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**Non-squeezing theorem**
Non-squeezing theorem:
The non-squeezing theorem, also called Gromov's non-squeezing theorem, is one of the most important theorems in symplectic geometry. It was first proven in 1985 by Mikhail Gromov. The theorem states that one cannot embed a ball into a cylinder via a symplectic map unless the radius of the ball is less than or equal to the radius of the cylinder. The theorem is important because formerly very little was known about the geometry behind symplectic maps.
Non-squeezing theorem:
One easy consequence of a transformation being symplectic is that it preserves volume. One can easily embed a ball of any radius into a cylinder of any other radius by a volume-preserving transformation: just picture squeezing the ball into the cylinder (hence, the name non-squeezing theorem). Thus, the non-squeezing theorem tells us that, although symplectic transformations are volume-preserving, it is much more restrictive for a transformation to be symplectic than it is to be volume-preserving.
Background and statement:
We start by considering the symplectic spaces R2n={z=(x1,…,xn,y1,…,yn)}, the ball of radius R: B(R)={z∈R2n:‖z‖<R}, and the cylinder of radius r: Z(r)={z∈R2n:x12+y12<r2}, each endowed with the symplectic form ω=dx1∧dy1+⋯+dxn∧dyn.
Note: The choice of axes for the cylinder are not arbitrary given the fixed symplectic form above; namely the circles of the cylinder each lie in a symplectic subspace of R2n The non-squeezing theorem tells us that if we can find a symplectic embedding φ : B(R) → Z(r) then R ≤ r.
The “symplectic camel”:
Gromov's non-squeezing theorem has also become known as the principle of the symplectic camel since Ian Stewart referred to it by alluding to the parable of the camel and the eye of a needle. As Maurice A. de Gosson states: Now, why do we refer to a symplectic camel in the title of this paper? This is because one can restate Gromov’s theorem in the following way: there is no way to deform a phase space ball using canonical transformations in such a way that we can make it pass through a hole in a plane of conjugate coordinates xj , pj if the area of that hole is smaller than that of the cross-section of that ball.
The “symplectic camel”:
Similarly: Intuitively, a volume in phase space cannot be stretched with respect to one particular symplectic plane more than its “symplectic width” allows. In other words, it is impossible to squeeze a symplectic camel into the eye of a needle, if the needle is small enough. This is a very powerful result, which is intimately tied to the Hamiltonian nature of the system, and is a completely different result than Liouville's theorem, which only interests the overall volume and does not pose any restriction on the shape.
The “symplectic camel”:
De Gosson has shown that the non-squeezing theorem is closely linked to the Robertson–Schrödinger–Heisenberg inequality, a generalization of the Heisenberg uncertainty relation. The Robertson–Schrödinger–Heisenberg inequality states that: var(Q)var(P)≥cov2(Q,P)+(ℏ2)2 with Q and P the canonical coordinates and var and cov the variance and covariance functions.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Exogenesis: Perils of Rebirth**
Exogenesis: Perils of Rebirth:
Exogenesis: Perils of Rebirth is a science fiction adventure game/visual novel developed by Kwan for Microsoft Windows, OS X, and Linux.
Gameplay:
The game alternates between point-and-click adventure sections in first person, in which the player explores the environment and solves puzzles, and visual novel sections in which the game's plot is told and the player influences the outcome of dialogs with other characters. Kwan says they were inspired by Shu Takumi's game series Ace Attorney, and Kotaro Uchikoshi's Nine Hours, Nine Persons, Nine Doors and Zero Escape: Virtue's Last Reward.
Plot:
The game begins during a treasure hunt in 2069 in a post-apocalyptic Japan, where the treasure hunter group Durchhalten accidentally activates a trap, resulting in one of the members, Miho Sayashi, getting impaled by spears and dying. The treasure hunt is canceled, and the group ends up splitting up.
Two years later, Miho's brother Yu and another former Durchhalten member, Toshio Taro, find out that Noah's Ark actually exists, and that it contains the Lazarus Protocol, a machine that is said to be able to recreate things from the past. Yu plans to reunite Durchhalten, and to use the Lazarus Protocol to bring Miho back to life.
Development:
The game was successfully funded with a crowdfunding campaign on Kickstarter; its goal was $32,000, and by the end of the crowdfunding period, $56,288 had been pledged by backers.
Kwan released a demo during the Kickstarter campaign with a length of 3–4 hours, containing about 80% of the first chapter. The game is going to be fully voiced by TeamFourStar, including voice actors who have worked on Dust: An Elysian Tail, DreadOut, The Journey Down, and Heroes of Newerth. In May 2014, a German demo was released.
Development:
The game was originally set to be released in December 2014, but ended up getting delayed. It was initially developed with the visual novel engine Ren'Py, but was then ported to Unity in order to make PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, PlayStation Vita, Wii U and iOS releases possible. A Nintendo 3DS port was planned, but would only be possible when Nintendo allows the use of Unity on the Nintendo 3DS.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**6-Nonenal**
6-Nonenal:
6-Nonenal is an organic compound with the formula C2H5CH=CH(CH2)4CHO. Other isomeric nonenal compounds are also known to exist naturally, e.g. 2-nonenal. The cis-isomer of 6-nonenal is often listed as the principal component in the aromas of muskmelon fruits. The trans-isomer is listed as an off-flavor aroma of milk foams, and thought to be a possible polypropylene odorant.
Biosynthesis:
6-Nonenal is thought to be biosynthesized from γ-lineolenic acid catalyzed by a lipoxygenase. The lipoxygenase converts alkene groups into hydroperoxides, which cleave by hydroperoxide lyase into the corresponding cis-aldehydes. Consistent with this mechanism, the odor of muskmelons requires exposure to air. In the ripe, unmodified muskmelon, cis-6-nonenal exists in only low concentration. A steep increase in the concentration of 6-nonenal is noticed when the cells are lysed and exposed to air. This increase is attributed to rapid formation of hydroperoxides. Trans,cis-2,6-nonadienal is a related fragrance that arises via a similar pathway.
Laboratory synthesis:
Either geometric isomer of this compound may be prepared by preparing by brominating 5-octene-1-ol, then preparing the appropriate Grignard reagent. Triethyl orthoformate is treated with this Grignard reagent, then hydrolyzed to give 6-nonenal.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**SCSI contingent allegiance condition**
SCSI contingent allegiance condition:
On a computer SCSI connection, a contingent allegiance condition occurs while a SCSI device reports an error.
SCSI communication takes place between an initiator and a target. The initiator sends a command to the target which then responds. At the end of the command the target returns a Status Code byte which is usually 00h for success, 02h for a Check Condition (error), or 08h for busy.
When the target returns a Check Condition in response to a command, the initiator usually then issues a SCSI Request Sense command in order to obtain more information. During the time between the reporting of a Check Condition and the issuing of the Request Sense command, the target is in the special state called the contingent allegiance condition.
Details:
While a target is in a contingent allegiance condition it must retain the sense information that relates to the error that caused it to enter that condition. This can be a complex issue in configurations which contain more than one initiator. A well-designed target may be able to maintain sense data for one initiator while servicing commands from another initiator. If a check condition then needs to be reported to a second or third initiator then this may become prohibitively difficult. The SCSI definition of the contingent allegiance condition allows the target to use the busy response to incoming commands and to suspend servicing of any recent commands that are still in its execution queue.
Details:
The events that can cause a target to enter the contingent allegiance condition are Target responds to a SCSI command with a check condition 02h Target responds to a SCSI command with command terminated 22h An unexpected disconnectThe events that can cause a target to exit the contingent allegiance condition are Target receives a hard reset Target receives an abort message Target receives a bus device reset message Target receives any command from the relevant initiator
Extended contingent allegiance condition:
When the target needs to perform a long error-recovery procedure (typically one that lasts more than one second) it can enter the extended contingent allegiance condition. This may be necessary in high performance systems or in cases where there is a danger that initiator may reset the target after a short timeout interval, thereby aborting the error-recovery procedure. As in the contingent allegiance condition, the target is allowed to use the busy response to incoming commands and to suspend servicing of any recent commands that are still in its execution queue.
Extended contingent allegiance condition:
When a target enters the extended contingent allegiance condition it will send an Initiate Recovery message to the initiator.
The SCSI events that can cause a target to exit the extended contingent allegiance condition are Target receives a Bus Device Reset Target receives a hard reset Target receives a Release Recovery message from the relevant initiator
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Mod Archive**
Mod Archive:
The Mod Archive is a website dedicated to the indexing and archival of playable music module files. It allows anyone to upload modules, and provides charts, reviews and ratings of music files based on a community effort.
Formats covered by the site are MOD, IT, XM, AHX, MED, STM, STX, S3M, MO3, MTM, 669, AMF, AMS, DBM, DIGI, DMF, DSM, DSym, FAR, FMT, GDM, IMF, J2B, MDL, MPTM, MT2, OKT, PLM, PTM, STM, SymMOD, ULT and HVL.
History:
The Mod Archive was established in February 1996 as a place for tracker artists to upload their work. Since then, the site has emerged into being a community for artists and module enthusiasts.
History:
In an effort to make the website more dynamic, the community part of the site was added around 2000, in the form of message boards and an indexed search engine. Having lacked proper maintenance since around 2004, however, the site went through a complete reimplementation, beginning in November 2005 and leaving private beta in August 2006. In 2007, the site moved onto dedicated hardware to cope with a sudden increase in popularity following these improvements.Since 2006, the site has also provided a method of doing bulk downloads of archive files via BitTorrent.
Operations and quality control:
Having moved from a sponsored, shared platform in 2007, the website currently resides on a dedicated server. As a result of the increased costs related to running on dedicated hardware, the site seeks the help of the community in covering the running costs.
Since anyone can upload files to the website, all uploaded files have to go through a manual screening process where they are checked for integrity and quality by site staff.
Reusing the tracker music files published on the website requires the song's author permission.
Mentions in publications:
ModArchive was mentioned in the PC music freeware roundup in Sound on Sound magazine.ModArchive (v3.1) was featured as Site of the Month in Computer Music magazine.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Carrot cake cookie**
Carrot cake cookie:
A carrot cake cookie is a cookie prepared with ingredients that provide a flavor and texture similar to carrot cake.
Ingredients:
Typical ingredients include grated carrot, flour, sugar or brown sugar, cooking oil, spices and baking soda. Additional ingredients may include shredded coconut, raisins, molasses and nuts. Many variations exist, such as carrot cake whoopie pies, cookie sandwiches, and those prepared in the style of an energy bar. Cream cheese is sometimes used as a topping or a filling in cookie sandwich varieties. Vegan versions may use vegan cream cheese as a substitute for dairy-based cream cheese.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**AVCOAT**
AVCOAT:
AVCOAT 5026-39 is a NASA code for a specific ablative heat shield material created by Avco (acquired by Textron in 1984).
It is an epoxy novolac resin with special additives in a fiberglass honeycomb matrix. In fabrication, the empty honeycomb is bonded to the primary structure and the resin is gunned into each cell individually.
History:
AVCOAT was used for the heat shield on NASA's Apollo command module. In its final form, this material was called AVCOAT 5026-39.
Although AVCOAT was not used for the Space Shuttle orbiters, NASA is using the material for its next generation Orion spacecraft. The Avcoat to be used on Orion is reformulated to meet environmental legislation that has been passed since the end of Apollo.
Specifications:
Material: epoxy phenol formaldehyde resin with special additives in a fiberglass honeycomb matrix.
Density: 32 pounds per cubic foot (0.51 g/cm3) Post-ablation char-layer composition: 6.7 pounds per cubic foot (0.107 g/cm3) of carbon and 8 pounds per cubic foot (0.13 g/cm3) of silica.
Notable AVCOAT Installations:
AVCOAT for Orion Crew Module The Orion Crew Module was first designed for the NASA's Constellation program, but later adapted the Space Launch System to replace the Space Shuttle program. This spacecraft was planned to take astronauts to the International Space Station in 2015 and to the moon in 2024.
In the past, the honeycomb paste-like fiberglass material is gunned into each cells individually. On the other hand, the Orion heat shield is bonded onto the base of the heat shield.
Notable AVCOAT Installations:
To protect the Crew Module during Earth re-entry, the dish shaped AVCOAT heat shield ablator system was selected. NASA announced that this module will encounter temperature as high as 5,000 degrees Fahrenheit (2760°C). Licensed by Textron, AVCOAT material is produced at New Orleans's Michoud Assembly Facility by Lockheed Martin. This heat shield will be installed at the base of the crew module to provide a controlled erosion moving heat away from the crew module into the atmosphere. This process of erosion is called “ablation” - where materials are removed by vaporization or erosion by continuous contact with the supersonic velocity of gas flow and high temperature; thus the construction of honeycomb structure was made.
Notable AVCOAT Installations:
John Kowal, Orion's thermal protections systems manager at Johnson Space Center, discussed the biggest challenge with AVCOAT has been reviving the technology for manufacturing with similar performance as demonstrated in the Apollo Missions.The EFT-1 mission performed two orbits of Earth providing the opportunity for Orion's systems to be tested. It took about four hours with the splash down in the ocean.
Notable AVCOAT Installations:
AVCOAT for Apollo Missions AVCOAT was first used on the parts of the Apollo spacecraft orbiter and as a unit attached to the crew module in the past. It is a honeycomb structure. NASA confirmed that this is made of silica fibers with an epoxy novolac resin filled in a fiberglass-phenolic manufactured directly onto the heat shield.NASA's Apollo Flight Test Analysis, AVCOAT 5026-39/HC-G material was tested on the nose cap of a peacemaker vehicle. The temperature and ablation measurements were made at four locations on the nose cap. The report noted that the wear of the shield is due to the aerodynamic shear and heating rate. The report also noted that scientists believed that the ablation was done in a controlled manner.
Notable AVCOAT Installations:
After the Apollo missions, the production was then put in place for the purpose of studying. Orion Chief Engineer requested the heat shield to be redesigned, however the final design was not selected.
AVCOAT Heat Shield Research and Installation for Orion Crew Module:
The AVCOAT material heat shield went through several rounds of testing before being chosen for the installation. During the investigation of the thermochemical response of Avcoat TPS (based on first principles for comparison with EFT-1 data), things being tested on the heat-shield included: modeling of gas transport, heat transfer, and TPS material regression.Orion's 16.5 feet AVCOAT heat shield was secured onto the Orion Crew Module using 68 bolts by Technicians at NASA's Kennedy Space Center (KSC) in Florida. This heat shield is covered in titanium truss and a composite substitute with an addition skin made of carbon fiber layers. Orion's heat-shield was designed and manufactured by Lockheed Martin. The heat shield is like pieces of a honeycomb puzzle that all must fit together perfectly and the bolt fittings must be lined up.After the heat-shield's installation, access to components of the crew module became difficult or no longer accessible.
Flight use:
Uncrewed Several subscale test flights AS-201 AS-202 Apollo 4 Apollo 6 EFT-1 Artemis 1 Crewed Apollo 7, Apollo 8, Apollo 9, Apollo 10 Apollo 11, Apollo 12, Apollo 13, Apollo 14 Apollo 15, Apollo 16, Apollo 17 Skylab 2, Skylab 3, Skylab 4 Apollo–Soyuz Test Project
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Concrete leveling**
Concrete leveling:
In civil engineering, concrete leveling is a procedure that attempts to correct an uneven concrete surface by altering the foundation that the surface sits upon. It is a cheaper alternative to having replacement concrete poured and is commonly performed at small businesses and private homes as well as at factories, warehouses, airports and on roads, highways and other infrastructure.
Causes of settlement:
Concrete slabs can be susceptible to settlement from a wide variety of factors, the most common being an inconsistency of moisture in the soil. Soil expands and contracts as the levels of moisture fluctuate during the dry and rainy seasons. In some parts of the United States, naturally occurring soils can consolidate over time, including areas ranging from Texas up through to Wisconsin. Soil erosion also contributes to concrete settlement, which is common for locations with improper drainage. Concrete slabs built upon filled-in land can excessively settle as well. This is common for homes with basement levels since the backfill on the outside of the foundation frequently is not compacted properly. In some cases, poorly designed sidewalk or patio slabs direct water towards the basement level of a structure. Tree roots can also have an impact on concrete as well, actually powerful enough to lift a slab upwards or breakthrough entirely; this is common along public roadways, especially within metropolitan areas.Concrete settlement, uneven concrete surfaces, and uneven footings can also be caused by seismic activity especially in earthquake-prone countries including Japan, New Zealand, Turkey, and the United States.
Slabjacking:
"Slabjacking" is a specialty concrete repair technology. In essence, slabjacking attempts to lift a sunken concrete slab by pumping a substance through the concrete, effectively pushing it up from below. The process is also commonly referred to as "mudjacking" and "pressure grouting.” Accounts of raising large concrete slabs through the use of hydraulic pressure date back to the early 20th century. Early contractors used a mixture of locally available soils (sometimes including crushed limestone and/or cement for strength), producing a "mud-like" substance and thus the term "mudjacking." In recent years, some slabjacking contractors began using expanding polyurethane foam. Each method has its benefits and disadvantages.
Slabjacking:
The slabjacking process generally starts with drilling access holes in the concrete, strategically located to maximize lift. These holes range in size from 3/8" up to 3" depending on the process used.
Initial material injections fill any under slab void space. Once the void space is filled, subsequent injections will start lifting the concrete within minutes. After the slabs are lifted, the access holes are patched and the work is complete. The process is rapid when compared to traditional remove and replace applications and is minimally disturbing to the surrounding areas.
Slabjacking:
Slabjacking technology has several benefits, including: Cost – can be significantly less expensive than new concrete Timeliness of the repair – concrete is typically usable within hours as opposed to days with new concrete Minimal or no environmental impact – mostly due to keeping waste out of landfills Aesthetic – does not disturb the surrounding area and landscapingSlabjacking also has some limitations, including: Concrete must be in fairly sound condition – if there are too many cracks, replacement might be the only option New cracks can occur as the slab is lifted – most would have already been present, just not visible before lifting Possible resettlement – if concrete poured on top of poorly compacted soils it can still sink further. However, this is also possible with new concrete.Slabjacking can typically be broken down into three main process types: Mudjacking The term Mudjacking originates from using a mixture of topsoil and portland cements injected underground to hydraulically lift concrete slabs. Mudjacking can be achieved with a variety of mixtures. The most common being a local soil or sand blend, mixed with water and cement. Other additives may be included in the mixture for increased "pumpabilitly"/lubrication, improved strength/curing times, or as a filler. Additives that may be present include: clay/bentonite, fly ash, pond sand, pea gravel, masonry cements, or crushed lime. This process typically requires holes between 1" and 2" in diameter. This "mud" is injected under the concrete slabs, oftentimes using a movable pump that can access most slabs. Once the void under the slab is filled, the pressure builds under the slab, lifting the concrete back into place. Once in place, the holes are filled with a color-matching grout.
Slabjacking:
Benefits of mudjacking: Low-pressure lifting of slab Finely controlled lifting of the slab Possible to achieve higher compressive strength than foam leveling Budget-friendly Equipment can access locations at longer distances than poly foam Environmentally friendly. Accepted at concrete recycling facilities unlike poly foam and does not need to be separated from the concreteDisadvantages of mudjacking: Typically shorter warranty periods than what's offered by polyurethane foam contractors.
Slabjacking:
Requires more clean-up afterward compared to foam leveling Largest holes of the three main processes Can be a slower process due to the smaller material volume of the movable cart.
Does not resist erosion or fill voids as well as polyurethane foam.
Slabjacking:
Limestone grout leveling This method uses a pulverized limestone, commonly called agricultural lime. mixed with water, and sometimes Portland cement, to create a slurry about the consistency of a thick milkshake. This slurry is pumped hydraulically beneath the slab through 1" holes. Because of its semi-fluid nature, it pushes against itself, filling voids beneath the slab. Once the void is filled, pressure builds, slowly lifting the slab into place. Due to the low pressure of this method, trained professionals are able to control the lift of the concrete slab precisely, without the worry of lifting too far. This also decreases the likelihood of cracking or damaging the slab further. Once the slab is lifted into place, the holes are filled with a color-matching non-shrink grout.
Slabjacking:
Even though the injection pressure is relatively low, compared to Foam Leveling, Stone Slurry Grout Leveling has a high compressive strength of 240 pounds per square inch. This is equal to 34,560 pounds of lifting force per square foot. With Portland cement added, this can increase to over 6,000 psi or 864,000 pounds per square foot. Once the slurry dries it creates a near-solid stone foundation for the leveled concrete (much like the original stone base the concrete was poured upon.) Benefits of stone slurry grout leveling Low-pressure lifting of slabs Finely controlled lifting of the slab When the limestone grout dries out, it creates a hard subsurface for the concrete slab Smaller holes than mudjacking Highest compressive strength among the three methods Environmentally friendly Budget-friendlyDisadvantages of stone slurry grout leveling: Requires more clean-up afterward compared with foam leveling Slabs to be lifted must typically be within 100 feet of the truck-based pumping equipment Larger holes than foam leveling Without sufficient cement, rainwater can erode limestone leveling materials resulting in re-settlement Expanding structural foam leveling Foam leveling uses polyurethane in an injection process. A two-part polymer is injected through a hole less than one inch in diameter. Although the material is injected at a higher pressure than traditional cementitious grouts, the pressure is not what causes the lifting. The expansion of the air bubbles in the injected material below the slab surface performs the actual lifting action as the liquid resin reacts and becomes a structural foam. The material injected below a slab to be lifted will first find weak soils, expanding into them in such a manner as to consolidate and cause sub-soils to become denser and fill any voids below the slab. One inherent property of expanding foams is that they will follow the path of least resistance, expanding in all directions. Another inherent property includes reaching a hydro-insensitive or hydrophobic state when cured with 100% cure times as little as 30 minutes. Closed-cell injections will not retain moisture and are not subject to erosion once in place.
Slabjacking:
Some closed-cell polymer foams have baseline lifting capabilities of 6,000 lbs per sq. ft. [CONVERT] and leveling procedures have been performed in which loads as high as 125 tons have been lifted and stabilized in a surface area of less than 900 sq. ft. Some foams are even stronger, with compressive strengths of 50 psi and 100 psi in a free rise state. That is equal to 7,200–14,000 lbs. per square ft. [CONVERT] of support.Benefits of Expanding Structural Foam Leveling Meets compressive strength requirements when supporting highway slabs Consumers benefit from longer warranty periods with Polyurethane Foam Requires less clean up than Mudjacking or Limestone Grout Leveling Smaller holes Mobile units can reach areas inaccessible to truck-based equipment Does not retain moisture Does not erode when subjected to rainwaterDisadvantages of expanding structural foam leveling: Requires specially trained technicians to properly install Greater technical skills required for operations and maintenance of equipment Intense heat can build up from improper installation of polyurethane Environmentally un-friendly as polyurethane is a plastic Potential toxicity of Structural Foam Dust Can stick to and permanently stain other surrounding surfaces Derived from crude oil, shipped to refineries, manufacturing plants, consumers and ultimately to job sites creating a negative environmental impact resulting in additional output of CO2 and burning of fuel.
Slabjacking:
Intense heat can build up causing self combustion and flammability of polyurethane from improper installation
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**DNA database**
DNA database:
A DNA database or DNA databank is a database of DNA profiles which can be used in the analysis of genetic diseases, genetic fingerprinting for criminology, or genetic genealogy. DNA databases may be public or private, the largest ones being national DNA databases.
DNA database:
DNA databases are often employed in forensic investigations. When a match is made from a national DNA database to link a crime scene to a person whose DNA profile is stored on a database, that link is often referred to as a cold hit. A cold hit is of particular value in linking a specific person to a crime scene, but is of less evidential value than a DNA match made without the use of a DNA database. Research shows that DNA databases of criminal offenders reduce crime rates.
Types:
Forensic A forensic database is a centralized DNA database for storing DNA profiles of individuals that enables searching and comparing of DNA samples collected from a crime scene against stored profiles. The most important function of the forensic database is to produce matches between the suspected individual and crime scene bio-markers, and then provides evidence to support criminal investigations, and also leads to identify potential suspects in the criminal investigation. Majority of the National DNA databases are used for forensic purposes.The Interpol DNA database is used in criminal investigations. Interpol maintains an automated DNA database called DNA Gateway that contains DNA profiles submitted by member countries collected from crime scenes, missing persons, and unidentified bodies. The DNA Gateway was established in 2002, and at the end of 2013, it had more than 140,000 DNA profiles from 69 member countries. Unlike other DNA databases, DNA Gateway is only used for information sharing and comparison, it does not link a DNA profile to any individual, and the physical or psychological conditions of an individual are not included in the database.
Types:
Genealogical A national or forensic DNA database is not available for non-police purposes. DNA profiles can also be used for genealogical purposes, so that a separate genetic genealogy database needs to be created that stores DNA profiles of genealogical DNA test results. GenBank is a public genetic genealogy database that stores genome sequences submitted by many genetic genealogists. Until now, GenBank has contained large number of DNA sequences gained from more than 140,000 registered organizations, and is updated every day to ensure a uniform and comprehensive collection of sequence information. These databases are mainly obtained from individual laboratories or large-scale sequencing projects. The files stored in GenBank are divided into different groups, such as BCT (bacterial), VRL (viruses), PRI (primates)...etc. People can access GenBank from NCBI's retrieval system, and then use “BLAST” function to identify a certain sequence within the GenBank or to find the similarities between two sequences.
Types:
Medical A medical DNA database is a DNA database of medically relevant genetic variations. It collects an individual's DNA which can reflect their medical records and lifestyle details. Through recording DNA profiles, scientists may find out the interactions between the genetic environment and occurrence of certain diseases (such as cardiovascular disease or cancer), and thus finding some new drugs or effective treatments in controlling these diseases. It is often collaborated with the National Health Service.
Types:
National A national DNA database is a DNA database maintained by the government for storing DNA profiles of its population. Each DNA profile based on PCR and uses STR (Short Tandem Repeats) analysis. They are generally used for forensic purposes which includes searching and matching of DNA profiles of potential criminal suspects.In 2009 Interpol reported there were 54 police national DNA databases in the world at the time and 26 more countries planned to start one. In Europe Interpol reported there were 31 national DNA databases and six more planned. The European Network of Forensic Science Institutes (ENFSI) DNA working group made 33 recommendations in 2014 for DNA database management and guidelines for auditing DNA databases. Other countries have adopted privately developed DNA databases, such as Qatar, which has adopted Bode dbSEARCH.Typically, a tiny subset of the individual's genome is sampled from 13 or 16 regions that have high individuation.
Types:
United Kingdom The first national DNA database in the United Kingdom was established in April 1995, called National DNA Database (NDNAD). By 2006, it contained 2.7 million DNA profiles (about 5.2% of the UK population), as well as other information from individuals and crime scenesI in 2020 it had 6.6 million profiles (5.6 million individuals excluding duplicates). The information is stored in the form of a digital code, which is based on the nomenclature of each STR. In 1995 the database originally had 6 STR markers for each profile, from 1999 10 markers, and from 2014, 16 core markers and a gender identifier. Scotland has used 21 STR loci, two Y-DNA markers and a gender identifier since 2014. In the UK, police have wide-ranging powers to take DNA samples and retain them if the subject is convicted of a recordable offence. As the large amount of DNA profiles which have been stored in NDNAD, "cold hits" may happen during the DNA matching, which means finding an unexpected match between an individual's DNA profile and an unsolved crime-scene DNA profile. This can introduce a new suspect into the investigation, thus helping to solve the old cases.In England and Wales, anyone arrested on suspicion of a recordable offence must submit a DNA sample, the profile of which is then stored on the DNA database. Those not charged or not found guilty have their DNA data deleted within a specified period of time. In Scotland, the law similarly requires the DNA profiles of most people who are acquitted be removed from the database.
Types:
New Zealand New Zealand was the second country to set up a DNA database. In 2019 The New Zealand DNA Profile Databank held 40,000 DNA profiles and 200,000 samples.
Types:
United States The United States national DNA database is called Combined DNA Index System (CODIS). It is maintained at three levels: national, state and local. Each level implemented its own DNA index system. The national DNA index system (NDIS) allows DNA profiles to be exchanged and compared between participated laboratories nationally. Each state DNA index system (SDIS) allows DNA profiles to be exchanged and compared between the laboratories of various states and the local DNA index system (LDIS) allows DNA profiles collected at local sites and uploaded to SDIS and NDIS.
Types:
CODIS software integrates and connects all the DNA index systems at the three levels. CODIS is installed on each participating laboratory site and uses a standalone network known as Criminal Justice Information Systems Wide Area Network (CJIS WAN) to connect to other laboratories. In order to decrease the number of irrelevant matches at NDIS, the Convicted Offender Index requires all 13 CODIS STRs to be present for a profile upload. Forensic profiles only require 10 of the STRs to be present for an upload.
Types:
As of 2011, over 9 million records were held within CODIS. As of March 2011, 361,176 forensic profiles and 9,404,747 offender profiles have been accumulated, making it the largest DNA database in the world. As of the same date, CODIS has produced over 138,700 matches to requests, assisting in more than 133,400 investigations.The growing public approval of DNA databases has seen the creation and expansion of many states' own DNA databases. Political measures such as California Proposition 69 (2004), which increased the scope of the DNA database, have already met with a significant increase in numbers of investigations aided. Forty-nine states in the USA, all apart from Idaho, store DNA profiles of violent offenders, and many also store profiles of suspects. A 2017 study showed that DNA databases in U.S. states "deter crime by profiled offenders, reduce crime rates, and are more cost-effective than traditional law enforcement tools".CODIS is also used to help find missing persons and identify human remains. It is connected to the National Missing Persons DNA Database; samples provided by family members are sequenced by the University of North Texas Center for Human Identification, which also runs the National Missing and Unidentified Persons System. UNTCHI can sequence both nuclear and mitochondrial DNA.The Department of Defense maintains a DNA database to identify the remains of service members. The Department of Defense Serum Repository maintains more than 50,000,000 records, primarily to assist in the identification of human remains. Submission of DNA samples is mandatory for US servicemen, but the database also includes information on military dependents. The National Defense Authorization Act of 2003 provided a means for federal courts or military judges to order the use of the DNA information collected to be made available for the purpose of investigation or prosecution of a felony, or any sexual offense, for which no other source of DNA information is reasonably available.
Types:
Australia The Australian national DNA database is called the National Criminal Investigation DNA Database (NCIDD). By July 2018, it contained 837,000+ DNA profiles. The database used 9 STR loci and a sex gene for analysis, and this was increased to 18 core markers in 2013. NCIDD combines all forensic data, including DNA profiles, advanced bio-metrics or cold cases.
Types:
Canada The Canadian national DNA database is called the National DNA Data Bank (NDDB) which was established in 1998 but first used in 2000. The legislation that Parliament enacted to govern the use of this technology within the criminal justice system has been found by Canadian courts to be respectful of the constitutional and privacy rights of suspects, and of persons found guilty of designated offences.On December 11, 1999, The Canadian Government agreed upon the DNA Identification Act. This would allow a Canadian DNA data bank to be created and amended for the criminal code. This provides a mechanism for judges to request the offender to provide blood, buccal swabs, or hair samples from DNA profiles. This legislation became official on June 29, 2000. Canadian police has been using forensic DNA evidence for over a decade. It has become one of the most powerful tools available to law enforcement agencies for the administration of justice.NDDB consists of two indexes: the Convicted Offender Index (COI) and National Crime Scene Index (CSI-nat). There is also the Local Crime Scene Index (CSI-loc) which is maintained by local laboratories but not NDDB as local DNA profiles do not meet NDDB collection criteria. Another National Crime Scene Index (CSI-nat) is a collection of three labs operated by Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP), Laboratory Sciences Judiciary Medicine Legal (LSJML) and Center of Forensic Sciences (CFS).
Types:
Dubai In 2017 Dubai announced an initiative called Dubai 10X which was planned to create 'disruptive innovation' into the country. One of the projects in this initiative was a DNA database that would collect the genomes of all 3 million citizens of the country over a 10-year period. It was intended to use the data base for finding genetic causes of diseases and creating personalised medical treatments.
Types:
Germany Germany set up its DNA database for the German Federal Police (BKA) in 1998.
Types:
In late 2010, the database contained DNA profiles of over 700,000 individuals and in September 2016 it contained 1,162,304 entries. On 23 May 2011 in the "Stop the DNA Collection Frenzy!" campaign various civil rights and data protection organizations handed an open letter to the German minister of justice Sabine Leutheusser-Schnarrenberger asking her to take action in order to stop the "preventive expansion of DNA data-collection" and the "preemptive use of mere suspicions and of the state apparatus against individuals" and to cancel projects of international exchange of DNA data at the European and transatlantic level.
Types:
Israel The Israeli national DNA database is called the Israel Police DNA Index System (IPDIS) which was established in 2007, and has a collection of more than 135,000 DNA profiles. The collection includes DNA profiles from suspected and accused persons and convicted offenders. The Israeli database also include an “elimination bank” of profiles from laboratory staff and other police personnel who may have contact with the forensic evidence in the course of their work.
Types:
In order to handle the high throughput processing and analysis of DNA samples from FTA cards, the Israeli Police DNA database has established a semi-automated program LIMS, which enables a small number of police to finish processing a large number of samples in a relatively small period of time, and it is also responsible for the future tracking of samples.
Types:
Kuwait The Kuwaiti government passed a law in July 2015 requiring all citizens and permanent residents (4.2 million people) to have their DNA taken for a national database. The reason for this law was security concerns after the ISIS suicide bombing of the Imam Sadiq mosque. They planned to finish collecting the DNA by September 2016 which outside observers thought was optimistic. In October 2017 the Kuwait constitutional court struck down the law saying it was an invasion of personal privacy and the project was cancelled.
Types:
Brazil In 1998, the Forensic DNA Research Institute of Federal District Civil Police created DNA databases of sexual assault evidence. In 2012, Brazil approved a national law establishing DNA databases at state and national levels regarding DNA typing of individuals convicted of violent crimes. Following the decree of the Presidency of the Republic of Brazil in 2013, which regulates the 2012 law, Brazil began using CODIS in addition to the DNA databases of sexual assault evidence to solve sexual assault crimes in Brazil.
Types:
France France set up the DNA database called FNAEG in 1998. By December 2009, there were 1.27 million profiles on FNAEG.
Types:
Russia In Russia, scientific DNA testing is being actively carried out in order to study the genetic diversity of the peoples of Russia in the framework of the state task - to learn from DNA to determine the probable territory of human origin based on data on the majority of the peoples of the country. On June 16, 2017, the Council of Ministers of the Union State of Belarus and Russia adopted Resolution No. 26, in which it approved the scientific and technical program of the Union State "Development of innovative genogeographic and genomic technologies for identification of personality and individual characteristics of a person based on the study of gene pools of the regions of the Union State" (DNA - identification).
Types:
Within the framework of this program, it is also planned to include the peoples of neighboring countries, which are the main source of migration, into the genogeographic study on the basis of existing collections.
Types:
In accordance with the Federal Law of December 3, 2008 No. 242-FZ "On state genomic registration in the Russian Federation", voluntary state genomic registration of citizens of the Russian Federation, as well as foreign citizens and stateless persons living or temporarily staying in the territory of the Russian Federation on the basis of a written application and on a paid basis. Genomic information obtained as a result of state genomic registration is used, among other things, for the purpose of establishing family relationships of wanted (identified) persons. The form of keeping records of data on genomic registration of citizens is the Federal Genomic Information Database (FBDGI).
Types:
Articles 10 and 11 of the Federal Law of July 27, 2006 No. 152-FZ "On Personal Data" provide that the processing of special categories of personal data relating to race, nationality, political views, religious or philosophical beliefs, health status, intimate life is allowed if it is necessary in connection with the implementation of international agreements of the Russian Federation on readmission and is carried out in accordance with the legislation of the Russian Federation on citizenship of the Russian Federation. Information characterizing the physiological and biological characteristics of a person, on the basis of which it is possible to establish his identity (biometric personal data), can be processed without the consent of the subject of personal data in connection with the implementation of international agreements of the Russian Federation on readmission, administration of justice and execution of judicial acts, compulsory state fingerprinting registration, as well as in cases stipulated by the legislation of the Russian Federation on defense, security, anti-terrorism, transport security, anti-corruption, operational investigative activities, public service, as well as in cases stipulated by the criminal-executive legislation of Russia, the legislation of Russia on the procedure for leaving the Russian Federation and entering the Russian Federation, citizenship of the Russian Federation and notaries.
Types:
Other European countries In comparison with the other European countries, The Netherlands is the largest collector of DNA profiles of its citizens. At this moment the DNA databank at the Netherlands Forensic Institute contains the DNA profiles of over 316,000 Dutch citizens.Contrary to the situation in most other European countries, the Dutch police have wide-ranging powers to take and retain DNA samples if a subject is convicted of a recordable offence, except when the conviction only involves paying a fine. If a subject refuses, for example because of privacy concerns, the Dutch police will use force.
Types:
In Sweden, only the DNA profiles of criminals who have spent more than two years in prison are stored. In Norway and Germany, court orders are required, and are only available, respectively, for serious offenders and for those convicted of certain offences and who are likely to reoffend. Austria started a criminal DNA database in 1997 and Italy also set one up in 2016 Switzerland started a temporary criminal DNA database in 2000 and confirmed it in law in 2005.In 2005 the incoming Portuguese government proposed to introduce a DNA database of the entire population of Portugal. However, after informed debate including opinion from the Portuguese Ethics Council the database introduced was of just the criminal population.Genuity Science (formerly Genomics Medicine Ireland) is an Irish life sciences company that was founded in 2015 to create a scientific platform to perform genomic studies and generate new disease prevention strategies and treatments. The company was founded by a group of life science entrepreneurs, investors and researchers and its scientific platform is based on work by Amgen’s Icelandic subsidiary, deCODE genetics, which has pioneered genomic population health studies. The company is building a genomic database which will include data from about 10 per cent of the Irish population, including patients with various diseases and healthy people. The idea of a private company owning public DNA data has raised concerns, with an Irish Times editorial stating: "To date, Ireland seems to have adopted an entirely commercial approach to genomic medicine. This approach places at risk the free availability of genomic data for scientific research that could benefit patients." The paper's editorial pointed out that this is in stark contrast to the approach the U.K. has taken, which is the publicly and charitably funded 100,000 Genomes Project being carried out by Genomics England.
Types:
China By 2020 Chinese police had collected 80 million DNA profiles. There have been concerns that China may be using DNA data not just for crime solving, but for tracking activists, including Uyghurs.
Types:
India India announced it will launch its genomic database by fall 2019. In the first phase of "Genome India" the genomic data of 10,000 Indians will be catalogued. The Department of Biotechnology (DBT) has initiated the project. The first private DNA bank in India is in Lucknow - the capital of Indian State Uttar Pradesh. Unlike a research center, this is available for Public to store their DNA by paying a minimum amount and four drops of blood.
Types:
Corporate Ancestry was reported to have collected 14 million DNA samples as of November 2018.
Types:
23andme's DNA database contained genetic information of over nine million people worldwide by 2019. The company explores selling the "anonymous aggregated genetic data" to other researchers and pharmaceutical companies for research purposes if patients give their consent. Ahmad Hariri, professor of psychology and neuroscience at Duke University who has been using 23andMe in his research since 2009 states that the most important aspect of the company's new service is that it makes genetic research accessible and relatively cheap for scientists. A study that identified 15 genome sites linked to depression in 23andMe's database lead to a surge in demands to access the repository with 23andMe fielding nearly 20 requests to access the depression data in the two weeks after publication of the paper.
Types:
My Heritage said their database had 2.5 million profiles in 2019.
Family Tree DNA was reported they had about two million people in their database in 2019.
Compression:
DNA databases occupy more storage when compared to other non DNA databases due to the enormous size of each DNA sequence. Every year DNA databases grow exponentially. This poses a major challenge to the storage, data transfer, retrieval and search of these databases. To address these challenges DNA databases are compressed to save storage space and bandwidth during the data transfers. They are decompressed during search and retrieval. Various compression algorithms are used to compress and decompress. The efficiency of any compression algorithm depends how well and fast it compresses and decompresses, which is generally measured in compression ratio. The greater the compression ratio, the better the efficiency of an algorithm. At the same time, the speed of compression and decompression are also considered for evaluation.
Compression:
DNA sequences contain palindromic repetitions of A, C, T, G. Compression of these sequences involve locating and encoding these repetitions and decoding them during decompression.
Compression:
Some approaches used to encode and decode are: Huffman Encoding Adaptive Huffman Encoding Arithmetic coding Arithmetic coding Context tree weighting (CTW) methodThe compression algorithms listed below may use one of the above encoding approaches to compress and decompress DNA database Compression using Redundancy of DNA sets (COMRAD) Relative Lempel-Ziv (RLZ) GenCompress BioCompress DNACompress CTW+LZIn 2012, a team of scientists from Johns Hopkins University published the first genetic compression algorithm that does not rely on external genetic databases for compression. HAPZIPPER was tailored for HapMap data and achieves over 20-fold compression (95% reduction in file size), providing 2- to 4-fold better compression much faster than leading general-purpose compression utilities.Genomic sequence compression algorithms, also known as DNA sequence compressors, explore the fact that DNA sequences have characteristic properties, such as inverted repeats. The most successful compressors are XM and GeCo. For eukaryotes XM is slightly better in compression ratio, though for sequences larger than 100 MB its computational requirements are impractical.
Medicine:
Many countries collect newborn blood samples to screen for diseases mainly with a genetic basis. Mainly these are destroyed soon after testing. In some countries the dried blood (and the DNA) is retained for later testing. In Denmark the Danish Newborn Screening Biobank at Statens Serum Institut keeps a blood sample from people born after 1981. The purpose is to test for phenylketonuria and other diseases. However, it is also used for DNA profiling to identify deceased and suspected criminals. Parents can request that the blood sample of their newborn be destroyed after the result of the test is known.
Privacy issues:
Critics of DNA databases warn that the various uses of the technology can pose a threat to individual civil liberties. Personal information included in genetic material, such as markers that identify various genetic diseases, physical and behavioral traits, could be used for discriminatory profiling and its collection may constitute an invasion of privacy. Also, DNA can be used to establish paternity and whether or not a child is adopted. Nowadays, the privacy and security issues of DNA database has caused huge attention. Some people are afraid that their personal DNA information will be let out easily, others may define their DNA profiles recording in the Databases as a sense of "criminal", and being falsely accused in a crime can lead to having a "criminal" record for the rest of their lives.
Privacy issues:
UK laws in 2001 and 2003 allowed DNA profiles to be taken immediately after a person was arrested and kept in a Database even if the suspect was later acquitted. In response to public unease at these provisions, the UK later changed this by passing the Protection of Freedoms Act 2012 which required that those suspects not charged or found not guilty would have their DNA data deleted from the Database.In European countries which have established a DNA database, there are some measures which are being used to protect the privacy of individuals, more specifically, some criteria to help removing the DNA profiles from the databases. Among the 22 European countries which have been analyzed, most of the countries will record the DNA profiles of suspects or those who have committed serious crimes. For some countries (like Belgium and France) may remove the criminal's profile after 30–40 years, because these “criminal investigation” database are no longer needed. Most of the countries will delete the suspect's profile after they are acquitted...etc. All the countries have a completed legislation to largely avoid the privacy issues which may occur during the use of DNA database. Public discussion around the introduction of advanced forensic techniques (such as genetic genealogy using public genealogy databases and DNA phenotyping approaches) has been limited, disjointed, and unfocused, and raises issues of privacy and consent that may warrant additional legal protections to be established.Privacy issues surrounding DNA databases not only means privacy is threatened in collecting and analyzing DNA samples, it also exists in protecting and storing this important personal information. As the DNA profiles can be stored indefinitely in DNA database, it has raised concerns that these DNA samples can be used for new and unidentified purposes. With the increase of the users who access the DNA database, people are worried about their information being let out or shared inappropriately, for example, their DNA profile may be shared with others such as law enforcement agencies or countries without individual consent.The application of DNA databases have been expanded into two controversial areas: arrestees and familial searching. An arrestee is a person arrested for a crime and who has not yet been convicted for that offense. Currently, 21 states in the United States have passed legislation that allows law enforcement to take DNA from an arrestee and enter it into the state's CODIS DNA database to see if that person has a criminal record or can be linked to any unsolved crimes. In familial searching, the DNA database is used to look for partial matches that would be expected between close family members. This technology can be used to link crimes to the family members of suspects and thereby help identify a suspect when the perpetrator has no DNA sample in the database.Furthermore, DNA databases could fall into the wrong hands due to data breaches or data sharing.
DNA collection and human rights:
In a judgement in December 2008, the European Court of Human Rights ruled that two British men should not have had their DNA and fingerprints retained by police saying that retention "could not be regarded as necessary in a democratic society".The DNA fingerprinting pioneer Professor Sir Alec Jeffreys condemned UK government plans to keep the genetic details of hundreds of thousands of innocent people in England and Wales for up to 12 years. Jeffreys said he was "disappointed" with the proposals, which came after a European court ruled that the current policy breaches people's right to privacy. Jefferys said "It seems to be as about as minimal a response to the European court of human rights judgment as one could conceive. There is a presumption not of innocence but of future guilt here … which I find very disturbing indeed".
Effects on crime:
A 2021 study found that registration of Danish criminal offenders in a DNA database substantially reduced the probability of re-offending, as well as increased the likelihood that re-offenders were identified if they committed future crimes.A 2017 study in the American Economic Journal: Applied Economics showed that databases of criminal offenders' DNA profiles in US states "deter crime by profiled offenders, reduce crime rates, and are more cost-effective than traditional law enforcement tools."
Monozygotic twins:
Monozygotic twins share around 99.99% of their DNA, while other siblings share around 50%. Some next generation sequencing tools are capable of detecting rare de novo mutations in only one of the twins (detectable in rare single nucleotide polymorphisms). Most DNA testing tools would not detect these rare SNPs in most twins.
Monozygotic twins:
Each person's DNA is unique to them to the slight exception of identical (monozygotic and monospermotic) twins, who start out from the identical genetic line of DNA but during the twinning event have incredibly small mutations which can be detected now (for all intents and purposes, compared to all other humans and even to theoretical "clones, [who would not share the same uterus nor experience the same mutations pre-twinning event]" identical twins have more identical DNA than is probably possible to achieve between any other two humans). Tiny differences between identical twins can now (2014) be detected by next generation sequencing. For current fiscally available testing, "identical" twins cannot be easily differentiated by the most common DNA testing, but it has been shown to be possible. While other siblings (including fraternal twins) share about 50% of their DNA, monozygotic twins share virtually 99.99%. Beyond these more recently discovered twinning-event mutation disparities, since 2008 it has been known that people who are identical twins also each have their own set of copy number variants, which can be thought of as the number of copies they each personally exhibit for certain sections of DNA.
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**Isotopes of osmium**
Isotopes of osmium:
Osmium (76Os) has seven naturally occurring isotopes, five of which are stable: 187Os, 188Os, 189Os, 190Os, and (most abundant) 192Os. The other natural isotopes, 184Os, and 186Os, have extremely long half-life (1.12×1013 years and 2×1015 years, respectively) and for practical purposes can be considered to be stable as well. 187Os is the daughter of 187Re (half-life 4.56×1010 years) and is most often measured in an 187Os/188Os ratio. This ratio, as well as the 187Re/188Os ratio, have been used extensively in dating terrestrial as well as meteoric rocks. It has also been used to measure the intensity of continental weathering over geologic time and to fix minimum ages for stabilization of the mantle roots of continental cratons. However, the most notable application of Os in dating has been in conjunction with iridium, to analyze the layer of shocked quartz along the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary that marks the extinction of the dinosaurs 66 million years ago.
Isotopes of osmium:
There are also 30 artificial radioisotopes, the longest-lived of which is 194Os with a half-life of six years; all others have half-lives under 94 days. There are also nine known nuclear isomers, the longest-lived of which is 191mOs with a half-life of 13.10 hours. All isotopes and nuclear isomers of osmium are either radioactive or observationally stable, meaning that they are predicted to be radioactive but no actual decay has been observed.
Uses of osmium isotopes:
The isotopic ratio of osmium-187 and osmium-188 (187Os/188Os) can be used as a window into geochemical changes throughout the ocean's history. The average marine 187Os/188Os ratio in oceans is 1.06. This value represents a balance of the continental derived riverine inputs of Os with a 187Os/188Os ratio of ~1.3, and the mantle/extraterrestrial inputs with a 187Os/188Os ratio of ~0.13. Being a descendent of 187Re, 187Os can be radiogenically formed by beta decay. This decay has actually pushed the 187Os/188Os ratio of the Bulk silicate earth (Earth minus the core) by 33%. This is what drives the difference in the 187Os/188Os ratio we see between continental materials and mantle material. Crustal rocks have a much higher level of Re, which slowly degrades into 187Os driving up the ratio. Within the mantle however, the uneven response of Re and Os results in these mantle, and melted materials being depleted in Re, and do not allow for them to accumulate 187Os like the continental material. The input of both materials in the marine environment results in the observed 187Os/188Os of the oceans and has fluctuated greatly over the history of our planet. These changes in the isotopic values of marine Os can be observed in the marine sediment that is deposited, and eventually lithified in that time period. This allows for researchers to make estimates on weathering fluxes, identifying flood basalt volcanism, and impact events that may have caused some of our largest mass extinctions. The marine sediment Os isotope record has been used to identify and corroborate the impact of the K-T boundary for example. The impact of this ~10 km asteroid massively altered the 187Os/188Os signature of marine sediments at that time. With the average extraterrestrial 187Os/188Os of ~0.13 and the huge amount of Os this impact contributed (equivalent to 600,000 years of present-day riverine inputs) lowered the global marine 187Os/188Os value of ~0.45 to ~0.2.Os isotope ratios may also be used as a signal of anthropogenic impact. The same 187Os/188Os ratios that are common in geological settings may be used to gauge the addition of anthropogenic Os through things like catalytic converters. While catalytic converters have been shown to drastically reduce the emission of NOx and CO2, they are introducing platinum group elements (PGE) such as Os, to the environment. Other sources of anthropogenic Os include combustion of fossil fuels, smelting chromium ore, and smelting of some sulfide ores. In one study, the effect of automobile exhaust on the marine Os system was evaluated. Automobile exhaust 187Os/188Os has been recorded to be ~0.2 (similar to extraterrestrial and mantle derived inputs) which is heavily depleted (3, 7). The effect of anthropogenic Os can be seen best by comparing aquatic Os ratios and local sediments or deeper waters. Impacted surface waters tend to have depleted values compared to deep ocean and sediments beyond the limit of what is expected from cosmic inputs. This increase in effect is thought to be due to the introduction of anthropogenic airborne Os into precipitation.
Uses of osmium isotopes:
The long half-life of 184Os with respect to alpha decay to 180W has been proposed as a radiometric dating method for osmium-rich rocks or for differentiation of a planetary core.
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**Compact (cosmetics)**
Compact (cosmetics):
A compact (also powder box, powder case and flapjack) is a cosmetic product. It is usually a small round metal case and contains two or more of the following: a mirror, pressed or loose face powder with a gauze sifter and a powder puff.
History:
Compacts date from the early 1900s, a time when make-up had not gained widespread social acceptance and the first powder cases were often concealed within accessories such as walking sticks, jewellery or hatpins.From 1896, American handbag manufacturer Whiting & Davis created lidded compartments in its bags where powder rouge and combs could be stowed. In 1908, Sears' catalogue advertised a silver-plated case with mirror and powder puff (price 19 cents) and described it as small enough to fit in a handbag.In the US, manufacturers such as Evans and Elgin American produced metal compacts with either finger chains or longer tango chains. Designed to be displayed rather than fitted in a handbag, they required more ornate designs and many from this era are examples of sleek Art Deco styling.As make-up became more mainstream and women were increasingly active outside the home, compacts became more popular. British manufacturer Stratton began importing part-finished powder boxes from the US for assembly at its Birmingham plant in 1923 and by the 1930s it was creating them from scratch and producing half the compacts used by the UK cosmetics industry. The company developed self-opening inner lids in 1948, designed to protect the powder and prevent damage to fingernails, and by the 1960s it was exporting to agents worldwide.
History:
Designs and variations Compacts were heavily influenced by prevailing fashions – for instance, the 1922 discovery of Tutankhamun's tomb spawned Egypt-inspired obelisks, sphinxes and pyramids, while the growing popularity of the car meant compacts were incorporated into visors, steering wheels and gears. Jewellers such as Van Cleef & Arpels, Tiffany and Cartier began producing minaudières, metal evening bags/vanity cases carried on a metal or silk cord that contained a compact plus space for a few other small items, many were inlaid with jewels or personalised.By the 1930s, compacts were regularly updated to match the season's fashion trends and gimmicks such as watches and even miniature windscreen wipers were included in designs. Later, compacts became popular souvenir items, both the Chicago and New York world's fairs of the 1930s included souvenir powder cases, and during holidays.
Decline:
Although compacts continued to be in widespread production up to the 1960s, their popularity diminished as the cosmetics industry created plastic containers that were designed to be discarded once the powder ran out. These began to be heavily advertised from the 1950s. Writing in Americana, Deirdre Clemente suggested that changing make-up trends, notably for natural rather than pale and powdered complexions from the late 1950s on, contributed to the declining popularity of the compact.
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**Albaconazole**
Albaconazole:
Albaconazole (development code UR-9825) is an experimental triazole antifungal. It has potential broad-spectrum activity. The drug blocks a number of CYP450 liver enzymes.It has also been studied as an antiprotozoal agent.
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**Shell Rock Formation**
Shell Rock Formation:
The Shell Rock Formation is a geologic formation in Iowa. It preserves fossils dating back to the Devonian period.
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**Glossary of contract bridge terms**
Glossary of contract bridge terms:
These terms are used in contract bridge, using duplicate or rubber scoring. Some of them are also used in whist, bid whist, the obsolete game auction bridge, and other trick-taking games. This glossary supplements the Glossary of card game terms.
In the following entries, boldface links are external to the glossary and plain links reference other glossary entries.
0–9:
3014 or 3014 RKCB A mnemonic for the original (Roman) response structure to the Roman Key Card Blackwood convention. It represents "3 or 0" and "1 or 4", meaning that the lowest step response (5♣) to the 4NT key card asking bid shows responder has three or zero keycards and the next step (5♦) shows one or four.
1430 or 1430 RKCB A mnemonic for a variant response structure to the Roman Key Card Blackwood convention. It represents "1 or 4" and "3 or 0", meaning that the lowest step response (5♣) to the 4NT key card asking bid shows responder has one or four keycards and the next step (5♦) shows three or zero.
1RF One round force.
2-under preempts A 2 or 3-level conventional opening bid made two steps below the opener's suit: for example, 2♦ to show a weak two bid in spades or 3♣ to show a three-level preempt in hearts. If 2♣ is a strong, artificial force, 2♥ is natural.
4SF Fourth suit forcing.
0–9:
8421 Counting points by way of 8421 means counting an ace for 8 points, a king for 4, a queen for 2, and a jack for 1 point. For example, when a bid is interpreted as "5- 8421 HCP in S", this means the bidder is expected to have 5 or fewer points in spades, counting an ace as 8 points, etc.
A:
Above the line In rubber bridge, the location on the scorepad above the main horizontal line where extra points are entered; extra points are those awarded for holding honor cards in trumps, for bonuses for scoring game, small slam, grand slam or winning a rubber, for overtricks on the declaring side and for undertricks on the defending side and for fulfilling doubled or redoubled contracts. Points awarded for contract odd tricks bid and made are entered below the line. See Bridge scoring.
A:
ACBL American Contract Bridge League, the sport governing body for bridge in North America – defined as Bermuda, Canada, Mexico, and the United States – and the sponsoring organization of North American Bridge Championships (NABC). Its members are players, grouped in regional districts and local units for some purposes. Contrast USBF.
Acol An approach–forcing, natural bidding system, based on a weak NT and 4-card majors, popular in the United Kingdom and the Commonwealth.
Active An approach to defending a hand that emphasizes quickly setting up winners and taking tricks. Contrast Passive.
A:
An approach to competitive bidding that emphasizes frequent interference with opponents' bidding sequences.Adjusted score In duplicate bridge, a score awarded by the Director (when empowered by the Laws) in order to redress damage to a non-offending side and to take away any advantage gained by an offending side through an infraction. It may be "assigned" (weighted to reflect the probabilities of a number of potential results) or "artificial" (otherwise). The scores awarded to the two sides need not balance.
A:
Advance cue bid The cue bid of a first round control that occurs before a partnership has agreed on a strain.
Advance sacrifice A sacrifice bid made before the opponents have had an opportunity to determine their optimum contract. For example: 1♦ – (1♠) – Dbl – (5♠).
Advancer Overcaller's partner, especially one who bids following the overcall.
Adverse vulnerability Vulnerable against non-vulnerable opponents. Also called "unfavorable vulnerability".
Aggregate scoring Deciding the outcome of a contest by totaling the raw points gained or lost on each deal. Also called "total point scoring".
Agree For a partnership to come to a decision, explicitly, conventionally or by implication, on the denomination in which to play a hand.
Agreement An understanding between partners as to the meaning of a particular call or defensive play. There are two types of call agreements: (1) when the call is natural, the agreement is said to be a treatment, and (2) when the call is artificial, the agreement is said to be a convention.
A:
Air, as "on air" (Slang) To win a trick with a high card while capturing only small cards, commonly said of a defensive play. In the example at right, when South leads the ♥8, West must take the ♥A on air, or risk making no heart tricks. Nevertheless, best defense on a given hand may call either for ducking the winner or for playing it on air.
A:
Alcatraz coup Declarer's intentional and unethical attempt to locate a finessable card by revoking. If the play is unintentional, it is nevertheless subject to score adjustment.
A:
Alert A method of informing the opponents that partner's call carries a meaning they might not expect. Sponsoring organizations set rules on which calls must be alerted and how; any method of alerting may be authorized, such as saying "Alert", displaying an Alert card from a bidding box, or knocking on the table. Regardless whether a call is alerted, either opponent may ask its meaning, either at his/her turn or after the end of the auction. The player who made the call may contribute to its explanation only after the auction and only if he/she is declarer or dummy. Slightly different rules apply when screens are in use.
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Announcement A method of promptly informing the opponents that partner's call has a particular meaning. The purposes of announcements and alerts are similar, but an announcement gives the meaning where an alert may prompt the opponents to ask the meaning. Sponsoring organizations set rules on which calls should be announced. The ACBL specifies announcements including "Transfer" for some transfer replies to notrump bids, the point range such as "15 to 17" for an opening bid of one notrump, and "Forcing" or "Semi-forcing" for a 1NT response to a major suit opening bid.
