properties of the receptor molecules. With few exceptions, each neuron in the brain releases the same chemical neurotransmitter, or combination of neurotransmitters, at all the synaptic connections it makes with other neurons; this rule is known as Dale's principle. Thus, a neuron can be characterized by the neurotransmitters that it releases. The great majority of psychoactive drugs exert their effects by altering specific neurotransmitter systems. This applies to drugs such as cannabinoids, nicotine, heroin, cocaine, alcohol, fluoxetine, chlorpromazine, and many others. | What do neurotransmitters attach to? | What do neurotransmitters attach to? | [
"What do neurotransmitters attach to?"
] | {
"text": [
"receptor molecules on the membrane of the synapse's target cell"
],
"answer_start": [
141
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14117 | 56f96f189e9bad19000a0903 | Brain | Neurotransmitters are chemicals that are released at synapses when an action potential activates them—neurotransmitters attach themselves to receptor molecules on the membrane of the synapse's target cell, and thereby alter the electrical or chemical properties of the receptor molecules. With few exceptions, each neuron in the brain releases the same chemical neurotransmitter, or combination of neurotransmitters, at all the synaptic connections it makes with other neurons; this rule is known as Dale's principle. Thus, a neuron can be characterized by the neurotransmitters that it releases. The great majority of psychoactive drugs exert their effects by altering specific neurotransmitter systems. This applies to drugs such as cannabinoids, nicotine, heroin, cocaine, alcohol, fluoxetine, chlorpromazine, and many others. | Neurons that release the same chemicals are following what rule? | Neurons that release the same chemicals are following what rule? | [
"Neurons that release the same chemicals are following what rule?"
] | {
"text": [
"Dale's principle"
],
"answer_start": [
500
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14118 | 56f96fee9b226e1400dd1454 | Brain | The two neurotransmitters that are used most widely in the vertebrate brain are glutamate, which almost always exerts excitatory effects on target neurons, and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), which is almost always inhibitory. Neurons using these transmitters can be found in nearly every part of the brain. Because of their ubiquity, drugs that act on glutamate or GABA tend to have broad and powerful effects. Some general anesthetics act by reducing the effects of glutamate; most tranquilizers exert their sedative effects by enhancing the effects of GABA. | GABA is the abbreviation for what? | GABA is the abbreviation for what? | [
"GABA is the abbreviation for what?"
] | {
"text": [
"gamma-aminobutyric acid"
],
"answer_start": [
160
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14119 | 56f96fee9b226e1400dd1455 | Brain | The two neurotransmitters that are used most widely in the vertebrate brain are glutamate, which almost always exerts excitatory effects on target neurons, and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), which is almost always inhibitory. Neurons using these transmitters can be found in nearly every part of the brain. Because of their ubiquity, drugs that act on glutamate or GABA tend to have broad and powerful effects. Some general anesthetics act by reducing the effects of glutamate; most tranquilizers exert their sedative effects by enhancing the effects of GABA. | Which of two neurotransmitters is usually inhibitory? | Which of two neurotransmitters is usually inhibitory? | [
"Which of two neurotransmitters is usually inhibitory?"
] | {
"text": [
"gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)"
],
"answer_start": [
160
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14120 | 56f96fee9b226e1400dd1456 | Brain | The two neurotransmitters that are used most widely in the vertebrate brain are glutamate, which almost always exerts excitatory effects on target neurons, and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), which is almost always inhibitory. Neurons using these transmitters can be found in nearly every part of the brain. Because of their ubiquity, drugs that act on glutamate or GABA tend to have broad and powerful effects. Some general anesthetics act by reducing the effects of glutamate; most tranquilizers exert their sedative effects by enhancing the effects of GABA. | The neurostransmitter that usually excites targets is called what? | The neurostransmitter that usually excites targets is called what? | [
"The neurostransmitter that usually excites targets is called what?"
] | {
"text": [
"glutamate,"
],
"answer_start": [
80
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14121 | 56f96fee9b226e1400dd1457 | Brain | The two neurotransmitters that are used most widely in the vertebrate brain are glutamate, which almost always exerts excitatory effects on target neurons, and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), which is almost always inhibitory. Neurons using these transmitters can be found in nearly every part of the brain. Because of their ubiquity, drugs that act on glutamate or GABA tend to have broad and powerful effects. Some general anesthetics act by reducing the effects of glutamate; most tranquilizers exert their sedative effects by enhancing the effects of GABA. | Tranquilizers affect which of the two common neurotransmitters? | Tranquilizers affect which of the two common neurotransmitters? | [
"Tranquilizers affect which of the two common neurotransmitters?"
] | {
"text": [
"gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)"
],
"answer_start": [
160
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14122 | 56f9725b9e9bad19000a092b | Brain | There are dozens of other chemical neurotransmitters that are used in more limited areas of the brain, often areas dedicated to a particular function. Serotonin, for example—the primary target of antidepressant drugs and many dietary aids—comes exclusively from a small brainstem area called the Raphe nuclei. Norepinephrine, which is involved in arousal, comes exclusively from a nearby small area called the locus coeruleus. Other neurotransmitters such as acetylcholine and dopamine have multiple sources in the brain, but are not as ubiquitously distributed as glutamate and GABA. | Serotonin comes from what part of the brain? | Serotonin comes from what part of the brain? | [
"Serotonin comes from what part of the brain?"
] | {
"text": [
"Raphe nuclei"
],
"answer_start": [
296
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14123 | 56f9725b9e9bad19000a092c | Brain | There are dozens of other chemical neurotransmitters that are used in more limited areas of the brain, often areas dedicated to a particular function. Serotonin, for example—the primary target of antidepressant drugs and many dietary aids—comes exclusively from a small brainstem area called the Raphe nuclei. Norepinephrine, which is involved in arousal, comes exclusively from a nearby small area called the locus coeruleus. Other neurotransmitters such as acetylcholine and dopamine have multiple sources in the brain, but are not as ubiquitously distributed as glutamate and GABA. | Antidepressants typically affect what chemical of the brain? | Antidepressants typically affect what chemical of the brain? | [
"Antidepressants typically affect what chemical of the brain?"
] | {
"text": [
"Serotonin"
],
"answer_start": [
151
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14124 | 56f9725b9e9bad19000a092d | Brain | There are dozens of other chemical neurotransmitters that are used in more limited areas of the brain, often areas dedicated to a particular function. Serotonin, for example—the primary target of antidepressant drugs and many dietary aids—comes exclusively from a small brainstem area called the Raphe nuclei. Norepinephrine, which is involved in arousal, comes exclusively from a nearby small area called the locus coeruleus. Other neurotransmitters such as acetylcholine and dopamine have multiple sources in the brain, but are not as ubiquitously distributed as glutamate and GABA. | Which chemical of the brain is involved with arousal? | Which chemical of the brain is involved with arousal? | [
"Which chemical of the brain is involved with arousal?"
] | {
"text": [
"Norepinephrine"
],
"answer_start": [
310
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14125 | 56f9725b9e9bad19000a092e | Brain | There are dozens of other chemical neurotransmitters that are used in more limited areas of the brain, often areas dedicated to a particular function. Serotonin, for example—the primary target of antidepressant drugs and many dietary aids—comes exclusively from a small brainstem area called the Raphe nuclei. Norepinephrine, which is involved in arousal, comes exclusively from a nearby small area called the locus coeruleus. Other neurotransmitters such as acetylcholine and dopamine have multiple sources in the brain, but are not as ubiquitously distributed as glutamate and GABA. | Norepinephrine comes from an area of the brain known as what? | Norepinephrine comes from an area of the brain known as what? | [
"Norepinephrine comes from an area of the brain known as what?"
] | {
"text": [
"locus coeruleus"
],
"answer_start": [
410
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14126 | 56f973599e9bad19000a0933 | Brain | As a side effect of the electrochemical processes used by neurons for signaling, brain tissue generates electric fields when it is active. When large numbers of neurons show synchronized activity, the electric fields that they generate can be large enough to detect outside the skull, using electroencephalography (EEG) or magnetoencephalography (MEG). EEG recordings, along with recordings made from electrodes implanted inside the brains of animals such as rats, show that the brain of a living animal is constantly active, even during sleep. Each part of the brain shows a mixture of rhythmic and nonrhythmic activity, which may vary according to behavioral state. In mammals, the cerebral cortex tends to show large slow delta waves during sleep, faster alpha waves when the animal is awake but inattentive, and chaotic-looking irregular activity when the animal is actively engaged in a task. During an epileptic seizure, the brain's inhibitory control mechanisms fail to function and electrical activity rises to pathological levels, producing EEG traces that show large wave and spike patterns not seen in a healthy brain. Relating these population-level patterns to the computational functions of individual neurons is a major focus of current research in neurophysiology. | An EEG of the brain stands for what? | An EEG of the brain stands for what? | [
"An EEG of the brain stands for what?"
] | {
"text": [
"electroencephalography"
],
"answer_start": [
291
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14127 | 56f973599e9bad19000a0934 | Brain | As a side effect of the electrochemical processes used by neurons for signaling, brain tissue generates electric fields when it is active. When large numbers of neurons show synchronized activity, the electric fields that they generate can be large enough to detect outside the skull, using electroencephalography (EEG) or magnetoencephalography (MEG). EEG recordings, along with recordings made from electrodes implanted inside the brains of animals such as rats, show that the brain of a living animal is constantly active, even during sleep. Each part of the brain shows a mixture of rhythmic and nonrhythmic activity, which may vary according to behavioral state. In mammals, the cerebral cortex tends to show large slow delta waves during sleep, faster alpha waves when the animal is awake but inattentive, and chaotic-looking irregular activity when the animal is actively engaged in a task. During an epileptic seizure, the brain's inhibitory control mechanisms fail to function and electrical activity rises to pathological levels, producing EEG traces that show large wave and spike patterns not seen in a healthy brain. Relating these population-level patterns to the computational functions of individual neurons is a major focus of current research in neurophysiology. | MEG of the brain is an abbreviation of what? | MEG of the brain is an abbreviation of what? | [
"MEG of the brain is an abbreviation of what?"
