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**Coombs' method**
Coombs' method:
Coombs' method or the Coombs rule is a ranked voting system which uses a ballot counting method for ranked voting created by Clyde Coombs. The Coombs' method is the application of Coombs rule to single-winner elections, similarly to instant-runoff voting, it uses candidate elimination and redistribution of votes cast for that candidate until one candidate has a majority of votes.
Procedures:
Each voter rank-orders all of the candidates on their ballot. If at any time one candidate is ranked first (among non-eliminated candidates) by an absolute majority of the voters, that candidate wins. Otherwise, the candidate ranked last (again among non-eliminated candidates) by the largest number of (or a plurality of) voters is eliminated. Conversely, under instant-runoff voting, the candidate ranked first (among non-eliminated candidates) by the fewest voters is eliminated.
Procedures:
In some sources, the elimination proceeds regardless of whether any candidate is ranked first by a majority of voters, and the last candidate to be eliminated is the winner. This variant of the method can result in a different winner than the former one (unlike in instant-runoff voting, where checking to see if any candidate is ranked first by a majority of voters is only a shortcut that does not affect the outcome).
An example:
Imagine that Tennessee is having an election on the location of its capital. The population of Tennessee is concentrated around its four major cities, which are spread throughout the state. For this example, suppose that the entire electorate lives in these four cities and that everyone wants to live as near to the capital as possible.
An example:
The candidates for the capital are: Memphis, the state's largest city, with 42% of the voters, but located far from the other cities Nashville, with 26% of the voters, near the center of the state Knoxville, with 17% of the voters Chattanooga, with 15% of the votersThe preferences of the voters would be divided like this: Assuming all of the voters vote sincerely (strategic voting is discussed below), the results would be as follows, by percentage: In the first round, no candidate has an absolute majority of first-place votes (51).
An example:
Memphis, having the most last-place votes (26+15+17=58), is therefore eliminated.
In the second round, Memphis is out of the running, and so must be factored out. Memphis was ranked first on Group A's ballots, so the second choice of Group A, Nashville, gets an additional 42 first-place votes, giving it an absolute majority of first-place votes (68 versus 15+17=32), and making it the winner.
Note that the last-place votes are only used to eliminate a candidate in a voting round where no candidate achieves an absolute majority; they are disregarded in a round where any candidate has 51% or more. Thus last-place votes play no role in the final round.
Use:
The voting rounds used in the reality television program Survivor could be considered a variation of Coombs' method, with sequential voting rounds. Everyone votes for one candidate they support for elimination each round, and the candidate with a plurality of that vote is eliminated. A strategy difference is that sequential rounds of voting means the elimination choice is fixed in a ranked ballot Coombs' method until that candidate is eliminated.
Potential for strategic voting:
The Coombs' method is vulnerable to three tactical voting strategies: compromising, push-over, and teaming. Coombs is sensitive to incomplete ballots, and how voters fill in the bottom of their ballots makes a big difference.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Wechsler Memory Scale**
Wechsler Memory Scale:
The Wechsler Memory Scale (WMS) is a neuropsychological test designed to measure different memory functions in a person. Anyone ages 16 to 90 is eligible to take this test. The current version is the fourth edition (WMS-IV) which was published in 2009 and which was designed to be used with the WAIS-IV. A person's performance is reported as five Index Scores: Auditory Memory, Visual Memory, Visual Working Memory, Immediate Memory, and Delayed Memory. The WMS-IV also incorporates an optional cognitive exam (Brief Cognitive Status Exam) that helps to assess global cognitive functioning in people with suspected memory deficits or those who have been diagnosed with a various neural, psychiatric and/or developmental disorders. This may include conditions such as dementias or mild learning difficulties.There is clear evidence that the WMS differentiates clinical groups (such as those with dementias or neurological disorders) from those with normal memory functioning and that the primary index scores can distinguish among the memory-impaired clinical groups.
History:
The original WMS was published by The Psychological Corporation (later acquired by Pearson), first in 1945, with revisions in 1987, 1997, and 2009.The WMS-IV was normed with the WAIS-IV in the United States. This resulted in a representative normative sample of 1,400 adults (between the ages of 16 and 90) who completed both scales.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**C3-Benzenes**
C3-Benzenes:
The C3-benzenes are a class of organic aromatic compounds which contain a benzene ring and three other carbon atoms.
For the hydrocarbons with no further unsaturation, there are four isomers. The chemical formula for all the saturated isomers is C9H12.
There are three trimethylbenzenes, three ethylmetylbenzenes, and two propylbenzene isomers. Petrol (gasoline) can contain 3-4% C3-benzenes.
Other:
Saturated 1,2-Ethylmethylbenzene 1,3-Ethylmethylbenzene 1,4-Ethylmethylbenzene Cumene n-Propylbenzene Unsaturated trans-Propenylbenzene 4-Vinyltoluene
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Operational definition**
Operational definition:
An operational definition specifies concrete, replicable procedures designed to represent a construct. In the words of American psychologist S.S. Stevens (1935), "An operation is the performance which we execute in order to make known a concept." For example, an operational definition of "fear" (the construct) often includes measurable physiologic responses that occur in response to a perceived threat. Thus, "fear" might be operationally defined as specified changes in heart rate, galvanic skin response, pupil dilation, and blood pressure.
Overview:
An operational definition is designed to model or represent a concept or theoretical definition, also known as a construct. Scientists should describe the operations (procedures, actions, or processes) that define the concept with enough specificity such that other investigators can replicate their research.Operational definitions are also used to define system states in terms of a specific, publicly accessible process of preparation or validation testing. For example, 100 degrees Celsius may be operationally defined as the process of heating water at sea level until it is observed to boil.
Overview:
A cake can be operationally defined by a cake recipe.
Application:
Despite the controversial philosophical origins of the concept, particularly its close association with logical positivism, operational definitions have undisputed practical applications. This is especially so in the social and medical sciences, where operational definitions of key terms are used to preserve the unambiguous empirical testability of hypothesis and theory. Operational definitions are also important in the physical sciences.
Application:
Philosophy The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on scientific realism, written by Richard Boyd, indicates that the modern concept owes its origin in part to Percy Williams Bridgman, who felt that the expression of scientific concepts was often abstract and unclear. Inspired by Ernst Mach, in 1914 Bridgman attempted to redefine unobservable entities concretely in terms of the physical and mental operations used to measure them. Accordingly, the definition of each unobservable entity was uniquely identified with the instrumentation used to define it. From the beginning objections were raised to this approach, in large part around the inflexibility. As Boyd notes, "In actual, and apparently reliable, scientific practice, changes in the instrumentation associated with theoretical terms are routine. and apparently crucial to the progress of science. According to a 'pure' operationalist conception, these sorts of modifications would not be methodologically acceptable, since each definition must be considered to identify a unique 'object' (or class of objects)." However, this rejection of operationalism as a general project destined ultimately to define all experiential phenomena uniquely did not mean that operational definitions ceased to have any practical use or that they could not be applied in particular cases.
Application:
Science The special theory of relativity can be viewed as the introduction of operational definitions for simultaneity of events and of distance, that is, as providing the operations needed to define these terms.In quantum mechanics the notion of operational definitions is closely related to the idea of observables, that is, definitions based upon what can be measured.Operational definitions are often most challenging in the fields of psychology and psychiatry, where intuitive concepts, such as intelligence need to be operationally defined before they become amenable to scientific investigation, for example, through processes such as IQ tests.
Application:
Business On October 15, 1970, the West Gate Bridge in Melbourne, Australia collapsed, killing 35 construction workers. The subsequent enquiry found that the failure arose because engineers had specified the supply of a quantity of flat steel plate. The word flat in this context lacked an operational definition, so there was no test for accepting or rejecting a particular shipment or for controlling quality.
Application:
In his managerial and statistical writings, W. Edwards Deming placed great importance on the value of using operational definitions in all agreements in business. As he said: "An operational definition is a procedure agreed upon for translation of a concept into measurement of some kind." – W. Edwards Deming"There is no true value of any characteristic, state, or condition that is defined in terms of measurement or observation. Change of procedure for measurement (change of operational definition) or observation produces a new number." – W. Edwards Deming General process Operational, in a process context, also can denote a working method or a philosophy that focuses principally on cause and effect relationships (or stimulus/response, behavior, etc.) of specific interest to a particular domain at a particular point in time. As a working method, it does not consider issues related to a domain that are more general, such as the ontological, etc.
Application:
In computing Science uses computing. Computing uses science. We have seen the development of computer science. There are not many who can bridge all three of these. One effect is that, when results are obtained using a computer, the results can be impossible to replicate if the code is poorly documented, contains errors, or if parts are omitted entirely.Many times, issues are related to persistence and clarity of use of variables, functions, and so forth. Also, systems dependence is an issue. In brief, length (as a standard) has matter as its definitional basis. What pray tell can be used when standards are to be computationally framed? Hence, operational definition can be used within the realm of the interactions of humans with advanced computational systems. In this sense, one area of discourse deals with computational thinking in, and with how it might influence, the sciences. To quote the American Scientist: The computer revolution has profoundly affected how we think about science, experimentation, and research.One referenced project pulled together fluid experts, including some who were expert in the numeric modeling related to computational fluid dynamics, in a team with computer scientists. Essentially, it turned out that the computer guys did not know enough to weigh in as much as they would have liked. Thus, their role, to their chagrin, many times was "mere" programmer.
Application:
Some knowledge-based engineering projects experienced similarly that there is a trade-off between trying to teach programming to a domain expert versus getting a programmer to understand the intricacies of a domain. That, of course, depends upon the domain. In short, any team member has to decide which side of the coin to spend one's time.
Application:
The International Society for Technology in Education has a brochure detailing an "operational definition" of computational thinking. At the same time, the ISTE made an attempt at defining related skills.A recognized skill is tolerance for ambiguity and being able to handle open-ended problems. For instance, a knowledge-based engineering system can enhance its operational aspect and thereby its stability through more involvement by the subject-matter expert, thereby opening up issues of limits that are related to being human. As in, many times, computational results have to be taken at face value due to several factors (hence the duck test's necessity arises) that even an expert cannot overcome. The end proof may be the final results (reasonable facsimile by simulation or artifact, working design, etc.) that are not guaranteed to be repeatable, may have been costly to attain (time and money), and so forth.
Application:
In advanced modeling, with the requisite computational support such as knowledge-based engineering, mappings must be maintained between a real-world object, its abstracted counterparts as defined by the domain and its experts, and the computer models. Mismatches between domain models and their computational mirrors can raise issues apropos this topic. Techniques that allow the flexible modeling required for many hard problems must resolve issues of identity, type, etc. which then lead to methods, such as duck typing. Many domains, with a numerics focus, use limit theory, of various sorts, to overcome the duck test necessity with varying degrees of success. Yet, with that, issues still remain as representational frameworks bear heavily on what we can know.
Application:
In arguing for an object-based methodology, Peter Wegner suggested that "positivist scientific philosophies, such as operationalism in physics and behaviorism in psychology" were powerfully applied in the early part of the 20th century. However, computation has changed the landscape. He notes that we need to distinguish four levels of "irreversible physical and computational abstraction" (Platonic abstraction, computational approximation, functional abstraction, and value computation). Then, we must rely on interactive methods, that have behavior as their focus (see duck test).
Examples:
Temperature The thermodynamic definition of temperature, due to Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot, refers to heat "flowing" between "infinite reservoirs". This is all highly abstract and unsuited for the day-to-day world of science and trade. In order to make the idea concrete, temperature is defined in terms of operations with the gas thermometer. However, these are sophisticated and delicate instruments, only adapted to the national standardization laboratory.
Examples:
For day-to-day use, the International Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS) is used, defining temperature in terms of characteristics of the several specific sensor types required to cover the full range. One such is the electrical resistance of a thermistor, with specified construction, calibrated against operationally defined fixed points.
Electric current Electric current is defined in terms of the force between two infinite parallel conductors, separated by a specified distance. This definition is too abstract for practical measurement, so a device known as a current balance is used to define the ampere operationally.
Examples:
Mechanical hardness Unlike temperature and electric current, there is no abstract physical concept of the hardness of a material. It is a slightly vague, subjective idea, somewhat like the idea of intelligence. In fact, it leads to three more specific ideas: Scratch hardness measured on Mohs' scale; Indentation hardness; and Rebound, or dynamic, hardness measured with a Shore scleroscope.Of these, indentation hardness itself leads to many operational definitions, the most important of which are: Brinell hardness test – using a 10 mm steel ball; Vickers hardness test – using a pyramidal diamond indenter; and Rockwell hardness test – using a diamond cone indenter.In all these, a process is defined for loading the indenter, measuring the resulting indentation, and calculating a hardness number. Each of these three sequences of measurement operations produces numbers that are consistent with our subjective idea of hardness. The harder the material to our informal perception, the greater the number it will achieve on our respective hardness scales. Furthermore, experimental results obtained using these measurement methods has shown that the hardness number can be used to predict the stress required to permanently deform steel, a characteristic that fits in well with our idea of resistance to permanent deformation. However, there is not always a simple relationship between the various hardness scales. Vickers and Rockwell hardness numbers exhibit qualitatively different behaviour when used to describe some materials and phenomena.
Examples:
The constellation Virgo The constellation Virgo is a specific constellation of stars in the sky, hence the process of forming Virgo cannot be an operational definition, since it is historical and not repeatable. Nevertheless, the process whereby we locate Virgo in the sky is repeatable, so in this way, Virgo is operationally defined. In fact, Virgo can have any number of definitions (although we can never prove that we are talking about the same Virgo), and any number may be operational.
Examples:
Academic discipline New academic disciplines appear in response to interdisciplinary activity at universities. An academic suggested that a subject matter area becomes a discipline when there are more than a dozen university departments using the same name for roughly the same subject matter.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Fractography**
Fractography:
Fractography is the study of the fracture surfaces of materials. Fractographic methods are routinely used to determine the cause of failure in engineering structures, especially in product failure and the practice of forensic engineering or failure analysis. In material science research, fractography is used to develop and evaluate theoretical models of crack growth behavior.
Fractography:
One of the aims of fractographic examination is to determine the cause of failure by studying the characteristics of a fractured surface. Different types of crack growth (e.g. fatigue, stress corrosion cracking, hydrogen embrittlement) produce characteristic features on the surface, which can be used to help identify the failure mode. The overall pattern of cracking can be more important than a single crack, however, especially in the case of brittle materials like ceramics and glasses.
Usage:
Fractography is a widely used technique in forensic engineering, forensic materials engineering and fracture mechanics to understand the causes of failures and also to verify theoretical failure predictions with real life failures. It is of use in forensic science for analysing broken products which have been used as weapons, such as broken bottles for example. Thus a defendant might claim that a bottle was faulty and broke accidentally when it impacted a victim of an assault. Fractography could show the allegation to be false, and that considerable force was needed to smash the bottle before using the broken end as a weapon to deliberately attack the victim. Bullet holes in glass windscreens or windows can also indicate the direction of impact and the energy of the projectile. In these cases, the overall pattern of cracking is vital to reconstructing the sequence of events, rather than the specific characteristics of a single crack. Fractography can determine whether a cause of train derailment was a faulty rail, or if a wing of a plane had fatigue cracks before a crash.
Usage:
Fractography is used also in materials research, since fracture properties can correlate with other properties and with structure of materials.
Feature identification:
Origin An important aim of fractography is to establish and examine the origin of cracking, as examination at the origin may reveal the cause of crack initiation. Initial fractographic examination is commonly carried out on a macro scale utilising low power optical microscopy and oblique lighting techniques to identify the extent of cracking, possible modes and likely origins. Optical microscopy or macrophotography are often enough to pinpoint the nature of the failure and the causes of crack initiation and growth if the loading pattern is known.
Feature identification:
Common features that may cause crack initiation are inclusions, voids or empty holes in the material, contamination, and stress concentrations.
Feature identification:
Fatigue crack growth The image of a broken crankshaft shows the component failed from a surface defect near the bulb at lower centre. The semi-circular marks near the origin indicate a crack growing up into the bulk material by process known as fatigue. The crankshaft also shows hachures, which are the lines on fracture surfaces that can be traced back to the origin of the fracture. Some modes of crack growth can leave characteristic marks on the surface that identify the mode of crack growth and origin on a macro scale e.g. beachmarks or striations on fatigue cracks.
Microscopy:
Microscopes can be used to determine the initiation point and the mechanism that caused crack growth. The information can be obtained from images of the fracture surface known as fractographs and used in constructing diagrams. A schematic fracture surface map can be used to isolate and identify the features on the surface which show how the product failed. Such a map can be a valuable way of presenting information which shows clearly how a crack was initiated which grew with time.
Microscopy:
USB Microscopy USB microscopes are especially useful for examining fracture surface features since they are small enough to be hand-held. A variety of camera sizes and resolution are available commercially at low cost. The camera cable plugs into the computer via a USB plug and most such devices come with illumination at the camera supplied by LED lights.
Microscopy:
Scanning electron microscopy In many cases, fractography requires examination at a finer scale, which is usually carried out in a scanning electron microscope or SEM. The resolution is much higher than the optical microscope, although samples are examined in a partial vacuum and colour is absent. Improved SEM's now allow examination at near atmospheric pressures, so allowing examination of sensitive materials such as those of biological origin. The SEM is especially useful when combined with Energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy or EDX, which can be performed in the microscope, so very small areas of the sample can be analysed for their elemental composition.
Example:
Breast implant A cusp is formed where brittle cracks meet, as shown on the picture of a failed catheter (Cp). The cusp was formed by brittle failure of the catheter on a breast implant in silicone rubber. The origin of the cracks is at the shoulder at the left-hand side. Identifying such features will allow a fracture surface map to be made of the surface being studied. The implant failed because of overload, all the imposed loads being concentrated at the connection between the catheter and the bag holding salt solution. As a result, the patient reported loss of fluid from the implant, and it was extracted surgically and replaced.
Example:
In the case of the failed breast implant catheter, the crack path was very simple, but the cause more subtle. Further scanning electron microscopy showed numerous microcracks between the bag and the catheter, indicating that the adhesive bond between the two components had failed prematurely, perhaps through faulty manufacture. The material of construction of both bag and catheter, silicone rubber is a physically weak elastomer, and product design must allow for the low tear or shear strength of the material.
