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29. 2 the photoelectric effect 6. is visible light the only type of em radiation that can cause the photoelectric effect? 7. which aspects of the photoelectric effect cannot be explained without photons? which can be explained without photons? are the latter inconsistent with the existence of photons? 8. is the photoel... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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29. 3 photon energies and the electromagnetic spectrum 11. why are uv, x rays, and rays called ionizing radiation? 12. how can treating food with ionizing radiation help keep it from spoiling? uv is not very penetrating. what else could be used? 13. some television tubes are crts. they use an approximately 30 - kv acce... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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electrons? how are they analogous? 23. describe one type of evidence for the wave nature of matter. 24. describe one type of evidence for the particle nature of em radiation. 29. 7 probability : the heisenberg uncertainty principle 25. what is the heisenberg uncertainty principle? does it place limits on what can be kn... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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29. 1 quantization of energy 1. a libr molecule oscillates with a frequency of ( a ) what is the difference in energy in ev between allowed oscillator states? ( b ) what is the approximate value of for a state having an energy of 1. 0 ev? 2. the difference in energy between allowed oscillator states in hbr molecules is... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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29. 2 the photoelectric effect 4. what is the longest - wavelength em radiation that can eject a photoelectron from silver, given that the binding energy is 4. 73 ev? is this in the visible range? 5. find the longest - wavelength photon that can eject an electron from potassium, given that the binding energy is 2. 24 e... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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to the material by 4. 73 ev? 15. photoelectrons from a material with a binding energy of 2. 71 ev are ejected by 420 - nm photons. once ejected, how long does it take these electrons to travel 2. 50 cm to a detection device? 16. a laser with a power output of 2. 00 mw at a wavelength of 400 nm is projected onto calcium... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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29. 3 photon energies and the electromagnetic spectrum 20. what is the energy in joules and ev of a photon in a radio wave from an am station that has a 1530 - khz broadcast frequency? 21. ( a ) find the energy in joules and ev of photons in radio waves from an fm station that has a 90. 0 - mhz broadcast frequency. ( b... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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0. 0103 nm? 30. ( a ) what is the ratio of power outputs by two microwave ovens having frequencies of 950 and 2560 mhz, if they emit the same number of photons per second? ( b ) what is the ratio of photons per second if they have the same power output? 31. how many photons per second are emitted by the antenna of a mi... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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range ( typical for incandescent bulbs ) with an average wavelength of 580 nm, and that the photons spread out uniformly and are not absorbed by the atmosphere, how far away would you be if 500 photons per second enter the 3. 00 - mm diameter pupil of your eye? ( this number easily stimulates the retina. ) 37. construc... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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29. 4 photon momentum 38. ( a ) find the momentum of a 4. 00 - cm - wavelength microwave photon. ( b ) discuss why you expect the answer to ( a ) to be very small. 39. ( a ) what is the momentum of a 0. 0100 - nm - wavelength photon that could detect details of an atom? ( b ) what is its energy in mev? 40. ( a ) what i... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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problem in which you calculate the light pressure on the sail in produced by reflecting sunlight. also calculate the force that could be produced and how much effect that would have on a spacecraft. among the things to be considered are the intensity of sunlight, its average wavelength, the number of photons per square... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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29. 6 the wave nature of matter 49. at what velocity will an electron have a wavelength of 1. 00 m? 50. what is the wavelength of an electron moving at 3. 00 % of the speed of light? 51. at what velocity does a proton have a 6. 00 - fm wavelength ( about the size of a nucleus )? assume the proton is nonrelativistic. ( ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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was the equivalent voltage through which it was accelerated? 60. the kinetic energy of an electron accelerated in an x - ray tube is 100 kev. assuming it is nonrelativistic, what is its wavelength? 61. unreasonable results ( a ) assuming it is nonrelativistic, calculate the velocity of an electron with a 0. 100 - fm wa... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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29. 7 probability : the heisenberg uncertainty principle 62. ( a ) if the position of an electron in a membrane is measured to an accuracy of, what is the electron ’ s minimum uncertainty in velocity? ( b ) if the electron has this velocity, what is its kinetic energy in ev? ( c ) what are the implications of this ener... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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smallest lifetime it can have? 70. what is the approximate uncertainty in the mass of a muon, as determined from its decay lifetime? 71. derive the approximate form of heisenberg ’ s uncertainty principle for energy and time,, using the following arguments : since the position of a particle is uncertain by, where is th... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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29. 8 the particle - wave duality reviewed 72. integrated concepts the 54. 0 - ev electron in example 29. 7 has a 0. 167 - nm wavelength. if such electrons are passed through a double slit and have their first maximum at an angle of, what is the slit separation? 73. integrated concepts an electron microscope produces e... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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50. 0 gev? ( b ) find its momentum. ( c ) what is the electron ’ s wavelength? 78. integrated concepts ( a ) what is for a proton having an energy of 1. 