gem_id stringlengths 20 25 | id stringlengths 24 24 | title stringlengths 3 59 | context stringlengths 151 3.71k | question stringlengths 1 270 | target stringlengths 1 270 | references list | answers dict |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
gem-squad_v2-train-21500 | 5a64fdf2c2b11c001a425b7f | Sumer | The term "Sumerian" is the common name given to the ancient non-Semitic inhabitants of Mesopotamia, Sumer, by the Semitic Akkadians. The Sumerians referred to themselves as ùĝ saĝ gíg-ga (cuneiform: 𒌦 𒊕 𒈪 𒂵), phonetically /uŋ saŋ giga/, literally meaning "the black-headed people", and to their land as ki-en-gi(-r) ('place' + 'lords' + 'noble'), meaning "place of the noble lords". The Akkadian word Shumer may represent the geographical name in dialect, but the phonological development leading to the Akkadian term šumerû is uncertain. Hebrew Shinar, Egyptian Sngr, and Hittite Šanhar(a), all referring to southern Mesopotamia, could be western variants of Shumer. | What did the term Shumer lead to? | What did the term Shumer lead to? | [
"What did the term Shumer lead to?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21501 | 5730a8cc2461fd1900a9cf59 | Sumer | The Sumerian city-states rose to power during the prehistoric Ubaid and Uruk periods. Sumerian written history reaches back to the 27th century BC and before, but the historical record remains obscure until the Early Dynastic III period, c. the 23rd century BC, when a now deciphered syllabary writing system was developed, which has allowed archaeologists to read contemporary records and inscriptions. Classical Sumer ends with the rise of the Akkadian Empire in the 23rd century BC. Following the Gutian period, there is a brief Sumerian Renaissance in the 21st century BC, cut short in the 20th century BC by Semitic Amorite invasions. The Amorite "dynasty of Isin" persisted until c. 1700 BC, when Mesopotamia was united under Babylonian rule. The Sumerians were eventually absorbed into the Akkadian (Assyro-Babylonian) population. | During what periods did the Sumerican city-states rise to power? | During what periods did the Sumerican city-states rise to power? | [
"During what periods did the Sumerican city-states rise to power?"
] | {
"text": [
"prehistoric Ubaid and Uruk"
],
"answer_start": [
50
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21502 | 5730a8cc2461fd1900a9cf5a | Sumer | The Sumerian city-states rose to power during the prehistoric Ubaid and Uruk periods. Sumerian written history reaches back to the 27th century BC and before, but the historical record remains obscure until the Early Dynastic III period, c. the 23rd century BC, when a now deciphered syllabary writing system was developed, which has allowed archaeologists to read contemporary records and inscriptions. Classical Sumer ends with the rise of the Akkadian Empire in the 23rd century BC. Following the Gutian period, there is a brief Sumerian Renaissance in the 21st century BC, cut short in the 20th century BC by Semitic Amorite invasions. The Amorite "dynasty of Isin" persisted until c. 1700 BC, when Mesopotamia was united under Babylonian rule. The Sumerians were eventually absorbed into the Akkadian (Assyro-Babylonian) population. | What is obscure until the Early Dynastic III period around the 23rd century BC? | What is obscure until the Early Dynastic III period around the 23rd century BC? | [
"What is obscure until the Early Dynastic III period around the 23rd century BC?"
] | {
"text": [
"Sumerian written history"
],
"answer_start": [
86
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21503 | 5730a8cc2461fd1900a9cf5b | Sumer | The Sumerian city-states rose to power during the prehistoric Ubaid and Uruk periods. Sumerian written history reaches back to the 27th century BC and before, but the historical record remains obscure until the Early Dynastic III period, c. the 23rd century BC, when a now deciphered syllabary writing system was developed, which has allowed archaeologists to read contemporary records and inscriptions. Classical Sumer ends with the rise of the Akkadian Empire in the 23rd century BC. Following the Gutian period, there is a brief Sumerian Renaissance in the 21st century BC, cut short in the 20th century BC by Semitic Amorite invasions. The Amorite "dynasty of Isin" persisted until c. 1700 BC, when Mesopotamia was united under Babylonian rule. The Sumerians were eventually absorbed into the Akkadian (Assyro-Babylonian) population. | What was developed that has allowed archaeologists to read contemporary records and inscriptions? | What was developed that has allowed archaeologists to read contemporary records and inscriptions? | [
"What was developed that has allowed archaeologists to read contemporary records and inscriptions?"
] | {
"text": [
"syllabary writing system"
],
"answer_start": [
284
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21504 | 5730a8cc2461fd1900a9cf5c | Sumer | The Sumerian city-states rose to power during the prehistoric Ubaid and Uruk periods. Sumerian written history reaches back to the 27th century BC and before, but the historical record remains obscure until the Early Dynastic III period, c. the 23rd century BC, when a now deciphered syllabary writing system was developed, which has allowed archaeologists to read contemporary records and inscriptions. Classical Sumer ends with the rise of the Akkadian Empire in the 23rd century BC. Following the Gutian period, there is a brief Sumerian Renaissance in the 21st century BC, cut short in the 20th century BC by Semitic Amorite invasions. The Amorite "dynasty of Isin" persisted until c. 1700 BC, when Mesopotamia was united under Babylonian rule. The Sumerians were eventually absorbed into the Akkadian (Assyro-Babylonian) population. | When does Classical Sumer end? | When does Classical Sumer end? | [
"When does Classical Sumer end?"
] | {
"text": [
"rise of the Akkadian Empire"
],
"answer_start": [
434
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21505 | 5730a8cc2461fd1900a9cf5d | Sumer | The Sumerian city-states rose to power during the prehistoric Ubaid and Uruk periods. Sumerian written history reaches back to the 27th century BC and before, but the historical record remains obscure until the Early Dynastic III period, c. the 23rd century BC, when a now deciphered syllabary writing system was developed, which has allowed archaeologists to read contemporary records and inscriptions. Classical Sumer ends with the rise of the Akkadian Empire in the 23rd century BC. Following the Gutian period, there is a brief Sumerian Renaissance in the 21st century BC, cut short in the 20th century BC by Semitic Amorite invasions. The Amorite "dynasty of Isin" persisted until c. 1700 BC, when Mesopotamia was united under Babylonian rule. The Sumerians were eventually absorbed into the Akkadian (Assyro-Babylonian) population. | What cut short the Sumerian Renaissance in the 21st century BC? | What cut short the Sumerian Renaissance in the 21st century BC? | [
"What cut short the Sumerian Renaissance in the 21st century BC?"
] | {
"text": [
"Semitic Amorite invasions"
],
"answer_start": [
613
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21506 | 5a64ff22c2b11c001a425b83 | Sumer | The Sumerian city-states rose to power during the prehistoric Ubaid and Uruk periods. Sumerian written history reaches back to the 27th century BC and before, but the historical record remains obscure until the Early Dynastic III period, c. the 23rd century BC, when a now deciphered syllabary writing system was developed, which has allowed archaeologists to read contemporary records and inscriptions. Classical Sumer ends with the rise of the Akkadian Empire in the 23rd century BC. Following the Gutian period, there is a brief Sumerian Renaissance in the 21st century BC, cut short in the 20th century BC by Semitic Amorite invasions. The Amorite "dynasty of Isin" persisted until c. 1700 BC, when Mesopotamia was united under Babylonian rule. The Sumerians were eventually absorbed into the Akkadian (Assyro-Babylonian) population. | What city-states declined during the Ubaid and Uruk periods? | What city-states declined during the Ubaid and Uruk periods? | [
"What city-states declined during the Ubaid and Uruk periods?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21507 | 5a64ff22c2b11c001a425b84 | Sumer | The Sumerian city-states rose to power during the prehistoric Ubaid and Uruk periods. Sumerian written history reaches back to the 27th century BC and before, but the historical record remains obscure until the Early Dynastic III period, c. the 23rd century BC, when a now deciphered syllabary writing system was developed, which has allowed archaeologists to read contemporary records and inscriptions. Classical Sumer ends with the rise of the Akkadian Empire in the 23rd century BC. Following the Gutian period, there is a brief Sumerian Renaissance in the 21st century BC, cut short in the 20th century BC by Semitic Amorite invasions. The Amorite "dynasty of Isin" persisted until c. 1700 BC, when Mesopotamia was united under Babylonian rule. The Sumerians were eventually absorbed into the Akkadian (Assyro-Babylonian) population. | What history goes back to 2700's BC? | What history goes back to 2700's BC? | [
"What history goes back to 2700's BC?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21508 | 5a64ff22c2b11c001a425b85 | Sumer | The Sumerian city-states rose to power during the prehistoric Ubaid and Uruk periods. Sumerian written history reaches back to the 27th century BC and before, but the historical record remains obscure until the Early Dynastic III period, c. the 23rd century BC, when a now deciphered syllabary writing system was developed, which has allowed archaeologists to read contemporary records and inscriptions. Classical Sumer ends with the rise of the Akkadian Empire in the 23rd century BC. Following the Gutian period, there is a brief Sumerian Renaissance in the 21st century BC, cut short in the 20th century BC by Semitic Amorite invasions. The Amorite "dynasty of Isin" persisted until c. 1700 BC, when Mesopotamia was united under Babylonian rule. The Sumerians were eventually absorbed into the Akkadian (Assyro-Babylonian) population. | What was obscure until 2300 BC? | What was obscure until 2300 BC? | [
"What was obscure until 2300 BC?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21509 | 5a64ff22c2b11c001a425b86 | Sumer | The Sumerian city-states rose to power during the prehistoric Ubaid and Uruk periods. Sumerian written history reaches back to the 27th century BC and before, but the historical record remains obscure until the Early Dynastic III period, c. the 23rd century BC, when a now deciphered syllabary writing system was developed, which has allowed archaeologists to read contemporary records and inscriptions. Classical Sumer ends with the rise of the Akkadian Empire in the 23rd century BC. Following the Gutian period, there is a brief Sumerian Renaissance in the 21st century BC, cut short in the 20th century BC by Semitic Amorite invasions. The Amorite "dynasty of Isin" persisted until c. 1700 BC, when Mesopotamia was united under Babylonian rule. The Sumerians were eventually absorbed into the Akkadian (Assyro-Babylonian) population. | What Empire came to power in 2300 BC? | What Empire came to power in 2300 BC? | [
"What Empire came to power in 2300 BC?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21510 | 5a64ff22c2b11c001a425b87 | Sumer | The Sumerian city-states rose to power during the prehistoric Ubaid and Uruk periods. Sumerian written history reaches back to the 27th century BC and before, but the historical record remains obscure until the Early Dynastic III period, c. the 23rd century BC, when a now deciphered syllabary writing system was developed, which has allowed archaeologists to read contemporary records and inscriptions. Classical Sumer ends with the rise of the Akkadian Empire in the 23rd century BC. Following the Gutian period, there is a brief Sumerian Renaissance in the 21st century BC, cut short in the 20th century BC by Semitic Amorite invasions. The Amorite "dynasty of Isin" persisted until c. 1700 BC, when Mesopotamia was united under Babylonian rule. The Sumerians were eventually absorbed into the Akkadian (Assyro-Babylonian) population. | What dynasty lasted until the 17th century BC? | What dynasty lasted until the 17th century BC? | [
"What dynasty lasted until the 17th century BC?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21511 | 5730a9732461fd1900a9cf63 | Sumer | The Ubaid period is marked by a distinctive style of fine quality painted pottery which spread throughout Mesopotamia and the Persian Gulf. During this time, the first settlement in southern Mesopotamia was established at Eridu (Cuneiform: NUN.KI), c. 5300 BC, by farmers who brought with them the Hadji Muhammed culture, which first pioneered irrigation agriculture. It appears that this culture was derived from the Samarran culture from northern Mesopotamia. It is not known whether or not these were the actual Sumerians who are identified with the later Uruk culture. Eridu remained an important religious center when it was gradually surpassed in size by the nearby city of Uruk. The story of the passing of the me (gifts of civilization) to Inanna, goddess of Uruk and of love and war, by Enki, god of wisdom and chief god of Eridu, may reflect this shift in hegemony. | Fine quality painted pottery is a distinctive style of what period in Sumerian history? | Fine quality painted pottery is a distinctive style of what period in Sumerian history? | [
"Fine quality painted pottery is a distinctive style of what period in Sumerian history?"