Example:
Maritime Patrol Aircraft A non-critical crack occurred in the fastener hole of a lower wing plank. The plank was made from a 3.2 mm thick AA7075-T6 aluminium alloy. The time of the detection of the crack and the aircraft's counting g-meter allowed investigators to find out the load on the aircraft from use. The cracks on an SEM showed evidence and patterns of fatigue. The cyclic load and fatigue appeared to have progressively gone worse with some cracks being large and others being small in length and width indicating occasional force stronger than 2> g's. The g-meter showed that the aircraft had flown 2,500 flights, with the g force and acceleration occasionally exceeding more than 2 G's. This was more than the maximum advertised for the manufacturer. The conclusion was that fatigue and cracks should be inspected regularly on old or commonly used aircraft. The study also found novel ways for Quantitative fractography to be used on aircraft, which compares load history (in this case the g-meter) and records of the alloy experiencing fatigue in a lab setting with different pressure, cycles, and temperatures. The study used the database of cracks to create a model that predicts forces and crack progression.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Retirement home**
Retirement home:
A retirement home – sometimes called an old people's home, old folks' home, or old age home, although old people's home can also refer to a nursing home – is a multi-residence housing facility intended for the elderly. Typically, each person or couple in the home has an apartment-style room or suite of rooms with an en-suite bathroom. Additional facilities are provided within the building. This can include facilities for meals, gatherings, recreation activities, and some form of health or hospital care. A place in a retirement home can be paid for on a rental basis, like an apartment, or can be bought in perpetuity on the same basis as a condominium.A retirement home differs from a nursing home primarily in the level of medical care given. Retirement communities, unlike retirement homes, offer separate and autonomous homes for residents.
Retirement home:
Retirement homes offer meal-making and some personal care services. Assisted living facilities, memory care facilities and nursing homes can all be referred to as retirement homes. The cost of living in a retirement home varies from $25,000 to $100,000 per year, although it can exceed this range, according to Senior Living Near Me's senior housing guide.In the United Kingdom, there were about 750,000 places across 25,000 retirement housing schemes in 2021 with a forecast that numbers would grow by nearly 10% over the next five years.
United States:
Proper design is integral to the experience within retirement homes, especially for those experiencing dementia. Wayfinding and spatial orientation become difficult for residents with dementia, causing confusion, agitation and a general decline in the physical and mental wellbeing.
United States:
Signage Those living with dementia often display difficulty with distinguishing relevance of information within signage. This phenomenon can be attributed to a combination of fixative behaviors as well as a tendency towards non discriminatory reading. Therefore in creating appropriate signage for retirement homes, we must first consider the who, what, when, where, and why of the design and placement of signage. Considering the “who” of the user requires an understanding of those who interact with North American care homes. This group includes staff and visitors, however understandable wayfinding is most important for residents experiencing dementia. This then leads to “what” kind of information should be presented. Important information for staff, visitors, and patients covers a great variety, and altogether the amount of signage required directly conflicts with the ideal of reducing distraction, overstimulation, and non-discriminatory reading for those within retirement homes. This is where the “when”, “where”, and “why” of signage must be addressed. In deciding “when” information should be presented, Tetsuya argues that it is “important that essential visual information be provided at a relatively early stage in walking routes.” Therefore, we can assume that immediately relevant information such as the direction of available facilities should be placed near the entrance of patient rooms, or at the end of hallways housing patient rooms. This observation also leads into “where” appropriate placement would be for information, and “why” it is being presented. In regards to wayfinding signage, making navigation as understandable as possible can be achieved by avoiding distraction while navigating. Addressing this, Romedi Passini suggests that “graphic wayfinding information notices along circulation routes should be clear and limited in number and other information should be placed somewhere else.” Signage not related to wayfinding can be distracting if placed nearby, and detract from the effectiveness of wayfinding signage. Instead, Passini suggests “to create little alcoves specifically designed for posting public announcements, invitations, and publicity.” These alcoves would best be placed in areas of low stimulation, as they would be better understood in a context that is not overwhelming. In a study done by Kristen Day, it was observed that areas of high stimulation were “found to occur in elevators, corridors, nursing stations, bathing rooms, and other residents’ rooms, whereas low stimulation has been observed in activity and dining rooms”. As of such, we can assume that activity and dining rooms would be the best place for these alcoves to reside.
United States:
Architectural cues Another relevant method of wayfinding is the presence of architectural cues within North American senior retirement homes. This method is most often considered during the design of new senior care centers, however there are still multiple items that can easily be implemented within existing care homes as well. Architectural cues can impact residents by communicating purpose through the implied use of a setting or object, assisting in navigation without the need for cognitive mapping, and making areas more accessible and less distressing for those with decreased mobility. We will investigate how architectural cues communicate purpose and influence the behavior of residents. In a case study by Passini,“a patient, seeing a doorbell (for night use) at the hospital, immediately decided to ring”. This led to the conclusion that “architectural elements … determine to a certain extent the behavior of less independent patients.” In considering the influence of architectural cues on residents, this becomes an important observation, as it suggests that positive behavior can be encouraged through the use of careful planning of rooms. This claim is further supported in a case study by Day, in which “frequency of toilet use increased dramatically when toilets were visibly accessible to residents.” Having toilets placed within the sight lines of the residents encourages behavior of more frequently visiting the washroom, lessening the burden on nursing staff as well as leading to increased health of the residents. This communication of purpose though learned behavior can translate into creating more legible interior design as well. Through the use of distinctive furniture and flooring such as a bookshelf in a communal living room, the functionality and differentiation of spaces can become much easier for residents to navigate. Improving environmental legibility can also be useful in assisting with navigation within a care home.
United States:
Assistance in navigation through reducing a need for complicated cognitive mapping is an asset that can be achieved in multiple ways within care centers. Visual landmarks existing in both architectural and interior design helps provide differentiation between spaces. Burton notes “residents reported that...landmarks (features such as clocks and plants at key sections of corridors)[were useful in wayfinding]" Navigating using distinct landmarks can also define individual resident rooms. Tetsuya suggests that “doors of residents' rooms should have differentiated characteristics” in order to help in differentiating their own personal rooms. This can be done through the use of personal objects placed on or beside doorways, or in providing distinctive doors for each room. Finally, considering accessibility is integral in designing architecture within care homes. Many members of the senior community require the use of equipment and mobility aids. As such, requirements of these items must be considered in designing a senior specific space. Open and clear routes of travel benefit the user by clearly directing residents along the path and reducing difficulty caused by the use of mobility aids. Similarly, creating shorter routes of travel by moving fundamental facilities such as the dining room closer to patient rooms has also been shown to reduce anxiety and distress. Moving between spaces becomes simpler, avoiding high stimulation areas such as elevators while also assisting wayfinding by making a simpler, smaller layout. Each of these methods can be achieved through the use of open core spaces. These spaces integrate multiple rooms into a single open concept space, "giving visual access and allowing a certain understanding of space without having to integrate into an ensemble that is perceived in parts, which is the most difficult aspect of cognitive mapping". In integrating more open core spaces into North American senior facilities, spaces become more accessible and easier to navigate.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Calciferous sandstone**
Calciferous sandstone:
Calciferous sandstone is a geological term relating to strata at the base of the Carboniferous formation, below the entire sequence of coal measures. This term may be unique to the UK.
Typically this part of the geological sequence, as in the Touch Hills and Fintry Hills to the west of Stirling tends to contain a mixture of lavas and sedimentary rocks, including sandstone and mudstone, and lies unconformably on top of older Devonian strata.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Virasoro algebra**
Virasoro algebra:
In mathematics, the Virasoro algebra (named after the physicist Miguel Ángel Virasoro) is a complex Lie algebra and the unique central extension of the Witt algebra. It is widely used in two-dimensional conformal field theory and in string theory.
Definition:
The Virasoro algebra is spanned by generators Ln for n ∈ ℤ and the central charge c.
These generators satisfy [c,Ln]=0 and The factor of 12 is merely a matter of convention. For a derivation of the algebra as the unique central extension of the Witt algebra, see derivation of the Virasoro algebra.
The Virasoro algebra has a presentation in terms of two generators (e.g. L3 and L−2) and six relations.
Representation theory:
Highest weight representations A highest weight representation of the Virasoro algebra is a representation generated by a primary state: a vector v such that Ln>0v=0,L0v=hv, where the number h is called the conformal dimension or conformal weight of v .A highest weight representation is spanned by eigenstates of L0 . The eigenvalues take the form h+N , where the integer N≥0 is called the level of the corresponding eigenstate.
Representation theory:
More precisely, a highest weight representation is spanned by L0 -eigenstates of the type L−n1L−n2⋯L−nkv with 0<n1≤n2≤⋯nk and k≥0 , whose levels are N=∑i=1kni . Any state whose level is not zero is called a descendant state of v For any pair of complex numbers h and c, the Verma module Vc,h is the largest possible highest weight representation. (The same letter c is used for both the element c of the Virasoro algebra and its eigenvalue in a representation.) The states L−n1L−n2⋯L−nkv with 0<n1≤n2≤⋯nk and k≥0 form a basis of the Verma module. The Verma module is indecomposable, and for generic values of h and c it is also irreducible. When it is reducible, there exist other highest weight representations with these values of h and c, called degenerate representations, which are cosets of the Verma module. In particular, the unique irreducible highest weight representation with these values of h and c is the quotient of the Verma module by its maximal submodule.
Representation theory:
A Verma module is irreducible if and only if it has no singular vectors.
Singular vectors A singular vector or null vector of a highest weight representation is a state that is both descendent and primary.
A sufficient condition for the Verma module Vc,h to have a singular vector at the level N is h=hr,s(c) for some positive integers r,s such that N=rs , with where c=1+6(b+b−1)2.
Representation theory:
In particular, h1,1(c)=0 , and the reducible Verma module Vc,0 has a singular vector L−1v at the level N=1 . Then h2,1(c)=−12−34b2 , and the corresponding reducible Verma module has a singular vector (L−12+b2L−2)v at the level N=2 This condition for the existence of a singular vector at the level N is not necessary. In particular, there is a singular vector at the level N if N=rs+r′s′ with h=hr,s(c) and h+rs=hr′,s′(c) . This singular vector is now a descendent of another singular vector at the level rs . This type of singular vectors can however only exist if the central charge is of the type with p,q∈Z .(For p>q≥2 coprime, these are the central charges of the minimal models.) Hermitian form and unitarity A highest weight representation with a real value of c has a unique Hermitian form such that the Hermitian adjoint of Ln is Ln†=L−n and the norm of the primary state is one.
Representation theory:
The representation is called unitary if that Hermitian form is positive definite. Since any singular vector has zero norm, all unitary highest weight representations are irreducible.
Representation theory:
The Gram determinant of a basis of the level N is given by the Kac determinant formula, AN∏1≤r,s≤N(h−hr,s(c))p(N−rs), where the function p(N) is the partition function, and AN is a positive constant that does not depend on h or c . The Kac determinant formula was stated by V. Kac (1978), and its first published proof was given by Feigin and Fuks (1984).
Representation theory:
The irreducible highest weight representation with values h and c is unitary if and only if either c ≥ 1 and h ≥ 0, or 10 25 28 ,…} and h is one of the values h=hr,s(c)=((m+1)r−ms)2−14m(m+1) for r = 1, 2, 3, ..., m − 1 and s = 1, 2, 3, ..., r.
Daniel Friedan, Zongan Qiu, and Stephen Shenker (1984) showed that these conditions are necessary, and Peter Goddard, Adrian Kent, and David Olive (1986) used the coset construction or GKO construction (identifying unitary representations of the Virasoro algebra within tensor products of unitary representations of affine Kac–Moody algebras) to show that they are sufficient.
Characters The character of a representation R of the Virasoro algebra is the function Tr 24 .
The character of the Verma module Vc,h is 24 24 24 (1+q+2q2+3q3+5q4+⋯), where η is the Dedekind eta function.
Representation theory:
For any c∈C and for r,s∈N∗ , the Verma module Vc,hr,s is reducible due to the existence of a singular vector at level rs . This singular vector generates a submodule, which is isomorphic to the Verma module Vc,hr,s+rs . The quotient of Vc,hr,s by this submodule is irreducible if Vc,hr,s does not have other singular vectors, and its character is χVc,hr,s/Vc,hr,s+rs=χVc,hr,s−χVc,hr,s+rs=(1−qrs)χVc,hr,s.
Representation theory:
Let c=cp,p′ with 2≤p<p′ and p,p′ coprime, and 1≤r≤p−1 and 1≤s≤p′−1 . (Then (r,s) is in the Kac table of the corresponding minimal model). The Verma module Vc,hr,s has infinitely many singular vectors, and is therefore reducible with infinitely many submodules. This Verma module has an irreducible quotient by its largest nontrivial submodule. (The spectrums of minimal models are built from such irreducible representations.) The character of the irreducible quotient is χVc,hr,s/(Vc,hr,s+rs+Vc,hr,s+(p−r)(p′−s))=∑k∈Z(χVc,14pp′((p′r−ps+2kpp′)2−(p−p′)2)−χVc,14pp′((p′r+ps+2kpp′)2−(p−p′)2)).
Representation theory:
This expression is an infinite sum because the submodules Vc,hr,s+rs and Vc,hr,s+(p−r)(p′−s) have a nontrivial intersection, which is itself a complicated submodule.
Applications:
Conformal field theory In two dimensions, the algebra of local conformal transformations is made of two copies of the Witt algebra.
It follows that the symmetry algebra of two-dimensional conformal field theory is the Virasoro algebra. Technically, the conformal bootstrap approach to two-dimensional CFT relies on Virasoro conformal blocks, special functions that include and generalize the characters of representations of the Virasoro algebra.
Applications:
String theory Since the Virasoro algebra comprises the generators of the conformal group of the worldsheet, the stress tensor in string theory obeys the commutation relations of (two copies of) the Virasoro algebra. This is because the conformal group decomposes into separate diffeomorphisms of the forward and back lightcones. Diffeomorphism invariance of the worldsheet implies additionally that the stress tensor vanishes. This is known as the Virasoro constraint, and in the quantum theory, cannot be applied to all the states in the theory, but rather only on the physical states (compare Gupta–Bleuler formalism).
Generalizations:
Super Virasoro algebras There are two supersymmetric N = 1 extensions of the Virasoro algebra, called the Neveu–Schwarz algebra and the Ramond algebra. Their theory is similar to that of the Virasoro algebra, now involving Grassmann numbers. There are further extensions of these algebras with more supersymmetry, such as the N = 2 superconformal algebra.
W-algebras W-algebras are associative algebras which contain the Virasoro algebra, and which play an important role in two-dimensional conformal field theory. Among W-algebras, the Virasoro algebra has the particularity of being a Lie algebra.
Affine Lie algebras The Virasoro algebra is a subalgebra of the universal enveloping algebra of any affine Lie algebra, as shown by the Sugawara construction. In this sense, affine Lie algebras are extensions of the Virasoro algebra.
Meromorphic vector fields on Riemann surfaces The Virasoro algebra is a central extension of the Lie algebra of meromorphic vector fields with two poles on a genus 0 Riemann surface.
On a higher-genus compact Riemann surface, the Lie algebra of meromorphic vector fields with two poles also has a central extension, which is a generalization of the Virasoro algebra. This can be further generalized to supermanifolds.
Vertex algebras and conformal algebras The Virasoro algebra also has vertex algebraic and conformal algebraic counterparts, which basically come from arranging all the basis elements into generating series and working with single objects.
History:
The Witt algebra (the Virasoro algebra without the central extension) was discovered by É. Cartan (1909). Its analogues over finite fields were studied by E. Witt in about the 1930s. The central extension of the Witt algebra that gives the Virasoro algebra was first found (in characteristic p > 0) by R. E. Block (1966, page 381) and independently rediscovered (in characteristic 0) by I. M. Gelfand and Dmitry Fuchs (1968). Virasoro (1970) wrote down some operators generating the Virasoro algebra (later known as the Virasoro operators) while studying dual resonance models, though he did not find the central extension. The central extension giving the Virasoro algebra was rediscovered in physics shortly after by J. H. Weis, according to Brower and Thorn (1971, footnote on page 167).
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**Voiceless alveolar fricative**
Voiceless alveolar fricative:
The voiceless alveolar fricatives are a type of fricative consonant pronounced with the tip or blade of the tongue against the alveolar ridge (gum line) just behind the teeth. This refers to a class of sounds, not a single sound. There are at least six types with significant perceptual differences: The voiceless alveolar sibilant [s] has a strong hissing sound, as the s in English sink. It is one of the most common sounds in the world.
Voiceless alveolar fricative:
The voiceless denti-alveolar sibilant [s̄] (an ad hoc notation), also called apico-dental, has a weaker lisping sound like English th in thin. It occurs in Spanish dialects in southern Spain (eastern Andalusia).
Voiceless alveolar fricative:
The voiceless alveolar retracted sibilant [s̠], and the subform apico-alveolar [s̺], or called grave, has a weak hushing sound reminiscent of retroflex fricatives. It is used in the languages of northern Iberia, like Asturleonese, Basque, Castilian Spanish (excluding parts of Andalusia), Catalan, Galician, and Northern European Portuguese. A similar retracted sibilant form is also used in Dutch, Icelandic, some southern dialects of Swedish, Finnish, and Greek. Its sound is between [s] and [ʃ].
Voiceless alveolar fricative:
The voiceless alveolar non-sibilant fricative [θ̠] or [θ͇], using the alveolar diacritic from the Extended IPA, is similar to the th in English thin. It occurs in Icelandic as well as an intervocalic and word-final allophone of English /t/ in dialects such as Hiberno-English and Scouse.
Voiceless alveolar fricative:
The voiceless alveolar lateral fricative [ɬ] sounds like a voiceless, strongly articulated version of English l (somewhat like what the English cluster **hl would sound like) and is written as ll in Welsh.The first three types are sibilants, meaning that they are made by directing a stream of air with the tongue towards the teeth and have a piercing, perceptually prominent sound.
Voiceless alveolar sibilant:
The voiceless alveolar sibilant is a common consonant sound in vocal languages. It is the sound in English words such as sea and pass, and is represented in the International Phonetic Alphabet with ⟨s⟩. It has a characteristic high-pitched, highly perceptible hissing sound. For this reason, it is often used to get someone's attention, using a call often written as sssst! or psssst!.