00 tev, produced by the fermilab accelerator? ( b ) find its momentum. ( c ) what is the proton ’ s wavelength? 79. integrated concepts an electron microscope passes 1... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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the energy of the x - ray photons is 200 kev, and of them are absorbed per kilogram of tissue, the specific heat of which is. ( note that medical diagnostic x - ray machines cannot produce an intensity this great. ) 84. integrated concepts a 1. 00 - fm photon has a wavelength short enough to detect some information abo... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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a collision with an electron. use for planck ’ s constant. ( a ) how much momentum does the photon have before the collision? ( b ) if the wavelength of the photon leaving the collision is 650. 0 nm, how much momentum does the photon have? ( c ) does the momentum have to be conserved in every direction? ( d ) does a lo... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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30. 1 discovery of the atom learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : • describe the basic structure of the atom, the substructure of all matter. how do we know that atoms are really there if we cannot see them with our eyes? a brief account of the progression from the proposal of atoms by t... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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( solid, gas, plasma, and liquid ), rather than the basic elements. more than 2000 years passed before observations could be made with equipment capable of revealing the true nature of atoms. over the centuries, discoveries were made regarding the properties of substances and their chemical reactions. certain systemati... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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elements were discovered and determined to have properties predicted by mendeleev, his periodic table became universally accepted. also during the 19th century, the kinetic theory of gases was developed. kinetic theory is based on the existence of atoms and molecules in random thermal motion and provides a microscopic ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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is still bearing fruit. 1320 30 • atomic physics access for free at openstax. org figure 30. 2 the position of a pollen grain in water, measured every few seconds under a microscope, exhibits brownian motion. brownian motion is due to fluctuations in the number of atoms and molecules colliding with a small mass, causin... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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already convinced of the existence of atoms, but the accurate observation and analysis of brownian motion was conclusive — it was the first truly direct evidence. a huge array of direct and indirect evidence for the existence of atoms now exists. for example, it has become possible to accelerate ions ( much as electron... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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30. 2 discovery of the parts of the atom : electrons and nuclei learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : • describe how electrons were discovered. • explain the millikan oil drop experiment. • describe rutherford ’ s gold foil experiment. • describe rutherford ’ s planetary model of the ato... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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the direction expected for a negative charge moving away from the cathode. these were the first direct indications of electrons and their charge. figure 30. 4 a gas discharge tube glows when a high voltage is applied to it. electrons emitted from the cathode are accelerated toward the anode ; they excite atoms and mole... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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placed between the poles of a magnet so that the electric field is perpendicular to the magnetic field of the magnet. these fields, being perpendicular to each other, produce opposing forces on the electrons. as discussed for mass spectrometers in more applications of magnetism, if the net force due to the fields vanis... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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30. 2 • discovery of the parts of the atom : electrons and nuclei 1323 figure 30. 7 this schematic shows the electron beam in a crt passing through crossed electric and magnetic fields and causing phosphor to glow when striking the end of the tube. to see how the amount of deflection is used to calculate, note that the... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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30. 6 1324 30 • atomic physics access for free at openstax. org charge per kilogram than for the electron. since the charges of electrons and protons are equal in magnitude, this implies. thomson performed a variety of experiments using differing gases in discharge tubes and employing other methods, such as the photoel... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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electrons, one of the most fundamental constants in nature. fine drops of oil become charged when sprayed. their movement is observed between metal plates with a potential applied to oppose the gravitational force. the balance of gravitational and electric forces allows the calculation of the charge on a drop. the char... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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30. 2 • discovery of the parts of the atom : electrons and nuclei 1325 electrons on the oil drops. in the millikan oil drop experiment, fine drops of oil are sprayed from an atomizer. some of these are charged by the process and can then be suspended between metal plates by a voltage between the plates. in this situati... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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s mass can be calculated. it is substituting known values yields or where the round - off errors have been corrected. the mass of the electron has been verified in many subsequent experiments and is now known to an accuracy of better than one part in one million. it is an incredibly small mass and remains the smallest ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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30. 12 1326 30 • atomic physics access for free at openstax. org the nucleus here, we examine the first direct evidence of the size and mass of the nucleus. in later chapters, we will examine many other aspects of nuclear physics, but the basic information on nuclear size and mass is so important to understanding the a... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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fall upon the foil. the number of particles that penetrate the foil or scatter to various angles indicates that gold nuclei are very small and contain nearly all of the gold atom ’ s mass. this is particularly indicated by the alpha particles that scatter to very large angles, much like a soccer ball bouncing off a goa... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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on. although the results of the experiment were published by his colleagues in 1909, it took rutherford two years to convince himself of their meaning. like thomson before him, rutherford was reluctant to accept such radical | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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30. 2 • discovery of the parts of the atom : electrons and nuclei 1327 results. nature on a small scale is so unlike our classical world that even those at the forefront of discovery are sometimes surprised. rutherford later wrote : “ it was almost as incredible as if you fired a 15 - inch shell at a piece of tissue pa... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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head - on and is scattered straight backward. figure 30. 11 an expanded view of the atoms in the gold foil in rutherford ’ s experiment. circles represent the atoms ( about in diameter ), while the dots represent the nuclei ( about in diameter ). to be visible, the dots are much larger than scale. most alpha particles ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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next few sections. also, it was an indication of how different nature is from the familiar classical world on the small, quantum mechanical scale. the discovery of a substructure to all matter in the form of atoms and molecules was now being taken a step further to reveal a substructure of atoms that was simpler than t... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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30. 3 bohr ’ s theory of the hydrogen atom learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : • describe the mysteries of atomic spectra. • explain bohr ’ s theory of the hydrogen atom. • explain bohr ’ s planetary model of the atom. • illustrate energy state using the energy - level diagram. • descr... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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30. 3 • bohr ’ s theory of the hydrogen atom 1329 emission and absorption spectra have been known for over a century to be discrete ( or quantized ). ( see figure 30. 14. ) maxwell and others had realized that there must be a connection between the spectrum of an atom and its structure, something like the resonant freq... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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emitted em radiation and is the rydberg constant, determined by the experiment to be the constant is a positive integer associated with a specific series. for the lyman series, ; for the balmer series, ; for the paschen series, ; and so on. the lyman series is entirely in the uv, while part of the balmer series is visi... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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30. 14 1330 30 • atomic physics access for free at openstax. org figure 30. 15 a schematic of the hydrogen spectrum shows several series named for those who contributed most to their determination. part of the balmer series is in the visible spectrum, while the lyman series is entirely in the uv, and the paschen series... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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30. 3 • bohr ’ s theory of the hydrogen atom 1331 where is the distance between slits and is the angle from the original direction of the beam. the number is the order of the interference ; in this example. solving for and entering known values yields discussion for ( b ) this number is similar to those used in the int... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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has the orbits of the electrons quantized. only certain orbits are allowed, explaining why atomic spectra are discrete ( quantized ). the energy carried away from an atom by a photon comes from the electron dropping from one allowed orbit to another and is thus quantized. this is likewise true for atomic absorption of ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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30. 19 1332 30 • atomic physics access for free at openstax. org figure 30. 17 an energy - level diagram plots energy vertically and is useful in visualizing the energy states of a system and the transitions between them. this diagram is for the hydrogen - atom electrons, showing a transition between two orbits having ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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by the greater attractive force between the electron and nucleus. the magnitude of the centripetal force is, while the coulomb force is. the tacit assumption here is that the nucleus is more massive than the stationary electron, and the electron orbits about it. this is consistent with the planetary model of the atom. ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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30. 3 • bohr ’ s theory of the hydrogen atom 1333 these last two equations can be used to calculate the radii of the allowed ( quantized ) electron orbits in any hydrogen - like atom. it is impressive that the formula gives the correct size of hydrogen, which is measured experimentally to be very close to the bohr radi... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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30. 28 1334 30 • atomic physics access for free at openstax. org figure 30. 19 shows an energy - level diagram for hydrogen that also illustrates how the various spectral series for hydrogen are related to transitions between energy levels. figure 30. 19 energy - level diagram for hydrogen showing the lyman, balmer, an... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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30. 3 • bohr ’ s theory of the hydrogen atom 1335 is the rydberg constant. thus, we have used bohr ’ s assumptions to derive the formula first proposed by balmer years earlier as a recipe to fit experimental data. we see that bohr ’ s theory of the hydrogen atom answers the question as to why this previously known form... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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became clear that there are no well - defined orbits ; rather, there are clouds of probability. bohr ’ s theory also did not explain that some spectral lines are doublets ( split into two ) when examined closely. we shall examine many of these aspects of quantum mechanics in more detail, but it should be kept in mind t... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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30. 4 x rays : atomic origins and applications learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : • define x - ray tube and its spectrum. • show the x - ray characteristic energy. • specify the use of x rays in medical observations. • explain the use of x rays in ct scanners in diagnostics. each type... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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30. 33 1336 30 • atomic physics access for free at openstax. org anode. there are two processes by which x rays are produced in the anode of an x - ray tube. in one process, the deceleration of electrons produces x rays, and these x rays are called bremsstrahlung, or braking radiation. the second process is atomic in n... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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results in one or more of the atom ’ s inner electrons being knocked into a higher orbit or the atom being ionized. when the anode ’ s atoms de - excite, they emit characteristic electromagnetic radiation. the most energetic of these are produced when an inner - shell vacancy is filled — that is, when an or shell elect... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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30. 4 • x rays : atomic origins and applications 1337 figure 30. 21 a characteristic x ray is emitted when an electron fills an inner - shell vacancy, as shown for several transitions in this approximate energy level diagram for a multiple - electron atom. characteristic x rays are labeled according to the shell that h... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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30. 37 1338 30 • atomic physics access for free at openstax. org discussion this large photon energy is typical of characteristic x rays from heavy elements. it is large compared with other atomic emissions because it is produced when an inner - shell vacancy is filled, and inner - shell electrons are tightly bound. ch... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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. the denser the material, the darker the shadow. ( credit : iduke, wikimedia commons ) the most common x - ray images are simple shadows. since x - ray photons have high energies, they penetrate materials that are opaque to visible light. the more energy an x - ray photon has, the more material it will penetrate. so a... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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30. 4 • x rays : atomic origins and applications 1339 examine a broken leg in a cast. the depth of penetration is related to the density of the material as well as to the energy of the photon. the denser the material, the fewer x - ray photons get through and the darker the shadow. thus x rays excel at detecting breaks... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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a mammogram cannot diagnose a malignant tumor, only give evidence of a lump or region of increased density within the breast. x - ray absorption by different types of soft tissue is very similar, so contrast is difficult ; this is especially true for younger women, who typically have denser breasts. for older women who... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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##unsfield ( uk ) and a. cormack ( us ) won the nobel prize in medicine in 1979 for their development of computed tomography. figure 30. 25 a patient being positioned in a ct scanner aboard the hospital ship usns mercy. the ct scanner passes x rays through slices of the patient ’ s body ( or body part ) over a range of... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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0. 1 nm in size, x rays can be used to detect the location, shape, and size of atoms and molecules. the process is called x - ray diffraction, because it involves the diffraction and interference of x rays to produce patterns that can be analyzed for information about the structures that scattered the x rays. perhaps t... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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rays are energetic em waves. this was suspected from the time of the discovery of x rays in 1895, but it was not until 1912 that the german max von laue ( 1879 – 1960 ) convinced two of his colleagues to scatter x rays from crystals. if a diffraction pattern is obtained, he reasoned, then the x rays must be waves, and ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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30. 4 • x rays : atomic origins and applications 1341 experiments were convincing, and the 1914 nobel prize in physics was given to von laue for his suggestion leading to the proof that x rays are em waves. in 1915, the unique father - and - son team of sir william henry bragg and his son sir william lawrence bragg wer... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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30. 5 applications of atomic excitations and de - excitations learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : • define and discuss fluorescence. • define metastable. • describe how laser emission is produced. • explain population inversion. • define and discuss holography. many properties of matte... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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free at openstax. org | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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30. 29 shows a scorpion illuminated by a uv lamp, sometimes called a black light. some rocks also glow in black light, the particular colors being a function of the rock ’ s mineral composition. black lights are also used to make certain posters glow. figure 30. 29 objects glow in the visible spectrum when illuminated ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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visible images. electric discharges can induce fluorescence, as in so - called neon lights and in gas - discharge tubes that produce atomic and molecular spectra. common fluorescent lights use an electric discharge in mercury vapor to cause atomic emissions from mercury atoms. the inside of a fluorescent light is coate... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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of each element is characteristic, identification of elements within a sample can be done this way. figure 30. 30 shows a commonly used fluorescent dye called fluorescein. below that, figure 30. 