] | {
"text": [
"magnetoencephalography"
],
"answer_start": [
323
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14128 | 56f973599e9bad19000a0935 | Brain | As a side effect of the electrochemical processes used by neurons for signaling, brain tissue generates electric fields when it is active. When large numbers of neurons show synchronized activity, the electric fields that they generate can be large enough to detect outside the skull, using electroencephalography (EEG) or magnetoencephalography (MEG). EEG recordings, along with recordings made from electrodes implanted inside the brains of animals such as rats, show that the brain of a living animal is constantly active, even during sleep. Each part of the brain shows a mixture of rhythmic and nonrhythmic activity, which may vary according to behavioral state. In mammals, the cerebral cortex tends to show large slow delta waves during sleep, faster alpha waves when the animal is awake but inattentive, and chaotic-looking irregular activity when the animal is actively engaged in a task. During an epileptic seizure, the brain's inhibitory control mechanisms fail to function and electrical activity rises to pathological levels, producing EEG traces that show large wave and spike patterns not seen in a healthy brain. Relating these population-level patterns to the computational functions of individual neurons is a major focus of current research in neurophysiology. | What type of test is used to tell that a brain is active even during sleep? | What type of test is used to tell that a brain is active even during sleep? | [
"What type of test is used to tell that a brain is active even during sleep?"
] | {
"text": [
"EEG"
],
"answer_start": [
353
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14129 | 56f973599e9bad19000a0936 | Brain | As a side effect of the electrochemical processes used by neurons for signaling, brain tissue generates electric fields when it is active. When large numbers of neurons show synchronized activity, the electric fields that they generate can be large enough to detect outside the skull, using electroencephalography (EEG) or magnetoencephalography (MEG). EEG recordings, along with recordings made from electrodes implanted inside the brains of animals such as rats, show that the brain of a living animal is constantly active, even during sleep. Each part of the brain shows a mixture of rhythmic and nonrhythmic activity, which may vary according to behavioral state. In mammals, the cerebral cortex tends to show large slow delta waves during sleep, faster alpha waves when the animal is awake but inattentive, and chaotic-looking irregular activity when the animal is actively engaged in a task. During an epileptic seizure, the brain's inhibitory control mechanisms fail to function and electrical activity rises to pathological levels, producing EEG traces that show large wave and spike patterns not seen in a healthy brain. Relating these population-level patterns to the computational functions of individual neurons is a major focus of current research in neurophysiology. | What type of brain waves are seen in mammals during sleep? | What type of brain waves are seen in mammals during sleep? | [
"What type of brain waves are seen in mammals during sleep?"
] | {
"text": [
"large slow delta waves"
],
"answer_start": [
714
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14130 | 56f973599e9bad19000a0937 | Brain | As a side effect of the electrochemical processes used by neurons for signaling, brain tissue generates electric fields when it is active. When large numbers of neurons show synchronized activity, the electric fields that they generate can be large enough to detect outside the skull, using electroencephalography (EEG) or magnetoencephalography (MEG). EEG recordings, along with recordings made from electrodes implanted inside the brains of animals such as rats, show that the brain of a living animal is constantly active, even during sleep. Each part of the brain shows a mixture of rhythmic and nonrhythmic activity, which may vary according to behavioral state. In mammals, the cerebral cortex tends to show large slow delta waves during sleep, faster alpha waves when the animal is awake but inattentive, and chaotic-looking irregular activity when the animal is actively engaged in a task. During an epileptic seizure, the brain's inhibitory control mechanisms fail to function and electrical activity rises to pathological levels, producing EEG traces that show large wave and spike patterns not seen in a healthy brain. Relating these population-level patterns to the computational functions of individual neurons is a major focus of current research in neurophysiology. | What type of brain waves are sen when a creature is awake, but inattentive? | What type of brain waves are sen when a creature is awake, but inattentive? | [
"What type of brain waves are sen when a creature is awake, but inattentive?"
] | {
"text": [
"faster alpha waves"
],
"answer_start": [
751
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14131 | 56f9738c9e9bad19000a093d | Brain | All vertebrates have a blood–brain barrier that allows metabolism inside the brain to operate differently from metabolism in other parts of the body. Glial cells play a major role in brain metabolism by controlling the chemical composition of the fluid that surrounds neurons, including levels of ions and nutrients. | What type of cells have a huge role in brain metabolism? | What type of cells have a huge role in brain metabolism? | [
"What type of cells have a huge role in brain metabolism?"
] | {
"text": [
"Glial cells"
],
"answer_start": [
150
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14132 | 56f9738c9e9bad19000a093e | Brain | All vertebrates have a blood–brain barrier that allows metabolism inside the brain to operate differently from metabolism in other parts of the body. Glial cells play a major role in brain metabolism by controlling the chemical composition of the fluid that surrounds neurons, including levels of ions and nutrients. | Glial cells control what inside the brain? | Glial cells control what inside the brain? | [
"Glial cells control what inside the brain?"
] | {
"text": [
"chemical composition of the fluid that surrounds neurons"
],
"answer_start": [
219
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14133 | 56f974f69e9bad19000a0941 | Brain | Brain tissue consumes a large amount of energy in proportion to its volume, so large brains place severe metabolic demands on animals. The need to limit body weight in order, for example, to fly, has apparently led to selection for a reduction of brain size in some species, such as bats. Most of the brain's energy consumption goes into sustaining the electric charge (membrane potential) of neurons. Most vertebrate species devote between 2% and 8% of basal metabolism to the brain. In primates, however, the percentage is much higher—in humans it rises to 20–25%. The energy consumption of the brain does not vary greatly over time, but active regions of the cerebral cortex consume somewhat more energy than inactive regions; this forms the basis for the functional brain imaging methods PET, fMRI, and NIRS. The brain typically gets most of its energy from oxygen-dependent metabolism of glucose (i.e., blood sugar), but ketones provide a major alternative source, together with contributions from medium chain fatty acids (caprylic and heptanoic acids), lactate, acetate, and possibly amino acids. | Where does the brain usually get most of its energy from inside the body? | Where does the brain usually get most of its energy from inside the body? | [
"Where does the brain usually get most of its energy from inside the body?"
] | {
"text": [
"glucose (i.e., blood sugar"
],
"answer_start": [
893
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14134 | 56f974f69e9bad19000a0942 | Brain | Brain tissue consumes a large amount of energy in proportion to its volume, so large brains place severe metabolic demands on animals. The need to limit body weight in order, for example, to fly, has apparently led to selection for a reduction of brain size in some species, such as bats. Most of the brain's energy consumption goes into sustaining the electric charge (membrane potential) of neurons. Most vertebrate species devote between 2% and 8% of basal metabolism to the brain. In primates, however, the percentage is much higher—in humans it rises to 20–25%. The energy consumption of the brain does not vary greatly over time, but active regions of the cerebral cortex consume somewhat more energy than inactive regions; this forms the basis for the functional brain imaging methods PET, fMRI, and NIRS. The brain typically gets most of its energy from oxygen-dependent metabolism of glucose (i.e., blood sugar), but ketones provide a major alternative source, together with contributions from medium chain fatty acids (caprylic and heptanoic acids), lactate, acetate, and possibly amino acids. | The energy used for metabolism of the brain in humans is what percentage? | The energy used for metabolism of the brain in humans is what percentage? | [
"The energy used for metabolism of the brain in humans is what percentage?"
] | {
"text": [
"20–25%"
],
"answer_start": [
559
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14135 | 56f974f69e9bad19000a0943 | Brain | Brain tissue consumes a large amount of energy in proportion to its volume, so large brains place severe metabolic demands on animals. The need to limit body weight in order, for example, to fly, has apparently led to selection for a reduction of brain size in some species, such as bats. Most of the brain's energy consumption goes into sustaining the electric charge (membrane potential) of neurons. Most vertebrate species devote between 2% and 8% of basal metabolism to the brain. In primates, however, the percentage is much higher—in humans it rises to 20–25%. The energy consumption of the brain does not vary greatly over time, but active regions of the cerebral cortex consume somewhat more energy than inactive regions; this forms the basis for the functional brain imaging methods PET, fMRI, and NIRS. The brain typically gets most of its energy from oxygen-dependent metabolism of glucose (i.e., blood sugar), but ketones provide a major alternative source, together with contributions from medium chain fatty acids (caprylic and heptanoic acids), lactate, acetate, and possibly amino acids. | Other sources than glucose that provide energy to the brain are what? | Other sources than glucose that provide energy to the brain are what? | [
"Other sources than glucose that provide energy to the brain are what?"
] | {
"text": [
"ketones"
],
"answer_start": [
926
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14136 | 56f974f69e9bad19000a0944 | Brain | Brain tissue consumes a large amount of energy in proportion to its volume, so large brains place severe metabolic demands on animals. The need to limit body weight in order, for example, to fly, has apparently led to selection for a reduction of brain size in some species, such as bats. Most of the brain's energy consumption goes into sustaining the electric charge (membrane potential) of neurons. Most vertebrate species devote between 2% and 8% of basal metabolism to the brain. In primates, however, the percentage is much higher—in humans it rises to 20–25%. The energy consumption of the brain does not vary greatly over time, but active regions of the cerebral cortex consume somewhat more energy than inactive regions; this forms the basis for the functional brain imaging methods PET, fMRI, and NIRS. The brain typically gets most of its energy from oxygen-dependent metabolism of glucose (i.e., blood sugar), but ketones provide a major alternative source, together with contributions from medium chain fatty acids (caprylic and heptanoic acids), lactate, acetate, and possibly amino acids. | Most vertebrates usually devote how much metabolism to the brain? | Most vertebrates usually devote how much metabolism to the brain? | [
"Most vertebrates usually devote how much metabolism to the brain?"