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Antipositional A call is antipositional if it tends to make the "wrong" partner the declarer. If West opens the bidding, it may be best for South to declare a North-South contract, so that West will have to play from his high cards on opening lead. This positioning may protect South's tenaces. In that case, a call that will make North declarer is antipositional. See wrongside.
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Appeal In tournaments, to appeal is to request that a committee review a ruling made by a director.
Approach–forcing A principle, first used in the Culbertson system, that has survived in modern bidding. The original idea was to abandon the indiscriminate notrump bids that characterized auction bridge in favor of a slower exchange of information via suit bidding.
Arrow A marker, usually a large card with an arrow on it, that shows which direction is treated as North at a table in a duplicate event.
Arrow switch The action of changing the North direction during an event, typically for the last round of a Mitchell movement, so that the pairs who were North-South become East-West and vice versa. This allows a single winning pair to be determined.
Artificial A call that is not natural which by agreement carries a coded meaning not necessarily related to the call's (or to the prior call's) denomination.
A bidding system that contains many such calls.Asking bid A bid that, by prior agreement, requests information about a feature of partner's hand: for example, number of controls, suit length, or control of a particular suit.
Attacking lead A lead that instigates an active defense; often, the lead of an honor from a sequence, or a forcing defense.
Attitude A defender's desire, or lack thereof, for his side to continue playing a suit. By means of signals, defender encourages or discourages the continuation of the suit.
AuctionSee bidding.
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Auction bridge, an earlier form of bridge, differing from today's contract bridge chiefly in the scoring. Most notably, overtricks counted the same as tricks bid and made, so they were scored below the line and any contract, no matter how low, could produce a game or slam bonus.Austrian System Another name for Vienna System.Autobridge A variant of contract bridge for play by one person; alternatively, a means for one to learn or practice the game alone. Information for each deal is pre-printed on one sheet of paper in a special layout. Such a "deal" is loaded in a mechanical template (see image at right) which the operator-player manipulates selectively and sequentially to reveal some of the information. Paper deals are distributed in numbered sets of "Autobridge Refills".
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Automatic squeeze A squeeze position that succeeds against either opponent. Compare with Positional squeeze.
AverageIn matchpoint scoring, one-half the matchpoints available on a given deal.
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An average score is sometimes awarded to one or both pairs when for some reason they cannot play the board. If neither pair is at fault or both pairs are at fault, the director may decide to award an average to each side. Law 12.C.2 of the Laws of Duplicate Contract Bridge states that if one pair is at fault, it receives an average-minus (at most, 40% of the available matchpoints on the board). A pair not at all at fault receives average-plus: 60% of the available matchpoints on the board, or, if greater, the average of the matchpoints the pair earned on other boards played during the session or of the matchpoints earned against their current opponents. The assigned scores need not sum to the total available matchpoints.
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In IMP (Butler) pairs, "average" refers to the "datum" used in scoring.Avoidance play A play designed to keep a particular defender off lead, often to prevent the lead of a suit through a tenace position in either declarer's hand or dummy.
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Back in To make a partnership's first bid, having previously passed. For example, in 1♥ – (P) – 1NT – (P); 2♣ – (Dbl), the doubler has backed into the bidding.
Backward finesse A combination of two finesses in a suit such that the first finesse is "backward": that is, leading away from the hand containing the tenace.
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Balance To keep the bidding open when it is about to be passed out at a low level. For example, if the bidding goes 1♥ – (P) – P – (1NT), the 1NT bid is a balancing action. The balancing bid is often made with a hand of substandard strength in order to prevent the opponents from securing a low-level contract.
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Balanced distributionNarrowly, a balanced distribution of a hand is 4–3–3–3, 4–4–3–2 or 5–3–3–2. Equivalently, there are no voids, no singletons, and at most one doubleton.
Balanced is sometimes used in a broad sense that includes semi-balanced. Broadly, balanced distribution permits no void, singleton, or 7-card suit.Balanced hand A hand with balanced distribution in the narrow or wide sense just above. On the first round of bidding, natural notrump bids generally denote balanced hands.
BAM Board-a-match, one method of scoring a duplicate bridge session or tournament.
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Bar To prevent a player from making a bid, either by a penalty caused by an irregularity, or because partnership agreement requires a pass in a given situation. In either case, the player is said to be "barred." Bar bid A bid which by partnership agreement requires partner to pass at future turns to call in the current auction. Raises of partner's weak two opening bid are one common example. The raise might be extending the preempt, to make, or to push the opponents a level too high. If the opponents bid over a bar bid raise, the partner who made the bar bid may intend to pass, double for penalty, preempt, or raise again to push the opponents. Hence, the reason that partner is barred. The partner who made the bar bid may be ″operating.” None of the other three players can know the intent of the player who made the bar bid. Thus, the partner must pass, and the opponents must guess.
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Barometer scoring In a duplicate event, the posting of contestants' running scores after each round. Knowledge of the current standings often adds excitement to the contest, and can affect the strategies adopted by those in a position to win the event.
Bath coup A holdup by declarer, to prevent an opponent from continuing a suit. In the classic position, declarer holds ♠AJ2 and West, on declarer's left, leads ♠K from ♠KQ1098. By playing the 2 on West's K, South makes it impossible for West to continue spades without giving South a free finesse.
Beer card The ♦7.
Below the line In rubber bridge, the place on the score pad (below the main horizontal line) where trick points scored for making a contract, i.e. tricks bid for and taken exclusive of overtricks, are recorded. These are the points counted towards game. See Above the line and Bridge scoring.
Benjaminised Acol or "Benji" A variant of Acol where 2♣ and 2♦ are strong bids of different strengths, and 2♥ and 2♠ are weak twos. Invented by Scottish international player Albert Benjamin.
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Better minor A commonly used term for the choice of minor suit opening bid with less than four cards, typically in five card major systems. In Standard American Yellow Card, it is normal to bid the longer suit with 3 cards in one and two in the other, and 1 ♣ with 3–3. In this sense the term is a misnomer as a poor club suit (e.g. Jxx) may be opener instead of a stronger diamond suit (e.g. KQx). "Prepared minor" would be more precise terminology. See prepared bid.
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Bermuda Bowl The trophy awarded to the winner of the World Zonal Open Team Championship, the most prestigious in bridge. More commonly the term refers to the competition itself, a biennial two-week tournament among open teams that have qualified in their geographic zones.
Bid A specification of both level and denomination or strain, such as three notrump or four hearts. While any legal bid constitutes a potential contract, some bids carry special coded meanings when used by the partnership as a conventional bid and as such are not normally intended as a potential contract.
An obsolete term meaning "contract" (noun).Bid out of turn A bid erroneously made when it was another player's turn to bid. Subject to penalty.
Biddable suit A suit that a partnership regards as long and strong enough to be bid naturally. Partnerships often employ different standards of length and strength for suits named in opening bids, in responses, in rebids and in overcalls.
Bidding The first stage of a deal, when players jointly determine the final contract. Having examined their own cards, they make a series of calls in rotation, which is called the auction or the bidding.
Bidding box A box placed on the table (one box for each player) that contains cards with calls printed on them, as well as other cards such as "alert". By selecting and displaying a card, a player can make a call without speaking. Silent bidding removes one source of unauthorized information from the game.
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Bidding space The number of steps available in an auction, or the number of steps consumed by a bid. The sequence 1♣ – 1♦ consumes only one step, whereas 1♦ – 2♣ consumes four steps. Because alternative bids are skipped, it often happens that the more steps a bid takes up, the more specific meaning it carries. See Useful Space Principle.
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Bidding system The complete set of agreements and understandings assigned to calls and sequences of calls used by a partnership, including a full description of the meaning of each treatment and convention.
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Biltcliffe coup (British slang) A sarcastic term applied to a poor result as a consequence of four steps: (1) the opponents are about to play in a part score, when you bid in pass-out seat, (2) the opponents then bid game, (3) you double for penalties, and (4) they make the contract. In some circles, the coup is not recognized unless the contract makes through misdefense.
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BIT Break in tempo. See Tempo def 2.
Blackwood convention Popular bidding convention in contract bridge, used to determine number of partner's aces/kings to evaluate for slam bids.
Blank(Adjective) Unprotected by other, usually lower cards in the same suit: "I held the blank king of spades." (Verb) To discard in such a way as to leave a card unprotected: "She blanked the king of spades."Blitz (Slang) A win by a sufficiently wide margin in IMPs to earn the maximum possible number (or difference) of victory points.
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Blocked (Adjective) If a suit is divided between partners in such a way that the hand with the shorter holding has only high cards, the suit cannot be run without an entry to the longer holding in another suit; it is then said to be blocked. If North holds ♦AK and South holds ♦QJ10, South cannot cash a third diamond trick without an entry in another suit. The diamonds are blocked until North is able to unblock by playing the ace and king.
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Board One particular allocation of 52 cards to the four players including the bidding, the play of the cards and the scoring based on those cards. Also called deal or hand.
A device that keeps each player's cards separate for duplicate bridge.
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The dummy's hand. For example, "You're on the board" means "The lead is in the dummy".Board-a-match (BAM) A form of scoring for teams, analogous to matchpoint scoring for pairs. A team earns 1 point if its pairs score higher than the opposing pairs (with the same cards at the other table), 1/2 for equal scores, and 0 for lower scores. Board-a-match scoring is now less common than IMP scoring, or IMPs victory points in a Swiss teams tournament.
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Body Intermediate cards such as the 9, 8 and 7, that contribute to a suit's trick-taking potential.
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Bonus In bridge scoring, beyond points for bid tricks taken, which are awarded for making a contract, the additional points awarded for making a doubled contract, or for making doubled or redoubled overtricks. There are different bonus amounts at the partscore, game, small slam, and grand slam levels. The size of most bonuses depends on the vulnerability. Bonus amounts are different in rubber bridge and duplicate bridge. See Bridge scoring.
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Book(Noun) The basic six tricks that must be taken by the declaring side. The first six "book" tricks are always assumed and are not taken into account in bidding or scoring. Thus, a contract at the 1-level commits declarer to take at least 7 (that is, 6 + 1) tricks, and provides trick points only for the trick above book. The term apparently originated from the whist practice of arranging the first six tricks into a stack called a "book." (Noun) The number of tricks that the defensive side must take so as to hold declarer to his contract. If the contract is 4♠, defenders' book is 3.
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(Verb, usually passive) Slang. As declarer, to have lost the maximum number of tricks without being set. At 4♠, declarer is "booked" when he has lost three tricks.Bottom At matchpoint scoring, a result no better than any other by a pair playing the same cards, resulting in an award of minimum matchpoints; either jointly (a shared bottom), or alone (a cold bottom, or zero).
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Boxed (British slang) Adjective applied to a card found to be face-up during dealing, and by extension to the whole pack. Also used for a card found to be face-up in a hand extracted from a duplicate board, or for the hand itself.
Bracket A group of entries in a tournament that will eventually have one winner. The grouping is often done on the basis of masterpoints.
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Break(Noun) The distribution of cards in a suit between the two opponents' (often unseen) hands: "I got a 4–1 spade break." An even break occurs when the cards are distributed evenly or nearly so, such as 3–3 or 3–2. A bad break, connoting a distribution that is difficult to handle, suggests an unexpectedly uneven distribution, such as 5–1 or 6–0. See distribution.
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(Verb) To be divided between two hands. "The spades broke 3–2." (Verb) To lead a particular suit for the first time during a particular deal.
(Verb) Slang. To play for and find a particular distribution, usually the most favorable. "I broke the spades."Bridge maxims A compilation of short "laws", "rules" and rules-of-thumb advice; often, not always, valid.
The Bridge World (TBW) A monthly magazine based in New York City, The Bridge World is the oldest continuously published periodical concerning contract bridge, and the game's most prestigious technical journal.
Broken sequence A sequence of honor cards, one or more of which is missing, for example AQJ.
Bullet (Slang) An ace.
Bump (Slang) A single raise of partner. Used as a noun or a verb.
In duplicate bridge, an adaptation of the Mitchell movement to accommodate a half table. The extra pair moves around the room, substituting themselves in for a particular other pair, bumping out the pair for one round.Business double A penalty double, in contrast to various competitive and informatory doubles including takeout doubles and negative doubles.
Bust (Slang) A very weak hand. Sometimes paired with the name of a long suit: for example, "club bust" to denote a hand with long clubs and very little high card strength. See also Yarborough.
Busy A card that is needed for some purpose is said to be busy. For example, cards that a defender is trying to preserve while declarer executes a squeeze are "busy". Contrast Idle.
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A busy defense is an alternative term for an active defense.Butler, or Butler scoring A method of scoring in duplicate bridge pairs events. Each pair's result on a board is compared against a "datum" score which is the arithmetic mean of all the results (usually after exclusion of one or more of the top and bottom results), and the difference converted to IMPs. Sometimes, the median is used instead of the mean.
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ByeA round of an event during which a team or pair is not scheduled to play.
A location ("bye-stand") such as a chair or table, where boards are kept when not in use during an event. Typically used in a Mitchell movement with an even number of pairs when there is a "share and relay".
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Caddy An assistant to the director, or Head Director, primarily responsible for moving boards between tables and collecting score slips.
CalcuttaCross-IMP scoring.
A tournament in which bettors bid on participating pairs or teams. The proceeds from the auction are distributed partly as prizes to the top finishers, partly to the bettors who successfully bid on them. A pair or team can typically buy an interest in itself.Call Any bid, pass, double, or redouble in the bidding stage.
Canapé An approach to bidding in which a player bids his shorter suit prior to his longer suit. A feature of the Blue Team Club and the Roman Club.
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CaptainIn a teams competition, one person called the captain must represent a team in stipulated official settings and make stipulated official decisions for a team. A playing captain (pc) is eligible to participate as a player at the table; a non-playing captain (npc) may not play. Many team competitions including WBF world championships limit teams to six players, thus to seven members depending on the kind of captain. Other team officials such as a coach are not team members and are not covered in the rules of bridge.
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The partner who makes the decision for a partnership in certain bidding situations, such as ace-asking sequences.Card reading The act of determining the distribution of cards in unseen hands, and the location of high cards therein, by analyzing the bidding, play and other clues.
Carding The defensive signaling used by a partnership.
Carryover, or carry-over In a complex event, some participants begin a later stage with scores that depend on performance in an earlier stage. Simple accumulation of scores from stage to stage is full carryover but the term is commonly used only when carryover is less than full.
Some team events have a later knockout stage with carryover equal to some fraction of any margin of victory from an early-stage match between the same teams.
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Many tournaments for teams, pairs, or individuals have stages that progressively reduce the field, such as by cutting the bottom half at the end of each day. Sometimes the qualifiers continue with a fraction of their qualifying margins as carryover, which effectively gives weight less than one to points scored in the earlier, larger, lower-quality field. Sometimes there is no carryover; comfortable and borderline qualification are equivalent in the next stage.
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Cash To take a trick with a card that is currently the highest in the suit, thought likely to succeed, or to take all available winners in a suit.
Cavendish variation A version of Chicago, with dealer's side not vulnerable on the second and third hands, as in the standard version.
CBF Canadian Bridge Federation.
Change of suit A bid in a new suit, as 1♠ in the sequence 1♦ – 1♥; 1♠.
Checkback Stayman A common conventional agreement following a 1NT rebid, searching for an unbid major suit or a preference to responder's major.
Chicago A variant of rubber bridge in which a rubber consists of four deals with vulnerability predetermined for each deal.
Chicane A hand without any trumps.
CHO (Slang) Centre-hand opponent, a derogatory or facetious term for one's partner, or partners generally. Compare LHO and RHO, left- and right-hand opponents.
Chuck (Slang) An error in bidding or play, which was or might have been costly. Also used as a verb.
Chunky A suit with enough honor strength to play well unaided by partner's cards (but not solid) is chunky. Normally said of four-card suits. AQJ10 is a chunky suit; AQ96 is not chunky.
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Claim A statement by declarer about how the remaining unplayed tricks will be won or lost. Normally the claiming player exposes his hand and describes the sequence of play for the remaining tricks (but such plays as finesses, unless already proven, are disallowed). A claim is best made only when the play of the rest of the hand is obvious. Claims are often inadvisable: apart from the possibility of a mistaken analysis, it can take longer to explain the line of play than to play it. See also Concession.
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Clear a suit Knock out an opponent's high-card control of a suit, or unblock one's own high cards.
Closed hand Declarer's hand (as distinct from the dummy, which is faced or open).
Closed room In a team match, a room where two of the pairs compete, and in which spectators are not allowed.
Coffeehousing Making improper remarks to mislead the opponents, or asking improper questions designed to suggest a defensive play.
Cold A contract that a player cannot fail to make, even against the best defense, is cold.
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Colors first A bidding approach where players indicate suits (denominations) before showing high card strength. For example, natural suit overcalls and natural one-level suit opening bids are usually "colors first". Natural notrump opening bids and natural notrump overcalls usually show strength rather than suits. A Michaels cue bid is usually "colors first", but a takeout double is usually more "values first".
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A combination finesse is one of several tactics in play of the cards that includes multiple finesses in one suit or combines another technique with a finesse.Combination play A line of play that offers more than one chance to take additional tricks: for example, playing to drop an honor in a longer suit and then finessing for an honor in a shorter suit.
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Come-on A defensive signal that encourages partner to continue a suit, usually by means of the rank of the card used to follow suit.
Comic notrump A notrump overcall that shows a weak hand with a long suit, to which the overcaller can escape if doubled. Also known as Gardener 1NT.
Communication The placement of the lead in one or the other of the two partnership hands, so as to make a subsequent lead from the more advantageous hand, specifically the ability to place the lead in such hand.
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The means of conveying a message to partner via the bidding and by the card played to a trick. The only legal means of communication is through the calls and plays themselves, rather than through mannerisms such as tone of voice and hesitations. Often generalized as communications in both senses.Comparative scoring The method of scoring used in matchpoint or Board-a-Match events. The metric used is not the number of points earned on a particular deal, as it is when using quantitative scoring, but the number of pairs that have been out-scored.
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Competitive auction A bidding sequence which involves both partnerships. Also, competitive bidding.
Concession A statement by a player as to the number of remaining tricks that he must lose. See also Claim.
Condone To act after an opponent's irregularity without arranging for the penalty specified in the Laws to be applied.
Congratulatory jack The unnecessary play (by follow-suit or by discard) of a jack following partner's exceptionally successful action. More often used by the defense, but possible as a play from dummy.
Congress (Mainly British) A nationally or locally organised duplicate bridge competition held at a single location and usually involving both pairs and teams events, typically lasting one or two days but sometimes as many as ten. The more usual North American term is tournament.
ConstructiveBidding that is aimed at reaching a side's optimum contract, as distinct from calls intended to interfere with the opponents' bidding.
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Constructive raise: by partnership agreement, a single raise of a major suit opening that shows more strength than usual.ContractThe statement of the pair who has won the bidding, that they will take at least the stated number of tricks. The contract consists of two components: the level, stating the number of tricks to be taken (in addition to the book tricks), and the denomination, denoting the trump suit (or its absence in a notrump bid). The last bid in the bidding phase denotes the final contract.
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Short for contract bridge in contrast to auction bridge (auction) and other card games in the family.ControlA feature of a hand which prevents the defenders from taking sufficient immediate tricks in a specific suit so as to set the contract or make the setting of the contract unavoidable. Aces are termed "first-round" controls and kings are termed "second-round" controls. In trump contracts, voids are also considered first-round controls and singletons second-round controls. See also Stopper.
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(Said of trump contracts) Declarer's ability to manage the trump suit successfully. To lose control usually means being forced to shorten one's trumps so much that the opponents can subsequently control the play of the hand. See Forcing defense.Control-bid A bid that shows control of a particular suit. Often a cue bid, but not all cue bids are control-bids.
Convenient club See Short club.
ConventionAn agreement between partners on an artificial meaning of a call or sequence of calls, which is not necessarily related to the length and strength of bid suits or of willingness to play in notrump. Many bidding conventions are artificial; see, for example, Slam-seeking conventions.
An agreement that a particular defensive play has a special meaning. Compare with Treatment.Convention card A form filled out by a partnership and available to their opponents, that shows the bidding and play conventions they are using. Normally used during tournaments, their format may be prescribed by the governing bridge organization.
Convert To change the effect of a call. For example, passing partner's overcall of 2♦ when playing Michaels cue bids converts the overcall from a request to bid a major suit to a contract of 2♦. There are many other applications: for example, to pass partner's takeout double is to convert it to a penalty double.
In rubber bridge and Chicago, a part score is converted into game when a further score brings the total below the line to 100 or more points.Correct In the bidding, to choose (usually) partner's first bid suit; in that case, a correction is equivalent to a preference.
COS Acronym or initialism for Choice of Slams. An artificial or natural bid made to ask partner to select a strain from several choices where the slam might be played.
Count(Noun) The number of cards held in a suit or suits, usually said of an opponent's hand.
(Verb) To determine, by inference or by follow-suit, the number of cards held in a suit by an opponent.
(Noun) In squeeze play, the number of tricks that declarer must lose before the squeeze can function. See rectify the count.Count signal A defensive card play that shows whether the player has an even or odd number of cards in a suit.
CoupAny extremely skillful play.
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Any of several specific play techniques, such as the Scissors coup, Trump coup, Devil's coup or Vienna coup.Coup en passant The lead of a side suit in which both second and third hands are void, second hand holding a high trump, in such a way that third hand cannot be prevented from taking a trick with a low trump. It is a form of elopement.
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Coup without a name See Scissors coup. "Coup without a name" is an earlier term for the coup, conferred by Ely Culbertson.
Cover card A card (honor or extra trump) which is known to compensate one of partner's losers; for example, a king in trumps covers partner's trump loser.
Crack (Slang, verb). To make a penalty double. Also, "cracked", a doubled contract, regardless of the result; as in e.g. "The contract was 2♠ cracked".
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Crash(Usually written CRASH or CRaSh) Acronym for Color, RAnk and SHape; a convention showing a 2-suited hand, as an overcall at first opportunity after an opponent's strong artificial 1♣, 1♦, 2♣ or 2♦ opening. The two suits share the same color (red or black), rank (majors, or minors) or shape (rounded or pointed). The type of pairing is shown by the number of steps above RHO's bid which are taken up by the over call.
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(Uncapitalised) The play of two winners by a pair on a single trick: for example, the ace and king of trumps. This usually involves a declarer's use of a deceptive play to cause a defender to follow suit with one high card (for example, the king from Kx when the other defender holds the singleton ace).Crocodile coup On defense, second hand's play of a higher card than apparently necessary, so as to obtain the lead. The play is intended to prevent fourth hand from being forced into the lead to make a return favorable to declarer. The name suggests a crocodile opening its maw to swallow up partner's winning card.
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Cross To enter the opposite hand. Normally used of dummy or declarer's hand: "He crossed to dummy in diamonds." Crossruff A playing technique in trump contracts, where extra tricks are gained by ruffing in both hands alternately.
Cross-IMP scoring A form of IMP scoring in pairs tournaments, where each pair's score is determined as an (averaged) sum of differences to all other scores (rather than to a single datum score). Also known as X-Imps or Calcutta.
Cuebid, cue bid, or cue-bidA bid of the opponents' suit in a competitive auction. Usually a conventional, forcing bid that shows strength or an unusual hand, or a particular distribution.
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A bid that shows a control in a suit (usually with an ace or king, sometimes with a void), but does not indicate length or strength in the suit otherwise. See control bid. Partnership agreements indicate when in an uncontested auction a bid is considered a cuebid. Usually used in exploring for a slam contract (see Bridge conventions (slam seeking)), or for showing stoppers needed for a notrump game.Culbertson four-five notrump A slam-seeking convention devised by Ely Culbertson, in which a player bids 4NT or 5NT to show possession of defined numbers of keycards (aces, and kings in bid suits), and to which that player's partner responds in generally natural fashion. Since the 1950s, it has been almost entirely superseded by variants of the Blackwood convention.
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Culbertson system The earliest dominant bidding system, developed by Ely and Josephine Culbertson. Its principal features were an approach–forcing bidding style, four-card majors, strong two-bids and the use of an honor trick table to evaluate hand strength.
Curse of Scotland The ♦9. The origin of the term is uncertain.
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Cut in and cut out In rubber bridge, it is customary on completion of a rubber to invite other players in the cardroom to play in the next one, often by a cry of "Table up". The players in the completed rubber draw cards to determine who will withdraw; the one or more who draw the lowest card or cards are said to cut out, and their replacements to cut in.
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Cutthroat bridge A form of three-handed bridge.
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DAB An abbreviation of directional asking bid.
Danger handAn opponent who, if he obtains the lead, can damage declarer's prospects.
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When defending, either declarer's or dummy's hand which, if it gains the lead, can damage the defenders' prospects.Datum The mean or median of raw scores on a deal. The datum is used as a basis for calculating IMPs for the participating teams or pairs. The datum may be trimmed by removing extreme scores at either end of the distribution, a procedure whose effect on a mean or on a median depends on the degree of skewness in the raw scores.
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DeadA hand that has no card of entry, usually in reference to the dummy.
A hand that has a suit consisting only of low cards of no significance. For example, two dead spades.DealOne particular allocation of 52 cards to the four players including the bidding, the play of the cards and the scoring based on those cards. Also called board or hand.
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(Verb) To allocate the 52 cards to the four players or hands, 13 each.Dealer The player who makes the first call in the auction. In some versions of the game, this player also deals the cards. In rubber bridge, the first dealer is usually decided by a cut for the highest card. In duplicate bridge, cards are dealt only at the start of the session and the deal is preserved during the session by the use of boards. The "dealer" who will make the first call is identified by a mark on the physical board, commonly the word "dealer".
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Deck The 52 cards used in bridge.
Declaration The contract in which a hand is played.
Declarative–Interrogative D–I.
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Declarer Of the partnership that makes the final bid in the auction, declarer is the partner who first names the denomination or strain of the final bid, thus the strain of the contract. During the play, declarer sits across from the dummy and calls for cards from the dummy's hand, or "plays the dummy." Declaring side The side that wins the auction.
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Deep finesse A finesse against two or more cards.
The trade name of a commercially available computer program which performs double dummy hand analysis.Defeat (Said of the contract). To prevent declarer from taking the number of tricks called for by his contract. Also, set.
Defence Declarer's opponents or their line of play.
Defenders The pair that tries to defeat the contract.
Defensive biddingA bid or sequence of bids designed to hinder the opponents' bidding, including sacrifices.
All bidding by the partnership which does not open, which necessarily begins with a double or overcall (intervention).Delayed Postponed, as the jump preference in the auction 1♥ – 1♠; 2♦ – 3♥. Many bids have a different meaning depending on whether or not they are made at the first opportunity.
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Denomination (or strain) Component of a bid that denotes the proposed trump suit or notrump. Thus, there are five denominations – notrump, spades, hearts, diamonds and clubs. The Laws of Contract Bridge (American edition) and Laws of Duplicate Bridge use the term denomination exclusively but "the modern term is strain" according to the sixth edition of The Official Encyclopedia of Bridge.
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DEPO Acronym for Double Even, Pass Odd. Conventional method for bidding over interference with Blackwood.
Deschapelles coup On defense, the lead of an unsupported honor in order to create an entry to partner's hand.
Deuce The lowest spot card, the 2. In signaling, it is the only unambiguous card.
Develop To establish tricks in a suit, usually by forcing out the opponents' stoppers.
Devil's coup In the endgame, the play of a side suit through a defender to create an over ruff and a subsequent trump finesse.
D–I (Abbreviation of Declarative-Interrogative.) 4NT as a general slam try that asks partner to show features. D–I is incorporated in several bidding systems, including Neapolitan, Blue Team Club and Kaplan–Sheinwold. Players distinguish the D–I and Blackwood uses of 4NT by context.
Direction A player's position at the bridge table (North, East, South or West).
Direct position Usually said of a bid that is made immediately following RHO's bid. Contrast Balance (verb), on balancing action in balancing position.
Directional asking bid Often abbreviated as DAB. A cuebid of opponent's suit below 3NT, showing a partial stop in that suit and requesting partner to bid notrump with a holding such as Qx or Jxx. Common in the UK, less so elsewhere.
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Director Also tournament director (TD). The referee (in duplicate bridge). The director enforces the rules, assigns penalties for violations, and oversees the progress of the game. The director may also be responsible for the final scoring. In a large tournament there may be several directors reporting to a Head Director. In ACBL-sponsored events, a director's ruling as to bridge fact may be appealed; a ruling as to discipline, so as to maintain an orderly event, may not.
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Discard(Verb) To play a card that is neither of the suit led, nor trump, and that therefore cannot win the trick.
(Noun) The card so played.Discouraging card A carding signal that discourages partner from leading a particular suit. Contrast Come-on.
Discovery play A play, either by declarer or by the defense, intended to obtain information about the location of other cards.
Distribution (Suit distribution) Of one suit on a deal, the numbers of cards or lengths in the four hands. Sometimes the length of a suit in one or two hands is known or presumed and its "distribution" covers only three or two hands, as "opposing distribution" said of the other pair from the perspective of one pair or player.
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(Hand distribution, also shape or pattern) Of one 13-card hand on a deal, the numbers of cards or lengths in the four suits. Sometimes the length of one or two suits is known or presumed and "distribution" covers only three or two suits, as "distribution in the minors" said of one hand whose major-suit distribution is known.General. The degree to which four suits in one hand, one suit in four hands, or all of the hands and suits are dealt in long and short holdings. Long and short holdings constitute "lots of distribution" and three-card holdings in particular constitute "no distribution".
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Specific. Either way, four whole numbers that sum to 13 are commonly used to denote a distribution briefly, such as 4333 or 4–3–3–3 for a hand comprising one four-card suit and three three-card suits; or for a suit with one four-card holding and three three-card holdings in the four hands. Also 22 or 2–2 for the opposing distribution of spades when one pair holds nine of them; or for one hand's distribution in the minors when it holds nine in the Majors.
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Fully specified. Conventionally neither 4333 nor 4–3–3–3 indicates which is the four-card suit in a hand while 4=3=3=3 means four spades, represented first, and three each in hearts, diamonds, and clubs. Thus 4=6=2=1 means 4 spades, 6 hearts, 2 diamonds, and 1 club.Distribution points A measure of one hand's strength due to the length or shortness of suits. See Hand evaluation.
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DONT Acronym for Disturb Opponents Notrump. A conventional defense to notrump opening bids.
DOPE Acronym for Double Odd, Pass Even. A conventional method for bidding over interference with Blackwood.
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DOPI A proxi-acronym for Double, O (the letter O standing for zero or none), Pass and I (the capital i standing for the numeral 1 or one). A conventional method for bidding over interference with Blackwood. Pronounced "dopey." Double A call that increases penalties if the opponents fail to make their contract, but consequently also increases the bonuses if they make it. A player can double only a contract bid by the opposition. Referred to as penalty double.
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A call having various alternative conventional meanings depending upon the bidding context. See Informatory double, Takeout double, Negative double, Lead-directing double, Responsive double and Support double.Double dummy (Adjective or adverb.) Said of a play or line of play that seems to be made with knowledge of all four hands, as if there were at least two dummies visible. Contrast Single dummy.
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When said of the defenders jointly, "double dummy defense" suggests that that pair knows all four hands and agrees on both goals and tactics such as falsecards, as if the cards were visible and they discussed those points.
Double dummy problem A bridge problem presented for entertainment or teaching, in which the solver is presented with all four hands and is asked to determine the course of play that will achieve or defeat a particular contract.
Double-elimination tournament, or double elimination Double knockout.
Double finesse A finesse for two missing cards.
Double into game To double a part score such that, if the contract is fulfilled, the total of the doubled trick scores will exceed 100 points.
Double knockout A form of knockout competition in which teams are eliminated after losing two matches rather than after losing one. Commonly, teams with no losses face each other (undefeated teams) and teams with one loss face each other (one-loser teams), insofar as possible.
Double negative An agreement regarding a second negative bid by a player who has already made one. Normally used regarding sequences that follow strong, forcing opening bids.
Double raise A raise of two levels, such as 1♠ – 3♠.
Double squeeze A squeeze in which each opponent must guard a different suit, and both opponents must guard a third suit.
Doubleton A holding of exactly two cards in a suit.
DownA contract that is defeated is said to be down.
(Followed by a number) The number of tricks by which a contract fails: for example, "Down two."Down the line To bid the higher of two adjacent suits before the lower. For example, of two five-card majors, the spade suit is normally bid before the heart suit. Contrast Up the line.
Draw To extract, usually trumps. To remove the opponents' trump cards is to "draw trumps." Drive out To force a stopper from an opponent's hand, usually by repeatedly leading the suit.
Drop(Verb) To fall under a higher card: "The ♠Q dropped under the ♠K." (Noun) That occurrence itself: "He played for the drop instead of finessing."Duck A play technique in which a player does not immediately play a card that might take a trick, but plays a small card instead.
DummyThe partner of the declarer. Dummy's cards are placed face up on the table and played by the declarer. Dummy has few rights and may not participate in choices concerning the play of the hand.
The dummy's hand as exposed on the table.Dummy play The play of the hand by declarer. The apparent contradiction is due to the fact that declarer plays both declarer's cards and the dummy's.
Dummy reversal A playing technique in trump contracts that gains extra tricks by ruffing in the hand that began with the longer trumps so that that hand ends up with shorter trumps.
Dump To lose a match deliberately, usually so as to assist another team or pair in the event. A subject of considerable controversy in the 1990s and beyond.
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Duplicate bridge A form of bridge where every deal is played at several tables, by several pairs, and their scores on each deal are subsequently compared. A minimum of two tables (four pairs) are required for a duplicate bridge event. Each entry might be a pair, or a team consisting of two or more pairs; the type of scoring varies accordingly. The hands of each deal are kept in metal or plastic containers called boards that are passed between tables.
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Duplication of values Possession of values in the same suit in both partners' hands so arranged that they do not pull their full weight. (1) High card values in one hand and a singleton or void in the other; e.g. ♠KJ9 facing a void is much less useful than ♠KJ9 facing ♠Q4. (2) High cards in short suits in both hands, e.g. ♠AJ facing ♠KQ.
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Dustbin Notrump A bidding response of 1NT to an opening bid that doesn't show a balanced hand but a weak hand (6–9 HCP), no support for partner and no higher ranking 4+ card suit to bid. So the hand could be unbalanced.
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Eastern Scientific A bidding style that developed in the Eastern United States, particularly the New York region. It is characterized by five-card majors with a forcing one "notrump" response and limit raises, strong notrump with Jacoby transfers, and strong (but not game forcing) two-over-one responses.
Eau de cologne (Slang, chiefly British) A hand with 7–4–1–1 distribution, from the cologne brand 4711.
EBL European Bridge League, the sport governing body for contract bridge in Europe, and the sponsoring organisation for many bridge competitions there.
EBU English Bridge Union, the official organising body of bridge in England.
Echo The play of first the higher, then the lower of two cards of the same suit on separate tricks to encourage or, by prior agreement, to discourage (see upside-down signals) partner's continuation of a suit; or to signal possession of (normally) an even number of cards in the suit at the time the higher card is played.
EHAA Every Hand An Adventure, a bidding style that emphasizes very weak notrump opening bids (often 10–12 HCP), four-card majors, and undisciplined weak-two bids.
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Eight ever, nine never A bridge maxim that advises players when to finesse for a missing queen. With eight cards in the suit, always ("ever") finesse; but with nine cards, never finesse, rather play for the queen to drop under the play of the ace and king. Experienced players often ignore this advice in favor of considerations such as the danger hand, combination play, and the known or inferred distribution of other suits.
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EKB Exclusion Keycard Blackwood, a variant of Roman Keycard Blackwood. EKB uses a suit bid rather than a notrump bid to show a void in that suit and to exclude the named suit ace from the count of keycards.
Elimination The removal, by playing a suit or suits, of safe exit cards from defenders' hands, normally in preparation for an endplay. The classic (but not the only) example is to leave an endplayed defender with the choice of conceding a ruff and discard or giving declarer a free finesse.
Elope, elopement To win a trick by ruffing with a trump lower in rank than an opponent's trump. The coup en passant is an example of an elopement.
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Encrypted An agreement that the meaning of bids or card signals may change as more information about a deal becomes available. For example, when declarer shows out of a suit, the defenders can tell whether the rank of West's lowest remaining card in the suit is even or odd (and declarer probably does not have that information). The defenders might have agreed that if West's lowest remaining card is even, normal attitude signals will be in effect, but if it is odd, upside-down signals will be used. In such a case, the defenders' agreement is encrypted.
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Ending The layout of the cards when just a few tricks remain to be played. In a "four-card ending", each player has four cards left. Such positions can be of special interest because squeezes and other endplays tend to occur near the end of the play.
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Endplay A play which forces a particular opponent to win a trick, so that that opponent must then make a favorable lead. That player is said to be "endplayed". Normally, the player who is endplayed is a defender. Although the word implies that the play occurs toward the end of a hand, it often occurs earlier, and in exceptional cases the opening leader can be said to be "endplayed at trick one." EnterTo win a trick in the opposite hand, thereby giving it the right to lead to the next trick.
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To make the first call for a partnership after the opponents have bid.
To join a bridge competition.EntryA card that allows a particular hand to win a trick that partner or an opponent has led to. Entries are vital to communication.
A seating assignment in a bridge competition. Entries designate the participants' initial table number, direction at that table, and (if applicable) section.Entry-shifting squeeze A squeeze in which the declarer decides whether to overtake the squeeze card or to let it hold the trick, depending on the play of the intervening opponent.
Entry squeeze A squeeze that puts pressure on a holding that interferes with declarer's entries.
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Equal level conversion (ELC) An agreement concerning rebids after take-out doubles. Traditionally, the bid of a new suit by the player who has made a take-out double is considered forcing. Under the equal level conversion agreement, the bid of a new suit by the doubler is not forcing if it is at the same level as advancer's bid. So, equal level conversion means that in the sequence 1♠ – (Dbl) – P – (2♦); P – (2♥), 2♥ is considered non-forcing.
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Equals Cards in one hand that are adjacent in rank and thus have equal trick-taking power.
Escape suit A long suit to which a bidder can escape if necessary or desirable. The bidder of a comic notrump might run to his long suit if doubled.
Establish To make winners of the remaining cards in a suit by playing or forcing out higher cards.
EvenA split with the same number of cards in each hand. A 2–2 split is an even split.
Of the number of cards in a suit found in a hand: two cards, four cards, and so on.Event A duplicate bridge contest.
Exclusion bid A bid, such as 2♦ in the Roman Club system, that shows length in all suits except the one named.
Exclusion Blackwood An agreement that responder to a Blackwood bid will show the number of aces held outside a particular suit.
Exit card A card that is used to put a different hand on lead, normally to avoid making a self-destructive lead in another suit.
Expert Someone who plays bridge better than others in their usual level of play.
Exposed card A card whose suit and rank become known through an irregularity. An exposed card may be subject to penalty.
Extra values Values (in the form of High card points, shortage or cover cards), which are in addition to the values that a player has promised so far in the bidding.
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F1 Forcing one round. See One round force.
Face(Noun) The front of a card; the side that displays its suit and rank.
(Verb) To turn a card so that its face is visible to other players.Face card A king, queen, or jack. Contrast Honor.
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Factoring The adjustment of matchpoint scores to correct for dissimilar conditions. For example, a game played with a Mitchell movement might have an extra N–S pair, causing a bye round for N–S. The top is therefore lower for N–S pairs than for E–W pairs, and the N-S scores are multiplied by a fraction (or "factor") to make them commensurate with the E–W scores.
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Fall To be captured by a higher card. See drop.
False preference A return to partner's first-bid suit despite a longer holding in the second suit. Usually intended to give partner an opportunity for another bid.
False sacrifice Phantom sacrifice.
Falsecard A card played with the intention of deceiving an opponent as to one's true holding. Also, the act of making such a play.
Fast arrival A style of bidding under which the fewer bids used to reach a contract (usually said of game contracts), the weaker the bidder's hand. Fast arrival holds that 1♠ – 2♦; 2♠ – 4♠ is weaker than 1♠ – 2♦; 2♠ – 3♣; 3NT – 4♠. Contrast Slow arrival.
Fast rubber A rubber completed in two games. See slow rubber.
Feature An honor or shortness in a suit. Conventional bids such as splinter bids or D-I are intended to show or elicit features.
Fert (Slang) Short for "fertilizer", a very weak opening bid. A systemic treatment in strong pass systems.
FG an abbreviation for forcing to game; see Game force Field All the players in a bridge event, as in "with the field" to refer to an action that most players will take, and "against the field" for an unusual action.
Field a psych Deciding correctly that partner has psyched in the absence of a call that reveals the psych. Sometimes used when that decision is made on the basis of unauthorized information or an undisclosed partnership understanding.
Fillers Mid-rank cards that strengthen a suit. See body.
Final contract The last bid made on a hand.
Finesse An attempt to gain power for lower-ranking cards by taking advantage of the favorable position of higher-ranking cards held by the opposition.
FitA partnership's combined holding of many cards in a suit (usually 8 cards or more in the two combined hands) that might be used as trumps.
Two hands that are productive together (i.e., that have at least one fitting suit and few wasted values). Compare with Misfit.See also Moysian fit and Golden fit.
Fit bid A bid in a suit that shows length and strength in the bid suit plus a fit for partner's suit. Jump shifts in competition are often defined as fit-bids. See also Fragment bid and Mixed (definition 2).
Five-card majors An agreement that an opening bid in spades or hearts promises at least five cards in the suit. The alternative agreement is four-card majors.
Fix(Noun) An undeservedly poor result, usually caused by an opponent's error or eccentric play that happens to turn out well.
(Verb) To be the victim of a fix: "We were fixed on Board 8."Flag-flying An obsolete term for making a preemptive bid.
Flannery A conventional opening bid of two diamonds (some prefer two hearts instead) to show 11–15 HCP with 5 hearts and 4 spades.
FlatFlat hand: A hand that lacks distributional features such as a singleton, a void, or a very long suit. Often, 4–3–3–3 distribution.
Flat board: A deal in duplicate bridge that results in scores across the field that are identical, or nearly so.FloatTo be followed by two or three passes. For example, West's spade bid "floated around" to South in 1♠ – (P) – P.
To fail to cover the card led, usually by two consecutive hands. "South floated the ♠Q to East."Flower movement An adaptation of the Howell movement in which the players, rather than the boards, progress regularly from table to table. Also known as "Endless Howell".
Follow suit, sometimes simply "follow" To play a card of the same suit as the one that was first led to the trick. Failure to follow suit when one can do so constitutes a revoke.
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Force to To bid with the intention of causing the bidding to proceed to a particular level. For example: "In this auction, 2♣ forced to game", or "My reverse forced to the three-level." Forcing bid A bid that, by partnership understanding, requires the bidder's partner to make another bid. A forcing bid is not necessarily a strong bid. It is legal to pass partner's forcing bid, and players occasionally do so if they believe it advantageous on a given hand, but it is damaging to partnership confidence.
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See also Game force, Grand slam force and One round force.
Forcing defense The lead and subsequent continuation of a suit that the defenders believe declarer will have to ruff in the long trump hand. The strategy is to shorten declarer's trump holding so as to leave the defenders in control of the hand. See Tap.
Forcing notrump An agreement that a 1NT response to a 1♥ or 1♠ opening is a forcing bid.
Forcing passA pass in a competitive auction that requires partner either to make another bid or to double or redouble the opponents' current call. Experienced partnerships often have agreements about the meaning of bidding immediately in contrast to making a forcing pass and then bidding over partner's double (pass and pull).
An initial pass when playing a strong pass system.Forcing take-out Obsolete name for a strong jump shift by responder.
Fork A tenace.
Fouled board A board whose cards are not distributed as they were when first played, due to returning the cards to their slots erroneously.
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Four-card majors An agreement that an opening bid of 1♥ or 1♠ promises at least four cards in the suit bid. The usual alternative is five-card majors. The four-card major agreement was standard during the first four decades of contract bridge, but has since given way to five-card majors in most "standard" systems such as 2/1 game forcing and Standard American. It is used in Acol, the Blue Team Club and EHAA.
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Four-deal bridge See Chicago.
FourthA player needed to complete a table, usually said of rubber bridge.
Of four-card suit length: for example, Q987 is referred to as "queen fourth" or "queen-fourth".Fourth hand The fourth player with an opportunity to bid, or to play to a trick.
Fourth suit forcing (FSF, or 4SF)The initial use of a bid of the fourth suit as forcing to some level.
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An agreement that the partnership's bid of the fourth suit, in addition to its forcing nature, is possibly artificial.Fragment A holding of three or even two cards in a suit, thus not long enough to suggest as a trump suit. A partnership may treat the bid of a fragment as a means of implying shortness in another suit (see fragment bid). A fragment may also be bid after the single raise of a major as a help suit game try.
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Fragment bid A second-round jump bid (usually a double jump) that by agreement shows a fit with partner's last-bid suit and shortness in another suit. Under this agreement, in 1♣ – 1♥; 3♠ the bid of 3♠ is a fragment bid, showing a fit for hearts and a singleton or void in diamonds. The suit of the fragment bid is often three cards long. Compare with Splinter bid.
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Freak, or freak hand A hand with a very long suit or suits. Most would regard a hand with two six card suits as a freak.
Free bid A bid that is made when a pass would still allow partner to make a bid. Normally used of a bid that is made after partner has opened the bidding and RHO has overcalled. Compare with Negative free bid.
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Free finesse A position in which a player leads up to an opponent's tenace, solving that opponent's possible guess. The term is normally used when the player is forced to make that lead.Frozen A frozen suit is one that neither side can play without damage to its own holding in the suit. Declarer can sometimes duck the defense's lead to freeze the suit. See example at right.
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Gambling 3NT An opening bid of 3NT. The bidder hopes to make the contract by means of a long minor suit rather than by a preponderance of high cards.
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Game A contract, bid and made, worth 100 points or more. The undoubled game contracts are 3NT (40 for the first trick + 30 each for the second and third); 4♥ and 4♠ in the majors (4 tricks × 30 points per trick); 5♣ and 5♦ in the minors (5 tricks × 20 points per trick). Game can also be made via a doubled or redoubled contract: e.g., 2♠ doubled is worth 2 × (2 tricks × 30 points per trick) = 120 points. The pair bidding and making the game is awarded a bonus. See bridge scoring.
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In rubber bridge and Chicago, a score of 100 or more points below the line, achieved either by making a game contract or by converting a part score.Game force (GF or FG) A bid that asks partner not to pass before the partnership's bidding has reached game (or the opponents have been doubled at a level high enough to compensate). Some treatments relax the requirement: for example, the agreement that in the sequence 1M – 2m, the 2m response is a game force unless the suit is rebid. So, in 1♠ – 2♦; 2♥ – 3♦, 3♦ would cancel the game-forcing message of the 2♦ bid.
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See also Forcing bid, Grand slam force and One round force.
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Game try A bid that invites partner to bid game in a particular suit, made when a fit in that suit is known more than one level below game. Routinely the occasion a single raise from one to two of a major, as both 1S – 2S and 1C – 1S – 2S (opponents silent). In those two auctions all five bids from 2N to 3S are potentially game tries. What does it mean to bid one side suit rather than another? A short suit game try shows singleton or void in the suit bid, which implies significant duplication of values if partner holds the K or Q (the A or J, less so, and three small shows there is no duplication). A help suit game try shows at least three cards, generally with at least two losers. In 1984, the Encyclopedia referred to the entry "weak suit game try" and gave three small cards for example. It also referred "game try" to the entry "trial bid" with example holdings xxx, Axx, KTxx, and Jxxx in the side suit; shortness is a good holding and so is a good suit. Such a suit is likely to be a good one for the defenders to attack. A long suit game try shows a suit of at least four cards, so that a double fit is not unlikely; if a major suit, that is a potential alternative trump suit. Anyway, it shows that a cover card is useful regardless of length, and other cards are likely to help.
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Golden fit A combined partnership holding of at least eight cards in a suit. In the UK, simply known as a fit.
See also Moysian fit Good Said of a card or cards that have been established.
Goren system, or Goren A bidding system dominant in the United States from the 1940s through the 1960s, based on the Culbertson system. The principal difference between the two systems was in hand evaluation: Culbertson used honor tricks to assess a hand's strength whereas Goren used high card points and distribution points.
Goulash A style of dealing, usually in rubber and Chicago games, where the cards are not thoroughly shuffled between deals and are dealt in groups. It results in "wild" card distributions.
Grand coup A trump coup in which the cards ruffed in the long trump hand are already winners.
Grand slam See slam.
Green (Slang, mainly British) Non-vulnerable. From the colour of the paint on a duplicate board. Also: "green all" and "both green", neither side vulnerable; and "at green" or "green against red", non-vulnerable against vulnerable.
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Grand slam force (GSF) A method of determining whether the partnership holds the top trump honors when the bid of a grand slam is a possibility. In its original form, the GSF was initiated with a bid of 5NT, asking partner to bid a grand slam with two of the top three honors in the trump suit. Depending on the prior bidding, other bids are often used in place of 5NT, and there is a variety of schemes for responding to the GSF. See Josephine.
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See also Forcing bid, Game force and One round force.
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Grosvenor gambit A play that creates no direct advantage and might lose. Its principal features are that an opponent will not suspect that such an inept play has been made, and that once the opponent realizes what has occurred, he will be frustrated and angry (and therefore less effective) during subsequent hands. The ploy was first described in a satiric story by Frederick B. Turner in the June 1973 issue of The Bridge World.
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Guard A holding that prevents an opponent from taking a trick or tricks. See stopper, guard squeeze.
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HandThe 13 cards held by one player on a deal.
A deal or board.
Ordinally, a player counting in rotation from dealer or first hand. For example, "Third hand bid 1♠."Hand pattern See distribution.
Hand record A document that lists the cards in each hand of every board played in a duplicate bridge session. Often, hand records also list contracts each partnership can make with double dummy declarer play and double dummy defense.
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Help suit game try The bid of a side suit after a single raise, used to help partner evaluate game prospects when opener's hand is roughly a trick stronger than a minimum opening. For example, after 1♥ – 2♥, opener might rebid 3♣ with a side club suit or a strong club fragment. The bid tells partner where high cards will be most helpful, and requests partner to take positive action, such a direct jump to game, with strength in that suit. Otherwise, the bid requests partner to sign off (in this example, by bidding 3♥). See short-suit game try and game try.
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Herbert negative Use of the cheapest bid (sometimes only the cheapest suit bid) as an artificial negative response to (for example) forcing 2-bids, strong artificial 2♣, or takeout doubles. It was advocated by Walter Herbert.
Hesitation A brief pause before a bid or play, considered somewhat shorter than a Huddle.
High–low signal See Echo.
High cardAn honor card.
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The highest-ranking card in a suit at any point during the play.High card points (HCP) A measure or estimate of the strength of cards in the play of a deal. Routinely the high card points of all 13 cards in one player's hand are counted in sum, as a measure of playing strength of the entire hand, or one component of such a measure. Every honor card is assigned a numeric value. See Hand evaluation.
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HoldTo keep declarer to a particular number of tricks, usually the number required to make the contract.
To have in one's hand a particular card or set of cards.
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(Of a card) To win a trick although a higher card is outstanding.Hold up(Verb) To defer taking a winning card until an advantageous point in the hand, usually in reference to tricks that the opponents have led to. There are various purposes for holding up a winner, but it is frequently done to force the opponents to use their entries too soon.
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(Noun) The act of holding up a winner.HoldingThe cards in a player's hand at a particular point in the play (often, at the start of the play).
The cards in a specific suit in a player's hand.Honor/honour, or honor/honour card An ace, king, queen, jack or ten.
Honors/honours, or honor/honour bonus At rubber bridge and Chicago, a scoring bonus. The bonus is 100 points for one hand holding four of the five trump suit honors. The bonus is 150 points for all five trump suit honors, or all four aces in a notrump contract.
Honor/honour tricks A method of hand evaluation used in the Culbertson system, which assigns point values to honors and combinations of honors. AK is two honor tricks, AQ is 11/2 honor tricks, A or KQ is 1 honor trick, and Kx is 1/2 honor trick. Similar in concept to quick tricks in the play of the hand.
Hook (Slang) Finesse (noun or verb).
House player An employee of a bridge club who is available as a fourth.
Howell movement A pairs tournament movement where each pair typically plays against all or most of the other pairs, and there is a single set of winners. Most of the pairs will move to a different seating position (usually at a different table) at the end of each round.
Huddle(Noun) A pause prior to a bid or play of longer than usual duration.
(Verb) To take that lengthy pause.HUM Acronym or initialism for Highly Unusual Methods.
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Idle (Said of a card) Available as a discard; not required for purposes such as guarding the opponents' suit or interfering with their communications.
IMP Acronym for International Match Point.
Impropriety A breach of ethical conduct or etiquette; an action that violates the proprieties.
IMPs The form of duplicate bridge that uses International Match Points as a scoring method, as distinct from a tournament scored using matchpoints (MPs).
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In back of A card or holding that is to the left of, or behind, or over another. To say that the ♠A is in back of the ♠K is to say that the ace is to the left of the king, or behind it, or over it; so, the ♠A is in a position to directly capture the ♠K.
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Individual A form of duplicate bridge, scored at matchpoints, in which each player is paired with a different partner on each round.
Informatory double A double that is intended to convey information rather than to exact a penalty from the opponents. Such doubles include the takeout double, the negative double, the support double, the responsive double and the lead-directing double, although the latter is intended to convey information and to penalize.
Infraction A player’s breach of the Laws of Bridge or of a lawful regulation made under them.
In front of A card or holding that is to the right of or under another. To say that the ♠A is in front of the ♠K is to say that the ace is to the right of the king, or under it, and normally cannot capture the ♠K if it is guarded.
Insufficient bid A bid that is not higher than the immediately preceding bid, and is therefore illegal.
Insult (Slang) The bonus for making a doubled or redoubled contract is sometimes referred to as the "insult" or as being "for the insult".
Insurance bid A bid, usually a sacrifice bid, intended to keep the opponents from playing their presumed or inferred optimum contract. The bidder hopes that insurance premium – the penalty due to the sacrifice bid – will be less than the damage from allowing the opponents to make their contract.
Interference A call, such as an overcall or an initial preempt, that is intended to make it more difficult for the opponents to bid to their best contract.
Intermediate 1) Nines, eights and sevens are sometimes termed "intermediate cards." See body.
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2) A jump overcall that by agreement may be made with a hand of opening bid strength and a long suit is termed an "intermediate jump overcall." 3) An opening two-bid that by agreement may be made with values just short of those required for a game-forcing opening bid is termed an "intermediate two-bid." International Match Point (IMP) 1) (Noun) A method of scoring, usually in a teams match, that compares the score achieved on a board with that obtained by one's teammates on the same board, and converts the difference between these scores to IMPs using a scale defined by WBF. The IMP scale's effect is to reduce the weighting of large differences, thus making it less likely that the outcome of an entire match will depend on one or a small number of boards. For example a difference of 30 (one overtrick) is worth 1 IMP, but a difference of 680 (say 1100 at one table and 420 at the other table) is worth only 12 IMPs.
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2) (Verb) To perform the IMP score conversion.
Intervenor The first player on the other side to make a call other than pass when one side has opened the bidding.
Intra-finesse A technique that involves successive finesses against both opponents.
Inverted minors An agreement that treats the single raise of a minor suit as strong, and a double raise as preemptive.
Invitation A bid which invites the partner to bid on to game or slam if he has extra values. It is a non-forcing bid by definition. Compare semi-forcing bid.
IPBM International Popular Bridge Monthly, a British bridge magazine.
Iron Duke, Not through the A hackneyed phrase that describes the play of a high card by a player whose high card holding is led through; or, that player's statement.
Irregularity A breach of procedure, as described in the Laws and Proprieties, in bidding or play. If one is available, a director should be called to the table to make a ruling.
Isolate (Said of a menace card) To isolate a menace in squeeze play is to arrange that only one opponent can guard one of declarer's threat suits. The play is conceptually similar to transferring a control.
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Jacoby transfer, or Jacoby, or "transfers" A bidding convention initiated by responder following partner's notrump opening bid that requests opener rebid in the suit ranked just above that bid by responder, i.e. a response in diamonds requests a rebid in hearts and a response in hearts requests a rebid in spades; other responses may carry other meanings; designed to make the stronger hand declarer.
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Jacoby 2NT By agreement, a forcing raise of a major suit opening bid, used in conjunction with limit jump raises. Opener is requested to rebid in a suit where he holds a singleton so that responder can better evaluate the fit.
Jam the bidding (Slang) To preempt.
Jettison The discard of an honor, often by a defender, and usually to unblock a suit.
Josephine Grand slam force, an alternative term popular in Europe. The convention was developed by Ely Culbertson, and popularized in a late 1930s article by Josephine Culbertson in The Bridge World Journalist leads Opening lead convention, mainly against notrump contracts, designed to show both what the leader has, and to request specific partner actions in return.
Jump (Noun) A jump bid.
(Verb) To make a jump bid.Jump bid A bid made at a level higher than the lowest level at which that suit could be legally bid.
Jump overcall An overcall made at higher than the minimally legal level: for example, 1♥ – (2♠). In the 1930s, jump overcalls were treated as strong bids. They are now more frequently treated as weak, preemptive bids.
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Jump preference A preference to partner's first-bid suit, made at a level higher than the minimally legal level. In the following sequence, 3♥ is a jump preference: 1♥ – 1♠; 2♦ – 3♥. For many years, the jump preference was treated as invitational except in support of opener's minor, when it was treated as forcing. As of 2001, however, most experts treat all three-level jump preference bids as invitational following opener's one-level new-suit rebid: e.g., 1♣ – 1♦; 1♠ – 3♣ Jump raise A raise of partner's suit one level higher than the minimum legal raise. For example, 1♥ – 3♥ or 1♦ – 1♥; 3♥ Jump rebid A rebid of one's original suit, one level higher than necessary, usually showing a six-card suit: for example, 1♦ – 1♥; 3♦. The range of strength shown by a jump rebid is a matter of partnership agreement: some treat it as a one-round force, others (particularly if playing Kaplan–Sheinwold and the rebid suit is a minor) play it as only a little weaker than a game-forcing opening bid.
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Jump shift A jump bid of a new suit.
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1) As a rebid by opener (e.g. 1♥ – 1♠; 3♣) or responder (e.g. 1♥ – 1♠; 1NT – 3♣), it indicates extra strength 2) As direct response (e.g. 1♥ – 2♠): usually, a very strong hand. However, another treatment (weak jump shifts, requiring prior partnership agreement) uses the bid preemptively to show a weak hand and a long suit.
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Junior A player under the age of 26. Various national, regional, and world competitions use this designation.
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Kaplan–Sheinwold (K–S) A bidding system that uses five card majors and the weak notrump.