Voiceless alveolar sibilant:
The voiceless alveolar sibilant [s] is one of the most common sounds cross-linguistically. If a language has fricatives, it will most likely have [s]. However, some languages have a related sibilant sound, such as [ʃ], but no [s]. In addition, sibilants are absent from most Australian Aboriginal languages, in which fricatives are rare; however, [s] does occur in Kalaw Lagaw Ya.
Voiceless apico-alveolar sibilant:
The voiceless alveolar retracted sibilant (commonly termed the voiceless apico-alveolar sibilant) is a fricative that is articulated with the tongue in a hollow shape, usually with the tip of the tongue (apex) against the alveolar ridge. It is a sibilant sound and is found most notably in a number of languages in a linguistic area covering northern and central Iberia. It is most well known from its occurrence in the Spanish of this area. In the Middle Ages, it occurred in a wider area, covering Romance languages spoken throughout France, Portugal, and Spain, as well as Old High German and Middle High German.
Voiceless apico-alveolar sibilant:
Occurrence in Europe Modern In Romance languages, it occurs as the normal voiceless alveolar sibilant in Astur-Leonese, Castilian Spanish, Catalan, Galician, northern European Portuguese, and some Occitan dialects. It also occurs in Basque and Mirandese, where it is opposed to a different voiceless alveolar sibilant, the more common [s]; the same distinction occurs in a few dialects of northeastern Portuguese. Outside this area, it also occurs in a few dialects of Latin American Spanish (e.g. Antioqueño and Pastuso, in Colombia).
Voiceless apico-alveolar sibilant:
Amongst Germanic languages, it occurs in Dutch (and closely related Low German), Icelandic, many dialects in Scandinavia, and working-class Glaswegian English.
It also occurs in Modern Greek (with a laminal articulation), as well as the Baltic languages.
Voiceless apico-alveolar sibilant:
There is no single IPA symbol used for this sound. The symbol ⟨s̺⟩ is often used, with a diacritic indicating an apical pronunciation. However, that is potentially problematic in that not all alveolar retracted sibilants are apical (see below), and not all apical alveolar sibilants are retracted. The ad hoc non-IPA symbols ⟨ṣ⟩ and ⟨S⟩ are often used in the linguistic literature even when IPA symbols are used for other sounds, but ⟨ṣ⟩ is a common transcription of the retroflex sibilant [ʂ].
Voiceless apico-alveolar sibilant:
Medieval In medieval times, it occurred in a wider area, including the Romance languages spoken in most or all of France and Iberia (Old Spanish, Galician-Portuguese, Catalan, French, etc.), as well as in the Old and Middle High German of central and southern Germany, and most likely Northern Germany as well. In all of these languages, the retracted "apico-alveolar" sibilant was opposed to a non-retracted sibilant much like modern English [s], and in many of them, both voiceless and voiced versions of both sounds occurred. A solid type of evidence consists of different spellings used for two different sibilants: in general, the retracted "apico-alveolar" variants were written ⟨s⟩ or ⟨ss⟩, while the non-retracted variants were written ⟨z⟩, ⟨c⟩ or ⟨ç⟩. In the Romance languages, the retracted sibilants derived from Latin /s/, /ss/ or /ns/, while the non-retracted sibilants derived from earlier affricates [t͡s] and [d͡z], which in turn derived from palatalized /k/ or /t/. The situation was similar in High German, where the retracted sibilants derived largely from Proto-Germanic /s/, while the non-retracted sibilants derived from instances of Proto-Germanic /t/ that were shifted by the High German sound shift. Minimal pairs were common in all languages. Examples in Middle High German, for example, were wizzen "to know" (Old English witan, cf. "to wit") vs. wissen "known" (Old English wissen), and wīz "white" (Old English wīt) vs. wīs(e) "way" (Old English wīs, cf. "-wise").
Voiceless apico-alveolar sibilant:
Description of the retracted sibilant Often, to speakers of languages or dialects that do not have the sound, it is said to have a "whistling" quality, and to sound similar to palato-alveolar ʃ. For this reason, when borrowed into such languages or represented with non-Latin characters, it is often replaced with [ʃ]. This occurred, for example, in English borrowings from Old French (e.g. push from pousser, cash from caisse); in Polish borrowings from medieval German (e.g. kosztować from kosten, żur from sūr (contemporary sauer)); and in representations of Mozarabic (an extinct medieval Romance language once spoken in southern Spain) in Arabic characters. The similarity between retracted [s̺] and [ʃ] has resulted in many exchanges in Spanish between the sounds, during the medieval period when Spanish had both phonemes. Examples are jabón (formerly xabón) "soap" from Latin sapō/sapōnem, jibia "cuttlefish" (formerly xibia) from Latin sēpia, and tijeras "scissors" (earlier tixeras < medieval tiseras) from Latin cīsōrias (with initial t- due to influence from tōnsor "shaver").
Voiceless apico-alveolar sibilant:
One of the clearest descriptions of this sound is from Obaid: "There is a Castilian s, which is a voiceless, concave, apicoalveolar fricative: The tip of the tongue turned upward forms a narrow opening against the alveoli of the upper incisors. It resembles a faint /ʃ/ and is found throughout much of the northern half of Spain".
Many dialects of Modern Greek have a very similar-sounding sibilant that is pronounced with a laminal articulation.
Loss of the voiceless alveolar sibilant This distinction has since vanished from most of the languages that once had it in medieval times.
In most dialects of Spanish, the four alveolar sibilants have merged into the non-retracted [s] (seseo). However, in the Spanish of central and northern Spain, the non-retracted [s] was fronted to [θ] after merging with non-retracted [z], while the retracted [s̺] remains (distinción). Distinción is also preserved in Spanish orthography on both sides of the Atlantic.
Voiceless apico-alveolar sibilant:
In French and most dialects of Portuguese, the four alveolar sibilants have merged into non-retracted [s] and [z], while in European Portuguese, most other Old World Portuguese variants and some recently European-influenced dialects of Brazil all instances of coda [s̺], voiced [z̺] before voiced consonants, were backed to [ʃ], while in most of Brazilian Portuguese this phenomenon is much rarer, being essentially absent in the dialects that had a greater indigenous and/or non-Portuguese European influence.
Voiceless apico-alveolar sibilant:
In the remaining dialects of Portuguese, found in northern Portugal, they merged into the retracted [s̺] [z̺], or, as in Mirandese (which is, however, not a Portuguese dialect, but belongs to Asturian-Leonese), conserved the medieval distinction.
Voiceless apico-alveolar sibilant:
In German, [s̺] was early on voiced to [z̺] in prevocalic position. This sound was then fronted to [z], but did not merge with any other sound (except that it was later re-devoiced in some southern dialects). In pre-consonantal and final position, [s̺] merged with either [s] or [ʃ]. The rules for these mergers differ between dialects. In Standard German, [ʃ] is used stem-initially and sporadically after ‹r›. Especially in Alemannic, every pre-consonantal [s̺] became [ʃ].
Voiceless apico-alveolar sibilant:
Loss-causing events Those languages in which the sound occurs typically did not have a phonological process from which either [s] or [ʃ] appeared, two similar sounds with which ⟨s̺⟩ was eventually confused. In general, older European languages only had a single pronunciation of s.
Voiceless apico-alveolar sibilant:
In Romance languages, [s] was reached from -ti-, -ci-, -ce- ([ti], [ki], [ke]) clusters that eventually became [ts], [tsi], [tse] and later [s], [si], [se] (as in Latin fortia "force", civitas "city", centum "hundred"), while [ʃ] was reached: From a [sk] or [ks] cluster in southern Romance, as in Latin miscere > Portuguese mexer "to move", Latin fluxus > Spanish flojo "lax", Latin crescere > Italian crescere "grow", with a different pronunciation.
Voiceless apico-alveolar sibilant:
from a deaffricated [tʃ] in Northern France and southern-central Portugal, as in French chat "cat", Portuguese achar "find".In High German, [s] was reached through a [t] > [ts] > [s] process, as in German Wasser compared to English water. In English, the same process of Romance [ts] > [s] occurred in Norman-imported words, accounting for modern homophones sell and cell. [ʃ] was also reached from a -sk- cluster reduction as in Romance, e.g. Old English spelling asc for modern ash, German schiff and English ship compared to Danish skib.
Voiceless apico-alveolar sibilant:
Exceptions Standard Modern Greek, which has apical [s̺], lacked both processes.
The Germanic-speaking regions that did not have either phenomenon have normally preserved the apical [s̺], that is, Icelandic, Dutch and many Scandinavian lects. It is also found in a minority of Low German dialects.
The main Romance language to preserve the sound, Castilian Spanish, is exceptional in that it had both events that produced [s] and [ʃ], and preserved the apical S at the expense of both, that were shifted farther away. Galician, Catalan and Ladino changed only [s].
Voiceless apico-alveolar sibilant:
Reach in ancient times Because of the widespread medieval distribution, it has been speculated that retracted [s̺] was the normal pronunciation in spoken Latin. Certain borrowings suggest that it was not far off from the sh-sound [ʃ], e.g. Aramaic Jeshua > Greek Ἰησοῦς (Iēsoûs) > Latin Jesus, Hebrew Shabbat > Latin sabbatum; but this could also be explained by the lack of a better sound in Latin to represent Semitic š. It equally well could have been an areal feature inherited from the prehistoric languages of Western Europe, as evidenced by its occurrence in modern Basque.
Voiceless apico-alveolar sibilant:
For the same reasons, it can be speculated that retracted [s̺] was the pronunciation of Proto-Germanic s. Its presence in many branches of Indo-European and its presence particularly in the more conservative languages inside each branch (e.g. Icelandic, Spanish), as well as being found in disparate areas, such as the Baltic languages and Greece, suggests it could have ultimately been the main allophone of Proto-Indo-European s, known for ranging from [s] to as far as [ɕ].
Voiceless apico-alveolar sibilant:
[ʃ], but not [s], was developed in Italian. However, where Spanish and Catalan have apical [s̺], Italian uses the same laminal [s] that occurs in standard forms of English: evidence, it could be argued, that S was not pronounced apically in Latin. But Neapolitan has a medieval S becoming either [s] or [ʃ] depending on context, much as in European Portuguese, which could attest to the previous existence of [s̺] in the Italian Peninsula. The Italian pronunciation as laminal S could also be explained by the presence of [ʃ] but not [s], thus moving the pronunciation of [s̺] to the front of the mouth in an attempt to better differentiate between the two sounds.
Voiceless lamino-dental sibilant:
A voiceless laminal dental or dentialveolar sibilant contrasts with a voiceless apical alveolar or post-alveolar sibilant in Basque and several languages of California, including Luiseño of the Uto-Aztecan family and Kumeyaay of the Yuman family.
Comparison between English and Spanish:
The term "voiceless alveolar sibilant" is potentially ambiguous in that it can refer to at least two different sounds. Various languages of northern Iberia (e.g., Astur-Leonese, Catalan, Basque, Galician, Portuguese and Spanish) have a so-called "voiceless apico-alveolar sibilant" that lacks the strong hissing of the [s] described in this article but has a duller, more "grave" sound quality somewhat reminiscent of a voiceless retroflex sibilant. Basque, Mirandese and some Portuguese dialects in northeast Portugal (as well as medieval Spanish and Portuguese in general) have both types of sounds in the same language.
Comparison between English and Spanish:
There is no general agreement about what actual feature distinguishes these sounds. Spanish phoneticians normally describe the difference as apical (for the northern Iberian sound) vs. laminal (for the more common sound), but Ladefoged and Maddieson claim that English /s/ can be pronounced apically, which is evidently not the same as the apical sibilant of Iberian Spanish and Basque. Also, Adams asserts that many dialects of Modern Greek have a laminal sibilant with a sound quality similar to the "apico-alveolar" sibilant of northern Iberia.
Comparison between English and Spanish:
Some authors have instead suggested that the difference lies in tongue shape. Adams describes the northern Iberian sibilant as "retracted". Ladefoged and Maddieson appear to characterize the more common hissing variant as grooved, and some phoneticians (such as J. Catford) have characterized it as sulcal (which is more or less a synonym of "grooved"), but in both cases, there is some doubt about whether all and only the "hissing" sounds actually have a "grooved" or "sulcal" tongue shape.
Features:
Features of the voiceless alveolar sibilant: Its manner of articulation is sibilant fricative, which means it is generally produced by channeling air flow along a groove in the back of the tongue up to the place of articulation, at which point it is focused against the sharp edge of the nearly clenched teeth, causing high-frequency turbulence.
There are at least three specific variants of [s]: Dentalized laminal alveolar (commonly called "dental"), which means it is articulated with the tongue blade very close to the upper front teeth, with the tongue tip resting behind lower front teeth. The hissing effect in this variety of [s] is very strong.
Non-retracted alveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue at the alveolar ridge, termed respectively apical and laminal. According to Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996) about half of English speakers use a non-retracted apical articulation.
Retracted alveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue slightly behind the alveolar ridge, termed respectively apical and laminal. Acoustically, it is close to laminal [ʂ] or (to a lesser extent) [ʃ].
Its phonation is voiceless, which means it is produced without vibrations of the vocal cords. In some languages the vocal cords are actively separated, so it is always voiceless; in others the cords are lax, so that it may take on the voicing of adjacent sounds.
It is an oral consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only.
It is a central consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue, rather than to the sides.
The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the intercostal muscles and diaphragm, as in most sounds.
Examples:
Dentalized laminal alveolar Non-retracted alveolar Retracted alveolar Variable
Voiceless alveolar non-sibilant fricative:
The voiceless alveolar non-sibilant fricative (also known as a "slit" fricative) is a consonantal sound. As the International Phonetic Alphabet does not have separate symbols for the alveolar consonants (the same symbol is used for all coronal places of articulation that are not palatalized), this sound is usually transcribed ⟨θ̠⟩, occasionally ⟨θ͇⟩ (retracted or alveolarized [θ], respectively), ⟨ɹ̝̊⟩ (constricted voiceless [ɹ]), or ⟨t̞⟩ (lowered [t]).
Voiceless alveolar non-sibilant fricative:
Some scholars also posit the voiceless alveolar approximant distinct from the fricative. The approximant may be represented in the IPA as ⟨ɹ̥⟩.
Voiceless alveolar non-sibilant fricative:
Few languages also have the voiceless alveolar tapped fricative, which is simply a very brief apical alveolar non-sibilant fricative, with the tongue making the gesture for a tapped stop but not making full contact. This can be indicated in the IPA with the lowering diacritic to show full occlusion did not occur.Tapped fricatives are occasionally reported in the literature, though these claims are not generally independently confirmed and so remain dubious.
Voiceless alveolar non-sibilant fricative:
Flapped fricatives are theoretically possible but are not attested.
Features Its manner of articulation is fricative, which means it is produced by constricting air flow through a narrow channel at the place of articulation, causing turbulence. However, it does not have the grooved tongue and directed airflow, or the high frequencies, of a sibilant.
Its place of articulation is alveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue at the alveolar ridge, termed respectively apical and laminal.
Its phonation is voiceless, which means it is produced without vibrations of the vocal cords. In some languages the vocal cords are actively separated, so it is always voiceless; in others the cords are lax, so that it may take on the voicing of adjacent sounds.
It is an oral consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only.
It is a central consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue, rather than to the sides.
The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the intercostal muscles and diaphragm, as in most sounds.
Occurrence
In popular culture:
The voiceless alveolar fricative was used by Capt Jean-Luc Picard in the TNG episode The Big Goodbye in a complicated greeting to representatives of an alien race.
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**Equivalence of categories**
Equivalence of categories:
In category theory, a branch of abstract mathematics, an equivalence of categories is a relation between two categories that establishes that these categories are "essentially the same". There are numerous examples of categorical equivalences from many areas of mathematics. Establishing an equivalence involves demonstrating strong similarities between the mathematical structures concerned. In some cases, these structures may appear to be unrelated at a superficial or intuitive level, making the notion fairly powerful: it creates the opportunity to "translate" theorems between different kinds of mathematical structures, knowing that the essential meaning of those theorems is preserved under the translation.
Equivalence of categories:
If a category is equivalent to the opposite (or dual) of another category then one speaks of a duality of categories, and says that the two categories are dually equivalent.
Equivalence of categories:
An equivalence of categories consists of a functor between the involved categories, which is required to have an "inverse" functor. However, in contrast to the situation common for isomorphisms in an algebraic setting, the composite of the functor and its "inverse" is not necessarily the identity mapping. Instead it is sufficient that each object be naturally isomorphic to its image under this composition. Thus one may describe the functors as being "inverse up to isomorphism". There is indeed a concept of isomorphism of categories where a strict form of inverse functor is required, but this is of much less practical use than the equivalence concept.
Definition:
Formally, given two categories C and D, an equivalence of categories consists of a functor F : C → D, a functor G : D → C, and two natural isomorphisms ε: FG→ID and η : IC→GF. Here FG: D→D and GF: C→C denote the respective compositions of F and G, and IC: C→C and ID: D→D denote the identity functors on C and D, assigning each object and morphism to itself. If F and G are contravariant functors one speaks of a duality of categories instead.
Definition:
One often does not specify all the above data. For instance, we say that the categories C and D are equivalent (respectively dually equivalent) if there exists an equivalence (respectively duality) between them. Furthermore, we say that F "is" an equivalence of categories if an inverse functor G and natural isomorphisms as above exist. Note however that knowledge of F is usually not enough to reconstruct G and the natural isomorphisms: there may be many choices (see example below).
Alternative characterizations:
A functor F : C → D yields an equivalence of categories if and only if it is simultaneously: full, i.e. for any two objects c1 and c2 of C, the map HomC(c1,c2) → HomD(Fc1,Fc2) induced by F is surjective; faithful, i.e. for any two objects c1 and c2 of C, the map HomC(c1,c2) → HomD(Fc1,Fc2) induced by F is injective; and essentially surjective (dense), i.e. each object d in D is isomorphic to an object of the form Fc, for c in C.This is a quite useful and commonly applied criterion, because one does not have to explicitly construct the "inverse" G and the natural isomorphisms between FG, GF and the identity functors. On the other hand, though the above properties guarantee the existence of a categorical equivalence (given a sufficiently strong version of the axiom of choice in the underlying set theory), the missing data is not completely specified, and often there are many choices. It is a good idea to specify the missing constructions explicitly whenever possible.
