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these microwaves? answer : 2 10−24 j link to learning use this simulation program ( http : / / openstax. org / l / 16photelec ) to experiment with the photoelectric effect to see how intensity, frequency, type of metal, and other factors influence the ejected photons. example 6. 3 photoelectric effect identify which of... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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6. 1 • electromagnetic energy 267 check your learning calculate the threshold energy in kj / mol of electrons in aluminum, given that the lowest frequency photon for which the photoelectric effect is observed is 9. 87 1014 hz. answer : 394 kj / mol line spectra another paradox within the classical electromagnetic theor... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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. this sign shows the elaborate artistic effects that can be achieved. ( credit : dave shaver ) each emission line consists of a single wavelength of light, which implies that the light emitted by a gas consists of a set of discrete energies. for example, when an electric discharge passes through a tube containing hydr... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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as the rydberg formula could account for such precise measurements seemed astounding at the time, but it was the eventual explanation for emission spectra by neils bohr in 1913 that ultimately convinced scientists to abandon classical physics and spurred the development of modern quantum mechanics. 6. 1 • electromagnet... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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6. 2 the bohr model learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : • describe the bohr model of the hydrogen atom • use the rydberg equation to calculate energies of light emitted or absorbed by hydrogen atoms following the work of ernest rutherford and his colleagues in the early twentieth centu... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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and final orbital energies, respectively. the absolute value of the energy difference is used, since frequencies and wavelengths are always positive. instead of allowing for continuous values of energy, bohr assumed the energies of these electron orbitals were quantized : in this expression, k is a constant comprising ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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a more excited one. we can relate the energy of electrons in atoms to what we learned previously about energy. the law of conservation of energy says that we can neither create nor destroy energy. thus, if a certain amount of external energy is required to excite an electron from one energy level to another, that same ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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, the ionization energy would be : ∞ with three extremely puzzling paradoxes now solved ( blackbody radiation, the photoelectric effect, and the hydrogen atom ), and all involving planck ’ s constant in a fundamental manner, it became clear to most physicists at that time that the classical theories that worked so well... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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6. 2 • the bohr model 271 figure 6. 14 quantum numbers and energy levels in a hydrogen atom. the more negative the calculated value, the lower the energy. example 6. 4 calculating the energy of an electron in a bohr orbit early researchers were very excited when they were able to predict the energy of an electron at a ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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states is given by this expression : this energy difference is positive, indicating a photon enters the system ( is absorbed ) to excite the electron 6. 2 • the bohr model 273 from the n = 4 orbit up to the n = 6 orbit. the wavelength of a photon with this energy is found by the expression rearrangement gives : from th... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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6. 198 10 – 19 j ; 3. 205 10−7 m bohr ’ s model of the hydrogen atom provides insight into the behavior of matter at the microscopic level, but it does not account for electron – electron interactions in atoms with more than one electron. it does introduce several important features of all models used to describe the d... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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6. 3 development of quantum theory learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : • extend the concept of wave – particle duality that was observed in electromagnetic radiation to matter as well • understand the general idea of the quantum mechanical description of electrons in an atom, and that ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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show interference patterns that are not displayed by macroscopic particles such as the billiard ball. for example, interacting waves on the surface of water can produce interference patterns similar to those shown on figure 6. 16. this is a case of wave behavior on the macroscopic scale, and it is clear that particles ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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where bohr had postulated the electron as being a particle orbiting the nucleus in quantized orbits, de broglie argued that bohr ’ s assumption of quantization can be explained if the electron is considered not as a particle, but rather as a circular standing wave such that only an integer number of wavelengths could f... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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6. 3 • development of quantum theory 275 figure 6. 