31 reveals the diffusion of a fluorescent dye in water by observing it under uv light. | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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30. 5 • applications of atomic excitations and de - excitations 1343 figure 30. 30 fluorescein, shown here in powder form, is used to dye laboratory samples. ( credit : benjah - bmm27, wikimedia commons ) figure 30. 31 here, fluorescent powder is added to a beaker of water. the mixture gives off a bright glow under ult... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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6 nm ) and provide improved brightness. they also have the advantage that all colors can be excited with the same incident wavelength. they are brighter and more stable than organic dyes and have a longer lifetime than conventional phosphors. they have become an excellent tool for long - term studies of cells, includin... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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, tumor eradication, retinal welding, and for reading dvds, blu - rays, and computer or game console cd - roms. why do lasers have so many varied applications? the answer is that lasers produce single - wavelength em radiation that is also very coherent — that is, the emitted photons are in phase. laser output can, thu... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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30. 5 • applications of atomic excitations and de - excitations 1345 figure 30. 34 ( a ) energy - level diagram for an atom showing the first few states, one of which is metastable. ( b ) massive energy input excites atoms to a variety of states. ( c ) most states decay quickly, leaving electrons only in the metastable... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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temporary energy storage device that subsequently produces a massive energy output of single - wavelength, in - phase photons. figure 30. 35 one atom in the metastable state spontaneously decays to a lower level, producing a photon that goes on to stimulate another atom to de - excite. the second photon has exactly the... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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passes of the radiation back and forth through the lasing material. one of the mirrors is semitransparent to allow some of the light to pass through. the laser output from a laser is a mere 1 % of the light passing back and forth in a laser. as described earlier in the section on laser vision correction, donna strickla... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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30. 5 • applications of atomic excitations and de - excitations 1347 continuous output ; others are pulsed in bursts as brief as. some laser outputs are fantastically powerful — some greater than — but the more common, everyday lasers produce something on the order of. the helium - neon laser that produces a familiar r... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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##stable states of both atoms. the gas mixture has about ten times more helium atoms than neon atoms. excited helium atoms easily de - excite by transferring energy to neon in a collision. a population inversion in neon is achieved, allowing lasing by the neon to occur. there are many medical applications of lasers. la... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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the appropriate type of laser can be selected. for the repair of tears in the retina, a green argon laser is generally used. this light is absorbed well by tissues containing blood, so coagulation or “ welding ” of the tear can be done. 1348 30 • atomic physics access for free at openstax. org figure 30. 38 a detached ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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the department of energy ) before being largely replaced by streaming services and other storage methods, music cds and dvds were extremely common. they store information digitally and have a much larger information - storage capacity than their predecessors, audio and video cassette tapes. an entire encyclopedia can b... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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30. 5 • applications of atomic excitations and de - excitations 1349 figure 30. 40 a cd has digital information stored in the form of laser - created pits on its surface. these in turn can be read by detecting the laser light scattered from the pit. large information capacity is possible because of the precision of the... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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darkened. holography is sometimes called lensless photography, because it uses the wave characteristics of light as contrasted to normal photography, which uses geometric optics and so requires lenses. 1350 30 • atomic physics access for free at openstax. org figure 30. 42 production of a hologram. single - wavelength ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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are reflection holograms and are more common. white light holograms often appear a little blurry with rainbow edges, because the diffraction patterns of various colors of light are at slightly different locations due to their different wavelengths. further uses of holography include all types of 3 - d information stora... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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30. 6 the wave nature of matter causes quantization learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : • explain bohr ’ s model of atom. • define and describe quantization of angular momentum. • calculate the angular momentum for an orbit of atom. • define and describe the wave - like properties of m... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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, the electron interferes destructively ; it cannot exist in such an orbit. for a circular orbit, constructive interference occurs when the electron ’ s wavelength fits neatly into the circumference, so that wave crests always align with crests and wave troughs align with troughs, as shown in figure 30. 44 ( b ). more ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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30. 39 1352 30 • atomic physics access for free at openstax. org this is what bohr was forced to hypothesize as the rule for allowed orbits, as stated earlier. we now realize that it is the condition for constructive interference of an electron in a circular orbit. figure 30. 45 illustrates this for and figure 30. 45 t... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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the quantization of energy levels in bound systems. only those states where matter interferes constructively exist, or are “ allowed. ” since there is a lowest orbit where this is possible in an atom, the electron cannot spiral into the nucleus. it cannot exist closer to or inside the nucleus. the wave nature of matter... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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30. 6 • the wave nature of matter causes quantization 1353 that space. for example, the particle in a box model describes a particle free to move in a small space surrounded by impenetrable barriers. this is true in blackbody radiators ( atoms and molecules ) as well as in atomic and molecular spectra. various atoms an... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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30. 7 patterns in spectra reveal more quantization learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : • state and discuss the zeeman effect. • define orbital magnetic field. • define orbital angular momentum. • define space quantization. high - resolution measurements of atomic and molecular spectra ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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field. ( b ) the lines split when the field is applied. ( c ) the splitting is greater when a stronger field is applied. bohr ’ s theory of circular orbits is useful for visualizing how an electron ’ s orbit is affected by a magnetic field. the circular orbit forms a current loop, which creates a magnetic field of its ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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30. 7 • patterns in spectra reveal more quantization 1355 figure 30. 49 only certain angles are allowed between the orbital angular momentum and an external magnetic field. this is implied by the fact that the zeeman effect splits spectral lines into several discrete lines. each line is associated with an angle between... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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refer to this as spin up or spin down for the electron. each spin direction has a different energy ; hence, spectroscopic lines are split into two. spectral doublets are now understood as being due to electron spin. 1356 30 • atomic physics access for free at openstax. org figure 30. 50 fine structure. upon close exami... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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30. 8 • quantum numbers and rules 1357 does. this section covers some of the more important quantum numbers and rules — all of which apply in chemistry, material science, and far beyond the realm of atomic physics, where they were first discovered. once again, we see how physics makes discoveries which enable other fie... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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and near the nucleus. the reason the electron does not remain in the nucleus is related to heisenberg ’ s uncertainty principle — the electron ’ s energy would have to be much too large to be confined to the small space of the nucleus. now the first excited state of hydrogen has, so that can be either 0 or 1, according... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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30. 44 1358 30 • atomic physics access for free at openstax. org figure 30. 52 the component of a given angular momentum along the - axis ( defined by the direction of a magnetic field ) can have only certain values ; these are shown here for, for which. the direction of is quantized in the sense that it can have only ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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30. 8 • quantum numbers and rules 1359 thus, similarly, for, we find ; thus, and for, so that discussion the angles are consistent with the figure. only the angle relative to the - axis is quantized. can point in any direction as long as it makes the proper angle with the - axis. thus the angular momentum vectors lie o... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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be 1 / 2, and can be either + 1 / 2 or – 1 / 2. spin projection is referred to as spin up, whereas is called spin down. these are illustrated in figure 30. 51. 30. 48 30. 49 30. 50 30. 51 30. 52 30. 53 | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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30. 54 1360 30 • atomic physics access for free at openstax. org to summarize, the state of a system, such as the precise nature of an electron in an atom, is determined by its particular quantum numbers. these are expressed in the form — see table 30. 1 for electrons in atoms, the principal quantum number can have the... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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30. 8 • quantum numbers and rules 1361 figure 30. 53 probability clouds for the electron in the ground state and several excited states of hydrogen. the nature of these states is determined by their sets of quantum numbers, here given as. the ground state is ( 0, 0, 0 ) ; one of the possibilities for the second excited... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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30. 9 the pauli exclusion principle learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : • define the composition of an atom along with its electrons, neutrons, and protons. • explain the pauli exclusion principle and its application to the atom. • specify the shell and subshell symbols and their posit... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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influenced many students who went on to do important work of their own. ( credit : nobel foundation, via wikimedia commons ) let us examine how the exclusion principle applies to electrons in atoms. the quantum numbers involved were defined in quantum numbers and rules as, and. since is always for electrons, it is redu... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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30. 9 • the pauli exclusion principle 1363 figure 30. 55 the pauli exclusion principle explains why some configurations of electrons are allowed while others are not. since electrons cannot have the same set of quantum numbers, a maximum of two can be in the level, and a third electron must reside in the higher - energ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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shell subshell 5 4 5 62 table 30. 2 shell and subshell symbols to denote shells and subshells, we write with a number for and a letter for. for example, an electron in the state must have, and it is denoted as a electron. two electrons in the state is denoted as. another example is an electron in the state with, writte... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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