Alternative characterizations:
Due to this circumstance, a functor with these properties is sometimes called a weak equivalence of categories. (Unfortunately this conflicts with terminology from homotopy type theory.) There is also a close relation to the concept of adjoint functors F⊣G , where we say that F:C→D is the left adjoint of G:D→C , or likewise, G is the right adjoint of F. Then C and D are equivalent (as defined above in that there are natural isomorphisms from FG to ID and IC to GF) if and only if F⊣G and both F and G are full and faithful.
Alternative characterizations:
When adjoint functors F⊣G are not both full and faithful, then we may view their adjointness relation as expressing a "weaker form of equivalence" of categories. Assuming that the natural transformations for the adjunctions are given, all of these formulations allow for an explicit construction of the necessary data, and no choice principles are needed. The key property that one has to prove here is that the counit of an adjunction is an isomorphism if and only if the right adjoint is a full and faithful functor.
Examples:
Consider the category C having a single object c and a single morphism 1c , and the category D with two objects d1 , d2 and four morphisms: two identity morphisms 1d1 , 1d2 and two isomorphisms α:d1→d2 and β:d2→d1 . The categories C and D are equivalent; we can (for example) have F map c to d1 and G map both objects of D to c and all morphisms to 1c By contrast, the category C with a single object and a single morphism is not equivalent to the category E with two objects and only two identity morphisms. The two objects in E are not isomorphic in that there are no morphisms between them. Thus any functor from C to E will not be essentially surjective.
Examples:
Consider a category C with one object c , and two morphisms 1c,f:c→c . Let 1c be the identity morphism on c and set f∘f=1 . Of course, C is equivalent to itself, which can be shown by taking 1c in place of the required natural isomorphisms between the functor IC and itself. However, it is also true that f yields a natural isomorphism from IC to itself. Hence, given the information that the identity functors form an equivalence of categories, in this example one still can choose between two natural isomorphisms for each direction.
Examples:
The category of sets and partial functions is equivalent to but not isomorphic with the category of pointed sets and point-preserving maps.
Examples:
Consider the category C of finite-dimensional real vector spaces, and the category D=Mat(R) of all real matrices (the latter category is explained in the article on additive categories). Then C and D are equivalent: The functor G:D→C which maps the object An of D to the vector space Rn and the matrices in D to the corresponding linear maps is full, faithful and essentially surjective.
Examples:
One of the central themes of algebraic geometry is the duality of the category of affine schemes and the category of commutative rings. The functor G associates to every commutative ring its spectrum, the scheme defined by the prime ideals of the ring. Its adjoint F associates to every affine scheme its ring of global sections.
In functional analysis the category of commutative C*-algebras with identity is contravariantly equivalent to the category of compact Hausdorff spaces. Under this duality, every compact Hausdorff space X is associated with the algebra of continuous complex-valued functions on X , and every commutative C*-algebra is associated with the space of its maximal ideals. This is the Gelfand representation.
Examples:
In lattice theory, there are a number of dualities, based on representation theorems that connect certain classes of lattices to classes of topological spaces. Probably the most well-known theorem of this kind is Stone's representation theorem for Boolean algebras, which is a special instance within the general scheme of Stone duality. Each Boolean algebra B is mapped to a specific topology on the set of ultrafilters of B . Conversely, for any topology the clopen (i.e. closed and open) subsets yield a Boolean algebra. One obtains a duality between the category of Boolean algebras (with their homomorphisms) and Stone spaces (with continuous mappings). Another case of Stone duality is Birkhoff's representation theorem stating a duality between finite partial orders and finite distributive lattices.
Examples:
In pointless topology the category of spatial locales is known to be equivalent to the dual of the category of sober spaces.
For two rings R and S, the product category R-Mod×S-Mod is equivalent to (R×S)-Mod.
Any category is equivalent to its skeleton.
Properties:
As a rule of thumb, an equivalence of categories preserves all "categorical" concepts and properties. If F : C → D is an equivalence, then the following statements are all true: the object c of C is an initial object (or terminal object, or zero object), if and only if Fc is an initial object (or terminal object, or zero object) of D the morphism α in C is a monomorphism (or epimorphism, or isomorphism), if and only if Fα is a monomorphism (or epimorphism, or isomorphism) in D.
Properties:
the functor H : I → C has limit (or colimit) l if and only if the functor FH : I → D has limit (or colimit) Fl. This can be applied to equalizers, products and coproducts among others. Applying it to kernels and cokernels, we see that the equivalence F is an exact functor.
C is a cartesian closed category (or a topos) if and only if D is cartesian closed (or a topos).Dualities "turn all concepts around": they turn initial objects into terminal objects, monomorphisms into epimorphisms, kernels into cokernels, limits into colimits etc.
If F : C → D is an equivalence of categories, and G1 and G2 are two inverses of F, then G1 and G2 are naturally isomorphic.
Properties:
If F : C → D is an equivalence of categories, and if C is a preadditive category (or additive category, or abelian category), then D may be turned into a preadditive category (or additive category, or abelian category) in such a way that F becomes an additive functor. On the other hand, any equivalence between additive categories is necessarily additive. (Note that the latter statement is not true for equivalences between preadditive categories.) An auto-equivalence of a category C is an equivalence F : C → C. The auto-equivalences of C form a group under composition if we consider two auto-equivalences that are naturally isomorphic to be identical. This group captures the essential "symmetries" of C. (One caveat: if C is not a small category, then the auto-equivalences of C may form a proper class rather than a set.)
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**Market engineering**
Market engineering:
Market engineering comprises the structured, systematic and theoretically founded procedure of analyzing, designing, introducing and also quality assuring of markets as well as their legal framework regarding simultaneously their market mechanisms and trading rules, systems, platforms and media, and their business models. In this context, term market stands for a set of rules defining the exchange of information between participants to conduct transactions at minimized cost. Market Engineering borrows concepts and methods from Economics, particularly, Game Theory, and Mechanism Design concepts, but also borrows concepts from Finance, Information Systems and Operations Research. It finds particular application in the context of electronic market platforms.
Framework:
The Market Engineering Framework takes into account the various aspects of market engineering. The Market Engineering Framework diagram depicts the building blocks that form the framework. The framework operates in the economic and legal environment in which it is situated. This effects the operations of all other portions of the framework. The transaction object represents the interface between market operators and the individual components of the market (market microstructure, IT-infrastructure and the business infrastructure) (Weinhardt et al. 2003, Neumann 2004).
Process:
The market engineering approach is structured by means of a process as depicted in Market Engineering Process diagram. Taking into account the objectives of the new electronic markets, the requirements of the new electronic market are deduced in the first stage. Subsequently, the new market is designed with simultaneous consideration of the transaction object, the market microstructure, the IT infrastructure, and the business model. In the third stage, the mechanism is tested on its technical, economic and business properties. If needed, there is an iteration loop between designing and evaluating the market in order to make sure that the requirements are met. In the fourth stage, the thoroughly evaluated design is realized and implemented as a software system. Finally, the market platform is introduced. At any stage of the market engineering process, there is a decision whether to proceed with the next step or to repeat an earlier one.
Process:
Environmental analysis The objective of the environmental analysis is to formalize the strategies and objectives of a new electronic market. The stage comprises two phases: the environment definition and the requirement analysis. The goal of the environment definition is to characterize the economic environment for which the market is to be engineered. This phase comprises the collection and analysis of potential trading objects, market segments, and agents that may interact on a particular segment. On the basis of this analysis, potential market segments for trading these resources are identified and evaluated comparatively. Having selected a target market, information about potential agents is determined. The target market reveals the economic environment for which the market is intended. The requirement analysis consists of a thorough extraction of these needs concerning the resource allocation problem and the environmental side constraints. On the basis of the requirement analysis, the market engineer decides whether to engineer a new mechanism from scratch or to reuse and adapt an existing one for the target problem. This decision is usually supported by a literature review, surveys, a SWOT analysis, and interviews with future market participants. The output of stage 1 is a list with all requirements.
Process:
Design The second stage of the process comprises the design of the market with simultaneous consideration of the transaction object, the market microstructure, the IT infrastructure, and the business model. Supported by different tools and methodologies such as mechanism and parametric design the market mechanism is deduced as an allocation and payment function. For designing the IT infrastructure in order to e.g. ensure computational tractability we rely on methods from computer science. We provide different tools that assist the engineer in designing markets. For instance, the market engineer can rely on the generic market system meet2trade that supports different auction mechanisms and negotiation schemes (Weinhardt et al. 2006). The result of stage 2 is a conceptual model of the market system to be evaluated and implemented.
Process:
Evaluation Having designed the market, it is tested upon its technical and economic properties. The evaluation stage comprises functionality tests of a software prototype to ensure its correctness, economic tests to measure the outcome performance of the market, and an assessment of the business model. Functionality tests are made to ensure that the prototype system works as it is designed. In other words, these tests ensure that the system correctly reflects the institutional rules. The objective of the economic tests is to ascertain whether or not the electronic market attains the desired economic outcome. This phase is supported by analytical and experimental evaluation methods. Experimental methods consist of laboratory experiments, numerical simulations, or agent-based simulations. Tools for this kind of evaluation are e.g. ZTree, Repast, MES and AMASE as part of the meet2trade system and the simulation tool jCASE . After functional and economic tests are performed, additional pilot runs with the software prototype are made. These runs provide information about the agents’ acceptance of the market and, if necessary, allow the engineer to adjust the underlying institutional rules or the prototype system.
Process:
Implementation In this stage, the thoroughly evaluated design is realized and implemented as a software system. The market system can either be implemented from scratch or the prototype developed in the evaluation stage can be enhanced in an evolutionary process. This phase is supported by traditional software engineering concepts and tools, such as UML, design patterns, or the Rational Unified Process. The output of this phase is a fully implemented electronic market with the institutional rules and the business model.
Process:
Introduction In the last stage of the process, the electronic market is introduced. The introduction of the electronic market initiates its operation cycle.
Computer-aided market engineering:
The Computer-Aided Market Engineering (CAME) tool suite meet2trade showcases a service engineering approach to the development of electronic markets as a service offering (Weinhardt et al. 2006, Neumann et al. 2005). For e-markets, the market operator—as service provider decides the following prerequisites that characterize the complex service: the products that will be traded; the market rules to match demand and supply; the IT infrastructure of the trading platform; the business structure trefies defining the value proposition; and the business model to derive revenue from the service offering.
Computer-aided market engineering:
The CAME tool suite provides a conceptual framework for designing e-markets, a process model to guide the design, and methods and tools supporting these design steps. These tasks are inherently interdisciplinary. The strategic task of defining the segment, in which the e-market is intended to operate, is primarily a management and marketing endeavor. The design of the market mechanisms that describe the flow of the negotiation process, pertains to economics. Implementing the market mechanisms as a running service system is mainly a software engineering task.
Computer-aided market engineering:
The CAME approach extends state-of-the-art methods, as it tackles all problems associated with the design of e-markets holistically. For example, Knowledge-based Auction Design Support (KADS) enables the market operator to decide on the principal auction format. Auction Runtime Environment (ARTE) and Adaptive Client (AC) support the transformation of the concept into an instantiation of a running auction format, supporting embodiment and detail design. Lastly, Agent-based Simulation Environment (AMASE) and Experimental System (MES) provide extensive testing functionalities. Prototypes can be generated and tested on-the-fly, improving the design process considerably.
Computer-aided market engineering:
This research work focuses on how to design and operate market services, how to gain knowledge for this task, and how to provide this knowledge to those who need to set up auctions, exchanges, or e-procurement platforms. CAME epitomizes an SSME approach and meet2trade workbench showcases an integrated outcome of service sciences, management, and engineering.
Literature:
Kolitz, K. and C. Weinhardt (2006). MES - Ein Experimentalsystem zur Untersuchung elektronischer Märkte. MKWI 2006, Passau, Germany.
Neumann, D. (2004). Market Engineering - A Structured Design Process for Electronic Markets. Fakultät für Wirtschaftswissenschaften. Karlsruhe, Universität Karlsruhe (TH).
Neumann, D., J. Maekioe, et al. (2005). CAME - A Toolset for Configuring Electronic Markets. ECIS, Regensburg.
Roth, A. E. (2000). Game Theory as a Tool for Market Design. Game Practice: Contributions from Applied Game Theory. F. Patrone, I. Garcia-Jurado and S. Tijs. Dordrecht, Kluwer: 7-18.
Roth, A. E. (2002). "The Economist as Engineer: Game Theory, Experimental Economics and Computation as Tools for Design Economics". Econometrica. 70 (4): 1341–1378. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.61.3706. doi:10.1111/1468-0262.00335.
Smith, V. (2003). Markets, Institutions and Experiments. Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science. L. Nadel. London, Nature Publishing Group. 2: 991-998.
Weinhardt, C.; Holtmann, C.; et al. (2003). "Market Engineering". Wirtschaftsinformatik. 45 (6): 635–640. doi:10.1007/bf03250926. S2CID 218840818.
Weinhardt, C.; Neumann, D.; et al. (2006). "Computer-aided Market Engineering". Communications of the ACM. 49 (7): 79. doi:10.1145/1139922.1139953. S2CID 19352393.
Wurman, Wellman and Walsh (1998). "The Michigan Internet AuctionBot: A Configurable Auction Server for Human and Software Agents" (Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Autonomous Agents)
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**Rotavirus cis-acting replication element**
Rotavirus cis-acting replication element:
This family represents a rotavirus cis-acting replication element (CRE) found at the 3'-end of rotavirus mRNAs. The family is thought to promote the synthesis of minus strand RNA to form viral dsRNA.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Pokémon DS**
Pokémon DS:
Pokémon DS may refer to these video games in the Pokémon series for Nintendo DS. It is widely accepted as the peak of Pokémon.
Pokémon Diamond and Pearl Pokémon Platinum Pokémon HeartGold and SoulSilver Pokémon Black and White Pokémon Black 2 and White 2 Pokémon Ranger Pokémon Ranger: Shadows of Almia Pokémon Ranger: Guardian Signs Pokémon Mystery Dungeon: Blue Rescue Team Pokémon Mystery Dungeon: Explorers of Time and Explorers of Darkness Pokémon Mystery Dungeon: Explorers of Sky Pokémon Dash Pokémon Trozei!
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Geometric complexity theory**
Geometric complexity theory:
Geometric complexity theory (GCT), is a research program in computational complexity theory proposed by Ketan Mulmuley and Milind Sohoni. The goal of the program is to answer the most famous open problem in computer science – whether P = NP – by showing that the complexity class P is not equal to the complexity class NP.
Geometric complexity theory:
The idea behind the approach is to adopt and develop advanced tools in algebraic geometry and representation theory (i.e., geometric invariant theory) to prove lower bounds for problems. Currently the main focus of the program is on algebraic complexity classes. Proving that computing the permanent cannot be efficiently reduced to computing determinants is considered to be a major milestone for the program. These computational problems can be characterized by their symmetries. The program aims at utilizing these symmetries for proving lower bounds.
Geometric complexity theory:
The approach is considered by some to be the only viable currently active program to separate P from NP. However, Ketan Mulmuley believes the program, if viable, is likely to take about 100 years before it can settle the P vs. NP problem.The program is pursued by several researchers in mathematics and theoretical computer science. Part of the reason for the interest in the program is the existence of arguments for the program avoiding known barriers such as relativization and natural proofs for proving general lower bounds.
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**Conservation biology of parasites**
Conservation biology of parasites:
A large proportion of living species on Earth live a parasitic way of life. Parasites have traditionally been seen as targets of eradication efforts, and they have often been overlooked in conservation efforts. In the case of parasites living in the wild – and thus harmless to humans and domesticated animals – this view is changing. The conservation biology of parasites is an emerging and interdisciplinary field that recognizes the integral role parasites play in ecosystems. Parasites are intricately woven into the fabric of ecological communities, with diverse species occupying a range of ecological niches and displaying complex relationships with their hosts.
Conservation biology of parasites:
The rationale for parasite conservation extends beyond their intrinsic value and ecological roles. Parasites offer potential benefits to human health and well-being. Many parasites produce bioactive compounds with pharmaceutical properties, which can be utilized in drug discovery and development. Understanding and conserving parasite biodiversity not only contributes to the preservation of ecosystems but also holds promise for medical advancements and novel therapeutic interventions.
Parasite role in ecosystems:
Ranging from microscopic pathogens to larger organisms such as worms and arthropods, parasites exhibit remarkable diversity in their life cycles, transmission strategies, and host relationships. They can be found in virtually every ecosystem on Earth, including terrestrial, freshwater, and marine environments. Parasites often rely on one or multiple host species to complete their life cycle, and their presence can have profound effects on host populations, communities, and even entire ecosystems. One of the fundamental aspects of parasite ecology is their role as a trophic level within the food web. Parasites can occupy various positions within the trophic hierarchy, acting as predators, consumers, or even decomposers. They regulate host populations by influencing host behavior, growth, and reproduction. Furthermore, parasites can indirectly shape community dynamics by mediating interactions between host species and influencing the distribution and abundance of other organisms within the ecosystem.Despite their ecological significance, parasites have historically received less attention in conservation efforts compared to other groups of organisms. However, in recent years, there has been a growing recognition of the importance of parasite conservation. Ecologists and conservation biologists have emphasized the need for research to understand the ecological roles of parasites, as well as the threats they face and the potential consequences of their decline or extinction. Integrating parasite conservation into broader conservation frameworks is crucial for maintaining the integrity and functionality of ecosystems.
Conservation approaches:
Conservation approaches for animal parasites encompass a range of strategies tailored to their unique characteristics and conservation requirements. Assessing the conservation status of parasites poses challenges, as traditional criteria such as those developed by the IUCN may not adequately capture the specific threats and vulnerabilities of these organisms. Efforts often focus on conserving host species, recognizing that protecting the host also benefits associated parasites. This includes habitat conservation, management of host populations, and minimizing anthropogenic impacts.Nuances arise in parasite conservation when considering translocating species or implementing captive breeding programs. It is essential to consider the potential effects on parasite populations and ensure that appropriate measures are in place to safeguard their survival. In situ conservation, which involves the preservation and management of parasites within their natural habitats, is a key approach. Additionally, ex situ conservation methods, such as maintaining parasite populations in controlled environments, can serve as a safety net for critically endangered species.