] | {
"text": [
"2% and 8%"
],
"answer_start": [
441
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14137 | 56f975539b226e1400dd146e | Brain | From an evolutionary-biological perspective, the function of the brain is to provide coherent control over the actions of an animal. A centralized brain allows groups of muscles to be co-activated in complex patterns; it also allows stimuli impinging on one part of the body to evoke responses in other parts, and it can prevent different parts of the body from acting at cross-purposes to each other. | The function of the brain from an evolutionary-biological thought is what? | The function of the brain from an evolutionary-biological thought is what? | [
"The function of the brain from an evolutionary-biological thought is what?"
] | {
"text": [
"provide coherent control over the actions of an animal"
],
"answer_start": [
77
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14138 | 56f976429b226e1400dd1470 | Brain | The invention of electronic computers in the 1940s, along with the development of mathematical information theory, led to a realization that brains can potentially be understood as information processing systems. This concept formed the basis of the field of cybernetics, and eventually gave rise to the field now known as computational neuroscience. The earliest attempts at cybernetics were somewhat crude in that they treated the brain as essentially a digital computer in disguise, as for example in John von Neumann's 1958 book, The Computer and the Brain. Over the years, though, accumulating information about the electrical responses of brain cells recorded from behaving animals has steadily moved theoretical concepts in the direction of increasing realism. | Computers were invented in what decade in history? | Computers were invented in what decade in history? | [
"Computers were invented in what decade in history?"
] | {
"text": [
"1940s"
],
"answer_start": [
45
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14139 | 56f976429b226e1400dd1471 | Brain | The invention of electronic computers in the 1940s, along with the development of mathematical information theory, led to a realization that brains can potentially be understood as information processing systems. This concept formed the basis of the field of cybernetics, and eventually gave rise to the field now known as computational neuroscience. The earliest attempts at cybernetics were somewhat crude in that they treated the brain as essentially a digital computer in disguise, as for example in John von Neumann's 1958 book, The Computer and the Brain. Over the years, though, accumulating information about the electrical responses of brain cells recorded from behaving animals has steadily moved theoretical concepts in the direction of increasing realism. | Neuroscience spawned from what field of science in history? | Neuroscience spawned from what field of science in history? | [
"Neuroscience spawned from what field of science in history?"
] | {
"text": [
"cybernetics"
],
"answer_start": [
259
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14140 | 56f976429b226e1400dd1472 | Brain | The invention of electronic computers in the 1940s, along with the development of mathematical information theory, led to a realization that brains can potentially be understood as information processing systems. This concept formed the basis of the field of cybernetics, and eventually gave rise to the field now known as computational neuroscience. The earliest attempts at cybernetics were somewhat crude in that they treated the brain as essentially a digital computer in disguise, as for example in John von Neumann's 1958 book, The Computer and the Brain. Over the years, though, accumulating information about the electrical responses of brain cells recorded from behaving animals has steadily moved theoretical concepts in the direction of increasing realism. | Who wrote the book, The Computer and the Brain? | Who wrote the book, The Computer and the Brain? | [
"Who wrote the book, The Computer and the Brain?"
] | {
"text": [
"John von Neumann's"
],
"answer_start": [
504
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14141 | 56f976429b226e1400dd1473 | Brain | The invention of electronic computers in the 1940s, along with the development of mathematical information theory, led to a realization that brains can potentially be understood as information processing systems. This concept formed the basis of the field of cybernetics, and eventually gave rise to the field now known as computational neuroscience. The earliest attempts at cybernetics were somewhat crude in that they treated the brain as essentially a digital computer in disguise, as for example in John von Neumann's 1958 book, The Computer and the Brain. Over the years, though, accumulating information about the electrical responses of brain cells recorded from behaving animals has steadily moved theoretical concepts in the direction of increasing realism. | When was John von Neumann's book, The Computer and the Brain published? | When was John von Neumann's book, The Computer and the Brain published? | [
"When was John von Neumann's book, The Computer and the Brain published?"
] | {
"text": [
"1958"
],
"answer_start": [
523
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14142 | 56f978649e9bad19000a0987 | Brain | The essence of the information processing approach is to try to understand brain function in terms of information flow and implementation of algorithms. One of the most influential early contributions was a 1959 paper titled What the frog's eye tells the frog's brain: the paper examined the visual responses of neurons in the retina and optic tectum of frogs, and came to the conclusion that some neurons in the tectum of the frog are wired to combine elementary responses in a way that makes them function as "bug perceivers". A few years later David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel discovered cells in the primary visual cortex of monkeys that become active when sharp edges move across specific points in the field of view—a discovery for which they won a Nobel Prize. Follow-up studies in higher-order visual areas found cells that detect binocular disparity, color, movement, and aspects of shape, with areas located at increasing distances from the primary visual cortex showing increasingly complex responses. Other investigations of brain areas unrelated to vision have revealed cells with a wide variety of response correlates, some related to memory, some to abstract types of cognition such as space. | The scientific paper, What the frog's eye tells the frog's brain was released in what year? | The scientific paper, What the frog's eye tells the frog's brain was released in what year? | [
"The scientific paper, What the frog's eye tells the frog's brain was released in what year?"
] | {
"text": [
"1959"
],
"answer_start": [
207
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14143 | 56f978649e9bad19000a0988 | Brain | The essence of the information processing approach is to try to understand brain function in terms of information flow and implementation of algorithms. One of the most influential early contributions was a 1959 paper titled What the frog's eye tells the frog's brain: the paper examined the visual responses of neurons in the retina and optic tectum of frogs, and came to the conclusion that some neurons in the tectum of the frog are wired to combine elementary responses in a way that makes them function as "bug perceivers". A few years later David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel discovered cells in the primary visual cortex of monkeys that become active when sharp edges move across specific points in the field of view—a discovery for which they won a Nobel Prize. Follow-up studies in higher-order visual areas found cells that detect binocular disparity, color, movement, and aspects of shape, with areas located at increasing distances from the primary visual cortex showing increasingly complex responses. Other investigations of brain areas unrelated to vision have revealed cells with a wide variety of response correlates, some related to memory, some to abstract types of cognition such as space. | Who won a Nobel Prize for the discovery that cells in the visual cortex of monkeys become active when sharp edges move? | Who won a Nobel Prize for the discovery that cells in the visual cortex of monkeys become active when sharp edges move? | [
"Who won a Nobel Prize for the discovery that cells in the visual cortex of monkeys become active when sharp edges move?"
] | {
"text": [
"David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel"
],
"answer_start": [
547
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14144 | 56f97e319b226e1400dd14c3 | Brain | Furthermore, even single neurons appear to be complex and capable of performing computations. So, brain models that don't reflect this are arguably too abstractive to be representative of brain operation; models that do try to capture this are very computationally expensive and arguably intractable with present computational resources. However, having said this, the Human Brain Project is trying to build a realistic, detailed computational model of the entire human brain. It remains to be seen what level of success they can achieve in the time frame of the project and the wisdom of it has been publicly contested, with high-profile scientists on both sides of the argument. | What is the project called that is trying to build a realistic, detailed computer model of the human brain? | What is the project called that is trying to build a realistic, detailed computer model of the human brain? | [
"What is the project called that is trying to build a realistic, detailed computer model of the human brain?"
] | {
"text": [
"the Human Brain Project"
],
"answer_start": [
365
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14145 | 56f97eb89e9bad19000a09c3 | Brain | One of the primary functions of a brain is to extract biologically relevant information from sensory inputs. The human brain is provided with information about light, sound, the chemical composition of the atmosphere, temperature, head orientation, limb position, the chemical composition of the bloodstream, and more. In other animals additional senses may be present, such as the infrared heat-sense of snakes, the magnetic field sense of some birds, or the electric field sense of some types of fish. Moreover, other animals may develop existing sensory systems in new ways, such as the adaptation by bats of the auditory sense into a form of sonar. One way or another, all of these sensory modalities are initially detected by specialized sensors that project signals into the brain. | What type of animal has a sense that adapted into sonar? | What type of animal has a sense that adapted into sonar? | [
"What type of animal has a sense that adapted into sonar?"
] | {
"text": [
"bats"
],
"answer_start": [
604
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14146 | 56f97eb89e9bad19000a09c4 | Brain | One of the primary functions of a brain is to extract biologically relevant information from sensory inputs. The human brain is provided with information about light, sound, the chemical composition of the atmosphere, temperature, head orientation, limb position, the chemical composition of the bloodstream, and more. In other animals additional senses may be present, such as the infrared heat-sense of snakes, the magnetic field sense of some birds, or the electric field sense of some types of fish. Moreover, other animals may develop existing sensory systems in new ways, such as the adaptation by bats of the auditory sense into a form of sonar. One way or another, all of these sensory modalities are initially detected by specialized sensors that project signals into the brain. | What type of animal uses infrared heat to sense? | What type of animal uses infrared heat to sense? | [
"What type of animal uses infrared heat to sense?"
] | {
"text": [
"snakes"
],
"answer_start": [
405
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14147 | 56f97eb89e9bad19000a09c5 | Brain | One of the primary functions of a brain is to extract biologically relevant information from sensory inputs. The human brain is provided with information about light, sound, the chemical composition of the atmosphere, temperature, head orientation, limb position, the chemical composition of the bloodstream, and more. In other animals additional senses may be present, such as the infrared heat-sense of snakes, the magnetic field sense of some birds, or the electric field sense of some types of fish. Moreover, other animals may develop existing sensory systems in new ways, such as the adaptation by bats of the auditory sense into a form of sonar. One way or another, all of these sensory modalities are initially detected by specialized sensors that project signals into the brain. | The group of animals that can detect magnetic fields is what? | The group of animals that can detect magnetic fields is what? | [
"The group of animals that can detect magnetic fields is what?"