Keycard Blackwood, or Key Card Blackwood (KCB) A variant of the Blackwood convention in which five keycards are counted, four aces plus the king of the apparent trump suit, rather than four aces alone. Commonly there is a follow-up to ask about the queen of trump ("Queen ask"), effectively the sixth keycard.
Kibitzer A spectator who attends a game in person.
Kickback An ace-asking or keycard-asking convention initiated by the first step above four of the apparent trump suit rather than uniformly by 4NT. Thus Kickback saves space when the trump suit is not spades. See Useful Space Principle and Blackwood: Asking bids other than 4NT.
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Kiss of death At pairs, plus or minus 200. A score of minus 200, down two undoubled and vulnerable, or down one doubled and vulnerable, is a likely bottom against a part score by the opponents. A score of plus 200 from making five-odd of a major after stopping in a partial, is a likely bottom against the game contracts bid by other pairs holding the same cards.
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Knockout (KO), or Knockout Teams A single-elimination tournament for teams-of-four. Routinely each round pairs all of the competing teams in head-to-head matches—win or lose; no draw or tie. Winners advance to the next round and losers are eliminated. The size of the field, or initial number of competing teams, must be a power of two. Only then, the format generates for each round an even number of teams, which enables a complete set of head-to-head matches.
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Minor variants of great practical importance handle fields of any size by incorporating byes (definition 1) or matches with more than two teams (stipulated to have more than one winner, more than one winner, or both).
Two major variants are double knockout, in which teams are eliminated after losing two matches, and repechage, in which one-match losers drop into a secondary event from which some number of top performers return to the primary event.
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Knockout squeeze A type of squeeze that operates in part against the defender's trump holding, when the defender threatens to win a plain suit trick and then lead a trump, thus reducing declarer's ruffing tricks. It is usual to call this play a knockout squeeze when the squeezed defender is second to play to the trick, and to call it a backwash squeeze when the squeezed defender is fourth to play.
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Kock–Werner Redouble A rescue mechanism employed when partner's bid is doubled for penalties. Invented by Rudolf Kock and Einar Werner of Sweden. See also SOS Redouble.
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Last Train A conventional bid that is one step above the current bid and one step below game in a trump suit. It is a mild slam try and conveys no information about the suit bid. After 1♥ – 3♥; 4♣, 4♦ is Last Train, invites slam, and does not necessarily show a diamond control.
Late play A board that is played after the remainder of the event has finished, usually because of slow play or an irregularity.
Law of Total Tricks (LTT), or "The Law" A guideline stating that the total number of cards held by both sides in their longest trump fits equals the total number of tricks available to both sides in their best trump contracts. See Hand evaluation.
The Law is sometimes interpreted to mean that one side can profitably contract for a number of tricks equal to its own combined trump length; for example, compete to 3♠ with a nine-card spade fit.
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Laws of Contract Bridge and Laws of Duplicate Bridge The definitions, procedures and remedies that define how rubber bridge and duplicate bridge are played. The Laws include the Proprieties, which discuss the game's customs and etiquette — often far more important than procedural matters. The Laws apply worldwide. Individual sponsoring organizations, such as the ACBL and the EBL, establish their own regulations for play, which may amplify the Laws but may not conflict with them.
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One important difference between the laws of rubber bridge (contract) and duplicate bridge is that rubber players are expected to deal with irregularities themselves while duplicate players are expected to call the director.
Laydown A contract that can be made on any rational line of play.
Lead 1) The first card played to a trick, which dictates the suit that others must play if able to do so (see follow suit).
2) The hand that is entitled to lead to the next trick is said to be "on lead" or to "have the lead." 3) See opening lead.
Lead-directing double A double by the partner of the prospective opening leader that requests the lead of a particular suit. Experienced partnerships usually agree on a set of suit priorities, such as opening leader's bid suit, doubler's bid suit, dummy's first bid suit, or a suit that dummy has just bid conventionally.
Lead out of turn Playing a card when it was another player's turn to lead. Subject to penalty.
Lead through strength A maxim that advises a defender to lead a suit in which LHO has high card strength, forcing declarer to play high or low before third hand plays. The corollary is that a defender is advised to lead up to weakness in the fourth hand.
Leap To make a jump bid.
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Leaping Michaels A conventional overcall in 4♣ or 4♦ made in defense to opposing 2-level or 3-level preemptive openings. Leaping Michaels shows a strong two-suited hand (5–5 or longer) that is less suitable for a takeout double and is game forcing. Described as an overcall by some of a weak two-bid of a major, others expand its application to all weak preempts at the 2 or 3-level in both the majors and minors.
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Leave in To pass, often used of passing when partner's double was followed by a pass.
Lebensohl (Leb) Responder's bid of 2NT as a puppet to 3♣ in preparation for a sign-off. Normally used after an overcall of partner's 1NT opening, or after a double of partner's weak two bid. Also used after opponents weak two bid and partner's balancing take-out double.
Leg (Slang) game. Normally used in reference to rubber bridge. "A leg up" means being vulnerable vs. non-vulnerable opponents. "Cut off their leg" means becoming vulnerable vs. opponents who are already vulnerable.
Length The number of cards held in a suit.
Let through (Slang) To allow a contract to make by misdefense.
Level 1) The number of tricks that (when added to the book of six tricks) a bid or contract states will be taken. For example, a bid at the four level contracts to take (6 + 4) = 10 tricks.
2) The property of a contract that states whether it is at the part-score, game or slam level.
Lever (Slang, verb) To double. (In Britain at least, a penalty double: Leave 'er in. The past participle "levered" means, doubled for penalties.) LHO Left-hand opponent Light (Adv.) To enter the auction with relatively low values (for example, to "open light" or "overcall light"). To do so can be either a matter of tactics or of general style.
Lightner double A penalty double, usually of a slam contract, that requests partner to choose an unusual suit for the opening lead. This criterion tends to regard as typical (and thus to exclude) a trump lead, the lead of defenders' bid suit, and the lead of an unbid suit.
Limit In the bidding, to define a hand's strength with some degree of precision.
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Limit Bid A bid which establishes narrow limits on both the high card strength and distribution of the bidder's hand. In many bidding systems the following bid types are limit bids: (1) Natural notrump bids indicating balanced hands within a narrow high card strength range; (2) raises of partner's suit indicating a minimum number of cards in the raised suit, a narrow high card strength range, and likely ruffing values; or (3) rebids of one's own suit indicating a minimum suit length, an unbalanced hand, and a narrow high card strength range.
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Limit jump raise An invitational jump raise of a major suit, such as 1♥ – 3♥. Limit jump raises usually guarantee at least an 8-card fit in partner's major suit and around 10–11 HCP or the distributional equivalent.
Limit raise Any call which invites partner to bid game in a suit partner has bid, previously. A limit raise promises trump support and hand strength about a king less than a minimum strength game force.
Line 1) (with "the"): A line on a bridge scorepad that separates points for tricks that count toward game (see Below the line) from those that do not (see Above the line).
2) On a given hand, the play strategy that is adopted by declarer or by the defenders.
3) Bidding: See Up the line and Down the line.
Lock 1) (Noun) A contract that is certain to succeed.
2) (Verb) To force a particular hand onto lead such that it cannot relinquish the lead unscathed.
LOL Little Old Lady (pronounced El-Oh-El). A facetious reference to a seemingly weak player.
Long cards Cards of the same suit, remaining in one hand, after all the other cards in that suit have been played from the other hands.
Long hand In a partnership, the hand with the longer trumps.
Long suit 1) In a hand, the suit with the greatest number of cards. Seldom used of a suit with fewer than five cards.
2) Any suit of unusual length.
3) Any suit of at least four cards. A four-card suit is likely to be called long when in context concerning a hand that is known to hold another suit, or even two, expected to be at least as long.
Long suit game try Following a major suit raise to the two level, the long suit game try names a suit with at least four cards, so that partner's cover card is useful regardless of length in the suit. A double fit is not unlikely and, if a major suit, that is a potential alternative trump suit.
2) Alternative term for a help suit game try. In some usage the "help suit game try" is barely distinguishable from the long, in some barely distinguishable from the weak.
Loser A card which apparently cannot take a trick.
Loser on loser A card play tactic that attempts to create an advantage by playing two losers, often of different suits, on the same trick. Loser-on-loser play has many applications, including the creation of a ruffing position for declarer, the avoidance of overruffs by the defense, and interference with the opponents' communications.
LROB Limit Raise Or Better. Example: "1H-2NT = Heart-support, LROB." Losing trick count (LTC) A method of hand evaluation based on counting losers.
Love No score. "Love all" means that neither side is vulnerable.
Low (Adjective) A card that is not expected to take a trick.
Low–high signal On defense, to play a higher card, having already played a lower one, so as to convey information to partner. Contrast Echo, or high–low signal.
Lucas twos A synonym or close variant of the Muiderberg convention, a weak two-bid showing 5 cards in a major and at least four cards in another suit.
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MacGuffin A defensive card that, if retained, is a liability on one line of play, but that, if played, will be missed on another line of play. The term may be derived from the filmic plot device of the same name.
Major penalty card A card that is exposed by a defender prematurely and through intentional play; or, an honor card that is exposed prematurely even if accidentally. A major penalty card remains face up on the table to be played at the first legal opportunity, including as a discard. Contrast Minor penalty card.
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Major suit The heart suit and the spade suit are major suits, often referred to simply as the majors. Declarer scores 30 points for each trick taken in an undoubled contract with a major suit as trump. Because game requires at least 100 points for tricks bid and made, both 4♥ and 4♠ (or 2♥ doubled and 2♠ doubled) constitute game contracts. Contrast Minor suits.
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Major tenace The highest and the third highest remaining cards in a suit, held in the same hand. For example, the ♠AQ before spades have been played. Tenaces define the structure of finesses. See minor tenace.
Make (Verb) To take at least as many tricks as a contract calls for. Frequently used in the past tense of the verb, i.e. Made.
Mama–Papa (Adjective) An unsophisticated game, approach to bidding, or line of play.
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Marionette Bid (Noun) A type of relay bid in which the cheapest response is expected nearly all the time, thus similar but not identical to a puppet bid. Name derives from "a puppet with strings." Marked To be known to hold a particular card: "He was marked with the ♥Q." Marked finesse A finesse for a card that evidently lies with a particular opponent.
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Master The highest card of a suit that is yet to be played.
Masterpoints Units awarded, usually by national organisations, for successful performance in a bridge tournament.
Match A series of hands played by two teams in knockout events. One pair from each team sits North-South at one table and the other pair sits East-West at the other table.
Matchpoints A type of scoring in duplicate bridge. A pair's score on a given board is one matchpoint for every pair they outscored and one-half matchpoint for every pair they tied. (Outside the US these awards are often doubled, so as to avoid the award of fractional matchpoints.) See comparative scoring.
Matrix The layout of the cards that play pivotal roles in certain endplays, most typically squeezes.
Maxims A maxim of bridge is a brief expression of a general principle of the game. Most Bridge maxims have some validity but none are true in all circumstances.
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Maximal overcall double By prior agreement, a game-invitational double of an overcall that leaves no room for a bid, when a bid would invite game. For example, after 1♠ – (2♥) – 2♠ – (3♥) there is no room below 3♠ for a game invitation (and a bid of 3♠ itself would be taken as merely competitive), so a double is used as a game invitation.
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McKenney See Suit preference signal.
Menace A card that requires an opponent to retain a higher card in the same suit, as a guard. The term is typically used of squeeze play.
Merrimac coup The deliberate sacrifice of a high card to remove a vital entry to an opponent's hand, usually the dummy. Named for a ship sunk during the Spanish–American War, to block the entrance to a harbor. Sometimes confused with, and spelled as, the Merrimack, the American Civil War ship that fought the Monitor. See Deschapelles coup.
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Michaels cue bid By prior agreement, an immediate cue bid in the suit of an opponent's opening bid, such as 1♦ – (2♦), for two-suited takeout. The cue bid of a minor suit shows length in both major suits. The cue bid of a major suit typically shows length in the other major suit and in an unspecified minor suit.
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MiniBridge A simplified form of contract bridge designed to expose newcomers to declarer and defensive playing techniques without the burden of learning a detailed bridge bidding system.
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Minor penalty card A card below the rank of an honor card that is exposed by a defender prematurely but accidentally, via mishap. A minor penalty card remains face up on the table until played. The minor penalty card must be played before any other card below honor rank in the same suit; however, an honor in the same suit may be played before the minor penalty card is played. Contrast Major penalty card.
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Minor suit The club suit and the diamond suit are minor suits. Declarer scores 20 points for each trick taken in an undoubled contract with a minor suit as trump. Because game requires at least 100 points for tricks bid and made, both 5♣ and 5♦ (or 3♣ doubled and 3♦ doubled) constitute game contracts. Contrast Major suits.
Minor tenace The second-highest and the fourth-highest (or lower) remaining cards in a suit, held in the same hand. For example, the ♠KJ before spades have been played. See major tenace.
Mirror Identical hand distributions: "North and South had mirror distributions." Misbid A bid that fails to describe the hand properly. Often a misdescription of a hand's shape, as distinct from an overbid or underbid.
Misfit Two partnership hands, neither of which can support the other's long suit. For example, a red Two-suiter opposite a black Two-suiter constitutes a misfit.
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Mitchell movement A pairs tournament movement in which the pairs sitting in one direction (usually North-South) stay in the same seats throughout, but after each round the pairs sitting in the other direction (usually East-West) move to the next higher numbered table, and the boards are moved to the next lower numbered table. Unless an arrow switch is performed, the effect is to create two events, a "North-South" contest and an "East-West" contest, with separate winning pairs, though a single winner can still be determined by comparing percentage results.
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Mixed 1) Of an event: contested by pairs or teams in which every pair comprises one male and one female player.
2) In the auction: A mixed raise is, by agreement, a jump cue bid of opener's suit in support of partner's overcall. It tends to show four card support for partner's suit and the strength of a good single raise. In 1♦ – (1♥) – 1♠ – (3♦), 3♦ is a mixed raise.
Morton's fork coup A play that forces the defense to choose between taking a high card that will establish extra winners for declarer, and ducking the trick, after which the high card cannot be cashed.
Movement In a tournament, the scheme for the progression of players and boards from table to table, arranged so that a pair does not play the same boards twice, or meet the same opponents twice etc. The most common movements for pairs tournaments are Howell and Mitchell.
Moysian fit A 4–3 trump fit, or a contract with such a trump fit. Named after The Bridge World editor Alphonse "Sonny" Moyse Jr, who wrote and published a variety of articles that promoted the virtues of such fits or contracts, some bidding styles designed to locate them, and some techniques for playing them well.
MUD Acronym of "Middle, Up, Down", a lead convention which describes the sequence in which cards from a holding of three low ones (all less in rank than the 10) are played.
Muiderberg convention A weak two-bid showing five cards in a major and at least four cards in another suit.
Multi An ambiguous opening bid of 2♦ that promises one of several different types of hand. Originally entitled "multicoloured 2 Diamonds".
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Natural A call which indicates either: (1) a willingness to play the contract named, (2) a suit bid suggesting length or strength in that suit, (3) a notrump bid that suggests a balanced hand, (4) a double that suggests the ability to defeat the opponent's contract, (5) a redouble to suggest that the contract can be made in the face of a double by opponents, or (6) a pass that suggests weakness, satisfaction with the last bid made or no desire to make a further call. Contrast Artificial.
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NBB Nederlandse Bridge Bond (Dutch Bridge League).
Negative double A conventional call used by responder in a competitive auction to denote possession of at least one unbid suit.
Negative free bid Responder's suit bid following an opening bid and an overcall. Nonforcing by prior agreement.
Negative inference An inference based on something that did not happen. For example, if a defender does not overruff, declarer might conclude that he could not overruff. Or if declarer does not ruff a loser in dummy, a defender might conclude that declarer does not have a loser in that suit.
Negative response A bid that shows insufficient values for a stronger response. For example, a 2♦ response to a forcing 2♣ opening bid is often negative, as is a 1♦ response to a Precision 1♣.
Negative slam double In a competitive auction, the double of a voluntarily bid slam to show no defensive tricks, and therefore to suggest a sacrifice.
Neuberg formula In duplicate pairs tournaments, a method of fairly adjusting match point scores when not all boards have been played the same number of times. It gives equal weight to each board by calculating the expected number of match points that would have been earned if the board had been played the full number of times.
New minor forcing By agreement, after 1m – 1M; 1NT, a bid of two of the unbid minor as artificial and forcing, often requesting three card support for responder's bid major or four cards in the unbid major. Sometimes called PLOB.
New suit A suit that has not yet been bid.
NMF New minor forcing.
No bid An alternative to "pass". Used in the United Kingdom, where "pass" might be mis-heard as "hearts." Regarded as improper in the US.
Nonadverse suit, or non-adverse suit A suit which has not yet been bid by either opponent.
Nonforcing bid, or non-forcing bid A bid which partner may pass. See also Forcing bid, Invitation, Sign-off.
Nonvulnerable, or non-vulnerable Not vulnerable.
None vulnerable In rubber bridge, the state of the score in which neither pair has made a game. In duplicate bridge, the vulnerability condition under which neither pair is designated as vulnerable for the board in play. Also, "neither side vulnerable." Norman four notrump A slam-seeking convention North–South One of the partnerships designated on duplicate boards.
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Not vulnerable The state of vulnerability in which both bonuses and penalties are smaller. Therefore, less is at stake for a non-vulnerable pair investigating game or slam, or that is contesting the part score, than for a vulnerable pair. Also, "non-vulnerable." Notrump, or no trump (NT) A contract, or a bid that names a contract without a trump suit. Notrump is the highest-ranking strain. WikiProject Contract bridge deprecates the two-word "no trump", however "no trump" is the usual spelling in the United Kingdom and in those European countries which have adopted this English term.
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Notrump distribution, no trump distribution, or NT distribution Balanced distribution. WikiProject Contract bridge deprecates the two-word "No Trump".
NPC, or npc Non-playing captain.
Nuisance bid An interference bid whose principal aim is not to preempt or to compete for the contract, but nevertheless to upset the smooth flow of the opponents' bidding sequence.
Number, as "go for a number" A very large penalty: "He went for a number." Often, "telephone number", alluding to the size of that number if regarded as a quantity. (Dating back to the 1930s when UK telephone numbers were only four figures, plus an exchange name!) See also
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Obligatory 1) Of a finesse: A duck, made in the hope that a high card will fall. For example, declarer holds ♥K432 opposite dummy's ♥Q765. The ♥2 is led to the ♥Q, which wins. Declarer now leads dummy's ♥5 and RHO follows with the ♥J. Declarer ducks, hoping that LHO must now play the ♥A. The play is obligatory because given the first heart trick, no other play can yield three tricks.
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2) Of a falsecard: A falsecard that, like an obligatory finesse, cannot lose and might gain. An example is the play of the card that one is known to hold (for example, the play of a queen after it has been successfully finessed).
Odd Specifying a level. To make 4♥ is to make four-odd.
Odd–even discards A defensive carding scheme under which the play of an odd-numbered card is encouraging and that of an even-numbered card is discouraging. The rank of the card may be used to show suit preference.
Odd tricks The number of tricks above six (the book) that are taken by declarer.
Off 1) (Slang) Down, or set. "We're off two" means "We have made two fewer tricks than our contract." 2) (Slang) offside.
Offense-to-defense ratio (ODR) High ODR means a hand has characteristics more suited to winning the final contract, while Low ODR means it has characteristics more suited to defending against opponents' contract. ODR is not based on a mathematical formula, but refers to a player's judgement/perception of the hand.
Off shape, offshape, or off-shape Having a distribution that does not quite conform to that suggested by a bid, such as an opening bid of 1NT with 2=2=6=3 shape, or a weak-two bid with a seven card suit.
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Off the top Said of some number of tricks that can be lost or won without gaining or losing the lead. "There were eleven tricks off the top in spades", to mean that declarer could take eleven tricks without interruption; or, "We're down off the top", to mean that the defenders, having the opening lead, can immediately take as many tricks as necessary to defeat the contract.
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Offside Unfavorably located, from the point of view of the player taking a finesse. If East holds the ♣K and North the ♣AQ, from South's point of view the ♣K is offside. Contrast Onside.
Olympiad A world bridge championship held every four years under the auspices of the World Bridge Federation.
On 1) Makeable. A contract that can be made is said to be on.
2) Onside.
3) (Suffix) In rubber bridge, preceded by a number that indicates progress toward game. If one has 40 points Below the line, one has 40-on.
One club system A bidding system that uses a bid of 1♣ as artificial and forcing, but not necessarily strong.
One over one, or one-over-one (1/1) To an opening one-bid, any one-level response in a suit; that is, one of a higher suit in response to opening one of a lower suit. Contrast Two over one.
One round force A bid that requests partner to ensure that the bidding continue for at least one more round. If partner's RHO bids, partner may pass, but is otherwise expected to bid.
See also Forcing bid, Game force and Grand slam force.
One-suiter A hand with only one long suit, normally refers to a hand with a six card or longer suit.
Onside Favorably located, from the point of view of the player taking a finesse. If West holds the ♣K and North the ♣AQ, then from South's point of view the ♣K is onside. Contrast Offside.
Open 1) In the auction: To start the bidding by making the first call other than Pass.
2) Of a room used at a team event: allowing spectators. Normally at least one of two rooms is closed to spectators.
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3) Of an event: not restricting entries in some way that is implicit. So participation in an open event is unrestricted in at least one respect: a) not by invitation only (invitational event) b) not by qualification in a preceding event or qualifier c) not by representation of geographic zones, nations, cities, clubs, etc; nor by requirement that pair or team members share geographic residence, club membership, etc (national event, etc) d) not by age, sex, or playing record (seniors, Masters, etc).
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Open is generally ambiguous but it does have the last sense (d) in the names of WBF world championship events, where the relevant Categories are Youth (with subcategories), Seniors, Women, and Open. For the WBF, transnational means open in sense (c).
Opener The player who makes the opening bid.
Opener's rebid Opener's second bid.
Opening bid The first bid in the auction.
Opening lead The first card led by defenders. The dummy is not faced until after the opening lead, which makes the choice of opening lead more difficult than other leads. The opening lead can determine the outcome of the deal.
Opening leader The declarer's LHO, who always makes the opening lead.
Opponent A member of the other partnership or team.
Optimum contract In unopposed bidding, the contract that cannot be improved upon by further bidding, nor could have been improved upon by taking a different line in earlier bidding. The contract is regarded as optimum because it offers the maximum score while minimizing the risk of failure.
Our hand (Informal) A hand on which "our" side can take more tricks than their side.
Out-of-the-blue cue bid See Advance cue bid.
Over See In back of.
Overbid 1) (Noun) A bid that overstates a hand's strength.
2) (Verb) To bid voluntarily to a contract that the partnership cannot make.
3) (Verb) To bid too high, irrespective of the result.
4) (Noun) (obsolete) In old texts, may refer to an overcall.
Overboard (Slang) Having overbid.
Overcall The first bid made by one of opener's opponents unless they intervene first by a double.
Overcaller The player making an overcall; may also be referred to as the intervenor. Contrast Advancer.
Overruff To ruff with a higher trump following a prior ruff on the same trick.
Overtake To play a card higher than the winning card played by partner, unnecessary to win the trick but necessary to gain the lead.
Overtrick A trick taken by declarer beyond the number of tricks required by the contract.
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Pack Deck of cards.
Pair Two players playing bridge together as partners. Partnership.
Pairs A form of duplicate bridge in which each pair competes separately, as distinct from team and individual events. Pairs events are normally scored by matchpoints.
Palooka (Slang) Someone who plays bridge worse than others in their usual level of play Panama A defence to a Strong Club whereby two-level bids show the suit bid or the other three suits.
Par, or par score On a given deal, the score that results from best bidding and best play by both sides. See optimum contract and par contract.
Par contest A competition that uses composed deals, designed to test each pair's bidding and its card play. After the bidding, pairs are instructed to play (or defend) a specified contract. Results are compared not with other tables but with the predetermined par result.
Par contract That contract which results from optimal bidding by both sides, and which neither side could improve by further bidding.
Pard (Slang) Partner.
Part score, or part-score 1) A trick score less than 100, obtained by making a contract.
2) The contract that results in that trick score.
3) In rubber bridge, a total of fewer than 100 points below the line.
Partial A part score.
Partial elimination An endplay in which declarer is unable to remove all possible safe defensive exit cards, and must hope that the remaining cards are so distributed that the defense cannot get off lead safely.
Partner The other member of the partnership.
Partnership 1) See pair.
2) Two partners who play together for an extended period.
3) The complete set of agreements entered into by a pair.
Partnership bidding Sequences in which the opponents do not compete.
Partnership desk A service, provided by some tournaments, that locates a partner for a player who does not yet have one.
Partnership understanding, or partnership agreement An agreement between partners, reached prior to the beginning of play, concerning the meaning of a call or of carding.
Pass 1) A call indicating that the player does not wish to change the contract named by the preceding bid, double or redouble. To pass transfers the right to make the next call to passer's LHO, unless it is the third consecutive pass, which ends the bidding (but see Passed out). See also No bid.
2) To play, from third hand, a lower card than the one led to the trick. If declarer leads the ♥J, LHO plays a small heart, and declarer plays the ♥2 from dummy's ♥AQ2, declarer has passed the ♥J.
Pass and pull To make a forcing pass and on the next round remove partner's double by bidding.
Passed hand A player who passed instead of opening the bidding. The inference is that a passed hand does not hold the values required to open the bidding (unless playing a strong pass bidding system).
Passed out 1) A deal is passed out if the auction begins with four consecutive passes. There is no contract, no play of the hand, and (at rubber bridge) no score. The players proceed to the next deal.
2) A bid, double, or redouble (an action) is passed out if it is followed by three passes, which end the auction. The last action identifies the contract and the play follows.
Passive defense An approach to defending a hand that emphasizes waiting for tricks that declarer must eventually lose, getting off lead safely, and avoiding plays that will set up tricks for declarer. Often indicated when neither declarer nor dummy has a running side suit or when the declaring side may have over-reached in the bidding. Contrast Active.
Pass-or-correct A bid made in response to partner's ambiguous call. For example, South opens with 1♠ and West bids 2♠, by prior agreement showing hearts and a minor. North passes and East bids 3♣, expecting West to pass if he holds clubs and to correct to diamonds otherwise.
Pass out 1) To make the third of three consecutive passes following a bid, double or redouble.
2) To make the fourth of four consecutive passes. Thus, a bid cannot have been made and the table progresses to the next deal.
3) (Adjective) The seat where a pass would end the auction.
Pattern See distribution.
Pearson points High card points plus number of spades held. See Hand evaluation.
Penalty 1) A score awarded to the defense when declarer's contract goes down. The size of the penalty depends on the number of tricks that declarer was set, the vulnerability, and whether the contract was doubled, or redoubled. See Score.
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2) A remedy assigned by a director to redress damage done by an infraction. The penalty for a minor, procedural infraction might be some number of tricks, matchpoints or IMPs, or disallowing a particular bid or play. A more serious violation of the game's Proprieties may be imposed by barring the offender from an event, a portion of an event, or from organized bridge.
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Penalty card A card, incorrectly exposed by the defense, whose subsequent proper play is governed by certain rules. See major penalty card and minor penalty card.
Penalty double See double Penalty pass The pass of an informatory double, to convert it to a penalty double.
Percentage In matchpoint scoring, refers to the number of matchpoints actually scored by a pair on a board, session, or event, as a percentage of the maximum number available.
Percentage play A play that is chosen because the mathematics of suit distribution suggests that it is more likely to succeed than an alternative line. Usually said of play in a single suit rather than the hand as a whole.
Personal score A record of the board number, opposing pair number, contract, declarer, tricks taken, and raw score kept by each player for the boards played by the partnership in a single session. The personal score often appears on the back of the convention card.
Peter (Slang; chiefly British) See Echo. The term is said to derive from the Blue Peter, a nautical signal.
Phantom pair In a pairs movement, if there is an odd number of pairs, then in each round one pair will have to sit out. The missing pair that they would have played is known as the phantom pair.
Phantom sacrifice A sacrifice bid against a contract that the opponents would not have made. Also, False sacrifice or Phantom save.
Phoney club A type of 1 Club opening bid which shows opening values but does not guarantee clubs, denies a five card major (and often 5 diamonds as well) and may have as little as one club (on a 4441 shape hand). Usually played as forcing for one round. A variant of a short club.
Pianola (Slang) A hand that is so easy it plays itself. "Pianola" is a trademarked brand of player piano (a piano that plays automatically).
Pick up 1) (Verb) To run a suit without losing a trick in it.
2) (Adjective) Said of a partner who completes a pair, or of a pair that completes a team, just prior to the start of an event.
Pick-up slip A type of score slip on which the result of a deal is recorded for the purpose of comparative scoring. Used in certain event formats, it is picked up after each round by the director or his caddy. Also referred to as a pick-up card. Contrast Traveller.
Pin The lead of a high card from one hand to capture a singleton of lower rank in an opponent's hand.
Pip 1) A spot card.
2) A suit symbol (♠, ♥, ♦, ♣) on a card.
Pitch To discard.
Pivot 1) (Adjective) Of the suit that both defenders must guard in a double squeeze.
2) (Verb) In party bridge, to change partners while remaining at the same table.
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3a) (Verb) In duplicate bridge, to play one round in a given direction, and the next round in the opposite direction at the same table 3b) (Noun) In duplicate bridge, a pivot table is a table where each pair will perform a pivot. This can only happen in a Howell movement, or another similar movement, where players move between East-West and North-South during the course of the game.
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Plafond A French, whist-like card game whose scoring foreshadowed that used in contract bridge.
Plain suit A suit that is not trump; a side suit.
Play 1) (Noun) The stage of a deal when players attempt to take tricks. The declarer tries to take at least as many tricks as the contract calls for, and the defenders try to prevent that outcome.
2) (Verb) To contribute a card to a trick, either by displaying its face (as in duplicate bridge) or by placing it face up on the table (as in rubber bridge).
Play for To assume that the opponents have a particular distribution or holding, and to plan and conduct the play on that basis.
Playable 1) (Of a contract) A rational, if not necessarily optimal, choice of strain and level.
2) (Of an agreement) Leading to an acceptable result, if not in the best fashion.
Playing tricks Cards, such as long cards, that will take tricks (usually, for declarer), and that therefore contribute to a hand's strength.
PLOB Acronym or initialism for Petty Little Odious Bid, another name for New Minor Forcing. The name is derived from a diatribe by The Bridge World editor Alphonse "Sonny" Moyse Jr in the magazine's Master Solver's Club feature, which called the convention an "odious, meaningless, petty little bid".
Pocket One of four slots in a duplicate board that hold the cards between plays.
PODI A proxi-acronym for Pass=0, Double=1. Method for countering interference over Blackwood. Pronounced "podey".
Point 1) A scoring unit: e.g., a trick taken by declarer in a minor suit contract scores 20 points.
2) A metric used in hand evaluation, to quantify its strength in high cards and distribution.
3) A metric, such as masterpoints, used in rating players.
Point-a-board Another name for board-a-match.
Point count A method of hand evaluation which assigns a numeric value to a hand's high cards and distributional features, used as a guideline in bidding.
Point count trap A hand whose intrinsic trick-taking potential is less than a conventional point count would indicate.
Pointed suit Spades or diamonds. The term refers to the shape at the tops of the suit symbols. Contrast Rounded suit.
Portland Club A bridge club in London which published the first version of the Laws of contract bridge. The club remains part of the ongoing process of revising the laws, along with the ACBL and the EBL, because of the vesting of the copyright.
Position (Noun) Seat at the table: North, South, East, West; or first, second, third, fourth.
Positional squeeze A squeeze that can succeed against only a specific opponent, because at least one threat must lie over its guard. Compare with Automatic squeeze.
Positive response A bid that announces the possession of at least minimum values. Often said of a response to a forcing opening bid. Contrast Negative response.
Post mortem (Slang) A discussion of a hand, and the nature of the result, after the play has concluded.
Powerhouse An unusually strong hand.
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Prealert An alert which must be made at the beginning of the round before play begins on the first board. Different national governing organizations may establish different requirements for prealerts. Examples of methods for which the ACBL requires a prealert include the following:An agreement to lead the small card from "xx" on opening lead An agreement (canapé) to bid the shorter of two suits before the longer suit with a two-suited hand An agreement to use any bidding convention that entitles the opponents to consult a written defense during the auctionPrecision, or Precision Club A bidding system that combines the features of Kaplan–Sheinwold with a strong, artificial 1♣ opening bid.
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Preempt, preemptive bid, or preemptive raise 1) A bid (or raise) predicated on length of a suit rather than overall strength, primary function of which is to interfere with the opponents' bidding by taking away bidding space they need to exchange information.
2) (Noun) A bid that has a preemptive effect, regardless of its intent.
Preference A call that returns the bidding to partner's first-bid suit; for example, in 1♥ – 1♠; 2♦ – 2♥, 2♥ is a preference. A simple, non-jump preference shows neither strength nor support for the suit; it is simply a return to partner's presumably longer suit.
Prepared bid A bid which differs from usual partnership practice that is chosen to avoid a later bidding problem. For example, playing five-card majors and holding a minimal strength opening hand, a strong four-card spade suit may be opened in preference to a weak five-card heart suit. See also prepared opening bid.
Prepared club See short club.
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Present count A carding agreement under which a count signal shows the number of cards currently held. In a count-giving situation, a defender might first play the ♥3 from ♥753, and the ♥7 as his second play. Also, "current count." Principle of restricted choice A guideline to the play of the hand, concerning the probability of the location of key cards in the unseen hands. In particular it states that if a defender plays one of two adjacent missing cards (e.g. ♦QJ) then that defender is less likely also to hold the other missing card.
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Progression The movement of players and deals between rounds in an event.
Progressive squeeze A squeeze in three suits that, when it matures, results in a new squeezed position in two suits.
Promote 1) In the play, to cause a card to become a winner.
2) In the bidding, to assign a higher value to a card, or to the hand as a whole, as a result of earlier calls made by partner or by the opponents.
Proprieties A section of the Laws of Duplicate Contract Bridge that describes, in general terms, proper conduct as to the exchange of information concerning a hand, as to attitude and etiquette, as to partnership agreements, and as to spectators' conduct.
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Protect See balance. (In the UK, protect is the more usual term.) Protest See appeal. (In the UK, appeal is the more usual term.) Pseudo squeeze A position that, to a defender, appears to be a true squeezed position, but is not. Declarer hopes that the defender will misplay as a result. The literature often gives as an example a position in which declarer has a void in dummy's apparent suit of entry.
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Psych, psyche, psychic, or psychic bid A call that grossly misstates high card strength or distribution, made so as to deceive the opponents. The Laws specify that psychic bids themselves are legal. It is, however, a violation to infer and fail to disclose that partner has psyched, when the inference is based on partnership agreement or experience. Sponsoring organizations regulate the use of certain psychic bids.
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Psychic control A bid that, by partnership agreement, announces that the player's previous bid was a psychic.
Pull 1) To remove the opponents' trumps.
2) To remove partner's double.
Pump (slang) To force out an opponent's trump, usually by means of a forcing defense.
Puppet An artificial bid that simply requests partner to make a specified cheap reply – commonly the cheapest sufficient bid, or next step.
Puppet Stayman A version of Stayman employed after an opening bid of 1NT or 2NT which could include a five-card major.
Push 1) (Verb) To force the opponents to make any subsequent call at a level higher than they have as yet.
2) (Noun) A tied board in a pairs or team duplicate event.
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Quack A portmanteau of queen and jack. Used in situations where it does not matter whether the queen or the jack is held or played, as well as to emphasize that it does not matter. See Principle of restricted choice.
Qualifying (Adjective) A session or sessions preliminary to the final of an event.
Quantitative 1) Of a bid: A call based, usually, on high card points, rather than a feature such as fit or shortness. A raise from 1NT to 3NT based on a 4–3–3–3 hand with 10 HCP is a quantitative raise.
2) Of scoring: The method of scoring used in rubber bridge or in IMP events. The metric used is the number of points earned on each deal, perhaps adjusted by the IMP scale and victory points. In contrast, comparative scoring is based on the number of pairs that have been out-scored.
Queen ask, or queen-ask In Key Card Blackwood, the cheapest bid over the response to 4NT, to ask responder for the trump queen.
Quick tricks In card play, top ranking holdings able to win tricks immediately. Similar in concept to honor tricks in the evaluation of hand strength.
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Quitted trick A trick whose cards have all been turned face down (duplicate bridge) or gathered in front of the trick's winner (rubber bridge). In rubber bridge, a player may inspect a quitted trick if his side has not yet led to the next trick. In duplicate bridge, a player may inspect a quitted trick only if told to do so by a director.
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Quotient Points won divided by the sum of points won and points lost, occasionally used to break a tie.
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Rainbow A movement used in individual events.
Rainbow trick A trick consisting of all four suits, typically involving low cards.
Raise A bid of partner's suit at a higher level. A raise shows a fit for partner's suit. 1?–2? is a single raise; 1?–3? is a double raise.
Rank The position of an individual card relative to others: Aces have the highest rank, followed by K, Q, J, 10, ... 2.
The order of denominations in the bidding. Notrump is highest-ranked denomination, followed by spades, hearts, diamonds and clubs. A higher-ranked suit may be bid at the same level as a lower-ranked suit; the reverse is not true.Rebid The second or a subsequent bid by the same player.
A bid by the same player in a suit he has already bid.Rebiddable suit A suit with sufficient length and strength, according to partnership agreements, to be rebid in certain defined circumstances.
Recap (Abbreviation of "recapitulation") A summary of results in a bridge tournament.
Recorder A member of a bridge organization whose responsibility it is to maintain a record of reports of possible violations of the Proprieties.
Rectify the count To lose some number of tricks in preparation for a squeeze. Losing the tricks "tightens up" the end position, removing idle cards from the defenders' hands before they can be used as safe discards in the squeezed position.
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Red (Slang) Vulnerable. From the color of the paint on a duplicate board. Also: "Red vs. red" to mean both sides vulnerable, and "red vs. white" to mean vulnerable vs. not. (In British slang, those last two expressions are rarely used. The more usual ones are: "(at) game all", "both red" or "(at) red all"; and "at unfavourable", "at red", "red against green" or "red against not".) Redeal In rubber bridge, the prescribed remedy for a faulty deal. In duplicate bridge, redeals are not used except in special cases and under a director's supervision.
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Redouble A call that doubles the penalties and bonuses that apply to a previous double. Used conventionally, a redouble may also convey additional information.
Re-entry A card that enables a hand to gain the lead on a later trick, after that hand has already gained the lead with a different entry card.
Refuse (Verb). Of a trick, to duck.
Reject To fail to comply with a bid that has made a request, such as an invitation or a transfer.
Relay bid, or relay An artificial bid that requests partner to further describe his hand. The relay is usually the lowest available bid, so as to leave as much room for description as possible.
Relay system A bidding system that consists of many relay bid sequences.
Relever or re-lever (Slang) Redouble; by extension from lever.
Remove To bid on over an undesired contract, especially a doubled contract.
Renege Informal term for Revoke; associated with other games such as whist.
Reopen See balance.
Repechage A form of knockout competition in which winners advance and losers drop into a secondary event from which some number of top performers return to the primary event.
Rescue To remove from a contract that partner has bid and which, often, has been doubled.
Responder Opening bidder's partner.
Response A bid by responder immediately following an opening bid and RHO's call.
Responsive double A double that follows LHO's opening bid, partner's takeout double and RHO's raise of opener's suit, to show moderate values and no clear opinion as to the best strain.
Result merchant (Slang) One who evaluates bids and plays according to their outcome, rather than to their intrinsic merit. Also, "Result player" and "Second guesser".
Retain the lead Maintain the right to lead to the next trick by leading and winning the current trick.
Return To lead back, usually the suit that partner led.
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Reverse A bidding sequence in which a single player, on consecutive calls, bids two different suits, and bids the two suits in the reverse order to that expected by the basic bidding system. The specific definition of a reverse therefore depends on the bidding system (see main article). The reverse is designed to show additional strength without the need to make a jump bid. Because the reverse takes up bidding space, the reverse bidder is usually expected to hold a stronger than average hand, usually more than 16 HCP.
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Revoke Failure to follow suit as required when a player is able to do so.
Rewind (Slang) To redouble.
RHO Right-hand opponent.
Rise, as "rise with" To play a high card in the hope of taking a trick: "Rise with the ace." Also, "go up with" RKCB Roman Key Card Blackwood, a slam bidding convention.
Robert coup A rare end position which combines elements of ruff and discard, trump shortening, and endplaying to force an opponent to concede a trump trick Roman Descriptive of bids and carding agreements used or originated in the Roman system:Roman 2♣ and 2♦: Three-suiters.
Roman Blackwood, Gerber and Roman Key Card Blackwood (RKCB): Step responses to the ace-asking bid that entail mild ambiguity.
Roman jump overcall: Two-suiter.
Roman asking bid: A request that partner bid his number of controls wholesale, via step responses.
Roman discards: odd-even discards.
Roman leads: Rusinow leads.RONF Acronym for "Raise (is the) Only Non-Force". A treatment used for responding to preempts, usually weak two bids. All bids except the single raise are forcing.
Rosenblum Cup The award for winning the world knockout team championship that is held in even numbered years other than leap years. (The Bermuda Bowl is contested in odd numbered years and the World Team Olympiad in leap years.) Rotation The progression of the bidding and play in a clockwise direction around the table.
Roth–Stone A bidding system popular in the U.S. during the 1960s. It features sound opening bids, five-card majors and negative doubles. It is the principal foundation for 2/1 Game Forcing.
Round In the bidding, a sequence of four consecutive calls.
In duplicate bridge, a set of boards leading to another round (e.g., the semi-final round), or a set of boards that two pairs play against one another.
Of a control, the round on which the control can stop the opponents from winning a trick. An ace, for example, is a first round control; the king is a second round control.Rounded suit Hearts or clubs. The term refers to the shape at the tops of the suit symbols. Contrast Pointed suit.
Round-robin tournament, or round-robin An event format in which each team eventually opposes each other team.
Rubber In rubber bridge, the set of successive deals that ends when one of the pairs wins two games.
Rubber bonus A bonus awarded to the pair winning the rubber: 500 points if the losers are vulnerable, 700 if they are not.
Rubber bridge The original form of contract bridge, a contest with four players in two opposing pairs (as distinct from duplicate bridge, which requires a minimum of eight players).
Rubens advances Transfer advances of overcalls. See Useful Space Principle.
Ruff To play a trump on a trick when a plain suit was led.
Ruff and discard The lead of a suit in which both opponents are void, so that one opponent can ruff while the other discards (or sluffs). A ruff and discard is usually damaging to the side that leads to the trick. Also, ruff and sluff or ruff and slough.
Ruff out To establish a suit by ruffing one or more of its low cards.
Rule of Eight Devised by Ely Culbertson. "The total of defensive honor-tricks that will be won at any bid (trump or no-trump) after each deal is about 8 out of the 13 tricks." A way to decide whether to overcall an opponent's 1NT opening. Length in long suits, the losing trick count and HCP are combined.
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Devised by David Burn from experience of playing with and of captaining teams of junior players. (1) Subtract the number of aces held by opponents from eight. (2) Don't play at that level.Rule of Eighteen Regulation by the World Bridge Federation stipulating that an opening bid is acceptable if the sum of the number of cards in the two longest suits plus the number of HCP is at least 18.
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Rule of Eleven A calculation that can be used when it is assumed that opening leader has led the fourth highest card in a suit. By subtracting the pips on the card led from 11, the result is the number of cards in the other three hands that are higher than the one led. Third hand, for example, can then make inferences about declarer's holding in the suit by examining his own and dummy's holdings; likewise, declarer can make inferences about right-hand-opponent's holding in the suit. (The rule can be modified to subtract from 12 if the lead is thought to be third best, and from 10 if the lead is thought to be fifth best.) Rule of Fifteen Guideline for opening light in fourth seat: open if your high card points plus your number of spades is 15 or more. Also known as the Cansino Count.
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Rule of Five When the bidding has reached the 5-level in a competitive auction, tend to defend rather than bid on. In other words, in competitive auctions, 5-level contracts belong to the enemy. See also Law of Total Tricks Rule of Four Avoid giving support for partner's 5-card suit if a superior 4–4 fit might be available.
Rule of Seven When declarer's only high card in the suit led by the opponents is the ace, count the number of cards in that suit held by declarer and dummy, subtract from seven and duck that many times.
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Rule of Three On a competitive part score deal, with the points roughly equal between your side and theirs, once the bidding has reached the 3-level, tend to defend rather than bid on (unless your side has 9 trumps). See also Law of Total Tricks Rule of Twenty A widely used guideline of the Standard American Yellow Card (SAYC) bidding system which states that a hand may open bidding "normally" (that is, by bidding one of a suit) if the sum obtained by adding the combined length of its longest two suits to its high card points is twenty or more, but that weaker hands must either open with a preemptive bid or pass. See also Zar points evaluation method.
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Rule of Two When missing two non-touching honors, it is normally superior to finesse first for their lower honor. In the following two example hands, three tricks or the maximum possible are needed. In the first hand, finesse the ♠10, not the ♠Q. Similarly in the second, lead the ♥2 and when West follows with the ♥9, it is best to finesse the ♥10. When one of the missing honors is the 10 the rule will not apply, as one does not normally finesse for a 10 on the first round.
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Rule of Two and Three A bidding guide suggested by Ely Culbertson, which counsels preemptors to be within two tricks of their contract if vulnerable, and within three if not. Few players now follow the Rule of Two and Three.
Ruling A finding and decision by a tournament director or appeals committee.
Run To play the winners in a suit.
Rusinow leads An agreement to lead the second highest of touching honors.
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Sac (Slang) Sacrifice. Also, "sack." Sacrifice (Noun) A contract that was deliberately bid in the expectation of going down, in the hope of a penalty smaller than the opponents' expected score from making a contract they had bid.
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(Verb) To bid to such a contract.Safety level A level at which the partnership can normally assume, on the basis of the previous bidding, that its contract will succeed. It is the point below which the partnership prefers to explore even higher contracts. Also, "security level." Safety play A play that maximizes the chances for fulfilling the contract (or for achieving a certain score) by avoiding a play which might result in a higher score. Contrast Percentage play, the best play in a suit, whereas a safety play is the best line for the contract.
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Sandbag (Slang) To bid weakly or pass with good values, in the hope that the opponents will get overboard.
Sandwich An overcall made after an opening bid and response by the opponents. The overcall is "sandwiched" between two hands that have each shown strength.
Save (Slang) Sacrifice.
SAYC Standard American Yellow Card, a particular bidding system or the completed ACBL convention card that represents it.
Scientific A style of bidding that attempts to narrowly limit the strength of a partnership's hands, so as to make its bidding more accurate.
Scissors coup A loser-on-loser play meant to break the opponents' communications. Formerly known as 'Coup without a name'.
Score, or bridge scoring 1) The numeric result of a deal, session or event.
2) (Verb) Of a card, to win a trick: "The ♠Q scored." Score slip A paper form used to record the result of each deal in a duplicate bridge event when electronic scoring devices are not available. Depending upon the event format, the score slip may be either a pick-up slip or a traveller.
Scramble 1) To bid to a safer contract.
2) To score small trumps by ruffing, rather than as long cards. Often used of the play of a contract based on a Moysian fit.
Screen A device which divides the table diagonally, visually separating partners from each other. Used in higher-level competition to reduce the possibility of unauthorized information.
Screenmates Opponents who sit on the same side of the screen.
Seat Position relative to the dealer: for example, dealer's LHO is said to be in second seat.
Second guesser See result merchant.
Second hand The player to the left of the player who has led to a trick.
Second hand low A precept that advises second hand to play a low card on RHO's lead. See also Third hand high.
Section A group of contestants in an event.
Seed A ranking assigned to a contestant of relatively high rank.
See-saw squeeze See Entry-shifting squeeze.
Semi-balanced hand A hand with 5–4–2–2 or 6–3–2–2 distribution.
Semi-forcing bid A bid which is conditionally forcing: one which requests partner to rebid unless his hand is minimal or sub-minimal for his previous bidding. Compare invitation.
Sequence 1) The auction, or calls made in the auction.
2) Two or more cards adjacent in rank.
Session A period of play during which those entered in an event play designated boards against designated opponents.
Set 1) To defeat a contract.
2) The number of tricks by which a contract is defeated ("a two-trick set").
Set game In rubber bridge, an agreement that partners will not change at the end of each rubber.
Set up Establish.
SF Semi-forcing.
Shaded (Of a call) A call that is not quite warranted by the strength of the hand making it.
Shape The distribution of suits in a hand.
Shift 1) (Verb) To lead a suit other than the one already played.
2) (Noun) In the bidding, a change of suit, usually said of a jump bid (see jump shift).
Shoot To try for an unusually good result by adopting an abnormal line of play, typically at matchpoint scoring. Declarer hopes that the cards are distributed in such a way that a superior line of play will fail.
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Short club The natural opening bid of 1♣ when the suit contains three cards or less. Usually employed by players using the five-card majors treatment for opening bids when holding a hand with opening values but lacking a five-card major. When the hand contains two clubs and three diamonds, an opening diamond bid is preferred. Also, "short diamond." These bids may also be called "prepared minors" – "prepared club" and "prepared diamond", or "better minor" bids. The EBU "Orange Book" recommends the term "prepared club" for bids that show a minimum of three cards, and "short club" where it may only be two cards or less.
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Short suit 1) In a 13-card hand, a singleton or void suit.
2) In a hand, that suit with the fewest cards.
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Short suit game try By agreement, a bid of a short side suit after a single raise, hoping to reach game. For example, after 1♥ – 2♥, opener might rebid 3♣ with a singleton or void in clubs. The bid tells partner where high cards will be least useful, indicating duplication of values. It requests partner to take positive action with high-card strength outside that suit. Otherwise, the bid requests partner to sign off (in this example, by bidding 3♥). See help-suit game try and game try.
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Short-suit points In hand evaluation, points counted for singletons and voids.
Show out Fail to follow suit.
Shuffle To mix the cards. Shuffling seldom results in random distributions: in the long run, the cards so mixed rarely match the mathematical expectancies.
Side Partnership.
Side game A secondary event played simultaneously with the main event.
Side suit A suit that is not trump; plain suit. A side suit may nevertheless have significant length: see Two-suiter.
Signals The conventional meanings assigned to plays made by the defenders in order to exchange information. Also, carding.
Signoff bid 1) A bid that requests that partner pass.
2) A call that denies extra values, one that normally results in a pass by partner. Compare non-forcing bid, forcing bid.
Sign off To make a signoff bid.
Silent bidder A sheet, typically of card or plastic, placed in the center of the table during the bidding period, and marked with numeral, suit and other symbols such that a player can indicate a call by tapping on them with a finger, writing implement, or the like. Largely superseded by bidding boxes.
Simple squeeze A squeeze against one opponent, in two suits, with the count (definition 3).
Single dummy The normal manner of play, with certain knowledge only of one's own cards and dummy's, and without verbal communication between partners. Contrast Double dummy.
Singleton A holding of exactly one card in a suit.
Sit-out A round in a movement during which a pair is idle. That pair is said to "sit out" that round.
Skip An irregular feature of a Mitchell movement: typically a move by the East–West pairs of 2 tables up instead of the usual 1, to avoid them playing the same boards twice.
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Skip bid warning, or skip-bid warning A warning to LHO that one is about to make a jump bid that could cause a revealing hesitation or huddle; used only when bidding screens are not in place. The warning is made in one of two ways: 1) When bidding boxes are in use, the red Stop card is placed on the table followed by a bid card; LHO is expected to wait 10 seconds before taking action; 2) When bidding boxes are not in use, the jump bidder announces "I am about to make a skip bid, please wait." and then bids. LHO waits 10 seconds.
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Slam 1) small slam (or simply, slam): a contract to win at least twelve tricks.
2) grand slam: a contract to win all thirteen tricks.
Bidding and making a slam or grand slam scores significant bonus points.
Slam try A bid that invites partner to bid a slam.
Slot (Slang) The location of a card that is onside. "In the slot" means "Finessable." Slough Discard. Pronounced and sometimes spelled "sluff".
Slow Cards that require establishment before they can be cashed.
Slow arrival A style of bidding that uses a jump to a contract (to which the previous bidding has already forced the partnership) to show a specific holding. Contrast Fast arrival.
Slow rubber A rubber completed in three games. See fast rubber.
Sluff See discard. Neo-orthography for slough, as used in ruff and sluff.
Smack (Slang) Same meaning as crack.
Small slam A contract for six odd tricks.
Smith signal The Smith signal (also known as Smith echo or Smith peter) is an attitude carding signal in contract bridge showing additional values (or lack thereof) in the first suit led by the defence, while the signal itself is given in the first suit played by declarer.
Smolen After opener has denied a four-card major in a Stayman sequence, responder's jump to 3M to show four cards in the bid major and five cards in the other major.
Smother play An endplay that captures an opponent's guarded trump by means of an overruff, when that card cannot be finessed in the normal fashion.
Soft values Lower honors, as distinct from aces and kings.
Solid A suit strong enough to run without interruption, or (in the bidding) that requires no fit with partner.
Sort To arrange one's cards by suit, and by rank within suit.
SOS redouble A conventional redouble that asks partner for rescue from a doubled contract. Its name comes from the Morse code distress signal SOS.
Sound A hand that is relatively strong for a call that is contemplated or that has been made.
South African Texas A variant of Texas in which 4♣ and 4♦ are used as transfers to 4♥ and 4♠ respectively.
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Splinter A singleton or void in a suit other than the trump suit. A hand with both good support for partner's trumps and a splinter can be very powerful offensively—offering control of the splinter suit (by ruffing the first or second trick) and extra trump winners (by ruffing subsequent rounds). When declarer holds either no top honors or the ace and low cards opposite a splinter in the dummy, the combined hands may win several more tricks than the partnership might have expected without awareness of the powerful fit.
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Splinter bid An unusual jump bid that by agreement shows a fit for partner's last-bid suit and a singleton or void in the bid suit. For example, a partnership could treat 4♣ in response to an opening bid of 1♠ as a splinter bid, showing a good hand with spade support and a singleton or void club. Compare with Fragment bid.
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Split 1) (Noun) The distribution in the opponents' hands of the cards in a suit.
2) (Verb) To play one of two touching honors when the lead comes through them.
Split menace A menace in squeeze play which depends on values in both declarer's hand and dummy.
Split tenace A position where the high cards of a tenace are in opposite hands, e.g. Ax opposite Qx; usually relevant only when a lead by an opponent with the missing honor card (here, the K) would be damaging to his side.
Sponsor 1) The organization that puts on a tournament, such as the WBF, the ACBL or the EBU, a regional association, or a club.
2) One who hires partners or teammates to compete in an event.
Spot card A card that ranks below the 10.
Spread (Slang) Laydown.
SPS A Suit Preference Signal, a card played by a defender to show interest in or an entry in a side suit.
Squeeze A playing technique that forces the defender to discard a vital card, usually an apparent stopper.
Squeeze card A card whose lead forces one or both defenders to discard their guard in a suit.
Stack A distribution of cards in defenders' hands that might make the play difficult for declarer. The defenders' trumps, for example, could be said to be stacked if they divide 5–0.
Standard American or Standard American Yellow Card (SAYC) A bidding system thought to conform to agreements that an unfamiliar partnership in America would use.
Stationary Not called to change seats during the movement being used.
Stayman convention A conventional bid of 2♣ that calls for a 1NT opening bidder to bid a four-card major, if one is held, and (usually) 2♦ otherwise. Many continuations have been devised.
Steal To gain an advantage, usually through deception. The theft may be material (e.g., a trick or a contract) or non-material (e.g., a tempo). Despite the term steal, deception is entirely legal if it does not involve unauthorized information or concealment of information to which the opponents are entitled.
Step In the bidding, the space between one bid and the next highest. See Useful Space Principle.
Step bid A bid that conveys information on the basis of the number of steps it uses.
Stolen bid A bid that has no correlation to the bidder's hand, aiming to disturb conventions.
Stepping-stone squeeze A squeeze that forces a defender either to be thrown in to act as a stepping-stone to a stranded dummy, or to allow declarer to establish a suit.
Sticks and wheels (Slang, chiefly British) An 1100-point penalty. Compare "go for a number".
Stiff (Slang, adjective and noun) A singleton.
Stop An instruction given to opponents when you make a jump bid, or skip bid. LHO is expected to wait around 10 seconds before calling, so as to avoid communicating information to partner as to how easy his call is to make. See skip-bid warning.
Stopper A high card (normally, an honor) whose primary function is to prevent the opponents from running a suit in a notrump contract. See also Control.
Strain See denomination.
Strip 1) To remove safe cards of exit from an opponent's hand.
2) To prepare for a ruff-and-sluff by removing all cards of a suit (or suits) in a partnership's hands.
Strip squeeze A squeeze without the count in which one threat is against a safe exit card.
Striped-tail ape double A double of a laydown contract made in hope of dissuading the opponents from successfully bidding to a higher, more rewarding contract. The doubler must be prepared to run (like the cowardly ape) to an escape suit if the opponents redouble.
Strong club system A set of conventions that uses an opening bid of 1♣ as an artificial, forcing opening that promises a strong hand.
Strong notrump An opening notrump that shows a balanced hand and 15–17 or 16–18 HCP. Contrast Weak notrump. A partnership's choice between the use of a strong notrump or a weak notrump has extensive implications for its entire bidding system.
Strong pass system A bidding system that mandates a pass by first (or second) hand to show what other systems would regard as an opening bid. A corollary is that if the next hand also passes, third (or fourth) hand must bid to keep the deal from being passed out.
Strong two bid, strong two-bid, or Strong Two An agreement to use an opening bid of two of a suit so as to indicate a strong hand and a strong holding in the bid suit.
Stub (Slang) Part-score.
Sucker double (Slang) An ill-advised penalty double, such as one based on HCP when the bidding warns of freak distributions.
Suit A ranked division of the deck of cards into (in descending rank order) spades, hearts, diamonds and clubs. The suit ranking has a profound effect on the bidding and scoring, but none at all on the play. See also Denomination, Major suit, and Minor suit).
Suit preference signal A defensive carding method that signals a preference, or the lack thereof, for a suit other than the suit used for the signal.
Superaccept A strongly encouraging response to a transfer, such as a jump completion (e.g., 1NT – 2♥; 3♠). Many partnerships use a conventional superacceptance such as 1NT – 2♦; 2♠, one step above responder's major, to save room for game or slam exploration, and in conformance with the Useful Space Principle.
Support A fit with partner's suit.
Support double A double of an overcall that shows a fit for partner's suit, usually distinguished from a direct raise by the length of the suit in responder's hand.
Sure trick A trick that in the absence of some irregularity a player must win, such as the ace of trumps. Extended by George Coffin to refer to guaranteed lines of play.