] | {
"text": [
"Ubaid"
],
"answer_start": [
4
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21512 | 5730a9732461fd1900a9cf64 | Sumer | The Ubaid period is marked by a distinctive style of fine quality painted pottery which spread throughout Mesopotamia and the Persian Gulf. During this time, the first settlement in southern Mesopotamia was established at Eridu (Cuneiform: NUN.KI), c. 5300 BC, by farmers who brought with them the Hadji Muhammed culture, which first pioneered irrigation agriculture. It appears that this culture was derived from the Samarran culture from northern Mesopotamia. It is not known whether or not these were the actual Sumerians who are identified with the later Uruk culture. Eridu remained an important religious center when it was gradually surpassed in size by the nearby city of Uruk. The story of the passing of the me (gifts of civilization) to Inanna, goddess of Uruk and of love and war, by Enki, god of wisdom and chief god of Eridu, may reflect this shift in hegemony. | Where could the pottery be found spread throughout? | Where could the pottery be found spread throughout? | [
"Where could the pottery be found spread throughout?"
] | {
"text": [
"Mesopotamia and the Persian Gulf"
],
"answer_start": [
106
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21513 | 5730a9732461fd1900a9cf65 | Sumer | The Ubaid period is marked by a distinctive style of fine quality painted pottery which spread throughout Mesopotamia and the Persian Gulf. During this time, the first settlement in southern Mesopotamia was established at Eridu (Cuneiform: NUN.KI), c. 5300 BC, by farmers who brought with them the Hadji Muhammed culture, which first pioneered irrigation agriculture. It appears that this culture was derived from the Samarran culture from northern Mesopotamia. It is not known whether or not these were the actual Sumerians who are identified with the later Uruk culture. Eridu remained an important religious center when it was gradually surpassed in size by the nearby city of Uruk. The story of the passing of the me (gifts of civilization) to Inanna, goddess of Uruk and of love and war, by Enki, god of wisdom and chief god of Eridu, may reflect this shift in hegemony. | During the Ubaid, where was the first settlement in southern Mesopotamia established? | During the Ubaid, where was the first settlement in southern Mesopotamia established? | [
"During the Ubaid, where was the first settlement in southern Mesopotamia established?"
] | {
"text": [
"Eridu"
],
"answer_start": [
222
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21514 | 5730a9732461fd1900a9cf66 | Sumer | The Ubaid period is marked by a distinctive style of fine quality painted pottery which spread throughout Mesopotamia and the Persian Gulf. During this time, the first settlement in southern Mesopotamia was established at Eridu (Cuneiform: NUN.KI), c. 5300 BC, by farmers who brought with them the Hadji Muhammed culture, which first pioneered irrigation agriculture. It appears that this culture was derived from the Samarran culture from northern Mesopotamia. It is not known whether or not these were the actual Sumerians who are identified with the later Uruk culture. Eridu remained an important religious center when it was gradually surpassed in size by the nearby city of Uruk. The story of the passing of the me (gifts of civilization) to Inanna, goddess of Uruk and of love and war, by Enki, god of wisdom and chief god of Eridu, may reflect this shift in hegemony. | What type of agriculture did the farmers settling at Eridu bring with them? | What type of agriculture did the farmers settling at Eridu bring with them? | [
"What type of agriculture did the farmers settling at Eridu bring with them?"
] | {
"text": [
"irrigation"
],
"answer_start": [
344
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21515 | 5730a9732461fd1900a9cf67 | Sumer | The Ubaid period is marked by a distinctive style of fine quality painted pottery which spread throughout Mesopotamia and the Persian Gulf. During this time, the first settlement in southern Mesopotamia was established at Eridu (Cuneiform: NUN.KI), c. 5300 BC, by farmers who brought with them the Hadji Muhammed culture, which first pioneered irrigation agriculture. It appears that this culture was derived from the Samarran culture from northern Mesopotamia. It is not known whether or not these were the actual Sumerians who are identified with the later Uruk culture. Eridu remained an important religious center when it was gradually surpassed in size by the nearby city of Uruk. The story of the passing of the me (gifts of civilization) to Inanna, goddess of Uruk and of love and war, by Enki, god of wisdom and chief god of Eridu, may reflect this shift in hegemony. | Who was the chief god of Eridu? | Who was the chief god of Eridu? | [
"Who was the chief god of Eridu?"
] | {
"text": [
"Enki"
],
"answer_start": [
796
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21516 | 5a650f65c2b11c001a425bc5 | Sumer | The Ubaid period is marked by a distinctive style of fine quality painted pottery which spread throughout Mesopotamia and the Persian Gulf. During this time, the first settlement in southern Mesopotamia was established at Eridu (Cuneiform: NUN.KI), c. 5300 BC, by farmers who brought with them the Hadji Muhammed culture, which first pioneered irrigation agriculture. It appears that this culture was derived from the Samarran culture from northern Mesopotamia. It is not known whether or not these were the actual Sumerians who are identified with the later Uruk culture. Eridu remained an important religious center when it was gradually surpassed in size by the nearby city of Uruk. The story of the passing of the me (gifts of civilization) to Inanna, goddess of Uruk and of love and war, by Enki, god of wisdom and chief god of Eridu, may reflect this shift in hegemony. | What period was marked by a decline in Mesopotamian and Persian fine Art? | What period was marked by a decline in Mesopotamian and Persian fine Art? | [
"What period was marked by a decline in Mesopotamian and Persian fine Art? "
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21517 | 5a650f65c2b11c001a425bc6 | Sumer | The Ubaid period is marked by a distinctive style of fine quality painted pottery which spread throughout Mesopotamia and the Persian Gulf. During this time, the first settlement in southern Mesopotamia was established at Eridu (Cuneiform: NUN.KI), c. 5300 BC, by farmers who brought with them the Hadji Muhammed culture, which first pioneered irrigation agriculture. It appears that this culture was derived from the Samarran culture from northern Mesopotamia. It is not known whether or not these were the actual Sumerians who are identified with the later Uruk culture. Eridu remained an important religious center when it was gradually surpassed in size by the nearby city of Uruk. The story of the passing of the me (gifts of civilization) to Inanna, goddess of Uruk and of love and war, by Enki, god of wisdom and chief god of Eridu, may reflect this shift in hegemony. | what was established at Eridu in the 53rd century BC? | what was established at Eridu in the 53rd century BC? | [
"what was established at Eridu in the 53rd century BC?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21518 | 5a650f65c2b11c001a425bc7 | Sumer | The Ubaid period is marked by a distinctive style of fine quality painted pottery which spread throughout Mesopotamia and the Persian Gulf. During this time, the first settlement in southern Mesopotamia was established at Eridu (Cuneiform: NUN.KI), c. 5300 BC, by farmers who brought with them the Hadji Muhammed culture, which first pioneered irrigation agriculture. It appears that this culture was derived from the Samarran culture from northern Mesopotamia. It is not known whether or not these were the actual Sumerians who are identified with the later Uruk culture. Eridu remained an important religious center when it was gradually surpassed in size by the nearby city of Uruk. The story of the passing of the me (gifts of civilization) to Inanna, goddess of Uruk and of love and war, by Enki, god of wisdom and chief god of Eridu, may reflect this shift in hegemony. | What culture adopted and improved on irrigation agriculture? | What culture adopted and improved on irrigation agriculture? | [
"What culture adopted and improved on irrigation agriculture?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21519 | 5a650f65c2b11c001a425bc8 | Sumer | The Ubaid period is marked by a distinctive style of fine quality painted pottery which spread throughout Mesopotamia and the Persian Gulf. During this time, the first settlement in southern Mesopotamia was established at Eridu (Cuneiform: NUN.KI), c. 5300 BC, by farmers who brought with them the Hadji Muhammed culture, which first pioneered irrigation agriculture. It appears that this culture was derived from the Samarran culture from northern Mesopotamia. It is not known whether or not these were the actual Sumerians who are identified with the later Uruk culture. Eridu remained an important religious center when it was gradually surpassed in size by the nearby city of Uruk. The story of the passing of the me (gifts of civilization) to Inanna, goddess of Uruk and of love and war, by Enki, god of wisdom and chief god of Eridu, may reflect this shift in hegemony. | What city became the new religious center after Eridu? | What city became the new religious center after Eridu? | [
"What city became the new religious center after Eridu?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21520 | 5730a9ff8ab72b1400f9c63a | Sumer | By the time of the Uruk period (c. 4100–2900 BC calibrated), the volume of trade goods transported along the canals and rivers of southern Mesopotamia facilitated the rise of many large, stratified, temple-centered cities (with populations of over 10,000 people) where centralized administrations employed specialized workers. It is fairly certain that it was during the Uruk period that Sumerian cities began to make use of slave labor captured from the hill country, and there is ample evidence for captured slaves as workers in the earliest texts. Artifacts, and even colonies of this Uruk civilization have been found over a wide area—from the Taurus Mountains in Turkey, to the Mediterranean Sea in the west, and as far east as central Iran. | What facilitated the rise of Sumerian cities? | What facilitated the rise of Sumerian cities? | [
"What facilitated the rise of Sumerian cities?"
] | {
"text": [
"trade goods"
],
"answer_start": [
75
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21521 | 5730aa008ab72b1400f9c63b | Sumer | By the time of the Uruk period (c. 4100–2900 BC calibrated), the volume of trade goods transported along the canals and rivers of southern Mesopotamia facilitated the rise of many large, stratified, temple-centered cities (with populations of over 10,000 people) where centralized administrations employed specialized workers. It is fairly certain that it was during the Uruk period that Sumerian cities began to make use of slave labor captured from the hill country, and there is ample evidence for captured slaves as workers in the earliest texts. Artifacts, and even colonies of this Uruk civilization have been found over a wide area—from the Taurus Mountains in Turkey, to the Mediterranean Sea in the west, and as far east as central Iran. | How were trade goods transported in southern Mesopotamia? | How were trade goods transported in southern Mesopotamia? | [
"How were trade goods transported in southern Mesopotamia?"
] | {
"text": [
"transported along the canals and rivers"
],
"answer_start": [
87
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21522 | 5730aa008ab72b1400f9c63c | Sumer | By the time of the Uruk period (c. 4100–2900 BC calibrated), the volume of trade goods transported along the canals and rivers of southern Mesopotamia facilitated the rise of many large, stratified, temple-centered cities (with populations of over 10,000 people) where centralized administrations employed specialized workers. It is fairly certain that it was during the Uruk period that Sumerian cities began to make use of slave labor captured from the hill country, and there is ample evidence for captured slaves as workers in the earliest texts. Artifacts, and even colonies of this Uruk civilization have been found over a wide area—from the Taurus Mountains in Turkey, to the Mediterranean Sea in the west, and as far east as central Iran. | How many people lived in the cities? | How many people lived in the cities? | [
"How many people lived in the cities?"