] | {
"text": [
"birds"
],
"answer_start": [
446
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14148 | 56f97eb89e9bad19000a09c6 | Brain | One of the primary functions of a brain is to extract biologically relevant information from sensory inputs. The human brain is provided with information about light, sound, the chemical composition of the atmosphere, temperature, head orientation, limb position, the chemical composition of the bloodstream, and more. In other animals additional senses may be present, such as the infrared heat-sense of snakes, the magnetic field sense of some birds, or the electric field sense of some types of fish. Moreover, other animals may develop existing sensory systems in new ways, such as the adaptation by bats of the auditory sense into a form of sonar. One way or another, all of these sensory modalities are initially detected by specialized sensors that project signals into the brain. | The group of creatures that can sense electric fields is what? | The group of creatures that can sense electric fields is what? | [
"The group of creatures that can sense electric fields is what?"
] | {
"text": [
"fish"
],
"answer_start": [
498
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14149 | 56f97f299b226e1400dd14c5 | Brain | Each sensory system begins with specialized receptor cells, such as light-receptive neurons in the retina of the eye, vibration-sensitive neurons in the cochlea of the ear, or pressure-sensitive neurons in the skin. The axons of sensory receptor cells travel into the spinal cord or brain, where they transmit their signals to a first-order sensory nucleus dedicated to one specific sensory modality. This primary sensory nucleus sends information to higher-order sensory areas that are dedicated to the same modality. Eventually, via a way-station in the thalamus, the signals are sent to the cerebral cortex, where they are processed to extract biologically relevant features, and integrated with signals coming from other sensory systems. | Light-receptive neurons are located in what part of the eye? | Light-receptive neurons are located in what part of the eye? | [
"Light-receptive neurons are located in what part of the eye?"
] | {
"text": [
"retina"
],
"answer_start": [
99
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14150 | 56f97f299b226e1400dd14c6 | Brain | Each sensory system begins with specialized receptor cells, such as light-receptive neurons in the retina of the eye, vibration-sensitive neurons in the cochlea of the ear, or pressure-sensitive neurons in the skin. The axons of sensory receptor cells travel into the spinal cord or brain, where they transmit their signals to a first-order sensory nucleus dedicated to one specific sensory modality. This primary sensory nucleus sends information to higher-order sensory areas that are dedicated to the same modality. Eventually, via a way-station in the thalamus, the signals are sent to the cerebral cortex, where they are processed to extract biologically relevant features, and integrated with signals coming from other sensory systems. | Vibration-sensitive neurons are found in what part of the ear? | Vibration-sensitive neurons are found in what part of the ear? | [
"Vibration-sensitive neurons are found in what part of the ear?"
] | {
"text": [
"cochlea"
],
"answer_start": [
153
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14151 | 56f97f299b226e1400dd14c7 | Brain | Each sensory system begins with specialized receptor cells, such as light-receptive neurons in the retina of the eye, vibration-sensitive neurons in the cochlea of the ear, or pressure-sensitive neurons in the skin. The axons of sensory receptor cells travel into the spinal cord or brain, where they transmit their signals to a first-order sensory nucleus dedicated to one specific sensory modality. This primary sensory nucleus sends information to higher-order sensory areas that are dedicated to the same modality. Eventually, via a way-station in the thalamus, the signals are sent to the cerebral cortex, where they are processed to extract biologically relevant features, and integrated with signals coming from other sensory systems. | Signals are sent from the thalamus to what part of the brain? | Signals are sent from the thalamus to what part of the brain? | [
"Signals are sent from the thalamus to what part of the brain?"
] | {
"text": [
"cerebral cortex"
],
"answer_start": [
594
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14152 | 56f97f669e9bad19000a09d5 | Brain | Motor systems are areas of the brain that are directly or indirectly involved in producing body movements, that is, in activating muscles. Except for the muscles that control the eye, which are driven by nuclei in the midbrain, all the voluntary muscles in the body are directly innervated by motor neurons in the spinal cord and hindbrain. Spinal motor neurons are controlled both by neural circuits intrinsic to the spinal cord, and by inputs that descend from the brain. The intrinsic spinal circuits implement many reflex responses, and contain pattern generators for rhythmic movements such as walking or swimming. The descending connections from the brain allow for more sophisticated control. | What part of the body is controlled by nuclei in the midbrain? | What part of the body is controlled by nuclei in the midbrain? | [
"What part of the body is controlled by nuclei in the midbrain?"
] | {
"text": [
"the eye,"
],
"answer_start": [
175
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14153 | 56f97f669e9bad19000a09d6 | Brain | Motor systems are areas of the brain that are directly or indirectly involved in producing body movements, that is, in activating muscles. Except for the muscles that control the eye, which are driven by nuclei in the midbrain, all the voluntary muscles in the body are directly innervated by motor neurons in the spinal cord and hindbrain. Spinal motor neurons are controlled both by neural circuits intrinsic to the spinal cord, and by inputs that descend from the brain. The intrinsic spinal circuits implement many reflex responses, and contain pattern generators for rhythmic movements such as walking or swimming. The descending connections from the brain allow for more sophisticated control. | All the muscles controlled by motor neurons in the body are controlled by what? | All the muscles controlled by motor neurons in the body are controlled by what? | [
"All the muscles controlled by motor neurons in the body are controlled by what?"
] | {
"text": [
"spinal cord and hindbrain"
],
"answer_start": [
314
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14154 | 56f9808b9e9bad19000a09e3 | Brain | The brain contains several motor areas that project directly to the spinal cord. At the lowest level are motor areas in the medulla and pons, which control stereotyped movements such as walking, breathing, or swallowing. At a higher level are areas in the midbrain, such as the red nucleus, which is responsible for coordinating movements of the arms and legs. At a higher level yet is the primary motor cortex, a strip of tissue located at the posterior edge of the frontal lobe. The primary motor cortex sends projections to the subcortical motor areas, but also sends a massive projection directly to the spinal cord, through the pyramidal tract. This direct corticospinal projection allows for precise voluntary control of the fine details of movements. Other motor-related brain areas exert secondary effects by projecting to the primary motor areas. Among the most important secondary areas are the premotor cortex, basal ganglia, and cerebellum. | Which motor areas of the brain control breathing and swallowing? | Which motor areas of the brain control breathing and swallowing? | [
"Which motor areas of the brain control breathing and swallowing?"
] | {
"text": [
"the medulla and pons,"
],
"answer_start": [
120
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14155 | 56f9808b9e9bad19000a09e4 | Brain | The brain contains several motor areas that project directly to the spinal cord. At the lowest level are motor areas in the medulla and pons, which control stereotyped movements such as walking, breathing, or swallowing. At a higher level are areas in the midbrain, such as the red nucleus, which is responsible for coordinating movements of the arms and legs. At a higher level yet is the primary motor cortex, a strip of tissue located at the posterior edge of the frontal lobe. The primary motor cortex sends projections to the subcortical motor areas, but also sends a massive projection directly to the spinal cord, through the pyramidal tract. This direct corticospinal projection allows for precise voluntary control of the fine details of movements. Other motor-related brain areas exert secondary effects by projecting to the primary motor areas. Among the most important secondary areas are the premotor cortex, basal ganglia, and cerebellum. | At the lowest level of the brain and spinal cord, are what areas? | At the lowest level of the brain and spinal cord, are what areas? | [
"At the lowest level of the brain and spinal cord, are what areas?"
] | {
"text": [
"the medulla and pons"
],
"answer_start": [
120
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14156 | 56f9808b9e9bad19000a09e5 | Brain | The brain contains several motor areas that project directly to the spinal cord. At the lowest level are motor areas in the medulla and pons, which control stereotyped movements such as walking, breathing, or swallowing. At a higher level are areas in the midbrain, such as the red nucleus, which is responsible for coordinating movements of the arms and legs. At a higher level yet is the primary motor cortex, a strip of tissue located at the posterior edge of the frontal lobe. The primary motor cortex sends projections to the subcortical motor areas, but also sends a massive projection directly to the spinal cord, through the pyramidal tract. This direct corticospinal projection allows for precise voluntary control of the fine details of movements. Other motor-related brain areas exert secondary effects by projecting to the primary motor areas. Among the most important secondary areas are the premotor cortex, basal ganglia, and cerebellum. | The red nucleus controls what part(s) of the body? | The red nucleus controls what part(s) of the body? | [
"The red nucleus controls what part(s) of the body?"
] | {
"text": [
"coordinating movements of the arms and legs"
],
"answer_start": [
316
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14157 | 56f9808b9e9bad19000a09e6 | Brain | The brain contains several motor areas that project directly to the spinal cord. At the lowest level are motor areas in the medulla and pons, which control stereotyped movements such as walking, breathing, or swallowing. At a higher level are areas in the midbrain, such as the red nucleus, which is responsible for coordinating movements of the arms and legs. At a higher level yet is the primary motor cortex, a strip of tissue located at the posterior edge of the frontal lobe. The primary motor cortex sends projections to the subcortical motor areas, but also sends a massive projection directly to the spinal cord, through the pyramidal tract. This direct corticospinal projection allows for precise voluntary control of the fine details of movements. Other motor-related brain areas exert secondary effects by projecting to the primary motor areas. Among the most important secondary areas are the premotor cortex, basal ganglia, and cerebellum. | A strip of tissue found at the edge of the frontal lobe is called what? | A strip of tissue found at the edge of the frontal lobe is called what? | [
"A strip of tissue found at the edge of the frontal lobe is called what?"