Surrogate signals A count or preference signal made in a different suit, usually the suit which declarer is running, to inform partner in beforehand about a critical decision he will have to make later during the play of the hand.
Swindle A deceptive bid or play.
SWINE A proxi-acronym for Sebesfi Woods 1NT Escape.
Swing A difference in scores between two tables on a board in a team match.
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Swinging An aggressive playing style, usually adopted by a pair or team who is behind with some chance to catch the leaders "with a little luck." Swinging players will make plays slightly against the odds that will offer large gains if they succeed. For example, a swinging pair might bid a 60% grand slam on a hand where a small slam should be the normal contract. They might also make close doubles of normal contracts that might go down.
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Swish (Slang) Three consecutive passes, ending the auction. "3♠ – swish" means 3♠ passed out.
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Swiss, or Swiss Teams A Swiss-system tournament for teams-of-four. Every team plays a series of matches with a series of opponents whose records or standings are as similar as possible when they face each other, without scheduling repeat matches. Typically these are relatively numerous, relatively short matches. For example, of 54 to 56 boards in one day's play: 6, 7, 8, or 9 matches of 9, 8, 7, or 6 boards respectively.
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Switch To lead a different suit.
System see bidding system.
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Table 1) (Noun) A grouping of four players at a bridge tournament.
2) (Verb) To put down one's cards face up.
3) See dummy (2).
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Table card A large printed card placed on a table in a bridge tournament. The card contains instructions for the players, including players' designations and board numbers. Also, "Guide card." Table presence Awareness of opponents' behavior and mannerisms, leading to inferences regarding their holdings and problems on a deal. It is improper to take action on inferences made on the basis of partner's behavior. Also, "Table feel." Table talk 1) Improper communication between partners, effected by words, gestures, or facial expressions.
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2) Extraneous discussion during the play, discouraged as a distraction or possible source of unauthorized information.
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Takeout double A conventional call used in a competitive auction to indicate support for the unbid suits in a hand of opening strength, and to request that partner bid. The classic, ideal pattern is 4–4–4–1, with the shortness in the suit doubled. There are many informatory doubles that anticipate a bid from partner, but "takeout double" typically refers to the double immediately over opening bidder.
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Tank (Slang) Huddle.
Tap (Verb and noun) Slang. To adopt a line of defense that is intended to force declarer to ruff in the long hand. Also, the line of defense itself: "To get the tap going." See Forcing defense.
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Team 1) (Adjective) (also Teams or Teams-of-four) A form of duplicate bridge played by eight people at two tables. The North–South pair at one table and East–West pair at the other table are teammates. Every deal is played at both tables ("duplicate") and scored by comparing the two raw scores — usually on the IMP or board-a-match scale. Matches are commonly played in sets of 6 to 20 deals, with scoring required and player substitutions permitted between sets.
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2) (Noun) A group of four or more players who compete together in a teams event. For each deal, four team members are active at two tables. Player substitution occurs between matches or, in many longer matches, between sets of 6 to 20 deals. Most teams events permit four to six players on a team.
Teammate A member of the same team. Commonly said of any teammate other than one's partner.
Teams (Adjective) See team (1) Tempo 1) Having the timing advantage in the play of the cards by possessing the lead and thereby being able to initiate (or continue) one's line of play before the declarer/opponents can establish his/theirs.
2) The speed at which a player executes a call or play. Some players attempt to intimidate less experienced opponents by playing their cards very quickly. A break in tempo often indicates that a player has an unexpected problem in bidding or play.
Temporizing bid Waiting bid.
Tenace A broken sequence of (often) honor cards, such as ♠ A Q or ♦ K J. Declarer may lead toward his or dummy's tenace, preparing to finesse for a missing card. A defender may lead through declarer's or dummy's tenace to help his partner score cards behind the tenace.
Texas transfer, or Texas A convention whereby a bid of 4♦ or 4♥ in response to a notrump bid requests partner to transfer to 4♥ or 4♠ respectively.
Their hand (Slang) A hand on which the opponents have the preponderance of strength.
Thin (Slang) 1) A bid or contract based on less strength than normally recommended.
2) (Of a hand) Lacking body.
Third-and-fifth An opening lead convention that calls for the lead of the third-best card in a suit of up to four card length, and the fifth-best in a longer suit.
Third from even, low from odd An opening lead convention that calls for the lead of the third-best card from a suit with an even number of cards, and the lowest card from a suit with an odd number of cards.
Third hand The player who makes the third call, or who is the third to play to a trick.
Third hand high A precept that advises the third hand to play a high card on partner's lead. See also Second hand low.
Third Way A term for a bidding system combining 5-card majors and a weak no-trump, such as the Kaplan–Sheinwold system.
Threat In squeeze play, a menace.
Three suiter A hand with length in three suits, thus shortness in the fourth. Distributions such as 4–4–4–1, 5–4–4–0 and 5–4–3–1 are often termed "three-suiters." Throw To discard.
Throw-in See Endplay.
Tight (Slang) An honor card or honor sequence unaccompanied by low cards: "He had the ♥KQ tight." Timing A player's agenda for tasks in the play of the hand: for example, ruff losers and then draw trumps; or, draw trumps and then run the side suit.
Top Playing matchpoints, the highest score achieved on a board.
Top of nothing The lead of a high spot card from a suit that contains no honor card.
Top trick A card that can take a trick on a given hand. See Winner.
Total tricks The sum of the number of tricks that each partnership can take, with its longest combined suit as trump. See Law of Total tricks.
Touching Adjacent. Both cards and suits may be touching. In the holding ♣KQ5, the king and queen are touching. In deciding whether to respond Up the line, a player notes that hearts and spades are touching suits.
Tournament An organized duplicate bridge competition.
Trance (Slang) Huddle.
Transfer A bid that conventionally shows length in a suit other than the one bid, or requests partner to make a bid in a particular suit, or both. The suit in question is usually the suit immediately above the one bid. Examples: Jacoby transfers (often just called "transfers") and Texas transfers ("Texas"). Also, see transfer a control.
Transferable values Cards, such as aces and kings, that are valuable either in declarer's hands or in defenders'.
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Transfer a control In squeeze play, to shift the responsibility of controlling, or guarding, a menace from one opponent to the other. This is usually accomplished by playing through one opponent in a way that forces him to cover the lead, leaving the other opponent with the remaining control. The purpose is to arrange that one opponent has to guard more menaces than he can successfully manage.
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Transnational 1) A pair or team whose members differ in "nationality". Typically they are members of different national bridge federations, thus registered players.
2) An event (tournament) that permits transnational pairs or teams to enter. A transnational event is open in sense (c).
Trap pass See Sandbag.
Traveller A type of score slip on which the result of a deal is recorded for the purpose of comparative scoring. Used in certain event formats, it is folded, placed into the board and 'travels' with it to the next table. May also be referred to as a travelling slip or travelling score sheet. Contrast Pick-up slip.
Tray See Board.
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Treatment A natural bid that: (1) either shows a willingness to play in the denomination named, or promises or requests values in that denomination, and (2) by partnership agreement gives or requests additional information on which action could be based. If the treatment is an unusual one, it requires announcement to the opponents even though it is natural. For example, a partnership that plays Flannery usually agrees that a 1♠ response to a 1♥ opening bid shows five spades. So the 1♠ response to 1♥, while natural, is a treatment because by agreement it shows at least a five card suit. Compare with Convention, in the auction a call that gives or requests information not necessarily related to the denomination named.
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Trebleton A tripleton.
Trial bid See game try.
Trial A (usually, high-level) tournament whose winners proceed to a subsequent event of even greater import.
Trick A set of four cards played by each player in turn, during the play of a hand.
Trick score The score earned by contracting for and taking tricks. Trick scores count toward making a game.
Triple squeeze A squeeze that is so-named because it consists of three simple squeezes against the same opponent. A Progressive squeeze is regarded as a triple squeeze (because it is initiated by one), but not all triple squeezes are progressive.
Tripleton A holding of three cards in a suit.
Trump 1) (Noun) A card in the trump suit whose trick-taking power is greater than any plain suit card.
2) (Verb) To play a trump after a plain suit has been led; see Ruff.
Trump control The ability, from a combination of the holding in trumps with play technique, to prevent the opponents from taking too many tricks in a plain suit.
Trump echo An echo in the trump suit, long used to alert partner to the possibility of a defensive ruff, and in the early 21st century to give partner the count.
Trump promotion The advancement of a trump to the status of a winner by creating a position in which an opponent must suffer an uppercut, or an immediate adverse overruff, or choose to ruff with a higher trump that makes a later winner of an opponent's trump by force of cards.
Trump squeeze A squeeze that forces an opponent to weaken his holding in one of the threat suits enough that the suit can later be ruffed out.
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Trump suit, or simply "trumps" By way of the auction, declarer and declarer's partner select the trump suit on the basis of their combined length and strength in the suit: the greater length to ruff more losers in the plain suits, and the greater strength to better control the play of the trump suit itself. Information about trump suits generally in other card games can be found here.
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Two club system, or Two clubs system A bidding system that uses an opening bid of 2♣ as an artificial game force.
Two over one, Two-over-one, or 2-over-1 (2/1) a bidding sequence in which after a one-level opening bid, there is a non-jump response at the two-level.
a bidding system based upon the concept that after a one-level opening bid, a non-jump response by an unpassed hand at the two-level is forcing to game.
Contrast One over one.
Two-suiter A hand containing two long suits, usually each containing 4 or more cards, with at least 10 cards between the two suits.
Two-way checkback An inquiry made after opener rebids 1NT. 2♣ is a puppet to 2♦ (forces a response of 2♦ by the 1NT rebidder) which says nothing about responder's strain. It is just a forcing bid to show an invitational hand. On the other hand, a rebid of 2♦ after a 1NT rebid is an artificial game force.
Two-way Drury An inquiry about the third (or sometimes fourth) position opener's strength in a major suit. 2♣ shows 3-card support, while an inquiry made with 2♦ shows four cards in opener's suit.
Two-way finesse A finesse that could be taken through either opponent.
Two-way Stayman Over an opening bid of 1NT, the use of 2♣ as non-forcing Stayman and 2♦ as a game-forcing major suit inquiry.
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UI Unauthorized information.
Unauthorized information Information obtained from partner that one is not permitted to act on: for example, the manner in which partner plays a particular card, or the tone of voice when making a bid.
Unbalanced distribution 1) Broadly, any distribution of a hand or suit other than 4–3–3–3, 4–4–3–2 or 5–3–3–2.
2) Unbalanced is commonly used in a narrow sense that excludes semi-balanced, 5–4–2–2 and 6–3–2–2. Narrowly, unbalanced distribution implies a void, singleton, or 7-card suit.
Unbalanced hand A 13-card hand with unbalanced distribution in the broad or narrow sense just above.
Unbid suit A suit that has neither been bid nor indirectly shown.
Unblock To play a card whose rank interferes with the use of cards in the opposite hand. Opposite dummy's KQJ, declarer's singleton ace blocks the suit, and so is played to unblock. There are other situations that require unblocking, such as the Vienna coup.
Under See In front of.
Underbid 1) (Verb) To bid less aggressively, or to a lower contract, than most would with the same cards.
2) (Noun) A bid that most would regard as weaker than warranted by the strength of the hand.
Underlead To lead a low card when holding the top card or cards in a suit. The underlead is standard in defense of notrump contracts (so as to preserve communications between defenders' hands), but unusual against suit contracts.
Underruff To play a trump lower than one already played on the lead of a plain suit. Usually this is undesirable but is sometimes necessary to adjust the number of trumps held while preparing a trump coup, or while preparing to defend certain squeezed positions.
Undertrick A trick that declarer does not win, causing the contract to go down. Multiple undertricks occur: for example, two undertricks could result in 4♥ down two.
Unfinished rubber A rubber that the players agree not to finish. In rubber bridge scoring, a 300-point bonus is given to a vulnerable side, and a 100-point bonus to a side with a part score – note this differs from the 50 points for a part score in duplicate bridge.
Unguard To discard lower cards that help prevent a higher card from being captured by an opponent.
Unlimited bid See wide-ranging bid.
UPH Unpassed hand.
Unplayable 1) (Of a contract) Unable to be played so as to bring about a favorable outcome.
2) (Of an agreement) Inevitably bringing about undesirable bidding sequences or contracts.
Unusual notrump An artificial jump overcall in notrump that shows a Two-suiter, usually bid to suggest a sacrifice. As originally played, 1M – (2NT) showed a hand weak in high cards with, probably, 5–5 in the minor suits.
Unusual over unusual (OUO), or Unusual vs. unusual A conventional method of conveying information after the opponents have deployed the unusual notrump convention or a Michaels Cue Bid, also called Unusual vs. Unusual.
UOU Acronym or initialism for Unusual over unusual Up the line To bid the lower of two adjacent suits before the higher. For example, of two four card majors, the heart suit is normally bid before the spade suit in response to an opening bid of 1♣ or 1♦.
Uppercut To ruff in the expectation of being overruffed, when the overruff will cause a trump in partner's hand to become a winner.
Upside-down signals An agreement that when following suit to partner's lead, a low card encourages a continuation and a high card discourages. This is "upside-down", or the reverse of traditional practice.
USBC United States Bridge Championships, competitions sponsored by the USBF in which entries compete to represent the United States in world tournaments. The USBC are teams-of-four tournaments that determine "USA" open, women, and senior teams. Sometimes the USBC winner and runner-up both qualify, as teams "USA1" and "USA2".
USBF United States Bridge Federation, the association charged with national representation of the United States in international competition. Contrast ACBL.
Useful space principle A guide to developing bidding conventions and treatments that directs developers' attention to the allocation of bidding space.
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VCB Variable Cue Bidding. Agreements used in the Ultimate Club to request and show controls.
Vanderbilt Club A bidding system devised by Harold S. Vanderbilt and published by him in 1929, the first strong club system.
Variable notrump The use of a weak notrump when not vulnerable and a strong notrump when vulnerable.
Victory points (VP) A conversion scale used in team contests and based on total IMP differences, so as to reduce the effect of very large swings.
Vienna coup The unblock of a winner opposite a threat prior to reaching a position that effects a squeeze.
Vienna System A bidding system devised by Austrian player Paul Stern in the 1930s, in which an opening bid of 1NT is artificial and shows a strong hand.
View An assumption about how the cards lie on a particular deal: "Sorry, partner, I took a view." Void No cards in a given suit.
Voidwood See Exclusion Blackwood.
Vugraph, or viewgraph A method of visually displaying tournament bridge deals to spectators, by optical or electronic means.
Vulnerability The scoring condition of each pair in advance of a deal. In duplicate bridge and Chicago, vulnerability is pre-determined for each board or deal; in rubber bridge, it is determined by the number of games completed in the rubber. Vulnerability affects both the size of bonuses for making contracts and penalties for failing to make them.
Vulnerable 1) (Duplicate bridge) A designation, shown on each board, that indicates whether larger bonuses and penalties apply to one, both or neither pair on that deal.
2) (Rubber bridge) Having won one game.
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Waiting bid A bid that enables the bidder to obtain more information before making a commitment. For example, some players use 2♦ over a 2♣ forcing opening bid as a waiting bid rather than as a negative response.
Waive To condone an irregularity. In duplicate bridge, a waiver is an improper action.
Wash (Slang) Push.
Wasted values Duplicated values.
WBF World Bridge Federation.
Weak jump overcall A jump overcall used to preempt the bidding.
Weak jump shift A jump shift used to preempt the bidding.
Weak notrump A 1NT opening bid on a balanced hand with, usually, 12–14 HCP. The bid has mild preemptive value; contrast Strong notrump. To show a strong notrump, the weak notrump user opens with a suit and rebids in notrump.
Weak suit game try Following a major suit raise to the two level, the weak suit game try names a suit with at least three cards and at least two losers where partner's short suit is likely to be useful, as will a strong suit. Three small cards is ideal.
2) Alternative term for a help suit game try. In some usage the "help suit game try" is barely distinguishable from the long, in some barely distinguishable from the weak.
Weak two bid, weak two-bid, or Weak Two An opening bid of two of a suit to indicate a relatively weak hand with a long suit.
Whist A trick-taking card game and predecessor to contract bridge.
Wholesale A count or total that obscures cards' identities. A bid of 5♥ in response to Blackwood shows two aces wholesale, without announcing which aces they are.
Wide open (Said of a suit) Without a stopper.
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Wide-ranging bid A bid made within a wide range of strengths and shapes, the opposite of a limit bid. An example from Acol is an opening bid of one of a suit which may be made with anything from 10 HCP (plus some shape) to 22 HCP (with a shape unsuitable for a 2 bid, such as 4–4–4–1). Such bids are limited only by the failure of the bidder to make a stronger or weaker bid; thus an Acol opening bid of one of a suit is limited by the fact that the opener failed to pass, to make a 2 level opening bid, or to make a pre-emptive opening bid.
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Winkle A squeeze without the count that forces the defender to choose between a throw-in and an unblock, each of which is a losing option.
Winner A card that can take a trick on a given hand.
Wire (Slang) Improper knowledge of a deal, prior to playing it.
World Bridge Federation (WBF) The world sport governing body for bridge. Its members are more than 120 national bridge federations that are grouped in eight geographic zones for some purposes. It sponsors competitions including but not limited to world championships, which exclusively convey the title "world champion".
WBU Welsh Bridge Union.
Wolff signoff After a jump rebid of 2NT by opener, responder's bid of 3♣ as a puppet to 3♦, after which responder can sign off with a weak hand.
Woo twos A synonym or close variant of the Muiderberg convention, a weak two-bid showing 5 cards in a major and at least four cards in another suit.
Work count, or Work points The assignment of the numbers 4, 3, 2 and 1 as points to represent aces, kings, queens and jacks in the process of hand evaluation. Named for Milton Work.
Working card A card that is useful to a partnership, given the mesh of the cards in the two hands.
Wrongside (Verb) To place the contract in the less favorable hand for the partnership. See Antipositional.
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x (lowercase) Any small card, of no trick-taking significance.
X (uppercase) Double, in print or manuscript representation of the auction (where alternatives are "D", "Dbl", etc.) or the final contract. Used in bidding boxes, private scores, and occasionally elsewhere.
XX (uppercase) Redouble, in print or manuscript representation of the auction (where alternatives are "R", "Rdbl", etc.) or the final contract. Used in bidding boxes, private scores, and occasionally elsewhere.
X-IMPs Cross-IMPs.
XYZ A convention used in an uncontested auction where 3 suits are bid at the one level. Thereafter a 2♣ is a puppet to 2♦, showing a weak ♦ or an invitational hand. A 2♦ bid is game forcing. A 3♣ shows a weak hand.
XY Notrump A convention to be used after a sequence like 1X – 1Y – 1NT. Thereafter a 2♣ is a puppet to 2♦, showing a weak ♦ or an invitational hand. A 2♦ bid is game forcing. Also called XY Checkback.
XYZ Notrump A convention to be used after a sequence like 1X – 1Y – (1Z) – 1NT, or 1X – (1Z) – 1Y – 1NT, where 1Z is an opponent's bid. Thereafter a 2♣ is a puppet to 2♦, showing a weak ♦ or an invitational hand. A 2♦ bid is game forcing. Also called XYZ Checkback.
Y:
Yarborough Originally, a hand with no card higher than a nine. The British Earl of Yarborough, during the 19th century, would offer a wager of £1,000 to £1 against picking up such a hand at whist. (The actual odds against such a hand are approximately 1,827 to 1.) In common usage, it may refer to a very weak hand.
Z:
Zar points An evaluation method to determine if a hand should be opened. It asks to open whenever you have 26 or more Zars, determined by adding the number of cards in the 2 longest suits, plus high card points, plus number of controls (A=2, K=1), plus the difference between the longest and the shortest suit. An additional point is added for the ♠ suit if it has 4+ cards. The unsupported honors are diminished 1 point in value. 52 Zar points should produce a NT or major suit game.
Z:
Zero The lowest score obtained on a deal in a pairs game. Also, bottom.
Zia play A specific type of falsecard which creates a losing option to declarer.
Z:
Zone One of eight geographic zones in which World Bridge Federation member "nations" are grouped for some purposes. The WBF was founded August 1958 by delegates from Europe, North America, and South America, which are now Zones 1 to 3. World championship teams-of-four competition has been organized zonally even longer: the Bermuda Bowl was contested in one long match between representatives of Europe and North America from 1951 (the second rendition) to 1957; in a three-team round robin including the champion of South America for 1958. From 2005 to present, there are 22 teams in zonally organized world championship tournaments. See Senior Bowl: Structure and Zones and nations.
Z:
Zonal organizations mediate between the world and national levels in some respects. In Zone 1 for instance, the European Bridge League is the zonal organization. Its members are the national bridge federations of 46 countries from Albania to Wales, and geographically from Iceland to Israel. In Zone 2, on the other hand, bridge players are members of the American Contract Bridge League.
Z:
Zoom (z) In a relay system, the facility to joining into the next level of answers without needing to hear a new relay from partner. Usually, after servant has the highest possible answer for the level s/he is answering, s/he can jump into the next level assuming the captain made a virtual new relay, saving bidding space.
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**Microsoft Academic Search**
Microsoft Academic Search:
Microsoft Academic Search was a research project and academic search engine retired in 2012. It relaunched in 2016 as Academic.
History:
Microsoft launched a search tool called Windows Live Academic Search in 2006 to directly compete with Google Scholar. It was renamed Live Search Academic after its first year and then discontinued two years later. In 2009, Microsoft Research Asia Group launched a beta tool called Libra in 2009, which was for the purpose of algorithms research in object-level vertical search, data mining, entity linking, and data visualization. Libra was redirected to the MAS service by 2011 and contained 27.2 million records for books, conference papers, and journals.Although largely functional, the service was not intended to be a production website and ceased to be developed, as was originally intended when the research goals of the project had been met. The service stopped being updated in 2012. The fact that this decline was not reported on earlier indicated to the authors that the service was largely ignored by academics and bibliometricians alike.In July 2014, Microsoft Research announced that Microsoft Academic was evolving from a research project to a production service, and would be integrating with Microsoft's flagship search engine, Bing, and its intelligent personal assistant service, Cortana. “By growing Microsoft Academic Search from a research effort to production,” [Microsoft Research's Kuansan] Wang says, “our goal is to make Bing-powered Cortana the best personal research assistant for our users".
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**Watcher (presence)**
Watcher (presence):
For instant messaging, a presence information watcher is an entity that requests presence information about a presentity from a presence service. Usually in order to get presence information a watcher have to subscribe for it to a presence server. When subscribed, the watcher receives event notifications as presence information changes. Alternatively watcher may fetch presence information without subscribing to it.
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**Magnesium silicide**
Magnesium silicide:
Magnesium silicide, Mg2Si, is an inorganic compound consisting of magnesium and silicon. As-grown Mg2Si usually forms black crystals; they are semiconductors with n-type conductivity and have potential applications in thermoelectric generators.
Crystal structure:
Mg2Si crystallizes in the antifluorite structure. In the face-centered cubic lattice Si centers occupy the corners and face-centered positions of the unit cell and Mg centers occupy eight tetrahedral sites in the interior of the unit cell. The coordination numbers of Si and Mg are eight and four, respectively.
Synthesis:
It can be produced by heating silicon dioxide, SiO2, found in sand, with excess magnesium. The process first forms silicon metal and magnesium oxide, and, if an excess of SiO2 is used, then elemental silicon is formed: 2 Mg + SiO2 → 2 MgO + SiIf an excess of Mg is present, Mg2Si is formed from the reaction of the remaining magnesium with the silicon: 2 Mg + Si → Mg2SiThese reactions proceed exothermically, even explosively.
Reactions:
Magnesium silicide can be viewed as consisting of Si4− ions. As such it is reactive toward acids. Thus, when magnesium silicide is treated with hydrochloric acid, silane (SiH4) and magnesium chloride are produced: Mg2Si + 4 HCl → SiH4 + 2 MgCl2Sulfuric acid can be used as well. These protonolysis reactions are typical of a Group 2 alkaline earth metal and Group 1 alkali metal silicides. The early development of silicon hydrides relied on this reaction.
Uses:
Magnesium silicide is used to create aluminium alloys of the 6000 series, containing up to approximately 1.5% Mg2Si. An alloy of this group can be age-hardened to form Guinier-Preston zones and a very fine precipitate, both resulting in increased strength of the alloy.Magnesium silicide is a narrow-gap semiconductor. Its as-grown crystal exhibit n-type conductivity, but it can changed to p-type by doping with Ag, Ga, Sn and possibly Li (at high doping level). The major potential electronic application of Mg2Si is in thermoelectric generators.
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**Solar eclipse of February 4, 1981**
Solar eclipse of February 4, 1981:
An annular solar eclipse occurred at the Moon's descending node of the orbit on February 4–5, 1981. A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun, thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. An annular solar eclipse occurs when the Moon's apparent diameter is smaller than the Sun's, blocking most of the Sun's light and causing the Sun to look like an annulus (ring). An annular eclipse appears as a partial eclipse over a region of the Earth thousands of kilometres wide. This annular solar eclipse was large because the Moon covered 99.4% of the Sun, with a path width of only 25 km (15.534 mi, or 82,080.997 feet).
Solar eclipse of February 4, 1981:
It was visible in Australia, crossing over Tasmania and southern Stewart Island of New Zealand near sunrise on February 5 (Thursday), and ended at sunset over western South America on February 4 (Wednesday). Occurring only 4 days before perigee (Perigee on February 8, 1981), the moon's apparent diameter was larger.
The moon's apparent diameter was 7 arcseconds smaller than the July 31, 1981 total solar eclipse.
More details about the Annular Solar Eclipse of 1981 Feb 04.:
Eclipse Magnitude = 0.99375 (99.375%) Eclipse Obscuration = 0.98754 (98.754%) Greatest Eclipse = 1981 Feb 04 at 22:09:23.5 TD (22:08:32.1 UTC) Ecliptic Conjunction = 1981 Feb 04 at 22:14:36.9 TD (22:13:45.5 UTC) Equatorial Conjunction 1981 Feb 04 at 21:58:30.2 TD (21:57:38.8 UTC) Gamma = -0.48375 (48.511%) Sun's Right Ascension = 21.232 Sun's Declination = -16.03º Sun's Diameter = 1946.4 arcseconds Moon's Right Ascension = 21.239 Moon's Declination = -16.49º Moon's Diameter = 1907.2 arcseconds Moon's Distance = 375948.60 km (233603.63 mi)
Related eclipses:
Eclipses in 1981 A penumbral lunar eclipse on Tuesday, 20 January 1981.
An annular solar eclipse on Wednesday, 4 February 1981.
A partial lunar eclipse on Friday, 17 July 1981.
A total solar eclipse on Friday, 31 July 1981.
Related eclipses:
Solar eclipses of 1979–1982 This eclipse is a member of a semester series. An eclipse in a semester series of solar eclipses repeats approximately every 177 days and 4 hours (a semester) at alternating nodes of the Moon's orbit. There were 8 solar eclipses between February 26, 1979 and July 20, 1982. Were there: February 26, 1979 (total solar eclipse, 0.8 days after perigee, 103.9%, 0.89811 gamma, saros 120), August 22, 1979 (small annular solar eclipse, 0.6 days before apogee, 93.3%, −0.96319 gamma, saros 125), February 16, 1980 (total solar eclipse, 1 day before perigee, 104.3%, 0.22244 gamma, saros 130), August 10, 1980 (large annular solar eclipse, 5 days before apogee, 97.3%, −0.19154 gamma, saros 135), February 4, 1981 (large annular solar eclipse, 4 days before perigee, 99.4%, −0.48375 gamma, saros 140), July 31, 1981 (total solar eclipse, 3.8 days after perigee, 102.6%, 0.57917 gamma, saros 145), January 25, 1982 (moderate partial solar eclipse, 4.7 days after apogee, 56.6%, −1.23110 gamma, saros 150) and July 20, 1982 (small partial solar eclipse, 0.9 days after perigee, 46.4%, 1.28859 gamma, saros 155).
Related eclipses:
Saros 140 It is a part of Saros cycle 140, repeating every 18 years, 11 days, containing 71 events. The series started with partial solar eclipse on April 16, 1512. It contains total eclipses from July 21, 1656, through November 9, 1836, hybrid eclipses from November 20, 1854, through December 23, 1908, and annular eclipses from January 3, 1927, through December 7, 2485. The series ends at member 71 as a partial eclipse on June 1, 2774. The longest duration of totality was 4 minutes, 10 seconds on August 12, 1692.
Related eclipses:
Tritos series This eclipse is a part of a tritos cycle, repeating at alternating nodes every 135 synodic months (≈ 3986.63 days, or 11 years minus 1 month). Their appearance and longitude are irregular due to a lack of synchronization with the anomalistic month (period of perigee), but groupings of 3 tritos cycles (≈ 33 years minus 3 months) come close (≈ 434.044 anomalistic months), so eclipses are similar in these groupings.
Related eclipses:
Metonic series The metonic series repeats eclipses every 19 years (6939.69 days), lasting about 5 cycles. Eclipses occur in nearly the same calendar date. In addition, the octon subseries repeats 1/5 of that or every 3.8 years (1387.94 days). All eclipses in this table occur at the Moon's descending node.
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**FK-space**
FK-space:
In functional analysis and related areas of mathematics a FK-space or Fréchet coordinate space is a sequence space equipped with a topological structure such that it becomes a Fréchet space. FK-spaces with a normable topology are called BK-spaces.
There exists only one topology to turn a sequence space into a Fréchet space, namely the topology of pointwise convergence. Thus the name coordinate space because a sequence in an FK-space converges if and only if it converges for each coordinate.
FK-spaces are examples of topological vector spaces. They are important in summability theory.
Definition:
A FK-space is a sequence space X , that is a linear subspace of vector space of all complex valued sequences, equipped with the topology of pointwise convergence.
We write the elements of X as with xn∈C Then sequence (an)n∈N(k) in X converges to some point (xn)n∈N if it converges pointwise for each n.
That is if for all n∈N,
Examples:
The sequence space ω of all complex valued sequences is trivially an FK-space.
Properties:
Given an FK-space X and ω with the topology of pointwise convergence the inclusion map is a continuous function.
FK-space constructions:
Given a countable family of FK-spaces (Xn,Pn) with Pn a countable family of seminorms, we define and Then (X,P) is again an FK-space.
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**Fitting's theorem**
Fitting's theorem:
Fitting's theorem is a mathematical theorem proved by Hans Fitting. It can be stated as follows: If M and N are nilpotent normal subgroups of a group G, then their product MN is also a nilpotent normal subgroup of G; if, moreover, M is nilpotent of class m and N is nilpotent of class n, then MN is nilpotent of class at most m + n.By induction it follows also that the subgroup generated by a finite collection of nilpotent normal subgroups is nilpotent. This can be used to show that the Fitting subgroup of certain types of groups (including all finite groups) is nilpotent. However, a subgroup generated by an infinite collection of nilpotent normal subgroups need not be nilpotent.
Order-theoretic statement:
In terms of order theory, (part of) Fitting's theorem can be stated as: The set of nilpotent normal subgroups form a lattice of subgroups.Thus the nilpotent normal subgroups of a finite group also form a bounded lattice, and have a top element, the Fitting subgroup.
However, nilpotent normal subgroups do not in general form a complete lattice, as a subgroup generated by an infinite collection of nilpotent normal subgroups need not be nilpotent, though it will be normal. The join of all nilpotent normal subgroups is still defined as the Fitting subgroup, but it need not be nilpotent.
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**-30-**
-30-:
-30- has been traditionally used by journalists in North America to indicate the end of a story or article that is submitted for editing and typesetting. It is commonly employed when writing on deadline and sending bits of the story at a time, via telegraphy, teletype, electronic transmission, or paper copy, as a necessary way to indicate the end of the article. It is also found at the end of press releases.
-30-:
The origin of the term is unknown. One theory is that the journalistic employment of -30- originated from the number's use during the American Civil War era in the 92 Code of telegraphic shorthand, where it signified the end of a transmission and that it found further favor when it was included in the Phillips Code of abbreviations and short markings for common use that was developed by the Associated Press wire service. Telegraph operators familiar with numeric wire signals such as the 92 Code used these railroad codes to provide logistics instructions and train orders, and they adapted them to notate an article's priority or confirm its transmission and receipt. This metadata would occasionally appear in print when typesetters included the codes in newspapers, especially the code for "No more – the end", which was presented as "- 30 -" on a typewriter.
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**Lid lag**
Lid lag:
Lid lag is the static situation in which the upper eyelid is higher than normal with the globe in downgaze. It is most often a sign of thyroid eye disease, but may also occur with cicatricial changes to the eyelid or congenital ptosis. Lid lag differs from Von Graefe's sign in that the latter is a dynamic process. It can also be the manifestation of chemosis (swelling (or edema) of the conjunctiva).
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**DOS/32**
DOS/32:
DOS/32 is an advanced 32-bit DOS extender created for replacing DOS/4GW extender and compatibles. This extender can be used in various environments, from embedded systems to DOS emulators, by both developers and end users alike. Unlike DOS/4GW, DOS/32 is free, open-source and can be extended to create a unique executable file that incorporates the extender memory tool and main application code.
Compatibility:
DOS/32 is compatible with MS-DOS 5.00 through 7.10, Windows 3.x, 95, 98 and Me, NT 3.51 and 4.0 (Service Pack 3 or later), 2000, XP and IBM OS/2 as well as OpenDOS and DOSEMU.DOS/32 has been tested and proved to be fully compatible with software which use DOS/4G, DOS/4GW, DOS/4GW Professional, PMODE/W and CauseWay DOS Extenders.
Features:
The DOS Extender includes a built-in Advanced DOS Protected Mode Interface server supporting v0.9 of the DPMI specification and comes with a set of tools needed to create 32-bit protected mode applications. Like DOS/4G, it requires IBM PC compatible 80386 processor or better.
History:
DOS/32 has been commercially available since 1996. As of May 2002, it was released to the public in the form of "Liberty Edition" along with its complete source code under terms similar to the Apache License of the time, allowing unrestricted, royalty-free distribution with certain provisions regarding reference to it in documentation and the naming of derived software.
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**4-Phenylfentanyl**
4-Phenylfentanyl:
4-Phenylfentanyl is an opioid analgesic that is a derivative of fentanyl. It was developed during the course of research that ultimately resulted in super-potent opioid derivatives such as carfentanil, though it is a substantially less potent analogue. 4-Phenylfentanyl is around eight times the potency of fentanyl in analgesic tests on animals, but more complex 4-heteroaryl derivatives such as substituted thiophenes and thiazoles are more potent still, as they are closer bioisosteres to the 4-carbomethoxy group of carfentanil.Side effects of fentanyl analogs are similar to those of fentanyl itself, which include itching, nausea and potentially serious respiratory depression, which can be life-threatening. Fentanyl analogs have killed hundreds of people throughout Europe and the former Soviet republics since the most recent resurgence in use began in Estonia in the early 2000s, and novel derivatives continue to appear.
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**Small nucleolar RNA SNORA40**
Small nucleolar RNA SNORA40:
In molecular biology, the small nucleolar RNA ACA40 belongs to the H/ACA family of snoRNAs and guides the pseudouridylation of 28S rRNA subunit at position U4565. snoRNA ACA40 was discovered using large-scale cloning by Kiss et al. (2004) from a HeLa cell extract immunoprecipitated with an anti-GAR1 antibody. It is predicted to guide the pseudouridylation of residues 28S rRNA U4546 and 18S rRNA 1174. The pseudouridylation of these residues was reported by Ofengand and Bakin (1997) and Maden (1990). ACA1, ACA8, ACA18, ACA25, ACA32 and ACA40 and the C/D box snoRNAs mgh28S-2409 and mgh28S-2411 share the same host gene (MGC5306).
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**MedDRA**
MedDRA:
A subscription-based product of the International Council for Harmonisation of Technical Requirements for Pharmaceuticals for Human Use (ICH), MedDRA or Medical Dictionary for Regulatory Activities is a clinically validated international medical terminology dictionary-thesaurus used by regulatory authorities and the biopharmaceutical industry during the regulatory process, from pre-marketing (clinical research phase 0 to phase 3) to post-marketing activities (pharmacovigilance or clinical research phase 4), and for safety information data entry, retrieval, evaluation, and presentation. Also, it is the adverse event classification dictionary.The first version of MedDRA was released in 1999 in English and Japanese.
MedDRA:
MedDRA is now translated into Chinese, Czech, Dutch, French, German, Hungarian, Italian, Korean, Portuguese, Brazilian Portuguese, Russian, and Spanish. In MedDRA version 25.0, Swedish and Latvian translations were also added.In many countries/regions the use of MedDRA by biopharmaceutical companies is mandated for safety reporting. Many other industries, including tobacco and cosmetics, are also beginning to use MedDRA for capturing adverse health events.
MedDRA:
All Regulatory Members of ICH are expected to implement MedDRA within 5 years. As of 2020, the following ICH Regulatory Members have implemented MedDRA: EC, Europe; FDA, United States; HSA, Singapore; Health Canada, Canada; MHLW/PMDA, Japan; Swissmedic, Switzerland; and TFDA, Taipei.Information about the implementation status of MedDRA by ICH Regulatory Members is updated by ICH on its website.MedDRA is widely used internationally, with close to 7,500 subscribing organizations in almost 130 countries.
MedDRA:
Each organization, regardless of its number of users, requires only one subscription to MedDRA.
MedDRA Vision:
In developing and continuously maintaining MedDRA, ICH endeavours to facilitate the exchange of clinical information through a single standardized international medical terminology that can be used for regulatory communication and evaluation of data pertaining to medicinal products for human use.
As a result, MedDRA is designed for use in the registration, documentation, and safety monitoring of medicinal products through all phases of the development life cycle.
MedDRA Vision:
The single standardized terminology offers several clear advantages for regulators, industry, and other stakeholders: Removal of the need to convert data from one terminology to another preventing the loss and/or distortion of data and allowing savings in resources;Improvements in the ease, quality, and timeliness of data available for effective analysis, exchange, and decision making;Consistency of the terminology throughout the different stages of the development of a medicinal product allowing effective cross-references and analysis of data;Facilitation of the electronic exchange of data relating to medicinal products.
Organization of the dictionary:
The MedDRA dictionary is organized with a five-level hierarchy. The highest or broadest level is System Organ Class (SOC), further divided into High-Level Group Terms (HLGT), High-Level Terms (HLT), Preferred Terms (PT), and finally into the most granular Lowest Level Terms (LLT). In addition, the MedDRA dictionary includes Standardized MedDRA Queries (SMQs). SMQs are groupings of terms that relate to a defined medical condition or area of interest.SMQs are developed to facilitate retrieval of MedDRA-coded data as a first step in investigating drug safety issues in pharmacovigilance and clinical development.
Organization of the dictionary:
As of MedDRA 25.1, 110 SMQs have been created comprising 120 lower-level SMQs. Additional SMQs are created as the need arises.Individual cases are usually coded for data entry at the most specific (LLT) level, and outputs of counts or cases are usually provided at the PT level. The higher levels (HLT, HLGT, and SOC), as well as SMQs, are used for searching and for organizing and subtotalling outputs.
MedDRA hierarchy:
The five-level hierarchy provides degrees or levels of super-ordination and subordination. The superordinate term is a broad grouping term applicable to each subordinate descriptor linked to it. Hierarchical levels thus represent vertical links in the terminology.Hierarchies are an important mechanism for flexible data retrieval and for the clear presentation of data. The five-level structure of this terminology provides options for retrieving data by specific or broad groupings, according to the level of specificity required. The Lowest Level Term (LLT) level provides maximum specificity.The terminology was not developed as a formal classification or taxonomy; each level in the hierarchy may reflect a variable degree of specificity or “granularity” from one System Organ Class to another. High-Level Terms (HLTs) and High-Level Group Terms (HLGTs) facilitate data retrieval and presentation by providing clinically relevant grouping of terms. Collectively, the HLT and HLGT levels are sometimes referred to as the “grouping terms” in MedDRA.The 27 System Organ Classes (SOCs) represent parallel axes that are not mutually exclusive. This characteristic, called “multi-axiality,” allows a term to be represented in more than one SOC and to be grouped by different classifications (e.g., by etiology or manifestation site), allowing retrieval and presentation via different data sets. Grouping terms are pre-defined in the terminology and not selected on an ad hoc basis by data entry staff. Rather, the terminology is structured so that selection of a data entry term leads to the automatic assignment of grouping terms higher in the hierarchy. Multi-axial links of terms are pre-assigned in MedDRA, ensuring comprehensive and consistent data retrieval, irrespective of which SOC is selected at data retrieval.
MedDRA hierarchy:
As of MedDRA 25.1 (September 2022): SOC – 27 The 27 SOCs are: Blood and lymphatic system disorders; Cardiac disorders; Congenital, familial and genetic disorders; Ear and labyrinth disorders; Endocrine disorders; Eye disorders; Gastrointestinal disorders; General disorders and administration site conditions; Hepatobiliary disorders; Immune system disorders; Infections and infestations; Injury, poisoning and procedural complications; Investigations; Metabolism and nutrition disorders; Musculoskeletal and connective tissue disorders; Neoplasms benign, malignant and unspecified (incl cysts and polyps); Nervous system disorders; Pregnancy, puerperium and perinatal conditions; Product issues; Psychiatric disorders; Renal and urinary disorders; Reproductive system and breast disorders; Respiratory, thoracic and mediastinal disorders; Skin and subcutaneous tissue disorders; Social circumstances; Surgical and medical procedures; Vascular disorders.
MedDRA hierarchy:
HLGT – 337 HLT – 1,737 PT – 25,592 LLT – 85,668 LLT count represents 76,364 current terms, including PTs, and 9,304 non-current terms.
Maintenance of MedDRA:
MedDRA is hierarchical, multiaxial, multilingual, regularly-updated, and strictly maintained by the Maintenance and Support Services Organization (MSSO). ICH holds the intellectual property rights (ownership) of MedDRA.
Maintenance of MedDRA:
MedDRA is available free for all regulators worldwide, academics, health care providers, and non-profit organizations. The subscription price is based according to company revenue for the industry. The Japanese counterpart for the MSSO is called the Japanese Maintenance Organization (JMO).Four types of subscriptions are available from the MSSO: Regulatory Authority; Non-Profit/Non-Commercial (such as medical library, educational institution, organization engaged in not for profit activities); Commercial; System Developer (developer of software products that utilize MedDRA).The MSSO updates MedDRA according to subscriber change requests, for example, to add a new medical concept that is not yet in MedDRA or to change/modify an existing concept. The decisions on submitted change requests are made by a team of international medical officers on how to map the terminology within the grouping categories according to a general team consensus. The final decisions are based on multiple factors including the Points to Consider documentation, implications on legacy data, and language considerations internationally. The MSSO and JMO release updated MedDRA versions twice a year - in March and September. The English and Japanese translation are released on the 1st of March and September and all other translations are released on the 15th. The March release is the main annual release and contains changes at the HLT level and above along with LLT and PT changes. The September release contains changes only at the LLT and PT level. The September 2022 Version 25.1 release is the current version. The MSSO frequently incorporates feedback from the user community to stay abreast of its unique perspectives and nuanced needs. Input from these constituencies helps MSSO adapt MedDRA accordingly.
Maintenance of MedDRA:
As global regulators expand the scope of product types they regulate, there is a corresponding increase in the adaptation of and interest in the proactive use of MedDRA before regulatory mandates. Such expansion has increased in MedDRA terms applicable to many product types. The addition of the 27th SOC Product issues in Version 19.0 has even further expanded use of MedDRA for product quality, supply, distribution, manufacturing and quality system issue as well as device issues.
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**Water oxidation catalysis**
Water oxidation catalysis:
Water oxidation catalysis (WOC) is the acceleration (catalysis) of the conversion of water into oxygen and protons: 2 H2O → 4 H+ + 4 e− + O2Many catalysts are effective, both homogeneous catalysts and heterogeneous catalysts. The oxygen evolving complex in photosynthesis is the premier example. There is no interest in generating oxygen by water oxidation since oxygen is readily obtained from air. Instead, interest in water oxidation is motivated by its relevance to water splitting, which would provide "solar hydrogen," i.e. water oxidation would generate the electrons and protons for the production of hydrogen. An ideal WOC would operate rapidly at low overpotential, exhibit high stability and be of low cost, derived from nontoxic components.
Mechanistic and energetic principles:
Water is more difficult to oxidize than its conjugate base hydroxide. Hydroxide is stabilized by coordination to metal cations. Some metal hydroxides, those featuring redox-active metal centers, can be oxidized to give metal oxo complexes. Attack of water on metal oxo centers represents one pathway for the formation of the O-O bond, leading to dioxygen. Alternatively, the crucial O-O bond forming step can arise by coupling suitably positioned pairs of metal hydroxo centers. The molecular mechanism of the OEC has not been elucidated.
Mechanistic and energetic principles:
The conversion of even metal hydroxo complexes to O2 requires very strong oxidants. In photosynthesis, such oxidants are provided by electron holes on porphyrin radical cations. For device applications, the aspirational oxidant is a photovoltaic material. For screening WOCs, ceric ammonium nitrate is a typical electron acceptor.
Homogeneous catalysis:
Ruthenium complexes A number of ruthenium-aqua complexes catalyze the oxidation of water. Most catalysts feature bipyridine and terpyridine ligands. Catalysts containing pyridine-2-carboxylate exhibit rates (300 s−1) comparable to that of photosystem II. Work in this area has ushered in many new polypyridyl ligands.
Homogeneous catalysis:
Cobalt and iron complexes Early examples of cobalt-based WOCs suffered from instability. A homogeneous WOC [Co(Py5)(H2O)](ClO4)2 operates by a proton-coupled electron transfer to form a [CoIII--OH]2+ species, which on further oxidation forms a CoIV intermediate. The intermediate formed reacts with water to liberate O2. The cobalt-polyoxometalate complex [Co4(H2O)2(α-PW9O34)2]10− is highly efficient WOC.Some iron complexes catalyze water oxidation. A water-soluble complex [Fe(OTf)2(Me2Pytacn)] (Pytacn=pyridine-substituted trimethyltriazacyclononane; OTf= triflate) is an efficient WOC. The concentration of the catalyst and the oxidant were found to be strongly affecting the oxidation process. Many related complexes with cis labile sites are active catalysts. Most complexes were found to undergo degradation in a few hours. Higher stability of the molecular catalyst may be achieved using robust clathrochelate ligands that stabilize high oxidation states of iron and prevent rapid degradation of the catalyst. The number and stereochemistry of reactive coordination sites on Fe have been evaluated but few guidelines have emerged.
Homogeneous catalysis:
Iridium complexes The complexes [Ir(ppy)2(OH2)2]+ (ppy = 2-phenylpyridine) exhibit high turnover numbers, but low catalytic rates. Replacing ppy with Cp* (C5Me5) results in increased catalytic activity but decreased the turnover number. Water nucleophilic attack on Ir=O species was found to be responsible for the O2 formation.
Heterogeneous catalysis:
Iridium oxide is a stable bulk WOC catalyst with low overpotential.Ni-based oxide film liberates oxygen in quasi-neutral conditions at an overpotential of ~425 mV and shows long lasting stability. X-ray spectroscopy revealed the presence of di-µ-oxide bridging between NiIII/NiIV ions but no evidence of mono-µ-oxide bridging was found between the ions. Similar structures can be found in Co-WOC films and Mn-WOC catalysts.Cobalt oxides (Co3O4) have been investigated to work on the same pattern as other cobalt salts. Cobalt phosphates are also active WOCs at neutral pH. Stable and highly active WOCs can be prepared by adsorbing CoII on silica nanoparticles.The spinel compounds are also very efficient in oxidizing water. When nanodimensional spinels are coated over the carbon materials hydrothermally, followed by a further reduction, can exhibit high efficiency in splitting the water electrochemically.
Additional reviews:
Meyer, T. J., Chemical approaches to artificial photosynthesis. Accounts of Chemical Research 1989, 22, 163–170.
Balzani, V.; Credi, A.; Venturi, M., Photochemical Conversion of Solar Energy. ChemSusChem 2008, 1, 26–58.
Sala, X.; Romero, I.; Rodríguez, M.; Escriche, L.; Llobet, A., Molecular Catalysts that Oxidize Water to Dioxygen. Angewandte Chemie International Edition 2009, 48, 2842–2852.
Gratzel, M., Photoelectrochemical cells. Nature 2001, 414, 338–344.
Eisenberg, R.; Gray, H. B., Preface on Making Oxygen. Inorganic Chemistry 2008, 47, 1697–1699.
Sun, L.; Hammarstrom, L.; Akermark, B.; Styring, S., Towards artificial photosynthesis: ruthenium-manganese chemistry for energy production. Chemical Society Reviews 2001, 30, 36–49.
Gust, D.; Moore, T. A.; Moore, A. L., Solar Fuels via Artificial Photosynthesis. Accounts of Chemical Research 2009, 42, 1890–1898.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Tommy Atkins (mango)**
Tommy Atkins (mango):
The 'Tommy Atkins' mango is a named mango cultivar. Although generally not considered to be the best in terms of sweetness and flavor, it is valued for its very long shelf life and tolerance of handling and transportation with little or no bruising or degradation.This means it is the main mango sold in regions where mangoes have to be imported, comprising about 80% of mangoes sold in the United Kingdom and United States, apart from growing regions in California, Hawaii, Florida and Jamaica. However, in France it is sold at a discount, while the main imported cultivar is Kent, considered less fibrous and tastier.
History:
The original tree reportedly grew from a Haden seed planted around 1922 on the property of Thomas H. Atkins of Broward County, Florida. Later pedigree analysis supported the Haden parentage. Thomas Atkins submitted the fruit to the variety committee of the Florida Mango Forum multiple times during the 1950s, which rejected it due to its unremarkable eating qualities and considerable fiber in the flesh. Atkins, however, felt strongly that the fruit had good commercial potential due to its color, strong and steady production, relatively good fungus resistance, and good handling characteristics. He was able to market the fruit successfully to commercial growers, who began planting the cultivar during the 1950s. Thereafter, 'Tommy Atkins' became extremely popular as a commercial variety, eventually becoming the most commonly planted commercial mango in Florida, and later the most extensively planted in the Americas, a position it still holds today.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Casparian strip**
Casparian strip:
The Casparian strip is a band-like thickening in the center of the root endodermis (radial and tangential walls of endodermal cells) of vascular plants (Pteridophytes and Spermatophytes). The composition of the region is mainly suberin, lignin and some structural proteins, which are capable of reducing the diffusive apoplastic flow of water and solutes into the stele and its width varies between species. The Casparian strip is impervious to water so can control the transportation of water and inorganic salts between the cortex and the vascular bundle, preventing water and inorganic salts from being transported to the stele through the apoplast, so that it must enter the cell membrane and move to the stele through the symplastic pathway, blocking the internal and external objects of the cell. The function and function of mass transportation are similar to that of animal tissues.. The development of the Casparian strip is regulated by transcription factors such as SHORT-ROOT (SHR), SCARECROW (SCR) and MYB36, as well as polypeptide hormone synthesised by midcolumn cells.
Casparian strip:
The chemistry of the Casparian strip has been described as composed of suberin. According to some studies, the Casparian strip begins as a localized deposition of phenolic and unsaturated fatty substances in the middle lamella between the radial walls, as partly oxidized films. The primary wall becomes encrusted with and later thickened by deposits of similar substances on the inside of that wall. The encrustation of the cell wall by the material constituting the Casparian strip presumably plugs the pores that would have otherwise allowed the movement of water and nutrients via capillary action along that path. The cytoplasm of the endodermal cell is firmly attached to the Casparian strip so that it does not readily separate from the strip when the cells are subjected to contraction of the protoplasts. At the root, the Casparian strip is embedded within the cell wall of endodermal cells in the non-growing region of the root behind the root tip. Here, the Casparian strip serves as a boundary layer separating the apoplast of the cortex from the apoplast of the vascular tissue thereby blocking diffusion of material between the two. This separation forces water and solutes to pass through the plasma membrane via a symplastic route in order to cross the endodermis layer.Casparian strips differentiate after an outward growth of the cortex is completed. At this level of the root development, the primary xylem of its vascular cylinder is only partly advanced. In gymnosperms and angiosperms displaying secondary growth, the roots commonly develop only endodermis with Casparian strips. In many of those, the endodermis is later discarded, together with the cortex, when the periderm develops from the pericycle. If the pericycle is superficial and the cortex is retained, either the endodermis is stretched or crushed or it keeps pace with the expansion of the vascular cylinder by radial anticlinal divisions, and the new walls develop Casparian strips in continuity with the old ones.In the absence of secondary growth (most monocotyledons and a few eudicots), the endodermis commonly undergoes wall modifications. There are two developmental stages beyond the development of the Casparian strip. In the second stage suberin (or endoderm) coats the entire wall on the inside of the cell. As a result, the Casparian strip is separated from the cytoplasm and the connection between the two ceases to be evident. In the third stage, a thick cellulose layer is deposited over the suberin, sometimes mainly on the inner tangential walls. The thickened wall, as well as the original wall in which the Casparian strip is located, may become lignified, creating a secondary cell wall. The Casparian strip may be identifiable after the thickening of the endodermal wall has occurred. The thickened endodermal wall may have pits. The successive development of endodermal walls is clearly expressed in monocotyledons.
Discovery:
The discovery of the Casparian strip dates back to the mid-19th century, and advances in the understanding of the Endodermis of the root of plants. In 1865, the German botanist Robert Caspary first described the endodermis of the root of plants, found that its cell wall was thickened, and named it Schuchtzscheide. Later scholars called the thickened part of it the Carls Belt, which was named after Casbury. The term "Caspary'schen fleck"（German: Caspary'schen fleck） appeared in the 1870s literature, and after the 20th century, it was often called the Casparian strip. In 1922, researchers first left the Casparian strip from the root of plants to study its composition.
Composition:
The chemical composition of the Casparian strip has been controversial for a long time. Casbury pointed out that this structure may be composed of lignin or suberin. Later scholars mostly thought it was suberin. It was not until the 1990s that after analyzing the Casparian strip of several plants, it was found that lignin was the main component, but many textbooks have not been updated. Although the cell wall of the endothelium is rich in woodbolic??(what does "woodbolic" even mean?suggest a better term), this is the result of the sublevel differentiation of the endothelium. In the past, some scholars believe that the formation of the endodermis of Casparian strip is the beginning of sublevel differentiation, but there is no direct relationship between the two. The casparian strip has formed after the primary differentiation, and the secondary differentiation begins with the slash cut of the root, not where the Casparian strip is.
Function:
The casparian strip is fully filled with the gap between endothelial cells, including the middle lamella, making the cell walls of the two cells almost fused. In the transportation of water and inorganic nutrients at the root of plants, the Casparian strip mainly affects the transportation of primary in vitro, that is, the transportation of water and inorganic salts through the interstitial cells of the epidermis and cortex cells. When water and inorganic salt come to the endothelial cells, they need to enter the cell through the cell membrane because the casparian strip is not water-permeable, and then transported by the protoplasmic inner path to reach the lignan cells of the stele, and then to other organs such as the stems and leaves. When the growth environment is unfavourable, the casparian strip can act as a barrier between plant cells and the outside world, avoiding the entry of ions or outflow of their own ions in the environment. In addition, the thickening of the carcass belt and the cortex also prevents toxic substances or pathogen invasion, as well as the function of preventing water dispersion. Some studies have shown that plants may form thicker casparian strip in high-salt environments, and in areas closer to the tip of the roots, which may be an adaptation to the environment, but compared with the endothelial sublevel differentiated wooden bolt walls, which are significantly thickened in high-salt adversity, the casparian strip changes is smaller.The casparian strip is mainly located in the endodermis of the root, but some plants also have the casparian strip in the outer cortex on the outer side of the root cortex, stem or leaf. For example, the conifers of Pinus bungeana and the stems of Pelargonium have the casparian strip, which may be related to preventing water dispersion or pathogenic invasion.
Development:
The development of Carters strap is started after the endogenic cells are fully delayed, and there is currently two news signal transduction that promote endothelial cell formation of Casparian strip. The first is transcription factor Short-root (SHR) Activated additional two transcription factors Myb36 and Scarecrow (SCR), the former can stimulate Casparian Strip Proteins (Casp1-5), Peroxidase (PER64) and ESB1 (Enhanced) Suberin 1), etc., the latter, the latter affects the position of the carbide strap in the inner skin cell, which causes the position of the Casparian strip to be too close to the Stele; the second is medium Casparian Strip Integrity Factor (CIF1-2) and the GSO1 (SGN3) and GSO2 receptor bonded to the endothelial cell radial wall and the GSO2 receptor in the lateral wall. CASP in the cells is concentrated to a cell membrane region corresponding to the position of the Cascade Band, forming a Casparian Strip Membrane Domain (CSD), and the CSD is incorporated in the region, The GS01 receptor is surrounded by the edge of each CSD region, promoting CSD fused into a continuous strip region, that is, the region where the Casparian strip is to be formed.Casparian strip protein is a membrane protein that interacts with each other and can bind to proteins needed to synthesize lignin such as PER64, ESB1 and respiratory oxidase homologer F (RBOHF) to activate the downstream reaction of Carzite band development. In mutant plants lacking GSO1 receptors or at the same time lacking CIF1 and CIF2 polypeptides, CASP1 is abnormally distributed on the endothelial cell membrane, and the CSD cannot normally fuse into a continuous and complete band structure, thus eventually forming a broken and discontinuous Carlsian band.Environmental factors such as light, soil salinity and water deficit can affect the development of the Casparian strip.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Video game publisher**
Video game publisher:
A video game publisher is a company that publishes video games that have been developed either internally by the publisher or externally by a video game developer.
Video game publisher:
They often finance the development, sometimes by paying a video game developer (the publisher calls this external development) and sometimes by paying an internal staff of developers called a studio. The large video game publishers also distribute the games they publish, while some smaller publishers instead hire distribution companies (or larger video game publishers) to distribute the games they publish. Other functions usually performed by the publisher include deciding on and paying for any licenses used by the game; paying for localization; layout, printing, and possibly the writing of the user manual; and the creation of graphic design elements such as the box design. Some large publishers with vertical structure also own publishing subsidiaries (labels).
Video game publisher:
Large publishers may also attempt to boost efficiency across all internal and external development teams by providing services such as sound design and code packages for commonly needed functionality.
Video game publisher:
Because the publisher often finances development, it usually tries to manage development risk with a staff of producers or project managers to monitor the progress of the developer, critique ongoing development, and assist as necessary. Most video games created by an external video game developer are paid for with periodic advances on royalties. These advances are paid when the developer reaches certain stages of development, called milestones.
Business risks:
Video game publishing is associated with high risk: The Christmas selling season accounts for a highly significant portion of industry sales, leading to a concentrated influx of high-quality competition every year in every game category, all in the fourth quarter of the year.