Endangered parasite species:
A note published in 1990 pointed out that the captive breeding and reintroduction program to save the black-footed ferret would cause the loss of its specific parasites and demanded "equal rights for parasites". A paper in 1992 warned that not only the loss of certain host species from the wild, but host population bottlenecks or the fragmentation of host populations would predictably lead to the extinction of host-specific parasites. The paper also noted that parasites exert selective pressures upon their host populations that increase host genetic diversity. At first, this view met with open scepticism. However, it became clear that the co-extinction of hosts and their specific parasites is likely to increase the current estimates of extinction rates significantly. A decade later, a study focusing on highly host-specific groups such as fig wasps, parasites, butterflies, and myrmecophil butterflies estimated the number of parasites put at risk by the endangered status of the host at about 6300. Other authors argued that host-specific parasite faunae have an unexpected advantage for conservation scientists. Their genealogies and population genetic patterns may help to illuminate their hosts' evolutionary and demographic history. Recently, scientists suggested that rich parasite faunae are inevitably needed for healthy ecosystem functioning and also that parasites and mutualists are the most endangered species on Earth. Even vets have started to argue about the conservational values of parasite species.A recent study on parasites of coral reef fish suggested that extinction of a coral reef fish species would eventually result in the coextinction of at least ten species of parasites. Although this number might seem high, the study included only large parasites such as parasitic worms and crustaceans, but not microparasites such as Myxosporea and Microsporidia.
Examples of parasite conservation:
The list below follows that of Mey (2005) Acutifrons caracarensis parasite of the extinct Guadalupe caracara (Caracara lutosa), Guadalupe Island, Mexico; Longimenopon dominicanum parasite of the extinct Guadalupe storm petrel, Oceanodroma macrodactyla, Guadelupe Island, Mexico; Rallicola piageti parasite of the possibly extinct New Caledonian rail (Gallirallus lafresnayanus), New Caledonia; Coloceras hemiphagae parasite of the extinct Norfolk Island pigeon (Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae spadicea), Norfolk Island, New Zealand; Coloceras restinctus parasite of the extinct Norfolk Island pigeon (Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae spadicea), Norfolk Island, New Zealand; Rallicola extinctus parasite of the extinct huia (Heteralocha acutirostris), New Zealand; Philopteroides xenicus parasite of the extinct bushwren (Xenicus longipes), New Zealand; Psittacobrosus bechsteini parasite of the extinct Cuban red macaw (Ara tricolor), Cuba; Colpocephalum californici, parasite of the California condor (Gymnogyps californianus). The host was saved by a captive breeding and repatriation program, but the parasite was lost, deliberately killed whenever it was found during the program.Additionally, Columbicola extinctus is a parasite of the extinct passenger pigeon (Ectopistes migratorius). However, recent taxonomic studies show that it is conspecific with the lice living on band-tailed pigeon (Columba fasciata), thus it is not extinct.
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**Equalization (communications)**
Equalization (communications):
In telecommunication, equalization is the reversal of distortion incurred by a signal transmitted through a channel. Equalizers are used to render the frequency response—for instance of a telephone line—flat from end-to-end. When a channel has been equalized the frequency domain attributes of the signal at the input are faithfully reproduced at the output. Telephones, DSL lines and television cables use equalizers to prepare data signals for transmission.
Equalization (communications):
Equalizers are critical to the successful operation of electronic systems such as analog broadcast television. In this application the actual waveform of the transmitted signal must be preserved, not just its frequency content. Equalizing filters must cancel out any group delay and phase delay between different frequency components.
Analog telecommunications:
Audio lines Early telephone systems used equalization to correct for the reduced level of high frequencies in long cables, typically using Zobel networks. These kinds of equalizers can also be used to produce a circuit with a wider bandwidth than the standard telephone band of 300 Hz to 3.4 kHz. This was particularly useful for broadcasters who needed "music" quality, not "telephone" quality on landlines carrying program material. It is necessary to remove or cancel any loading coils in the line before equalization can be successful. Equalization was also applied to correct the response of the transducers, for example, a particular microphone might be more sensitive to low frequency sounds than to high frequency sounds, so an equalizer would be used to increase the volume of the higher frequencies (boost), and reduce the volume of the low frequency sounds (cut).
Analog telecommunications:
Television lines A similar approach to audio was taken with television landlines with two important additional complications. The first of these is that the television signal is a wide bandwidth covering many more octaves than an audio signal. A television equalizer consequently typically requires more filter sections than an audio equalizer. To keep this manageable, television equalizer sections were often combined into a single network using ladder topology to form a Cauer equalizer.
Analog telecommunications:
The second issue is that phase equalization is essential for an analog television signal. Without it dispersion causes the loss of integrity of the original wave-shape and is seen as smearing of what were originally sharp edges in the picture.
Analog equalizer types Zobel network Lattice phase equalizer Bridged T delay equalizer
Digital telecommunications:
Modern digital telephone systems have less trouble in the voice frequency range as only the local line to the subscriber now remains in analog format, but DSL circuits operating in the MHz range on those same wires may suffer severe attenuation distortion, which is dealt with by automatic equalization or by abandoning the worst frequencies. Picturephone circuits also had equalizers.
Digital telecommunications:
In digital communications, the equalizer's purpose is to reduce intersymbol interference to allow recovery of the transmit symbols. It may be a simple linear filter or a complex algorithm.
Digital equalizer types Linear equalizer: processes the incoming signal with a linear filter MMSE equalizer: designs the filter to minimize E[|e|2], where e is the error signal, which is the filter output minus the transmitted signal.
Zero-forcing equalizer: approximates the inverse of the channel with a linear filter.
Decision feedback equalizer: augments a linear equalizer by adding a filtered version of previous symbol estimates to the original filter output.
Blind equalizer: estimates the transmitted signal without knowledge of the channel statistics, using only knowledge of the transmitted signal's statistics.
Adaptive equalizer: is typically a linear equalizer or a DFE. It updates the equalizer parameters (such as the filter coefficients) as it processes the data. Typically, it uses the MSE cost function; it assumes that it makes the correct symbol decisions, and uses its estimate of the symbols to compute e, which is defined above.
Viterbi equalizer: Finds the maximum likelihood (ML) optimal solution to the equalization problem. Its goal is to minimize the probability of making an error over the entire sequence.
BCJR equalizer: uses the BCJR algorithm (also called the Forward-backward algorithm) to find the maximum a posteriori (MAP) solution. Its goal is to minimize the probability that a given bit was incorrectly estimated.
Turbo equalizer: applies turbo decoding while treating the channel as a convolutional code.
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**Superimposed code**
Superimposed code:
A superimposed code such as Zatocoding is a kind of hash code that was popular in marginal punched-card systems.
Marginal punched-card systems:
Many names, some of them trademarked, have been used for marginal punched-card systems: edge-notched cards, slotted cards, E-Z Sort, Zatocards, McBee, McBee Keysort, Flexisort, Velom, Rocket, etc.
The center of each card held the relevant information—typically the name and author of a book, research paper, or journal article on a nearby shelf; and a list of subjects and keywords.
Some sets of cards contained all the information required by the user on the card itself, handwritten, typewritten, or on microfilm (aperture card).
Every card in a stack had the same set of pre-punched holes.
Marginal punched-card systems:
The user would find the particular cards relevant to a search by aligning the holes in the set of cards (using a card holder or card tray), inserting one or more knitting-needle-like rods all the way through the stack, so the desired cards (which had been notched or cut open) fell out from the irrelevant cards in the collection (left un-notched), which remain on the needle(s).
Marginal punched-card systems:
A user could repeat this selection many times to form a complex Boolean searching query.
A card that was relevant to 2 or more subjects would have the slot(s) for each of those subjects cut out, so that card would drop out when either one or the other or both subjects was selected .
Marginal punched-card systems:
The "superimposed code" coding systems, such as Zatocoding, saved space by entering several or all subjects in the same field; such a "superimposed code" stores much more information in less space, but at the cost of occasional "false" selections.Once you have a collection of index cards, one per book, research paper, or journal article in a library, with a list of keywords (subjects) discussed in a particular book written on that book's card, the "obvious way" to code those subjects is to count up the total number of subjects used in the entire collection R, make a row of R holes near the top of every card, and for each subject actually discussed in a particular book, cut a slot from the hole corresponding to that subject in the card corresponding to that book.
Marginal punched-card systems:
Naturally, this also requires a separate list of every subject used in the collection that indicates which hole is punched for each subject.
Unfortunately, there may be thousands of distinct subjects in the collection, and it is impractical to punch thousands of holes in every card.
While it may not seem possible to use less than 1 hole per subject, superimposed code systems can solve this problem.
Superimposed codes:
The Zatocoding system of information retrieval was developed by Calvin Mooers in 1947.Calvin Mooers invented Zatocoding at M.I.T., a mechanical information retrieval system based on superimposed codes, and formed the Zator Company in 1947 to commercialize its applications.
Superimposed codes:
The particular superimposed code used in that system is called Zatocoding, while the marginal-punched card information retrieval system as a whole is called "Zator".Setting up a superimposed code for a particular library goes something like this: Going through every card in the index, a list of all R subjects used in this particular library is created, and the maximum number of subjects r actually written on a single card is noted. (For example, say we have 8000 subjects, and the librarian decides to index only the top r=4 subjects per book).
Superimposed codes:
The librarian looks at the physical edge-notched card, and notes the number of holes N in each card. (If N >= R, then we could use the "obvious way" mentioned above—the whole point of Zatocoding is that it works even when N is much less than R).
Superimposed codes:
The librarian chooses some number n of slots per subject—typically n=N(1−2−1r) On the list of all R subjects, for each subject write down which holes will be slotted for that subject. Rather than slotting one hole per subject in "the obvious way", a superimposed code will slot n holes per subject. (There are several ways to pick these patterns—those distinguish between the various superimposed codes; we discuss them below).
Superimposed codes:
When a new book comes in, make a new card for it: Get a blank card with the standard N holes in it and write down the name of the book, etc. in the middle.
Write down the subjects covered by the book on the card.
For each of the top r subjects, look up that subject in the big list, and see which n slots to cut for that subject, and cut them.
Superimposed codes:
When the card is finished, it may have up to r*n slots cut into it—but more likely at least some of the subject slot patterns overlapped, resulting in only v < r*n slots.Later, when we need to find books on some particular subject, we look up that subject in our list of all R subjects, find the corresponding slot pattern of n slots, and put n needles are through the whole stack in that pattern.
Superimposed codes:
All of the cards that have been cut with that pattern will fall out.
It is possible that a few other, undesired cards may also fall out—cards who have several subjects whose hole patterns overlap in such a way as to mimic the desired pattern.
Superimposed codes:
The probability F of some undesired card with v slots cut in it falling through when we select some pattern of n needles is approximately F=(vN)n Most systems have a N large enough and r small enough such that, v < N/2 (i.e., the card is less than half-punched), so that probability of an undesired card falling through is less than F<(12)n .There are several different ways to choose which holes will be slotted for each subject.
Superimposed codes:
(Several variations of Zatocoding were developed. Bourne describes a variant "for newer retrieval systems that require high performance of the superimposed coding system", using an approach Mooers published in 1959.) Zatocoding Setting up a Zatocode for a particular list of R subjects goes something like this: For the first subject, pick n of the N slots randomly.
For the second subject, pick n of the N slots randomly—but make sure this pattern is not identical to the first subject.
...
For the R'th subject, pick n of the N slots randomly—but make sure it's not identical to any previous subject.
Other superimposed codes A Zatocode requires a code book that lists every subject and a randomly generated notch code associated with each one.
Other "direct" superimposed codes have a fixed hash function for transforming the letters in (one spelling of) a subject into a notch code.
Such codes require a much shorter code book that describes the translation of letters in a word to the corresponding notch code, and can in principle easily add new subjects without changing the code book.A Bloom filter can be considered a kind of superimposed code.
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**Archives of Toxicology**
Archives of Toxicology:
Archives of Toxicology is a peer-reviewed medical journal covering all aspects of toxicology. It was established in 1930 as Sammlung von Vergiftungsfällen, renamed in 1954 into Archiv für Toxikologie and obtained its current title in 1974. The journal is published by Springer Science+Business Media and the editor-in-chief is Jan G. Hengstler (Leibniz Research Centre for Working Environment and Human Factors).
Abstracting and indexing:
The journal is abstracted and indexed in: According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2020 impact factor of 5.153.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Neuromuscular therapy**
Neuromuscular therapy:
Neuromuscular Therapy (NMT) is an approach to soft tissue manual therapy. It has been shown to be effective in the treatment of many conditions, although not all pathologies have shown treatment effects which persist over time.
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**Sodium gluconate**
Sodium gluconate:
Sodium gluconate is a compound with formula NaC6H11O7. It is the sodium salt of gluconic acid. Its E number is E576. Sodium gluconate is widely used in textile dyeing, printing and metal surface water treatment. It is also used as a chelating agent, a steel surface cleaning agent, a cleaning agent for glass bottles, and as a chelating agent for cement, plating and alumina dyeing industries. It is a white powder that is very soluble in water.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Lob wedge**
Lob wedge:
A lob wedge, also known as a lofted wedge or an L-Wedge, is a wedge used in the sport of golf, known for being one of the shortest-hitting clubs and providing the most loft on a shot. Lob wedges are used to produce shots with a very high arc, and are most often used for shots over hazards and other obstructions. Due to the high arc of the shot the lob wedge, like the other wedges in the set of irons, produces little roll after landing on the putting green and can even be used to produce backspin if necessary. Lob wedges are one of the newest additions to the modern collection of golf clubs and, along with the sand wedge and gap wedge, were not included prior to 1931.
Design:
Lob wedges are part of the iron family of golf clubs and are designed for short, high arc shots. Lob wedges and ultra lob wedges are designed with the shortest shafts and the highest loft of all golf clubs. Regular lob wedges may come in a variety of lofts, usually starting around 56 degrees and approaching 60. While those above 60 degrees are rare, often up to 64 degrees, they do exist and are referred to as "x-wedges", extreme lob wedges, or ultra lob wedges. Other differences between the lob wedge and the rest of the wedge family include the less pronounced flange on the sole allowing the club to slide under the ball more easily and less degrees of bounce (often between 0–10 degrees). The low bounce was designed out of the necessity of professionals who found that the higher bounce sand wedge was making it difficult to produce the spin they desired, especially out of tight lies Ultra lob wedge An ultra lob wedge is used to hit a shot with higher and shorter trajectory than a standard lob wedge. This club is labeled "UL" and has a loft of about 64° and has the highest loft of any golf club. It is used for specialized, extremely high-angle shots such as from the "lip" of a bunker. This wedge is generally made by speciality companies and some argue that their purpose is redundant, as other wedges can be "opened" for extra loft in situations calling for such a high launch angle. Furthermore, to get consistent results, this club requires skill – in particular, distance judgment is always key with such a lofted club. It can be noted that different lengths of swing will often yield a similar distance but with varying trajectories and thus roll (on the green).
Use:
Lob wedges can be used for a variety of shots including pitch and runs and pitching over an obstacle, particularly shots requiring a very high arc, a large amount of backspin or both. Pitching over an obstacle is used in situations where a hazard of some sort, usually a water hazard, bunker or tree, is located in the line of the shot between the ball's current location and the target (often on the putting green). By utilizing a lob wedge for these short shots, the ball is carried much higher in the air than with a standard iron causing significantly less roll on the landing surface. This is most often important for short shots into difficult pin placements. Before the invention of the lob wedge, or to create a shot similar to the lob wedge, the golfer was required to perform the shot with a sand wedge or pitching wedge and to modify the shot by cutting across the ball making a glancing blow, a much riskier shot.
History:
Traditional sets of golf irons did not always include the lob wedge. Before 1931, golfers used a single wedge, known as a "jigger", similar to the modern day pitching wedge. After 1931, additional wedges entered the golf bag starting with the sand wedge. The lob wedge was first envisioned by Dave Pelz, a former physicist for NASA, who recognized the need for higher loft wedges (at the time 60 degrees) due to the increasing complexity of the putting greens being designed at the time. This concept was taken up by the professional golfer Tom Kite, who began using the lob wedge professionally on tour spurring other professionals to follow his lead. The mainstream lob wedge was invented by Karsten Solheim, the founder of the PING line of golf products, possibly after experimenting by gluing a potato chip to a straw. Solheim was also responsible for naming the club the "L Wedge" or the "Lob Wedge", as it is currently known today.
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**HTC Desire 510**
HTC Desire 510:
The HTC Desire 510 is a mid-range Android smartphone released by HTC in 2014.
HTC Desire 510:
The phone received mixed reviews. Eugene Kim of PC Magazine noted that despite having a 64-bit processor, the phone "under-delivers on most other fronts". Matt Hanson of TechRadar noted the phone's 4G connectivity and low price, but also that the phone made budget compromises on its internal storage, screen and camera. Andrew Hoyle of CNET was more positive, noting that despite the phone's unimpressive specifications, its price tag was very reasonable because it offered 4G connectivity at a low price.
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**Heinz Werner's orthogenetic principle**
Heinz Werner's orthogenetic principle:
Heinz Werner's orthogenetic principle is a foundation for current theories of developmental psychology and developmental psychopathology. Initially proposed in 1940, it was formulated in 1957 and states that "wherever development occurs it proceeds from a state of relative globality and lack of differentiation to a state of increasing differentiation, articulation, and hierarchic integration." It is an example of an organismic theory based on the intrinsic activity of living systems and is parallel to Piaget's genetic epistemology both emphasizing a holistic view of development.
Heinz Werner's orthogenetic principle:
In contrast to stage theories of development such as Sigmund Freud's description of psychosexual development that posited a particular sequence of behavior, Werner's principle provides a direction for development that can be applied to any behavioral domain. He asserted that the principle provided a single framework for understanding change in child psychology, psychopathology, ethnopsychology, and individual differences. He believed that although the content of these areas may be different, there was a formal similarity of the sequences within each domain moving from the global to the hierarchically integrated.