] | {
"text": [
"over 10,000"
],
"answer_start": [
243
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21523 | 5730aa008ab72b1400f9c63d | Sumer | By the time of the Uruk period (c. 4100–2900 BC calibrated), the volume of trade goods transported along the canals and rivers of southern Mesopotamia facilitated the rise of many large, stratified, temple-centered cities (with populations of over 10,000 people) where centralized administrations employed specialized workers. It is fairly certain that it was during the Uruk period that Sumerian cities began to make use of slave labor captured from the hill country, and there is ample evidence for captured slaves as workers in the earliest texts. Artifacts, and even colonies of this Uruk civilization have been found over a wide area—from the Taurus Mountains in Turkey, to the Mediterranean Sea in the west, and as far east as central Iran. | During which period did Sumerian cities begin using slave labor? | During which period did Sumerian cities begin using slave labor? | [
"During which period did Sumerian cities begin using slave labor?"
] | {
"text": [
"Uruk"
],
"answer_start": [
371
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21524 | 5730aa008ab72b1400f9c63e | Sumer | By the time of the Uruk period (c. 4100–2900 BC calibrated), the volume of trade goods transported along the canals and rivers of southern Mesopotamia facilitated the rise of many large, stratified, temple-centered cities (with populations of over 10,000 people) where centralized administrations employed specialized workers. It is fairly certain that it was during the Uruk period that Sumerian cities began to make use of slave labor captured from the hill country, and there is ample evidence for captured slaves as workers in the earliest texts. Artifacts, and even colonies of this Uruk civilization have been found over a wide area—from the Taurus Mountains in Turkey, to the Mediterranean Sea in the west, and as far east as central Iran. | What have been found as far east as central Iran? | What have been found as far east as central Iran? | [
"What have been found as far east as central Iran?"
] | {
"text": [
"Artifacts"
],
"answer_start": [
551
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21525 | 5a65142ac2b11c001a425beb | Sumer | By the time of the Uruk period (c. 4100–2900 BC calibrated), the volume of trade goods transported along the canals and rivers of southern Mesopotamia facilitated the rise of many large, stratified, temple-centered cities (with populations of over 10,000 people) where centralized administrations employed specialized workers. It is fairly certain that it was during the Uruk period that Sumerian cities began to make use of slave labor captured from the hill country, and there is ample evidence for captured slaves as workers in the earliest texts. Artifacts, and even colonies of this Uruk civilization have been found over a wide area—from the Taurus Mountains in Turkey, to the Mediterranean Sea in the west, and as far east as central Iran. | What period ranged from the 41st to the 29th century BC? | What period ranged from the 41st to the 29th century BC? | [
"What period ranged from the 41st to the 29th century BC?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21526 | 5a65142ac2b11c001a425bec | Sumer | By the time of the Uruk period (c. 4100–2900 BC calibrated), the volume of trade goods transported along the canals and rivers of southern Mesopotamia facilitated the rise of many large, stratified, temple-centered cities (with populations of over 10,000 people) where centralized administrations employed specialized workers. It is fairly certain that it was during the Uruk period that Sumerian cities began to make use of slave labor captured from the hill country, and there is ample evidence for captured slaves as workers in the earliest texts. Artifacts, and even colonies of this Uruk civilization have been found over a wide area—from the Taurus Mountains in Turkey, to the Mediterranean Sea in the west, and as far east as central Iran. | What was transported along the rovers and canals of northern Mesopotamia? | What was transported along the rovers and canals of northern Mesopotamia? | [
"What was transported along the rovers and canals of northern Mesopotamia?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21527 | 5a65142ac2b11c001a425bed | Sumer | By the time of the Uruk period (c. 4100–2900 BC calibrated), the volume of trade goods transported along the canals and rivers of southern Mesopotamia facilitated the rise of many large, stratified, temple-centered cities (with populations of over 10,000 people) where centralized administrations employed specialized workers. It is fairly certain that it was during the Uruk period that Sumerian cities began to make use of slave labor captured from the hill country, and there is ample evidence for captured slaves as workers in the earliest texts. Artifacts, and even colonies of this Uruk civilization have been found over a wide area—from the Taurus Mountains in Turkey, to the Mediterranean Sea in the west, and as far east as central Iran. | Who employed many laborers in the cities? | Who employed many laborers in the cities? | [
"Who employed many laborers in the cities?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21528 | 5a65142ac2b11c001a425bee | Sumer | By the time of the Uruk period (c. 4100–2900 BC calibrated), the volume of trade goods transported along the canals and rivers of southern Mesopotamia facilitated the rise of many large, stratified, temple-centered cities (with populations of over 10,000 people) where centralized administrations employed specialized workers. It is fairly certain that it was during the Uruk period that Sumerian cities began to make use of slave labor captured from the hill country, and there is ample evidence for captured slaves as workers in the earliest texts. Artifacts, and even colonies of this Uruk civilization have been found over a wide area—from the Taurus Mountains in Turkey, to the Mediterranean Sea in the west, and as far east as central Iran. | When did Sumerians stop using slave labor? | When did Sumerians stop using slave labor? | [
"When did Sumerians stop using slave labor?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21529 | 5730aa6f8ab72b1400f9c644 | Sumer | Sumerian cities during the Uruk period were probably theocratic and were most likely headed by a priest-king (ensi), assisted by a council of elders, including both men and women. It is quite possible that the later Sumerian pantheon was modeled upon this political structure. There was little evidence of organized warfare or professional soldiers during the Uruk period, and towns were generally unwalled. During this period Uruk became the most urbanized city in the world, surpassing for the first time 50,000 inhabitants. | What is an "ensi"? | What is an "ensi"? | [
"What is an \"ensi\"?"
] | {
"text": [
"priest-king"
],
"answer_start": [
97
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21530 | 5730aa6f8ab72b1400f9c645 | Sumer | Sumerian cities during the Uruk period were probably theocratic and were most likely headed by a priest-king (ensi), assisted by a council of elders, including both men and women. It is quite possible that the later Sumerian pantheon was modeled upon this political structure. There was little evidence of organized warfare or professional soldiers during the Uruk period, and towns were generally unwalled. During this period Uruk became the most urbanized city in the world, surpassing for the first time 50,000 inhabitants. | What type of leadership did Sumerian cities during the Uruk period probably have? | What type of leadership did Sumerian cities during the Uruk period probably have? | [
"What type of leadership did Sumerian cities during the Uruk period probably have?"
] | {
"text": [
"theocratic"
],
"answer_start": [
53
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21531 | 5730aa6f8ab72b1400f9c646 | Sumer | Sumerian cities during the Uruk period were probably theocratic and were most likely headed by a priest-king (ensi), assisted by a council of elders, including both men and women. It is quite possible that the later Sumerian pantheon was modeled upon this political structure. There was little evidence of organized warfare or professional soldiers during the Uruk period, and towns were generally unwalled. During this period Uruk became the most urbanized city in the world, surpassing for the first time 50,000 inhabitants. | Who assisted the ensi? | Who assisted the ensi? | [
"Who assisted the ensi?"
] | {
"text": [
"a council of elders"
],
"answer_start": [
129
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21532 | 5730aa6f8ab72b1400f9c647 | Sumer | Sumerian cities during the Uruk period were probably theocratic and were most likely headed by a priest-king (ensi), assisted by a council of elders, including both men and women. It is quite possible that the later Sumerian pantheon was modeled upon this political structure. There was little evidence of organized warfare or professional soldiers during the Uruk period, and towns were generally unwalled. During this period Uruk became the most urbanized city in the world, surpassing for the first time 50,000 inhabitants. | What was the most urbanized city in the world at the time? | What was the most urbanized city in the world at the time? | [
"What was the most urbanized city in the world at the time?"
] | {
"text": [
"Uruk"
],
"answer_start": [
427
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21533 | 5730aa6f8ab72b1400f9c648 | Sumer | Sumerian cities during the Uruk period were probably theocratic and were most likely headed by a priest-king (ensi), assisted by a council of elders, including both men and women. It is quite possible that the later Sumerian pantheon was modeled upon this political structure. There was little evidence of organized warfare or professional soldiers during the Uruk period, and towns were generally unwalled. During this period Uruk became the most urbanized city in the world, surpassing for the first time 50,000 inhabitants. | Over how many people lived in Uruk? | Over how many people lived in Uruk? | [
"Over how many people lived in Uruk?"
] | {
"text": [
"50,000"
],
"answer_start": [
507
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21534 | 5a65159cc2b11c001a425bfd | Sumer | Sumerian cities during the Uruk period were probably theocratic and were most likely headed by a priest-king (ensi), assisted by a council of elders, including both men and women. It is quite possible that the later Sumerian pantheon was modeled upon this political structure. There was little evidence of organized warfare or professional soldiers during the Uruk period, and towns were generally unwalled. During this period Uruk became the most urbanized city in the world, surpassing for the first time 50,000 inhabitants. | When were Sumerian cities lead by a council of elders? | When were Sumerian cities lead by a council of elders? | [
"When were Sumerian cities lead by a council of elders?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21535 | 5a65159cc2b11c001a425bfe | Sumer | Sumerian cities during the Uruk period were probably theocratic and were most likely headed by a priest-king (ensi), assisted by a council of elders, including both men and women. It is quite possible that the later Sumerian pantheon was modeled upon this political structure. There was little evidence of organized warfare or professional soldiers during the Uruk period, and towns were generally unwalled. During this period Uruk became the most urbanized city in the world, surpassing for the first time 50,000 inhabitants. | What was the Sumerian political structure based on? | What was the Sumerian political structure based on? | [
"What was the Sumerian political structure based on?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21536 | 5a65159cc2b11c001a425bff | Sumer | Sumerian cities during the Uruk period were probably theocratic and were most likely headed by a priest-king (ensi), assisted by a council of elders, including both men and women. It is quite possible that the later Sumerian pantheon was modeled upon this political structure. There was little evidence of organized warfare or professional soldiers during the Uruk period, and towns were generally unwalled. During this period Uruk became the most urbanized city in the world, surpassing for the first time 50,000 inhabitants. | During what period did Sumeria develop professional soldiers? | During what period did Sumeria develop professional soldiers? | [
"During what period did Sumeria develop professional soldiers?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21537 | 5a65159cc2b11c001a425c00 | Sumer | Sumerian cities during the Uruk period were probably theocratic and were most likely headed by a priest-king (ensi), assisted by a council of elders, including both men and women. It is quite possible that the later Sumerian pantheon was modeled upon this political structure. There was little evidence of organized warfare or professional soldiers during the Uruk period, and towns were generally unwalled. During this period Uruk became the most urbanized city in the world, surpassing for the first time 50,000 inhabitants. | How many inhabitants did Sumeria have during the Uruk period? | How many inhabitants did Sumeria have during the Uruk period? | [
"How many inhabitants did Sumeria have during the Uruk period?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21538 | 5730ab3a8ab72b1400f9c65c | Sumer | The earliest dynastic king on the Sumerian king list whose name is known from any other legendary source is Etana, 13th king of the first dynasty of Kish. The earliest king authenticated through archaeological evidence is Enmebaragesi of Kish (c. 26th century BC), whose name is also mentioned in the Gilgamesh epic—leading to the suggestion that Gilgamesh himself might have been a historical king of Uruk. As the Epic of Gilgamesh shows, this period was associated with increased war. Cities became walled, and increased in size as undefended villages in southern Mesopotamia disappeared. (Gilgamesh is credited with having built the walls of Uruk). | What is the name of the earliest dynastic Sumerian king? | What is the name of the earliest dynastic Sumerian king? | [
"What is the name of the earliest dynastic Sumerian king?"
] | {
"text": [
"Etana"
],
"answer_start": [
108
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21539 | 5730ab3a8ab72b1400f9c65d | Sumer | The earliest dynastic king on the Sumerian king list whose name is known from any other legendary source is Etana, 13th king of the first dynasty of Kish. The earliest king authenticated through archaeological evidence is Enmebaragesi of Kish (c. 26th century BC), whose name is also mentioned in the Gilgamesh epic—leading to the suggestion that Gilgamesh himself might have been a historical king of Uruk. As the Epic of Gilgamesh shows, this period was associated with increased war. Cities became walled, and increased in size as undefended villages in southern Mesopotamia disappeared. (Gilgamesh is credited with having built the walls of Uruk). | What dynasty was Etana the 13th king of? | What dynasty was Etana the 13th king of? | [
"What dynasty was Etana the 13th king of?"