Business risks:
Product slippage is common due to the uncertain schedules of software development. Most publishers have suffered a "false launch", in which the development staff assures the company that game development will be completed by a certain date, and a marketing launch is planned around that date, including advertising commitments, and then after all the advertising is paid for, the development staff announces that the game will "slip", and will actually be ready several months later than originally intended. When the game finally appears, the effects among consumers of the marketing launch—the excitement and "buzz" over the release of the game, fueling consumers' intent to purchase—have dissipated, and lackluster interest leads to weak sales. An example of this is the PSP version of Spider-Man 3. These problems are compounded if the game is supposed to ship for the Christmas selling season, but actually slips into the subsequent year. Some developers (notably id and Epic) have alleviated this problem by simply saying that a given game will be released "when it's done", only announcing a definite date once the game is released to manufacturing. However, this sometimes can be problematic as well, as seen with Duke Nukem Forever.
Business risks:
The industry has become more "hit driven" over the past decade. Consumers buy the game that's best marketed but not necessarily of the highest quality, therefore buying fewer other games in that genre. This has led to much larger game development budgets, as every game publisher tries to ensure that its game is number 1 in its category. It also caused publishers to on occasion force developers to focus on sequels of successful franchises instead of exploring original IP; some publishers such as Activision Blizzard and Electronic Arts have both attracted criticism for acquiring studios with original games and assigning them to support roles in more mainstream franchises.
Business risks:
Current generation consoles have more advanced graphic capabilities than previous consoles. Taking advantage of those capabilities requires a larger team-size than games on earlier, simpler consoles. In order to compete with the best games on these consoles, there are more characters to animate; all characters must be modeled with a higher level of detail; more textures must be created; the entire art pipeline must be made more complex to allow the creation of normal maps and more complex programming code is required to simulate physics in the game world, and to render everything as precisely and quickly as possible. On this generation of consoles, games commonly require budgets of US$15 million to $20 million. Activision's Spider-Man 3, for example, cost US$35 million to develop, not counting the cost of marketing and sales. Every game financed is, then, a large gamble, and pressure to succeed is high.Contrasting with the big budget titles increased expense of "front-line" console games is the casual game market, in which smaller, simpler games are published for PCs and as downloadable console games. Also, Nintendo's Wii console, though debuting in the same generation as the PlayStation 3 and the Xbox 360, requires a smaller development budget, as innovation on the Wii is centered around the use of the Wii Remote and not around the graphics pipeline.When publishing for game consoles, game publishers take on the burden of a great deal of inventory risk. All significant console manufacturers since Nintendo with its NES (1985) have monopolized the manufacture of every game made for their console and have required all publishers to pay a royalty for every game so manufactured. This royalty must be paid at the time of manufacturing, as opposed to royalty payments in almost all other industries, where royalties are paid upon actual sales of the product—and, importantly, are payable for games that did not sell to a consumer. So, if a game publisher orders one million copies of its game, but half of them do not sell, the publisher has already paid the full console manufacturer royalty on one million copies of the game and has to absorb that cost.
Investor interest:
Numerous video game publishers are traded publicly on stock markets. As a group, they have had mixed performance. At present, Electronic Arts is the only third-party publisher present in the S&P 500 diversified list of large U.S. corporations; in April 2010, it entered the Fortune 500 for the first time.Hype over video game publisher stocks has been breathless at two points: In the early 1990s, the introduction of CD-ROM computer drives caused hype about a multimedia revolution that would bring interactive entertainment to the masses. Several Hollywood movie studios formed "interactive" divisions to profit in this allegedly booming new media. Most of these divisions later folded after expensively producing several games that were heavy in "full-motion video" content, but light in the quality of gameplay.
Investor interest:
In the United States, revenue from the sales of video and computer games exceeded revenue from film box-office receipts for the first time in the dot-com days of the late 1990s, when technology companies in general were surrounded by hype. The video game publishers did not, however, experience the same level of rise in stock prices that many dot-com companies saw. This was probably because video game publishing was seen as a more mature industry whose prospects were fairly well understood, as opposed to the typical exciting dot-com business model with unknown but possibly sky-high prospects. While many technology stocks were eventually destroyed in the dot-com crash in the early 2000s, the stock prices of the video game publishers recovered as a group; several of the larger publishers such as EA and Take-Two Interactive achieved historical highs in the mid-2000s.
Publishers by revenue:
In 2021, the largest public companies by game revenue were Tencent, with US$32.2 billion, followed by Sony, with US$18.2 billion, and Apple, with US$15.3 billion, according to Newzoo.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Wax jack**
Wax jack:
A wax jack (wax-jack, taper-jack) is a device used to hold a taper of sealing wax intended to create sealings on documents.
Wax jack:
The wax jack was first introduced in 1700. Before that time a simple taper was used in a loose ball. Despite the resemblance to a candle, they were not used for illumination. Although common in England and Europe, they were not used much in North America.Most early wax jacks were worked by silversmiths, although later models also exist in other metals such as iron, brass or bell metal.
Description:
A wax jack was a vertical or horizontal shaft around which a thin beeswax taper was coiled. The top end protruded through a hole in a pan that had a pincer to hold the taper in place. This allowed the taper to be lit and the resulting puddle of wax easily controlled. Some models, called "bougie boxes" had a pierced enclosure around the shaft to protect the taper. They were often used when travelling, and to protect the taper from mice. Others included a snuffer.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Cutaneous and Ocular Toxicology**
Cutaneous and Ocular Toxicology:
Cutaneous and Ocular Toxicology is an international, peer-reviewed medical journal that covers all types of harm to skin and eyes. It is published by Taylor and Francis Group. Topics covered include pharmaceutical and medical products; consumer, personal care, and household products; and issues in environmental and occupational exposures. The editor-in-chief is A. Wallace Hayes, Harvard School of Public Health.According to ISI it received an impact factor of 1.122 as reported in the 2014 Journal Citation Reports by Thomson Reuters, ranking it 43rd out of 57 journals in the category "Ophthalmology" and ranking it 75th out of 87 journals in the category "Toxicology".
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Linearly ordered group**
Linearly ordered group:
In mathematics, specifically abstract algebra, a linearly ordered or totally ordered group is a group G equipped with a total order "≤" that is translation-invariant. This may have different meanings. We say that (G, ≤) is a: left-ordered group if ≤ is left-invariant, that is a ≤ b implies ca ≤ cb for all a, b, c in G, right-ordered group if ≤ is right-invariant, that is a ≤ b implies ac ≤ bc for all a, b, c in G, bi-ordered group if ≤ is bi-invariant, that is it is both left- and right-invariant.A group G is said to be left-orderable (or right-orderable, or bi-orderable) if there exists a left- (or right-, or bi-) invariant order on G. A simple necessary condition for a group to be left-orderable is to have no elements of finite order; however this is not a sufficient condition. It is equivalent for a group to be left- or right-orderable; however there exist left-orderable groups which are not bi-orderable.
Further definitions:
In this section ≤ is a left-invariant order on a group G with identity element e . All that is said applies to right-invariant orders with the obvious modifications. Note that ≤ being left-invariant is equivalent to the order ≤′ defined by g≤′h if and only if h−1≤g−1 being right-invariant. In particular a group being left-orderable is the same as it being right-orderable. In analogy with ordinary numbers we call an element g≠e of an ordered group positive if e≤g . The set of positive elements in an ordered group is called the positive cone, it is often denoted with G+ ; the slightly different notation G+ is used for the positive cone together with the identity element.The positive cone G+ characterises the order ≤ ; indeed, by left-invariance we see that g≤h if and only if g−1h∈G+ . In fact a left-ordered group can be defined as a group G together with a subset P satisfying the two conditions that: for g,h∈P we have also gh∈P let P−1={g−1,g∈P} , then G is the disjoint union of P,P−1 and {e} .The order ≤P associated with P is defined by g≤Ph⇔g−1h∈P ; the first condition amounts to left-invariance and the second to the order being well-defined and total. The positive cone of ≤P is P The left-invariant order ≤ is bi-invariant if and only if it is conjugacy invariant, that is if g≤h then for any x∈G we have xgx−1≤xhx−1 as well. This is equivalent to the positive cone being stable under inner automorphisms. If a∈G , then the absolute value of a , denoted by |a| , is defined to be: If in addition the group G is abelian, then for any a,b∈G a triangle inequality is satisfied: |a+b|≤|a|+|b|
Examples:
Any left- or right-orderable group is torsion-free, that is it contains no elements of finite order besides the identity. Conversely, F. W. Levi showed that a torsion-free abelian group is bi-orderable; this is still true for nilpotent groups but there exist torsion-free, finitely presented groups which are not left-orderable.
Archimedean ordered groups Otto Hölder showed that every Archimedean group (a bi-ordered group satisfying an Archimedean property) is isomorphic to a subgroup of the additive group of real numbers, (Fuchs & Salce 2001, p. 61).
Examples:
If we write the Archimedean l.o. group multiplicatively, this may be shown by considering the Dedekind completion, G^ of the closure of a l.o. group under n th roots. We endow this space with the usual topology of a linear order, and then it can be shown that for each g∈G^ the exponential maps lim lim igqi are well defined order preserving/reversing, topological group isomorphisms. Completing a l.o. group can be difficult in the non-Archimedean case. In these cases, one may classify a group by its rank: which is related to the order type of the largest sequence of convex subgroups.
Examples:
Other examples Free groups are left-orderable. More generally this is also the case for right-angled Artin groups. Braid groups are also left-orderable.The group given by the presentation ⟨a,b|a2ba2b−1,b2ab2a−1⟩ is torsion-free but not left-orderable; note that it is a 3-dimensional crystallographic group (it can be realised as the group generated by two glided half-turns with orthogonal axes and the same translation length), and it is the same group that was proven to be a counterexample to the unit conjecture. More generally the topic of orderability of 3--manifold groups is interesting for its relation with various topological invariants. There exists a 3-manifold group which is left-orderable but not bi-orderable (in fact it does not satisfy the weaker property of being locally indicable). Left-orderable groups have also attracted interest from the perspective of dynamical systems cas it is known that a countable group is left-orderable if and only if it acts on the real line by homeomorphisms. Non-examples related to this paradigm are lattices in higher rank Lie groups; it is known that (for example) finite-index subgroups in SLn(Z) are not left-orderable; a wide generalisation of this has been recently announced.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**DIPS (Digital Image Processing with Sound)**
DIPS (Digital Image Processing with Sound):
DIPS (Digital Image Processing with Sound) is a set of plug-in objects that handle real-time digital image processing in Max/MSP programming environment. Combining with the built-in objects of the environment, DIPS enables to program the interaction between audio and visual events with ease, and supports the realization of interactive multimedia art as well as interactive computer music.
Summary of Features:
A plug-in software for Max/MSP (Max 5 and 6) More than 300 Max external objects and abstractions More than 90 OpenGL objects included More than 110 visual effect objects (Dfx library, Core Image Filters) A utility library for the easy of programming (prefix Dlib) A comprehensive set of sample patches, and a detailed tutorial Handling images & movie files (QuickTime, OpenGL) Render and move 3D models (OpenGL) Video signal input (QuickTime, video texture) Video input analysis: motion detect, face tracking (OpenCV, OpenGL) Importing 3D models (.obj file) Importing Quartz Composer files OpenGL Shading Language (GLSL) programming interface Easy integration of visual events using DIPSWindowMixer (OpenGL)
Description:
DIPS is a free plug-in software (a set of external objects) for Max/MSP. It supports the designing of the interaction between sound and visual events in Max using Apple’s Core Image, OpenGL and OpenCV technologies, and consequently, provides a powerful and user-friendly programming environment for the creation of interactive multimedia art.
Description:
DIPS can be used to detect a performer’s motions and to track positions of subtle details, such as the face, mouth, and eyes. It can also be used to measure the distance between objects and a Kinect sensor system, and offers powerful tools for realtime image processing of incoming video stream and stored movie files. In addition, it can be used to create complex images in a virtual three-dimensional space.
Description:
The DIPS consists of a library of more than 300 Max external objects and abstractions, a comprehensive set of sample patches, and a detailed tutorial. Some of its strong points, in comparison with other similar plug-ins and software, are its ease of programming, power, and efficiency.
Description:
The sample patches and tutorial contained in the installation package allows composers and artists who are interested in the creation of interactive art to realize sophisticated realtime video effects on a live video signal at their first practice. And because of its ease of programming, it is likely that one will soon acquire skills needed to create state-of-the-art interactive performance works, multimedia installations, interactive multimedia artworks, and Max VJ applications using DIPS.
History:
Initially developed by Shu Matsuda in 1997, DIPS was a plug-in software for Max/FTS running on SGI Octane and O2 computers. Since 2000, it has been developed by the DIPS Development Group supervised by Takayuki Rai. Current active group members are Shu Matsuda, Yota Morimoto, Takuto Fukuda, and Keitaro Takahashi. Previously, Chikashi Miyama, Daichi Ando and Takayuki Hamano also contributed to its development.
History:
2013 DIPS5 for Max (Mac OS X) 2009 DIPS4 for Max/MSP (Mac OS X) 2006 DIPS3 for Max/MSP (Mac OS X) 2003 DIPS2 for jMax4 (Mac OS X) 2002 DIPS for jMax2 (Mac OS X & Linux) 2000 DIPS for jMax (Linux)
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Evolutionary database design**
Evolutionary database design:
Evolutionary database design involves incremental improvements to the database schema so that it can be continuously updated with changes, reflecting the customer's requirements. People across the globe work on the same piece of software at the same time hence, there is a need for techniques that allow a smooth evolution of database as the design develops. Such methods utilize automated refactoring and continuous integration so that it supports agile methodologies for software development. These development techniques are applied on systems that are in pre-production stage as well on systems that have already been released. These techniques not only cover relevant changes in the database schema according to customer's changing needs, but also migration of modified data into the database and also customizing the database access code accordingly without changing the data semantics.
History:
After using the waterfall model for a long time, the software industry has witnessed a rise in adoption of agile methods for software development. Agile methodologies don’t assume requirements to be permanent at any stage of the software life cycle. These methods are designed to support sporadic changes in contrast to waterfall design technique. An important part of this approach is iterative development, where the entire software life-cycle is run multiple times during the life of a project. Every iteration witnesses the complete software development life cycle despite the iterations being of short duration that can vary between weeks to a few months.Before the adoption of these methodologies, the entire system was designed before starting to develop the code. The same principle was applied to the database schema as well where it was considered to be derived out of the software requirements which were in turn developed by collaboration between the customer, end-users, business analysts, etc. and these requirements were not expected to change with the progress in the software development. This approach proved to be cumbersome because as time progressed, the redundancies in the existing database schema in the form of unused rows or columns were evident. This redundancy along with data quality problems went on to become a costly affair. It was concluded that the practice of not having design interleaved with construction and testing was highly inefficient.
Techniques:
As mentioned in the previous section evolutionary methods are iterative in nature and these methods have become immensely popular over last two decades. Evolutionary database design aims to construct the database schema over the course of the project instead of building the entire database schema at the beginning of the project. This method of database design can capture and deal effectively with the changing requirements of projects.
Techniques:
There are five evolutionary database design techniques that can aid developers in building their database in an iterative fashion. A brief overview about the five techniques are provided below.
Techniques:
Database refactoring Refactoring is the process of making changes to the program without affecting the functionality of the program. Database refactoring is the technique of implementing small changes to the database schema without affecting the functionality and information stored in the database. The main purpose of database refactoring is to improve the database design so that the database is more in-sync with the changing requirements. The user can modify tables, views, stored procedures and triggers. Dependency between the database and external applications make database refactoring a challenge.
Techniques:
Evolutionary data modeling Data modeling is the technique of identifying entities, associating attributes to the entities and deciding the data structure to represent the attributes. In the traditional database scenario, a logical data model is created at the beginning to represent the entities and their associated attributes. In evolutionary data modeling the technique of data modeling is performed in an iterative manner, that is multiple data models are developed, each model representing a different aspect of the database. This kind of data modeling technique is practiced in an agile environment and it is one of the main principles of agile development.
Techniques:
Database regression testing Whenever a new functionality is added to a system, it is essential to verify that the update does not corrupt or render the system unusable. In a database, the business logic is implemented in stored procedures, data validation rules and referential integrity and they have to be tested thoroughly when any change is implemented in the system. Regression testing is the process of executing all the test cases whenever a new feature is added to the system. test-first development (TFD) is a form of regression testing followed in evolutionary database design. The steps involved in TFD approach are, Before adding a new function to the system, add a test to the test case suite such that the system fails the test Run the tests, either the entire set of test cases or just a subset and ensure that the newly added test does indeed fail Update the function such that the test passes Run the tests again to ensure that all they succeed and that the system is not broken Configuration management of database artifacts Configuration management is a detailed recording of versions and updates that have been applied to any system. Configuration management is useful in rolling back updates and changes which have impacted the system in a negative manner. To ensure that any updates made in database refactoring can be rolled back, it is important to maintain database artifacts like data definition language scripts, data model files, reference data, stored procedures, etc. in a configuration management system.
Techniques:
Developer sandboxes A sandbox is a fully functional environment in which the system can be built, tested and executed. In order to make changes to the database schema in an evolutionary manner it is ideal for every developer to have his/her own physical sandbox, copy of source code and a copy of database. In a sandbox environment the developer can make changes to the database schema and run tests without affecting the work of other developers and other environments. Once the change has been implemented successfully, it is promoted to pre-production environment where in acceptance testing is performed and after the acceptance tests succeed it is deployed into production.
Advantages and disadvantages:
Advantages High quality of database design: In evolutionary database design, the developer makes small changes to the database schema in an incremental manner and this achieves a highly optimized database schema.
Handling change: In a traditional database approach, a lot of time is spent in remodeling and restructuring the database when the requirements change. In evolutionary database technique, the schema of the database is adjusted periodically to keep up with the changing requirements. Hence, evolutionary database design technique is better suited in handling the changing requirements.
Guaranteed working of system at all times: The evolutionary database design approach follows test-first development model, in which the complete working of a system is tested before and after implementing an update. Hence, it is guaranteed that the system always works.
Compatible with software development: The IT industry is progressing towards agile method of software development and evolutionary database design ensures that data development is in sync with software development.
Reduced overall effort: In an evolutionary environment only the functionality that is required at that moment is implemented and no more.
Disadvantages Cultural impediments: Evolutionary database design approach is relatively a newer concept and many well qualified data professionals still advocate the traditional approach. Therefore, most of the databases are still being designed in a serial fashion and evolutionary database design is yet to gain support and traction among experienced data professionals.
Requires a learning curve: Most of the developers are more familiar with the traditional approach and it takes time to learn evolutionary design as it is not intuitive.
Complex: When the database has many external dependencies, making changes to the schema becomes all the more complicated as the external dependencies should also be updated to cope up with the changes made in the database schema. With the increase in number of dependencies, Evolutionary Database Design approach becomes extremely complex.
Comparison with traditional database design:
Traditional database design technique does not support changes like evolutionary database design technique.'Unfortunately, the traditional data community assumed that evolving database schema is a hard thing to do and as a result never thought through how to do it.' In a way, the evolutionary design is better for application developers and traditional design is better for data professionals.
Tools:
Given below are a list of tools that provide the functionality of designing and developing a database in an evolutionary manner.
LiquiBase Red Gate Deployment Manager Ruby on Rails Active Record Migration Flyway (software) Autopatch
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Rice mill**
Rice mill:
A rice mill is a food-processing facility where paddy is processed to rice to be sold in the market.The entire product is procured from paddy fields, milled and processed hygienically in modern machinery and dust-free environment and cleaned through sorting machines.
Paddy procurement:
Paddy is collected from the fields to be processed. The paddy is again rechecked before the process begins. The procured paddy is checked bag by bag by a team and stored in Paddy Milling Plants.
Manufacturing process:
To start with the production process, paddy is cleaned by a paddy pre-cleaning machine and the cleaned paddy is stored in raw paddy storage bins. The stored paddy is moved to food-grade stainless steel soaking tanks. Water is drained from the tank and the wet paddy is ready for boiling.
Boiling is done by a steam boiler. The boiled paddy is then moved to the paddy dryer through a belt conveyor.
Dryer:
The boiled wet paddy is dried in a food-grade stainless steel paddy drier using hot air. The heat energy for the drier is generated using a heat exchanger that uses steam from the boiler. Using a steam heat exchanger will sustain the real aroma of the paddy. These are indirect heat exchangers so there is no chance of smoke air entering the drier. The dried paddy is ready for hulling.
Hulling process:
The paddy is pre-cleaned again and destoned by a pre-cleaning machine. After cleaning the paddy is moved to dehusker called sheller. The outer covering of the paddy, the husk is removed here and is used as a fuel for the boiler. The whole rice is collected from the Sheller and moved on to whitener. Here, The film coat on the rice which is called bran is removed from the rice and the bran is collected separately. The whitening process is done by a whitener . The whitened rice is polished by a silky polisher. The polished rice is destoned by a destoner and the broken rice is separated by a length grader.
Color sorting:
The polished full-grain rice is sorted in a colour sorter which removes black rice, yellow rice, and white belly. Then, the rice is moved to the packing section.
Packing The processed rice is then packed in woven sacks and is ready to be sold in the market
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Chondroplasty**
Chondroplasty:
Chondroplasty is surgery of the cartilage, the most common being corrective surgery of the cartilage of the knee.
Surgery known as thyroid chondroplasty (or tracheal shave) is used to reduce the visibility of the Adam's apple in transgender women.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Projective vector field**
Projective vector field:
A projective vector field (projective) is a smooth vector field on a semi Riemannian manifold (p.ex. spacetime) M whose flow preserves the geodesic structure of M without necessarily preserving the affine parameter of any geodesic. More intuitively, the flow of the projective maps geodesics smoothly into geodesics without preserving the affine parameter.
Decomposition:
In dealing with a vector field X on a semi Riemannian manifold (p.ex. in general relativity), it is often useful to decompose the covariant derivative into its symmetric and skew-symmetric parts: Xa;b=12hab+Fab where hab=(LXg)ab=Xa;b+Xb;a and Fab=12(Xa;b−Xb;a) Note that Xa are the covariant components of X Equivalent conditions Mathematically, the condition for a vector field X to be projective is equivalent to the existence of a one-form ψ satisfying Xa;bc=RabcdXd+2ga(bψc) which is equivalent to hab;c=2gabψc+gacψb+gbcψa The set of all global projective vector fields over a connected or compact manifold forms a finite-dimensional Lie algebra denoted by P(M) (the projective algebra) and satisfies for connected manifolds the condition: dim P(M)≤n(n+2) . Here a projective vector field is uniquely determined by specifying the values of X , ∇X and ∇∇X (equivalently, specifying X , h , F and ψ ) at any point of M . (For non-connected manifolds you need to specify these 3 in one point per connected component.) Projectives also satisfy the properties: LXRabcd=δadψb;c−δacψb;d LXRab=−3ψa;b
Subalgebras:
Several important special cases of projective vector fields can occur and they form Lie subalgebras of P(M) . These subalgebras are useful, for example, in classifying spacetimes in general relativity.
Subalgebras:
Affine algebra Affine vector fields (affines) satisfy ∇h=0 (equivalently, ψ=0 ) and hence every affine is a projective. Affines preserve the geodesic structure of the semi Riem. manifold (read spacetime) whilst also preserving the affine parameter. The set of all affines on M forms a Lie subalgebra of P(M) denoted by A(M) (the affine algebra) and satisfies for connected M, dim A(M)≤n(n+1) . An affine vector is uniquely determined by specifying the values of the vector field and its first covariant derivative (equivalently, specifying X , h and F ) at any point of M . Affines also preserve the Riemann, Ricci and Weyl tensors, i.e. LXRabcd=0 , LXRab=0 , LXCabcd=0 Homothetic algebra Homothetic vector fields (homotheties) preserve the metric up to a constant factor, i.e. h=LXg=2cg . As ∇h=0 , every homothety is an affine and the set of all homotheties on M forms a Lie subalgebra of A(M) denoted by H(M) (the homothetic algebra) and satisfies for connected M dim H(M)≤12n(n+1)+1 .A homothetic vector field is uniquely determined by specifying the values of the vector field and its first covariant derivative (equivalently, specifying X , F and c ) at any point of the manifold.
Subalgebras:
Killing algebra Killing vector fields (Killings) preserve the metric, i.e. h=LXg=0 . Taking c=0 in the defining property of a homothety, it is seen that every Killing is a homothety (and hence an affine) and the set of all Killing vector fields on M forms a Lie subalgebra of H(M) denoted by K(M) (the Killing algebra) and satisfies for connected M dim K(M)≤12n(n+1) .A Killing vector field is uniquely determined by specifying the values of the vector field and its first covariant derivative (equivalently, specifying X and F ) at any point (for every connected component) of M
Applications:
In general relativity, many spacetimes possess certain symmetries that can be characterised by vector fields on the spacetime. For example, Minkowski space M admits the maximal projective algebra, i.e. dim 24 . Many other applications of symmetry vector fields in general relativity may be found in Hall (2004) which also contains an extensive bibliography including many research papers in the field of symmetries in general relativity.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**29-Norlanosterol**
29-Norlanosterol:
29-Norlanosterol, or 4-demethyllanosterol, also called 4α,14α-dimethylzymosterol, is a Metabolic intermediate of plant sterol biosynthesis. In the pathway, it is transformed from ring-opening reactions of Norcycloartenol and then demethylation by CYP51 into 4α-methyl-5α-cholesta-8,14,24-trien-3β-ol.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Asperity (geotechnical engineering)**
Asperity (geotechnical engineering):
In geotechnical engineering and contact mechanics the term asperity is used to refer to individual features of unevenness (roughness) of the surface of a discontinuity, grain, or particle with heights in the range from approximately 0.1 mm to the order of metres. Below the asperity level, surface interactions are normally considered to be a material property, arising from mechanisms of adhesion and repulsion at the atomic scale (often accounted for by material friction, atomic friction or molecular friction).
Dilation:
An often used definition for asperities in geotechnical engineering: Unevenness of a surface are asperities if these cause dilation if two blocks with in between a discontinuity with matching asperities on the two opposing surfaces (i.e. a fitting discontinuity) move relative to each other, under low stress levels that do not cause breaking of the asperities.
Contrast with asperity in materials science:
Materials science recognizes asperities ranging from the sub-visual (normally less than 0.1 mm) to the atomic scale.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Tetrahedral bipyramid**
Tetrahedral bipyramid:
In 4-dimensional geometry, the tetrahedral bipyramid is the direct sum of a tetrahedron and a segment, {3,3} + { }. Each face of a central tetrahedron is attached with two tetrahedra, creating 8 tetrahedral cells, 16 triangular faces, 14 edges, and 6 vertices,. A tetrahedral bipyramid can be seen as two tetrahedral pyramids augmented together at their base.
It is the dual of a tetrahedral prism, , so it can also be given a Coxeter-Dynkin diagram, , and both have Coxeter notation symmetry [2,3,3], order 48.
Being convex with all regular cells (tetrahedra) means that it is a Blind polytope.
This bipyramid exists as the cells of the dual of the uniform rectified 5-simplex, and rectified 5-cube or the dual of any uniform 5-polytope with a tetrahedral prism vertex figure. And, as well, it exists as the cells of the dual to the rectified 24-cell honeycomb.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Guerrilla ontology**
Guerrilla ontology:
Guerilla ontology is a practice described by author Robert Anton Wilson in his 1980 book The Illuminati Papers as "the basic technique of all my books. Ontology is the study of being; the guerrilla approach is to so mix the elements of each book that the reader must decide on each page 'How much of this is real and how much is a put-on?'"
Practice:
The goal of guerrilla ontology is to expose an individual or individuals to radically unique ideas, thoughts, and words, in order to invoke cognitive dissonance, which can cause a degree of discomfort in some individuals as they find their belief systems challenged by new concepts. The ultimate goal of guerrilla ontology is to promote positive brain change and new ways of experiencing and adapting to reality.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Admissible set**
Admissible set:
In set theory, a discipline within mathematics, an admissible set is a transitive set A such that ⟨A,∈⟩ is a model of Kripke–Platek set theory (Barwise 1975).
The smallest example of an admissible set is the set of hereditarily finite sets. Another example is the set of hereditarily countable sets.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Vanillin synthase**
Vanillin synthase:
In enzymology, a vanillin synthase (EC 4.1.2.41) is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction 3-hydroxy-3-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)propanoyl-CoA ⇌ vanillin + acetyl-CoAHence, this enzyme has one substrate, 3-hydroxy-3-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)propanoyl-CoA, and two products, vanillin and acetyl-CoA.
This enzyme belongs to the family of lyases, specifically the aldehyde-lyases, which cleave carbon-carbon bonds. The systematic name of this enzyme class is 3-hydroxy-3-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)propanoyl-CoA vanillin-lyase (acetyl-CoA-forming). Other names in common use include 3-hydroxy-3-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)propionyl-CoA:vanillin lyase, and (acetyl-CoA-forming).
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**ISC High Performance**
ISC High Performance:
The ISC High Performance, formerly known as the International Supercomputing Conference, is a yearly conference on supercomputing which has been held in Europe since 1986. It stands as the oldest supercomputing conference in the world.
History:
In 1986 Professor Dr. Hans Werner Meuer, director of the computer centre and professor for computer science at the University of Mannheim (Germany) co-founded and organized the "Mannheim Supercomputer Seminar" which had 81 participants. This was held yearly and became the annual International Supercomputing Conference and Exhibition (ISC). In 2015, the name was officially changed to ISC High Performance. The conference is attended by speakers, vendors, and researchers from all over the world. Since 1993 the conference has been the venue for one of the twice yearly TOP500 announcements where the fastest 500 supercomputers in the world are named. The other annual announcement is in November at the SC Conference (The International Conference for High Performance Computing, Networking, Storage and Analysis) in the USA.
History:
The conference celebrated 30 years with the 19 June 2016 meeting in Frankfurt, Germany. Its 33rd edition in 2019 attracted a record number of participants – 164 exhibitors, and 3,573 visitors from 64 countries.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Brahmagupta matrix**
Brahmagupta matrix:
In mathematics, the following matrix was given by Indian mathematician Brahmagupta: B(x,y)=[xy±ty±x].
It satisfies B(x1,y1)B(x2,y2)=B(x1x2±ty1y2,x1y2±y1x2).
Powers of the matrix are defined by Bn=[xytyx]n=[xnyntynxn]≡Bn.
The xn and yn are called Brahmagupta polynomials. The Brahmagupta matrices can be extended to negative integers: B−n=[xytyx]−n=[x−ny−nty−nx−n]≡B−n.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Dock plate**
Dock plate:
In a loading dock, one problem to overcome is the problem of bridging the gap between a truck and the dock or warehouse floor. Not all trucks are the same height, and the height of the trailer floor within a truck can vary according to how heavily the truck is laden. Thus there is not only a gap to bridge but a height difference to overcome. Various devices are employed in order to achieve this: dock plates, dock levelers, dock boards, and various forms of lift. These devices vary in construction, suitability to dock conditions, cost of installation, and loading capacity.Dock levelers and lifts are generally permanent fixtures at each door of a dock. Dock plates and dock boards are generally, by contrast, portable, and not fixed either to dock or truck.Dock plates and dock boards are simply metal ramps, bridging the gaps between dock and truck. Dock plates are generally made out of aluminium whilst dock boards are generally made out of steel. Aluminium dock plates are thus more suitable for lighter loads, such as handcarts and dollies, whereas steel dock boards are more suitable for heavier motorized equipment such as fork lift trucks and electric pallet trucks. Another difference between dock plates and dock boards, in addition to their load-bearing capabilities, is their construction. Dock plates are simple flat plates, whereas dock boards have curbs, bolted or welded to the edge of the board. Run-off is prevented by a simple painted yellow strip along the edge of a dock plate, whereas it is the curbs (also generally painted yellow) that prevent run-off on dock boards; these curbs are also where the higher weight capacities of dock boards come from. Run-off is thus a significant risk on dock plates, since the yellow strip is not a particularly effective mechanism for preventing it.Both dock plates and dock boards have a diamond pattern embossed onto their upper surfaces, to prevent wheel slip as carts and vehicles travel up and down the incline. Similarly, they both have locking T-bar legs that extend down into the gap between truck and dock, to secure them. They are both portable. But dock boards are heavier than dock plates. The latter may be carried by hand, and are generally fitted with handles for doing so. The former usually require a fork lift in order to place and remove them, and are generally fitted with either loops or chains, used for attaching the dock board to the forks of the fork lift.
Dock plate:
Dock levelers are, as mentioned, fixed to the dock. They comprise a simple metal plate, called a lip, that is raised from a stowed position and then lowered onto the back of the truck. Lip can be hinged or telescopic type. They are operated either manually, via a simple pull chain, or hydraulically, (most common) with an electric pump driving a piston to lift the plate and another one to move the lip.Dock levelers are more expensive devices than the comparatively light-weight dock plates and dock boards. The most common form of dock leveler is the recessed, or pit, dock leveler. As the name suggests, this type of leveler is contained in a recess, or pit, beneath the dock door and floor surface. Dock levelers are stronger than dock plates and have similar ranges to dock boards, making them suitable not only for motorized fork lift trucks but also for master conveyors (for which neither dock plates or dock boards are suitable). Safety, also, is very high for this kind of product: Safety rules as EN1398 (European Standard) specifies the safety requirements for design, construction, installation, maintenance and testing of dock levelers and for safety components on dock levelers. NOTE: edge of dock levelers have fixed positions which have restricted ranges making them unsuitable for nonstandard dock heights. Because they carry heavy motorized equipment, the grade of the incline has to be shallow. The greater the height differential between truck and dock that a dock leveler can compensate for, the longer the leveler itself has to be. Moreover, the grade of the incline must not be so great that the vehicles cannot climb it. A height differential of between 7 and 8 inches generally requires a 6-foot-long (1.8 m) leveler for an electric palette carrier. A height differential of between 17 and 18 inches generally requires a 12-foot-long (3.7 m) leveler for a petrol-engined fork lift truck. Anyway, the lip has to be considered in the length of the leveler, as it is part of it. A telescopic lip (20 or 40 inches) can help to reduce the length of the leveler to 10 feet.
Dock plate:
Dock levelers (and indeed dock plates and dock boards) are used where a building has a truck-level door, i.e. a door with a floor level roughly at the same height as the floor of the truck's trailer. Some buildings only have drive-in doors, i.e. doors at the same level as the ground outside of the building, suitable for driving directly into the building.For loading docks with drive-in doors, and also (albeit rarely) for loading docks with truck-level doors, a lift is sometimes employed.Other, less common, devices employed when bridging the gap between truck and dock are truck levelers. These are hydraulic lifts positioned beneath the rear wheels of the truck, that are used to raise and lower the truck so that it is level with the loading dock edge. The problems with truck levelers, that make them rarely employed, are twofold. First: They cause the truck interior to be at an incline, which causes loading and unloading difficulties. Second: They are expensive to maintain, since they require (being below ground level and open to the air) proper drainage and protection against the weather.Recessed dock levelers also have problems of exposure to the weather. However, because they are recessed into the dock, which is above ground level, they do not have as great a problem with drainage. Equally, because they are recessed into the dock, they extend partially back from the dock edge. A dock leveler can be installed so that it extends inside the loading dock door, and thus inside the building, protecting it from the weather.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Extended reality**
Extended reality:
Extended reality (XR) is a catch-all term to refer to augmented reality (AR), virtual reality (VR), and mixed reality (MR). The technology is intended to combine or mirror the physical world with a "digital twin world" able to interact with it.The fields of virtual reality and augmented reality are rapidly growing and being applied in a wide range of areas such as entertainment, marketing, real estate, training, maintenance and remote work.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Windows Ultimate Extras**
Windows Ultimate Extras:
Windows Ultimate Extras were optional features offered by Microsoft to users of the Ultimate edition of Windows Vista and are accessible via Windows Update. Ultimate Extras replaced the market role of Microsoft Plus!, a product sold for prior consumer releases of Microsoft Windows. According to Microsoft's Barry Goffe, the company's goal with Ultimate Extras was to delight customers who purchased the Ultimate edition of Windows Vista, the most expensive retail edition of the operating system.Windows Ultimate Extras have been discontinued as of Windows 7 and the operating system also removes all installed extras during an upgrade from Windows Vista Ultimate.
Contents:
Microsoft released a total of nine Ultimate Extras for users of Windows Vista Ultimate.
Contents:
BitLocker and EFS enhancements The BitLocker Drive Preparation Tool utility and the Secure Online Key Backup utility were among the first Ultimate Extras to be made available, and were released to coincide with the general retail availability of Windows Vista. BitLocker Drive Preparation Tool prepares the hard drive to be encrypted with BitLocker, whereas Secure Online Key Backup enabled users to create an off-site backup of their BitLocker recovery password and Encrypting File System recovery certificates at Digital Locker, as part of the Windows Marketplace digital distribution platform. Secure Online Key Backup was rendered inoperable after Digital Locker shut down in August 2009.
Contents:
Multilingual User Interface language packs Unlike previous versions of Windows, Windows Vista is language-independent; the language architecture separates the language resources for the user interface from the binary code of the operating system. Support for installing additional languages is included in the Enterprise and Ultimate editions of Windows Vista. In the Ultimate edition, the functionality is made available through Windows Update as Ultimate Extras.Microsoft stated that 16 languages were made available on January 30, 2007. The company released the remaining language packs on October 23, 2007 for a total of 35 language packs. An additional 36th language pack version is available for Windows Vista that supports traditional Chinese characters with the Hong Kong Supplementary Character Set.
Contents:
Microsoft Tinker Microsoft Tinker is a puzzle game where players must navigate a robot through mazes and obstacles. A total of 60 levels are included, and players can create their own levels with a level editor.
Contents:
Hold 'Em Hold 'Em (formerly Windows Poker as in build 5284) is a poker card game released on January 29, 2007 that is fundamentally similar to Texas hold 'em. Hold 'Em allows users to play against up to five computer players and up to three levels of difficulty, and also allows users to customize aspects of the game's appearance; the game relies on DirectX to produce hardware-accelerated 3D animations and effects. For optimal performance, Hold 'Em requires a computer with a Windows Experience Index rating of 2.0 or higher.According to Paul Thurrott, Hold 'Em was originally intended to be bundled alongside the premium games—Chess Titans, Mahjong Titans, and InkBall—included by default with the Home Premium and Ultimate editions of Windows Vista, but was instead made an Ultimate Extra because of its gambling themes.
Contents:
Windows sound schemes A total of three sound schemes for Windows Vista were released: Ultimate Extras Glass, Ultimate Extras Pearl, and Microsoft Tinker. The first two were made available on April 22, 2008, while the latter was made available on the same day as Microsoft Tinker. The Glass and Pearl sound schemes are similar to the Default sound scheme included in Windows Vista as they were also developed in accordance with the design language and principles of the Windows Aero graphical user interface.
Contents:
Windows DreamScene Windows DreamScene is a utility that enables MPEG and WMV videos to be displayed as desktop backgrounds. DreamScene requires that the Windows Aero graphical user interface be enabled in order to function as the feature relies on the Desktop Window Manager to display videos on the desktop.
Contents:
Proposed extras Additional extras were also proposed but not released, including a podcast creation application, a game performance optimization utility, custom themes, exclusive access to online content and services, Windows Movie Maker effects and transitions, templates for Windows DVD Maker, digital publications, and the Group Shot photo manipulation application developed by Microsoft Research and shown by Bill Gates at the Consumer Electronics Show in 2007.Although not considered to be Ultimate Extras by the company, the Ultimate Extras team also released two wallpapers for users of Windows Vista Ultimate. Titled Start and Strands, the wallpapers were based on the design of the Windows Vista Ultimate retail packaging and were made available in three different display resolutions.
Critical reception:
Reaction to Windows Ultimate Extras was mixed. While Microsoft was praised for creating a value proposition for users who purchased the most expensive edition of Windows Vista, the company was criticized for its delays during delivery of updates, perceived lack of quality of delivered updates, and a lack of transparency regarding their development. Early on, there were concerns that the features would not live up to users' expectations. The company announced several Ultimate Extras in January 2007, but only a fraction of these were released five months later. After months without an official update since January, Microsoft released an apology for the delays, stating that it intended to ship the remaining features before the end of summer of 2007. The delays between consecutive updates and months of silence had led to speculation that the development team within the company responsible for the features had been quietly disbanded.When Microsoft announced its intentions to release the remaining Ultimate Extras and released an apology for delays, Paul Thurrott stated that the company had "dropped the ball" with the features. Ed Bott wrote that Ultimate Extras were "probably the biggest mistake Microsoft made with Vista," and that the company would downplay the Ultimate edition of Windows 7 as a result. Bott would later list them among his "decade's worth of Windows mistakes."Microsoft was also criticized for changing the description for Ultimate Extras within the operating system. The offerings slated to be made available were initially described as "cutting-edge programs," "innovative services," and "unique publications," but the description for the features within the Control Panel applet was later modified in Windows Vista Service Pack 1 to be more modest; this was interpreted as an attempt made by the company to avoid fulfilling prior expectations.Emil Protalinski of Ars Technica wrote that the Ultimate edition of Windows Vista "would have looked just fine without the joke that is 'Ultimate Extras'" and that the features were supposed to provide an incentive for consumers to purchase that edition, "not give critics something to point and laugh at." In the second part of his review of Windows 7, Peter Bright of Ars Technica wrote that "the value proposition of the Ultimate Extras was nothing short of piss-poor." Bright would later criticize Microsoft's decision not to release Internet Explorer 10 for Windows Vista, but would go on to state that this was still "not as bad as the Ultimate Extras farce."
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Indinavir**
Indinavir:
Indinavir (IDV; trade name Crixivan, made by Merck) is a protease inhibitor used as a component of highly active antiretroviral therapy to treat HIV/AIDS. It is soluble white powder administered orally in combination with other antiviral drugs. The drug prevents protease from functioning normally. Consequently, HIV viruses cannot reproduce, causing a decrease in the viral load. Commercially sold indinavir is indinavir anhydrous, which is indinavir with an additional amine in the hydroxyethylene backbone. This enhances its solubility and oral bioavailability, making it easier for users to intake. It was synthetically produced for the purpose of inhibiting the protease in the HIV virus.Currently, it is not recommended for use in HIV/AIDS treatment due to its side effects. Furthermore, it is controversial for many reasons starting from its development to its usage.
Indinavir:
It was patented in 1991 and approved for medical use in 1996.
Medical uses:
Indinavir does not cure HIV/AIDS, but it can extend the length of a person's life for several years by slowing the progression of the disease. The type that is widely used and created by Merck is indinavir sulfate. The pills are created from sulfate salts and are sold in dosages of 100, 200, 333, and 400 mg of indinavir. It is normally used as one of the three drugs in a triple-combination therapy for the HIV virus.Commercially available capsules should be stored at 15 - 30 °C. It should be kept in a tight container so that it is kept away from moisture. Therefore, it is advised that users should keep the pills in the manufacturer-provided bottle and do not remove the desiccant.
Medical uses:
Indinavir wears off quickly after dosing. Unboosted indinavir requires a very precise dosing of 400 mg every eight hours to thwart HIV from forming drug-resistant mutations, including resistances to other protease inhibitors. Boosted indinavir requires two 400-mg indinavir capsules with 1 to 2 100-mg ritonavir capsules twice a day. In both cases, the drugs must be taken with plenty of water one or two hours after a meal. It is recommended that users drink at least 1.5 liters a day when intaking the drug. Drug users must significantly increase their water intake due to indinavir's low solubility that can cause it to crystallize. There are restrictions on what sorts of food may be eaten concurrently with the unboosted indinavir treatment. Furthermore, it is no longer recommended to use in the United States for initial treatments due to pill burden and risk of kidney stones.
Medical uses:
Viral resistance Many people were skeptical of being too hopeful with indinavir due to previous events that occurred with AZT. Viral resistance to the drug leads to the drug becoming useless since the virus evolves to have cells that are able to resist the protease inhibitor. In order to avoid this as much as possible, it is important for users to consistently take the exact amount of the drug at the allocated times. This fear of viral resistance caused a lot of users to be wary of the drug.
Side effects:
The most common side effects of indinavir include: Gastrointestinal disturbances (abdominal pain, diarrhea, nausea, vomiting) General malaise and fatigue Nephrolithiasis/urolithiasis (the formation of kidney stones), which sometimes may lead to more severe condition including kidney failure Metabolic alterations including hyperlipidemia (cholesterol or triglyceride elevations) and hyperglycemia Alterations in body shape (lipodystrophy), colloquially known as "Crix belly" Increased levels of Bilirubin, causing skin and white parts of the eyes to turn yellow Inhibits urinary nitrous oxide production and may inhibit nitric oxide production.
Side effects:
Renal abnormalities, sterile leukocyturia, and reduced creatinine clearance.
Impairs endothelial function in healthy HIV-negative men and may accelerate atherosclerotic disease.
Chemical properties:
Indinavir is a white crystalline powder. It is very soluble in water and methanol. Each capsule contains sulfate salt in addition to anhydrous lactose and magnesium stearate. The capsule shell is made of gelatin and titanium dioxide. Its melting point or its temperature of decomposition is 150 - 153 °C at which it starts to emit toxic vapors such as nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides.
Chemical properties:
The drug fits inside the protease, stopping it from functioning normally. As a result, structural proteins, resulting from polypeptide products of gag and gag-pol genes, that are necessary for the HIV virions cannot form. Eventually, the viral load decreases because of the lack of reproduction.
History:
The official start to its development started in December 1986 when Merck's president, Edward Scolnick, announced that they would start a comprehensive AIDS research program. They started a laboratory dedicated to AIDS research in West Point, Pennsylvania and placed Emilio Emini in charge of the laboratory. A couple months later on January, 1987, a team of researchers consisting of Emilio Emini, Joel Huff, and Irving Sigal, kickstarted their studies by basing their project off of earlier research on the protease enzyme, renin. They were the ones who started the process of research and development into protease inhibitors and its relation to the virus. Over a year later, in July 1988, Nancy Kohl, Emilio Emini, et al., published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of the Science about the idea of inhibiting the protease. On February, 1989, Manuela Navia, Paula Fitzgerald, et al., published a paper that showed the three-dimensional structure of HIV's protease enzyme. Other researchers claim that this study helped determine the future trajectory of the development of the inhibitor. After much research, in March, 1990, researchers under Reider received a patent to synthesize part of L-689, 502 compound. These were similar to existing inhibitors. However, it failed safety assessments because of its toxicity.Seeing that the research on their drug was heading in the direction of eventually getting it on the market, Merck decided to formulate a community advisory board composed of AIDS activists who would help with the development effort of the drug in March 1991. Later on, Merck faced serious backlash from community members who though did not like the pricing and distribution of the drug.In January 1992, researchers synthesized indinavir sulfate (Crixivan), which was assigned compound number L-735,524. They started to test L-735,524 on animals a couple months later and found that it was safe for animals. Consequently, the company decided that it was safe to start human trials on September of the same year.The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved indinavir on March, 1996, making it the eighth antiretroviral drug approved. It was first given its blessing by the FDA on March 1 then approved merely 42 days after the company filed the drug to the FDA. A major reason for this fast approval was the presentation Merck gave to the committee with results from Study 035 (see below). The fact that they had fast approval ran into trouble with groups like Treatment Action Group who thought that accelerated drug approval was not beneficial for people infected with HIV/AIDS.From then on, indinavir used with dual NRTIs set a new standard for treatment of HIV/AIDS. Protease inhibitors changed the nature of AIDS from a terminal illness to a somewhat manageable one. It significantly increased life expectancies and decreased noticeable symptoms from infectious diseases that were the result of a weakened immune system from the virus. Currently, it is being replaced by newer drugs that are more convenient to take, less likely to promote virus resistance, and less toxic, such as darunavir or atazanavir.
Clinical trials:
In January 1996, Merck & Co. proved that indinavir was a clinically efficient drug based on data from human trials. They were able to show that indinavir, when used with two other anti-HIV drugs, could significantly reduce the HIV viral load.
Clinical trials:
Study 035 The study's goal was to show the different effects of different antiviral treatments. 97 patients were randomly assigned to one of the three groups: indinavir monotherapy, AZT and lamivudine, or all three agents. Eligible patients were those who received AZT for at least 6 months and have CD4 cell counts between 50 and 400, viral loads of at least 200,000 copies/mL, and had no prior antiretroviral therapy with protease inhibitor or lamivudine.The results of the study showed that the most effective treatment was the three drug treatment. After 24 weeks of treatment, 24 patients of the 28 patients who were treated with the three drugs were able to have viral load levels have less than 500 copies/ml. 12 out of 28 patients under indinavir monotherapy reached 500 copies/ml, and none of the thirty patients in AZT and lamivudine group got below 500 copies.
Clinical trials:
ACTG 320 This study took a look at clinical efficiency of the different treatments. Patients had to have CD4 cell counts less than 200 and at least 3 months of AZT therapy before the trials. 1156 patients with a mean of 87 CD4 cell counts and mean viral load of 100,000 copies/ml were randomized to one of the two groups: AZT plus lamivudine or AZT plus lamivudine plus indinavir. Just like Study 035, patients couldn't be in the study if they had prior protease inhibitor treatment or lamivudine for more than one week. The end point of the study was death or development of opportunistic infections.After 38 weeks, 6% of the people in the three-drug group died while 11% of the people died in the two-drug group. There were higher CD4 cell counts and less viral load in patients assigned to the three-drug group, proving that a three-drug treatment is more efficient than a two-drug one.
Controversy:
Supply Merck did not have enough time to prepare enough drugs to distribute for all those who were infected. 650,000 to 900,000 people were infected with the virus, and Merck could only provide drugs for about 25,000 to 30,000 people. Furthermore, the drug has to be taken consistently or else users face dangers, meaning that the company has to take into account refills for users who take the drugs. This situation of limited supply caused a lot of activists to be angry at the fact that they were selling in such limited quantities.
Controversy:
Distribution Because of its limited supply, Merck decided to adopt a single distributor system in which they would send indinavir to only one pharmaceutical retail company. They sold it to Stadtalnder's Pharmacy and limited quantities to Veteran Administration's hospitals and some managed-care organizations. This caused prices to be raised and limited the number of people who could have access to this possibly life-saving drug.
Controversy:
Price Indinavir cost about $12 for a daily dose, which is 24% less than Invirase and 33% less than Norvir. Because the company used a single distributor system to sell their drugs, the retail price was marked up 37% by the pharmacy that sold it. In response to this hefty price, Merck stated that it cost a lot to research and develop the drug, and they did not have enough supplies to sell it through a normal distributor system. Activists protested against this price because it made it harder for people to have access to the drug.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Brick Breaker**
Brick Breaker:
Brick Breaker is a video game developed by Canadian Developer Ali Asaria, that came preloaded on certain BlackBerry devices and is now available on the iOS App Store.
Gameplay:
Brick Breaker (platformer) is a Breakout clone in which the player must smash a wall of bricks by deflecting a bouncing ball with a paddle. The paddle may move horizontally and is controlled with the BlackBerry's trackwheel, the computer's mouse or the touch of a finger (in the case of touchscreen). The player gets three lives to start with; a life is lost if the ball hits the bottom of the screen. When all the bricks have been destroyed, the player advances to a new, harder level. There are 34 levels. Many levels have unbreakable silver bricks. If all lives are lost, the game is over. There are many versions of brick breaker, some in which you can shoot flaming fireballs or play with more than one ball if the player gets a power up.
Reception:
Brick Breaker has a cult following of professional players trying to achieve high scores. The game's addictiveness was highlighted by The Vancouver Sun: There are "dozens of forums, support groups and yes, a Brick Breaker Addiction Facebook page, with spouses complaining of addicted mates."
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Pseudotensor**
Pseudotensor:
In physics and mathematics, a pseudotensor is usually a quantity that transforms like a tensor under an orientation-preserving coordinate transformation (e.g. a proper rotation) but additionally changes sign under an orientation-reversing coordinate transformation (e.g., an improper rotation), which is a transformation that can be expressed as a proper rotation followed by reflection. This is a generalization of a pseudovector. To evaluate a tensor or pseudotensor sign, it has to be contracted with some vectors, as many as its rank is, belonging to the space where the rotation is made while keeping the tensor coordinates unaffected (differently from what one does in the case of a base change). Under improper rotation a pseudotensor and a proper tensor of the same rank will have different sign which depends on the rank being even or odd. Sometimes inversion of the axes is used as an example of an improper rotation to see the behaviour of a pseudotensor, but it works only if vector space dimensions is odd otherwise inversion is a proper rotation without an additional reflection.
Pseudotensor:
There is a second meaning for pseudotensor (and likewise for pseudovector), restricted to general relativity. Tensors obey strict transformation laws, but pseudotensors in this sense are not so constrained. Consequently, the form of a pseudotensor will, in general, change as the frame of reference is altered. An equation containing pseudotensors which holds in one frame will not necessarily hold in a different frame. This makes pseudotensors of limited relevance because equations in which they appear are not invariant in form.
Definition:
Two quite different mathematical objects are called a pseudotensor in different contexts.
Definition:
The first context is essentially a tensor multiplied by an extra sign factor, such that the pseudotensor changes sign under reflections when a normal tensor does not. According to one definition, a pseudotensor P of the type (p,q) is a geometric object whose components in an arbitrary basis are enumerated by (p+q) indices and obey the transformation rule under a change of basis.Here P^j1…jpi1…iq,Pl1…lpk1…kq are the components of the pseudotensor in the new and old bases, respectively, Aiqkq is the transition matrix for the contravariant indices, Blpjp is the transition matrix for the covariant indices, and det (Aiqkq))=±1.
Definition:
This transformation rule differs from the rule for an ordinary tensor only by the presence of the factor (−1)A.
Definition:
The second context where the word "pseudotensor" is used is general relativity. In that theory, one cannot describe the energy and momentum of the gravitational field by an energy–momentum tensor. Instead, one introduces objects that behave as tensors only with respect to restricted coordinate transformations. Strictly speaking, such objects are not tensors at all. A famous example of such a pseudotensor is the Landau–Lifshitz pseudotensor.
Examples:
On non-orientable manifolds, one cannot define a volume form globally due to the non-orientability, but one can define a volume element, which is formally a density, and may also be called a pseudo-volume form, due to the additional sign twist (tensoring with the sign bundle). The volume element is a pseudotensor density according to the first definition.
Examples:
A change of variables in multi-dimensional integration may be achieved through the incorporation of a factor of the absolute value of the determinant of the Jacobian matrix. The use of the absolute value introduces a sign change for improper coordinate transformations to compensate for the convention of keeping integration (volume) element positive; as such, an integrand is an example of a pseudotensor density according to the first definition.
Examples:
The Christoffel symbols of an affine connection on a manifold can be thought of as the correction terms to the partial derivatives of a coordinate expression of a vector field with respect to the coordinates to render it the vector field's covariant derivative. While the affine connection itself doesn't depend on the choice of coordinates, its Christoffel symbols do, making them a pseudotensor quantity according to the second definition.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Quantificational variability effect**
Quantificational variability effect:
Quantificational variability effect (QVE) is the intuitive equivalence of certain sentences with quantificational adverbs (Q-adverbs) and sentences without these, but with quantificational determiner phrases (DP) in argument position instead.
Quantificational variability effect:
1. (a) A cat is usually smart. (Q-adverb) 1. (b) Most cats are smart. (DP) 2. (a) A dog is always smart. (Q-adverb) 2. (b) All dogs are smart. (DP)Analysis of QVE is widely cited as entering the literature with David Lewis' "Adverbs of Quantification" (1975), where he proposes QVE as a solution to Peter Geach's donkey sentence (1962). Terminology, and comprehensive analysis, is normally attributed to Stephen Berman's "Situation-Based Semantics for Adverbs of Quantification" (1987).
Literature:
Core textsBerman, Stephen. The Semantics of Open Sentences. PhD thesis. University of Massachusetts Amherst, 1991.
Berman, Stephen. 'An Analysis of Quantifier Variability in Indirect Questions'. In MIT Working Papers in Linguistics 11. Edited by Phil Branigan and others. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1989. Pages 1–16.
Berman, Stephen. 'Situation-Based Semantics for Adverbs of Quantification'. In University of Massachusetts Occasional Papers 12. Edited by J. Blevins and Anne Vainikka. Graduate Linguistic Student Association (GLSA), University of Massachusetts Amherst, 1987. Pages 45–68.Select bibliography
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Torus**
Torus:
In geometry, a torus (PL: tori or toruses) is a surface of revolution generated by revolving a circle in three-dimensional space one full revolution about an axis that is coplanar with the circle. The main types of toruses include ring toruses, horn toruses, and spindle toruses. A ring torus is sometimes colloquially referred to as a donut or doughnut.
Torus:
If the axis of revolution does not touch the circle, the surface has a ring shape and is called a torus of revolution, also known as a ring torus. If the axis of revolution is tangent to the circle, the surface is a horn torus. If the axis of revolution passes twice through the circle, the surface is a spindle torus (or self-crossing torus or self-intersecting torus). If the axis of revolution passes through the center of the circle, the surface is a degenerate torus, a double-covered sphere. If the revolved curve is not a circle, the surface is called a toroid, as in a square toroid.
Torus:
Real-world objects that approximate a torus of revolution include swim rings, inner tubes and ringette rings. A torus should not be confused with a solid torus, which is formed by rotating a disk, rather than a circle, around an axis. A solid torus is a torus plus the volume inside the torus. Real-world objects that approximate a solid torus include O-rings, non-inflatable lifebuoys, ring doughnuts, and bagels.
Torus:
In topology, a ring torus is homeomorphic to the Cartesian product of two circles: S1×S1 , and the latter is taken to be the definition in that context. It is a compact 2-manifold of genus 1. The ring torus is one way to embed this space into Euclidean space, but another way to do this is the Cartesian product of the embedding of S1 in the plane with itself. This produces a geometric object called the Clifford torus, a surface in 4-space.
Torus:
In the field of topology, a torus is any topological space that is homeomorphic to a torus. The surface of a coffee cup and a doughnut are both topological tori with genus one.
An example of a torus can be constructed by taking a rectangular strip of flexible material such as rubber, and joining the top edge to the bottom edge, and the left edge to the right edge, without any half-twists (compare Möbius strip).
Geometry:
A torus can be defined parametrically by: where θ, φ are angles which make a full circle, so their values start and end at the same point, R is the distance from the center of the tube to the center of the torus, r is the radius of the tube.Angle θ represents rotation around the tube, whereas φ represents rotation around the torus' axis of revolution. R is known as the "major radius" and r is known as the "minor radius". The ratio R divided by r is known as the "aspect ratio". The typical doughnut confectionery has an aspect ratio of about 3 to 2.