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**User interface markup language**
User interface markup language:
A user interface markup language is a markup language that renders and describes graphical user interfaces and controls. Many of these markup languages are dialects of XML and are dependent upon a pre-existing scripting language engine, usually a JavaScript engine, for rendering of controls and extra scriptability.
User interface markup language:
The concept of the user interface markup languages is primarily based upon the desire to prevent the "re-invention of the wheel" in the design, development and function of a user interface; such re-invention comes in the form of coding a script for the entire user interface. The typical user interface markup language solidifies often re-used program or script code in the form of markup, making it easier to focus upon design of a user interface in an understandable dialect as opposed to focus on function.
User interface markup language:
User interface markup languages, like most markup and programming languages, rely upon sub-application runtimes to interpret and render the markup code as program code that can be processed and put out in the desired form. In XML-based user interface markup languages, the markup is usually interpreted and represented as a tree of nodes that may be manipulated at runtime by the application's code or dynamically loaded user script.
User interface markup languages:
XFD XFD, which stands for XML Form Definition is the user interface markup language behind STARLIMS product ([1]), developed by Abbott Informatics. STARLIMS product has an entire ecosystem of runtime and design time tools to run and create visual forms using XFD language. STARLIMS v10 is powered by an XFD runtime developed using Microsoft .NET Framework and hosted in Internet Explorer browser. STARLIMS v11 introduces an additional XFD engine based on a server-side transformation engine that transforms the XFD into HTML5 compatible data designed to run on any HTML5 compliant browser. XFD is programmable in JavaScript based language.
User interface markup languages:
QML QML is a cross-platform markup language for creating hardware-accelerated OpenGL-powered user interfaces for devices ranging from mobile to desktop. QML interfaces are manipulated using the JavaScript language. QML is part of the Qt software framework.
User interface markup languages:
MXML MXML is the XML-based user interface markup language introduced by Macromedia in March 2004. It is now part of the Open Source (http://opensource.adobe.com) Adobe Flex SDK version 4. MXML files compile into Flash SWF via the Flex SDK, and are rendered either on the internet browser, via Adobe Flash plug-in, or as stand-alone cross-platform applications, via the Open Source Adobe AIR SDK.
User interface markup languages:
UIML OASIS UIML is an XML-based standard user interface markup languages. It is an open standard where implementation is not restricted to a single vendor.
XUL The primary interface language of Mozilla Foundation products is XUL. XUL documents are rendered by the Gecko engine, which also renders XHTML and SVG documents. It cooperates with many existing standards and technologies, including CSS, JavaScript, DTD and RDF.
User interface markup languages:
UsiXML UsiXML (which stands for User Interface Extensible Markup Language) is an XML-compliant markup language that describes the UI for multiple contexts of use such as Character User Interfaces (CUIs), Graphical User Interfaces (GUIs), Auditory User Interfaces, and Multimodal User Interfaces. In other words, interactive applications with different types of interaction techniques, modalities of use, and computing platforms can be described in a way that preserves the design independently from peculiar characteristics of physical computing platform.
User interface markup languages:
WTKX WTKX is an XML-based markup language used for building Apache Pivot applications. Though it is most commonly used for defining the structure of an application's user interface, it can be used to declaratively construct any type of Java object hierarchy.
XAL eXtensible Application Language is the Markup language of Nexaweb's Enterprise Web 2.0 Suite. Developers can use this language to define applications that will run as a Java Client or an Ajax Client.
User interface markup languages:
SVG Scalable Vector Graphics is a markup language for graphics proposed by the W3C that can support rich graphics for web and mobile applications. While SVG is not a user interface language, it includes support for vector/raster graphics, animation, interaction with the DOM and CSS, embedded media, events and scriptability. When these features are used in combination, rich user interfaces are possible.
User interface markup languages:
SVG can also be superimposed upon another XML-compatible user interface markup language, such as XUL and XForms, as the graphics-rich portion of a user interface.
TUIX TUIX is an XML based markup language for defining user interfaces in Tribiq CMS. Developers can define both the appearance of the interfaces and their interactions. The TUIX files from different Plugins are merged before rendering facilitating easy modification of existing interfaces and addition of new functionality.
User interface markup languages:
XAML XAML is a markup system that underlies user interface components of Microsoft's .NET Framework 3.0 and above. Its scope is more ambitious than that of most user interface markup languages, since program logic and styles are also embedded in the XAML document. Functionally, it can be seen as a combination of XUL, SVG, CSS, and JavaScript into a single XML schema.
User interface markup languages:
Some people are critical of this design, as many standards (such as those already listed) exist for doing these things. However, it is expected to be developed with a visual tool where developers do not even need to understand the underlying markups.
I3ML I3ML is a proprietary thin client Application Delivery mechanism developed by CoKinetic Systems Corp, with client support provided by a browser plugin that will render windows-like applications over an HTTP infrastructure with minimal bandwidth needs.
User interface markup languages:
OpenLaszlo (LZX) OpenLaszlo is a runtime environment that comprises a runtime environment and an interface definition language (Laszlo XML - LZX). LZX is a declarative user interface language which defines the widgets, application layout and scripting elements (using JavaScript) to create your application. LZX is runtime agnostic with the currently supported runtime being within Macromedia/Adobe Flash. An experimental runtime called Laszlo "Legals" that will allow OpenLaszlo (LZX) applications run in multiple runtime environments, such as DHTML/AJAX.
User interface markup languages:
HMVCUL Hierarchical Model View Controller User Interface Language (HMVCUL) is an XML markup user interface language which supports the creation and chaining of atomic MVC triad components used in constructing HMVC GUI applications. The associated runtime provides methods which enable configuration of properties, data binding and events of each of the MVC triad elements (widget, controller, model). The runtime accomplishes this by mapping XML elements defined in an HMVCUL file to objects inside the framework, attributes to properties or to events. Chaining is accomplished by following the tree structure described inside the HMVCUL file.
User interface markup languages:
WasabiXML WasabiXML is an XML markup language that is used to define the graphical interface in Wasabi powered applications. It is most commonly used with Winamp for making Winamp skins. WasabiXML had been developed by Nullsoft for Winamp, but it is also usable with other applications with the Wasabi SDK.
User interface markup languages:
The root element in WasabiXML is <WasabiXML> (for Winamp skins, it is also <WinampAbstractionLayer>). The <skininfo> element shows the information for a skin. The graphical interface is held by the <container> element and the basic viewable GUI element is <layout>. Following is an example for a simple GUI with a button element: WasabiXML supports many GUI elements including: <button> <text> <vis> <eqvis> <layer> <animatedlayer> <groupdef> used in conjunction with <group><groupdef> allows the developer to define a group of GUI objects which can be re-used anywhere in the skin. Wasabi also supports XUI's which are nothing but <groups> powered by a MAKI script allowing developers to create GUI components (widgets) of their own adding to modularity.
User interface markup languages:
WasabiXML has an XML namespace 'Wasabi::' which defines common GUI's without having the need to declare their image paths.
MARIA MARIA is a universal, declarative, multiple abstraction level, XML-based language for modelling interactive applications in ubiquitous environments.
FXML FXML is a XML-based language for defining the user interface of JavaFX applications.
Other Other markup languages incorporated into existing frameworks are: VTML for Macromedia HomeSiteApple's Interface Builder .xib format Some of these are compiled into binary forms.
In avionics, the ARINC 661 standard prescribes a binary format to define user interfaces in glass cockpits.
Borland VCL forms (.dfm and .lfm) are text files describing the windows of Delphi and Lazarus applications. They are compiled into the final executable in binary format, and use RTTI to function.
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**Holt-Dern process**
Holt-Dern process:
The Holt-Dern process is a method by which silver and gold can be extracted from low-grade ores.The method was applied in mining at Park City, Utah and in the Tintic Mining District at the Tintic Smelter Site. It was named for George Dern and T.P. Holt.
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**HIST2H3C**
HIST2H3C:
Histone H3.2 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the HIST2H3C gene.
Function:
Histones are basic nuclear proteins that are responsible for the nucleosome structure of the chromosomal fiber in eukaryotes. This structure consists of approximately 146 bp of DNA wrapped around a nucleosome, an octamer composed of pairs of each of the four core histones (H2A, H2B, H3, and H4). The chromatin fiber is further compacted through the interaction of a linker histone, H1, with the DNA between the nucleosomes to form higher order chromatin structures. This gene is intronless and encodes a member of the histone H3 family. Transcripts from this gene lack polyA tails; instead, they contain a palindromic termination element. This gene is found in a histone cluster on chromosome 1. This gene is one of four histone genes in the cluster that are duplicated; this record represents the telomeric copy.
Interactions:
HIST2H3C has been shown to interact with NCOA6.
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**Bromargyrite**
Bromargyrite:
Bromyrite or bromargyrite is a natural mineral form of silver bromide found mainly in Mexico and Chile. Hardness is 1.5 to 2. Related are chlorargyrite and iodyrite.
It was first described in 1859 for an occurrence in Plateros, Zacatecas, Mexico where it occurred in a silver deposit as an oxidation product of primary ore minerals. It occurs in arid environments along with native silver, iodargyrite and smithsonite along with iron and manganese oxide minerals.
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**Functional electrical stimulation**
Functional electrical stimulation:
Functional electrical stimulation (FES) is a technique that uses low-energy electrical pulses to artificially generate body movements in individuals who have been paralyzed due to injury to the central nervous system. More specifically, FES can be used to generate muscle contraction in otherwise paralyzed limbs to produce functions such as grasping, walking, bladder voiding and standing. This technology was originally used to develop neuroprostheses that were implemented to permanently substitute impaired functions in individuals with spinal cord injury (SCI), head injury, stroke and other neurological disorders. In other words, a person would use the device each time he or she wanted to generate a desired function. FES is sometimes also referred to as neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES).FES technology has been used to deliver therapies to retrain voluntary motor functions such as grasping, reaching and walking. In this embodiment, FES is used as a short-term therapy, the objective of which is restoration of voluntary function and not lifelong dependence on the FES device, hence the name functional electrical stimulation therapy, FES therapy (FET or FEST). In other words, the FEST is used as a short-term intervention to help the central nervous system of the person to re-learn how to execute impaired functions, instead of making the person dependent on neuroprostheses for the rest of her or his life. Initial Phase II clinical trials conducted with FEST for reaching and grasping, and walking were carried out at KITE, the research arm of the Toronto Rehabilitation Institute.
Principles:
Neurons are electrically active cells. In neurons, information is coded and transmitted as a series of electrical impulses called action potentials, which represent a brief change in cell electric potential of approximately 80–90 mV. Nerve signals are frequency modulated; i.e. the number of action potentials that occur in a unit of time is proportional to the intensity of the transmitted signal. Typical action potential frequency is between 4 and 12 Hz. An electrical stimulation can artificially elicit this action potential by changing the electric potential across a nerve cell membrane (this also includes the nerve axon) by inducing electrical charge in the immediate vicinity of the outer membrane of the cell.FES devices take advantage of this property to electrically activate nerve cells, which then may go on to activate muscles or other nerves. However, special care must be taken in designing safe FES devices, as electric current through tissue can lead to adverse effects such as decrease in excitability or cell death. This may be due to thermal damage, electroporation of the cell membrane, toxic products from electrochemical reactions at the electrode surface, or over-excitation of the targeted neurons or muscles. Typically FES is concerned with stimulation of neurons and nerves. In some applications, FES can be used to directly stimulate muscles, if their peripheral nerves have been severed or damaged (i.e., denervated muscles). However, the majority of the FES systems used today stimulate the nerves or the points where the junction occurs between the nerve and the muscle. The stimulated nerve bundle includes motor nerves (efferent nerves—descending nerves from the central nervous system to muscles) and sensory nerves (afferent nerves—ascending nerves from sensory organs to the central nervous system).
Principles:
The electrical charge can stimulate both motor and sensory nerves. In some applications, the nerves are stimulated to generate localized muscle activity, i.e., the stimulation is aimed at generating direct muscle contraction. In other applications, stimulation is used to activate simple or complex reflexes. In other words, the afferent nerves are stimulated to evoke a reflex, which is typically expressed as a coordinated contraction of one or more muscles in response to the sensory nerve stimulation.
Principles:
When a nerve is stimulated, i.e., when sufficient electrical charge is provided to a nerve cell, a localized depolarization of the cell wall occurs resulting in an action potential that propagates toward both ends of the axon. Typically, one "wave" of action potentials will propagate along the axon towards the muscle (orthodromic propagation) and concurrently, as the other "wave" of action potentials will propagate towards the cell body in the central nervous system (antidromic propagation). While the direction of propagation in case of the antidromic stimulation and the sensory nerve stimulation is the same, i.e., towards the central nervous system, their end effects are very different. The antidromic stimulus has been considered an irrelevant side effect of FES. However, in recent years a hypothesis has been presented suggesting the potential role of the antidromic stimulation in neurorehabilitation. Typically, FES is concerned with orthodromic stimulation and uses it to generate coordinated muscle contractions.
Principles:
In the case where sensory nerves are stimulated, the reflex arcs are triggered by the stimulation on sensory nerve axons at specific peripheral sites. One example of such a reflex is the flexor withdrawal reflex. The flexor withdrawal reflex occurs naturally when a sudden, painful sensation is applied to the sole of the foot. It results in flexion of the hip, knee and ankle of the affected leg, and extension of the contralateral leg in order to get the foot away from the painful stimulus as quickly as possible. The sensory nerve stimulation can be used to generate desired motor tasks, such as evoking flexor withdrawal reflex to facilitate walking in individuals following stroke, or they can be used to alter reflexes or the function of the central nervous system. In the later case, the electrical stimulation is commonly described by the term neuromodulation.
Principles:
Nerves can be stimulated using either surface (transcutaneous) or subcutaneous (percutaneous or implanted) electrodes. The surface electrodes are placed on the skin surface above the nerve or muscle that needs to be "activated". They are noninvasive, easy to apply, and generally inexpensive. Until recently the common belief in the FES field has been that due to the electrode-skin contact impedance, skin and tissue impedance, and current dispersion during stimulation, much higher-intensity pulses are required to stimulate nerves using surface stimulation electrodes as compared to the subcutaneous electrodes.
Principles:
(This statement is correct for all commercially available stimulators except MyndMove stimulator (developed my Milos R. Popovic), which has implemented a new stimulation pulse that allows the stimulator to generate muscle contractions without causing discomfort during stimulation, which is a common problem with commercially available transcutaneous electrical stimulation systems, based on US Patents 8,880,178 (2014), 9,440,077 (2016), and 9,592,380 (2016) and related foreign patents.)A major limitation of the transcutaneous electrical stimulation is that some nerves, for example those innervating the hip flexors, are too profound to be stimulated using surface electrodes. This limitation can be partly addressed by using arrays of electrodes, which can use several electrical contacts to increase selectivity.Subcutaneous electrodes can be divided into percutaneous and implanted electrodes. The percutaneous electrodes consist of thin wires inserted through the skin and into muscular tissue close to the targeted nerve. These electrodes typically remain in place for a short period of time and are only considered for short-term FES interventions. However, it is worth mentioning that some groups, such as Cleveland FES Center, have been able to safely use percutaneous electrodes with individual patients for months and years at a time. One of the drawbacks of using the percutaneous electrodes is that they are prone to infection and special care has to be taken to prevent such events.
Principles:
The other class of subcutaneous electrodes is implanted electrodes. These are permanently implanted in the consumer's body and remain in the body for the remainder of the consumer's life. Compared to surface stimulation electrodes, implanted and percutaneous electrodes potentially have higher stimulation selectivity, which is a desired characteristics of FES systems. To achieve higher selectivity while applying lower stimulation amplitudes, it is recommended that both cathode and anode are in the vicinity of the nerve that is stimulated. The drawbacks of the implanted electrodes are they require an invasive surgical procedure to install, and, as is the case with every surgical intervention, there exists a possibility of infection following implantation.
Principles:
Typical stimulation protocols used in clinical FES involves trains of electric pulses. Biphasic, charged balanced pulses are employed as they improve the safety of electrical stimulation and minimize some of the adverse effects. Pulse duration, pulse amplitude and pulse frequency are the key parameters that are regulated by the FES devices. The FES devices can be current or voltage regulated. Current regulated FES systems always deliver the same charge to the tissue regardless of the skin/tissue resistance. Because of that, the current regulated FES systems do not require frequent adjustments of the stimulation intensity. The voltage regulated devices may require more frequent adjustments of the stimulation intensity as the charge that they deliver changes as the skin/tissue resistance changes. The properties of the stimulation pulse trains and how many channels are used during stimulation define how complex and sophisticated FES-induced function is. The system can be as simple such as FES systems for muscle strengthening or they can be complex such as FES systems used to deliver simultaneous reaching and grasping, or bipedal locomotion.Note: This paragraph was developed in part using material from the following reference. For more information on FES please consult that and other references provided in the paragraph.
History:
Electrical stimulation had been utilized as far back as ancient Egypt, when it was believed that placing torpedo fish in a pool of water with a human was therapeutic. FES - which involves stimulating the target organ during a functional movement (e.g., walking, reaching for an item) - was initially referred to as functional electrotherapy by Liberson. It was not until 1967 that the term functional electrical stimulation was coined by Moe and Post, and used in a patent entitled, "Electrical stimulation of muscle deprived of nervous control with a view of providing muscular contraction and producing a functionally useful moment". Offner's patent described a system used to treat foot drop.
History:
The first commercially available FES devices treated foot drop by stimulating the peroneal nerve during gait. In this case, a switch, located in the heel end of a user's shoe, would activate a stimulator worn by the user.
Common applications:
Spinal cord injury Injuries to the spinal cord interfere with electrical signals between the brain and the muscles, resulting in paralysis below the level of injury. Restoration of limb function as well as regulation of organ function are the main application of FES, although FES is also used for treatment of pain, pressure, sore prevention, etc. Some examples of FES applications involve the use of neuroprostheses that allow the people with paraplegia to walk, stand, restore hand grasp function in people with quadriplegia, or restore bowel and bladder function. High intensity FES of the quadriceps muscles allows patients with complete lower motor neuron lesion to increase their muscle mass, muscle fiber diameter, improve ultrastructural organization of contractile material, increase of force output during electrical stimulation and perform FES assisted stand-up exercises.