] | {
"text": [
"Kish"
],
"answer_start": [
149
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21540 | 5730ab3a8ab72b1400f9c65e | Sumer | The earliest dynastic king on the Sumerian king list whose name is known from any other legendary source is Etana, 13th king of the first dynasty of Kish. The earliest king authenticated through archaeological evidence is Enmebaragesi of Kish (c. 26th century BC), whose name is also mentioned in the Gilgamesh epic—leading to the suggestion that Gilgamesh himself might have been a historical king of Uruk. As the Epic of Gilgamesh shows, this period was associated with increased war. Cities became walled, and increased in size as undefended villages in southern Mesopotamia disappeared. (Gilgamesh is credited with having built the walls of Uruk). | Who is the earliest king that is authenticated by actual physical evidence and not just legend? | Who is the earliest king that is authenticated by actual physical evidence and not just legend? | [
"Who is the earliest king that is authenticated by actual physical evidence and not just legend?"
] | {
"text": [
"Enmebaragesi"
],
"answer_start": [
222
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21541 | 5730ab3a8ab72b1400f9c65f | Sumer | The earliest dynastic king on the Sumerian king list whose name is known from any other legendary source is Etana, 13th king of the first dynasty of Kish. The earliest king authenticated through archaeological evidence is Enmebaragesi of Kish (c. 26th century BC), whose name is also mentioned in the Gilgamesh epic—leading to the suggestion that Gilgamesh himself might have been a historical king of Uruk. As the Epic of Gilgamesh shows, this period was associated with increased war. Cities became walled, and increased in size as undefended villages in southern Mesopotamia disappeared. (Gilgamesh is credited with having built the walls of Uruk). | Where is Enmebaragesi's name mentioned? | Where is Enmebaragesi's name mentioned? | [
"Where is Enmebaragesi's name mentioned?"
] | {
"text": [
"Gilgamesh epic"
],
"answer_start": [
301
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21542 | 5730ab3a8ab72b1400f9c660 | Sumer | The earliest dynastic king on the Sumerian king list whose name is known from any other legendary source is Etana, 13th king of the first dynasty of Kish. The earliest king authenticated through archaeological evidence is Enmebaragesi of Kish (c. 26th century BC), whose name is also mentioned in the Gilgamesh epic—leading to the suggestion that Gilgamesh himself might have been a historical king of Uruk. As the Epic of Gilgamesh shows, this period was associated with increased war. Cities became walled, and increased in size as undefended villages in southern Mesopotamia disappeared. (Gilgamesh is credited with having built the walls of Uruk). | What is the period of Enmebaragesi's reign associated with? | What is the period of Enmebaragesi's reign associated with? | [
"What is the period of Enmebaragesi's reign associated with?"
] | {
"text": [
"increased war"
],
"answer_start": [
472
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21543 | 5a651902c2b11c001a425c0d | Sumer | The earliest dynastic king on the Sumerian king list whose name is known from any other legendary source is Etana, 13th king of the first dynasty of Kish. The earliest king authenticated through archaeological evidence is Enmebaragesi of Kish (c. 26th century BC), whose name is also mentioned in the Gilgamesh epic—leading to the suggestion that Gilgamesh himself might have been a historical king of Uruk. As the Epic of Gilgamesh shows, this period was associated with increased war. Cities became walled, and increased in size as undefended villages in southern Mesopotamia disappeared. (Gilgamesh is credited with having built the walls of Uruk). | Who is the first Sumerian king? | Who is the first Sumerian king? | [
"Who is the first Sumerian king?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21544 | 5a651902c2b11c001a425c0e | Sumer | The earliest dynastic king on the Sumerian king list whose name is known from any other legendary source is Etana, 13th king of the first dynasty of Kish. The earliest king authenticated through archaeological evidence is Enmebaragesi of Kish (c. 26th century BC), whose name is also mentioned in the Gilgamesh epic—leading to the suggestion that Gilgamesh himself might have been a historical king of Uruk. As the Epic of Gilgamesh shows, this period was associated with increased war. Cities became walled, and increased in size as undefended villages in southern Mesopotamia disappeared. (Gilgamesh is credited with having built the walls of Uruk). | Who was the king during the last dynasty o Kish? | Who was the king during the last dynasty o Kish? | [
"Who was the king during the last dynasty o Kish?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21545 | 5a651902c2b11c001a425c0f | Sumer | The earliest dynastic king on the Sumerian king list whose name is known from any other legendary source is Etana, 13th king of the first dynasty of Kish. The earliest king authenticated through archaeological evidence is Enmebaragesi of Kish (c. 26th century BC), whose name is also mentioned in the Gilgamesh epic—leading to the suggestion that Gilgamesh himself might have been a historical king of Uruk. As the Epic of Gilgamesh shows, this period was associated with increased war. Cities became walled, and increased in size as undefended villages in southern Mesopotamia disappeared. (Gilgamesh is credited with having built the walls of Uruk). | Who was king of Kish in the 2600's BC? | Who was king of Kish in the 2600's BC? | [
"Who was king of Kish in the 2600's BC?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21546 | 5a651902c2b11c001a425c10 | Sumer | The earliest dynastic king on the Sumerian king list whose name is known from any other legendary source is Etana, 13th king of the first dynasty of Kish. The earliest king authenticated through archaeological evidence is Enmebaragesi of Kish (c. 26th century BC), whose name is also mentioned in the Gilgamesh epic—leading to the suggestion that Gilgamesh himself might have been a historical king of Uruk. As the Epic of Gilgamesh shows, this period was associated with increased war. Cities became walled, and increased in size as undefended villages in southern Mesopotamia disappeared. (Gilgamesh is credited with having built the walls of Uruk). | What epic was about Enmebaragesi? | What epic was about Enmebaragesi? | [
"What epic was about Enmebaragesi?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21547 | 5a651902c2b11c001a425c11 | Sumer | The earliest dynastic king on the Sumerian king list whose name is known from any other legendary source is Etana, 13th king of the first dynasty of Kish. The earliest king authenticated through archaeological evidence is Enmebaragesi of Kish (c. 26th century BC), whose name is also mentioned in the Gilgamesh epic—leading to the suggestion that Gilgamesh himself might have been a historical king of Uruk. As the Epic of Gilgamesh shows, this period was associated with increased war. Cities became walled, and increased in size as undefended villages in southern Mesopotamia disappeared. (Gilgamesh is credited with having built the walls of Uruk). | What hero destroyed the walls of Uruk? | What hero destroyed the walls of Uruk? | [
"What hero destroyed the walls of Uruk?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21548 | 5730ab9c396df9190009626a | Sumer | Although short-lived, one of the first empires known to history was that of Eannatum of Lagash, who annexed practically all of Sumer, including Kish, Uruk, Ur, and Larsa, and reduced to tribute the city-state of Umma, arch-rival of Lagash. In addition, his realm extended to parts of Elam and along the Persian Gulf. He seems to have used terror as a matter of policy. Eannatum's Stele of the Vultures depicts vultures pecking at the severed heads and other body parts of his enemies. His empire collapsed shortly after his death. | What is one of the first empires known in history? | What is one of the first empires known in history? | [
"What is one of the first empires known in history?"
] | {
"text": [
"Eannatum of Lagash,"
],
"answer_start": [
76
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21549 | 5730ab9c396df9190009626b | Sumer | Although short-lived, one of the first empires known to history was that of Eannatum of Lagash, who annexed practically all of Sumer, including Kish, Uruk, Ur, and Larsa, and reduced to tribute the city-state of Umma, arch-rival of Lagash. In addition, his realm extended to parts of Elam and along the Persian Gulf. He seems to have used terror as a matter of policy. Eannatum's Stele of the Vultures depicts vultures pecking at the severed heads and other body parts of his enemies. His empire collapsed shortly after his death. | What city-state was the rival of Lagash? | What city-state was the rival of Lagash? | [
"What city-state was the rival of Lagash?"
] | {
"text": [
"Umma"
],
"answer_start": [
212
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21550 | 5730ab9c396df9190009626c | Sumer | Although short-lived, one of the first empires known to history was that of Eannatum of Lagash, who annexed practically all of Sumer, including Kish, Uruk, Ur, and Larsa, and reduced to tribute the city-state of Umma, arch-rival of Lagash. In addition, his realm extended to parts of Elam and along the Persian Gulf. He seems to have used terror as a matter of policy. Eannatum's Stele of the Vultures depicts vultures pecking at the severed heads and other body parts of his enemies. His empire collapsed shortly after his death. | What did Eannatum annex? | What did Eannatum annex? | [
"What did Eannatum annex?"
] | {
"text": [
"practically all of Sumer"
],
"answer_start": [
108
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21551 | 5730ab9c396df9190009626d | Sumer | Although short-lived, one of the first empires known to history was that of Eannatum of Lagash, who annexed practically all of Sumer, including Kish, Uruk, Ur, and Larsa, and reduced to tribute the city-state of Umma, arch-rival of Lagash. In addition, his realm extended to parts of Elam and along the Persian Gulf. He seems to have used terror as a matter of policy. Eannatum's Stele of the Vultures depicts vultures pecking at the severed heads and other body parts of his enemies. His empire collapsed shortly after his death. | What did Eannatum use to keep the people of the time in line? | What did Eannatum use to keep the people of the time in line? | [
"What did Eannatum use to keep the people of the time in line?"
] | {
"text": [
"terror"
],
"answer_start": [
339
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21552 | 5730ab9c396df9190009626e | Sumer | Although short-lived, one of the first empires known to history was that of Eannatum of Lagash, who annexed practically all of Sumer, including Kish, Uruk, Ur, and Larsa, and reduced to tribute the city-state of Umma, arch-rival of Lagash. In addition, his realm extended to parts of Elam and along the Persian Gulf. He seems to have used terror as a matter of policy. Eannatum's Stele of the Vultures depicts vultures pecking at the severed heads and other body parts of his enemies. His empire collapsed shortly after his death. | What happened to Eannatum's empire after his death? | What happened to Eannatum's empire after his death? | [
"What happened to Eannatum's empire after his death?"