Geometry:
An implicit equation in Cartesian coordinates for a torus radially symmetric about the z-axis is or the solution of f(x, y, z) = 0, where Algebraically eliminating the square root gives a quartic equation, The three classes of standard tori correspond to the three possible aspect ratios between R and r: When R > r, the surface will be the familiar ring torus or anchor ring.
Geometry:
R = r corresponds to the horn torus, which in effect is a torus with no "hole".
Geometry:
R < r describes the self-intersecting spindle torus; its inner shell is a lemon and its outer shell is an apple When R = 0, the torus degenerates to the sphere.When R ≥ r, the interior of this torus is diffeomorphic (and, hence, homeomorphic) to a product of a Euclidean open disk and a circle. The volume of this solid torus and the surface area of its torus are easily computed using Pappus's centroid theorem, giving: These formulas are the same as for a cylinder of length 2πR and radius r, obtained from cutting the tube along the plane of a small circle, and unrolling it by straightening out (rectifying) the line running around the center of the tube. The losses in surface area and volume on the inner side of the tube exactly cancel out the gains on the outer side.
Geometry:
Expressing the surface area and the volume by the distance p of an outermost point on the surface of the torus to the center, and the distance q of an innermost point to the center (so that R = p + q/2 and r = p − q/2), yields As a torus is the product of two circles, a modified version of the spherical coordinate system is sometimes used.
Geometry:
In traditional spherical coordinates there are three measures, R, the distance from the center of the coordinate system, and θ and φ, angles measured from the center point.
Geometry:
As a torus has, effectively, two center points, the centerpoints of the angles are moved; φ measures the same angle as it does in the spherical system, but is known as the "toroidal" direction. The center point of θ is moved to the center of r, and is known as the "poloidal" direction. These terms were first used in a discussion of the Earth's magnetic field, where "poloidal" was used to denote "the direction toward the poles".In modern use, toroidal and poloidal are more commonly used to discuss magnetic confinement fusion devices.
Topology:
Topologically, a torus is a closed surface defined as the product of two circles: S1 × S1. This can be viewed as lying in C2 and is a subset of the 3-sphere S3 of radius √2. This topological torus is also often called the Clifford torus. In fact, S3 is filled out by a family of nested tori in this manner (with two degenerate circles), a fact which is important in the study of S3 as a fiber bundle over S2 (the Hopf bundle).
Topology:
The surface described above, given the relative topology from R3 , is homeomorphic to a topological torus as long as it does not intersect its own axis. A particular homeomorphism is given by stereographically projecting the topological torus into R3 from the north pole of S3.
The torus can also be described as a quotient of the Cartesian plane under the identifications (x,y)∼(x+1,y)∼(x,y+1), or, equivalently, as the quotient of the unit square by pasting the opposite edges together, described as a fundamental polygon ABA−1B−1.
The fundamental group of the torus is just the direct product of the fundamental group of the circle with itself: π1(T2)=π1(S1)×π1(S1)≅Z×Z.
Topology:
Intuitively speaking, this means that a closed path that circles the torus' "hole" (say, a circle that traces out a particular latitude) and then circles the torus' "body" (say, a circle that traces out a particular longitude) can be deformed to a path that circles the body and then the hole. So, strictly 'latitudinal' and strictly 'longitudinal' paths commute. An equivalent statement may be imagined as two shoelaces passing through each other, then unwinding, then rewinding.
Topology:
If a torus is punctured and turned inside out then another torus results, with lines of latitude and longitude interchanged. This is equivalent to building a torus from a cylinder, by joining the circular ends together, in two ways: around the outside like joining two ends of a garden hose, or through the inside like rolling a sock (with the toe cut off). Additionally, if the cylinder was made by gluing two opposite sides of a rectangle together, choosing the other two sides instead will cause the same reversal of orientation.
Topology:
The first homology group of the torus is isomorphic to the fundamental group (this follows from Hurewicz theorem since the fundamental group is abelian).
Two-sheeted cover:
The 2-torus double-covers the 2-sphere, with four ramification points. Every conformal structure on the 2-torus can be represented as a two-sheeted cover of the 2-sphere. The points on the torus corresponding to the ramification points are the Weierstrass points. In fact, the conformal type of the torus is determined by the cross-ratio of the four points.
n-dimensional torus:
The torus has a generalization to higher dimensions, the n-dimensional torus, often called the n-torus or hypertorus for short. (This is the more typical meaning of the term "n-torus", the other referring to n holes or of genus n.) Recalling that the torus is the product space of two circles, the n-dimensional torus is the product of n circles. That is: Tn=S1×⋯×S1⏟n.
n-dimensional torus:
The standard 1-torus is just the circle: T1=S1 . The torus discussed above is the standard 2-torus, T2 . And similar to the 2-torus, the n-torus, Tn can be described as a quotient of Rn under integral shifts in any coordinate. That is, the n-torus is Rn modulo the action of the integer lattice Zn (with the action being taken as vector addition). Equivalently, the n-torus is obtained from the n-dimensional hypercube by gluing the opposite faces together.
n-dimensional torus:
An n-torus in this sense is an example of an n-dimensional compact manifold. It is also an example of a compact abelian Lie group. This follows from the fact that the unit circle is a compact abelian Lie group (when identified with the unit complex numbers with multiplication). Group multiplication on the torus is then defined by coordinate-wise multiplication.
n-dimensional torus:
Toroidal groups play an important part in the theory of compact Lie groups. This is due in part to the fact that in any compact Lie group G one can always find a maximal torus; that is, a closed subgroup which is a torus of the largest possible dimension. Such maximal tori T have a controlling role to play in theory of connected G. Toroidal groups are examples of protori, which (like tori) are compact connected abelian groups, which are not required to be manifolds.
n-dimensional torus:
Automorphisms of T are easily constructed from automorphisms of the lattice Zn , which are classified by invertible integral matrices of size n with an integral inverse; these are just the integral matrices with determinant ±1. Making them act on Rn in the usual way, one has the typical toral automorphism on the quotient.
n-dimensional torus:
The fundamental group of an n-torus is a free abelian group of rank n. The k-th homology group of an n-torus is a free abelian group of rank n choose k. It follows that the Euler characteristic of the n-torus is 0 for all n. The cohomology ring H•( Tn , Z) can be identified with the exterior algebra over the Z-module Zn whose generators are the duals of the n nontrivial cycles.
n-dimensional torus:
Configuration space As the n-torus is the n-fold product of the circle, the n-torus is the configuration space of n ordered, not necessarily distinct points on the circle. Symbolically, Tn=(S1)n . The configuration space of unordered, not necessarily distinct points is accordingly the orbifold Tn/Sn , which is the quotient of the torus by the symmetric group on n letters (by permuting the coordinates).
n-dimensional torus:
For n = 2, the quotient is the Möbius strip, the edge corresponding to the orbifold points where the two coordinates coincide. For n = 3 this quotient may be described as a solid torus with cross-section an equilateral triangle, with a twist; equivalently, as a triangular prism whose top and bottom faces are connected with a 1/3 twist (120°): the 3-dimensional interior corresponds to the points on the 3-torus where all 3 coordinates are distinct, the 2-dimensional face corresponds to points with 2 coordinates equal and the 3rd different, while the 1-dimensional edge corresponds to points with all 3 coordinates identical.
n-dimensional torus:
These orbifolds have found significant applications to music theory in the work of Dmitri Tymoczko and collaborators (Felipe Posada, Michael Kolinas, et al.), being used to model musical triads.
Flat torus:
A flat torus is a torus with the metric inherited from its representation as the quotient, R2 /L, where L is a discrete subgroup of R2 isomorphic to Z2 . This gives the quotient the structure of a Riemannian manifold. Perhaps the simplest example of this is when L = Z2 : R2/Z2 , which can also be described as the Cartesian plane under the identifications (x, y) ~ (x + 1, y) ~ (x, y + 1). This particular flat torus (and any uniformly scaled version of it) is known as the "square" flat torus.
Flat torus:
This metric of the square flat torus can also be realised by specific embeddings of the familiar 2-torus into Euclidean 4-space or higher dimensions. Its surface has zero Gaussian curvature everywhere. Its surface is flat in the same sense that the surface of a cylinder is flat. In 3 dimensions, one can bend a flat sheet of paper into a cylinder without stretching the paper, but this cylinder cannot be bent into a torus without stretching the paper (unless some regularity and differentiability conditions are given up, see below).
Flat torus:
A simple 4-dimensional Euclidean embedding of a rectangular flat torus (more general than the square one) is as follows: cos sin cos sin v) where R and P are positive constants determining the aspect ratio. It is diffeomorphic to a regular torus but not isometric. It can not be analytically embedded (smooth of class Ck, 2 ≤ k ≤ ∞) into Euclidean 3-space. Mapping it into 3-space requires one to stretch it, in which case it looks like a regular torus. For example, in the following map: sin cos sin sin cos v).
Flat torus:
If R and P in the above flat torus parametrization form a unit vector (R, P) = (cos(η), sin(η)) then u, v, and 0 < η < π/2 parameterize the unit 3-sphere as Hopf coordinates. In particular, for certain very specific choices of a square flat torus in the 3-sphere S3, where η = π/4 above, the torus will partition the 3-sphere into two congruent solid tori subsets with the aforesaid flat torus surface as their common boundary. One example is the torus T defined by T={(x,y,z,w)∈S3∣x2+y2=12,z2+w2=12}.
Flat torus:
Other tori in S3 having this partitioning property include the square tori of the form Q⋅T, where Q is a rotation of 4-dimensional space R4 , or in other words Q is a member of the Lie group SO(4).
Flat torus:
It is known that there exists no C2 (twice continuously differentiable) embedding of a flat torus into 3-space. (The idea of the proof is to take a large sphere containing such a flat torus in its interior, and shrink the radius of the sphere until it just touches the torus for the first time. Such a point of contact must be a tangency. But that would imply that part of the torus, since it has zero curvature everywhere, must lie strictly outside the sphere, which is a contradiction.) On the other hand, according to the Nash-Kuiper theorem, which was proven in the 1950s, an isometric C1 embedding exists. This is solely an existence proof and does not provide explicit equations for such an embedding.
Flat torus:
In April 2012, an explicit C1 (continuously differentiable) embedding of a flat torus into 3-dimensional Euclidean space R3 was found. It is a flat torus in the sense that as metric spaces, it is isometric to a flat square torus. It is similar in structure to a fractal as it is constructed by repeatedly corrugating an ordinary torus. Like fractals, it has no defined Gaussian curvature. However, unlike fractals, it does have defined surface normals, yielding a so-called "smooth fractal". The key to obtain the smoothness of this corrugated torus is to have the amplitudes of successive corrugations decreasing faster than their "wavelengths". (These infinitely recursive corrugations are used only for embedding into three dimensions; they are not an intrinsic feature of the flat torus.) This is the first time that any such embedding was defined by explicit equations or depicted by computer graphics.
Genus g surface:
In the theory of surfaces there is another object, the "genus" g surface. Instead of the product of n circles, a genus g surface is the connected sum of g two-tori. To form a connected sum of two surfaces, remove from each the interior of a disk and "glue" the surfaces together along the boundary circles. To form the connected sum of more than two surfaces, sum two of them at a time until they are all connected. In this sense, a genus g surface resembles the surface of g doughnuts stuck together side by side, or a 2-sphere with g handles attached.
Genus g surface:
As examples, a genus zero surface (without boundary) is the two-sphere while a genus one surface (without boundary) is the ordinary torus. The surfaces of higher genus are sometimes called n-holed tori (or, rarely, n-fold tori). The terms double torus and triple torus are also occasionally used.
The classification theorem for surfaces states that every compact connected surface is topologically equivalent to either the sphere or the connect sum of some number of tori, disks, and real projective planes.
Toroidal polyhedra:
Polyhedra with the topological type of a torus are called toroidal polyhedra, and have Euler characteristic V − E + F = 0. For any number of holes, the formula generalizes to V − E + F = 2 − 2N, where N is the number of holes.
The term "toroidal polyhedron" is also used for higher-genus polyhedra and for immersions of toroidal polyhedra.
Automorphisms:
The homeomorphism group (or the subgroup of diffeomorphisms) of the torus is studied in geometric topology. Its mapping class group (the connected components of the homeomorphism group) is surjective onto the group GL (n,Z) of invertible integer matrices, which can be realized as linear maps on the universal covering space Rn that preserve the standard lattice Zn (this corresponds to integer coefficients) and thus descend to the quotient.
Automorphisms:
At the level of homotopy and homology, the mapping class group can be identified as the action on the first homology (or equivalently, first cohomology, or on the fundamental group, as these are all naturally isomorphic; also the first cohomology group generates the cohomology algebra: MCG Ho Aut Aut GL (n,Z).
Since the torus is an Eilenberg–MacLane space K(G, 1), its homotopy equivalences, up to homotopy, can be identified with automorphisms of the fundamental group); all homotopy equivalences of the torus can be realized by homeomorphisms – every homotopy equivalence is homotopic to a homeomorphism.
Thus the short exact sequence of the mapping class group splits (an identification of the torus as the quotient of Rn gives a splitting, via the linear maps, as above): Homeo Homeo MCG TOP 1.
The mapping class group of higher genus surfaces is much more complicated, and an area of active research.
Coloring a torus:
The torus's chromatic number is seven, meaning every graph that can be embedded on the torus has a chromatic number of at most seven. (Since the complete graph K7 can be embedded on the torus, and χ(K7)=7 , the upper bound is tight.) Equivalently, in a torus divided into regions, it is always possible to color the regions using no more than seven colors so that no neighboring regions are the same color. (Contrast with the four color theorem for the plane.)
de Bruijn torus:
In combinatorial mathematics, a de Bruijn torus is an array of symbols from an alphabet (often just 0 and 1) that contains every m-by-n matrix exactly once. It is a torus because the edges are considered wraparound for the purpose of finding matrices. Its name comes from the De Bruijn sequence, which can be considered a special case where n is 1 (one dimension).
Cutting a torus:
A solid torus of revolution can be cut by n (> 0) planes into maximally (n+2n−1)+(nn−1)=16(n3+3n2+8n) parts.The first 11 numbers of parts, for 0 ≤ n ≤ 10 (including the case of n = 0, not covered by the above formulas), are as follows: 1, 2, 6, 13, 24, 40, 62, 91, 128, 174, 230, ... (sequence A003600 in the OEIS).
Notes:
Nociones de Geometría Analítica y Álgebra Lineal, ISBN 978-970-10-6596-9, Author: Kozak Ana Maria, Pompeya Pastorelli Sonia, Verdanega Pedro Emilio, Editorial: McGraw-Hill, Edition 2007, 744 pages, language: Spanish Allen Hatcher. Algebraic Topology. Cambridge University Press, 2002. ISBN 0-521-79540-0.
V. V. Nikulin, I. R. Shafarevich. Geometries and Groups. Springer, 1987. ISBN 3-540-15281-4, ISBN 978-3-540-15281-1.
"Tore (notion géométrique)" at Encyclopédie des Formes Mathématiques Remarquables
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**Flagellation**
Flagellation:
Flagellation (Latin flagellum, 'whip'), flogging or whipping is the act of beating the human body with special implements such as whips, rods, switches, the cat o' nine tails, the sjambok, the knout, etc. Typically, flogging has been imposed on an unwilling subject as a punishment; however, it can also be submitted to willingly and even done by oneself in sadomasochistic or religious contexts.
Flagellation:
The strokes are typically aimed at the unclothed back of a person, though they can be administered to other areas of the body. For a moderated subform of flagellation, described as bastinado, the soles of a person's bare feet are used as a target for beating (see foot whipping).
Flagellation:
In some circumstances the word flogging is used loosely to include any sort of corporal punishment, including birching and caning. However, in British legal terminology, a distinction was drawn (and still is, in one or two colonial territories) between flogging (with a cat o' nine tails) and whipping (formerly with a whip, but since the early 19th century with a birch). In Britain these were both abolished in 1948.
Current use as punishment:
Officially abolished in most countries, flogging or whipping, including foot whipping in some countries, is still a common punishment in some parts of the world, particularly in countries using Islamic law and in some territories which were former British colonies. Medically supervised caning is routinely ordered by the courts as a penalty for some categories of crime in Singapore, Brunei, Malaysia, Indonesia (Aceh region only), Tanzania, Zimbabwe and elsewhere.
Historical use as punishment:
Judaism According to the Torah (Deuteronomy 25:1–3) and Rabbinic law lashes may be given for offenses that do not merit capital punishment, and may not exceed 40. However, in the absence of a Sanhedrin, corporal punishment is not practiced in Jewish law. Halakha specifies the lashes must be given in sets of three, so the total number cannot exceed 39. Also, the person whipped is first judged whether they can withstand the punishment, if not, the number of whips is decreased. Jewish law limited flagellation to forty strokes, and in practice delivered thirty-nine, so as to avoid any possibility of breaking this law due to a miscount.
Historical use as punishment:
Antiquity In the Roman Empire, flagellation was often used as a prelude to crucifixion, and in this context is sometimes referred to as scourging. Most famously according to the gospel accounts, this occurred prior to the crucifixion of Jesus Christ. Due to the context of the flagellation of Jesus, the method and extent may have been limited by local practice, though it was done under Roman law.
Historical use as punishment:
Whips with small pieces of metal or bone at the tips were commonly used. Such a device could easily cause disfigurement and serious trauma, such as ripping pieces of flesh from the body or loss of an eye. In addition to causing severe pain, the victim would approach a state of hypovolemic shock due to loss of blood.
Historical use as punishment:
The Romans reserved this treatment for non-citizens, as stated in the lex Porcia and lex Sempronia, dating from 195 and 123 BC. The poet Horace refers to the horribile flagellum (horrible whip) in his Satires. Typically, the one to be punished was stripped naked and bound to a low pillar so that he could bend over it, or chained to an upright pillar so as to be stretched out. Two lictors (some reports indicate scourgings with four or six lictors) alternated blows from the bare shoulders down the body to the soles of the feet. There was no limit to the number of blows inflicted—this was left to the lictors to decide, though they were normally not supposed to kill the victim. Nonetheless, Livy, Suetonius and Josephus report cases of flagellation where victims died while still bound to the post. Flagellation was referred to as "half death" by some authors, as many victims died shortly thereafter. Cicero reports in In Verrem, "pro mortuo sublatus brevi postea mortuus" ("taken away for a dead man, shortly thereafter he was dead").
Historical use as punishment:
From Middle Ages to modern times The Whipping Act was passed in England in 1530. Under this legislation, vagrants were to be taken to a nearby populated area "and there tied to the end of a cart naked and beaten with whips throughout such market town till the body shall be bloody".In England, offenders (mostly those convicted of theft) were usually sentenced to be flogged "at a cart's tail" along a length of public street, usually near the scene of the crime, "until his [or her] back be bloody". In the late seventeenth century, however, the courts occasionally ordered that the flogging should be carried out in prison or a house of correction rather than on the streets. From the 1720s courts began explicitly to differentiate between private whipping and public whipping. Over the course of the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries the proportion of whippings carried out in public declined, but the number of private whippings increased. The public whipping of women was abolished in 1817 (after having been in decline since the 1770s) and that of men ended in the early 1830s, though not formally abolished until 1862. Private whipping of men in prison continued and was not abolished until 1948. The 1948 abolition did not affect the ability of a prison's visiting justices (in England and Wales, but not in Scotland, except at Peterhead) to order the birch or cat for prisoners committing serious assaults on prison staff. This power was not abolished until 1967, having been last used in 1962.Whipping occurred during the French Revolution, though not as official punishment. On 31 May 1793, the Jacobin women seized a revolutionary leader, Anne Josephe Theroigne de Mericourt, stripped her naked, and flogged her on the bare bottom in the public garden of the Tuileries. After this humiliation, she refused to wear any clothes, in memory of the outrage she had suffered. She went mad and ended her days in an asylum after the public whipping.
Historical use as punishment:
In the Russian Empire, knouts were used to flog criminals and political offenders. Sentences of a hundred lashes would usually result in death. Whipping was used as a punishment for Russian serfs.In April 2020, Saudi Arabia said it would replace flogging with prison sentences or fines, according to a government document.
Use against slaves Whipping has been used as a form of discipline on slaves. It was frequently carried out during the period of slavery in the United States, by slave owners and their slaves. The power was also given to slave "patrolers," mostly poor whites authorized to whip any slave who violated the slave codes.
Flogging as military punishment In the 18th and 19th centuries, European armies administered floggings to common soldiers who committed breaches of the military code.
United States During the American Revolutionary War, the American Congress raised the legal limit on lashes from 39 to 100 for soldiers who were convicted by courts-martial. Generally, officers were not flogged. However, in 1745, a cashiered British officer's sword could be broken over his head, among other indignities inflicted on him.
Historical use as punishment:
As critics of flogging aboard the ships and vessels of the United States Navy became more vocal, the Department of the Navy began in 1846 to require annual reports of discipline including flogging, and limited the maximum number of lashes to 12. These annual reports were required from the captain of each naval vessel. See thumbnail for the 1847 disciplinary report of the USS John Adams (1799). The individual reports were then compiled so the Secretary of the Navy could report to the United States Congress how pervasive flogging had become and to what extent it was utilized. In total for the years 1846–1847, flogging had been administered a reported 5,036 times on sixty naval vessels. At the urging of New Hampshire Senator John P. Hale, the United States Congress banned flogging on all U.S. ships in September 1850, as part of a then-controversial amendment to a naval appropriations bill. Hale was inspired by Herman Melville's "vivid description of flogging, a brutal staple of 19th century naval discipline" in Melville's "novelized memoir" White Jacket. Melville also included a vivid depiction of flogging, and the circumstances surrounding it, in his more famous work, Moby-Dick.Military flogging was abolished in the United States Army on 5 August 1861.
Historical use as punishment:
United Kingdom Flagellation was so common in England as punishment that caning (and spanking and whipping) are called "the English vice".Flogging was a common disciplinary measure in the Royal Navy that became associated with a seaman's manly disregard for pain. Aboard ships, knittles or the cat o' nine tails was used for severe formal punishment, while a "rope's end" or "starter" was used to administer informal, on-the-spot discipline. In severe cases a person could be "flogged around the fleet": a significant number of lashes (up to 600) was divided among the ships on a station and the person was taken to all ships to be flogged on each, or--when in harbour--bound in a ship's boat which was then rowed among the ships, with the ships' companies called to attention to observe the punishment.In June 1879 a motion to abolish flogging in the Royal Navy was debated in the House of Commons. John O'Connor Power, the member for Mayo, asked the First Lord of the Admiralty to bring the navy cat o' nine tails to the Commons Library so that the members might see what they were voting about. It was the Great "Cat" Contention, "Mr Speaker, since the Government has let the cat out of the bag, there is nothing to be done but to take the bull by the horns." Poet Laureate Ted Hughes celebrates the occasion in his poem, "Wilfred Owen's Photographs": "A witty profound Irishman calls/For a 'cat' into the House, and sits to watch/The gentry fingering its stained tails./Whereupon ...Quietly, unopposed,/The motion was passed." In the Napoleonic Wars, the maximum number of lashes that could be inflicted on soldiers in the British Army reached 1,200. This many lashes could permanently disable or kill a man. Charles Oman, historian of the Peninsular War, noted that the maximum sentence was inflicted "nine or ten times by general court-martial during the whole six years of the war" and that 1,000 lashes were administered about 50 times. Other sentences were for 900, 700, 500 and 300 lashes. One soldier was sentenced to 700 lashes for stealing a beehive. Another man was let off after only 175 of 400 lashes, but spent three weeks in the hospital. Later in the war, the more draconian punishments were abandoned and the offenders shipped to New South Wales instead, where more whippings often awaited them. (See Australian penal colonies section.) Oman later wrote: If anything was calculated to brutalize an army it was the wicked cruelty of the British military punishment code, which Wellington to the end of his life supported. There is plenty of authority for the fact that the man who had once received his 500 lashes for a fault which was small, or which involved no moral guilt, was often turned thereby from a good soldier into a bad soldier, by losing his self-respect and having his sense of justice seared out. Good officers knew this well enough, and did their best to avoid the cat o' nine tails, and to try more rational means—more often than not with success.
Historical use as punishment:
The 3rd battalion's Royal Anglian Regiment nickname of "The Steelbacks" is taken from one of its former regiments, the 48th (Northamptonshire) Regiment of Foot who earned the nickname for their stoicism when being flogged with the cat o' nine tails ("Not a whimper under the lash"), a routine method of administering punishment in the Army in the 18th and early 19th centuries.
Historical use as punishment:
Shortly after the establishment of Northern Ireland the Special Powers Act of 1922 was enacted by the Parliament of Northern Ireland. This Act enabled the government to 'take all such steps and issue all such orders as may be necessary for preserving the peace and maintaining order'. The Home Affairs Minister was empowered to make any regulation felt necessary to preserve law and order. Breaking those regulations could bring a sentenced of up to a year in prison with hard labour, and in the case of some crimes, whipping. This Act was in place until 1973 when it was replaced with the Northern Ireland (Emergency Provisions) Act 1973.
Historical use as punishment:
France Meanwhile, during the French Revolutionary Wars the French Army stopped floggings altogether. The King's German Legion (KGL), which were German units in British pay, did not flog. In one case, a British soldier on detached duty with the KGL was sentenced to be flogged, but the German commander refused to carry out the punishment. When the British 73rd Foot flogged a man in occupied France in 1814, disgusted French citizens protested against it.
Historical use as punishment:
Australian penal colonies Once common in the British Army and British Royal Navy as a means of discipline, flagellation also featured prominently in the British penal colonies in early colonial Australia. Given that convicts in Australia were already "imprisoned", punishments for offenses committed there could not usually result in imprisonment and thus usually consisted of corporal punishment such as hard labour or flagellation. Unlike Roman times, British law explicitly forbade the combination of corporal and capital punishment; thus, a convict was either flogged or hanged but never both.
Historical use as punishment:
Flagellation took place either with a single whip or, more notoriously, with the cat o' nine tails. Typically, the offender's upper half was bared and he was suspended by the wrists beneath a tripod of wooden beams (known as 'the triangle'). In many cases, the offender's feet barely touched ground, which helped to stretch the skin taut and increase the damage inflicted by the whip. It also centered the offender's weight in his shoulders, further ensuring a painful experience.
Historical use as punishment:
With the prisoner thus stripped and bound, either one or two floggers administered the prescribed number of strokes, or "lashes," to the victim's back. During the flogging, a doctor or other medical worker was consulted at regular intervals as to the condition of the prisoner. In many cases, however, the physician merely observed the offender to determine whether he was conscious. If the prisoner passed out, the physician would order a halt until the prisoner was revived, and then the whipping would continue.
Historical use as punishment:
Female convicts were also subject to flogging as punishment, both on the convict ships and in the penal colonies. Although they were generally given fewer lashes than males (usually limited to 40 in each flogging), there was no other difference between the manner in which males and females were flogged.
Historical use as punishment:
Floggings of both male and female convicts were public, administered before the whole colony's company, assembled especially for the purpose. In addition to the infliction of pain, one of the principal purposes of the flogging was to humiliate the offender in front of his mates and to demonstrate, in a forceful way, that he had been required to submit to authority.
Historical use as punishment:
At the conclusion of the whipping, the prisoner's lacerated back was normally rinsed with brine, which served as a crude and painful disinfectant.
Flogging still continued for years after independence. The last person flogged in Australia was William John O'Meally in 1958 in Melbourne's Pentridge Prison.
Historical use as punishment:
Contemporary Syria In Syria where torture of political dissidents, POWs and civilians is extremely common, flagellation has become one of the most common forms of torture. Flagellation is used by both the Free Syrian Army and the Syrian Arab Army, but is not practiced by the Syrian Democratic Forces. ISIS most commonly used flagellation in which people would be tied to a ceiling and whipped. It was extremely common in Raqqa Stadium, a makeshift prison where prisoners were tortured. It was also common for those who did not follow ISIS strict laws to be publicly flogged.
As a religious practice:
Antiquity During the Ancient Roman festival of Lupercalia, young men ran through the streets with thongs cut from the hide of goats which had just been sacrificed, whipping people with the thongs as they ran. According to Plutarch, women would put themselves in their way to receive blows on the hands, believing that this would help them to conceive or grant them an easy delivery. The eunuch priests of the goddess Cybele, the galli, flogged themselves until they bled during the annual festival called Dies Sanguinis. The initiation ceremonies of Greco-Roman mystery religions also sometimes involved ritual flagellation, as did the Spartan cult of Artemis Orthia.
As a religious practice:
Christianity The Flagellation, in a Christian context, refers to an episode in the Passion of Christ prior to Jesus' crucifixion. The practice of mortification of the flesh for religious purposes has been utilised by members of various Christian denominations since the time of the Great Schism in 1054. Nowadays the instrument of penance is called a discipline, a cattail whip usually made of knotted cords, which is flung over the shoulders repeatedly during private prayer.In the 13th century, a group of Roman Catholics, known as the Flagellants, took self-mortification to extremes. These people would travel to towns and publicly beat and whip each other while preaching repentance. The nature of these demonstrations being quite morbid and disorderly, they were during periods of time suppressed by the authorities. They continued to reemerge at different times up until the 16th century. Flagellation was also practised during the Black Plague as a means to purify oneself of sin and thus prevent contracting the disease. Pope Clement VI is known to have permitted it for this purpose in 1348.Martin Luther, the Protestant Reformer, regularly practiced self-flagellation as a means of mortification of the flesh before leaving the Roman Catholic Church. Likewise, the Congregationalist writer Sarah Osborn (1714–1796) also practiced self-flagellation in order "to remind her of her continued sin, depravity, and vileness in the eyes of God". It became "quite common" for members of the Tractarian movement (see Oxford Movement, 1830s onwards) within the Anglican Communion to practice self-flagellation using the discipline. St. Thérèse of Lisieux, a late 19th-century French Discalced Carmelite nun considered in Catholicism to be a Doctor of the Church, is an influential example of a saint who questioned prevailing attitudes toward physical penance. Her view was that loving acceptance of the many sufferings of daily life was pleasing to God, and fostered loving relationships with other people, more than taking upon oneself extraneous sufferings through instruments of penance. As a Carmelite nun, Saint Thérèse practiced voluntary corporal mortification.
As a religious practice:
Some members of strict monastic orders, and some members of the Catholic lay organization Opus Dei, practice mild self-flagellation using the discipline. Pope John Paul II took the discipline regularly. Self-flagellation remains common in Colombia, the Philippines, Mexico, Spain and one convent in Peru.
As a religious practice:
Shi'a Islam As suffering and cutting the body with knives or chains (matam) have been prohibited by Shi'a marjas like Ali Khamenei, Supreme Leader of Iran, some Shi'a observe mourning with blood donation which is called "Qame Zani" and flailing. Yet some Shi'ite men and boys continue to slash themselves with chains (zanjeer) or swords (talwar) and allow their blood to run freely.Certain rituals like the traditional flagellation ritual called Talwar zani (talwar ka matam or sometimes tatbir) using a sword or zanjeer zani or zanjeer matam, involving the use of a zanjeer (a chain with blades) are also performed. These are religious customs that show solidarity with Husayn and his family. People mourn the fact that they were not present at the battle to fight and save Husayn and his family. In some western cities, Shi'a communities have organized blood donation drives with organizations like the Red Cross on Ashura as a positive replacement for self-flagellation rituals like Tatbir and Qame Zani.
As a sexual practice:
Flagellation is also used as a sexual practice in the context of BDSM. The intensity of the beating is usually far less than used for punishment.
As a sexual practice:
There are anecdotal reports of people willingly being bound or whipped, as a prelude to or substitute for sex, during the 14th century. Flagellation practiced within an erotic setting has been recorded from at least the 1590s evidenced by a John Davies epigram, and references to "flogging schools" in Thomas Shadwell's The Virtuoso (1676) and Tim Tell-Troth's Knavery of Astrology (1680). Visual evidence such as mezzotints and print media in the 1600s is also identified revealing scenes of flagellation, such as in the late seventeenth-century English mezzotint "The Cully Flaug'd" from the British Museum collection.John Cleland's novel Fanny Hill, published in 1749, incorporates a flagellation scene between the character's protagonist Fanny Hill and Mr Barville. A large number of flagellation publications followed, including Fashionable Lectures: Composed and Delivered with Birch Discipline (c1761), promoting the names of ladies offering the service in a lecture room with rods and cat o' nine tails.
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**Abandoned pets**
Abandoned pets:
Abandoned pets are companion animals that are either inadvertently or deliberately abandoned by their owners, by either dumping the animals on the streets, leaving them alone in a vacant property, or relinquishing them at an animal shelter. Animal welfare laws in many states of the United States make it a crime to abandon a pet. The UK passed the Abandonment of Animals Act 1960 which describes the offence of cruelty as "If any person being the owner or having charge or control of any animal shall without reasonable cause or excuse abandon it, whether permanently or not, in circumstances likely to cause the animal any unnecessary suffering, or cause or procure or, being the owner, permit it to be so abandoned."Often, when abandoned, pets are forced to fend for themselves and become stray or feral. Feral cats are said to outnumber feral dogs and can become challenging to handle and socialize enough to be re-introduced to a new human owner. In general, only some newly abandoned cats and very young feral kittens can be tamed. There is a necessity to investigate interventions to prevent companion-animal relinquishment.Stray animals increase potential exposure to zoonotic diseases like rabies. Cat bites or scratches involving stray or feral animals are eight times more common than dog bites.Some pets relinquished to an animal shelter will be euthanized due to a lack of space or financial resources. Millions of companion animals enter animal shelters every year in the United States. However, the number of dogs and cats euthanized in US shelters declined from approximately 2.6 million in 2011 to 1.5 million in 2018. This decline can be partially explained by an increase in the percentage of animals adopted, and an increase in the number of stray animals successfully returned to their owners. Studies show that the majority of people who relinquish an animal also report being emotionally attached to the dog. It has been reported that when forced to abandon their animals in an evacuation, people suffer mental issues such as grief, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder. Recognizing the importance of pets to their owners and their role in public health is an essential first step in improving a public health problem that has been seen repeatedly in the past and is unlikely to change in the future.Pet abandonment increased during the USA financial crisis of 2007–2008. In early 2009, the ASPCA published advice for people facing foreclosure and the loss of their pets, recommending finding a foster or adoption situation for your pet, being aware of rental property rules for pets, and checking with animal shelters and animal rescue groups.
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**Liouville's formula**
Liouville's formula:
In mathematics, Liouville's formula, also known as the Abel-Jacobi-Liouville Identity, is an equation that expresses the determinant of a square-matrix solution of a first-order system of homogeneous linear differential equations in terms of the sum of the diagonal coefficients of the system. The formula is named after the French mathematician Joseph Liouville. Jacobi's formula provides another representation of the same mathematical relationship.
Liouville's formula:
Liouville's formula is a generalization of Abel's identity and can be used to prove it. Since Liouville's formula relates the different linearly independent solutions of the system of differential equations, it can help to find one solution from the other(s), see the example application below.
Statement of Liouville's formula:
Consider the n-dimensional first-order homogeneous linear differential equation y′=A(t)y on an interval I of the real line, where A(t) for t ∈ I denotes a square matrix of dimension n with real or complex entries. Let Φ denote a matrix-valued solution on I, meaning that Φ(t) is the so-called fundamental matrix, a square matrix of dimension n with real or complex entries and the derivative satisfies Φ′(t)=A(t)Φ(t),t∈I.
Statement of Liouville's formula:
Let trA(s)=∑i=1nai,i(s),s∈I, denote the trace of A(s) = (ai, j (s))i, j ∈ {1,...,n}, the sum of its diagonal entries. If the trace of A is a continuous function, then the determinant of Φ satisfies det det exp (∫t0ttrA(s)ds) for all t and t0 in I.
Example application:
This example illustrates how Liouville's formula can help to find the general solution of a first-order system of homogeneous linear differential equations. Consider y′=(1−1/x1+x−1)⏟=A(x)y on the open interval I = (0, ∞). Assume that the easy solution y(x)=(1x),x∈I, is already found. Let y(x)=(y1(x)y2(x)) denote another solution, then Φ(x)=(y1(x)1y2(x)x),x∈I, is a square-matrix-valued solution of the above differential equation. Since the trace of A(x) is zero for all x ∈ I, Liouville's formula implies that the determinant is actually a constant independent of x. Writing down the first component of the differential equation for y, we obtain using (1) that y1′(x)=y1(x)−y2(x)x=xy1(x)−y2(x)x=c1x,x∈I.
Example application:
Therefore, by integration, we see that ln x+c2,x∈I, involving the natural logarithm and the constant of integration c2. Solving equation (1) for y2(x) and substituting for y1(x) gives ln x+c2x−c1,x∈I, which is the general solution for y. With the special choice c1 = 0 and c2 = 1 we recover the easy solution we started with, the choice c1 = 1 and c2 = 0 yields a linearly independent solution. Therefore, ln ln x−1x),x∈I, is a so-called fundamental solution of the system.
Proof of Liouville's formula:
We omit the argument x for brevity. By the Leibniz formula for determinants, the derivative of the determinant of Φ = (Φi, j )i, j ∈ {0,...,n} can be calculated by differentiating one row at a time and taking the sum, i.e.
Since the matrix-valued solution Φ satisfies the equation Φ' = AΦ, we have for every entry of the matrix Φ' Φi,k′=∑j=1nai,jΦj,k,i,k∈{1,…,n}, or for the entire row (Φi,1′,…,Φi,n′)=∑j=1nai,j(Φj,1,…,Φj,n),i∈{1,…,n}.
Proof of Liouville's formula:
When we subtract from the i-th row the linear combination ∑j=1j≠inai,j(Φj,1,…,Φj,n), of all the other rows, then the value of the determinant remains unchanged, hence det det det Φ for every i ∈ {1, . . . , n} by the linearity of the determinant with respect to every row. Hence by (2) and the definition of the trace. It remains to show that this representation of the derivative implies Liouville's formula.
Proof of Liouville's formula:
Fix x0 ∈ I. Since the trace of A is assumed to be continuous function on I, it is bounded on every closed and bounded subinterval of I and therefore integrable, hence := det exp (−∫x0xtrA(ξ)dξ),x∈I, is a well defined function. Differentiating both sides, using the product rule, the chain rule, the derivative of the exponential function and the fundamental theorem of calculus, we obtain det det exp (−∫x0xtrA(ξ)dξ)=0,x∈I, due to the derivative in (3). Therefore, g has to be constant on I, because otherwise we would obtain a contradiction to the mean value theorem (applied separately to the real and imaginary part in the complex-valued case). Since g(x0) = det Φ(x0), Liouville's formula follows by solving the definition of g for det Φ(x).
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**Choi's theorem on completely positive maps**
Choi's theorem on completely positive maps:
In mathematics, Choi's theorem on completely positive maps is a result that classifies completely positive maps between finite-dimensional (matrix) C*-algebras. An infinite-dimensional algebraic generalization of Choi's theorem is known as Belavkin's "Radon–Nikodym" theorem for completely positive maps.
Statement:
Choi's theorem. Let Φ:Cn×n→Cm×m be a linear map. The following are equivalent: (i) Φ is n-positive (i.e. id n⊗Φ)(A)∈Cn×n⊗Cm×m is positive whenever A∈Cn×n⊗Cn×n is positive).
(ii) The matrix with operator entries id n⊗Φ)(∑ijEij⊗Eij)=∑ijEij⊗Φ(Eij)∈Cnm×nm is positive, where Eij∈Cn×n is the matrix with 1 in the ij-th entry and 0s elsewhere. (The matrix CΦ is sometimes called the Choi matrix of Φ.) (iii) Φ is completely positive.
Proof:
(i) implies (ii) We observe that if E=∑ijEij⊗Eij, then E=E* and E2=nE, so E=n−1EE* which is positive. Therefore CΦ =(In ⊗ Φ)(E) is positive by the n-positivity of Φ.
(iii) implies (i) This holds trivially.
(ii) implies (iii) This mainly involves chasing the different ways of looking at Cnm×nm: Cnm×nm≅Cnm⊗(Cnm)∗≅Cn⊗Cm⊗(Cn⊗Cm)∗≅Cn⊗(Cn)∗⊗Cm⊗(Cm)∗≅Cn×n⊗Cm×m.
Let the eigenvector decomposition of CΦ be CΦ=∑i=1nmλivivi∗, where the vectors vi lie in Cnm . By assumption, each eigenvalue λi is non-negative so we can absorb the eigenvalues in the eigenvectors and redefine vi so that CΦ=∑i=1nmvivi∗.
The vector space Cnm can be viewed as the direct sum ⊕i=1nCm compatibly with the above identification Cnm≅Cn⊗Cm and the standard basis of Cn.
If Pk ∈ Cm × nm is projection onto the k-th copy of Cm, then Pk* ∈ Cnm×m is the inclusion of Cm as the k-th summand of the direct sum and Φ(Ekl)=Pk⋅CΦ⋅Pl∗=∑i=1nmPkvi(Plvi)∗.
Now if the operators Vi ∈ Cm×n are defined on the k-th standard basis vector ek of Cn by Viek=Pkvi, then Φ(Ekl)=∑i=1nmPkvi(Plvi)∗=∑i=1nmViekel∗Vi∗=∑i=1nmViEklVi∗.
Extending by linearity gives us Φ(A)=∑i=1nmViAVi∗ for any A ∈ Cn×n. Any map of this form is manifestly completely positive: the map A→ViAVi∗ is completely positive, and the sum (across i ) of completely positive operators is again completely positive. Thus Φ is completely positive, the desired result.
The above is essentially Choi's original proof. Alternative proofs have also been known.
Consequences:
Kraus operators In the context of quantum information theory, the operators {Vi} are called the Kraus operators (after Karl Kraus) of Φ. Notice, given a completely positive Φ, its Kraus operators need not be unique. For example, any "square root" factorization of the Choi matrix CΦ = B∗B gives a set of Kraus operators.
Let B∗=[b1,…,bnm], where bi*'s are the row vectors of B, then CΦ=∑i=1nmbibi∗.
The corresponding Kraus operators can be obtained by exactly the same argument from the proof.
Consequences:
When the Kraus operators are obtained from the eigenvector decomposition of the Choi matrix, because the eigenvectors form an orthogonal set, the corresponding Kraus operators are also orthogonal in the Hilbert–Schmidt inner product. This is not true in general for Kraus operators obtained from square root factorizations. (Positive semidefinite matrices do not generally have a unique square-root factorizations.) If two sets of Kraus operators {Ai}1nm and {Bi}1nm represent the same completely positive map Φ, then there exists a unitary operator matrix such that Ai=∑j=1UijBj.
Consequences:
This can be viewed as a special case of the result relating two minimal Stinespring representations.
Alternatively, there is an isometry scalar matrix {uij}ij ∈ Cnm × nm such that Ai=∑j=1uijBj.
This follows from the fact that for two square matrices M and N, M M* = N N* if and only if M = N U for some unitary U.
Completely copositive maps It follows immediately from Choi's theorem that Φ is completely copositive if and only if it is of the form Φ(A)=∑iViATVi∗.
Consequences:
Hermitian-preserving maps Choi's technique can be used to obtain a similar result for a more general class of maps. Φ is said to be Hermitian-preserving if A is Hermitian implies Φ(A) is also Hermitian. One can show Φ is Hermitian-preserving if and only if it is of the form Φ(A)=∑i=1nmλiViAVi∗ where λi are real numbers, the eigenvalues of CΦ, and each Vi corresponds to an eigenvector of CΦ. Unlike the completely positive case, CΦ may fail to be positive. Since Hermitian matrices do not admit factorizations of the form B*B in general, the Kraus representation is no longer possible for a given Φ.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Lambda diode**
Lambda diode:
A lambda diode is an electronic circuit that combines a complementary pair of junction gated field effect transistors into a two-terminal device that exhibits an area of differential negative resistance much like a tunnel diode. The term refers to the shape of the V–I curve of the device, which resembles the Greek letter λ (lambda).
Lambda diode:
Lambda diodes work at higher voltage than tunnel diodes. Whereas a typical tunnel diode may exhibit negative differential resistance approximately between 70 mV and 350 mV, this region occurs approximately between 1.5 V and 6 V in a lambda diode due to the higher pinch-off voltages of typical JFET devices. A lambda diode therefore cannot replace a tunnel diode directly.
Lambda diode:
Moreover, in a tunnel diode the current reaches a minimum of about 20% of the peak current before rising again towards higher voltages. The lambda diode current approaches zero as voltage increases, before rising quickly again at a voltage high enough to cause gate–source Zener breakdown in the FETs.
It is also possible to construct a device similar to a lambda diode by combining an n-channel JFET with a PNP bipolar transistor.
Lambda diode:
A suggested modulatable variant but is a bit more difficult to build uses a PNP based optocoupler and can be tweaked by using its IR diode. This has the advantage that its properties can be fine tuned with a simple bias driver and used for high sensitivity radio applications, sometimes a modified open can PNP transistor with IR LED can be used instead.
Applications:
Like the tunnel diode, the negative resistance aspect of the lambda diode lends itself naturally to application in oscillator circuits and amplifiers. In addition, bistable circuits such as memory cells have been described.
Literature:
Graf, Rudolf F. (1999). Modern Dictionary of Electronics, 7th ed. Boston [etc.]: Newnes Press. p. 411. ISBN 0-7506-9866-7.
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**Casual wear**
Casual wear:
Casual wear (or casual attire or clothing) is a Western dress code that is relaxed, occasional, spontaneous and suited for everyday use. Casual wear became popular in the Western world following the counterculture of the 1960s. When emphasising casual wear's comfort, it may be referred to as leisurewear or loungewear.
While casual is "informal" in the sense of "not formal", informal wear traditionally refers to a Western dress code associated with suits—a step below semi-formal wear—thus being more formal than casual attire.
Overview:
Modern casual fashion can be traced to fashion sportswear from the 1920s, including tweed blazers, oxford shoes, and golf skirts. An increase in the popularity of bicycling brought about a need for culottes, a forerunner for casual shorts. As the century progressed, "casual" came to encompass more styles, including denim workwear and elements from military uniforms. With the popularity of spectator sports in the late 20th century, a good deal of athletic gear has influenced casual wear, such as jogging suits, running shoes, and track clothing. Basic materials used for casual wear include denim, cotton, jersey, flannel, and fleece. Materials such as velvet, chiffon, and brocade are often associated with more formal clothes.While casual dress evokes utilitarian costume, there is a wide range for expression, including punk fashion and fashion inspired by earlier decades, such as the 1970s and 1980s. Madonna popularized lace, jewelry, and cosmetics into casual wear during the 1980s. In the 1990s, hip hop fashion played up elaborate jewelry and luxurious materials worn in conjunction with athletic gear and the clothing of manual labor.
Gender expression:
Casual wear introduced a "unisexing" of fashion. By the 1960s, women adopted T-shirts, jeans, and collared shirts, and for the first time in nearly 200 years, it was fashionable for men to have long hair. Casual wear is typically the dress code in which forms of gender expression are experimented with. An example is masculine jewelry, which was once considered shocking or titillating even in casual circles, and is now hardly noteworthy in semi-formal situations. Amelia Bloomer introduced trousers of a sort for women as a casual alternative to formal hoops and skirts. The trend toward female exposure in the 20th century tended to push the necklines of formal ball gowns lower and the skirts of cocktail dresses higher.
Gender expression:
Jeans, dress shirt (casually turn down collared), and a T-shirt or sleeveless shirt are typically considered casual wear for men in modern times. For men, the exposure of shoulders, thighs, and backs is still limited to casual wear.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Vulnerability assessment (computing)**
Vulnerability assessment (computing):
Vulnerability assessment is a process of defining, identifying and classifying the security holes in information technology systems. An attacker can exploit a vulnerability to violate the security of a system. Some known vulnerabilities are Authentication Vulnerability, Authorization Vulnerability and Input Validation Vulnerability.
Purpose:
Before deploying a system, it first must go through from a series of vulnerability assessments that will ensure that the build system is secure from all the known security risks. When a new vulnerability is discovered, the system administrator can again perform an assessment, discover which modules are vulnerable, and start the patch process. After the fixes are in place, another assessment can be run to verify that the vulnerabilities were actually resolved. This cycle of assess, patch, and re-assess has become the standard method for many organizations to manage their security issues.
Purpose:
The primary purpose of the assessment is to find the vulnerabilities in the system, but the assessment report conveys to stakeholders that the system is secured from these vulnerabilities. If an intruder gained access to a network consisting of vulnerable Web servers, it is safe to assume that he gained access to those systems as well. Because of assessment report, the security administrator will be able to determine how intrusion occurred, identify compromised assets and take appropriate security measures to prevent critical damage to the system.
Assessment types:
Depending on the system a vulnerability assessment can have many types and level.
Assessment types:
Host assessment A host assessment looks for system-level vulnerabilities such as insecure file permissions, application level bugs, backdoor and Trojan horse installations. It requires specialized tools for the operating system and software packages being used, in addition to administrative access to each system that should be tested. Host assessment is often very costly in term of time, and thus is only used in the assessment of critical systems. Tools like COPS and Tiger are popular in host assessment.
Assessment types:
Network assessment In a network assessment one assess the network for known vulnerabilities. It locates all systems on a network, determines what network services are in use, and then analyzes those services for potential vulnerabilities. This process does not require any configuration changes on the systems being assessed. Unlike host assessment, network assessment requires little computational cost and effort.
Vulnerability assessment vs penetration testing:
Vulnerability assessment and penetration testing are two different testing methods. They are differentiated on the basis of certain specific parameters.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Record locator**
Record locator:
In airline reservation systems, a record locator is an alphanumeric or alpha code used to identify and access a specific record on an airline’s reservation system. An airline’s reservation system automatically generates a unique record locator whenever a customer makes a reservation or booking, commonly known in the industry as an itinerary. When an itinerary is entered into the reservation system it is commonly known as a passenger name record (PNR). An itinerary may be entered into the system by a passenger, travel agent or airline employee. The record locator typically appears on the itinerary provided to the passenger, and may be described as a confirmation number, reservation number, confirmation code, booking reference, booking code, or vendor locator, or other description, depending on the reservation system.
Format:
Record locators are created by each computer reservation system (CRS) and are specific to that CRS. They are typically 6 alphanumeric characters in length, though reservation systems using record locators of 7 or 8 characters exist. Record locators are unique within a given CRS at a specific point in time. Because the number of character combinations in characters is finite, albeit very large, record locators may be reused once the PNRs to which they refer have been purged from the CRS. Because 1, I and L can be confused (also 0 and o) these characters are not always used in record locators. The pool of available character combinations is further reduced because the locator is actually a location address and there are rules about what character combinations can be used for such addresses.
Use:
When a reservation is made, a passenger name record (PNR) is created in the computer reservation system (CRS) used by the person making the booking, and the CRS will automatically generate a record locator for the PNR. If the only flight(s) are operated by the airline on which the booking is being made, then only one PNR will exist. However, if a booking contains flights of more than one airline, then the reservation for both flights will typically be made through the first airline. The first airline will send messages and a copy of the PNR to the second airline confirming the reservation and the second airline will create a separate PNR with its own record locator generated by the second airline’s CRS. If the booking is made through a travel agent then a PNR (and record locator) will exist in the system used by the agency and further PNRs (each with their own record locator) will exist in each airline reservation system.
Use:
In recent years many airlines have stopped running their own reservation systems and have become clients of global distribution systems that provide hosting services. Where this occurs a single PNR (with just one record locator) may be created in the hosting system containing details of all the flights for which that hosting system is responsible. For example, a reservation for passenger traveling from London to Paris on Air France returning BA booked through AF will reside in one PNR in the Amadeus system with just one record locator because both airlines use Amadeus for reservations. If that booking is made through a travel agent using Amadeus, the same single PNR/record locator will exist. However, if the reservation is made via an agency using a different system (e.g. Sabre) there will be two PNRs (one in Sabre and one in Amadeus) each with its own locator.
Use:
Airline systems pass record locators between themselves as part of the confirmation process. Should a record locator fail to be passed between two systems the PNR can still be retrieved using flight number/date and name, or the ticket number.
Example record locators:
Example record locators are RMT33W, KZVGX5, IIRCYC.
In the past, the Reservec 2 system had eight character record locators in the form xxnnnnxx where x was a letter and n a decimal digit. Some CPARS (Compact Programmed Airlines Reservations System) systems used five character locators.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Ecological model of competition**
Ecological model of competition:
The ecological model of competition is a reassessment of the nature of competition in the economy. Traditional economics models the economy on the principles of physics (force, equilibrium, inertia, momentum, and linear relationships). This can be seen in the economics lexicon: terms like labour force, market equilibrium, capital flows, and price elasticity. This is probably due to historical coincidence. Classical Newtonian physics was the state of the art in science when Adam Smith was formulating the first principles of economics in the 18th century.
Ecological model of competition:
According to the ecological model, it is more appropriate to model the economy on biology (growth, change, death, evolution, survival of the fittest, complex inter-relationships, non-linear relationships). Businesses operate in a complex environment with interlinked sets of determinants. Companies co-evolve: they influence, and are influenced by, competitors, customers, governments, investors, suppliers, unions, distributors, banks, and others. We should look at this business environment as a business ecosystem that both sustains, and threatens the firm. A company that is not well matched to its environment might not survive. Companies that are able to develop a successful business model and turn a core competency into a sustainable competitive advantage will thrive and grow. Very successful firms may come to dominate their industry (referred to as category killers).
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**Rehearsal (educational psychology)**
Rehearsal (educational psychology):
Rehearsal in educational psychology refers to the "cognitive process in which information is repeated over and over as a possible way of learning and remembering it". There are two types of memory rehearsal. The first type is called maintenance rehearsal. A person can do this by saying aloud or thinking of material repeatably until it becomes a part of the working memory. However, the material may fade from the working memory quickly. An example of this is looking up a phone number but forgetting it before being able to dial it into the phone. This is a common form of rote learning. Rote learning is learning or memorization by repetition, often without an understanding of the reasoning or relationships involved in the material that is learned. However, the material may register eventually and take large amounts of time and hard work. Maintenance rehearsal is viewed in educational psychology as an ineffective way of getting information to the long-term memory.
Rehearsal (educational psychology):
Another type of rehearsal is elaborative rehearsal. This entails connecting new material learned, with already existing long term memories. In this type of rehearsal repetitive tactics are not successful. A strategy such as engaging the brain of the learners in an elaboration exercise will help the memories be more storable and retrievable in the future.
Case study:
In the study of "The Effects of Elaboration and Rehearsal on Long-Term Retention of Shape Names by Kindergarteners", the two promising instructional paradigms, elaboration and overt rehearsal were put to test. Elaboration strategies include paraphrasing or summarizing the material to be learned, creating analogies, generative note-taking (where the student actually reorganizes and connects ideas in their notes in contrast to passive, linear note-taking), explaining the ideas in the material to be learned to someone else, and question asking and answering.
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**Scenic design**
Scenic design:
Scenic design (also known as scenography, stage design, or set design) is the creation of theatrical scenery. Scenic designers create sets and scenery that aim to support the overall artistic goals of the production. There has been some consideration that scenic design is also production design; however, it is generally considered to be a part of the visual production of a film or television.
Scenic designer:
The scenic designer works with the director and other designers to establish an overall visual concept for the production and design the stage environment. They are responsible for developing a complete set of design drawings that include the following: basic ground plan showing all stationary and scenic elements.
composite ground plan showing all moving scenic elements, indicating both their onstage and storage positions.
section of the stage space incorporating all elements.
front elevations of every scenic element, and additional elevations or sections of units as required.Many scenic designers use 3D CAD models to produce these design drawings.In the process of planning, scenic designers often make models. Models are often made before the final drawings that are delivered to the scene shop for construction.
Responsibility:
The scenic designer is responsible for collaborating with the theatre director and other members of the creative team to create an environment for the production. Scenic designers are responsible for creating scale models of the scenery, renderings, paint elevations and scale construction drawings as part of their communication with other production staff. Communicating the details of the scenic environment to the technical director, production manager, charge scenic artist and prop master are among the most important duties of a scenic designer.
Training:
In Europe and Australia, scenic designers take a more holistic approach to theatrical design and will often be responsible not only for scenic design but costume, lighting and sound and are referred to as theatre designers or scenographers or production designers.
Notable set designers:
Notable scenic designers, past and present, include: Adolphe Appia, Boris Aronson, Alexandre Benois, Alison Chitty, Antony McDonald, Barry Kay, Caspar Neher, Cyro Del Nero, Aleksandra Ekster, David Gallo, Edward Gordon Craig, Es Devlin, Ezio Frigerio, Christopher Gibbs, Franco Zeffirelli, George Tsypin, Howard Bay, Inigo Jones, Jean-Pierre Ponnelle, Jo Mielziner, John Lee Beatty, Josef Svoboda, Ken Adam, Léon Bakst, Luciano Damiani, Maria Björnson, Ming Cho Lee, Natalia Goncharova, Nathan Altman, Nicholas Georgiadis, Oliver Smith, Ralph Koltai, Emanuele Luzzati, Neil Patel, Robert Wilson, Russell Patterson, Brian Sidney Bembridge, Santo Loquasto, Sean Kenny, Todd Rosenthal, Robin Wagner, Tony Walton, Louis Daguerre, Ralph Funicello, and Roger Kirk.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**1,5-Bis(diphenylphosphino)pentane**
1,5-Bis(diphenylphosphino)pentane:
1,5-Bis(diphenylphosphino)pentane is an organophosphorus compound with the formula C29H30P2. It can be prepared by reacting 1,5-dibromopentane with lithium diphenylphosphide, or diphenylphosphine in presence of caesium hydroxide. It reacts with copper(I) iodide to give a luminescent dinuclear complex [CuIPh2P(CH2)5PPh2]2.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Guard goose**
Guard goose:
The guard goose is a domestic goose that is used as a guard animal both on farms and in other situations.
Goose behavior:
Geese are considered to have excellent eyesight and to be "watchful and inquisitive", with strong territorial instincts. Goose attacks on humans are commonly reported. One case in 2001 set a legal precedent, resulting in a workers' compensation payout of over $17,000 for an injured delivery person, the first Illinois workers' compensation claim due to wildlife. In another case, several geese protecting their goslings knocked an Englishman off his bicycle resulting in hospitalization. One Buffalo, New York resident claimed over $2 million in damages for a goose attack while on a neighbor's property. At times, park rangers have killed entire flocks of aggressive geese. Canada geese in Cincinnati parks have been responsible for knocking people down and breaking their bones, and called "spitting, hissing, biting attack missiles".The same aggressive, territorial behavior can be utilized in the guard capacity. Geese are intelligent enough to discern unusual people or sounds from usual stimuli. Their loud honking will alert humans when the geese are alarmed.
History of use:
Guard geese have been used throughout history, and in modern times. In ancient Rome, geese are credited by the historian Livy for giving the alarm when Gauls invaded (see Battle of the Allia). Geese were subsequently revered in the supplicia canum annual sacrifice, and the Romans later founded a temple to Juno, to whom the geese were considered sacred.