Common applications:
Walking in spinal cord injury Kralj and his colleagues described a technique for paraplegic gait using surface stimulation, which remains the most popular method in use today. Electrodes are placed over the quadriceps muscles and peroneal nerves bilaterally. The user controls the neuroprosthesis with two pushbuttons attached to the left and right handles of a walking frame, or on canes or crutches. When the neuroprosthesis is turned on, both quadriceps muscles are stimulated to provide a standing posture.Kralj's approach was extended by Graupe et al. into a digital FES system that employs the power of digital signal processing to result in the Parastep FES system, based on US Patents 5,014,705 (1991), 5,016,636 (1991), 5,070,873 (1991), 5,081,989 (1992), 5,092,329 (1992) and related foreign patents. The Parastep system became the first FES system for standing and walking to receive the US FDA approval (FDA, PMA P900038, 1994) and become commercially available.
Common applications:
The Parastep's digital design allows a considerable reduction in rate of patient-fatigue by drastically reducing of stimulation pulse-width (100–140 microseconds) and pulse-rate (12–24 per sec.), to result, in walking times of 20–60 minutes and average walking distances of 450 meters per walk, for adequately trained thoracic-level complete paraplegics patients who complete training that includes daily treadmill sessions, with some patients exceeding one mile per walk. Also, Parestep-based walking was reported to result in several medical and psychological benefits, including restoration of near-normal blood flow to lower extremities and holding of bone density decline.Walking performance with the Parastep system greatly depends on rigorous upper body conditioning-training and on a completing 3–5 months of a daily one–two-hour training program which includes 30 of more minutes of treadmill training.An alternative approach to the above techniques is the FES system for walking developed using the Compex Motion neuroprosthesis, by Popovic et al. . Compex Motion neuroprosthesis for walking is an eight to sixteen channel surface FES system used to restore voluntary walking in stroke and spinal cord injury individuals. This system does not apply peroneal nerve stimulation to enable locomotion. Instead, it activates all relevant lower limb muscles in a sequence similar to the one that brain uses to enable locomotion. The hybrid assistive systems (HAS) and the RGO walking neuroprostheses are devices that also apply active and passive braces, respectively. The braces were introduced to provide additional stability during standing and walking. A major limitation of neuroprostheses for walking that are based on surface stimulation is that the hip flexors cannot be stimulated directly. Therefore, hip flexion during walking must come from voluntary effort, which is often absent in paraplegia, or from the flexor withdrawal reflex. Implanted systems have the advantage of being able to stimulate the hip flexors, and therefore, to provide better muscle selectivity and potentially better gait patterns. Hybrid systems with exoskeleton have been also proposed to solve this problem. These technologies have been found to be successful and promising, but at the present time these FES systems are mostly used for exercise purposes and seldom as an alternative to wheelchair mobility.
Common applications:
Stroke and upper limb recovery In the acute stage of stroke recovery, the use of cyclic electrical stimulation has been seen to increase the isometric strength of wrist extensors. In order to increase strength of wrist extensors, there must be a degree of motor function at the wrist spared following the stroke and have significant hemiplegia. Patients who will elicit benefits of cyclic electrical stimulation of the wrist extensors must be highly motivated to follow through with treatment. After 8 weeks of electrical stimulation, an increase in grip strength can be apparent. Many scales, which assess the level of disability of the upper extremities following a stroke, use grip strength as a common item. Therefore, increasing strength of wrist extensors will decrease the level of upper extremity disability.
Common applications:
Patients with hemiplegia following a stroke commonly experience shoulder pain and subluxation; both of which will interfere with the rehabilitation process. Functional electrical stimulation has been found to be effective for the management of pain and reduction of shoulder subluxation, as well as accelerating the degree and rate of motor recovery. Furthermore, the benefits of FES are maintained over time; research has demonstrated that the benefits are maintained for at least 24 months.
Common applications:
Drop foot Drop foot is a common symptom in hemiplegia, characterized by a lack of dorsiflexion during the swing phase of gait, resulting in short, shuffling strides. It has been shown that FES can be used to effectively compensate for the drop foot during the swing phase of the gait. At the moment just before the heel off phase of gait occurs, the stimulator delivers a stimulus to the common peroneal nerve, which results in contraction of the muscles responsible for dorsiflexion. There are currently a number of drop foot stimulators that use surface and implanted FES technologies. Drop foot stimulators have been used successfully with various patient populations, such as stroke, spinal cord injury and multiple sclerosis.
Common applications:
The term "orthotic effect" can be used to describe the immediate improvement in function observed when the individual switches on their FES device compared to unassisted walking. This improvement disappears as soon as the person switches off their FES device. In contrast, a "training" or "therapeutic effect" is used to describe a long term improvement or restoration of function following a period of using the device which is still present even when the device is switched off. A further complication to measuring an orthotic effect and any long term training or therapeutic effects is the presence of a so-called "temporary carry over effect". Liberson et al., 1961 was the first to observe that some stroke patients appeared to benefit from a temporary improvement in function and were able to dorsiflex their foot for up to an hour after the electrical stimulation had been turned off. It has been hypothesised that this temporary improvement in function may be linked to a long term training or therapeutic effect.
Common applications:
Stroke Hemiparetic stroke patients, who are impacted by the denervation, muscular atrophy, and spasticity, typically experience an abnormal gait pattern due to muscular weakness and the incapacity to voluntary contract certain ankle and hip muscles at the appropriate walking phase. Liberson et al., (1961) were the first to pioneer FES in stroke patients. More recently, there have been a number of studies that have been conducted in this area. A systematic review conducted in 2012 on the use of FES in chronic stroke included seven randomized controlled trials with a total of 231 participants. The review found a small treatment effect for using FES for the 6-minute walking test.
Common applications:
Multiple sclerosis FES has also been found to be useful for treating foot drop in people with multiple sclerosis. The first use was reported in 1977 by Carnstam et al., who found that it was possible to generate strength increases through using peroneal stimulation. A more recent study examined the use of FES compared to an exercise group and found that although there was an orthotic effect for the FES group, no training effect in walking speed was found. Further qualitative analysis including all participants from the same study found improvements in activities of daily living and a reduced number of falls for those using FES compared with exercise. A further small scale (n=32) longitudinal observational study has found evidence for a significant training effect through using FES.
Common applications:
With NMES treatment there were measurable gains in ambulatory function.However, a further large observational study (n=187) was supportive of previous findings and found a significant improvement in orthotic effect for walking speed.
Common applications:
Cerebral palsy FES has been found to be useful for treating the symptoms of cerebral palsy. A recent randomised controlled trial (n=32) found significant orthotic and training effects for children with unilateral spastic cerebral palsy. Improvements were found in gastrocnemius spasticity, community mobility and balance skills. A recent comprehensive literature review of the area of using electrical stimulation and FES to treat children with disabilities mostly included studies on children with cerebral palsy. The reviewers summarised the evidence as the treatment having the potential to improve a number of different areas including muscle mass and strength, spasticity, passive range of motion, upper extremity function, walking speed, positioning of the foot and ankle kinematics. The review further concludes that adverse events were rare and the technology is safe and well tolerated by this population. The applications of FES for children with cerebral palsy are similar to those for adults. Some common applications of FES devices include stimulation of muscles whilst mobilizing to strengthen muscle activity, to reduce muscle spasticity, to facilitate initiation of muscle activity, or to provide a memory of movement.
Common applications:
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence Guidelines (NICE) (UK) NICE have issued full guidelines on the treatment of drop foot of central neurological origin (IPG278). NICE have stated that "current evidence on the safety and efficacy (in terms of improving gait) of functional electrical stimulation (FES) for drop foot of central neurological origin appears adequate to support the use of this procedure provided that normal arrangements are in place for clinical governance, consent and audit".
In popular culture:
Mark Coggins' novel No Hard Feelings (2015) features a female protagonist with a spinal cord injury who regains mobility via advanced FES technology developed by a fictional biomedical startup.
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**Gestonorone acetate**
Gestonorone acetate:
Gestonorone acetate, or gestronol acetate, also known as norhydroxyprogesterone acetate, is a progestin of the 19-norprogesterone and 17α-hydroxyprogesterone groups which was developed in the early 1960s but was never marketed. It is the C17α acetate ester of gestronol (17α-hydroxy-19-norprogesterone).
Gestonorone acetate has been found to consistently inhibit ovulation at an oral dosage of 10 mg/day in combination with 50 μg/day oral ethinylestradiol. Weak or no endometrial effects were observed at an oral dosage of 100 mg/day, basal vacuoles appeared at 130 to 140 mg/day, and full endometrial secretory transformation occurred at 220 mg/day.
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**Trioxide**
Trioxide:
A trioxide is a compound with three oxygen atoms. For metals with the M2O3 formula there are several common structures. Al2O3, Cr2O3, Fe2O3, and V2O3 adopt the corundum structure. Many rare earth oxides adopt the "A-type rare earth structure" which is hexagonal. Several others plus indium oxide adopt the "C-type rare earth structure", also called "bixbyite", which is cubic and related to the fluorite structure.
List of trioxides:
MO3 Carbon trioxide, CO3 Chromium trioxide, CrO3 Molybdenum trioxide, MoO3 Rhenium trioxide, ReO3 Selenium trioxide, SeO3 Sulfur trioxide, SO3 Tellurium trioxide, TeO3 Tungsten trioxide, WO3 Uranium trioxide, UO3 Xenon trioxide, XeO3 M2O3 Antimony trioxide, Sb2O3 Arsenic trioxide, As2O3 Bismuth(III) oxide, Bi2O3 Boron trioxide, B2O3 Cobalt(III) oxide, Co2O3 Dichlorine trioxide, Cl2O3 Dinitrogen trioxide, N2O3 Gadolinium oxide, Gd2O3 Gallium(III) oxide, Ga2O3 Gold trioxide, Au2O3 Indium(III) oxide, In2O3 Iron(III) oxide, Fe2O3 Manganese(III) oxide, Mn2O3 Nickel(III) oxide, Ni2O3 Phosphorus trioxide, P4O6 (named before the true formula known) Thallium(III) oxide, Tl2O3 Terbium(III) oxide, Tb2O3 Trioxidane, H2O3 Vanadium trioxide, V2O3 Ytterbium(III) oxide, Yb2O3 Yttrium(III) oxide, Y2O3 Other trioxides Mineral trioxide aggregate Sulfur trioxide pyridine complex, SO3(py)
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**Tungsten dichloride dioxide**
Tungsten dichloride dioxide:
Tungsten dichloride dioxide, or Tungstyl chloride is the chemical compound with the formula WO2Cl2. It is a yellow-colored solid. It is used as a precursor to other tungsten compounds. Like other tungsten halides, WO2Cl2 is sensitive to moisture, undergoing hydrolysis.
Preparation:
WO2Cl2 is prepared by ligand redistribution reaction from tungsten trioxide and tungsten hexachloride: 2 WO3 + WCl6 → 3 WO2Cl2Using a two-zone tube furnace, a vacuum-sealed tube containing these solids is heated to 350 °C. The yellow product sublimes to the cooler end of the reaction tube. No redox occurs in this process. An alternative route highlights the oxophilicity of tungsten: WCl6 + 2 ((CH3)3Si)2O → 3 WO2Cl2 + 4 (CH3)3SiClThis reaction, like the preceding one, proceeds via the intermediacy of WOCl4.
Structure:
Gaseous tungsten dichloride dioxide is a monomer. Solid tungsten dichloride dioxide is a polymer consisting of distorted octahedral W centres. The polymer is characterized by two short W-O distances, typical for a multiple W-O bond, and two long W-O distances more typical of a single or dative W-O bond.
Related oxy halides:
Tungsten forms a number of oxyhalides including WOCl4, WOCl3, WOCl2. The corresponding bromides (WOBr4, WOBr3, WOBr2) are also known as is WO2I2.
Reactions:
WO2Cl2 is a Lewis acid, forming soluble adducts of the type WO2Cl2L2, where L is a donor ligand such as bipyridine and dimethoxyethane. Such complexes often cannot be prepared by depolymerization of the inorganic solid, but are generated in situ from WOCl4.
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**Twenty Thousand Hertz**
Twenty Thousand Hertz:
Twenty Thousand Hertz is a podcast about "the world’s most recognizable and interesting sounds". Episodes are published every other Wednesday.
Overview:
The show's title refers to highest frequency that can be perceived within the human hearing range (without hearing loss). It grew out of host Dallas Taylor's admiration for the podcast 99% Invisible and a desire to hear more stories like the ones they produced about audio design. The show is hosted and produced by Dallas Taylor and the writer of the episode, with help from Sam Schneble.
Overview:
Though the audio production company Defacto Sound, which is owned by Taylor, is the production headquarters for Twenty Thousand Hertz, he has said that the podcast is not intended as content marketing. Instead of focusing on the industry of sound design exclusively, episodes focus on a variety of topics related to sound. The podcast has covered topics such as the THX Deep Note, misophonia, the Voyager Golden Record, the Shure SM7 microphone, ASMR, and advertising jingles.
Overview:
"Theater of the Mind", a crossover episode with the podcast Imaginary Worlds, was produced in 2018. The episode explored the history of radio dramas. Episodes of Twenty Thousand Hertz have also been featured on the Radiotopia productions 99% Invisible and The Allusionist.In May 2020, host Dallas Taylor delivered a TED Talk, "What silence can teach you about sound." The talk discussed John Cage's composition 4'33", a topic which had previously been explored in an episode of Twenty Thousand Hertz. In August 2020, the podcast joined the TED podcast network, but left due to unexplained reasons. In October 2020, host Dallas Taylor was featured in "Sound and Silence," an episode of the TED Radio Hour, drawn from his TED Talk.Following a Twenty Thousand Hertz episode about audio deepfakes, host Dallas Taylor was featured in a September 2020 segment of NPR's Here & Now, discussing the topic. Taylor was featured in a November 2020 episode of the Popular Science podcast The Weirdest Thing I Learned This Week, discussing the use of animals noises in sound design.
Reception:
The podcast was featured in Esquire magazine's list of "The 63 Best Podcasts You Can Listen To In 2020," as well as Discover Pods "The 71 Best Podcasts of 2020."In 2017, OZY listed Twenty Thousand Hertz as one of "4 Podcasts that'll Make You Wish Your Commute Were Longer."Doug Fabrizio of KUER-FM says the show "challenges listeners to refine their sense of hearing." In a review for 34th Street Magazine, reviewer Caylen David writes, "Twenty Thousand Hertz presents the stories of iconic sound designs in a creative way that keeps listeners wanting more. Give it a listen—you might find that the journey to create pop culture's greatest sounds is more interesting than the finished product."The show's "I'm Lovin' It" episode was chosen as one of Spotify's "Best Podcast Episodes of 2021." Awards
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**Matrix (biology)**
Matrix (biology):
In biology, matrix (PL: matrices) is the material (or tissue) in between a eukaryotic organism's cells.
The structure of connective tissues is an extracellular matrix. Fingernails and toenails grow from matrices. It is found in various connective tissues. It serves as a jelly-like structure instead of cytoplasm in connective tissue.
Tissue matrices:
Extracellular matrix (ECM) The main ingredients of the extracellular matrix are glycoproteins secreted by the cells. The most abundant glycoprotein in the ECM of most animal cells is collagen, which forms strong fibers outside the cells. In fact, collagen accounts for about 40% of the total protein in the human body. The collagen fibers are embedded in a network woven from proteoglycans. A proteoglycan molecule consists of a small core protein with many carbohydrate chains covalently attached, so that it may be up to 95% carbohydrate. Large proteoglycan complexes can form when hundreds of proteoglycans become noncovalently attached to a single long polysaccharide molecule. Some cells are attached to the ECM by still other ECM glycoproteins such as fibronectin. Fibronectin and other ECM proteins bind to cell surface receptor proteins called integrins that are built into the plasma membrane. Integrins span the membrane and bind on the cytoplasmic side to associated proteins attached to microfilaments of the cytoskeleton. The name integrin is based on the word integrate, integrins are in a position to transmit signals between the ECM and the cytoskeleton and thus to integrate changes occurring outside and inside the cell. Current research on fibronectin, other ECM molecules, and integrins is revealing the influential role of the ECM in the lives of cells. By communicating with a cell through integrins, the ECM can regulate a cell's behavior. For example, some cells in a developing embryo migrate along specific pathways by matching the orientation of their microfilaments to the "grain" of fibers in the ECM. Researchers are also learning that the ECM around a cell can influence the activity of genes in the nucleus. Information about the ECM probably reaches the nucleus by a combination of mechanical and chemical signaling pathways. Mechanical signaling involves fibronectin, integrins, and microfilaments of the cytoskeleton. Changes in the cytoskeleton may in turn trigger chemical signaling pathways inside the cell, leading to changes in the set of proteins being made by the cell and therefore changes in the cells function. In this way, the ECM of a particular tissue may help coordinate the behavior of all the cells within that tissue. Direct connections between cells also function in this coordination.
Tissue matrices:
Bone matrix Bone is a form of connective tissue found in the body, composed largely of hardened hydroxyapatite-containing collagen. In larger mammals, it is arranged in osteon regions. Bone matrix allows mineral salts such as calcium to be stored and provides protection for internal organs and support for locomotion.
Cartilage matrix Cartilage is another form of connective tissue found in the body, providing a smooth surface for joints and a mechanism for growth of bones during development.
Subcellular matrices:
Mitochondrial matrix In the mitochondrion, the matrix contains soluble enzymes that catalyze the oxidation of pyruvate and other small organic molecules.
Nuclear matrix In the cell nucleus the matrix is the insoluble fraction that remains after extracting the solubled DNA.
Golgi matrix The Golgi matrix is a protein scaffold around the Golgi apparatus made up of Golgins, GRASP's and miscellaneous other proteins on the cytoplasmic side of the Golgi apparatus involved in keeping its shape and membrane stacking.
Matrix (medium):
A matrix is also a medium in which bacteria are grown (cultured). For instance, a Petri dish of agar may be the matrix for culturing a sample swabbed from a patient's throat.