] | {
"text": [
"collapsed"
],
"answer_start": [
496
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21553 | 5a651a89c2b11c001a425c17 | Sumer | Although short-lived, one of the first empires known to history was that of Eannatum of Lagash, who annexed practically all of Sumer, including Kish, Uruk, Ur, and Larsa, and reduced to tribute the city-state of Umma, arch-rival of Lagash. In addition, his realm extended to parts of Elam and along the Persian Gulf. He seems to have used terror as a matter of policy. Eannatum's Stele of the Vultures depicts vultures pecking at the severed heads and other body parts of his enemies. His empire collapsed shortly after his death. | What was the shortest empire in history? | What was the shortest empire in history? | [
"What was the shortest empire in history?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21554 | 5a651a89c2b11c001a425c18 | Sumer | Although short-lived, one of the first empires known to history was that of Eannatum of Lagash, who annexed practically all of Sumer, including Kish, Uruk, Ur, and Larsa, and reduced to tribute the city-state of Umma, arch-rival of Lagash. In addition, his realm extended to parts of Elam and along the Persian Gulf. He seems to have used terror as a matter of policy. Eannatum's Stele of the Vultures depicts vultures pecking at the severed heads and other body parts of his enemies. His empire collapsed shortly after his death. | What city was the ally of Lagash? | What city was the ally of Lagash? | [
"What city was the ally of Lagash?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21555 | 5a651a89c2b11c001a425c19 | Sumer | Although short-lived, one of the first empires known to history was that of Eannatum of Lagash, who annexed practically all of Sumer, including Kish, Uruk, Ur, and Larsa, and reduced to tribute the city-state of Umma, arch-rival of Lagash. In addition, his realm extended to parts of Elam and along the Persian Gulf. He seems to have used terror as a matter of policy. Eannatum's Stele of the Vultures depicts vultures pecking at the severed heads and other body parts of his enemies. His empire collapsed shortly after his death. | What cities flocked to Eannatum's empire? | What cities flocked to Eannatum's empire? | [
"What cities flocked to Eannatum's empire?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21556 | 5a651a89c2b11c001a425c1a | Sumer | Although short-lived, one of the first empires known to history was that of Eannatum of Lagash, who annexed practically all of Sumer, including Kish, Uruk, Ur, and Larsa, and reduced to tribute the city-state of Umma, arch-rival of Lagash. In addition, his realm extended to parts of Elam and along the Persian Gulf. He seems to have used terror as a matter of policy. Eannatum's Stele of the Vultures depicts vultures pecking at the severed heads and other body parts of his enemies. His empire collapsed shortly after his death. | Who made Lagash a tribute state? | Who made Lagash a tribute state? | [
"Who made Lagash a tribute state?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21557 | 5730ac218ab72b1400f9c666 | Sumer | The Semitic Akkadian language is first attested in proper names of the kings of Kish c. 2800 BC, preserved in later king lists. There are texts written entirely in Old Akkadian dating from c. 2500 BC. Use of Old Akkadian was at its peak during the rule of Sargon the Great (c. 2270–2215 BC), but even then most administrative tablets continued to be written in Sumerian, the language used by the scribes. Gelb and Westenholz differentiate three stages of Old Akkadian: that of the pre-Sargonic era, that of the Akkadian empire, and that of the "Neo-Sumerian Renaissance" that followed it. Akkadian and Sumerian coexisted as vernacular languages for about one thousand years, but by around 1800 BC, Sumerian was becoming more of a literary language familiar mainly only to scholars and scribes. Thorkild Jacobsen has argued that there is little break in historical continuity between the pre- and post-Sargon periods, and that too much emphasis has been placed on the perception of a "Semitic vs. Sumerian" conflict. However, it is certain that Akkadian was also briefly imposed on neighboring parts of Elam that were previously conquered by Sargon. | Where is the Semetic Akkadian language first found? | Where is the Semetic Akkadian language first found? | [
"Where is the Semetic Akkadian language first found?"
] | {
"text": [
"proper names of the kings of Kish"
],
"answer_start": [
51
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21558 | 5730ac218ab72b1400f9c667 | Sumer | The Semitic Akkadian language is first attested in proper names of the kings of Kish c. 2800 BC, preserved in later king lists. There are texts written entirely in Old Akkadian dating from c. 2500 BC. Use of Old Akkadian was at its peak during the rule of Sargon the Great (c. 2270–2215 BC), but even then most administrative tablets continued to be written in Sumerian, the language used by the scribes. Gelb and Westenholz differentiate three stages of Old Akkadian: that of the pre-Sargonic era, that of the Akkadian empire, and that of the "Neo-Sumerian Renaissance" that followed it. Akkadian and Sumerian coexisted as vernacular languages for about one thousand years, but by around 1800 BC, Sumerian was becoming more of a literary language familiar mainly only to scholars and scribes. Thorkild Jacobsen has argued that there is little break in historical continuity between the pre- and post-Sargon periods, and that too much emphasis has been placed on the perception of a "Semitic vs. Sumerian" conflict. However, it is certain that Akkadian was also briefly imposed on neighboring parts of Elam that were previously conquered by Sargon. | Where is the Semetic Akkadian language found preserved after 2800 BC? | Where is the Semetic Akkadian language found preserved after 2800 BC? | [
"Where is the Semetic Akkadian language found preserved after 2800 BC?"
] | {
"text": [
"king lists"
],
"answer_start": [
116
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21559 | 5730ac218ab72b1400f9c668 | Sumer | The Semitic Akkadian language is first attested in proper names of the kings of Kish c. 2800 BC, preserved in later king lists. There are texts written entirely in Old Akkadian dating from c. 2500 BC. Use of Old Akkadian was at its peak during the rule of Sargon the Great (c. 2270–2215 BC), but even then most administrative tablets continued to be written in Sumerian, the language used by the scribes. Gelb and Westenholz differentiate three stages of Old Akkadian: that of the pre-Sargonic era, that of the Akkadian empire, and that of the "Neo-Sumerian Renaissance" that followed it. Akkadian and Sumerian coexisted as vernacular languages for about one thousand years, but by around 1800 BC, Sumerian was becoming more of a literary language familiar mainly only to scholars and scribes. Thorkild Jacobsen has argued that there is little break in historical continuity between the pre- and post-Sargon periods, and that too much emphasis has been placed on the perception of a "Semitic vs. Sumerian" conflict. However, it is certain that Akkadian was also briefly imposed on neighboring parts of Elam that were previously conquered by Sargon. | During whose rule was the use of Old Akkadian at its peak? | During whose rule was the use of Old Akkadian at its peak? | [
"During whose rule was the use of Old Akkadian at its peak?"
] | {
"text": [
"Sargon the Great"
],
"answer_start": [
256
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21560 | 5730ac218ab72b1400f9c669 | Sumer | The Semitic Akkadian language is first attested in proper names of the kings of Kish c. 2800 BC, preserved in later king lists. There are texts written entirely in Old Akkadian dating from c. 2500 BC. Use of Old Akkadian was at its peak during the rule of Sargon the Great (c. 2270–2215 BC), but even then most administrative tablets continued to be written in Sumerian, the language used by the scribes. Gelb and Westenholz differentiate three stages of Old Akkadian: that of the pre-Sargonic era, that of the Akkadian empire, and that of the "Neo-Sumerian Renaissance" that followed it. Akkadian and Sumerian coexisted as vernacular languages for about one thousand years, but by around 1800 BC, Sumerian was becoming more of a literary language familiar mainly only to scholars and scribes. Thorkild Jacobsen has argued that there is little break in historical continuity between the pre- and post-Sargon periods, and that too much emphasis has been placed on the perception of a "Semitic vs. Sumerian" conflict. However, it is certain that Akkadian was also briefly imposed on neighboring parts of Elam that were previously conquered by Sargon. | What language did scribes use over Akkadian? | What language did scribes use over Akkadian? | [
"What language did scribes use over Akkadian?"
] | {
"text": [
"Sumerian"
],
"answer_start": [
361
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21561 | 5730ac218ab72b1400f9c66a | Sumer | The Semitic Akkadian language is first attested in proper names of the kings of Kish c. 2800 BC, preserved in later king lists. There are texts written entirely in Old Akkadian dating from c. 2500 BC. Use of Old Akkadian was at its peak during the rule of Sargon the Great (c. 2270–2215 BC), but even then most administrative tablets continued to be written in Sumerian, the language used by the scribes. Gelb and Westenholz differentiate three stages of Old Akkadian: that of the pre-Sargonic era, that of the Akkadian empire, and that of the "Neo-Sumerian Renaissance" that followed it. Akkadian and Sumerian coexisted as vernacular languages for about one thousand years, but by around 1800 BC, Sumerian was becoming more of a literary language familiar mainly only to scholars and scribes. Thorkild Jacobsen has argued that there is little break in historical continuity between the pre- and post-Sargon periods, and that too much emphasis has been placed on the perception of a "Semitic vs. Sumerian" conflict. However, it is certain that Akkadian was also briefly imposed on neighboring parts of Elam that were previously conquered by Sargon. | How long did Akkadian and Sumerian coexist as spoken languages? | How long did Akkadian and Sumerian coexist as spoken languages? | [
"How long did Akkadian and Sumerian coexist as spoken languages?"
] | {
"text": [
"about one thousand years"
],
"answer_start": [
649
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21562 | 5a651d20c2b11c001a425c29 | Sumer | The Semitic Akkadian language is first attested in proper names of the kings of Kish c. 2800 BC, preserved in later king lists. There are texts written entirely in Old Akkadian dating from c. 2500 BC. Use of Old Akkadian was at its peak during the rule of Sargon the Great (c. 2270–2215 BC), but even then most administrative tablets continued to be written in Sumerian, the language used by the scribes. Gelb and Westenholz differentiate three stages of Old Akkadian: that of the pre-Sargonic era, that of the Akkadian empire, and that of the "Neo-Sumerian Renaissance" that followed it. Akkadian and Sumerian coexisted as vernacular languages for about one thousand years, but by around 1800 BC, Sumerian was becoming more of a literary language familiar mainly only to scholars and scribes. Thorkild Jacobsen has argued that there is little break in historical continuity between the pre- and post-Sargon periods, and that too much emphasis has been placed on the perception of a "Semitic vs. Sumerian" conflict. However, it is certain that Akkadian was also briefly imposed on neighboring parts of Elam that were previously conquered by Sargon. | What language was used only to make the king lists? | What language was used only to make the king lists? | [
"What language was used only to make the king lists?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21563 | 5a651d20c2b11c001a425c2a | Sumer | The Semitic Akkadian language is first attested in proper names of the kings of Kish c. 2800 BC, preserved in later king lists. There are texts written entirely in Old Akkadian dating from c. 2500 BC. Use of Old Akkadian was at its peak during the rule of Sargon the Great (c. 2270–2215 BC), but even then most administrative tablets continued to be written in Sumerian, the language used by the scribes. Gelb and Westenholz differentiate three stages of Old Akkadian: that of the pre-Sargonic era, that of the Akkadian empire, and that of the "Neo-Sumerian Renaissance" that followed it. Akkadian and Sumerian coexisted as vernacular languages for about one thousand years, but by around 1800 BC, Sumerian was becoming more of a literary language familiar mainly only to scholars and scribes. Thorkild Jacobsen has argued that there is little break in historical continuity between the pre- and post-Sargon periods, and that too much emphasis has been placed on the perception of a "Semitic vs. Sumerian" conflict. However, it is certain that Akkadian was also briefly imposed on neighboring parts of Elam that were previously conquered by Sargon. | What language was used for the kings list in the 28th century BC? | What language was used for the kings list in the 28th century BC? | [
"What language was used for the kings list in the 28th century BC?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21564 | 5a651d20c2b11c001a425c2b | Sumer | The Semitic Akkadian language is first attested in proper names of the kings of Kish c. 2800 BC, preserved in later king lists. There are texts written entirely in Old Akkadian dating from c. 2500 BC. Use of Old Akkadian was at its peak during the rule of Sargon the Great (c. 2270–2215 BC), but even then most administrative tablets continued to be written in Sumerian, the language used by the scribes. Gelb and Westenholz differentiate three stages of Old Akkadian: that of the pre-Sargonic era, that of the Akkadian empire, and that of the "Neo-Sumerian Renaissance" that followed it. Akkadian and Sumerian coexisted as vernacular languages for about one thousand years, but by around 1800 BC, Sumerian was becoming more of a literary language familiar mainly only to scholars and scribes. Thorkild Jacobsen has argued that there is little break in historical continuity between the pre- and post-Sargon periods, and that too much emphasis has been placed on the perception of a "Semitic vs. Sumerian" conflict. However, it is certain that Akkadian was also briefly imposed on neighboring parts of Elam that were previously conquered by Sargon. | What was written in the 25th century BC? | What was written in the 25th century BC? | [
"What was written in the 25th century BC?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21565 | 5a651d20c2b11c001a425c2c | Sumer | The Semitic Akkadian language is first attested in proper names of the kings of Kish c. 2800 BC, preserved in later king lists. There are texts written entirely in Old Akkadian dating from c. 2500 BC. Use of Old Akkadian was at its peak during the rule of Sargon the Great (c. 2270–2215 BC), but even then most administrative tablets continued to be written in Sumerian, the language used by the scribes. Gelb and Westenholz differentiate three stages of Old Akkadian: that of the pre-Sargonic era, that of the Akkadian empire, and that of the "Neo-Sumerian Renaissance" that followed it. Akkadian and Sumerian coexisted as vernacular languages for about one thousand years, but by around 1800 BC, Sumerian was becoming more of a literary language familiar mainly only to scholars and scribes. Thorkild Jacobsen has argued that there is little break in historical continuity between the pre- and post-Sargon periods, and that too much emphasis has been placed on the perception of a "Semitic vs. Sumerian" conflict. However, it is certain that Akkadian was also briefly imposed on neighboring parts of Elam that were previously conquered by Sargon. | Who's reign ended in the 22nd century BC? | Who's reign ended in the 22nd century BC? | [
"Who's reign ended in the 22nd century BC?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21566 | 5a651d20c2b11c001a425c2d | Sumer | The Semitic Akkadian language is first attested in proper names of the kings of Kish c. 2800 BC, preserved in later king lists. There are texts written entirely in Old Akkadian dating from c. 2500 BC. Use of Old Akkadian was at its peak during the rule of Sargon the Great (c. 2270–2215 BC), but even then most administrative tablets continued to be written in Sumerian, the language used by the scribes. Gelb and Westenholz differentiate three stages of Old Akkadian: that of the pre-Sargonic era, that of the Akkadian empire, and that of the "Neo-Sumerian Renaissance" that followed it. Akkadian and Sumerian coexisted as vernacular languages for about one thousand years, but by around 1800 BC, Sumerian was becoming more of a literary language familiar mainly only to scholars and scribes. Thorkild Jacobsen has argued that there is little break in historical continuity between the pre- and post-Sargon periods, and that too much emphasis has been placed on the perception of a "Semitic vs. Sumerian" conflict. However, it is certain that Akkadian was also briefly imposed on neighboring parts of Elam that were previously conquered by Sargon. | What was a literary language by the 18th century BC? | What was a literary language by the 18th century BC? | [
"What was a literary language by the 18th century BC?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21567 | 5730ad61069b531400832231 | Sumer | Later, the 3rd dynasty of Ur under Ur-Nammu and Shulgi, whose power extended as far as southern Assyria, was the last great "Sumerian renaissance", but already the region was becoming more Semitic than Sumerian, with the rise in power of the Akkadian speaking Semites in Assyria and elsewhere, and the influx of waves of Semitic Martu (Amorites) who were to found several competing local powers including Isin, Larsa, Eshnunna and eventually Babylon. The last of these eventually came to dominate the south of Mesopotamia as the Babylonian Empire, just as the Old Assyrian Empire had already done so in the north from the late 21st century BC. The Sumerian language continued as a sacerdotal language taught in schools in Babylonia and Assyria, much as Latin was used in the Medieval period, for as long as cuneiform was utilized. | Which dynasty of Ur was the last great Sumerian renaissance? | Which dynasty of Ur was the last great Sumerian renaissance? | [
"Which dynasty of Ur was the last great Sumerian renaissance?"