] | {
"text": [
"primary motor cortex"
],
"answer_start": [
390
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14158 | 56f9808b9e9bad19000a09e7 | Brain | The brain contains several motor areas that project directly to the spinal cord. At the lowest level are motor areas in the medulla and pons, which control stereotyped movements such as walking, breathing, or swallowing. At a higher level are areas in the midbrain, such as the red nucleus, which is responsible for coordinating movements of the arms and legs. At a higher level yet is the primary motor cortex, a strip of tissue located at the posterior edge of the frontal lobe. The primary motor cortex sends projections to the subcortical motor areas, but also sends a massive projection directly to the spinal cord, through the pyramidal tract. This direct corticospinal projection allows for precise voluntary control of the fine details of movements. Other motor-related brain areas exert secondary effects by projecting to the primary motor areas. Among the most important secondary areas are the premotor cortex, basal ganglia, and cerebellum. | The primary motor cortex sends signals to the spinal cord through what? | The primary motor cortex sends signals to the spinal cord through what? | [
"The primary motor cortex sends signals to the spinal cord through what?"
] | {
"text": [
"pyramidal tract."
],
"answer_start": [
633
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14159 | 56f981a79b226e1400dd14d5 | Brain | In addition to all of the above, the brain and spinal cord contain extensive circuitry to control the autonomic nervous system, which works by secreting hormones and by modulating the "smooth" muscles of the gut. The autonomic nervous system affects heart rate, digestion, respiration rate, salivation, perspiration, urination, and sexual arousal, and several other processes. Most of its functions are not under direct voluntary control. | The brain and spinal cord work together to control what system of the body? | The brain and spinal cord work together to control what system of the body? | [
"The brain and spinal cord work together to control what system of the body?"
] | {
"text": [
"autonomic nervous system"
],
"answer_start": [
102
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14160 | 56f981a79b226e1400dd14d6 | Brain | In addition to all of the above, the brain and spinal cord contain extensive circuitry to control the autonomic nervous system, which works by secreting hormones and by modulating the "smooth" muscles of the gut. The autonomic nervous system affects heart rate, digestion, respiration rate, salivation, perspiration, urination, and sexual arousal, and several other processes. Most of its functions are not under direct voluntary control. | What system in the body controls heart rate? | What system in the body controls heart rate? | [
"What system in the body controls heart rate?"
] | {
"text": [
"autonomic nervous system"
],
"answer_start": [
102
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14161 | 56f981a79b226e1400dd14d7 | Brain | In addition to all of the above, the brain and spinal cord contain extensive circuitry to control the autonomic nervous system, which works by secreting hormones and by modulating the "smooth" muscles of the gut. The autonomic nervous system affects heart rate, digestion, respiration rate, salivation, perspiration, urination, and sexual arousal, and several other processes. Most of its functions are not under direct voluntary control. | What system in the body controls salivation? | What system in the body controls salivation? | [
"What system in the body controls salivation?"
] | {
"text": [
"autonomic nervous system"
],
"answer_start": [
102
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14162 | 56f981a79b226e1400dd14d8 | Brain | In addition to all of the above, the brain and spinal cord contain extensive circuitry to control the autonomic nervous system, which works by secreting hormones and by modulating the "smooth" muscles of the gut. The autonomic nervous system affects heart rate, digestion, respiration rate, salivation, perspiration, urination, and sexual arousal, and several other processes. Most of its functions are not under direct voluntary control. | Most of the processes of the autonomic nervous system are called what? | Most of the processes of the autonomic nervous system are called what? | [
"Most of the processes of the autonomic nervous system are called what?"
] | {
"text": [
"not under direct voluntary control"
],
"answer_start": [
403
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14163 | 56f981a79b226e1400dd14d9 | Brain | In addition to all of the above, the brain and spinal cord contain extensive circuitry to control the autonomic nervous system, which works by secreting hormones and by modulating the "smooth" muscles of the gut. The autonomic nervous system affects heart rate, digestion, respiration rate, salivation, perspiration, urination, and sexual arousal, and several other processes. Most of its functions are not under direct voluntary control. | Which system in the body controls urination? | Which system in the body controls urination? | [
"Which system in the body controls urination?"
] | {
"text": [
"The autonomic nervous system"
],
"answer_start": [
213
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14164 | 56f984649b226e1400dd14f2 | Brain | A key component of the arousal system is the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), a tiny part of the hypothalamus located directly above the point at which the optic nerves from the two eyes cross. The SCN contains the body's central biological clock. Neurons there show activity levels that rise and fall with a period of about 24 hours, circadian rhythms: these activity fluctuations are driven by rhythmic changes in expression of a set of "clock genes". The SCN continues to keep time even if it is excised from the brain and placed in a dish of warm nutrient solution, but it ordinarily receives input from the optic nerves, through the retinohypothalamic tract (RHT), that allows daily light-dark cycles to calibrate the clock. | The SCN of the nervous system is an abbreviation for what? | The SCN of the nervous system is an abbreviation for what? | [
"The SCN of the nervous system is an abbreviation for what?"
] | {
"text": [
"suprachiasmatic nucleus"
],
"answer_start": [
45
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14165 | 56f984649b226e1400dd14f3 | Brain | A key component of the arousal system is the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), a tiny part of the hypothalamus located directly above the point at which the optic nerves from the two eyes cross. The SCN contains the body's central biological clock. Neurons there show activity levels that rise and fall with a period of about 24 hours, circadian rhythms: these activity fluctuations are driven by rhythmic changes in expression of a set of "clock genes". The SCN continues to keep time even if it is excised from the brain and placed in a dish of warm nutrient solution, but it ordinarily receives input from the optic nerves, through the retinohypothalamic tract (RHT), that allows daily light-dark cycles to calibrate the clock. | The suprachiasmatic nucleus is a small part of what part of the brain? | The suprachiasmatic nucleus is a small part of what part of the brain? | [
"The suprachiasmatic nucleus is a small part of what part of the brain?"
] | {
"text": [
"the hypothalamus"
],
"answer_start": [
91
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14166 | 56f984649b226e1400dd14f4 | Brain | A key component of the arousal system is the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), a tiny part of the hypothalamus located directly above the point at which the optic nerves from the two eyes cross. The SCN contains the body's central biological clock. Neurons there show activity levels that rise and fall with a period of about 24 hours, circadian rhythms: these activity fluctuations are driven by rhythmic changes in expression of a set of "clock genes". The SCN continues to keep time even if it is excised from the brain and placed in a dish of warm nutrient solution, but it ordinarily receives input from the optic nerves, through the retinohypothalamic tract (RHT), that allows daily light-dark cycles to calibrate the clock. | Which part of the arousal system controls the body's biological clock? | Which part of the arousal system controls the body's biological clock? | [
"Which part of the arousal system controls the body's biological clock?"
] | {
"text": [
"the suprachiasmatic nucleus"
],
"answer_start": [
41
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14167 | 56f984649b226e1400dd14f5 | Brain | A key component of the arousal system is the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), a tiny part of the hypothalamus located directly above the point at which the optic nerves from the two eyes cross. The SCN contains the body's central biological clock. Neurons there show activity levels that rise and fall with a period of about 24 hours, circadian rhythms: these activity fluctuations are driven by rhythmic changes in expression of a set of "clock genes". The SCN continues to keep time even if it is excised from the brain and placed in a dish of warm nutrient solution, but it ordinarily receives input from the optic nerves, through the retinohypothalamic tract (RHT), that allows daily light-dark cycles to calibrate the clock. | The RHT is an abbreviation for what? | The RHT is an abbreviation for what? | [
"The RHT is an abbreviation for what?"
] | {
"text": [
"retinohypothalamic tract"
],
"answer_start": [
636
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14168 | 56f984649b226e1400dd14f6 | Brain | A key component of the arousal system is the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), a tiny part of the hypothalamus located directly above the point at which the optic nerves from the two eyes cross. The SCN contains the body's central biological clock. Neurons there show activity levels that rise and fall with a period of about 24 hours, circadian rhythms: these activity fluctuations are driven by rhythmic changes in expression of a set of "clock genes". The SCN continues to keep time even if it is excised from the brain and placed in a dish of warm nutrient solution, but it ordinarily receives input from the optic nerves, through the retinohypothalamic tract (RHT), that allows daily light-dark cycles to calibrate the clock. | THE SCN receives information from the optic nerves through what? | THE SCN receives information from the optic nerves through what? | [
"THE SCN receives information from the optic nerves through what?"
] | {
"text": [
"the retinohypothalamic tract (RHT"
],
"answer_start": [
632
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14169 | 56f984f59e9bad19000a0a0b | Brain | The SCN projects to a set of areas in the hypothalamus, brainstem, and midbrain that are involved in implementing sleep-wake cycles. An important component of the system is the reticular formation, a group of neuron-clusters scattered diffusely through the core of the lower brain. Reticular neurons send signals to the thalamus, which in turn sends activity-level-controlling signals to every part of the cortex. Damage to the reticular formation can produce a permanent state of coma. | A group of neuron-clusters scattered in the core of the lower brain is called what? | A group of neuron-clusters scattered in the core of the lower brain is called what? | [
"A group of neuron-clusters scattered in the core of the lower brain is called what?"
] | {
"text": [
"the reticular formation"
],
"answer_start": [
173
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14170 | 56f984f59e9bad19000a0a0c | Brain | The SCN projects to a set of areas in the hypothalamus, brainstem, and midbrain that are involved in implementing sleep-wake cycles. An important component of the system is the reticular formation, a group of neuron-clusters scattered diffusely through the core of the lower brain. Reticular neurons send signals to the thalamus, which in turn sends activity-level-controlling signals to every part of the cortex. Damage to the reticular formation can produce a permanent state of coma. | Reticular neurons transfer signals to what part of the brain? | Reticular neurons transfer signals to what part of the brain? | [
"Reticular neurons transfer signals to what part of the brain?"