17 if an electron is viewed as a wave circling around the nucleus, an integer number of wavelengths must fit into the orbit for this standing wave behavior to be possible. for a circular orbit of radius r, the circumference is 2πr, and so de broglie ’ s condition is : ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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– particle duality first observed with photons is actually a fundamental behavior intrinsic to all quantum particles. 276 6 • electronic structure and periodic properties of elements access for free at openstax. org figure 6. 18 ( a ) the interference pattern for electrons passing through very closely spaced slits demo... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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1. 9 10 – 34 m. we never think of a thrown softball having a wavelength, since this wavelength is so small it is impossible for our senses or any known instrument to detect ( strictly speaking, the wavelength of a real baseball would correspond to the wavelengths of its constituent atoms and molecules, which, while muc... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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uncertainty in the position or momentum of a macroscopic object like a baseball is too insignificant to observe. however, the mass of a microscopic object such as an electron is small enough that the uncertainty can be large and significant. it should be noted that heisenberg ’ s uncertainty principle is not just limit... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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ψ that is still accepted today : electrons are still particles, and so the waves represented by ψ are not physical waves but, instead, are complex probability amplitudes. the square of the magnitude of a wavefunction describes the probability of the quantum particle being present near a certain location in space. this ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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levels. the energy levels are labeled with an n value, where n = 1, 2, 3, …. generally speaking, the energy of an electron in an atom is greater for greater values of n. this number, n, is referred to as the principal quantum number. the principal quantum number defines the location of the energy level. it is essential... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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6. 3 • development of quantum theory 279 between the positive charges of the protons and the negative charges of the electrons. so the further away the electron is from the nucleus, the greater the energy it has. figure 6. 19 different shells are numbered by principal quantum numbers. this quantum mechanical model for ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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orbital with n = 1 can have only one value of l, l = 0, whereas n = 2 permits l = 0 and l = 1, and so on. whereas the principal quantum number, n, defines the general size and energy of the orbital, the secondary quantum number l specifies the shape of the orbital. orbitals with the same value of l define a subshell. o... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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0 – 1 = 2 nodes for the 3s orbitals. the s subshell electron density distribution is spherical and the p subshell has a dumbbell shape. the d and f orbitals are more complex. these shapes represent the three - dimensional regions within which the electron is likely to be found. | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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6. 3 • development of quantum theory 281 figure 6. 21 shapes of s, p, d, and f orbitals. the magnetic quantum number, ml, specifies the relative spatial orientation of a particular orbital. generally speaking, ml can be equal to – l, – ( l – 1 ), …, 0, …, ( l – 1 ), l. the total number of possible orbitals with the sam... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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, li2 +, and so on ), energies of all the orbitals with the same n are the same. this is called a degeneracy, and the energy levels for the same principal quantum number, n, are called degenerate orbitals. however, in atoms with more than one electron, this degeneracy is eliminated by the electron – electron interactio... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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" each electron acts as a tiny magnet or a tiny rotating object with an angular momentum, or as a loop with an electric current, even though this rotation or current cannot be observed in terms of spatial coordinates. the magnitude of the overall electron spin can only have one value, and an electron can only “ spin ” ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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6. 3 • development of quantum theory 283 figure 6. 23 electrons with spin values in an external magnetic field. figure 6. 23 illustrates this phenomenon. an electron acts like a tiny magnet. its moment is directed up ( in the positive direction of the z axis ) for the spin quantum number and down ( in the negative z di... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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). therefore, any atomic orbital can be populated by only zero, one, or two electrons. the properties and meaning of the quantum numbers of electrons in atoms are briefly summarized in table 6. 1. quantum numbers, their properties, and significance name symbol allowed values physical meaning principal quantum number n ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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ml can have values of – 3, – 2, – 1, 0, + 1, + 2, + 3, and we can have seven 4f orbitals. thus, we find a total of 16 orbitals in the n = 4 shell of an atom. check your learning identify the subshell in which electrons with the following quantum numbers are found : ( a ) n = 3, l = 1 ; ( b ) n = 5, l = 3 ; ( c ) n = 2,... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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6. 3 • development of quantum theory 285 again, each orbital holds two electrons, so 50 electrons can fit in this shell. ( c ) the number of orbitals in any shell n will equal n2. there can be up to two electrons in each orbital, so the maximum number of electrons will be 2 n2. check your learning if a shell contains a... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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6. 4 electronic structure of atoms ( electron configurations ) learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : • derive the predicted ground - state electron configurations of atoms • identify and explain exceptions to predicted electron configurations for atoms and ions • relate electron configur... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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6s. the filling order is based on observed experimental results, and has been confirmed by theoretical calculations. as the principal quantum number, n, increases, the size of the orbital increases and the electrons spend more time farther from the nucleus. thus, the attraction to the nucleus is weaker and the energy a... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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6. 4 • electronic structure of atoms ( electron configurations ) 287 that all electrons have −1 charges, but nuclei have + z charges ). this phenomenon is called shielding and will be discussed in more detail in the next section. electrons in orbitals that experience more shielding are less stabilized and thus higher i... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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##ell until we have described the electron configurations of all the elements. this procedure is called the aufbau principle, from the german word aufbau ( “ to build up ” ). each added electron occupies the subshell of lowest energy available ( in the order shown in figure 6. 24 ), subject to the limitations imposed b... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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of one proton and one electron. referring to figure | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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6. 26 or figure 6. 27, we would expect to find the electron in the 1s orbital. by convention, the value is usually filled first. the electron configuration and the orbital diagram are : following hydrogen is the noble gas helium, which has an atomic number of 2. the helium atom contains two protons and two electrons. t... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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6. 4 • electronic structure of atoms ( electron configurations ) 289 the next atom is the alkali metal lithium with an atomic number of 3. the first two electrons in lithium fill the 1s orbital and have the same sets of four quantum numbers as the two electrons in helium. the remaining electron must occupy the orbital ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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two electrons in the carbon 2p orbitals have identical n, l, and ms quantum numbers and differ in their ml quantum number ( in accord with the pauli exclusion principle ). the electron configuration and orbital diagram for carbon are : nitrogen ( atomic number 7 ) fills the 1s and 2s subshells and has one electron in e... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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[ ne ] 3s1. figure 6. 28 a core - abbreviated electron configuration ( right ) replaces the core electrons with the noble gas symbol whose configuration matches the core electron configuration of the other element. similarly, the abbreviated configuration of lithium can be represented as [ he ] 2s1, where [ he ] repres... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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6. 4 • electronic structure of atoms ( electron configurations ) 291 figure 6. 29 this version of the periodic table shows the outer - shell electron configuration of each element. note that down each group, the configuration is often similar. when we come to the next element in the periodic table, the alkali metal pot... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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( n – 1 ) shell next to the n shell to bring that ( n – 1 ) shell from 8 to 18 electrons. for two series, lanthanum ( la ) through lutetium ( lu ) and actinium ( ac ) through lawrencium ( lr ), 14 f electrons ( l = 3, 2l + 1 = 7 ml values ; thus, seven orbitals with a combined capacity of 14 electrons ) are successivel... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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the order of filling of orbitals that are shown in figure 6. 26 or figure 6. 27. for instance, the electron configurations ( shown in figure 6. 29 ) of the transition metals chromium ( cr ; atomic number 24 ) and copper ( cu ; atomic number 29 ), among others, are not those we would expect. in general, such exceptions ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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##nce electrons play the most important role in chemical reactions. the outer electrons have the highest energy of the electrons in an atom and are more easily lost or shared than the core electrons. valence electrons are also the determining factor in some physical properties of the elements. elements in any one group... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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6. 4 • electronic structure of atoms ( electron configurations ) 293 and sodium each have only one valence electron, the alkaline earth metals beryllium and magnesium each have two, and the halogens fluorine and chlorine each have seven valence electrons. the similarity in chemical properties among elements of the same... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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. 2. transition elements or transition metals. these are metallic elements in which the last electron added enters a d orbital. the valence electrons ( those added after the last noble gas configuration ) in these elements include the ns and ( n – 1 ) d electrons. the official iupac definition of transition elements sp... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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– 1 ) d or ( n – 2 ) f electrons are removed. an anion ( negatively charged ion ) forms when one or more electrons are added to a parent atom. the added electrons fill in the order predicted by the aufbau principle. example 6. 11 predicting electron configurations of ions what is the electron configuration of : ( a ) n... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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##d6. iron ( ii ) loses two electrons and, since it is a transition metal, they are removed from the 4s orbital fe2 + : 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d6 = 1s22s22p63s23p63d6. ( e ). sm : 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d105p66s24f6. samarium trication loses three electrons. the first two will be lost from the 6s orbital, and the fin... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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6. 5 periodic variations in element properties learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : • describe and explain the observed trends in atomic size, ionization energy, and electron affinity of the elements the elements in groups ( vertical columns ) of the periodic table exhibit similar chemi... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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6. 5 • periodic variations in element properties 295 variation in covalent radius the quantum mechanical picture makes it difficult to establish a definite size of an atom. however, there are several practical ways to define the radius of atoms and, thus, to determine their relative sizes that give roughly similar valu... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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6. 5 • periodic variations in element properties 297 figure 6. 31 within each period, the trend in atomic radius decreases as z increases ; for example, from k to kr. within each group ( e. g., the alkali metals shown in purple ), the trend is that atomic radius increases as z increases. as shown in figure 6. 31, as we... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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farthest from the nucleus. as a general rule, when the representative elements form cations, they do so by the loss of the ns or np electrons that were added last in the aufbau process. the transition elements, on the other hand, lose the ns electrons before they begin to lose the ( n – 1 ) d electrons, even though the... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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to the lost electrons ; the radius for an anion is larger than the parent ( s ), due to the gained electrons. cations with larger charges are smaller than cations with smaller charges ( e. g., v2 + has an ionic radius of 79 pm, while that of v3 + is 64 pm ). proceeding down the groups of the periodic table, we find tha... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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the nuclear charge, the smaller the radius in a series of isoelectronic ions and atoms. variation in ionization energies the amount of energy required to remove the most loosely bound electron from a gaseous atom in its ground state is called its first ionization energy ( ie1 ). the first ionization energy for an eleme... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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6. 5 • periodic variations in element properties 299 the energy required to remove the second most loosely bound electron is called the second ionization energy ( ie2 ). the energy required to remove the third electron is the third ionization energy, and so on. energy is always required to remove electrons from atoms o... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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electron ; this results in a lower first ionization energy for boron, even though its nuclear charge is greater by one proton. thus, we see a small deviation from the predicted trend occurring each time a new subshell begins. figure 6. 33 the first ionization energy of the elements in the first five periods are plotted... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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element ie1 ie2 ie3 ie4 ie5 ie6 ie7 k 418. 8 3051. 8 4419. 6 5876. 9 7975. 5 9590. 6 11343 ca 589. 8 1145. 4 4912. 4 6490. 6 8153. 0 10495. 7 12272. 9 sc 633. 1 1235. 0 2388. 7 7090. 6 8842. 9 10679. 0 13315. 0 ga 578. 8 1979. 4 2964. 6 6180 8298. 7 10873. 9 13594. 8 table 6. 3 6. 5 • periodic variations in element pro... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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12311. 5 not available table 6. 3 example 6. 13 ranking ionization energies predict the order of increasing energy for the following processes : ie1 for al, ie1 for tl, ie2 for na, ie3 for al. solution removing the 6p1 electron from tl is easier than removing the 3p1 electron from al because the higher n orbital is far... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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, and so on. as we might predict, it becomes easier to add an electron across a series of atoms as the effective nuclear charge of the atoms increases. we find, as we go from left to right across a period, eas tend to become more negative. the exceptions found among the elements of group 2 ( 2a ), group 15 ( 5a ), and ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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fluoride anion ( f – ), we add an electron to the n = 2 shell. the electron is attracted to the nucleus, but there is also significant repulsion from the other electrons already present in this small valence shell. the chlorine atom has the same electron configuration in the valence shell, but because the entering elec... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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6. 5 • periodic variations in element properties 303 key terms amplitude extent of the displacement caused by a wave atomic orbital mathematical function that describes the behavior of an electron in an atom ( also called the wavefunction ) aufbau principle procedure in which the electron configuration of the elements ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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squared absolute value of the wave function ψ excited state state having an energy greater than the ground - state energy f orbital multilobed region of space with high electron density, describes orbitals with l = 3 frequency ( ν ) number of wave cycles ( peaks or troughs ) that pass a specified point in space per uni... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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quantum numbers photon smallest possible packet of electromagnetic radiation, a particle of light principal quantum number ( n ) quantum number 304 6 • key terms access for free at openstax. org specifying the shell an electron occupies in an atom quantization limitation of some property to specific discrete values, no... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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. 1 electromagnetic energy light and other forms of electromagnetic radiation move through a vacuum with a constant speed, c, of | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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2. 998 108 m s−1. this radiation shows wavelike behavior, which can be characterized by a frequency, ν, and a wavelength, λ, such that c = λν. light is an example of a travelling wave. other important wave phenomena include standing waves, periodic oscillations, and vibrations. standing waves exhibit quantization, sinc... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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. the resolution of these paradoxes ultimately led to quantum theories that superseded the classical theories. | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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6. 2 the bohr model bohr incorporated planck ’ s and einstein ’ s quantization ideas into a model of the hydrogen atom that resolved the paradox of atom stability and discrete spectra. the bohr model of the hydrogen atom explains the connection between the quantization of photons and the quantized emission from atoms. ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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6. 3 development of quantum theory macroscopic objects act as particles. microscopic objects ( such as electrons ) have properties of both a particle and a wave. their exact trajectories cannot be determined. the quantum mechanical model of atoms describes the three - dimensional position of the electron in a probabili... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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6. 4 electronic structure of atoms ( electron configurations ) the relative energy of the subshells determine the order in which atomic orbitals are filled ( 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, and so on ). electron configurations and orbital diagrams can be determined by applying the pauli exclusion principle ( no two ele... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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6. 5 periodic variations in element properties electron configurations allow us to understand many periodic trends. covalent radius increases as we move down a group because the n level ( orbital size ) increases. covalent radius mostly decreases as we move left to right across a period because the effective nuclear ch... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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6. 1 electromagnetic energy 1. the light produced by a red neon sign is due to the emission of light by excited neon atoms. qualitatively describe the spectrum produced by passing light from a neon lamp through a prism. 2. an fm radio station found at 103. 1 on the fm dial broadcasts at a frequency of 1. 031 108 s−1 ( ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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of the two lines? what color do we see when we heat a rubidium compound? 9. the emission spectrum of cesium contains two lines whose frequencies are ( a ) 3. 45 1014 hz and ( b ) 6. 53 1014 hz. what are the wavelengths and energies per photon of the two lines? what color are the lines? 10. photons of infrared radiation... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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1. 5 10−6 m must be absorbed by the water to warm a cup of water ( 175 g ) from 25. 0 °c to 40 °c? 11. one of the radiographic devices used in a dentist's office emits an x - ray of wavelength 2. 090 10−11 m. what is the energy, in joules, and frequency of this x - ray? 12. the eyes of certain reptiles pass a single vi... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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the numerical aperture. numerical aperture is a measure of the size of the spot of light on the disk ; the larger the na, the smaller the spot. in a typical blu - ray system, na = 0. 95. if the 405 - nm laser is used in a blu - ray player, what is the closest that information can be stored on a blu - ray disk? ( d ) th... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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6. 