] | {
"text": [
"3rd"
],
"answer_start": [
11
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21568 | 5730ad61069b531400832232 | Sumer | Later, the 3rd dynasty of Ur under Ur-Nammu and Shulgi, whose power extended as far as southern Assyria, was the last great "Sumerian renaissance", but already the region was becoming more Semitic than Sumerian, with the rise in power of the Akkadian speaking Semites in Assyria and elsewhere, and the influx of waves of Semitic Martu (Amorites) who were to found several competing local powers including Isin, Larsa, Eshnunna and eventually Babylon. The last of these eventually came to dominate the south of Mesopotamia as the Babylonian Empire, just as the Old Assyrian Empire had already done so in the north from the late 21st century BC. The Sumerian language continued as a sacerdotal language taught in schools in Babylonia and Assyria, much as Latin was used in the Medieval period, for as long as cuneiform was utilized. | Who guided Ur during the last gasp of power? | Who guided Ur during the last gasp of power? | [
"Who guided Ur during the last gasp of power?"
] | {
"text": [
"Ur-Nammu and Shulgi"
],
"answer_start": [
35
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21569 | 5730ad61069b531400832233 | Sumer | Later, the 3rd dynasty of Ur under Ur-Nammu and Shulgi, whose power extended as far as southern Assyria, was the last great "Sumerian renaissance", but already the region was becoming more Semitic than Sumerian, with the rise in power of the Akkadian speaking Semites in Assyria and elsewhere, and the influx of waves of Semitic Martu (Amorites) who were to found several competing local powers including Isin, Larsa, Eshnunna and eventually Babylon. The last of these eventually came to dominate the south of Mesopotamia as the Babylonian Empire, just as the Old Assyrian Empire had already done so in the north from the late 21st century BC. The Sumerian language continued as a sacerdotal language taught in schools in Babylonia and Assyria, much as Latin was used in the Medieval period, for as long as cuneiform was utilized. | Even during the 3rd dynasty, what was happening to the racial makeup of the region? | Even during the 3rd dynasty, what was happening to the racial makeup of the region? | [
"Even during the 3rd dynasty, what was happening to the racial makeup of the region?"
] | {
"text": [
"more Semitic than Sumerian"
],
"answer_start": [
184
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21570 | 5730ad61069b531400832234 | Sumer | Later, the 3rd dynasty of Ur under Ur-Nammu and Shulgi, whose power extended as far as southern Assyria, was the last great "Sumerian renaissance", but already the region was becoming more Semitic than Sumerian, with the rise in power of the Akkadian speaking Semites in Assyria and elsewhere, and the influx of waves of Semitic Martu (Amorites) who were to found several competing local powers including Isin, Larsa, Eshnunna and eventually Babylon. The last of these eventually came to dominate the south of Mesopotamia as the Babylonian Empire, just as the Old Assyrian Empire had already done so in the north from the late 21st century BC. The Sumerian language continued as a sacerdotal language taught in schools in Babylonia and Assyria, much as Latin was used in the Medieval period, for as long as cuneiform was utilized. | What was there an influx of waves of coming into Sumerian lands? | What was there an influx of waves of coming into Sumerian lands? | [
"What was there an influx of waves of coming into Sumerian lands?"
] | {
"text": [
"Amorites"
],
"answer_start": [
336
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21571 | 5730ad61069b531400832235 | Sumer | Later, the 3rd dynasty of Ur under Ur-Nammu and Shulgi, whose power extended as far as southern Assyria, was the last great "Sumerian renaissance", but already the region was becoming more Semitic than Sumerian, with the rise in power of the Akkadian speaking Semites in Assyria and elsewhere, and the influx of waves of Semitic Martu (Amorites) who were to found several competing local powers including Isin, Larsa, Eshnunna and eventually Babylon. The last of these eventually came to dominate the south of Mesopotamia as the Babylonian Empire, just as the Old Assyrian Empire had already done so in the north from the late 21st century BC. The Sumerian language continued as a sacerdotal language taught in schools in Babylonia and Assyria, much as Latin was used in the Medieval period, for as long as cuneiform was utilized. | How long did the Babylonians and Assyrians continue to teach the Sumerian language in their schools? | How long did the Babylonians and Assyrians continue to teach the Sumerian language in their schools? | [
"How long did the Babylonians and Assyrians continue to teach the Sumerian language in their schools?"
] | {
"text": [
"for as long as cuneiform was utilized."
],
"answer_start": [
792
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21572 | 5a651fb6c2b11c001a425c47 | Sumer | Later, the 3rd dynasty of Ur under Ur-Nammu and Shulgi, whose power extended as far as southern Assyria, was the last great "Sumerian renaissance", but already the region was becoming more Semitic than Sumerian, with the rise in power of the Akkadian speaking Semites in Assyria and elsewhere, and the influx of waves of Semitic Martu (Amorites) who were to found several competing local powers including Isin, Larsa, Eshnunna and eventually Babylon. The last of these eventually came to dominate the south of Mesopotamia as the Babylonian Empire, just as the Old Assyrian Empire had already done so in the north from the late 21st century BC. The Sumerian language continued as a sacerdotal language taught in schools in Babylonia and Assyria, much as Latin was used in the Medieval period, for as long as cuneiform was utilized. | When was the first Sumerian renaissance? | When was the first Sumerian renaissance? | [
"When was the first Sumerian renaissance?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21573 | 5a651fb6c2b11c001a425c48 | Sumer | Later, the 3rd dynasty of Ur under Ur-Nammu and Shulgi, whose power extended as far as southern Assyria, was the last great "Sumerian renaissance", but already the region was becoming more Semitic than Sumerian, with the rise in power of the Akkadian speaking Semites in Assyria and elsewhere, and the influx of waves of Semitic Martu (Amorites) who were to found several competing local powers including Isin, Larsa, Eshnunna and eventually Babylon. The last of these eventually came to dominate the south of Mesopotamia as the Babylonian Empire, just as the Old Assyrian Empire had already done so in the north from the late 21st century BC. The Sumerian language continued as a sacerdotal language taught in schools in Babylonia and Assyria, much as Latin was used in the Medieval period, for as long as cuneiform was utilized. | During who's reign was the area becoming more Sumerian than Semitic? | During who's reign was the area becoming more Sumerian than Semitic? | [
"During who's reign was the area becoming more Sumerian than Semitic?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21574 | 5a651fb6c2b11c001a425c49 | Sumer | Later, the 3rd dynasty of Ur under Ur-Nammu and Shulgi, whose power extended as far as southern Assyria, was the last great "Sumerian renaissance", but already the region was becoming more Semitic than Sumerian, with the rise in power of the Akkadian speaking Semites in Assyria and elsewhere, and the influx of waves of Semitic Martu (Amorites) who were to found several competing local powers including Isin, Larsa, Eshnunna and eventually Babylon. The last of these eventually came to dominate the south of Mesopotamia as the Babylonian Empire, just as the Old Assyrian Empire had already done so in the north from the late 21st century BC. The Sumerian language continued as a sacerdotal language taught in schools in Babylonia and Assyria, much as Latin was used in the Medieval period, for as long as cuneiform was utilized. | Where was the power of Akkadian speaking Semites declining? | Where was the power of Akkadian speaking Semites declining? | [
"Where was the power of Akkadian speaking Semites declining?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21575 | 5a651fb6c2b11c001a425c4a | Sumer | Later, the 3rd dynasty of Ur under Ur-Nammu and Shulgi, whose power extended as far as southern Assyria, was the last great "Sumerian renaissance", but already the region was becoming more Semitic than Sumerian, with the rise in power of the Akkadian speaking Semites in Assyria and elsewhere, and the influx of waves of Semitic Martu (Amorites) who were to found several competing local powers including Isin, Larsa, Eshnunna and eventually Babylon. The last of these eventually came to dominate the south of Mesopotamia as the Babylonian Empire, just as the Old Assyrian Empire had already done so in the north from the late 21st century BC. The Sumerian language continued as a sacerdotal language taught in schools in Babylonia and Assyria, much as Latin was used in the Medieval period, for as long as cuneiform was utilized. | What people where leaving the are to form other powers? | What people where leaving the are to form other powers? | [
"What people where leaving the are to form other powers?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21576 | 5a651fb6c2b11c001a425c4b | Sumer | Later, the 3rd dynasty of Ur under Ur-Nammu and Shulgi, whose power extended as far as southern Assyria, was the last great "Sumerian renaissance", but already the region was becoming more Semitic than Sumerian, with the rise in power of the Akkadian speaking Semites in Assyria and elsewhere, and the influx of waves of Semitic Martu (Amorites) who were to found several competing local powers including Isin, Larsa, Eshnunna and eventually Babylon. The last of these eventually came to dominate the south of Mesopotamia as the Babylonian Empire, just as the Old Assyrian Empire had already done so in the north from the late 21st century BC. The Sumerian language continued as a sacerdotal language taught in schools in Babylonia and Assyria, much as Latin was used in the Medieval period, for as long as cuneiform was utilized. | Who dominated northern Mesopotamia in the 2100's? | Who dominated northern Mesopotamia in the 2100's? | [
"Who dominated northern Mesopotamia in the 2100's?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21577 | 5730aea88ab72b1400f9c678 | Sumer | This period is generally taken to coincide with a major shift in population from southern Mesopotamia toward the north. Ecologically, the agricultural productivity of the Sumerian lands was being compromised as a result of rising salinity. Soil salinity in this region had been long recognized as a major problem. Poorly drained irrigated soils, in an arid climate with high levels of evaporation, led to the buildup of dissolved salts in the soil, eventually reducing agricultural yields severely. During the Akkadian and Ur III phases, there was a shift from the cultivation of wheat to the more salt-tolerant barley, but this was insufficient, and during the period from 2100 BC to 1700 BC, it is estimated that the population in this area declined by nearly three fifths. This greatly upset the balance of power within the region, weakening the areas where Sumerian was spoken, and comparatively strengthening those where Akkadian was the major language. Henceforth Sumerian would remain only a literary and liturgical language, similar to the position occupied by Latin in medieval Europe. | What effect was rising salinity having on the agricultural productivity of the Sumerian lands? | What effect was rising salinity having on the agricultural productivity of the Sumerian lands? | [
"What effect was rising salinity having on the agricultural productivity of the Sumerian lands?"