History of use:
On modern farms, geese are said to be good deterrents to predators of other domestic fowl, and against snakes. A handbook on industrial security recommends them for protecting warehouses and other isolated physical assets. They are reported to have been used to guard United States Air Defense Command installations in Germany; as the Scotch Watch at Ballantine's Distillery in Dumbarton, Scotland; and to protect a police station in Xinjiang, China.Due to their tendency to make noise when approached by strangers, about 500 geese were used to supplement dogs, drones, and humans to patrol the 533-km boundary between Chongzuo and Vietnam during the COVID-19 pandemic. An official commented that the birds, one of the most common livestock in the region, are sensitive to sounds and can sometimes be more aggressive than dogs.
Breeds:
Some sources list the African goose, Roman goose (Tufted Roman), Pomeranian goose (Saddleback Pomeranian), and Chinese goose as the best breeds for guard duty. Chinese geese are said to be loud, and African geese both loud and large.
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**Human Media Lab**
Human Media Lab:
The Human Media Lab (HML) is a research laboratory in Human-Computer Interaction at Queen's University's School of Computing in Kingston, Ontario. Its goals are to advance user interface design by creating and empirically evaluating disruptive new user interface technologies, and educate graduate students in this process. The Human Media Lab was founded in 2000 by Prof. Roel Vertegaal and employs an average of 12 graduate students.
Human Media Lab:
The laboratory is known for its pioneering work on flexible display interaction and paper computers, with systems such as PaperWindows (2004), PaperPhone (2010) and PaperTab (2012). HML is also known for its invention of ubiquitous eye input, such as Samsung's Smart Pause and Smart Scroll technologies.
Research:
In 2003, researchers at the Human Media Lab helped shape the paradigm Attentive User Interfaces, demonstrating how groups of computers could use human social cues for considerate notification. Amongst HML's early inventions was the eye contact sensor, first demonstrated to the public on ABC Good Morning America. Attentive User Interfaces developed at the time included an early iPhone prototype that used eye tracking electronic glasses to determine whether users were in a conversation, an attentive television that play/paused contents upon looking away, mobile Smart Pause and Smart Scroll (adopted in Samsung's Galaxy S4) as well as a technique for calibration-free eye tracking by placing invisible infrared markers in the scene.
Research:
Current research at the Human Media Lab focuses on the development of Organic User Interfaces: user interfaces with a non-flat display. In 2004, researchers at the HML built the first bendable paper computer, PaperWindows, which premiered at CHI 2005. It featured multiple flexible, hires, colour, wireless, thin-film multitouch displays through real-time depth-cam 3D Spatial Augmented Reality. In May 2007 HML coined the term Organic User Interfaces. Early Organic User Interfaces developed at HML included the first multitouch spherical display, and Dynacan, an interactive pop can: early examples of everyday computational things with interactive digital skins.
Research:
In 2010, the Human Media Lab, with Arizona State University, developed the world's first functional flexible smartphone, PaperPhone. It pioneered bend interactions and was first shown to the public at ACM CHI 2011 in Vancouver. In 2012, the Human Media Lab introduced the world's first pseudo-holographic, live size 3D video conferencing system, TeleHuman.In 2013, HML researchers unveiled PaperTab, the world's first flexible tablet PC, at CES 2013 in Las Vegas, in collaboration with Plastic Logic and Intel.
Location and Facilities:
The Human Media Lab is located in Jackson Hall on Queen's University campus in Kingston, Ontario. The facilities were designed by Karim Rashid.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Oil of catechumens**
Oil of catechumens:
The Oil of Catechumens, also known as the Oil of Exorcism, is the oil used in some traditional Christian churches during baptism; it is believed to strengthen the one being baptized to turn away from evil, temptation and sin.
Oil of catechumens:
The Oil of Exorcism was mentioned in the ancient Christian Apostolic Tradition as being "used before baptisms to put to flight any contagions that might obstruct the impending baptismal graces." The Egyptian Church Order teaches that it is blessed during the Easter Vigil, the first liturgy of Eastertide.The catechumen, the person prepared for baptism, is also anointed as a symbol of being the heir of the Kingdom of God, as kings and queens are anointed at coronations, and empowered for their Christian life as prophets were anointed for their ministry.
Oil of catechumens:
The Oil of Catechumens is intended to help strengthen the person about to be baptized, and prepare them for the struggle (ascesis) of the Christian life, the way a wrestler in ancient Greece and Rome was anointed before a wrestling match.
Eastern Orthodoxy:
In the Eastern Orthodox Church, the oil of catechumens is blessed by the priest during the baptismal rite. After the consecration of the baptismal water, a vessel of pure olive oil is brought to the priest by the deacon. The priest breathes on the oil three times and blesses it thrice, and says the prayer of blessing.
Eastern Orthodoxy:
O Master, Lord God of our fathers, Who didst send unto them that were in the ark of Noah the dove, having in its beak a twig of olive, the token of reconciliation and of salvation from the flood the foreshadowing of the mystery of grace; and didst provide the fruit of the olive for the fulfilling of Thy holy Mysteries; Who thereby fillest them that were under the Law with Thy Holy Spirit, and perfectest them that are under grace: Do Thou Thyself bless also this holy oil with the power, and operation, and indwelling of Thy Holy Spirit, that it may be an anointing unto incorruption, an armour of righteousness, to the renewing of soul and body, to the averting of every assault of the devil, to deliverance from all evil of those who shall be anointed with it in faith, or who are partakers thereof; unto Thy glory, and the glory of Thine Only-begotten Son, and Thy most holy and good and life-creating Spirit, now and ever, and unto the ages of ages. Amen.The priest then pours a portion of the oil into the baptismal font, making the Sign of the Cross with the oil three times, as all sing Alleluia. The priest gathers some of the oil floating on the surface of the water onto the first two fingers of his right hand and anoints the catechumen, making the Sign of the Cross on the brow, breast, between the shoulders, on the ears, hands and feet. The catechumen is then immediately baptized.
Eastern Orthodoxy:
This anointing before baptism should not be confused with chrismation, which is a separate Sacred Mystery (Sacrament), though it is usually performed immediately after Baptism.
Roman Catholicism:
In the Roman Catholic Church, the Oil of Catechumens is specially blessed by a bishop or a priest along with Chrism and oil of the sick at the Mass of Chrism which takes place on Holy Thursday.
During the baptismal rite, the priest or deacon says the following words as he anoints with the oil in the shape of a cross, "We anoint you with the oil of salvation in the name of Christ our Savior; may he strengthen you with his power, who lives and reigns for ever and ever."
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Whamola**
Whamola:
The Whamola is a bass instrument used in funk-jazz styles of music. The name is a portmanteau of whammy bar and viola.
Whamola:
The Whamola is a direct descendant of the washtub bass, an American folk instrument popular with skiffle and jug bands, and features a single string which is manipulated via a pulley-and-lever system. The pulley mechanism is mounted in place of the tuning pegs at the top of a double-bass-style neck, which is attached to a wooden or metal body featuring a bridge, pickup and stand. The Whamola is played by hitting the string with a drum stick and either fretting it against the neck with the other hand or using the lever to alter its tension and change the pitch.
Whamola:
Whamolas are rare, and are usually made by musicians for personal use, as opposed to professional luthiers, though the instrument has gained mass exposure and growing popularity in recent years due to its being played by contemporary bassists like Les Claypool. A song prominently featuring the instrument appears on the Les Claypool Frog Brigade's 2002 album Purple Onion, and a remix of that track is the basis for the opening theme of the tenth season of South Park. Primus also regularly play a "Drum and Whamola Jam" in concert, as documented by their 2004 live DVD Hallucino-Genetics.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Knee of a curve**
Knee of a curve:
In mathematics, a knee of a curve (or elbow of a curve) is a point where the curve visibly bends, specifically from high slope to low slope (flat or close to flat), or in the other direction. This is particularly used in optimization, where a knee point is the optimum point for some decision, for example when there is an increasing function and a trade-off between the benefit (vertical y axis) and the cost (horizontal x axis): the knee is where the benefit is no longer increasing rapidly, and is no longer worth the cost of further increases – a cutoff point of diminishing returns.
Knee of a curve:
In heuristic use, the term may be used informally, and a knee point identified visually, but in more formal use an explicit objective function is used, and depends on the particular optimization problem. A knee may also be defined purely geometrically, in terms of the curvature or the second derivative.
Definitions:
The knee of a curve can be defined as a vertex of the graph. This corresponds with the graphical intuition (it is where the curvature has a maximum), but depends on the choice of scale.
The term "knee" as applied to curves dates at least to the 1910s, and is found more commonly by the 1940s, being common enough to draw criticism. The unabridged Webster's Dictionary (1971 edition) gives definition 3h of knee as: an abrupt change in direction in a curve (as on a graph); esp one approaching a right angle in shape.
Criticism:
Graphical notions of a "knee" of a curve, based on curvature, are criticized due to their dependence on the coordinate scale: different choices of scale result in different points being the "knee". This criticism dates at least to the 1940s, being found in Worthing & Geffner (1943, Preface), who criticize: references to the significance of a so-called knee of a curve when the location of the knee was a function of the chosen coordinate scales
Applications:
Elbow method Maximum power point tracking
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**DHRS4**
DHRS4:
Dehydrogenase/reductase SDR family member 4 is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the DHRS4 gene.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Oxidative folding**
Oxidative folding:
Oxidative protein folding is a process that is responsible for the formation of disulfide bonds between cysteine residues in proteins. The driving force behind this process is a redox reaction, in which electrons pass between several proteins and finally to a terminal electron acceptor.
In prokaryotes:
In prokaryotes, the mechanism of oxidative folding is best studied in Gram-negative bacteria. This process is catalysed by protein machinery residing in the periplasmic space of bacteria. The formation of disulfide bonds in a protein is made possible by two related pathways: an oxidative pathway, which is responsible for the formation of the disulfides, and an isomerization pathway that shuffles incorrectly formed disulfides.
Oxidative pathway:
The oxidative pathway relies, just like the isomerization pathway, on a protein relay. The first member of this protein relay is a small periplasmic protein (21 kDa) called DsbA, which has two cysteine residues that must be oxidized for it to be active. When in its oxidized state, the protein is able to form disulfide bonds between cysteine residues in newly synthesized, and yet unfolded proteins by the transfer of its own disulfide bond onto the folding protein. After the transfer of this disulfide bond, DsbA is in a reduced state. For it to act catalytically again, it must be reoxidized. This is made possible by a 21 kDa inner membrane protein, called DsbB, which has two pairs of cysteine residues. A mixed disulfide is formed between a cysteine residue of DsbB and one of DsbA. Eventually, this cross-link between the two proteins is broken by a nucleophilic attack of the second cystein residue in the DsbA active site. On his turn, DsbB is reoxidized by transferring electrons to oxidized ubiquinone, which passes them to cytochrome oxidases, which finally reduce oxygen; this is in aerobic conditions. As molecular oxygen serves as the terminal electron acceptor in aerobic conditions, oxidative folding is conveniently coupled to it through the respiratory chain. In anaerobic conditions however, DsbB passes its electrons to menaquinone, followed by a transfer of electrons to fumarate reductase or nitrate reductase.
Isomerization pathway:
Especially for proteins that contain more than one disulfide bond, it is important that incorrect disulfide bonds become rearranged. This is carried out in the isomerization pathway by the protein DsbC, that acts as a disulfide isomerase. DsbC is a dimer, consisting of two identical 23 kDa subunits and has four cysteine residues in each subunit. One of these cysteines (Cys-98) attacks an incorrect disulfide in a misfolded protein and a mixed disulfide is formed between DsbC and this protein. Next, the attack of a second cysteine residue results in the forming of a more stable disulfide in the refolded protein. This may be a cysteine residue either from the earlier misfolded protein or one from DsbC. In the last case, DsbC becomes oxidized and must be reduced in order to play another catalytic role. There is also a second isomerase that can reorganize incorrect disulfide bonds. This protein is called DsbG and it is also a dimer that serves as a chaperone. To fulfil their role as isomerases, DsbC and DsbG must be kept in a reduced state. This is carried out by DsbD, which must be reduced itself to be functional. Thioredoxin, which itself is reduced by thioredoxin reductase and NADPH, ensures the reduction of the DsbD protein.
Isomerization pathway:
Because these two pathways coexist next to each other in the same periplasmic compartment, there must be a mechanism to prevent oxidation of DsbC by DsbB. This mechanism indeed exists as DsbB can distinguish between DsbA and DsbC because this latter has the ability to dimerize.
In eukaryotes:
A very similar pathway is followed in eukaryotes, in which the protein relay consists of proteins with very analogous properties as those of the protein relay in Gram-negative bacteria. However, a major difference between prokaryotes and eukaryotes is found in the fact that the process of oxidative protein folding occurs in the endoplasmatic reticulum (ER) in eukaryotes. A second difference is that in eukaryotes, the use of molecular oxygen as a terminal electron acceptor is not linked to the process of oxidative folding through the respiratory chain as is the case in bacteria. In fact, one of the proteins involved in the oxidative folding process uses a flavin-dependent reaction to pass electrons directly to molecular oxygen.
In eukaryotes:
A homolog of DsbA, called protein disulfide isomerase (PDI), is responsible for the formation of the disulfide bonds in unfolded eukaryotic proteins. This protein has two thioredoxine-like active sites, which both contain two cysteine residues. By transferring the disulfide bond between these two cysteine residues onto the folding protein it is responsible for the latter's oxidation. In contrast to bacteria, where the oxidative and isomerization pathways are carried out by different proteins, PDI is also responsible for the reduction and isomerization of the disulfide bonds. For PDI to catalyse the formation of disulfide bonds in unfolded proteins, it must be reoxidized. This is carried out by an ER membrane-associated protein, Ero1p, which is no homolog of DsbB. This Ero1p protein forms a mixed disulfide with PDI, which is resolved by a nucleophilic attack of the second cystein residue in one of the active sites of PDI. As result, oxidized PDI is obtained. Ero1p itself is oxidized by transferring electrons to molecular oxygen. As it is an FAD-binding protein, this transfer of electrons is strongly favoured when Ero1p is bound to FAD. Also a transport system that imports FAD into the ER lumen has been described in eukaryotes. Furthermore, it has been shown that the ability to reduce or rearrange incorrect disulfide bonds in missfolded proteins is provided by the oxidation of reduced glutathione (GSH) to oxidized glutathione (GSSG).
ROS and diseases:
Because of the property of Ero1p to transfer electrons directly to molecular oxygen via a flavin-dependent reaction, its activity may produce reactive oxygen species (ROS). In bacteria, this problem is solved by coupling oxidative folding to the respiratory chain. There, the reduction of molecular oxygen to water is carried out by a complex series of proteins, which catalyse this reaction very efficiently. In eukaryotes, the respiratory chain is separated from oxidative folding since cellular respiration takes place in the mitochondria and the formation of disulfide bonds occurs in the ER. Because of this, there is much more risk that ROS are produced in eukaryotic cells during oxidative folding. As is known these ROS may cause many diseases such as atherosclerosis and some neurodegenerative diseases.
Examples:
Classical examples of proteins in which the process of oxidative folding is well studied are bovine pancreatic trypsin inhibitor (BPTI) and ribonuclease A (RNaseA). These two proteins have multiple disulfide bonds and so they are very useful to follow and understand the process of oxidative folding. Another example is alkaline phosphatase, which contains two essential disulfides. It was used as an indicator protein to screen the effect of mutations in DsbA.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Tetrahydrofurfuryl alcohol**
Tetrahydrofurfuryl alcohol:
Tetrahydrofurfuryl alcohol (THFA) is an organic compound with the formula HOCH2C4H7O. In terms of its structure, it consists of a tetrahydrofuran ring substituted in the 2-position with a hydroxymethyl group. It is a colorless liquid that is used as a specialty solvent and synthetic intermediate, e.g. to 3,4-dihydropyran. It is prepared by hydrogenation of furfural. It is a precursor to 1,5-pentanediol.
Other uses:
THFA is often used in epoxy resin formulations in either the epoxy component or amine hardener as well as other general resin applications.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Phaethontis quadrangle**
Phaethontis quadrangle:
The Phaethontis quadrangle is one of a series of 30 quadrangle maps of Mars used by the United States Geological Survey (USGS) Astrogeology Research Program. The Phaethontis quadrangle is also referred to as MC-24 (Mars Chart-24).The name comes from Phaethon, the son of Helios.The Phaethontis quadrangle lies between 30° and 65 ° south latitude and 120° and 180 ° west longitude on Mars. This latitude range is where numerous gullies have been discovered. An old feature in this area, called Terra Sirenum lies in this quadrangle; Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter discovered iron/magnesium smectites there. Part of this quadrangle contains what is called the Electris deposits, a deposit that is 100–200 metres (330–660 ft) thick. It is light-toned and appears to be weak because of few boulders. Among a group of large craters is Mariner Crater, first observed by the Mariner IV spacecraft in the summer of 1965. It was named after that spacecraft. A low area in Terra Sirenum is believed to have once held a lake that eventually drained through Ma'adim Vallis. Russia's Mars 3 probe landed in the Phaethontis quadrangle at 44.9° S and 160.1° W in December 1971. It landed at a speed of 75 km per hour, but survived to radio back 20 seconds of signal, then it went dead. Its message just appeared as a blank screen.
Martian gullies:
The Phaethontis quadrangle is the location of many gullies that may be due to recent flowing water. Some are found in the Gorgonum Chaos and in many craters near the large craters Copernicus and Newton (Martian crater). Gullies occur on steep slopes, especially on the walls of craters. Gullies are believed to be relatively young because they have few, if any craters. Moreover, they lie on top of sand dunes which themselves are considered to be quite young. Usually, each gully has an alcove, channel, and apron. Some studies have found that gullies occur on slopes that face all directions, others have found that the greater number of gullies are found on poleward facing slopes, especially from 30-44 S.Although many ideas have been put forward to explain them, the most popular involve liquid water coming from an aquifer, from melting at the base of old glaciers, or from the melting of ice in the ground when the climate was warmer. Because of the good possibility that liquid water was involved with their formation and that they could be very young, scientists are excited. Maybe the gullies are where we should go to find life.
Martian gullies:
There is evidence for all three theories. Most of the gully alcove heads occur at the same level, just as one would expect of an aquifer. Various measurements and calculations show that liquid water could exist in aquifers at the usual depths where gullies begin. One variation of this model is that rising hot magma could have melted ice in the ground and caused water to flow in aquifers. Aquifers are layer that allow water to flow. They may consist of porous sandstone. The aquifer layer would be perched on top of another layer that prevents water from going down (in geological terms it would be called impermeable). Because water in an aquifer is prevented from going down, the only direction the trapped water can flow is horizontally. Eventually, water could flow out onto the surface when the aquifer reaches a break—like a crater wall. The resulting flow of water could erode the wall to create gullies. Aquifers are quite common on Earth. A good example is "Weeping Rock" in Zion National Park Utah.As for the next theory, much of the surface of Mars is covered by a thick smooth mantle that is thought to be a mixture of ice and dust. This ice-rich mantle, a few yards thick, smoothes the land, but in places it has a bumpy texture, resembling the surface of a basketball. The mantle may be like a glacier and under certain conditions the ice that is mixed in the mantle could melt and flow down the slopes and make gullies. Because there are few craters on this mantle, the mantle is relatively young. An excellent view of this mantle is shown below in the picture of the Ptolemaeus Crater Rim, as seen by HiRISE.
Martian gullies:
The ice-rich mantle may be the result of climate changes. Changes in Mars's orbit and tilt cause significant changes in the distribution of water ice from polar regions down to latitudes equivalent to Texas. During certain climate periods water vapor leaves polar ice and enters the atmosphere. The water comes back to ground at lower latitudes as deposits of frost or snow mixed generously with dust. The atmosphere of Mars contains a great deal of fine dust particles. Water vapor will condense on the particles, then fall down to the ground due to the additional weight of the water coating. When Mars is at its greatest tilt or obliquity, up to 2 cm of ice could be removed from the summer ice cap and deposited at midlatitudes. This movement of water could last for several thousand years and create a snow layer of up to around 10 meters thick. When ice at the top of the mantling layer goes back into the atmosphere, it leaves behind dust, which insulating the remaining ice. Measurements of altitudes and slopes of gullies support the idea that snowpacks or glaciers are associated with gullies. Steeper slopes have more shade which would preserve snow.
Martian gullies:
Higher elevations have far fewer gullies because ice would tend to sublimate more in the thin air of the higher altitude.The third theory might be possible since climate changes may be enough to simply allow ice in the ground to melt and thus form the gullies. During a warmer climate, the first few meters of ground could thaw and produce a "debris flow" similar to those on the dry and cold Greenland east coast. Since the gullies occur on steep slopes only a small decrease of the shear strength of the soil particles is needed to begin the flow. Small amounts of liquid water from melted ground ice could be enough. Calculations show that a third of a mm of runoff can be produced each day for 50 days of each Martian year, even under current conditions.
Associated features of gullies:
Sometimes other features appear near gullies. At the base of some gullies there may be depressions or curved ridges. These have been called "spatulate depressions." These depressions form after glacial ice disappears. Steep walls often develop glaciers during certain climates. When the climate changes, the ice in the glaciers sublimates in the thin Martian atmosphere. Sublimation is when a substance goes directly from a solid state to a gas state. Dry ice on Earth does this. So when the ice at the base of a steep wall sublimates, a depression results. Also, more ice from higher up will tend to flow downward. This flow will stretch the surface rocky debris thereby forming transverse crevasses. Such formations have been termed "washboard terrain" because they resemble the old fashioned washboards. The parts of gullies and some associated features of gullies are shown below in a HiRISE images.
Possible pingos:
The radial and concentric cracks visible here are common when forces penetrate a brittle layer, such as a rock thrown through a glass window. These particular fractures were probably created by something emerging from below the brittle Martian surface. Ice may have accumulated under the surface in a lens shape; thus making these cracked mounds. Ice being less dense than rock, pushed upwards on the surface and generated these spider web-like patterns. A similar process creates similar sized mounds in arctic tundra on Earth. Such features are called “pingos,”, an Inuit word. Pingos would contain pure water ice; thus they could be sources of water for future colonists of Mars.
Concentric crater fill:
Concentric crater fill, like lobate debris aprons and lineated valley fill, is believed to be ice-rich. Based on accurate topography measures of height at different points in these craters and calculations of how deep the craters should be based on their diameters, it is thought that the craters are 80% filled with mostly ice. That is, they hold hundreds of meters of material that probably consists of ice with a few tens of meters of surface debris. The ice accumulated in the crater from snowfall in previous climates. Recent modeling suggests that concentric crater fill develops over many cycles in which snow is deposited, then moves into the crater. Once inside the crater shade and dust preserve the snow. The snow changes to ice. The many concentric lines are created by the many cycles of snow accumulation. Generally snow accumulates whenever the axial tilt reaches 35 degrees.
Magnetic stripes and plate tectonics:
The Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) discovered magnetic stripes in the crust of Mars, especially in the Phaethontis and Eridania quadrangles (Terra Cimmeria and Terra Sirenum). The magnetometer on MGS discovered 100 km wide stripes of magnetized crust running roughly parallel for up to 2000 km. These stripes alternate in polarity with the north magnetic pole of one pointing up from the surface and the north magnetic pole of the next pointing down. When similar stripes were discovered on Earth in the 1960s, they were taken as evidence of plate tectonics. Researchers believe these magnetic stripes on Mars are evidence for a short, early period of plate tectonic activity. When the rocks became solid they retained the magnetism that existed at the time. A magnetic field of a planet is believed to be caused by fluid motions under the surface. However, there are some differences, between the magnetic stripes on Earth and those on Mars. The Martian stripes are wider, much more strongly magnetized, and do not appear to spread out from a middle crustal spreading zone. Because the area containing the magnetic stripes is about 4 billion years old, it is believed that the global magnetic field probably lasted for only the first few hundred million years of Mars' life, when the temperature of the molten iron in the planet's core might have been high enough to mix it into a magnetic dynamo. There are no magnetic fields near large impact basins like Hellas. The shock of the impact may have erased the remnant magnetization in the rock. So, magnetism produced by early fluid motion in the core would not have existed after the impacts.When molten rock containing magnetic material, such as hematite (Fe2O3), cools and solidifies in the presence of a magnetic field, it becomes magnetized and takes on the polarity of the background field. This magnetism is lost only if the rock is subsequently heated above a particular temperature (the Curie point which is 770 °C for iron). The magnetism left in rocks is a record of the magnetic field when the rock solidified.
Chloride deposits:
Using data from Mars Global Surveyor, Mars Odyssey and the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, scientists have found widespread deposits of chloride minerals. A picture below shows some deposits within the Phaethontis quadrangle. Evidence suggests that the deposits were formed from the evaporation of mineral enriched waters. The research suggests that lakes may have been scattered over large areas of the Martian surface. Usually chlorides are the last minerals to come out of solution. Carbonates, sulfates, and silica should precipitate out ahead of them. Sulfates and silica have been found by the Mars Rovers on the surface. Places with chloride minerals may have once held various life forms. Furthermore, such areas should preserve traces of ancient life.Based on chloride deposits and hydrated phyllosilicates, Alfonso Davila and others believe there is an ancient lakebed in Terra Sirenum that had an area of 30,000 km2 (12,000 sq mi) and was 200 metres (660 ft) deep. Other evidence that supports this lake are normal and inverted channels like ones found in the Atacama desert.
Fossae:
The Elysium quadrangle is home to large troughs (long narrow depressions) called fossae in the geographical language used for Mars. Troughs are created when the crust is stretched until it breaks. The stretching can be due to the large weight of a nearby volcano. Fossae/pit craters are common near volcanoes in the Tharsis and Elysium system of volcanoes.
Craters:
The density of impact craters is used to determine the surface ages of Mars and other solar system bodies. The older the surface, the more craters present. Crater shapes can reveal the presence of ground ice.
Craters:
The area around craters may be rich in minerals. On Mars, heat from the impact melts ice in the ground. Water from the melting ice dissolves minerals, and then deposits them in cracks or faults that were produced with the impact. This process, called hydrothermal alteration, is a major way in which ore deposits are produced. The area around Martian craters may be rich in useful ores for the future colonization of Mars. Studies on the earth have documented that cracks are produced and that secondary minerals veins are deposited in the cracks. Images from satellites orbiting Mars have detected cracks near impact craters. Great amounts of heat are produced during impacts. The area around a large impact may take hundreds of thousands of years to cool.
Craters:
Many craters once contained lakes. Because some crater floors show deltas, we know that water had to be present for some time. Dozens of deltas have been spotted on Mars. Deltas form when sediment is washed in from a stream entering a quiet body of water. It takes a bit of time to form a delta, so the presence of a delta is exciting; it means water was there for a time, maybe for many years. Primitive organisms may have developed in such lakes; hence, some craters may be prime targets for the search for evidence of life on the Red Planet.
Craters:
List of craters The following is a list of craters in the quadrangle. The crater's central location is of the quadrangle, craters that its central location is in another quadrangle is listed by eastern, western, northern or southern part.
1Partly located in the quadrangle while another part is in a different quadrangle along with the crater's diameter
Linear ridge networks:
Linear ridge networks are found in various places on Mars in and around craters. Ridges often appear as mostly straight segments that intersect in a lattice-like manner. They are hundreds of meters long, tens of meters high, and several meters wide. It is thought that impacts created fractures in the surface, these fractures later acted as channels for fluids. Fluids cemented the structures. With the passage of time, surrounding material was eroded away, thereby leaving hard ridges behind.
Linear ridge networks:
Since the ridges occur in locations with clay, these formations could serve as a marker for clay which requires water for its formation. Water here could have supported past life in these locations. Clay may also preserve fossils or other traces of past life.
Dunes:
Sand dunes have been found in many places on Mars. The presence of dunes shows that the planet has an atmosphere with wind, for dunes require wind to pile up the sand. Most dunes on Mars are black because of the weathering of the volcanic rock basalt. Black sand can be found on Earth on Hawaii and on some tropical South Pacific islands.
Dunes:
Sand is common on Mars due to the old age of the surface that has allowed rocks to erode into sand. Dunes on Mars have been observed to move many meters.
Some dunes move along. In this process, sand moves up the windward side and then falls down the leeward side of the dune, thus caused the dune to go toward the leeward side (or slip face).
When images are enlarged, some dunes on Mars display ripples on their surfaces. These are caused by sand grains rolling and bouncing up the windward surface of a dune. The bouncing grains tend to land on the windward side of each ripple. The grains do not bounce very high so it does not take much to stop them.
Mantle:
Much of the Martian surface is covered with a thick ice-rich, mantle layer that has fallen from the sky a number of times in the past. In some places a number of layers are visible in the mantle.
Channels:
There is enormous evidence that water once flowed in river valleys on Mars. Images of curved channels have been seen in images from Mars spacecraft dating back to the early seventies with the Mariner 9 orbiter. Indeed, a study published in June 2017, calculated that the volume of water needed to carve all the channels on Mars was even larger than the proposed ocean that the planet may have had. Water was probably recycled many times from the ocean to rainfall around Mars.
Dust devil tracks:
Because a thin coating of fine bright dust covers much of the surface of Mars, passing dust devils remove the bright dust and expose the underlying dark surface. Dust devils have been seen from the ground and from orbiting spacecraft. They have even blown the dust off of the solar panels of the two Rovers on Mars, thereby greatly extending their lives.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Dinosaur Game**
Dinosaur Game:
The Dinosaur Game (also known as the Chrome Dino) is a browser game developed by Google and built into the Google Chrome web browser. The player guides a pixelated Tyrannosaurus rex across a side-scrolling landscape, avoiding obstacles to achieve a higher score. The game was created by members of the Chrome UX team in 2014.
Gameplay:
When a user attempts to navigate to a web page on Google Chrome while being offline, the browser notifies the user that they are not connected to the Internet, with an illustration of a pixelated Tyrannosaurus rex shown on the page. The game can then be launched either by pressing space or ↑ on desktop, or by tapping the dinosaur on Android or iOS mobile devices. Additionally, the game can be accessed by inputting chrome://dino or chrome://network-error/-106 into the Omnibox.During the game, the Lonely T-Rex continuously moves from left to right across a black-and-white desert landscape, with the player attempting to avoid oncoming obstacles such as cacti and Pteranodons by jumping or ducking. Pressing space, ↑, or tapping the dinosaur on mobile devices will cause the dinosaur to "leap", while pressing the ↓ key will cause the dinosaur to "crouch". As the game progresses, the speed of play gradually increases until the user hits an obstacle or a Pterosaur, prompting an instant game over.
Gameplay:
Once the player reaches around 700 points, the game switches from dark gray graphics on a white background to pale gray graphics on a black background, representing a shift from day to night, with daytime sky graphics also becoming nighttime sky graphics. The color scheme then alternates as the game progresses. The game was designed to reach its maximum score after approximately 17 million years of playtime, in reference to how long the T-Rex existed before it went extinct during the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event.If a network administrator disables the Dinosaur Game, an error message appears when attempting to play the game, which features an image of a meteor heading towards the Lonely T-Rex.
Development:
The game was created by members of the Chrome UX team in 2014, which consisted of Sebastien Gabriel, Alan Bettes, and Edward Jung. Gabriel designed the player character, named the "Lonely T-Rex". During development, the game was given the codename "Project Bolan", in reference to Marc Bolan, the lead singer of the T. Rex band. The developers chose the dinosaur theme as a reference to the game's function, a joke that not having an internet connection is equivalent to living in the "prehistoric ages". The game was released in September 2014; initially, it did not work on older devices, so the code was updated and re-released in December of the same year. The pteranodons were added as obstacles with a browser update in 2015.In September 2018, an Easter egg was added to the game in celebration of Chrome's 10th birthday and the game's fourth birthday, with a birthday cake appearing in the desert and a birthday hat appearing on the Lonely T-Rex if the cake is "eaten". In November of the same year, Google introduced a feature to save the player's high score. The game's source code is available on the Chromium site.In 2021, Google introduced a widget in March for iOS 14 which led players to chrome://dino; a similar widget was introduced to Android later that year. In July, an Olympic torch Easter egg for the 2020 Tokyo Olympics simulating various Olympic activities was added. Upon reaching the torch, the dino transforms into various Olympic games such as swimming, running, and many others. Instead of the usual cacti and pterodactyl obstacles, the dino now encounters challenges related to the Olympics.
Reception:
The game received widespread recognition, with the creators revealing in September 2018 that approximately 270 million games were played monthly.
In popular culture:
The Dinosaur Game is referenced in the "couch gag" opening segment of the season 34 premiere of The Simpsons, "Habeas Tortoise".
Related media:
In May 2020, a Microsoft Edge update added Surf, a game where players control a surfer attempting to evade obstacles and collect powerups. Like the Dinosaur Game, it is accessible from an error page when the browser is offline. The game allows for character customization and multiple control schemes.In August 2020, MSCHF and 100 Thieves partnered to create a modified version of the game titled Dino Swords, which featured a small arsenal of weapons and time-slowing pills; when mismanaged, the weapons could backfire and harm the dinosaur.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Potato fruit**
Potato fruit:
The potato fruit is the part of the potato plant that, after flowering, produces a toxic, green cherry tomato-like fruit.
Characteristics:
After flowering, potato plants produce small green fruits that resemble green cherry tomatoes, each containing about 300 seeds. Like all other parts of the plant except the tubers, the fruit contain the toxic alkaloid solanine and are therefore unsuitable for consumption. All new potato varieties are grown from seeds, also called "true potato seed", "TPS" or "botanical seed" to distinguish it from seed tubers. New varieties grown from seed can be propagated vegetatively by planting tubers, pieces of tubers cut to include at least one or two eyes, or cuttings, a practice used in greenhouses for the production of healthy seed tubers. Plants propagated from tubers are clones of the parent, whereas those propagated from seed produce a range of different varieties.
Characteristics:
Potato fruits are produced when the plants experience cool temperatures and sufficient water. In 2014, many gardeners in Michigan, United States, were alarmed when they found the green fruit which are not normally produced on the potato plant in that region. This was due to the weather in July that year being cooler and wetter than normal, allowing the plants' flowers sufficient time to be pollinated and produce fruit.
In popular culture:
Dorothy L. Sayers's short story The Leopard Lady, in the 1939 collection In the Teeth of the Evidence, features a child poisoned by potato berries injected with the alkaloid solanine to increase their toxicity.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Blennorrhea**
Blennorrhea:
Blennorrhea is mucous discharge, especially from the urethra or vagina (that is, mucus vaginal discharge). Blennorrhagia is an excess of such discharge, often specifically referring to that seen in gonorrhea. In fact, blennorrhagia is also a German name of gonorrhea that was previously in use, but now no longer in technical use. Still, blennorrhagia is a major symptom of gonorrhea.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Hangul Compatibility Jamo**
Hangul Compatibility Jamo:
Hangul Compatibility Jamo is a Unicode block containing Hangul characters for compatibility with the South Korean national standard KS X 1001 (formerly KS C 5601). Its block name in Unicode 1.0 was Hangul Elements.
History:
The following Unicode-related documents record the purpose and process of defining specific characters in the Hangul Compatibility Jamo block:
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Sherman–Morrison formula**
Sherman–Morrison formula:
In mathematics, in particular linear algebra, the Sherman–Morrison formula, named after Jack Sherman and Winifred J. Morrison, computes the inverse of the sum of an invertible matrix A and the outer product, uvT , of vectors u and v . The Sherman–Morrison formula is a special case of the Woodbury formula. Though named after Sherman and Morrison, it appeared already in earlier publications.
Statement:
Suppose A∈Rn×n is an invertible square matrix and u,v∈Rn are column vectors. Then A+uvT is invertible iff 1+vTA−1u≠0 . In this case, (A+uvT)−1=A−1−A−1uvTA−11+vTA−1u.
Here, uvT is the outer product of two vectors u and v . The general form shown here is the one published by Bartlett.
Proof:
(⇐ ) To prove that the backward direction 1+vTA−1u≠0⇒A+uvT is invertible with inverse given as above) is true, we verify the properties of the inverse. A matrix Y (in this case the right-hand side of the Sherman–Morrison formula) is the inverse of a matrix X (in this case A+uvT ) if and only if XY=YX=I We first verify that the right hand side ( Y ) satisfies XY=I .XY=(A+uvT)(A−1−A−1uvTA−11+vTA−1u)=AA−1+uvTA−1−AA−1uvTA−1+uvTA−1uvTA−11+vTA−1u=I+uvTA−1−uvTA−1+uvTA−1uvTA−11+vTA−1u=I+uvTA−1−u(1+vTA−1u)vTA−11+vTA−1u=I+uvTA−1−uvTA−1 To end the proof of this direction, we need to show that YX=I in a similar way as above: YX=(A−1−A−1uvTA−11+vTA−1u)(A+uvT)=I.
Proof:
(In fact, the last step can be avoided since for square matrices X and Y , XY=I is equivalent to YX=I .) (⇒ ) Reciprocally, if 1+vTA−1u=0 , then via the matrix determinant lemma, det det (A)=0 , so (A+uvT) is not invertible.
Application:
If the inverse of A is already known, the formula provides a numerically cheap way to compute the inverse of A corrected by the matrix uvT (depending on the point of view, the correction may be seen as a perturbation or as a rank-1 update). The computation is relatively cheap because the inverse of A+uvT does not have to be computed from scratch (which in general is expensive), but can be computed by correcting (or perturbing) A−1 Using unit columns (columns from the identity matrix) for u or v , individual columns or rows of A may be manipulated and a correspondingly updated inverse computed relatively cheaply in this way. In the general case, where A−1 is a n -by- n matrix and u and v are arbitrary vectors of dimension n , the whole matrix is updated and the computation takes 3n2 scalar multiplications. If u is a unit column, the computation takes only 2n2 scalar multiplications. The same goes if v is a unit column. If both u and v are unit columns, the computation takes only n2 scalar multiplications.
Application:
This formula also has application in theoretical physics. Namely, in quantum field theory, one uses this formula to calculate the propagator of a spin-1 field. The inverse propagator (as it appears in the Lagrangian) has the form (A+uvT) . One uses the Sherman–Morrison formula to calculate the inverse (satisfying certain time-ordering boundary conditions) of the inverse propagator—or simply the (Feynman) propagator—which is needed to perform any perturbative calculation involving the spin-1 field.
Alternative verification:
Following is an alternate verification of the Sherman–Morrison formula using the easily verifiable identity (I+wvT)−1=I−wvT1+vTw .Let and A+uvT=A(I+wvT), then (A+uvT)−1=(I+wvT)−1A−1=(I−wvT1+vTw)A−1 .Substituting w=A−1u gives (A+uvT)−1=(I−A−1uvT1+vTA−1u)A−1=A−1−A−1uvTA−11+vTA−1u
Generalization (Woodbury matrix identity):
Given a square invertible n×n matrix A , an n×k matrix U , and a k×n matrix V , let B be an n×n matrix such that B=A+UV . Then, assuming (Ik+VA−1U) is invertible, we have B−1=A−1−A−1U(Ik+VA−1U)−1VA−1.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**History of blogging**
History of blogging:
While the term "blog" was not coined until the late 1990s, the history of blogging starts with several digital precursors to it. Before "blogging" became popular, digital communities took many forms, including Usenet, commercial online services such as GEnie, BiX and the early CompuServe, e-mail lists and Bulletin Board Systems (BBS). In the 1990s, Internet forum software, such as WebEx, created running conversations with "threads". Threads are topical connections between messages on a metaphorical "corkboard". Some have likened blogging to the Mass-Observation project of the mid-20th century.
1983–1993:
Usenet was the primary serial medium included in the original definition of the Internet. It features the moderated newsgroup which allowed all posting in a newsgroup to be under the control of an individual or small group. Most such newsgroups were simply moderated discussion forums, however, in late 1983, mod.ber, was created, named after and managed by Brian E. Redman; he, and a few associates regularly posted summaries of interesting postings and threads taking place elsewhere on the net. Another moderated newsgroup, rec.humor.funny (rec.humor.funny via Google Groups), started on August 7, 1987. The group still exists; but is inactive, as no joke has been posted for over five years.In the early 1990s, when Tim Berners-Lee coined the term "World Wide Web" and defined the first standards for HTML and URLs, the specifications included "USENET newsgroups for serial publishing and discussions." Berners-Lee also created what is considered by Encyclopedia Britannica to be "the first 'blog'" in 1992 to discuss the progress made on creating the World Wide Web and software used for it.
1994–2001:
The modern blog evolved from the online diary, where people would keep a running account of their personal lives. Most such writers called themselves diarists, journalists, or journalers. A few called themselves "escribitionists". The Open Pages webring included members of the online-journal community. Justin Hall, who began eleven years of personal blogging in 1994 while a student at Swarthmore College, is generally recognized as one of the earliest bloggers, as is Jerry Pournelle. Another early blog was Wearable Wireless Webcam, an online shared diary of a person's personal life combining text, video, and pictures transmitted live from a wearable computer and EyeTap device to a web site in 1994. This practice of semi-automated blogging with live video together with text was referred to as sousveillance, and such journals were also used as evidence in legal matters.
1994–2001:
Other forms of journals kept online also existed. A notable example was game programmer John Carmack's widely read journal, published via the finger protocol. Some of the very earliest bloggers, like Steve Gibson of sCary's Quakeholio (now Shacknews) and Stephen Heaslip of Blue's News (still running since 1995 with online archives back to July 1996), evolved from the Quake scene and Carmack's .plan updates. Steve Gibson was hired to blog full-time by Ritual Entertainment on February 8, 1997, possibly making him the first hired blogger. Another example of early blogging was the Poster Children online tour diary, started in 1995 by Rose Marshack.The blog was independently invented by Ian Ring, in 1997. His online journal program was never called a "blog", and had very limited functionality, consisting of blobs of text associated with dates in an Access database. Ring experimented again with data-powered journalling in 2002, to provide a CMS for the popular health and wellness site SeekWellness.com, publishing weekly posts by fitness columnist Donald Ardell. Ring likes to claim that he "invented the blog", which is technically true even though there were other projects that could make the same claim with greater authority.
1994–2001:
Another early example of an early online entry into the evolution of blogging was created by Dave Winer. Winer is considered a pioneer of Web syndication techniques and has been considered one of the “fathers” of blogging. As the editor of Scripting News claims that his site “bootstrapped the blogging revolution and that it is the longest running Web Log in the internet.” Winer did not use the term "blog" and has never claimed the term. However he has gone on record as saying that “The first blogs were inspired by this blog, in fact many of them, including Barger's Robot Wisdom, used my software.” Websites, including both corporate sites and personal homepages, had and still often have "What's New" or "News" sections, often on the index page and sorted by date. One example of a news based "weblog" is the Drudge Report founded by the self-styled maverick reporter Matt Drudge, though apparently Drudge dislikes this classification. Two others—Institute for Public Accuracy and Arts & Letters Daily—began posting news releases featuring several news-pegged one-paragraph quotes several times a week beginning in 1998. One noteworthy early precursor to a blog was the tongue-in-cheek personal website that was frequently updated by Usenet legend Kibo.
1994–2001:
Early weblogs were simply manually updated components of common websites. However, the evolution of tools to facilitate the production and maintenance of web articles posted in reverse chronological order made the publishing process feasible to a much larger, less technical, population. Ultimately, this resulted in the distinct class of online publishing that produces blogs we recognize today. For instance, the use of some sort of browser-based software is now a typical aspect of "blogging". Blogs can be hosted by dedicated blog hosting services, or they can be run using, such as WordPress, Movable Type, Blogger or LiveJournal, or on regular web hosting services.
1994–2001:
The term "weblog" was coined by Jorn Barger on 17 December 1997. The short form, "blog," was coined by Peter Merholz, who jokingly broke the word weblog into the phrase we blog in the sidebar of his blog Peterme.com in April or May 1999. Shortly thereafter, Evan Williams at Pyra Labs used "blog" as both a noun and verb ("to blog," meaning "to edit one's weblog or to post to one's weblog") and devised the term "blogger" in connection with Pyra Labs' Blogger product, leading to the popularization of the terms.After a slow start, blogging rapidly gained in popularity. Blog usage spread during 1999 and the years following, being further popularized by the near-simultaneous arrival of the first hosted blog tools: Open Diary launched in October 1998, soon growing to thousands of online diaries. Open Diary innovated the reader comment, becoming the first blog community where readers could add comments to other writers' blog entries.
1994–2001:
SlashDot, a still-popular blog for tech "nerds" launched in September 1997.
Brad Fitzpatrick, a well known blogger started LiveJournal in March 1999.
Andrew Smales created Pitas.com in July 1999 as an easier alternative to maintaining a "news page" on a website, followed by DiaryLand in September 1999, focusing more on a personal diary community.
Drew Peloso and Steven Hatch launched Onclave in late 1999, a blogging and syndication platform scripted in Dave Winer's Frontier.
1994–2001:
In 2000, blogger Traciy Curry-Reyes started the blog Movies Based on True Stories Database. The site was the first to connect the real people with movies that were inspired by their cases. The information regarding her first blog in 1998 and based on the same subject has been lost. Traciy Curry-Reyes' 2000 blog was listed at (Geocities.org/traciy2000). That blog ended with the closing of Geocities. From there, she started the same blog with Blogger in 2008.
1994–2001:
Evan Williams and Meg Hourihan (Pyra Labs) launched blogger.com in August 1999 (purchased by Google in February 2003)Blogging combined the personal web page with tools to make linking to other pages easier — specifically permalinks, blogrolls and TrackBacks. This, together with weblog search engines enabled bloggers to track the threads that connected them to others with similar interests.
2001–2004:
Several broadly popular American political blogs emerged in 2001: Ron Gunzburger's Politics1, Taegan Goddard's Political Wire, Glenn Reynolds' Instapundit, Charles Johnson's Little Green Footballs, and Jerome Armstrong's MyDD. Andrew Sullivan's AndrewSullivan.com — now entitled "The Daily Dish" — launched in October 2000 and gained readership during 2001, especially in the wake of the September 11 attacks. (Two earlier popular American political blogs were Bob Somerby's Daily Howler, launched in 1998, and Mickey Kaus' Kausfiles, launched in 1999).
2001–2004:
By 2001, blogging was enough of a phenomenon that how-to manuals began to appear, primarily focusing on technique. The importance of the blogging community (and its relationship to larger society) increased rapidly. Established schools of journalism began researching blogging and noting the differences between journalism and blogging.
2001–2004:
Also in 2002, many blogs focused on comments by U.S. Senate Majority Leader Trent Lott. Senator Lott, at a party honoring U.S. Senator Strom Thurmond, praised Senator Thurmond by suggesting that the United States would have been better off had Thurmond been elected president. Lott's critics saw these comments as a tacit approval of racial segregation, a policy advocated by Thurmond's 1948 presidential campaign. This view was reinforced by documents and recorded interviews dug up by bloggers. (See Josh Marshall's Talking Points Memo.) Though Lott's comments were made at a public event attended by the media, no major media organizations reported on his controversial comments until after blogs broke the story. Blogging helped to create a political crisis that forced Lott to step down as majority leader.
2001–2004:
The impact of this story gave greater credibility to blogs as a medium of news dissemination. Though often seen as partisan gossips, bloggers sometimes lead the way in bringing key information to public light, with mainstream media having to follow their lead. More often, however, news blogs tend to react to material already published by the mainstream media.
After 2002, blogs gained increasing notice and coverage for their role in breaking, shaping, and spinning news stories. The Iraq war saw bloggers taking measured and passionate points of view that go beyond the traditional left-right divide of the political spectrum.
2001–2004:
Blogging was established by politicians and political candidates to express opinions on war and other issues and cemented blogs' role as a news source. (See Howard Dean and Wesley Clark.) Meanwhile, an increasing number of experts blogged, making blogs a source of in-depth analysis. (See Daniel Drezner and J. Bradford DeLong.) Blogging was used to draw attention to obscure news sources. For example, bloggers posted links to traffic cameras in Madrid as a huge anti-terrorism demonstration filled the streets in the wake of the March 11 attacks.
2001–2004:
Bloggers began to provide nearly-instant commentary on televised events, creating a secondary meaning of the word "blogging": to simultaneously transcribe and editorialize speeches and events shown on television. (For example, "I am blogging Rice's testimony" means "I am posting my reactions to Condoleezza Rice's testimony into my blog as I watch her on television.") Real-time commentary was sometimes referred to as "liveblogging."
2004–2013:
In 2004, the role of blogs became increasingly mainstream, as political consultants, news services and candidates began using them as tools for outreach and opinion forming. Even politicians not actively campaigning, such as the UK's Labour Party's MP Tom Watson, began to blog to bond with constituents.
2004–2013:
Minnesota Public Radio broadcast a program by Christopher Lydon and Matt Stoller called "The blogging of the President," which covered a transformation in politics that blogging seemed to presage. The Columbia Journalism Review began regular coverage of blogs and blogging. Anthologies of blog pieces reached print, and blogging personalities began appearing on radio and television. In the summer of 2004, both United States Democratic and Republican Parties' conventions credentialed bloggers, and blogs became a standard part of the publicity arsenal. Mainstream television programs, such as Chris Matthews' Hardball, formed their own blogs. Merriam-Webster's Dictionary declared "blog" as the word of the year in 2004.Blogs were among the driving forces behind the "Rathergate" scandal, to wit: (television journalist) Dan Rather presented documents (on the CBS show 60 Minutes) that conflicted with accepted accounts of President Bush's military service record. Bloggers declared the documents to be forgeries and presented evidence and arguments in support of that view, and CBS apologized for what it said were inadequate reporting techniques (see Little Green Footballs). Many bloggers view this scandal as the advent of blogs' acceptance by the mass media, both as a news source and opinion and as means of applying political pressure.
2004–2013:
Some bloggers have moved over to other media. The following bloggers (and others) have appeared on radio and television: Duncan Black (known widely by his pseudonym, Atrios), Glenn Reynolds (Instapundit), Markos Moulitsas Zúniga (Daily Kos), Alex Steffen (Worldchanging) and Ana Marie Cox (Wonkette). In counterpoint, Hugh Hewitt exemplifies a mass media personality who has moved in the other direction, adding to his reach in "old media" by being an influential blogger. Music blog publisher Jeff Davidson, Earvolution.com, now produces Sun Studio Sessions airing on PBS stations across the U.S.
2004–2013:
Some blogs were an important news source during the December 2004 Tsunami such as Médecins Sans Frontières, which used SMS text messaging to report from affected areas in Sri Lanka and Southern India. Similarly, during Hurricane Katrina in August 2005 and the aftermath a few blogs which were located in New Orleans, including the Interdictor and Gulfsails were able to maintain power and an Internet connection and disseminate information that was not covered by the mainstream media.
2004–2013:
In 2005, Global Voices Online, a site which "aggregates, curates, and amplifies the global conversation online – shining light on places and people other media often ignore" surfaced, bringing to light bloggers from around the world. Today, the site has a relationship with Reuters and is responsible for breaking many global news stories.
2004–2013:
In the United Kingdom, The Guardian newspaper launched a redesign in September 2005, which included a daily digest of blogs on page 2. Also in June 2006, BBC News launched a weblog for its editors, following other news companies.In January 2005, Fortune magazine listed eight bloggers that business people "could not ignore": Peter Rojas, Xeni Jardin, Ben Trott, Mena Trott, Jonathan Schwartz, Jason Goldman, Robert Scoble, and Jason Calacanis.
2004–2013:
In 2007, Tim O'Reilly proposed a Blogger's Code of Conduct.
2004–2013:
In 2011, Tom Knighton, owner of Knighton Media, Inc, announced that his company was purchasing The Albany Journal. Knighton Media was formed to managed Knighton's blog, Laws-n-Sausages, and this was the first known time that a blog had purchased a newspaper anywhere in the world.In 2012, Evan Williams of Pyra Labs launched Medium, a publishing platform for amateur and professional writers. In some ways this was the beginning of the end of the blog as a social platform.
2014 and After:
The evolution of social media and the speed of people reacting to posted content led to increasing declarations of the death of the blog, even as it was acknowledged that what came after would contain a lot of the same DNA as the blog .
2014 and After:
Even as the number of voices declaring blogs dead increased each year, others continued to see value, as for example in 2016 when the .blog domain name was launched. Depending on what one means by the word blog, blogging is alive and well - as of 2019, there are an estimated 500 million + blogs or blog-like sites in the world, including inactive websites. Not all platforms choose to share their data publicly, so the number of blogs on the web is likely much higher.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Aleš Žiberna**
Aleš Žiberna:
Aleš Žiberna is a Slovene statistician, whose specialty is network analysis. His specific research interests include blockmodeling, multivariate analysis and computer intensive methods (e.g., computer simulations, resampling methods).Currently, he is employed at the Faculty of Social Sciences of the University of Ljubljana, specifically at the Chair of Social Informatics and Methodology, and Centre for Methodology and Informatics.
Work:
In 2007, he proposed a solution to the generalized valued blockmodeling by introducing homogeneity blockmodeling with the basic idea "that the inconsistency of an empirical block with its ideal block can be measured by within block variability of appropriate values". The newly-formed ideal blocks, which are appropriate for blockmodeling of valued networks, are then presented together with the definitions of their block inconsistencies.He also (in 2007/08) developed an implicit blockmodeling approach, based on previous work of Batagelj and Ferligoj (2000).: 16–17 In 2014, he proposed a new approach to the blockmodeling - blockmodeling linked networks.
Selected bibliography:
ŽIBERNA, Aleš. Generalized blockmodeling of valued networks. Social Networks. [Print ed.]. Jan. 2007, vol. 29, no. 1, str. 105-126. ISSN 0378-8733.
Selected bibliography:
ŽIBERNA, Aleš. Blockmodeling of multilevel networks. Social Networks. [Print ed.]. Oct. 2014, vol. 39, str. 46-61, ilustr. ISSN 0378-8733. DOI: 10.1016/j.socnet.2014.04.002. [COBISS.SI-ID 32697949] ŽIBERNA, Aleš. Generalized blockmodeling of sparse networks. Metodološki zvezki. [Tiskana izd.]. 2013, vol. 10, no. 2, str. 99-119, graf. prikazi. ISSN 1854-0023. http://www.stat-d.si/mz/mz10.1/Ziberna2013.pdf. [COBISS.SI-ID 32428893] MATJAŠIČ, Miha, CUGMAS, Marjan, ŽIBERNA, Aleš. Blockmodeling : an R package for generalized blockmodeling. Metodološki zvezki. [Tiskana izd.]. 2020, vol. 17, no. 2, str. 49-66, ilustr. ISSN 1854-0023. [COBISS.SI-ID 53164547]
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Brace (sailing)**
Brace (sailing):
A brace on a square-rigged ship is a rope (line) used to rotate a yard around the mast, to allow the ship to sail at different angles to the wind. Braces are always used in pairs, one at each end of a yard (yardarm), termed port brace and starboard brace of a given yard or sail (e.g., the starboard main-brace is the brace fixed to the right end of the yard of the main sail).
Brace (sailing):
The braces are fixed to the outer ends of the yards, and are led to the deck as far aft as possible, to allow the crew to haul on them. The lower yards' braces can usually run directly to the deck, but to do so with those higher up would mean that most of the force was pulling downwards rather than backwards. Instead, the braces for the upper yards run to another mast and thence to the deck. On the aftermost mast, this may mean they have to be led forwards instead of backwards. Braces from the aftermost mast that run to the very stern of the ship often pass through blocks attached to short outriggers projecting from the side of the ship in order to improve their lead. These projections are called bumkins and can be seen in the picture.
Brace (sailing):
In many ways, braces are the equivalent of a modern yacht's sheets. However, where adjusting a sail on a yacht is a simple operation performed often, tacking or wearing ship using the braces usually requires the entire crew to be called to "bracing stations". This is because the braces carry heavy loads but have few blocks and hence each one needs many people hauling, and because most ships with braces have many sails and hence many such teams. For this reason, all manoeuvres require plenty of notice (one reason falling overboard is especially to be avoided from such a ship) and routine course changes may be planned well in advance for a time when as few of the crew as possible wish to be asleep.
Brace (sailing):
The sails on a tall ship's mast must all be turned together, because of all the gear that runs between them. The rate of turn is set by the course, the heaviest yard and hence the most difficult to move. The teams on the other braces for that mast must watch the course and keep their own yard in line with it. The braces may be marked with leather tags or twine seizings to indicate the centre ("square") position and the two extremes, though these marks may not always be accurate due to stretch in the line.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Actoxumab**
Actoxumab:
Actoxumab is a human monoclonal antibody designed for the prevention of recurrence of Clostridium difficile infection.This drug, along with bezlotoxumab, was developed through Phase II efficacy trials by a partnership between Medarex Inc and MassBiologics of the University of Massachusetts Medical School. The project was then licensed to Merck & Co., Inc. for further development and commercialization.A study compared it with bezlotoxumab (that targets CD toxin-B) and found Actoxumab less effective.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Fly-whisk**
Fly-whisk:
A fly-whisk (or fly-swish) is a tool that is used to swat flies. A similar device is used as a hand fan in hot tropical climates, sometimes as part of regalia, and is called a chowrie, chāmara, or prakirnaka in South Asia and Tibet.In Indonesian art, a fly-whisk is one of the items that is associated with Shiva. A fly-whisk is frequently seen as an attribute of Hindu, Jain, Daoist and Buddhist deities. The fly-whisk is evident in some configurations of the Ashtamangala, employed in some traditions of murti puja, particularly Gaudiya Vaishnavism. It is also used as an accessory in the ritual aspects of folk performance traditions, especially folk-theater forms like Pala Gaan, where it can double as a prop.
Fly-whisk:
Fly-whisks are in use in parts of the contemporary Middle East, such as Egypt, by some classes of society, e.g., outdoor merchants and shop keepers, especially in summer when flies become bothersome. Those have a wooden handle and plant fibers attached to them. The more expensive ones are made from horse hair. In the eastern parts of the Indian subcontinent, it is made from the tail-hairs of the yak. Yakut people from Siberia use fly-whisk called deybiir made of horse tail both for swating mosquitoes and as a sacred tool for shamanistic rituals.
Fly-whisk:
Fly-whisks appear frequently in the traditional regales of monarchs and nobility in many parts of the African continent. Fly whisks, called "ìrùkẹ̀rẹ̀" in Yoruba, were used by Yoruba monarchs and chiefs as a symbol of power and respect. This use has sometimes carried on into modern contexts: Kenyan leader Jomo Kenyatta carried a fly-whisk, a mark of authority in Maasai society, as did Malawian leader Hastings Banda, while South African jazz musician Jabu Khanyile also used a Maasai fly-whisk as a trademark when on stage.The fly-whisk is one of the traditional symbols of Buddhist monastic hierarchy in China and Japan, along with the khakkhara, jewel scepter, and begging bowl. The fly-whisk in Buddhism represents the symbolic "sweeping" of ignorance and mental afflictions. The Daoist fly-whisk is made of the root and twine of the smilax for the handle, and the hairs are made of palm fiber. The Chinese fly-whisk is also used in many Chinese martial arts such as Shaolin Kung Fu and Wudang quan, each corresponding to their own respective religious philosophy.