2 the bohr model 16. why is the electron in a bohr hydrogen atom bound less tightly when it has a quantum number of 3 than when it has a quantum number of 1? 17. what does it mean to say that the energy of the electrons in an atom is quantized? 18. using the bohr model, determine the energy, in joules, necessary to ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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n = 5 to the orbit with n = 2. 27. using the bohr model, determine the energy in joules of the photon produced when an electron in a li2 + ion moves from the orbit with n = 2 to the orbit with n = 1. 28. consider a large number of hydrogen atoms with electrons randomly distributed in the n = 1, 2, 3, and 4 orbits. ( a ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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6. 3 development of quantum theory 31. how are the bohr model and the quantum mechanical model of the hydrogen atom similar? how are they different? 32. what are the allowed values for each of the four quantum numbers : n, l, ml, and ms? 33. describe the properties of an electron associated with each of the following f... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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z )? ( b ) how many orbitals of type ( x ) are found in a shell with n = 2? how many of type ( y )? how many of type ( z )? ( c ) write a set of quantum numbers for an electron in an orbital of type ( x ) in a shell with n = 4. of an orbital of type ( y ) in a shell with n = 2. of an orbital of type ( z ) in a shell wi... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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6. 4 electronic structure of atoms ( electron configurations ) 46. read the labels of several commercial products and identify monatomic ions of at least four transition elements contained in the products. write the complete electron configurations of these cations. 47. read the labels of several commercial products an... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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( b ) ca2 + ( c ) s – ( d ) cs2 + ( e ) cr2 + ( f ) gd3 + 55. which atom has the electron configuration 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d2? 56. which atom has the electron configuration 1s22s22p63s23p63d74s2? 57. which ion with a + 1 charge has the electron configuration 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p6? which ion with a – 2 cha... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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+ ( d ) ca2 + ( e ) ti 65. cobalt – 60 and iodine – 131 are radioactive isotopes commonly used in nuclear medicine. how many protons, neutrons, and electrons are in atoms of these isotopes? write the complete electron configuration for each isotope. 66. write a set of quantum numbers for each of the electrons with an n... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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6. 5 periodic variations in element properties 67. based on their positions in the periodic table, predict which has the smallest atomic radius : mg, sr, si, cl, i. 68. based on their positions in the periodic table, predict which has the largest atomic radius : li, rb, n, f, i. 69. based on their positions in the peri... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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, cl –? 80. which of the following atoms and ions is ( are ) isoelectronic with s2 + : si4 +, cl3 +, ar, as3 +, si, al3 +? 81. compare both the numbers of protons and electrons present in each to rank the following ions in order of increasing radius : as3 –, br –, k +, mg2 +. 82. of the five elements al, cl, i, na, rb,... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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##minster fuller ( 1895 – 1983 ), whose signature architectural design was the geodesic dome, characterized by a lattice shell structure supporting a spherical surface. experimental evidence revealed the formula, c60, and then scientists determined how 60 carbon atoms could form one symmetric, stable molecule. they wer... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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7. 1 ionic bonding learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : • explain the formation of cations, anions, and ionic compounds • predict the charge of common metallic and nonmetallic elements, and write their electron configurations figure 7. 1 nicknamed “ buckyballs, ” buckminsterfullerene mo... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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about freely. neutral atoms and their associated ions have very different physical and chemical properties. sodium atoms form sodium metal, a soft, silvery - white metal that burns vigorously in air and reacts explosively with water. chlorine atoms form chlorine gas, cl2, a yellow - green gas that is extremely corrosiv... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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right corner of the periodic table. as all substances must be electrically neutral, the total number of positive charges on the cations of an ionic compound must equal the total number of negative charges on its anions. the formula of an ionic compound represents the simplest ratio of the numbers of ions necessary to g... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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of energy to dissociate one mole of solid nacl into separate gaseous na + and cl – ions : electronic structures of cations when forming a cation, an atom of a main group element tends to lose all of its valence electrons, thus assuming the electronic structure of the noble gas that precedes it in the periodic table. fo... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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bi3 + ions. the formation of these 1 +, 2 +, and 3 + cations is ascribed to the inert pair effect, which reflects the relatively low energy of the valence s - electron pair for atoms of the heavy elements of groups 13, 14, and 15. mercury ( group 12 ) also exhibits an unexpected behavior : it forms a diatomic ion, ( an... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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7. 1 • ionic bonding 315 the transition elements are — according to the aufbau principle — the last to fill when building up electron configurations, the outermost s electrons are the first to be lost when these atoms ionize. when the inner transition metals form ions, they usually have a 3 + charge, resulting from the... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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[ ne ] electronic structures of anions most monatomic anions form when a neutral nonmetal atom gains enough electrons to completely fill its outer s and p orbitals, thereby reaching the electron configuration of the next noble gas. thus, it is simple to determine the charge on such a negative ion : the charge is equal ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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7. 2 covalent bonding learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : • describe the formation of covalent bonds • define electronegativity and assess the polarity of covalent bonds ionic bonding results from the electrostatic attraction of oppositely charged ions that are typically produced by th... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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by the red line. along the x - axis is the distance between the two atoms. as the two atoms approach each other ( moving left along the x - axis ), their valence orbitals ( 1s ) begin to overlap. the single electrons on each hydrogen atom then interact with both atomic nuclei, occupying the space around both atoms. the... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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7. 2 • covalent bonding 317 figure 7. 4 the potential energy of two separate hydrogen atoms ( right ) decreases as they approach each other, and the single electrons on each atom are shared to form a covalent bond. the bond length is the internuclear distance at which the lowest potential energy is achieved. it is esse... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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more attracted to one atom than the other, giving rise to a shift of electron density toward that atom. this unequal distribution of electrons is known as a polar covalent bond, characterized by a partial positive charge on one atom and a partial negative charge on the other. the atom that attracts the electrons more s... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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shared electrons are distributed between the two atoms in a bond. the more strongly an atom attracts the electrons in its bonds, the larger its electronegativity. electrons in a polar covalent bond are shifted toward the more electronegative atom ; thus, the more electronegative atom is the one with the partial negativ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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7. 2 • covalent bonding 319 figure 7. 6 the electronegativity values derived by pauling follow predictable periodic trends, with the higher electronegativities toward the upper right of the periodic table. electronegativity versus electron affinity we must be careful not to confuse electronegativity and electron affini... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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0.006546545308083296,
-... |
type the absolute value of the difference in electronegativity ( δen ) of two bonded atoms provides a rough measure of the polarity to be expected in the bond and, thus, the bond type. when the difference is very small or zero, the bond is covalent and nonpolar. when it is large, the bond is polar covalent or ionic. th... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.014979854226112366,
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0.015562375076115131,
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0.0493166409432888,
0.03327374905347824,
0.013195117935538292,
0.0213050227612257,
-0.... |
nonmetal is often ionic. some compounds contain both covalent and ionic bonds. the atoms in polyatomic ions, such as oh –, and are held together by polar covalent bonds. however, these polyatomic ions form ionic compounds by combining with ions of opposite charge. for example, potassium nitrate, kno3, contains the k + ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
0.002950129099190235,
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0.007859274744987488,
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0.014466505497694016,
-0.04866... |
##tivity values in figure 7. 6, arrange the bonds in order of increasing polarity and designate the positive and negative atoms using the symbols δ + and δ –. answer : bond electronegativity difference polarity c – c 0. 0 nonpolar c – h 0. 4 si – c 0. 7 si – o 1. 7 | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.01449426170438528,
0.04720088094472885,
0.01108756847679615,
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0.05006930232048035,
0.01410446036607027,
0.04144125431776047,
-0.0029315282590687275,
-0.027... |
7. 3 lewis symbols and structures learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : • write lewis symbols for neutral atoms and ions • draw lewis structures depicting the bonding in simple molecules 322 7 • chemical bonding and molecular geometry access for free at openstax. org thus far in this cha... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
0.012071432545781136,
0.037283916026353836,
0.05675790086388588,
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0.05784451961517334,
0.04840279370546341,
0.019377848133444786,
0.004803572781383991,
-0.04... |
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