] | {
"text": [
"compromised"
],
"answer_start": [
196
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21578 | 5730aea88ab72b1400f9c679 | Sumer | This period is generally taken to coincide with a major shift in population from southern Mesopotamia toward the north. Ecologically, the agricultural productivity of the Sumerian lands was being compromised as a result of rising salinity. Soil salinity in this region had been long recognized as a major problem. Poorly drained irrigated soils, in an arid climate with high levels of evaporation, led to the buildup of dissolved salts in the soil, eventually reducing agricultural yields severely. During the Akkadian and Ur III phases, there was a shift from the cultivation of wheat to the more salt-tolerant barley, but this was insufficient, and during the period from 2100 BC to 1700 BC, it is estimated that the population in this area declined by nearly three fifths. This greatly upset the balance of power within the region, weakening the areas where Sumerian was spoken, and comparatively strengthening those where Akkadian was the major language. Henceforth Sumerian would remain only a literary and liturgical language, similar to the position occupied by Latin in medieval Europe. | The salinity of what in the region was long recognized as a major problem? | The salinity of what in the region was long recognized as a major problem? | [
"The salinity of what in the region was long recognized as a major problem?"
] | {
"text": [
"Soil"
],
"answer_start": [
240
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21579 | 5730aea88ab72b1400f9c67a | Sumer | This period is generally taken to coincide with a major shift in population from southern Mesopotamia toward the north. Ecologically, the agricultural productivity of the Sumerian lands was being compromised as a result of rising salinity. Soil salinity in this region had been long recognized as a major problem. Poorly drained irrigated soils, in an arid climate with high levels of evaporation, led to the buildup of dissolved salts in the soil, eventually reducing agricultural yields severely. During the Akkadian and Ur III phases, there was a shift from the cultivation of wheat to the more salt-tolerant barley, but this was insufficient, and during the period from 2100 BC to 1700 BC, it is estimated that the population in this area declined by nearly three fifths. This greatly upset the balance of power within the region, weakening the areas where Sumerian was spoken, and comparatively strengthening those where Akkadian was the major language. Henceforth Sumerian would remain only a literary and liturgical language, similar to the position occupied by Latin in medieval Europe. | Poorly drained irrigated soils in an arid climate with a good deal of evaporation is responsible for leaving what? | Poorly drained irrigated soils in an arid climate with a good deal of evaporation is responsible for leaving what? | [
"Poorly drained irrigated soils in an arid climate with a good deal of evaporation is responsible for leaving what?"
] | {
"text": [
"dissolved salts"
],
"answer_start": [
420
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21580 | 5730aea88ab72b1400f9c67b | Sumer | This period is generally taken to coincide with a major shift in population from southern Mesopotamia toward the north. Ecologically, the agricultural productivity of the Sumerian lands was being compromised as a result of rising salinity. Soil salinity in this region had been long recognized as a major problem. Poorly drained irrigated soils, in an arid climate with high levels of evaporation, led to the buildup of dissolved salts in the soil, eventually reducing agricultural yields severely. During the Akkadian and Ur III phases, there was a shift from the cultivation of wheat to the more salt-tolerant barley, but this was insufficient, and during the period from 2100 BC to 1700 BC, it is estimated that the population in this area declined by nearly three fifths. This greatly upset the balance of power within the region, weakening the areas where Sumerian was spoken, and comparatively strengthening those where Akkadian was the major language. Henceforth Sumerian would remain only a literary and liturgical language, similar to the position occupied by Latin in medieval Europe. | What did cultivation shift from to salt-tolerant barley during the Ur III phase? | What did cultivation shift from to salt-tolerant barley during the Ur III phase? | [
"What did cultivation shift from to salt-tolerant barley during the Ur III phase?"
] | {
"text": [
"wheat"
],
"answer_start": [
580
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21581 | 5730aea88ab72b1400f9c67c | Sumer | This period is generally taken to coincide with a major shift in population from southern Mesopotamia toward the north. Ecologically, the agricultural productivity of the Sumerian lands was being compromised as a result of rising salinity. Soil salinity in this region had been long recognized as a major problem. Poorly drained irrigated soils, in an arid climate with high levels of evaporation, led to the buildup of dissolved salts in the soil, eventually reducing agricultural yields severely. During the Akkadian and Ur III phases, there was a shift from the cultivation of wheat to the more salt-tolerant barley, but this was insufficient, and during the period from 2100 BC to 1700 BC, it is estimated that the population in this area declined by nearly three fifths. This greatly upset the balance of power within the region, weakening the areas where Sumerian was spoken, and comparatively strengthening those where Akkadian was the major language. Henceforth Sumerian would remain only a literary and liturgical language, similar to the position occupied by Latin in medieval Europe. | How much did the population of the region decline due to the decrease in crop productivity? | How much did the population of the region decline due to the decrease in crop productivity? | [
"How much did the population of the region decline due to the decrease in crop productivity? "
] | {
"text": [
"by nearly three fifths"
],
"answer_start": [
752
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21582 | 5a652157c2b11c001a425c5b | Sumer | This period is generally taken to coincide with a major shift in population from southern Mesopotamia toward the north. Ecologically, the agricultural productivity of the Sumerian lands was being compromised as a result of rising salinity. Soil salinity in this region had been long recognized as a major problem. Poorly drained irrigated soils, in an arid climate with high levels of evaporation, led to the buildup of dissolved salts in the soil, eventually reducing agricultural yields severely. During the Akkadian and Ur III phases, there was a shift from the cultivation of wheat to the more salt-tolerant barley, but this was insufficient, and during the period from 2100 BC to 1700 BC, it is estimated that the population in this area declined by nearly three fifths. This greatly upset the balance of power within the region, weakening the areas where Sumerian was spoken, and comparatively strengthening those where Akkadian was the major language. Henceforth Sumerian would remain only a literary and liturgical language, similar to the position occupied by Latin in medieval Europe. | What shifted from the north to the south of Mesopotamia? | What shifted from the north to the south of Mesopotamia? | [
"What shifted from the north to the south of Mesopotamia?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21583 | 5a652157c2b11c001a425c5c | Sumer | This period is generally taken to coincide with a major shift in population from southern Mesopotamia toward the north. Ecologically, the agricultural productivity of the Sumerian lands was being compromised as a result of rising salinity. Soil salinity in this region had been long recognized as a major problem. Poorly drained irrigated soils, in an arid climate with high levels of evaporation, led to the buildup of dissolved salts in the soil, eventually reducing agricultural yields severely. During the Akkadian and Ur III phases, there was a shift from the cultivation of wheat to the more salt-tolerant barley, but this was insufficient, and during the period from 2100 BC to 1700 BC, it is estimated that the population in this area declined by nearly three fifths. This greatly upset the balance of power within the region, weakening the areas where Sumerian was spoken, and comparatively strengthening those where Akkadian was the major language. Henceforth Sumerian would remain only a literary and liturgical language, similar to the position occupied by Latin in medieval Europe. | What was increasing agricultural productivity in the area? | What was increasing agricultural productivity in the area? | [
"What was increasing agricultural productivity in the area?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21584 | 5a652157c2b11c001a425c5d | Sumer | This period is generally taken to coincide with a major shift in population from southern Mesopotamia toward the north. Ecologically, the agricultural productivity of the Sumerian lands was being compromised as a result of rising salinity. Soil salinity in this region had been long recognized as a major problem. Poorly drained irrigated soils, in an arid climate with high levels of evaporation, led to the buildup of dissolved salts in the soil, eventually reducing agricultural yields severely. During the Akkadian and Ur III phases, there was a shift from the cultivation of wheat to the more salt-tolerant barley, but this was insufficient, and during the period from 2100 BC to 1700 BC, it is estimated that the population in this area declined by nearly three fifths. This greatly upset the balance of power within the region, weakening the areas where Sumerian was spoken, and comparatively strengthening those where Akkadian was the major language. Henceforth Sumerian would remain only a literary and liturgical language, similar to the position occupied by Latin in medieval Europe. | What crop was more salt tolerant than barley? | What crop was more salt tolerant than barley? | [
"What crop was more salt tolerant than barley?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21585 | 5a652157c2b11c001a425c5e | Sumer | This period is generally taken to coincide with a major shift in population from southern Mesopotamia toward the north. Ecologically, the agricultural productivity of the Sumerian lands was being compromised as a result of rising salinity. Soil salinity in this region had been long recognized as a major problem. Poorly drained irrigated soils, in an arid climate with high levels of evaporation, led to the buildup of dissolved salts in the soil, eventually reducing agricultural yields severely. During the Akkadian and Ur III phases, there was a shift from the cultivation of wheat to the more salt-tolerant barley, but this was insufficient, and during the period from 2100 BC to 1700 BC, it is estimated that the population in this area declined by nearly three fifths. This greatly upset the balance of power within the region, weakening the areas where Sumerian was spoken, and comparatively strengthening those where Akkadian was the major language. Henceforth Sumerian would remain only a literary and liturgical language, similar to the position occupied by Latin in medieval Europe. | What caused the population to decrease between the 21st and 17th century BC? | What caused the population to decrease between the 21st and 17th century BC? | [
"What caused the population to decrease between the 21st and 17th century BC?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21586 | 5a652157c2b11c001a425c5f | Sumer | This period is generally taken to coincide with a major shift in population from southern Mesopotamia toward the north. Ecologically, the agricultural productivity of the Sumerian lands was being compromised as a result of rising salinity. Soil salinity in this region had been long recognized as a major problem. Poorly drained irrigated soils, in an arid climate with high levels of evaporation, led to the buildup of dissolved salts in the soil, eventually reducing agricultural yields severely. During the Akkadian and Ur III phases, there was a shift from the cultivation of wheat to the more salt-tolerant barley, but this was insufficient, and during the period from 2100 BC to 1700 BC, it is estimated that the population in this area declined by nearly three fifths. This greatly upset the balance of power within the region, weakening the areas where Sumerian was spoken, and comparatively strengthening those where Akkadian was the major language. Henceforth Sumerian would remain only a literary and liturgical language, similar to the position occupied by Latin in medieval Europe. | What weakened the areas where Akkadian was spoken? | What weakened the areas where Akkadian was spoken? | [
"What weakened the areas where Akkadian was spoken?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21587 | 5730af512461fd1900a9cf8f | Sumer | The Sumerians were a non-Semitic caucasoid people, and spoke a language isolate; a number of linguists believed they could detect a substrate language beneath Sumerian, because names of some of Sumer's major cities are not Sumerian, revealing influences of earlier inhabitants. However, the archaeological record shows clear uninterrupted cultural continuity from the time of the early Ubaid period (5300 – 4700 BC C-14) settlements in southern Mesopotamia. The Sumerian people who settled here farmed the lands in this region that were made fertile by silt deposited by the Tigris and the Euphrates rivers. | Who were a non-Semitic caucasoid people? | Who were a non-Semitic caucasoid people? | [
"Who were a non-Semitic caucasoid people?"