Fly-whisk:
A fly-whisk forms part of the royal regalia of Thailand. It consists of the tail hairs of a white elephant.
Fly-whisks were also used in Polynesian culture as a ceremonial mark of authority.
Algeria incident:
In 1827, the last Ottoman ruler of Algeria, Hussein Dey, struck the French consul, Pierre Deval in the face with a fly-whisk during a dispute over unpaid French debts to Algeria. That insult became a pretext for the French invasion of Algeria in 1830.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Difference density map**
Difference density map:
In X-ray crystallography, a difference density map shows the spatial distribution of the difference between the measured electron density of the crystal and the electron density explained by the current model.These coefficients are derived from the gradient of the likelihood function of the observed structure factors on the basis of the current model.
Display:
Conventionally, they are displayed as isosurfaces with positive density—electron density where there's nothing in the model, usually corresponding to some constituent of the crystal that hasn't been modelled, for example a ligand or a crystallisation adjutant -- in green, and negative density—parts of the model not backed up by electron density, indicating either that an atom has been disordered by radiation damage or that it is modelled in the wrong place—in red.
Calculation:
Difference density maps are usually calculated using Fourier coefficients which are the differences between the observed structure factor amplitudes from the X-ray diffraction experiment and the calculated structure factor amplitudes from the current model, using the phase from the model for both terms (since no phases are available for the observed data). The two sets of structure factors must be on the same scale. It is now normal to also include weighting terms which take into account the estimated errors in the current model: Cdiffmap=(m|Fobs|−D|Fcalc|)exp(2πiϕcalc) where m is a figure of merit which is an estimate of the cosine of the error in the phase, and D is a scale factor.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Colored matroid**
Colored matroid:
In mathematics, a colored matroid is a matroid whose elements are labeled from a set of colors, which can be any set that suits the purpose, for instance the set of the first n positive integers, or the sign set {+, −}.
The interest in colored matroids is through their invariants, especially the colored Tutte polynomial, which generalizes the Tutte polynomial of a signed graph of Kauffman (1989).There has also been study of optimization problems on matroids where the objective function of the optimization depends on the set of colors chosen as part of a matroid basis.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Recombinant DNA**
Recombinant DNA:
Recombinant DNA (rDNA) molecules are DNA molecules formed by laboratory methods of genetic recombination (such as molecular cloning) that bring together genetic material from multiple sources, creating sequences that would not otherwise be found in the genome.
Recombinant DNA:
Recombinant DNA is the general name for a piece of DNA that has been created by combining two or more fragments from different sources. Recombinant DNA is possible because DNA molecules from all organisms share the same chemical structure, differing only in the nucleotide sequence. Recombinant DNA molecules are sometimes called chimeric DNA because they can be made of material from two different species like the mythical chimera. rDNA technology uses palindromic sequences and leads to the production of sticky and blunt ends.
Recombinant DNA:
The DNA sequences used in the construction of recombinant DNA molecules can originate from any species. For example, plant DNA can be joined to bacterial DNA, or human DNA can be joined with fungal DNA. In addition, DNA sequences that do not occur anywhere in nature can be created by the chemical synthesis of DNA and incorporated into recombinant DNA molecules. Using recombinant DNA technology and synthetic DNA, any DNA sequence can be created and introduced into living organisms.
Recombinant DNA:
Proteins that can result from the expression of recombinant DNA within living cells are termed recombinant proteins. When recombinant DNA encoding a protein is introduced into a host organism, the recombinant protein is not necessarily produced. Expression of foreign proteins requires the use of specialized expression vectors and often necessitates significant restructuring by foreign coding sequences.Recombinant DNA differs from genetic recombination in that the former results from artificial methods while the latter is a normal biological process that results in the remixing of existing DNA sequences in essentially all organisms.
DNA creation:
Molecular cloning is the laboratory process used to create recombinant DNA. It is one of two most widely used methods, along with polymerase chain reaction (PCR), used to direct the replication of any specific DNA sequence chosen by the experimentalist. There are two fundamental differences between the methods. One is that molecular cloning involves replication of the DNA within a living cell, while PCR replicates DNA in the test tube, free of living cells. The other difference is that cloning involves cutting and pasting DNA sequences, while PCR amplifies by copying an existing sequence.
DNA creation:
Formation of recombinant DNA requires a cloning vector, a DNA molecule that replicates within a living cell. Vectors are generally derived from plasmids or viruses, and represent relatively small segments of DNA that contain necessary genetic signals for replication, as well as additional elements for convenience in inserting foreign DNA, identifying cells that contain recombinant DNA, and, where appropriate, expressing the foreign DNA. The choice of vector for molecular cloning depends on the choice of host organism, the size of the DNA to be cloned, and whether and how the foreign DNA is to be expressed. The DNA segments can be combined by using a variety of methods, such as restriction enzyme/ligase cloning or Gibson assembly.
DNA creation:
In standard cloning protocols, the cloning of any DNA fragment essentially involves seven steps: (1) Choice of host organism and cloning vector, (2) Preparation of vector DNA, (3) Preparation of DNA to be cloned, (4) Creation of recombinant DNA, (5) Introduction of recombinant DNA into the host organism, (6) Selection of organisms containing recombinant DNA, and (7) Screening for clones with desired DNA inserts and biological properties.These steps are described in some detail in a related article (molecular cloning).
DNA expression:
DNA expression requires the transfection of suitable host cells. Typically, either bacterial, yeast, insect, or mammalian cells (such as Human Embryonic Kidney cells or CHO cells) are used as host cells.Following transplantation into the host organism, the foreign DNA contained within the recombinant DNA construct may or may not be expressed. That is, the DNA may simply be replicated without expression, or it may be transcribed and translated and a recombinant protein is produced. Generally speaking, expression of a foreign gene requires restructuring the gene to include sequences that are required for producing an mRNA molecule that can be used by the host's translational apparatus (e.g. promoter, translational initiation signal, and transcriptional terminator).Specific changes to the host organism may be made to improve expression of the ectopic gene. In addition, changes may be needed to the coding sequences as well, to optimize translation, make the protein soluble, direct the recombinant protein to the proper cellular or extracellular location, and stabilize the protein from degradation.
Properties of organisms containing recombinant DNA:
In most cases, organisms containing recombinant DNA have apparently normal phenotypes. That is, their appearance, behavior and metabolism are usually unchanged, and the only way to demonstrate the presence of recombinant sequences is to examine the DNA itself, typically using a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) test. Significant exceptions exist, and are discussed below.
Properties of organisms containing recombinant DNA:
If the rDNA sequences encode a gene that is expressed, then the presence of RNA and/or protein products of the recombinant gene can be detected, typically using RT-PCR or western hybridization methods. Gross phenotypic changes are not the norm, unless the recombinant gene has been chosen and modified so as to generate biological activity in the host organism. Additional phenotypes that are encountered include toxicity to the host organism induced by the recombinant gene product, especially if it is over-expressed or expressed within inappropriate cells or tissues.
Properties of organisms containing recombinant DNA:
In some cases, recombinant DNA can have deleterious effects even if it is not expressed. One mechanism by which this happens is insertional inactivation, in which the rDNA becomes inserted into a host cell's gene. In some cases, researchers use this phenomenon to "knock out" genes to determine their biological function and importance. Another mechanism by which rDNA insertion into chromosomal DNA can affect gene expression is by inappropriate activation of previously unexpressed host cell genes. This can happen, for example, when a recombinant DNA fragment containing an active promoter becomes located next to a previously silent host cell gene, or when a host cell gene that functions to restrain gene expression undergoes insertional inactivation by recombinant DNA.
Applications of recombinant DNA:
Recombinant DNA is widely used in biotechnology, medicine and research. Today, recombinant proteins and other products that result from the use of DNA technology are found in essentially every western pharmacy, physician or veterinarian office, medical testing laboratory, and biological research laboratory. In addition, organisms that have been manipulated using recombinant DNA technology, as well as products derived from those organisms, have found their way into many farms, supermarkets, home medicine cabinets, and even pet shops, such as those that sell GloFish and other genetically modified animals.
Applications of recombinant DNA:
The most common application of recombinant DNA is in basic research, in which the technology is important to most current work in the biological and biomedical sciences. Recombinant DNA is used to identify, map and sequence genes, and to determine their function. rDNA probes are employed in analyzing gene expression within individual cells, and throughout the tissues of whole organisms. Recombinant proteins are widely used as reagents in laboratory experiments and to generate antibody probes for examining protein synthesis within cells and organisms.Many additional practical applications of recombinant DNA are found in industry, food production, human and veterinary medicine, agriculture, and bioengineering. Some specific examples are identified below.
Applications of recombinant DNA:
Recombinant chymosin Found in rennet, chymosin is an enzyme required to manufacture cheese. It was the first genetically engineered food additive used commercially. Traditionally, processors obtained chymosin from rennet, a preparation derived from the fourth stomach of milk-fed calves. Scientists engineered a non-pathogenic strain (K-12) of E. coli bacteria for large-scale laboratory production of the enzyme. This microbiologically produced recombinant enzyme, identical structurally to the calf derived enzyme, costs less and is produced in abundant quantities. Today about 60% of U.S. hard cheese is made with genetically engineered chymosin. In 1990, FDA granted chymosin "generally recognized as safe" (GRAS) status based on data showing that the enzyme was safe.
Applications of recombinant DNA:
Recombinant human insulin Almost completely replaced insulin obtained from animal sources (e.g. pigs and cattle) for the treatment of insulin-dependent diabetes. A variety of different recombinant insulin preparations are in widespread use. Recombinant insulin is synthesized by inserting the human insulin gene into E. coli, or yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) which then produces insulin for human use. Insulin produced by E. coli requires further post translational modifications (glycosylation) whereas yeast are able to perform these themselves by virtue of being a more complex host organism. The advantage of recombinant human insulin is after chronic use patients don't develop an immune defence against it the way animal sourced insulin stimulates the human immune system.
Applications of recombinant DNA:
Recombinant human growth hormone (HGH, somatotropin) Administered to patients whose pituitary glands generate insufficient quantities to support normal growth and development. Before recombinant HGH became available, HGH for therapeutic use was obtained from pituitary glands of cadavers. This unsafe practice led to some patients developing Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease. Recombinant HGH eliminated this problem, and is now used therapeutically. It has also been misused as a performance-enhancing drug by athletes and others. DrugBank entry Recombinant blood clotting factor VIII A blood-clotting protein that is administered to patients with forms of the bleeding disorder hemophilia, who are unable to produce factor VIII in quantities sufficient to support normal blood coagulation. Before the development of recombinant factor VIII, the protein was obtained by processing large quantities of human blood from multiple donors, which carried a very high risk of transmission of blood borne infectious diseases, for example HIV and hepatitis B. DrugBank entry Recombinant hepatitis B vaccine Hepatitis B infection is controlled through the use of a recombinant hepatitis B vaccine, which contains a form of the hepatitis B virus surface antigen that is produced in yeast cells. The development of the recombinant subunit vaccine was an important and necessary development because hepatitis B virus, unlike other common viruses such as polio virus, cannot be grown in vitro. Vaccine information from Hepatitis B Foundation Recombinant antibodies Recombinant antibodies (rAbs) are produced in vitro by the means of expression systems based on mammalian cells. Their monospecific binding to a specific epitope makes rAbs eligible not only for research purposes, but also as therapy options against certain cancer types, infections and autoimmune diseases.
Applications of recombinant DNA:
Diagnosis of infection with HIV Each of the three widely used methods for diagnosing HIV infection has been developed using recombinant DNA. The antibody test (ELISA or western blot) uses a recombinant HIV protein to test for the presence of antibodies that the body has produced in response to an HIV infection. The DNA test looks for the presence of HIV genetic material using reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Development of the RT-PCR test was made possible by the molecular cloning and sequence analysis of HIV genomes. HIV testing page from US Centers for Disease Control (CDC) Golden rice A recombinant variety of rice that has been engineered to express the enzymes responsible for β-carotene biosynthesis. This variety of rice holds substantial promise for reducing the incidence of vitamin A deficiency in the world's population. Golden rice is not currently in use, pending the resolution of regulatory and intellectual property issues.
Applications of recombinant DNA:
Herbicide-resistant crops Commercial varieties of important agricultural crops (including soy, maize/corn, sorghum, canola, alfalfa and cotton) have been developed that incorporate a recombinant gene that results in resistance to the herbicide glyphosate (trade name Roundup), and simplifies weed control by glyphosate application. These crops are in common commercial use in several countries.
Applications of recombinant DNA:
Insect-resistant crops Bacillus thuringeiensis is a bacterium that naturally produces a protein (Bt toxin) with insecticidal properties. The bacterium has been applied to crops as an insect-control strategy for many years, and this practice has been widely adopted in agriculture and gardening. Recently, plants have been developed that express a recombinant form of the bacterial protein, which may effectively control some insect predators. Environmental issues associated with the use of these transgenic crops have not been fully resolved.
History:
The idea of recombinant DNA was first proposed by Peter Lobban, a graduate student of Prof. Dale Kaiser in the Biochemistry Department at Stanford University Medical School. The first publications describing the successful production and intracellular replication of recombinant DNA appeared in 1972 and 1973, from Stanford and UCSF. In 1980 Paul Berg, a professor in the Biochemistry Department at Stanford and an author on one of the first papers was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work on nucleic acids "with particular regard to recombinant DNA". Werner Arber, Hamilton Smith, and Daniel Nathans shared the 1978 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for the discovery of restriction endonucleases which enhanced the techniques of rDNA technology.
History:
Stanford University applied for a US patent on recombinant DNA in 1974, listing the inventors as Herbert W. Boyer (professor at the University of California, San Francisco) and Stanley N. Cohen (professor at Stanford University); this patent was awarded in 1980. The first licensed drug generated using recombinant DNA technology was human insulin, developed by Genentech and licensed by Eli Lilly and Company.
Controversy:
Scientists associated with the initial development of recombinant DNA methods recognized that the potential existed for organisms containing recombinant DNA to have undesirable or dangerous properties. At the 1975 Asilomar Conference on Recombinant DNA, these concerns were discussed and a voluntary moratorium on recombinant DNA research was initiated for experiments that were considered particularly risky. This moratorium was widely observed until the National Institutes of Health (USA) developed and issued formal guidelines for rDNA work. Today, recombinant DNA molecules and recombinant proteins are usually not regarded as dangerous. However, concerns remain about some organisms that express recombinant DNA, particularly when they leave the laboratory and are introduced into the environment or food chain. These concerns are discussed in the articles on genetically modified organisms and genetically modified food controversies. Furthermore, there are concerns about the by-products in biopharmaceutical production, where recombinant DNA result in specific protein products. The major by-product, termed host cell protein, comes from the host expression system and poses a threat to the patient's health and the overall environment.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Infusion**
Infusion:
Infusion is the process of extracting chemical compounds or flavors from plant material in a solvent such as water, oil or alcohol, by allowing the material to remain suspended in the solvent over time (a process often called steeping). An infusion is also the name for the resultant liquid. The process of infusion is distinct from both decoction—a method of extraction involving boiling the plant material—and percolation, in which water is passed through the material (as in a coffeemaker).
History:
The first recorded use of essential oils was in the 10th or 11th century by the Persian polymath Avicenna, possibly in The Canon of Medicine.Tea is far older than this, dating back to the 10th century BC as the earliest recorded reference.
Preparation techniques:
Infusion is a chemical process that uses botanicals (typically dried herbs, flowers or berries) that are volatile and release their active ingredients readily in water, oil, or alcohol. In this process, a liquid is typically boiled (or brought to another appropriate temperature) and poured over the herb. After the herb has been allowed to steep in the liquid for an appropriate period of time, it is removed (possibly by straining) leaving an infusion. Unless the infusion is to be consumed immediately, it is bottled and refrigerated for future use.
Preparation techniques:
The amount of time the herbs are left in the liquid depends on the kind of infusion. Infusion times can range from seconds (for some kinds of Chinese tea) to hours, days, or months (for liqueurs like Sloe Gin). There are several accessories and techniques for removing the steeped or leftover botanicals that were used to infuse liquids, including metal steepers (which look like clamps), tea infusers (which act as strainers), and french presses (which are commonly used to infuse water with various teas and coffee). The most commonly used technique is the teabag, which is made with filter paper and filled with various tea flavors.
Examples:
Tea is a common example of an infusion; most varieties of tea call for steeping the leaves in hot water, although some variants (e.g. Moroccan mint tea) call for decoction instead. Many herbal teas are prepared by infusion, as well; lemon, chamomile, senna, apple, ginger, rooibos, and many other plants are used individually or in combination.
Coffee can also be made through infusion (as in a French press), but is more often made through percolation.
Herbal remedies are commonly produced through infusions in water or oil.
Examples:
Flavored oils: Plants with desirable flavors may be steeped in an edible oil or vinegar for an extended period; the infused oil or vinegar is often sold still containing the plant and is then used as flavoring. Chilis, lemon, garlic, and many other plants may be used. There can be ambiguity in the labeling of these oils: for example, what is described as sesame oil may be oil extracted from sesame seeds or another vegetable oil infused with sesame.
Examples:
Cucumber water, a mix of sliced cucumber with citrus slices and herbs such as mint, is a popular infusion. It is sometimes known as "spa water" due to it being commonly served in day spas and similar personal care establishments.
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**Triangular decomposition**
Triangular decomposition:
In computer algebra, a triangular decomposition of a polynomial system S is a set of simpler polynomial systems S1, ..., Se such that a point is a solution of S if and only if it is a solution of one of the systems S1, ..., Se.
Triangular decomposition:
When the purpose is to describe the solution set of S in the algebraic closure of its coefficient field, those simpler systems are regular chains. If the coefficients of the polynomial systems S1, ..., Se are real numbers, then the real solutions of S can be obtained by a triangular decomposition into regular semi-algebraic systems. In both cases, each of these simpler systems has a triangular shape and remarkable properties, which justifies the terminology.
History:
The Characteristic Set Method is the first factorization-free algorithm, which was proposed for decomposing an algebraic variety into equidimensional components. Moreover, the Author, Wen-Tsun Wu, realized an implementation of this method and reported experimental data in his 1987 pioneer article titled "A zero structure theorem for polynomial equations solving". To put this work into context, let us recall what was the common idea of an algebraic set decomposition at the time this article was written.
History:
Let K be an algebraically closed field and k be a subfield of K. A subset V ⊂ Kn is an (affine) algebraic variety over k if there exists a polynomial set F ⊂ k[x1, ..., xn] such that the zero set V(F) ⊂ Kn of F equals V.
Recall that V is said irreducible if for all algebraic varieties V1, V2 ⊂ Kn the relation V = V1 ∪ V2 implies either V = V1 or V = V2. A first algebraic variety decomposition result is the famous Lasker–Noether theorem which implies the following.
Theorem (Lasker - Noether). For each algebraic variety V ⊂ Kn there exist finitely many irreducible algebraic varieties V1, ..., Ve ⊂ Kn such that we have V=V1∪⋯∪Ve.
History:
Moreover, if Vi ⊈ Vj holds for 1 ≤ i < j ≤ e then the set {V1, ..., Ve} is unique and forms the irreducible decomposition of V.The varieties V1, ..., Ve in the above Theorem are called the irreducible components of V and can be regarded as a natural output for a decomposition algorithm, or, in other words, for an algorithm solving a system of equations in k[x1, ..., xn].
History:
In order to lead to a computer program, this algorithm specification should prescribe how irreducible components are represented. Such an encoding is introduced by Joseph Ritt through the following result.
History:
Theorem (Ritt). If V ⊂ Kn is a non-empty and irreducible variety then one can compute a reduced triangular set C contained in the ideal ⟨F⟩ generated by F in k[x1, ..., xn] and such that all polynomials g in ⟨F⟩ reduces to zero by pseudo-division w.r.t C.We call the set C in Ritt's Theorem a Ritt characteristic set of the ideal ⟨F⟩ . Please refer to regular chain for the notion of a triangular set.
History:
Joseph Ritt described a method for solving polynomial systems based on polynomial factorization over field extensions and computation of characteristic sets of prime ideals.
History:
Deriving a practical implementation of this method, however, was and remains a difficult problem. In the 1980s, when the Characteristic set Method was introduced, polynomial factorization was an active research area and certain fundamental questions on this subject were solved recentlyNowadays, decomposing an algebraic variety into irreducible components is not essential to process most application problems, since weaker notions of decompositions, less costly to compute, are sufficient.
History:
The Characteristic Set Method relies on the following variant of Ritt's Theorem.
History:
Theorem (Wen-Tsun Wu). For any finite polynomial set F ⊂ k[x1, ..., xn], one can compute a reduced triangular set C⊂⟨F⟩ such that all polynomial g in F reduces to zero by pseudo-division w.r.t C.Different concepts and algorithms extended the work of Wen-Tsun Wu. In the early 1990s, the notion of a regular chain, introduced independently by Michael Kalkbrener in 1991 in his PhD Thesis and, by Lu Yang and Jingzhong Zhang led to important algorithmic discoveries.
History:
In Kalkbrener's vision, regular chains are used to represent the generic zeros of the irreducible components of an algebraic variety. In the original work of Yang and Zhang, they are used to decide whether a hypersurface intersects a quasi-variety (given by a regular chain). Regular chains have, in fact, several interesting properties and are the key notion in many algorithms for decomposing systems of algebraic or differential equations.
History:
Regular chains have been investigated in many papers.The abundant literature on the subject can be explained by the many equivalent definitions of a regular chain. Actually, the original formulation of Kalkbrener is quite different from that of Yang and Zhang. A bridge between these two notions, the point of view of Kalkbrener and that of Yang and Zhang, appears in Dongming Wang's paper.There are various algorithms available for obtaining triangular decomposition of V(F) both in the sense of Kalkbrener and in the sense of Lazard and Wen-Tsun Wu. The Lextriangular Algorithm by Daniel Lazard and the Triade Algorithm by Marc Moreno Maza together with the Characteristic Set Method are available in various computer algebra systems, including Axiom and Maple.
Formal definitions:
Let k be a field and x1 < ... < xn be ordered variables. We denote by R = k[x1, ..., xn] the corresponding polynomial ring. For F ⊂ R, regarded as a system of polynomial equations, there are two notions of a triangular decomposition over the algebraic closure of k. The first one is to decompose lazily, by representing only the generic points of the algebraic set V(F) in the so-called sense of Kalkbrener.
Formal definitions:
(F)=⋂i=1esat(Ti).
The second is to describe explicitly all the points of V(F) in the so-called sense of in Lazard and Wen-Tsun Wu.
V(F)=⋃i=1eW(Ti).
In both cases T1, ..., Te are finitely many regular chains of R and sat(Ti) denotes the radical of the saturated ideal of Ti while W(Ti) denotes the quasi-component of Ti. Please refer to regular chain for definitions of these notions.
Formal definitions:
Assume from now on that k is a real closed field. Consider S a semi-algebraic system with polynomials in R. There exist finitely many regular semi-algebraic systems S1, ..., Se such that we have Zk(S)=Zk(S1)∪⋯∪Zk(Se) where Zk(S) denotes the points of kn which solve S. The regular semi-algebraic systems S1, ..., Se form a triangular decomposition of the semi-algebraic system S.
Examples:
Denote Q the rational number field. In Q[x,y,z] with variable ordering x>y>z , consider the following polynomial system: S={x2+y+z=1x+y2+z=1x+y+z2=1 According to the Maple code: One possible triangular decompositions of the solution set of S with using RegularChains library is: {z=0y=1x=0∪{z=0y=0x=1∪{z=1y=0x=0∪{z2+2z−1=0y=zx=z
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**Cross of Merit**
Cross of Merit:
A Cross of Merit is a personal decoration which is generally above the rank of medal and below that of knight, and may refer to:
The Netherlands:
Cross of Merit of the Order of the House of Orange Cross of Merit (Netherlands), a decoration for bravery Cross of Merit of the Netherlands Red Cross
Poland:
Cross of Merit (Poland) Cross of Merit with Swords (Poland) Cross of Merit for Bravery (Poland) Cross of Merit (Polish Scouting and Guiding Association)
Ukraine:
Cross of Merit (Ukrainian Insurgent Army)
Other:
Cross of Merit (EOHSJ) Cross of the Order pro Merito Melitensi, Sovereign Military Order of Malta
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Bus garage**
Bus garage:
A bus garage, also known as a bus depot, bus base or bus barn, is a facility where buses are stored and maintained. In many conurbations, bus garages are on the site of former car barns or tram sheds, where trams (streetcars) were stored, and the operation transferred to buses. In other areas, garages were built to replace horsebus yards or on virgin sites when populations were not as high as now.
Description:
Most bus garages will contain the following elements: Internal parking External parking Fueling point Fuel storage tanks Engineering section Inspection pits Bus wash Brake test lane Staff canteen/break room Administration officeSmaller garages may contain the minimum engineering facilities, restricted to light servicing capabilities only. Garages may also contain recovery vehicles, often converted buses, although their incidence has declined with the use of contractors to recover break-downs, and the increase in reliability.
Description:
Overnight, the more valuable or regularly in-service buses will usually be stored in the interior of the garage, with less used or older service vehicles, and vehicles withdrawn for storage or awaiting disposal, stored externally. During the day, internal and external areas will see a variety of movements. Heritage vehicles are almost exclusively stored inside the garage.
Description:
Often garages will feature rest rooms for drivers assigned to 'as required' duties, whereby they may be required to drive relief or replacement buses in the event of breakdown. The garage may also have 'light duties' drivers, who merely move the buses internally around the garage, often called shunting. Shunter or light duty drivers are often employed in larger depot facilities and work night shifts in order to position buses in the correct order for morning departures from the depot with the first buses due to leave the depot parked logical order nearest the exit. Because they are driving on privately owned land in many jurisdictions a full bus licence may not be required to perform such tasks. In addition they may also perform other tasks such as cleaning buses, refuelling and light maintenance tasks.
United Kingdom:
Several bus companies such as London Buses and Lothian Buses used to operate multiple storage garages around their operating area, supplemented by a central works facility. Central works have declined with increase in sub-contract engineering, and improvements in mechanical reliability of bus designs. Also, the practice of routine mid-life refurbishment of bus fleets has declined, which has resulted in generally shorter service lives.
United Kingdom:
Bus garages will generally have large areas unobstructed by supporting columns as well as high roofs, especially for storage of double-decker buses. Recently in London, the transfer of routes from double-decker operation to articulated buses has caused problems at some garages that were found to be too small to accommodate all the replacement buses, requiring splitting of allocations, or the building of new garages.
United Kingdom:
Some bus companies in the UK make use of outstations (or out-stations) as an additional bus storage facility. These are generally outdoor parking locations, where buses are stored overnight or between peaks, which are more conveniently located for operations, reducing dead mileage. There does not appear to be a universal definition of an outstation, but it seems agreed that there are no maintenance facilities at a bus outstation.
Largest:
The largest bus depot in the world is Millennium Park Bus Depot In Delhi India, built for the Commonwealth Games in 2010.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Memorial bench**
Memorial bench:
A memorial bench, memorial seat or death bench is a piece of outdoor furniture which commemorates a dead person. Such benches are typically made of wood, but can also be made of metal, stone, or synthetic materials such as plastics. Typically memorial benches are placed in public places.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Solar eclipse of February 14, 1953**
Solar eclipse of February 14, 1953:
A partial solar eclipse occurred on February 14, 1953. A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun, thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A partial solar eclipse occurs in the polar regions of the Earth when the center of the Moon's shadow misses the Earth.
Related eclipses:
Solar eclipses of 1950–1953 This eclipse is a member of a semester series. An eclipse in a semester series of solar eclipses repeats approximately every 177 days and 4 hours (a semester) at alternating nodes of the Moon's orbit.
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**Bok Prize**
Bok Prize:
The Bok Prize is awarded annually by the Astronomical Society of Australia and the Australian Academy of Science to recognise outstanding research in astronomy by honoring a student at an Australian university. The prize consists of the Bok Medal together with an award of $1000 and ASA membership for the following year.
History:
The prize is named to commemorate the energetic work of Bart Bok in promoting the undergraduate and graduate study of astronomy in Australia, during his term (1957–1966) as Director of the Mount Stromlo Observatory.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Critical security parameter**
Critical security parameter:
In cryptography, a critical security parameter (CSP) is information that is either user or system defined and is used to operate a cryptography module in processing encryption functions including cryptographic keys and authentication data, such as passwords, the disclosure or modification of which can compromise the security of a cryptographic module or the security of the information protected by the module.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Potassium hydrosulfide**
Potassium hydrosulfide:
Potassium hydrosulfide is the inorganic compound with the formula KSH. This colourless salt consists of the cation K+ and the bisulfide anion [SH]−. It is the product of the half-neutralization of hydrogen sulfide with potassium hydroxide. The compound is used in the synthesis of some organosulfur compounds. Aqueous solutions of potassium sulfide consist of a mixture of potassium hydrosulfide and potassium hydroxide.
Potassium hydrosulfide:
The structure of the potassium hydrosulfide resembles that for potassium chloride. Their structure is however complicated by the non-spherical symmetry of the SH− anions, but these tumble rapidly in the solid.Addition of sulfur gives dipotassium pentasulfide.
Synthesis:
It is prepared by neutralizing aqueous KOH with H2S.
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**Knowledge integration**
Knowledge integration:
Knowledge integration is the process of synthesizing multiple knowledge models (or representations) into a common model (representation).
Compared to information integration, which involves merging information having different schemas and representation models, knowledge integration focuses more on synthesizing the understanding of a given subject from different perspectives.
For example, multiple interpretations are possible of a set of student grades, typically each from a certain perspective. An overall, integrated view and understanding of this information can be achieved if these interpretations can be put under a common model, say, a student performance index.
The Web-based Inquiry Science Environment (WISE), from the University of California at Berkeley has been developed along the lines of knowledge integration theory.
Knowledge integration:
Knowledge integration has also been studied as the process of incorporating new information into a body of existing knowledge with an interdisciplinary approach. This process involves determining how the new information and the existing knowledge interact, how existing knowledge should be modified to accommodate the new information, and how the new information should be modified in light of the existing knowledge.
Knowledge integration:
A learning agent that actively investigates the consequences of new information can detect and exploit a variety of learning opportunities; e.g., to resolve knowledge conflicts and to fill knowledge gaps. By exploiting these learning opportunities the learning agent is able to learn beyond the explicit content of the new information.
The machine learning program KI, developed by Murray and Porter at the University of Texas at Austin, was created to study the use of automated and semi-automated knowledge integration to assist knowledge engineers constructing a large knowledge base.
Knowledge integration:
A possible technique which can be used is semantic matching. More recently, a technique useful to minimize the effort in mapping validation and visualization has been presented which is based on Minimal Mappings. Minimal mappings are high quality mappings such that i) all the other mappings can be computed from them in time linear in the size of the input graphs, and ii) none of them can be dropped without losing property i).
Knowledge integration:
The University of Waterloo operates a Bachelor of Knowledge Integration undergraduate degree program as an academic major or minor. The program started in 2008.
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**Specific heat capacity**
Specific heat capacity:
In thermodynamics, the specific heat capacity (symbol c) of a substance is the heat capacity of a sample of the substance divided by the mass of the sample, also sometimes referred to as massic heat capacity. Informally, it is the amount of heat that must be added to one unit of mass of the substance in order to cause an increase of one unit in temperature. The SI unit of specific heat capacity is joule per kelvin per kilogram, J⋅kg−1⋅K−1. For example, the heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water by 1 K is 4184 joules, so the specific heat capacity of water is 4184 J⋅kg−1⋅K−1.Specific heat capacity often varies with temperature, and is different for each state of matter. Liquid water has one of the highest specific heat capacities among common substances, about 4184 J⋅kg−1⋅K−1 at 20 °C; but that of ice, just below 0 °C, is only 2093 J⋅kg−1⋅K−1. The specific heat capacities of iron, granite, and hydrogen gas are about 449 J⋅kg−1⋅K−1, 790 J⋅kg−1⋅K−1, and 14300 J⋅kg−1⋅K−1, respectively. While the substance is undergoing a phase transition, such as melting or boiling, its specific heat capacity is technically undefined, because the heat goes into changing its state rather than raising its temperature.
Specific heat capacity:
The specific heat capacity of a substance, especially a gas, may be significantly higher when it is allowed to expand as it is heated (specific heat capacity at constant pressure) than when it is heated in a closed vessel that prevents expansion (specific heat capacity at constant volume). These two values are usually denoted by cp and cV , respectively; their quotient γ=cp/cV is the heat capacity ratio.
Specific heat capacity:
The term specific heat may also refer to the ratio between the specific heat capacities of a substance at a given temperature and of a reference substance at a reference temperature, such as water at 15 °C; much in the fashion of specific gravity. Specific heat capacity is also related to other intensive measures of heat capacity with other denominators. If the amount of substance is measured as a number of moles, one gets the molar heat capacity instead, whose SI unit is joule per kelvin per mole, J⋅mol−1⋅K−1. If the amount is taken to be the volume of the sample (as is sometimes done in engineering), one gets the volumetric heat capacity, whose SI unit is joule per kelvin per cubic meter, J⋅m−3⋅K−1.
Specific heat capacity:
One of the first scientists to use the concept was Joseph Black, an 18th-century medical doctor and professor of medicine at Glasgow University. He measured the specific heat capacities of many substances, using the term capacity for heat.
Definition:
The specific heat capacity of a substance, usually denoted by c or s, is the heat capacity C of a sample of the substance, divided by the mass M of the sample: where dQ represents the amount of heat needed to uniformly raise the temperature of the sample by a small increment dT Like the heat capacity of an object, the specific heat capacity of a substance may vary, sometimes substantially, depending on the starting temperature T of the sample and the pressure p applied to it. Therefore, it should be considered a function c(p,T) of those two variables.
Definition:
These parameters are usually specified when giving the specific heat capacity of a substance. For example, "Water (liquid): cp = 4187 J⋅kg−1⋅K−1 (15 °C)" When not specified, published values of the specific heat capacity c generally are valid for some standard conditions for temperature and pressure.
However, the dependency of c on starting temperature and pressure can often be ignored in practical contexts, e.g. when working in narrow ranges of those variables. In those contexts one usually omits the qualifier (p,T) , and approximates the specific heat capacity by a constant c suitable for those ranges.
Definition:
Specific heat capacity is an intensive property of a substance, an intrinsic characteristic that does not depend on the size or shape of the amount in consideration. (The qualifier "specific" in front of an extensive property often indicates an intensive property derived from it.) Variations The injection of heat energy into a substance, besides raising its temperature, usually causes an increase in its volume and/or its pressure, depending on how the sample is confined. The choice made about the latter affects the measured specific heat capacity, even for the same starting pressure p and starting temperature T . Two particular choices are widely used: If the pressure is kept constant (for instance, at the ambient atmospheric pressure), and the sample is allowed to expand, the expansion generates work as the force from the pressure displaces the enclosure or the surrounding fluid. That work must come from the heat energy provided. The specific heat capacity thus obtained is said to be measured at constant pressure (or isobaric), and is often denoted cp , cp , etc.
Definition:
On the other hand, if the expansion is prevented — for example by a sufficiently rigid enclosure, or by increasing the external pressure to counteract the internal one — no work is generated, and the heat energy that would have gone into it must instead contribute to the internal energy of the sample, including raising its temperature by an extra amount. The specific heat capacity obtained this way is said to be measured at constant volume (or isochoric) and denoted cV , cv , cv , etc.The value of cV is usually less than the value of cp . This difference is particularly notable in gases where values under constant pressure are typically 30% to 66.7% greater than those at constant volume. Hence the heat capacity ratio of gases is typically between 1.3 and 1.67.
Definition:
Applicability The specific heat capacity can be defined and measured for gases, liquids, and solids of fairly general composition and molecular structure. These include gas mixtures, solutions and alloys, or heterogenous materials such as milk, sand, granite, and concrete, if considered at a sufficiently large scale.
Definition:
The specific heat capacity can be defined also for materials that change state or composition as the temperature and pressure change, as long as the changes are reversible and gradual. Thus, for example, the concepts are definable for a gas or liquid that dissociates as the temperature increases, as long as the products of the dissociation promptly and completely recombine when it drops.
Definition:
The specific heat capacity is not meaningful if the substance undergoes irreversible chemical changes, or if there is a phase change, such as melting or boiling, at a sharp temperature within the range of temperatures spanned by the measurement.
Measurement:
The specific heat capacity of a substance is typically determined according to the definition; namely, by measuring the heat capacity of a sample of the substance, usually with a calorimeter, and dividing by the sample's mass. Several techniques can be applied for estimating the heat capacity of a substance, such as fast differential scanning calorimetry.
Measurement:
The specific heat capacities of gases can be measured at constant volume, by enclosing the sample in a rigid container. On the other hand, measuring the specific heat capacity at constant volume can be prohibitively difficult for liquids and solids, since one often would need impractical pressures in order to prevent the expansion that would be caused by even small increases in temperature. Instead, the common practice is to measure the specific heat capacity at constant pressure (allowing the material to expand or contract as it wishes), determine separately the coefficient of thermal expansion and the compressibility of the material, and compute the specific heat capacity at constant volume from these data according to the laws of thermodynamics.
Units:
International system The SI unit for specific heat capacity is joule per kelvin per kilogram J/kg⋅K, J⋅K−1⋅kg−1. Since an increment of temperature of one degree Celsius is the same as an increment of one kelvin, that is the same as joule per degree Celsius per kilogram: J/(kg⋅°C). Sometimes the gram is used instead of kilogram for the unit of mass: 1 J⋅g−1⋅K−1 = 1000 J⋅kg−1⋅K−1.
Units:
The specific heat capacity of a substance (per unit of mass) has dimension L2⋅Θ−1⋅T−2, or (L/T)2/Θ. Therefore, the SI unit J⋅kg−1⋅K−1 is equivalent to metre squared per second squared per kelvin (m2⋅K−1⋅s−2).
Units:
Imperial engineering units Professionals in construction, civil engineering, chemical engineering, and other technical disciplines, especially in the United States, may use English Engineering units including the pound (lb = 0.45359237 kg) as the unit of mass, the degree Fahrenheit or Rankine (°R = 5/9 K, about 0.555556 K) as the unit of temperature increment, and the British thermal unit (BTU ≈ 1055.056 J), as the unit of heat.
Units:
In those contexts, the unit of specific heat capacity is BTU/lb⋅°R, or 1 BTU/lb⋅°R = 4186.68J/kg⋅K. The BTU was originally defined so that the average specific heat capacity of water would be 1 BTU/lb⋅°F. Note the value's similarity to that of the calorie - 4187 J/kg⋅°C ≈ 4184 J/kg⋅°C (~.07%) - as they are essentially measuring the same energy, using water as a basis reference, scaled to their systems' respective lbs and °F, or kg and °C.
Units:
Calories In chemistry, heat amounts were often measured in calories. Confusingly, two units with that name, denoted "cal" or "Cal", have been commonly used to measure amounts of heat: the "small calorie" (or "gram-calorie", "cal") is 4.184 J, exactly. It was originally defined so that the specific heat capacity of liquid water would be 1 cal/(°C⋅g).
Units:
The "grand calorie" (also "kilocalorie", "kilogram-calorie", or "food calorie"; "kcal" or "Cal") is 1000 small calories, that is, 4184 J, exactly. It was defined so that the specific heat capacity of water would be 1 Cal/(°C⋅kg).While these units are still used in some contexts (such as kilogram calorie in nutrition), their use is now deprecated in technical and scientific fields. When heat is measured in these units, the unit of specific heat capacity is usually Note that while cal is 1⁄1000 of a Cal or kcal, it is also per gram instead of kilogram: ergo, in either unit, the specific heat capacity of water is approximately 1.
Physical basis:
The temperature of a sample of a substance reflects the average kinetic energy of its constituent particles (atoms or molecules) relative to its center of mass. However, not all energy provided to a sample of a substance will go into raising its temperature, exemplified via the equipartition theorem.
Physical basis:
Monatomic gases Quantum mechanics predicts that, at room temperature and ordinary pressures, an isolated atom in a gas cannot store any significant amount of energy except in the form of kinetic energy. Thus, heat capacity per mole is the same for all monatomic gases (such as the noble gases). More precisely, 12.5 J⋅K−1⋅mol−1 and 21 J⋅K−1⋅mol−1 , where 8.31446 J⋅K−1⋅mol−1 is the ideal gas unit (which is the product of Boltzmann conversion constant from kelvin microscopic energy unit to the macroscopic energy unit joule, and the Avogadro number).
Physical basis:
Therefore, the specific heat capacity (per unit of mass, not per mole) of a monatomic gas will be inversely proportional to its (adimensional) atomic weight A . That is, approximately, For the noble gases, from helium to xenon, these computed values are Polyatomic gases On the other hand, a polyatomic gas molecule (consisting of two or more atoms bound together) can store heat energy in other forms besides its kinetic energy. These forms include rotation of the molecule, and vibration of the atoms relative to its center of mass.
Physical basis:
These extra degrees of freedom or "modes" contribute to the specific heat capacity of the substance. Namely, when heat energy is injected into a gas with polyatomic molecules, only part of it will go into increasing their kinetic energy, and hence the temperature; the rest will go to into those other degrees of freedom. In order to achieve the same increase in temperature, more heat energy will have to be provided to a mol of that substance than to a mol of a monatomic gas. Therefore, the specific heat capacity of a polyatomic gas depends not only on its molecular mass, but also on the number of degrees of freedom that the molecules have.Quantum mechanics further says that each rotational or vibrational mode can only take or lose energy in certain discrete amount (quanta). Depending on the temperature, the average heat energy per molecule may be too small compared to the quanta needed to activate some of those degrees of freedom. Those modes are said to be "frozen out". In that case, the specific heat capacity of the substance is going to increase with temperature, sometimes in a step-like fashion, as more modes become unfrozen and start absorbing part of the input heat energy.
Physical basis:
For example, the molar heat capacity of nitrogen N2 at constant volume is 20.6 J⋅K−1⋅mol−1 (at 15 °C, 1 atm), which is 2.49 R . That is the value expected from theory if each molecule had 5 degrees of freedom. These turn out to be three degrees of the molecule's velocity vector, plus two degrees from its rotation about an axis through the center of mass and perpendicular to the line of the two atoms. Because of those two extra degrees of freedom, the specific heat capacity cV of N2 (736 J⋅K−1⋅kg−1) is greater than that of an hypothetical monatomic gas with the same molecular mass 28 (445 J⋅K−1⋅kg−1), by a factor of 5/3.
Physical basis:
This value for the specific heat capacity of nitrogen is practically constant from below −150 °C to about 300 °C. In that temperature range, the two additional degrees of freedom that correspond to vibrations of the atoms, stretching and compressing the bond, are still "frozen out". At about that temperature, those modes begin to "un-freeze", and as a result cV starts to increase rapidly at first, then slower as it tends to another constant value. It is 35.5 J⋅K−1⋅mol−1 at 1500 °C, 36.9 at 2500 °C, and 37.5 at 3500 °C. The last value corresponds almost exactly to the predicted value for 7 degrees of freedom per molecule.
Derivations of heat capacity:
Relation between specific heat capacities Starting from the fundamental thermodynamic relation one can show, where α is the coefficient of thermal expansion, βT is the isothermal compressibility, and ρ is density.A derivation is discussed in the article Relations between specific heats.
For an ideal gas, if ρ is expressed as molar density in the above equation, this equation reduces simply to Mayer's relation, where Cp,m and Cv,m are intensive property heat capacities expressed on a per mole basis at constant pressure and constant volume, respectively.
Derivations of heat capacity:
Specific heat capacity The specific heat capacity of a material on a per mass basis is which in the absence of phase transitions is equivalent to where C is the heat capacity of a body made of the material in question, m is the mass of the body, V is the volume of the body, and ρ=mV is the density of the material.For gases, and also for other materials under high pressures, there is need to distinguish between different boundary conditions for the processes under consideration (since values differ significantly between different conditions). Typical processes for which a heat capacity may be defined include isobaric (constant pressure, dp=0 ) or isochoric (constant volume, dV=0 ) processes. The corresponding specific heat capacities are expressed as A related parameter to c is CV−1 , the volumetric heat capacity. In engineering practice, cV for solids or liquids often signifies a volumetric heat capacity, rather than a constant-volume one. In such cases, the mass-specific heat capacity is often explicitly written with the subscript m , as cm . Of course, from the above relationships, for solids one writes For pure homogeneous chemical compounds with established molecular or molar mass or a molar quantity is established, heat capacity as an intensive property can be expressed on a per mole basis instead of a per mass basis by the following equations analogous to the per mass equations: where n = number of moles in the body or thermodynamic system. One may refer to such a per mole quantity as molar heat capacity to distinguish it from specific heat capacity on a per-mass basis.
Derivations of heat capacity:
Polytropic heat capacity The polytropic heat capacity is calculated at processes if all the thermodynamic properties (pressure, volume, temperature) change The most important polytropic processes run between the adiabatic and the isotherm functions, the polytropic index is between 1 and the adiabatic exponent (γ or κ) Dimensionless heat capacity The dimensionless heat capacity of a material is where C is the heat capacity of a body made of the material in question (J/K) n is the amount of substance in the body (mol) R is the gas constant (J⋅K−1⋅mol−1) N is the number of molecules in the body. (dimensionless) kB is the Boltzmann constant (J⋅K−1)Again, SI units shown for example.
Derivations of heat capacity:
Read more about the quantities of dimension one at BIPM In the Ideal gas article, dimensionless heat capacity C∗ is expressed as c^ Heat capacity at absolute zero From the definition of entropy the absolute entropy can be calculated by integrating from zero kelvins temperature to the final temperature Tf The heat capacity must be zero at zero temperature in order for the above integral not to yield an infinite absolute entropy, thus violating the third law of thermodynamics. One of the strengths of the Debye model is that (unlike the preceding Einstein model) it predicts the proper mathematical form of the approach of heat capacity toward zero, as absolute zero temperature is approached.
Derivations of heat capacity:
Solid phase The theoretical maximum heat capacity for larger and larger multi-atomic gases at higher temperatures, also approaches the Dulong–Petit limit of 3R, so long as this is calculated per mole of atoms, not molecules. The reason is that gases with very large molecules, in theory have almost the same high-temperature heat capacity as solids, lacking only the (small) heat capacity contribution that comes from potential energy that cannot be stored between separate molecules in a gas.
Derivations of heat capacity:
The Dulong–Petit limit results from the equipartition theorem, and as such is only valid in the classical limit of a microstate continuum, which is a high temperature limit. For light and non-metallic elements, as well as most of the common molecular solids based on carbon compounds at standard ambient temperature, quantum effects may also play an important role, as they do in multi-atomic gases. These effects usually combine to give heat capacities lower than 3R per mole of atoms in the solid, although in molecular solids, heat capacities calculated per mole of molecules in molecular solids may be more than 3R. For example, the heat capacity of water ice at the melting point is about 4.6R per mole of molecules, but only 1.5R per mole of atoms. The lower than 3R number "per atom" (as is the case with diamond and beryllium) results from the “freezing out” of possible vibration modes for light atoms at suitably low temperatures, just as in many low-mass-atom gases at room temperatures. Because of high crystal binding energies, these effects are seen in solids more often than liquids: for example the heat capacity of liquid water is twice that of ice at near the same temperature, and is again close to the 3R per mole of atoms of the Dulong–Petit theoretical maximum.
Derivations of heat capacity:
For a more modern and precise analysis of the heat capacities of solids, especially at low temperatures, it is useful to use the idea of phonons. See Debye model.
Derivations of heat capacity:
Theoretical estimation The path integral Monte Carlo method is a numerical approach for determining the values of heat capacity, based on quantum dynamical principles. However, good approximations can be made for gases in many states using simpler methods outlined below. For many solids composed of relatively heavy atoms (atomic number > iron), at non-cryogenic temperatures, the heat capacity at room temperature approaches 3R = 24.94 joules per kelvin per mole of atoms (Dulong–Petit law, R is the gas constant). Low temperature approximations for both gases and solids at temperatures less than their characteristic Einstein temperatures or Debye temperatures can be made by the methods of Einstein and Debye discussed below.
Derivations of heat capacity:
Water (liquid): CP = 4185.5 J⋅K−1⋅kg−1 (15 °C, 101.325 kPa) Water (liquid): CVH = 74.539 J⋅K−1⋅mol−1 (25 °C)For liquids and gases, it is important to know the pressure to which given heat capacity data refer. Most published data are given for standard pressure. However, different standard conditions for temperature and pressure have been defined by different organizations. The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) changed its recommendation from one atmosphere to the round value 100 kPa (≈750.062 Torr).
Derivations of heat capacity:
Calculation from first principles The path integral Monte Carlo method is a numerical approach for determining the values of heat capacity, based on quantum dynamical principles. However, good approximations can be made for gases in many states using simpler methods outlined below. For many solids composed of relatively heavy atoms (atomic number > iron), at non-cryogenic temperatures, the heat capacity at room temperature approaches 3R = 24.94 joules per kelvin per mole of atoms (Dulong–Petit law, R is the gas constant). Low temperature approximations for both gases and solids at temperatures less than their characteristic Einstein temperatures or Debye temperatures can be made by the methods of Einstein and Debye discussed below.
Derivations of heat capacity:
Relation between heat capacities Measuring the specific heat capacity at constant volume can be prohibitively difficult for liquids and solids. That is, small temperature changes typically require large pressures to maintain a liquid or solid at constant volume, implying that the containing vessel must be nearly rigid or at least very strong (see coefficient of thermal expansion and compressibility). Instead, it is easier to measure the heat capacity at constant pressure (allowing the material to expand or contract freely) and solve for the heat capacity at constant volume using mathematical relationships derived from the basic thermodynamic laws.
Derivations of heat capacity:
The heat capacity ratio, or adiabatic index, is the ratio of the heat capacity at constant pressure to heat capacity at constant volume. It is sometimes also known as the isentropic expansion factor.
Derivations of heat capacity:
Ideal gas For an ideal gas, evaluating the partial derivatives above according to the equation of state, where R is the gas constant, for an ideal gas Substituting this equation reduces simply to Mayer's relation: The differences in heat capacities as defined by the above Mayer relation is only exact for an ideal gas and would be different for any real gas.
Derivations of heat capacity:
Specific heat capacity The specific heat capacity of a material on a per mass basis is which in the absence of phase transitions is equivalent to where C is the heat capacity of a body made of the material in question, m is the mass of the body, V is the volume of the body, ρ=mV is the density of the material.For gases, and also for other materials under high pressures, there is need to distinguish between different boundary conditions for the processes under consideration (since values differ significantly between different conditions). Typical processes for which a heat capacity may be defined include isobaric (constant pressure, dP=0 ) or isochoric (constant volume, dV=0 ) processes. The corresponding specific heat capacities are expressed as From the results of the previous section, dividing through by the mass gives the relation A related parameter to c is C/V , the volumetric heat capacity. In engineering practice, cV for solids or liquids often signifies a volumetric heat capacity, rather than a constant-volume one. In such cases, the specific heat capacity is often explicitly written with the subscript m , as cm . Of course, from the above relationships, for solids one writes For pure homogeneous chemical compounds with established molecular or molar mass, or a molar quantity, heat capacity as an intensive property can be expressed on a per-mole basis instead of a per-mass basis by the following equations analogous to the per mass equations: where n is the number of moles in the body or thermodynamic system. One may refer to such a per-mole quantity as molar heat capacity to distinguish it from specific heat capacity on a per-mass basis.
Derivations of heat capacity:
Polytropic heat capacity The polytropic heat capacity is calculated at processes if all the thermodynamic properties (pressure, volume, temperature) change: The most important polytropic processes run between the adiabatic and the isotherm functions, the polytropic index is between 1 and the adiabatic exponent (γ or κ).
Derivations of heat capacity:
Dimensionless heat capacity The dimensionless heat capacity of a material is where C is the heat capacity of a body made of the material in question (J/K), n is the amount of substance in the body (mol), R is the gas constant (J/(K⋅mol)), N is the number of molecules in the body (dimensionless), kB is the Boltzmann constant (J/(K⋅molecule)).In the ideal gas article, dimensionless heat capacity C∗ is expressed as c^ and is related there directly to half the number of degrees of freedom per particle. This holds true for quadratic degrees of freedom, a consequence of the equipartition theorem.
Derivations of heat capacity:
More generally, the dimensionless heat capacity relates the logarithmic increase in temperature to the increase in the dimensionless entropy per particle S∗=S/NkB , measured in nats.
Alternatively, using base-2 logarithms, C∗ relates the base-2 logarithmic increase in temperature to the increase in the dimensionless entropy measured in bits.
Heat capacity at absolute zero From the definition of entropy the absolute entropy can be calculated by integrating from zero to the final temperature Tf:
Thermodynamic derivation:
In theory, the specific heat capacity of a substance can also be derived from its abstract thermodynamic modeling by an equation of state and an internal energy function.
Thermodynamic derivation:
State of matter in a homogeneous sample To apply the theory, one considers the sample of the substance (solid, liquid, or gas) for which the specific heat capacity can be defined; in particular, that it has homogeneous composition and fixed mass M . Assume that the evolution of the system is always slow enough for the internal pressure P and temperature T be considered uniform throughout. The pressure P would be equal to the pressure applied to it by the enclosure or some surrounding fluid, such as air.
Thermodynamic derivation:
The state of the material can then be specified by three parameters: its temperature T , the pressure P , and its specific volume ν=V/M , where V is the volume of the sample. (This quantity is the reciprocal 1/ρ of the material's density ρ=M/V .) Like T and P , the specific volume ν is an intensive property of the material and its state, that does not depend on the amount of substance in the sample.
Thermodynamic derivation:
Those variables are not independent. The allowed states are defined by an equation of state relating those three variables: 0.
Thermodynamic derivation:
The function F depends on the material under consideration. The specific internal energy stored internally in the sample, per unit of mass, will then be another function U(T,P,ν) of these state variables, that is also specific of the material. The total internal energy in the sample then will be MU(T,P,ν) For some simple materials, like an ideal gas, one can derive from basic theory the equation of state F=0 and even the specific internal energy U In general, these functions must be determined experimentally for each substance.
Thermodynamic derivation:
Conservation of energy The absolute value of this quantity is undefined, and (for the purposes of thermodynamics) the state of "zero internal energy" can be chosen arbitrarily. However, by the law of conservation of energy, any infinitesimal increase MdU in the total internal energy MU must be matched by the net flow of heat energy dQ into the sample, plus any net mechanical energy provided to it by enclosure or surrounding medium on it. The latter is −PdV , where dV is the change in the sample's volume in that infinitesimal step. Therefore hence If the volume of the sample (hence the specific volume of the material) is kept constant during the injection of the heat amount dQ , then the term Pdν is zero (no mechanical work is done). Then, dividing by dT where dT is the change in temperature that resulted from the heat input. The left-hand side is the specific heat capacity at constant volume cV of the material.
Thermodynamic derivation:
For the heat capacity at constant pressure, it is useful to define the specific enthalpy of the system as the sum h(T,P,ν)=U(T,P,ν)+Pν . An infinitesimal change in the specific enthalpy will then be therefore If the pressure is kept constant, the second term on the left-hand side is zero, and The left-hand side is the specific heat capacity at constant pressure cP of the material.
Thermodynamic derivation:
Connection to equation of state In general, the infinitesimal quantities dT,dP,dV,dU are constrained by the equation of state and the specific internal energy function. Namely, Here (∂F/∂T)(T,P,V) denotes the (partial) derivative of the state equation F with respect to its T argument, keeping the other two arguments fixed, evaluated at the state (T,P,V) in question. The other partial derivatives are defined in the same way. These two equations on the four infinitesimal increments normally constrain them to a two-dimensional linear subspace space of possible infinitesimal state changes, that depends on the material and on the state. The constant-volume and constant-pressure changes are only two particular directions in this space.
Thermodynamic derivation:
This analysis also holds no matter how the energy increment dQ is injected into the sample, namely by heat conduction, irradiation, electromagnetic induction, radioactive decay, etc.
Thermodynamic derivation:
Relation between heat capacities For any specific volume ν , denote pν(T) the function that describes how the pressure varies with the temperature T , as allowed by the equation of state, when the specific volume of the material is forcefully kept constant at ν . Analogously, for any pressure P , let νP(T) be the function that describes how the specific volume varies with the temperature, when the pressure is kept constant at P . Namely, those functions are such that and for any values of T,P,ν . In other words, the graphs of pν(T) and νP(T) are slices of the surface defined by the state equation, cut by planes of constant ν and constant P , respectively.
Thermodynamic derivation:
Then, from the fundamental thermodynamic relation it follows that This equation can be rewritten as where α is the coefficient of thermal expansion, βT is the isothermal compressibility,both depending on the state (T,P,ν) The heat capacity ratio, or adiabatic index, is the ratio cP/cV of the heat capacity at constant pressure to heat capacity at constant volume. It is sometimes also known as the isentropic expansion factor.
Thermodynamic derivation:
Calculation from first principles The path integral Monte Carlo method is a numerical approach for determining the values of heat capacity, based on quantum dynamical principles. However, good approximations can be made for gases in many states using simpler methods outlined below. For many solids composed of relatively heavy atoms (atomic number > iron), at non-cryogenic temperatures, the heat capacity at room temperature approaches 3R = 24.94 joules per kelvin per mole of atoms (Dulong–Petit law, R is the gas constant). Low temperature approximations for both gases and solids at temperatures less than their characteristic Einstein temperatures or Debye temperatures can be made by the methods of Einstein and Debye discussed below. However, attention should be made for the consistency of such ab-initio considerations when used along with an equation of state for the considered material.
Thermodynamic derivation:
Ideal gas For an ideal gas, evaluating the partial derivatives above according to the equation of state, where R is the gas constant, for an ideal gas PV=nRT,CP−CV=T(∂P∂T)V,n(∂V∂T)P,n,P=nRTV⇒(∂P∂T)V,n=nRV,V=nRTP⇒(∂V∂T)P,n=nRP.
Substituting this equation reduces simply to Mayer's relation: The differences in heat capacities as defined by the above Mayer relation is only exact for an ideal gas and would be different for any real gas.
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**ChemCatChem**
ChemCatChem:
ChemCatChem is a biweekly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering heterogeneous, homogeneous, and biocatalysis. It is published by Wiley-VCH on behalf of Chemistry Europe.
According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2021 impact factor of 5.497.
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