] | {
"text": [
"the thalamus"
],
"answer_start": [
316
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14171 | 56f984f59e9bad19000a0a0d | Brain | The SCN projects to a set of areas in the hypothalamus, brainstem, and midbrain that are involved in implementing sleep-wake cycles. An important component of the system is the reticular formation, a group of neuron-clusters scattered diffusely through the core of the lower brain. Reticular neurons send signals to the thalamus, which in turn sends activity-level-controlling signals to every part of the cortex. Damage to the reticular formation can produce a permanent state of coma. | Damage to the reticular formation can cause what? | Damage to the reticular formation can cause what? | [
"Damage to the reticular formation can cause what?"
] | {
"text": [
"state of coma"
],
"answer_start": [
472
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14172 | 56f984f59e9bad19000a0a0e | Brain | The SCN projects to a set of areas in the hypothalamus, brainstem, and midbrain that are involved in implementing sleep-wake cycles. An important component of the system is the reticular formation, a group of neuron-clusters scattered diffusely through the core of the lower brain. Reticular neurons send signals to the thalamus, which in turn sends activity-level-controlling signals to every part of the cortex. Damage to the reticular formation can produce a permanent state of coma. | The SCN transfers signals to a set of areas that implement what? | The SCN transfers signals to a set of areas that implement what? | [
"The SCN transfers signals to a set of areas that implement what?"
] | {
"text": [
"sleep-wake cycles."
],
"answer_start": [
114
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14173 | 56f9859b9e9bad19000a0a1d | Brain | Sleep involves great changes in brain activity. Until the 1950s it was generally believed that the brain essentially shuts off during sleep, but this is now known to be far from true; activity continues, but patterns become very different. There are two types of sleep: REM sleep (with dreaming) and NREM (non-REM, usually without dreaming) sleep, which repeat in slightly varying patterns throughout a sleep episode. Three broad types of distinct brain activity patterns can be measured: REM, light NREM and deep NREM. During deep NREM sleep, also called slow wave sleep, activity in the cortex takes the form of large synchronized waves, whereas in the waking state it is noisy and desynchronized. Levels of the neurotransmitters norepinephrine and serotonin drop during slow wave sleep, and fall almost to zero during REM sleep; levels of acetylcholine show the reverse pattern. | There are two types of sleep called what? | There are two types of sleep called what? | [
"There are two types of sleep called what?"
] | {
"text": [
"REM sleep (with dreaming) and NREM"
],
"answer_start": [
270
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14174 | 56f9859b9e9bad19000a0a1e | Brain | Sleep involves great changes in brain activity. Until the 1950s it was generally believed that the brain essentially shuts off during sleep, but this is now known to be far from true; activity continues, but patterns become very different. There are two types of sleep: REM sleep (with dreaming) and NREM (non-REM, usually without dreaming) sleep, which repeat in slightly varying patterns throughout a sleep episode. Three broad types of distinct brain activity patterns can be measured: REM, light NREM and deep NREM. During deep NREM sleep, also called slow wave sleep, activity in the cortex takes the form of large synchronized waves, whereas in the waking state it is noisy and desynchronized. Levels of the neurotransmitters norepinephrine and serotonin drop during slow wave sleep, and fall almost to zero during REM sleep; levels of acetylcholine show the reverse pattern. | What type of sleep involves dreaming? | What type of sleep involves dreaming? | [
"What type of sleep involves dreaming?"
] | {
"text": [
"REM sleep"
],
"answer_start": [
270
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14175 | 56f9859b9e9bad19000a0a1f | Brain | Sleep involves great changes in brain activity. Until the 1950s it was generally believed that the brain essentially shuts off during sleep, but this is now known to be far from true; activity continues, but patterns become very different. There are two types of sleep: REM sleep (with dreaming) and NREM (non-REM, usually without dreaming) sleep, which repeat in slightly varying patterns throughout a sleep episode. Three broad types of distinct brain activity patterns can be measured: REM, light NREM and deep NREM. During deep NREM sleep, also called slow wave sleep, activity in the cortex takes the form of large synchronized waves, whereas in the waking state it is noisy and desynchronized. Levels of the neurotransmitters norepinephrine and serotonin drop during slow wave sleep, and fall almost to zero during REM sleep; levels of acetylcholine show the reverse pattern. | The three types of brain activity that can be measured are what? | The three types of brain activity that can be measured are what? | [
"The three types of brain activity that can be measured are what?"
] | {
"text": [
"REM, light NREM and deep NREM"
],
"answer_start": [
489
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14176 | 56f9859b9e9bad19000a0a20 | Brain | Sleep involves great changes in brain activity. Until the 1950s it was generally believed that the brain essentially shuts off during sleep, but this is now known to be far from true; activity continues, but patterns become very different. There are two types of sleep: REM sleep (with dreaming) and NREM (non-REM, usually without dreaming) sleep, which repeat in slightly varying patterns throughout a sleep episode. Three broad types of distinct brain activity patterns can be measured: REM, light NREM and deep NREM. During deep NREM sleep, also called slow wave sleep, activity in the cortex takes the form of large synchronized waves, whereas in the waking state it is noisy and desynchronized. Levels of the neurotransmitters norepinephrine and serotonin drop during slow wave sleep, and fall almost to zero during REM sleep; levels of acetylcholine show the reverse pattern. | Slow wave sleep is also known as what? | Slow wave sleep is also known as what? | [
"Slow wave sleep is also known as what?"
] | {
"text": [
"deep NREM sleep"
],
"answer_start": [
527
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14177 | 56f9859b9e9bad19000a0a21 | Brain | Sleep involves great changes in brain activity. Until the 1950s it was generally believed that the brain essentially shuts off during sleep, but this is now known to be far from true; activity continues, but patterns become very different. There are two types of sleep: REM sleep (with dreaming) and NREM (non-REM, usually without dreaming) sleep, which repeat in slightly varying patterns throughout a sleep episode. Three broad types of distinct brain activity patterns can be measured: REM, light NREM and deep NREM. During deep NREM sleep, also called slow wave sleep, activity in the cortex takes the form of large synchronized waves, whereas in the waking state it is noisy and desynchronized. Levels of the neurotransmitters norepinephrine and serotonin drop during slow wave sleep, and fall almost to zero during REM sleep; levels of acetylcholine show the reverse pattern. | During what stage of sleep do serotonin and norepinephrine levels drop? | During what stage of sleep do serotonin and norepinephrine levels drop? | [
"During what stage of sleep do serotonin and norepinephrine levels drop?"
] | {
"text": [
"slow wave sleep"
],
"answer_start": [
773
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14178 | 56f986479e9bad19000a0a27 | Brain | For any animal, survival requires maintaining a variety of parameters of bodily state within a limited range of variation: these include temperature, water content, salt concentration in the bloodstream, blood glucose levels, blood oxygen level, and others. The ability of an animal to regulate the internal environment of its body—the milieu intérieur, as pioneering physiologist Claude Bernard called it—is known as homeostasis (Greek for "standing still"). Maintaining homeostasis is a crucial function of the brain. The basic principle that underlies homeostasis is negative feedback: any time a parameter diverges from its set-point, sensors generate an error signal that evokes a response that causes the parameter to shift back toward its optimum value. (This principle is widely used in engineering, for example in the control of temperature using a thermostat.) | Homeostasis is defined as what? | Homeostasis is defined as what? | [
"Homeostasis is defined as what?"
] | {
"text": [
"The ability of an animal to regulate the internal environment of its body"
],
"answer_start": [
258
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14179 | 56f986479e9bad19000a0a28 | Brain | For any animal, survival requires maintaining a variety of parameters of bodily state within a limited range of variation: these include temperature, water content, salt concentration in the bloodstream, blood glucose levels, blood oxygen level, and others. The ability of an animal to regulate the internal environment of its body—the milieu intérieur, as pioneering physiologist Claude Bernard called it—is known as homeostasis (Greek for "standing still"). Maintaining homeostasis is a crucial function of the brain. The basic principle that underlies homeostasis is negative feedback: any time a parameter diverges from its set-point, sensors generate an error signal that evokes a response that causes the parameter to shift back toward its optimum value. (This principle is widely used in engineering, for example in the control of temperature using a thermostat.) | Homeostasis is Greek for what phrase? | Homeostasis is Greek for what phrase? | [
"Homeostasis is Greek for what phrase?"
] | {
"text": [
"\"standing still\""
],
"answer_start": [
441
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14180 | 56f986479e9bad19000a0a29 | Brain | For any animal, survival requires maintaining a variety of parameters of bodily state within a limited range of variation: these include temperature, water content, salt concentration in the bloodstream, blood glucose levels, blood oxygen level, and others. The ability of an animal to regulate the internal environment of its body—the milieu intérieur, as pioneering physiologist Claude Bernard called it—is known as homeostasis (Greek for "standing still"). Maintaining homeostasis is a crucial function of the brain. The basic principle that underlies homeostasis is negative feedback: any time a parameter diverges from its set-point, sensors generate an error signal that evokes a response that causes the parameter to shift back toward its optimum value. (This principle is widely used in engineering, for example in the control of temperature using a thermostat.) | The milieu interieur term was used by what physiologist? | The milieu interieur term was used by what physiologist? | [
"The milieu interieur term was used by what physiologist?"
] | {
"text": [
"Claude Bernard"
],
"answer_start": [
381
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14181 | 56f986479e9bad19000a0a2a | Brain | For any animal, survival requires maintaining a variety of parameters of bodily state within a limited range of variation: these include temperature, water content, salt concentration in the bloodstream, blood glucose levels, blood oxygen level, and others. The ability of an animal to regulate the internal environment of its body—the milieu intérieur, as pioneering physiologist Claude Bernard called it—is known as homeostasis (Greek for "standing still"). Maintaining homeostasis is a crucial function of the brain. The basic principle that underlies homeostasis is negative feedback: any time a parameter diverges from its set-point, sensors generate an error signal that evokes a response that causes the parameter to shift back toward its optimum value. (This principle is widely used in engineering, for example in the control of temperature using a thermostat.) | Homeostasis is like what household tool? | Homeostasis is like what household tool? | [
"Homeostasis is like what household tool?"