] | {
"text": [
"The Sumerians"
],
"answer_start": [
0
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21588 | 5730af512461fd1900a9cf90 | Sumer | The Sumerians were a non-Semitic caucasoid people, and spoke a language isolate; a number of linguists believed they could detect a substrate language beneath Sumerian, because names of some of Sumer's major cities are not Sumerian, revealing influences of earlier inhabitants. However, the archaeological record shows clear uninterrupted cultural continuity from the time of the early Ubaid period (5300 – 4700 BC C-14) settlements in southern Mesopotamia. The Sumerian people who settled here farmed the lands in this region that were made fertile by silt deposited by the Tigris and the Euphrates rivers. | What influences did the Sumerian language seem to retain? | What influences did the Sumerian language seem to retain? | [
"What influences did the Sumerian language seem to retain?"
] | {
"text": [
"earlier inhabitants"
],
"answer_start": [
257
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21589 | 5730af512461fd1900a9cf91 | Sumer | The Sumerians were a non-Semitic caucasoid people, and spoke a language isolate; a number of linguists believed they could detect a substrate language beneath Sumerian, because names of some of Sumer's major cities are not Sumerian, revealing influences of earlier inhabitants. However, the archaeological record shows clear uninterrupted cultural continuity from the time of the early Ubaid period (5300 – 4700 BC C-14) settlements in southern Mesopotamia. The Sumerian people who settled here farmed the lands in this region that were made fertile by silt deposited by the Tigris and the Euphrates rivers. | What do archaeological records clearly show about the Sumerian culture? | What do archaeological records clearly show about the Sumerian culture? | [
"What do archaeological records clearly show about the Sumerian culture?"
] | {
"text": [
"uninterrupted cultural continuity"
],
"answer_start": [
325
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21590 | 5730af512461fd1900a9cf92 | Sumer | The Sumerians were a non-Semitic caucasoid people, and spoke a language isolate; a number of linguists believed they could detect a substrate language beneath Sumerian, because names of some of Sumer's major cities are not Sumerian, revealing influences of earlier inhabitants. However, the archaeological record shows clear uninterrupted cultural continuity from the time of the early Ubaid period (5300 – 4700 BC C-14) settlements in southern Mesopotamia. The Sumerian people who settled here farmed the lands in this region that were made fertile by silt deposited by the Tigris and the Euphrates rivers. | When were settlements started in southern Mesopotamia? | When were settlements started in southern Mesopotamia? | [
"When were settlements started in southern Mesopotamia?"
] | {
"text": [
"early Ubaid period"
],
"answer_start": [
380
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21591 | 5730af512461fd1900a9cf93 | Sumer | The Sumerians were a non-Semitic caucasoid people, and spoke a language isolate; a number of linguists believed they could detect a substrate language beneath Sumerian, because names of some of Sumer's major cities are not Sumerian, revealing influences of earlier inhabitants. However, the archaeological record shows clear uninterrupted cultural continuity from the time of the early Ubaid period (5300 – 4700 BC C-14) settlements in southern Mesopotamia. The Sumerian people who settled here farmed the lands in this region that were made fertile by silt deposited by the Tigris and the Euphrates rivers. | Why were the lands in the region the Sumerian people settled fertile? | Why were the lands in the region the Sumerian people settled fertile? | [
"Why were the lands in the region the Sumerian people settled fertile?"
] | {
"text": [
"silt deposited by the Tigris and the Euphrates rivers"
],
"answer_start": [
553
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21592 | 5a65223bc2b11c001a425c65 | Sumer | The Sumerians were a non-Semitic caucasoid people, and spoke a language isolate; a number of linguists believed they could detect a substrate language beneath Sumerian, because names of some of Sumer's major cities are not Sumerian, revealing influences of earlier inhabitants. However, the archaeological record shows clear uninterrupted cultural continuity from the time of the early Ubaid period (5300 – 4700 BC C-14) settlements in southern Mesopotamia. The Sumerian people who settled here farmed the lands in this region that were made fertile by silt deposited by the Tigris and the Euphrates rivers. | What people were Semitic Caucasoid? | What people were Semitic Caucasoid? | [
"What people were Semitic Caucasoid?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21593 | 5a65223bc2b11c001a425c66 | Sumer | The Sumerians were a non-Semitic caucasoid people, and spoke a language isolate; a number of linguists believed they could detect a substrate language beneath Sumerian, because names of some of Sumer's major cities are not Sumerian, revealing influences of earlier inhabitants. However, the archaeological record shows clear uninterrupted cultural continuity from the time of the early Ubaid period (5300 – 4700 BC C-14) settlements in southern Mesopotamia. The Sumerian people who settled here farmed the lands in this region that were made fertile by silt deposited by the Tigris and the Euphrates rivers. | What period began in the 53rd century? | What period began in the 53rd century? | [
"What period began in the 53rd century?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21594 | 5a65223bc2b11c001a425c67 | Sumer | The Sumerians were a non-Semitic caucasoid people, and spoke a language isolate; a number of linguists believed they could detect a substrate language beneath Sumerian, because names of some of Sumer's major cities are not Sumerian, revealing influences of earlier inhabitants. However, the archaeological record shows clear uninterrupted cultural continuity from the time of the early Ubaid period (5300 – 4700 BC C-14) settlements in southern Mesopotamia. The Sumerian people who settled here farmed the lands in this region that were made fertile by silt deposited by the Tigris and the Euphrates rivers. | Where did people fish in the Ubaid period? | Where did people fish in the Ubaid period? | [
"Where did people fish in the Ubaid period?"
] | {
"text": [],
"answer_start": []
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21595 | 5730b004396df91900096288 | Sumer | It is speculated by some archaeologists that Sumerian speakers were farmers who moved down from the north, after perfecting irrigation agriculture there. The Ubaid pottery of southern Mesopotamia has been connected via Choga Mami transitional ware to the pottery of the Samarra period culture (c. 5700 – 4900 BC C-14) in the north, who were the first to practice a primitive form of irrigation agriculture along the middle Tigris River and its tributaries. The connection is most clearly seen at Tell Awayli (Oueilli, Oueili) near Larsa, excavated by the French in the 1980s, where eight levels yielded pre-Ubaid pottery resembling Samarran ware. According to this theory, farming peoples spread down into southern Mesopotamia because they had developed a temple-centered social organization for mobilizing labor and technology for water control, enabling them to survive and prosper in a difficult environment.[citation needed] | Where do some archaeologists speculate Sumerians originally moved from? | Where do some archaeologists speculate Sumerians originally moved from? | [
"Where do some archaeologists speculate Sumerians originally moved from?"
] | {
"text": [
"the north"
],
"answer_start": [
96
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21596 | 5730b004396df91900096289 | Sumer | It is speculated by some archaeologists that Sumerian speakers were farmers who moved down from the north, after perfecting irrigation agriculture there. The Ubaid pottery of southern Mesopotamia has been connected via Choga Mami transitional ware to the pottery of the Samarra period culture (c. 5700 – 4900 BC C-14) in the north, who were the first to practice a primitive form of irrigation agriculture along the middle Tigris River and its tributaries. The connection is most clearly seen at Tell Awayli (Oueilli, Oueili) near Larsa, excavated by the French in the 1980s, where eight levels yielded pre-Ubaid pottery resembling Samarran ware. According to this theory, farming peoples spread down into southern Mesopotamia because they had developed a temple-centered social organization for mobilizing labor and technology for water control, enabling them to survive and prosper in a difficult environment.[citation needed] | What had the Sumerians perfected before coming south? | What had the Sumerians perfected before coming south? | [
"What had the Sumerians perfected before coming south?"
] | {
"text": [
"irrigation agriculture"
],
"answer_start": [
124
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21597 | 5730b004396df9190009628a | Sumer | It is speculated by some archaeologists that Sumerian speakers were farmers who moved down from the north, after perfecting irrigation agriculture there. The Ubaid pottery of southern Mesopotamia has been connected via Choga Mami transitional ware to the pottery of the Samarra period culture (c. 5700 – 4900 BC C-14) in the north, who were the first to practice a primitive form of irrigation agriculture along the middle Tigris River and its tributaries. The connection is most clearly seen at Tell Awayli (Oueilli, Oueili) near Larsa, excavated by the French in the 1980s, where eight levels yielded pre-Ubaid pottery resembling Samarran ware. According to this theory, farming peoples spread down into southern Mesopotamia because they had developed a temple-centered social organization for mobilizing labor and technology for water control, enabling them to survive and prosper in a difficult environment.[citation needed] | Who were the first to practice a primitive form of irrigation agriculture? | Who were the first to practice a primitive form of irrigation agriculture? | [
"Who were the first to practice a primitive form of irrigation agriculture?"
] | {
"text": [
"the Samarra"
],
"answer_start": [
266
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21598 | 5730b004396df9190009628b | Sumer | It is speculated by some archaeologists that Sumerian speakers were farmers who moved down from the north, after perfecting irrigation agriculture there. The Ubaid pottery of southern Mesopotamia has been connected via Choga Mami transitional ware to the pottery of the Samarra period culture (c. 5700 – 4900 BC C-14) in the north, who were the first to practice a primitive form of irrigation agriculture along the middle Tigris River and its tributaries. The connection is most clearly seen at Tell Awayli (Oueilli, Oueili) near Larsa, excavated by the French in the 1980s, where eight levels yielded pre-Ubaid pottery resembling Samarran ware. According to this theory, farming peoples spread down into southern Mesopotamia because they had developed a temple-centered social organization for mobilizing labor and technology for water control, enabling them to survive and prosper in a difficult environment.[citation needed] | How many levels of pre-Ubaid pottery were excavated by the French in the 1980s? | How many levels of pre-Ubaid pottery were excavated by the French in the 1980s? | [
"How many levels of pre-Ubaid pottery were excavated by the French in the 1980s?"
] | {
"text": [
"eight"
],
"answer_start": [
582
]
} |
gem-squad_v2-train-21599 | 5730b004396df9190009628c | Sumer | It is speculated by some archaeologists that Sumerian speakers were farmers who moved down from the north, after perfecting irrigation agriculture there. The Ubaid pottery of southern Mesopotamia has been connected via Choga Mami transitional ware to the pottery of the Samarra period culture (c. 5700 – 4900 BC C-14) in the north, who were the first to practice a primitive form of irrigation agriculture along the middle Tigris River and its tributaries. The connection is most clearly seen at Tell Awayli (Oueilli, Oueili) near Larsa, excavated by the French in the 1980s, where eight levels yielded pre-Ubaid pottery resembling Samarran ware. According to this theory, farming peoples spread down into southern Mesopotamia because they had developed a temple-centered social organization for mobilizing labor and technology for water control, enabling them to survive and prosper in a difficult environment.[citation needed] | What did the temple-centered social organization of the farming peoples allow them to mobilize? | What did the temple-centered social organization of the farming peoples allow them to mobilize? | [
"What did the temple-centered social organization of the farming peoples allow them to mobilize?"
] | {
"text": [
"labor"
],
"answer_start": [
807
]
} |
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