] | {
"text": [
"a thermostat."
],
"answer_start": [
856
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14182 | 56f986ed9b226e1400dd1510 | Brain | In vertebrates, the part of the brain that plays the greatest role is the hypothalamus, a small region at the base of the forebrain whose size does not reflect its complexity or the importance of its function. The hypothalamus is a collection of small nuclei, most of which are involved in basic biological functions. Some of these functions relate to arousal or to social interactions such as sexuality, aggression, or maternal behaviors; but many of them relate to homeostasis. Several hypothalamic nuclei receive input from sensors located in the lining of blood vessels, conveying information about temperature, sodium level, glucose level, blood oxygen level, and other parameters. These hypothalamic nuclei send output signals to motor areas that can generate actions to rectify deficiencies. Some of the outputs also go to the pituitary gland, a tiny gland attached to the brain directly underneath the hypothalamus. The pituitary gland secretes hormones into the bloodstream, where they circulate throughout the body and induce changes in cellular activity. | The hypothalamus is located at the base of what? | The hypothalamus is located at the base of what? | [
"The hypothalamus is located at the base of what?"
] | {
"text": [
"the forebrain"
],
"answer_start": [
118
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14183 | 56f986ed9b226e1400dd1511 | Brain | In vertebrates, the part of the brain that plays the greatest role is the hypothalamus, a small region at the base of the forebrain whose size does not reflect its complexity or the importance of its function. The hypothalamus is a collection of small nuclei, most of which are involved in basic biological functions. Some of these functions relate to arousal or to social interactions such as sexuality, aggression, or maternal behaviors; but many of them relate to homeostasis. Several hypothalamic nuclei receive input from sensors located in the lining of blood vessels, conveying information about temperature, sodium level, glucose level, blood oxygen level, and other parameters. These hypothalamic nuclei send output signals to motor areas that can generate actions to rectify deficiencies. Some of the outputs also go to the pituitary gland, a tiny gland attached to the brain directly underneath the hypothalamus. The pituitary gland secretes hormones into the bloodstream, where they circulate throughout the body and induce changes in cellular activity. | In vertebrates, the most important part of the brain is what? | In vertebrates, the most important part of the brain is what? | [
"In vertebrates, the most important part of the brain is what?"
] | {
"text": [
"the hypothalamus,"
],
"answer_start": [
70
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14184 | 56f986ed9b226e1400dd1512 | Brain | In vertebrates, the part of the brain that plays the greatest role is the hypothalamus, a small region at the base of the forebrain whose size does not reflect its complexity or the importance of its function. The hypothalamus is a collection of small nuclei, most of which are involved in basic biological functions. Some of these functions relate to arousal or to social interactions such as sexuality, aggression, or maternal behaviors; but many of them relate to homeostasis. Several hypothalamic nuclei receive input from sensors located in the lining of blood vessels, conveying information about temperature, sodium level, glucose level, blood oxygen level, and other parameters. These hypothalamic nuclei send output signals to motor areas that can generate actions to rectify deficiencies. Some of the outputs also go to the pituitary gland, a tiny gland attached to the brain directly underneath the hypothalamus. The pituitary gland secretes hormones into the bloodstream, where they circulate throughout the body and induce changes in cellular activity. | A collection of small nuclei at the base of the forebrain is called what? | A collection of small nuclei at the base of the forebrain is called what? | [
"A collection of small nuclei at the base of the forebrain is called what?"
] | {
"text": [
"the hypothalamus,"
],
"answer_start": [
70
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14185 | 56f986ed9b226e1400dd1513 | Brain | In vertebrates, the part of the brain that plays the greatest role is the hypothalamus, a small region at the base of the forebrain whose size does not reflect its complexity or the importance of its function. The hypothalamus is a collection of small nuclei, most of which are involved in basic biological functions. Some of these functions relate to arousal or to social interactions such as sexuality, aggression, or maternal behaviors; but many of them relate to homeostasis. Several hypothalamic nuclei receive input from sensors located in the lining of blood vessels, conveying information about temperature, sodium level, glucose level, blood oxygen level, and other parameters. These hypothalamic nuclei send output signals to motor areas that can generate actions to rectify deficiencies. Some of the outputs also go to the pituitary gland, a tiny gland attached to the brain directly underneath the hypothalamus. The pituitary gland secretes hormones into the bloodstream, where they circulate throughout the body and induce changes in cellular activity. | The gland directly underneath the hypothalamus is which gland? | The gland directly underneath the hypothalamus is which gland? | [
"The gland directly underneath the hypothalamus is which gland?"
] | {
"text": [
"the pituitary gland"
],
"answer_start": [
830
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14186 | 56f986ed9b226e1400dd1514 | Brain | In vertebrates, the part of the brain that plays the greatest role is the hypothalamus, a small region at the base of the forebrain whose size does not reflect its complexity or the importance of its function. The hypothalamus is a collection of small nuclei, most of which are involved in basic biological functions. Some of these functions relate to arousal or to social interactions such as sexuality, aggression, or maternal behaviors; but many of them relate to homeostasis. Several hypothalamic nuclei receive input from sensors located in the lining of blood vessels, conveying information about temperature, sodium level, glucose level, blood oxygen level, and other parameters. These hypothalamic nuclei send output signals to motor areas that can generate actions to rectify deficiencies. Some of the outputs also go to the pituitary gland, a tiny gland attached to the brain directly underneath the hypothalamus. The pituitary gland secretes hormones into the bloodstream, where they circulate throughout the body and induce changes in cellular activity. | The pituitary gland sends hormones through what in the body? | The pituitary gland sends hormones through what in the body? | [
"The pituitary gland sends hormones through what in the body?"
] | {
"text": [
"the bloodstream"
],
"answer_start": [
967
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14187 | 56f987c59b226e1400dd1524 | Brain | Most organisms studied to date utilize a reward–punishment mechanism: for instance, worms and insects can alter their behavior to seek food sources or to avoid dangers. In vertebrates, the reward-punishment system is implemented by a specific set of brain structures, at the heart of which lie the basal ganglia, a set of interconnected areas at the base of the forebrain. There is substantial evidence that the basal ganglia are the central site at which decisions are made: the basal ganglia exert a sustained inhibitory control over most of the motor systems in the brain; when this inhibition is released, a motor system is permitted to execute the action it is programmed to carry out. Rewards and punishments function by altering the relationship between the inputs that the basal ganglia receive and the decision-signals that are emitted. The reward mechanism is better understood than the punishment mechanism, because its role in drug abuse has caused it to be studied very intensively. Research has shown that the neurotransmitter dopamine plays a central role: addictive drugs such as cocaine, amphetamine, and nicotine either cause dopamine levels to rise or cause the effects of dopamine inside the brain to be enhanced. | A set of interconnected areas at the base of the forebrain is called what? | A set of interconnected areas at the base of the forebrain is called what? | [
"A set of interconnected areas at the base of the forebrain is called what?"
] | {
"text": [
"basal ganglia"
],
"answer_start": [
298
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14188 | 56f987c59b226e1400dd1525 | Brain | Most organisms studied to date utilize a reward–punishment mechanism: for instance, worms and insects can alter their behavior to seek food sources or to avoid dangers. In vertebrates, the reward-punishment system is implemented by a specific set of brain structures, at the heart of which lie the basal ganglia, a set of interconnected areas at the base of the forebrain. There is substantial evidence that the basal ganglia are the central site at which decisions are made: the basal ganglia exert a sustained inhibitory control over most of the motor systems in the brain; when this inhibition is released, a motor system is permitted to execute the action it is programmed to carry out. Rewards and punishments function by altering the relationship between the inputs that the basal ganglia receive and the decision-signals that are emitted. The reward mechanism is better understood than the punishment mechanism, because its role in drug abuse has caused it to be studied very intensively. Research has shown that the neurotransmitter dopamine plays a central role: addictive drugs such as cocaine, amphetamine, and nicotine either cause dopamine levels to rise or cause the effects of dopamine inside the brain to be enhanced. | The basal ganglia is thought to be the central location at which what are made? | The basal ganglia is thought to be the central location at which what are made? | [
"The basal ganglia is thought to be the central location at which what are made?"
] | {
"text": [
"decisions"
],
"answer_start": [
456
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14189 | 56f987c59b226e1400dd1526 | Brain | Most organisms studied to date utilize a reward–punishment mechanism: for instance, worms and insects can alter their behavior to seek food sources or to avoid dangers. In vertebrates, the reward-punishment system is implemented by a specific set of brain structures, at the heart of which lie the basal ganglia, a set of interconnected areas at the base of the forebrain. There is substantial evidence that the basal ganglia are the central site at which decisions are made: the basal ganglia exert a sustained inhibitory control over most of the motor systems in the brain; when this inhibition is released, a motor system is permitted to execute the action it is programmed to carry out. Rewards and punishments function by altering the relationship between the inputs that the basal ganglia receive and the decision-signals that are emitted. The reward mechanism is better understood than the punishment mechanism, because its role in drug abuse has caused it to be studied very intensively. Research has shown that the neurotransmitter dopamine plays a central role: addictive drugs such as cocaine, amphetamine, and nicotine either cause dopamine levels to rise or cause the effects of dopamine inside the brain to be enhanced. | Which neurotransmitter plays a large role in drug abuse? | Which neurotransmitter plays a large role in drug abuse? | [
"Which neurotransmitter plays a large role in drug abuse?"
] | {
"text": [
"dopamine"
],
"answer_start": [
1041
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14190 | 56f987c59b226e1400dd1527 | Brain | Most organisms studied to date utilize a reward–punishment mechanism: for instance, worms and insects can alter their behavior to seek food sources or to avoid dangers. In vertebrates, the reward-punishment system is implemented by a specific set of brain structures, at the heart of which lie the basal ganglia, a set of interconnected areas at the base of the forebrain. There is substantial evidence that the basal ganglia are the central site at which decisions are made: the basal ganglia exert a sustained inhibitory control over most of the motor systems in the brain; when this inhibition is released, a motor system is permitted to execute the action it is programmed to carry out. Rewards and punishments function by altering the relationship between the inputs that the basal ganglia receive and the decision-signals that are emitted. The reward mechanism is better understood than the punishment mechanism, because its role in drug abuse has caused it to be studied very intensively. Research has shown that the neurotransmitter dopamine plays a central role: addictive drugs such as cocaine, amphetamine, and nicotine either cause dopamine levels to rise or cause the effects of dopamine inside the brain to be enhanced. | Which of the two systems, reward or punishment is better understood? | Which of the two systems, reward or punishment is better understood? | [
"Which of the two systems, reward or punishment is better understood?"
] | {
"text": [
"The reward mechanism"
],
"answer_start": [
846
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14191 | 56f9888b9e9bad19000a0a4d | Brain | Almost all animals are capable of modifying their behavior as a result of experience—even the most primitive types of worms. Because behavior is driven by brain activity, changes in behavior must somehow correspond to changes inside the brain. Theorists dating back to Santiago Ramón y Cajal argued that the most plausible explanation is that learning and memory are expressed as changes in the synaptic connections between neurons. Until 1970, however, experimental evidence to support the synaptic plasticity hypothesis was lacking. In 1971 Tim Bliss and Terje Lømo published a paper on a phenomenon now called long-term potentiation: the paper showed clear evidence of activity-induced synaptic changes that lasted for at least several days. Since then technical advances have made these sorts of experiments much easier to carry out, and thousands of studies have been made that have clarified the mechanism of synaptic change, and uncovered other types of activity-driven synaptic change in a variety of brain areas, including the cerebral cortex, hippocampus, basal ganglia, and cerebellum. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and physical activity appear to play a beneficial role in the process. | In what year did Tim Bliss and Terje Lomo publish a paper about long-term potentiation? | In what year did Tim Bliss and Terje Lomo publish a paper about long-term potentiation? | [
"In what year did Tim Bliss and Terje Lomo publish a paper about long-term potentiation?"
] | {
"text": [
"1971"
],
"answer_start": [
538
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14192 | 56f9888b9e9bad19000a0a4e | Brain | Almost all animals are capable of modifying their behavior as a result of experience—even the most primitive types of worms. Because behavior is driven by brain activity, changes in behavior must somehow correspond to changes inside the brain. Theorists dating back to Santiago Ramón y Cajal argued that the most plausible explanation is that learning and memory are expressed as changes in the synaptic connections between neurons. Until 1970, however, experimental evidence to support the synaptic plasticity hypothesis was lacking. In 1971 Tim Bliss and Terje Lømo published a paper on a phenomenon now called long-term potentiation: the paper showed clear evidence of activity-induced synaptic changes that lasted for at least several days. Since then technical advances have made these sorts of experiments much easier to carry out, and thousands of studies have been made that have clarified the mechanism of synaptic change, and uncovered other types of activity-driven synaptic change in a variety of brain areas, including the cerebral cortex, hippocampus, basal ganglia, and cerebellum. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and physical activity appear to play a beneficial role in the process. | BDNF is an abbreviation for what term? | BDNF is an abbreviation for what term? | [
"BDNF is an abbreviation for what term?"
] | {
"text": [
"Brain-derived neurotrophic factor"
],
"answer_start": [
1097
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14193 | 56f9888b9e9bad19000a0a4f | Brain | Almost all animals are capable of modifying their behavior as a result of experience—even the most primitive types of worms. Because behavior is driven by brain activity, changes in behavior must somehow correspond to changes inside the brain. Theorists dating back to Santiago Ramón y Cajal argued that the most plausible explanation is that learning and memory are expressed as changes in the synaptic connections between neurons. Until 1970, however, experimental evidence to support the synaptic plasticity hypothesis was lacking. In 1971 Tim Bliss and Terje Lømo published a paper on a phenomenon now called long-term potentiation: the paper showed clear evidence of activity-induced synaptic changes that lasted for at least several days. Since then technical advances have made these sorts of experiments much easier to carry out, and thousands of studies have been made that have clarified the mechanism of synaptic change, and uncovered other types of activity-driven synaptic change in a variety of brain areas, including the cerebral cortex, hippocampus, basal ganglia, and cerebellum. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and physical activity appear to play a beneficial role in the process. | Learning and memory expressed as changes in the synaptic connections was first theorized by whom? | Learning and memory expressed as changes in the synaptic connections was first theorized by whom? | [
"Learning and memory expressed as changes in the synaptic connections was first theorized by whom?"
] | {
"text": [
"Santiago Ramón y Cajal"
],
"answer_start": [
269
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14194 | 56f989259e9bad19000a0a53 | Brain | The field of neuroscience encompasses all approaches that seek to understand the brain and the rest of the nervous system. Psychology seeks to understand mind and behavior, and neurology is the medical discipline that diagnoses and treats diseases of the nervous system. The brain is also the most important organ studied in psychiatry, the branch of medicine that works to study, prevent, and treat mental disorders. Cognitive science seeks to unify neuroscience and psychology with other fields that concern themselves with the brain, such as computer science (artificial intelligence and similar fields) and philosophy. | What field of science studies the brain and the central nervous system? | What field of science studies the brain and the central nervous system? | [
"What field of science studies the brain and the central nervous system?"
] | {
"text": [
"neuroscience"
],
"answer_start": [
13
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14195 | 56f989259e9bad19000a0a54 | Brain | The field of neuroscience encompasses all approaches that seek to understand the brain and the rest of the nervous system. Psychology seeks to understand mind and behavior, and neurology is the medical discipline that diagnoses and treats diseases of the nervous system. The brain is also the most important organ studied in psychiatry, the branch of medicine that works to study, prevent, and treat mental disorders. Cognitive science seeks to unify neuroscience and psychology with other fields that concern themselves with the brain, such as computer science (artificial intelligence and similar fields) and philosophy. | What scientific field tries to understand the mind and behavior? | What scientific field tries to understand the mind and behavior? | [
"What scientific field tries to understand the mind and behavior?"
] | {
"text": [
"Psychology"
],
"answer_start": [
123
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14196 | 56f989259e9bad19000a0a55 | Brain | The field of neuroscience encompasses all approaches that seek to understand the brain and the rest of the nervous system. Psychology seeks to understand mind and behavior, and neurology is the medical discipline that diagnoses and treats diseases of the nervous system. The brain is also the most important organ studied in psychiatry, the branch of medicine that works to study, prevent, and treat mental disorders. Cognitive science seeks to unify neuroscience and psychology with other fields that concern themselves with the brain, such as computer science (artificial intelligence and similar fields) and philosophy. | What field of science strives to diagnose and treat diseases of the nervous system? | What field of science strives to diagnose and treat diseases of the nervous system? | [
"What field of science strives to diagnose and treat diseases of the nervous system?"
] | {
"text": [
"neurology"
],
"answer_start": [
177
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14197 | 56f989259e9bad19000a0a56 | Brain | The field of neuroscience encompasses all approaches that seek to understand the brain and the rest of the nervous system. Psychology seeks to understand mind and behavior, and neurology is the medical discipline that diagnoses and treats diseases of the nervous system. The brain is also the most important organ studied in psychiatry, the branch of medicine that works to study, prevent, and treat mental disorders. Cognitive science seeks to unify neuroscience and psychology with other fields that concern themselves with the brain, such as computer science (artificial intelligence and similar fields) and philosophy. | Psychiatry is the branch of science that does what? | Psychiatry is the branch of science that does what? | [
"Psychiatry is the branch of science that does what?"
] | {
"text": [
"study, prevent, and treat mental disorders"
],
"answer_start": [
374
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14198 | 56f989259e9bad19000a0a57 | Brain | The field of neuroscience encompasses all approaches that seek to understand the brain and the rest of the nervous system. Psychology seeks to understand mind and behavior, and neurology is the medical discipline that diagnoses and treats diseases of the nervous system. The brain is also the most important organ studied in psychiatry, the branch of medicine that works to study, prevent, and treat mental disorders. Cognitive science seeks to unify neuroscience and psychology with other fields that concern themselves with the brain, such as computer science (artificial intelligence and similar fields) and philosophy. | Cognitive science seeks to join what two branches of science with other fields? | Cognitive science seeks to join what two branches of science with other fields? | [
"Cognitive science seeks to join what two branches of science with other fields?"
] | {
"text": [
"neuroscience and psychology"
],
"answer_start": [
451
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-14199 | 56f989e59e9bad19000a0a67 | Brain | The oldest method of studying the brain is anatomical, and until the middle of the 20th century, much of the progress in neuroscience came from the development of better cell stains and better microscopes. Neuroanatomists study the large-scale structure of the brain as well as the microscopic structure of neurons and their components, especially synapses. Among other tools, they employ a plethora of stains that reveal neural structure, chemistry, and connectivity. In recent years, the development of immunostaining techniques has allowed investigation of neurons that express specific sets of genes. Also, functional neuroanatomy uses medical imaging techniques to correlate variations in human brain structure with differences in cognition or behavior. | The oldest known method of studying the brain is what? | The oldest known method of studying the brain is what? | [
"The oldest known method of studying the brain is what?"
] | {
"text": [
"anatomical,"
],
"answer_start": [
43
]
} |
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