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**Volume Table of Contents**
Volume Table of Contents:
In the IBM System/360 storage architecture, the Volume Table of Contents (VTOC), is a data structure that provides a way of locating the data sets that reside on a particular DASD volume. With the exception of the IBM Z compatible disk layout in Linux on Z, it is the functional equivalent of the MS/PC DOS File Allocation Table (FAT), the NTFS Master File Table (MFT), and an inode table in a file system for a Unix-like system. The VTOC is not used to contain any IPLTEXT and does not have any role in the IPL process, therefore does not have any data used by or functionally equivalent to the MBR. It lists the names of each data set on the volume as well as size, location, and permissions. Additionally, it contains an entry for every area of contiguous free space on the volume. The third record on the first track of the first cylinder of any DASD (e.g., disk) volume is known as the volume label and must contain a pointer to the location of the VTOC. The location of the VTOC may be specified when the volume is initialized. For performance reasons it may be located as close to the center of the volume as possible, since it is referenced frequently. A VTOC is added to a DASD volume when it is initialized using the Device Support Facilities program, ICKDSF, in current systems.
Volume Table of Contents:
When in OS/360 and successors allocates a data set, it generally searches the catalog to determine the volumes on which it resides. When a program opens a Direct Access Storage Device (DASD) dataset, the OPEN routine searches the VTOC index (VTOCIX) if there is one, or directly searches the VTOC if there is no VTOCIX.
Data Set Control Block types:
The VTOC consists of a sequence of 140-byte records known as Data Set Control Blocks (DSCBs). There are ten types of DSCB.
Data Set Control Block types:
The VTOC must reside within the first 64K tracks on the volume, and The first DSCB in the VTOC is always a format 4 DSCB which describes the VTOC itself and attributes of the DASD volume on which this VTOC resides. The second DSCB is always a format 5 DSCB which describes free space within the VTOC. Normally, the rest of the VTOC will contain format 0 DSCBs, which are empty entries, and format 1 or format 3 DSCBs, which describe the extents of data sets, giving their start address and end address of up to 16 such extents on disk. The initial part of a data set is described by a format 1 DSCB. If necessary, format 3 DSCBs are used to describe further extents of the data set. When a data set is deleted, its format 1 DSCB is overwritten to become a format 0 DSCB, and the format 3 DSCB, if one exists, is similarly deleted.
Data Set Control Block types:
Originally, a VTOC search was a sequential scan of the DSCBs, stopping when the correct format 1 DSCB was found or the end of the VTOC was reached. As DASD volumes became larger, VTOC search became a bottleneck and so a VTOC index was added.
Format 1 DSCB This VTOC entry describes a dataset and defines its first three extents. This is the format of the DSCB from OS/360 Release 21.7 in 1973, prior to changes for Y2K.
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**(E)-4-Hydroxy-3-methyl-but-2-enyl pyrophosphate**
(E)-4-Hydroxy-3-methyl-but-2-enyl pyrophosphate:
(E)-4-Hydroxy-3-methyl-but-2-enyl pyrophosphate (HMBPP or HMB-PP) is an intermediate of the MEP pathway (non-mevalonate pathway) of isoprenoid biosynthesis. The enzyme HMB-PP synthase (GcpE, IspG) catalyzes the conversion of 2-C-methyl-D-erythritol 2,4-cyclodiphosphate (MEcPP) into HMB-PP. HMB-PP is then converted further to isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP) and dimethylallyl pyrophosphate (DMAPP) by HMB-PP reductase (LytB, IspH).
(E)-4-Hydroxy-3-methyl-but-2-enyl pyrophosphate:
HMB-PP is an essential metabolite in most pathogenic bacteria including Mycobacterium tuberculosis as well as in malaria parasites, but is absent from the human host.HMB-PP is the physiological activator ("phosphoantigen") for human Vγ9/Vδ2 T cells, the major γδ T cell population in peripheral blood. With a bioactivity of 0.1 nM it is 10,000-10,000,000 times more potent than any other natural compound, such as IPP or alkyl amines. HMB-PP functions in this capacity by binding the B30.2 domain of BTN3A1.
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**BFSP1**
BFSP1:
BFSP1 is a gene that encodes the protein filensin ("beaded filament structural protein 1") in humans.More than 99% of the vertebrate ocular lens is made up of terminally differentiated lens fiber cells. Two lens-specific intermediate filament proteins, phakinin (also known as CP49) and the protein product of this gene, filensin (or CP115), are expressed only after fiber cell differentiation has begun. Both proteins are found in a structurally unique cytoskeletal element that is referred to as the beaded filament (BF).The two BFSP proteins are put into a "type VI" of intermediate filament (IF) classification. Unlike other IFs that form unbranched links, the two proteins form a network of filaments together with CRYAA.
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**Campimeter**
Campimeter:
The campimeter is an instrument for examining the visual field. Campimeters have been in clinical use since the mid-nineteenth century. Initially, examination of the visual field was concerned only with the outer limits, or 'perimeter' of the visual field, hence the term 'perimetry', which tends to be used inter-changeably with 'campimetry'.
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**Lower crustal flow**
Lower crustal flow:
In geodynamics lower crustal flow is the mainly lateral movement of material within the lower part of the continental crust by a ductile flow mechanism. It is thought to be an important process during both continental collision and continental break-up.
Rheology:
The tendency of the lower crust to flow is controlled by its rheology. Ductile flow in the lower crust is assumed to be controlled by the deformation of quartz and/or plagioclase feldspar as its composition is thought to be granodioritic to dioritic. With normal thickness continental crust and a normal geothermal gradient, the lower crust, below the brittle–ductile transition zone, exhibits ductile flow behaviour under geological strain rates. Factors that can vary this behaviour include: water content, thickness, heat flow and strain-rate.
Collisional belts:
In some areas of continental collision, the lower part of the thickened crust that results is interpreted to flow laterally, such as in the Tibetan plateau, and the Altiplano in the Bolivian Andes.
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**Base-promoted epoxide isomerization**
Base-promoted epoxide isomerization:
Base-promoted epoxide isomerization is the conversion of alkyl epoxides to ring-opened products through the action of strong base. Isomerizations of this type are most often used to synthesize allylic alcohols, although other products are possible.
Introduction:
In the presence of lithium or aluminum amide bases, epoxides may open to give the corresponding allylic alcohols. Removal of a proton adjacent to the epoxide, elimination, and neutralization of the resulting alkoxide lead to synthetically useful allylic alcohol products. In reactions of chiral, non-racemic epoxides, the configuration of the allylic alcohol product matches that of the epoxide substrate at the carbon whose C–O bond does not break (the starred carbon below). Besides β-elimination some other reactions are possible, as metalation of the epoxide ring can take place competitively. Vinylogous eliminations are possible when the epoxide substrate is substituted with vinyl or dienyl groups. Unconstrained systems tend to form trans double bonds, as significant non-bonding interactions are avoided in the transition state for the formation of trans products (see equation (2) below). The strongly basic conditions required for most isomerizations of this type represent the reaction's primary disadvantage.
Mechanism and stereochemistry:
Prevailing mechanism Isomerization of epoxides to allylic alcohols under strongly basic conditions proceeds by a β-elimination process. A model has been advanced that invokes an initial complex between the lithium amide base and epoxide. Concerted C–O bond cleavage and deprotonation proceeds via a syn transition state to give an allylic alkoxide, which is protonated upon workup. Deprotonation typically occurs at the exist in the transition state for cis double bond formation.
Mechanism and stereochemistry:
(2) Other processes may take place competitively under basic conditions, particularly when β-elimination is slow or not possible. These pathways likely begin with lithiation of a carbon in the epoxide ring, followed by α-elimination to afford a carbene intermediate. 1,2-hydrogen migration leads to ketones, while intramolecular C–H insertion affords cyclic alcohols with the formation of a new carbon-carbon bond.(3) In many cases when hexamethylphosphoramide (HMPA) is used as an additive with lithium amide bases, selectivity for the formation of allylic alcohols increases. These reactions are believed to proceed through E2 elimination.
Mechanism and stereochemistry:
Stereoselective variants Chiral amide bases may be used in catalytic amounts to isomerize meso epoxides to chiral allylic alcohols with high enantioselectivity.
(4)
Scope and limitations:
Terminal epoxides suffer from the limitation that competitive nucleophilic addition of the base to the unsubstituted epoxide carbon may take place. Non-nucleophilic, sterically hindered bases have been used to isomerize terminal epoxides successfully, however.(5) Acyclic disubstituted epoxides undergo deprotonation at the least substituted site (unless a conjugated double bond can be formed; see equation (9) below) with high selectivity for trans double bonds.
Scope and limitations:
(6) Five- and six-membered rings containing epoxides afford allylic alcohols upon treatment with amide bases; however, reactions of medium-ring epoxides may be complicated by competitive transannular C–H insertion or ketone formation.
(7) Trisubstituted epoxides do not easily undergo metalation in the ring. As a result, allylic alcohols are formed from these substrates without competitive carbenoid transformations. The use of bulky aluminum amide bases facilitates elimination at the substituent cis to hydrogen, which occurs from the less sterically hindered epoxide-base complex.
(8) Suitably substituted unsaturated epoxides may undergo vinylogous elimination, which leads to conjugated allylic alcohols. Substituted vinyl epoxides undergo 1,4-elimination in some but not all cases; however, epoxides with β unsaturation eliminate cleanly to give conjugated allylic alcohols.
(9)
Experimental conditions and procedure:
Typical conditions Lithium amides are usually prepared in the laboratory through the addition of a titrated solution of n-butyllithium in hexanes to a solution of the amine in ether. Dry glassware and inert atmosphere are required for these reactions. Alternatively, lithium amides may be prepared by the direct action of lithium on the corresponding amine. Typical temperatures for isomerization reactions employing lithium amides are between 0 °C and reflux (ether/hexane solvent mixtures derived from the synthesis of the lithium amide are usually used directly for isomerization reactions). An excess of the base is employed to account for impurities that consume base and reaction of the base with the ether solvent. Care should be taken when HMPA is added to lithium amide reactions, as it is a known animal carcinogen.
Experimental conditions and procedure:
Organolithium reagents may also be used; however, lower temperatures are required to avoid decomposition of the base. These reactions are most often run in hexanes.
Aluminum amides, which are bulkier and sometimes more selective than lithium amides, are prepared from the corresponding lithium amides and diethylaluminum chloride. Reactions are usually carried out at 0 °C in an inert atmosphere, with benzene as the solvent.
Example procedure (10) A benzene solution of 1 eq of diethylaluminum chloride was added dropwise at 0° to a solution of 1 eq of lithium 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidide prepared in the usual fashion in benzene. The resulting slurry was stirred for 30 minutes and used immediately.
Experimental conditions and procedure:
To a stirred mixture of 0.004 mol of diethylaluminum 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidide in 10 mL of benzene at 0 °C was added dropwise over 5 minutes a solution of 0.18 g (0.001 mol) of epoxide in 3 mL of benzene. The mixture was stirred at 0 °C until analysis indicated the absence of starting material. The reaction was quenched by the addition of ice-cold 1 N hydrochloric acid. The organic layer was separated, and the aqueous layer was extracted with ether. The organic layers were combined, washed with brine, dried, and concentrated. The residue was purified by preparative TLC (Rf 0.22 in 1:2 ether–hexane) to give 99% of (E)-2-cyclododecenol: IR (neat) 3330–3370, 1465, 1450, 970 cm−1; NMR (CCl4) δ 3.73–4.20 (1, m), 4.97–5.82 (2, m); mass spectrum (m/z) 182 (16), 164 (13), 139 (32), 125 (46), and 98 (100).
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**Diffraction standard**
Diffraction standard:
In crystallography, a diffraction standard, or calibration crystal, is a crystal used to calibrate an X-ray spectrometer to an absolute X-ray energy scale. Quartz or silicon crystals are typically used. There are also reports of crystals of silver behenate or silver stearate having been used for this purpose.
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**SMK- Composite Bridge System**
SMK- Composite Bridge System:
In dentistry, SMK, short for System kompozytowy most (in Polish) ("Composite Bridge System"), is an adhesive restorative prosthodontic technique, developed in Poland during the 1990s. Using the SMK method, a prosthetic tooth is constructed and fitted without damage to the neighbouring teeth.
Description of method:
In the SMK method, the dentist models and shapes a tooth from composite materials and fits it in the interdental gap to be filled. In some cases a porcelain veneer is then placed on the new tooth to give it a more natural look. The tooth is attached to the neighbouring teeth also with composite materials. In 2011 over 1000 SMK treatments were performed, mostly on the lateral incisors.
Description of method:
The main advantage of this method is that there is no grinding of neighbouring teeth, so that the neighbouring teeth are not damaged. This means that the patient can at any time revert to their natural teeth. This method can also be used in situations where other techniques are not applicable: for example, if there is not enough bone and implants cannot be inserted, or the grinding and damaging of neighbouring teeth for a normal dental bridge is not accepted by the patient, or the cost of alternative treatments is too high for the patient. The dentist makes the tooth in the surgery (a dental technician is not needed), and the treatment is completed in approximately two hours.
History:
In 1992, the first SMK treatment was performed in the Orthodontic Department of the Pomeranian Medical School in Szczecin, Poland, by C. Turostowski. At the beginning it was treated as a temporary solution. However, after seven years, due to continuing research the SMK method became increasingly used as a permanent option. In June 1999, Turostowski completed his Ph.D., "SMK – composite bridge of own construction applied in the rebuilding of lateral incisors".
History:
Initially, SMK treatment was applied with orthodontic patients with missing lateral incisors. Later, it was applied to patients with other missing teeth, especially premolars. In some cases SMK was used together with veneers so as to give it a more cosmetic and natural look. Shortly afterwards SMK was introduced for use not only with orthodontics patients but also with other dental patients. In 2003 many dental courses for dentists and dental workshops at medical schools and orthodontics departments were organised around Poland.
History:
Different variations of the SMK method have been developed.
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**DLL3**
DLL3:
Delta-like 3 (Drosophila), also known as DLL3, is a protein which in humans is encoded by the DLL3 gene. Two transcript variants encoding distinct isoforms have been identified for this gene.
Function:
This gene encodes a member of the delta protein ligand family. This family functions as Notch ligands that are characterized by a DSL domain, EGF repeats, and a transmembrane domain. Expression of DLL3 is highest in fetal brain. It plays a key role in somitogenesis within the Paraxial mesoderm.
Clinical significance:
Mutations in this gene cause the autosomal recessive genetic disorder Jarcho-Levin syndrome. Expression of the gene occurs in Neuroendocrine tumors, which has been targeted as a potential pathway for treatment.An experimental drug, rovalpituzumab tesirine, targets DLL3 as a possible treatment for lung cancer.
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**Renoise**
Renoise:
Renoise is a digital audio workstation (DAW) based upon the heritage and development of tracker software. Its primary use is the composition of music using sound samples, soft synths, and effects plug-ins. It is also able to interface with MIDI and OSC equipment. The main difference between Renoise and other music software is the characteristic vertical timeline sequencer used by tracking software.
History:
Renoise was originally based on the code of another tracker called NoiseTrekker, made by Juan Antonio Arguelles Rius (Arguru). The then unnamed Renoise project was initiated by Eduard Müller (Taktik) and Zvonko Tesic (Phazze) during December 2000. The development team planned to take tracking software into a new standard of quality, enabling tracking scene composers to make audio of the same quality as other existing professional packages, while still keeping the proven interface that originated with Soundtracker in 1987. Version 1.0 was released in June 2002. Over the years the development team has grown to distribute the tasks of testing, administrative, support and web duties among several people.
Features:
Renoise currently runs under recent versions of Windows (DirectSound or ASIO), Mac OS X (Core Audio) and Linux (ALSA or JACK).
Renoise has full MIDI and MIDI sync support, VST 3 plugin support, ASIO multi I/O cards support, integrated sampler and sample editor, internal real-time DSP effects with unlimited number of effects per track, master and send tracks, full automation of all commands, Hi-Fi wav/aiff rendering (up to 32-bit, 192 kHz), Rewire support, etc.
Features:
Supported sample formats WAV, AIFF, FLAC, Ogg, MP3, CAF Supported effects standards VSTi, AU, LADSPA, DSSI Renoise also features a Signal Follower and cross-track routing. The Signal Follower analyzes the audio output of a track and automates user-specified parameters based on the values it generates. Cross-track routing sends the automation of any Meta Device to any track. Computer Music magazine considered the combination of these two features to "open up some incredibly powerful control possibilities", and demonstrated how the signal triggered by a drum loop could control the filter cutoff frequency on a bass sound.Renoise includes an arranging tool called the "pattern matrix", full cross-track modulation routing, built-in effects including a signal-follower metadevice that allows sidechain functionality, automatic softsynth-to-sample instrument rendering, and improved MIDI mapping.
Versions:
Renoise is available as either a demo or a commercial version. The demo version excludes rendering to .WAV, ASIO support in Windows (DirectSound only) and a few other features. Also, the demo version has nag screens. The commercial version includes high quality WAV rendering (up to 32 bit 192 kHz) and ASIO support.
Development:
With the introduction of Lua scripting in version 2.6, users can expand Renoise. They are encouraged to share their work on the centralized Renoise Tools web page.
XRNS file format The XRNS file format is native to Renoise. It is based on the XML standard, and so is readable in any text editor. The XML-based file format makes it possible for anyone to develop 3rd party applications and other systems in order to manipulate file content.
3rd party tools A project for creating PHP scripts utilities for needed advanced edit tasks has been set up at SourceForge: XRNS-PHP project.
Development:
In August 2007, a functional XRNS2MIDI script was published by Renoise team member Bantai. It enables Renoise users, via an external frontend, to convert native songs into regular MIDI files (.mid) and thus exporting their work for use in conventional piano-roll sequencers such as Cubase or Reason.Since version 2.6, it is possible to extend Renoise capabilities by writing plugins in the Lua programming language. A specific tools mini site has been created to showcase these. Almost any aspect of the program, except realtime audio data mangling, can be scripted using the native Renoise Lua API.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**OSBPL9**
OSBPL9:
Oxysterol binding protein-like 9 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the OSBPL9 gene.This gene encodes a member of the oxysterol-binding protein (OSBP) family, a group of intracellular lipid receptors. Most members contain an N-terminal pleckstrin homology domain and a highly conserved C-terminal OSBP-like sterol-binding domain, although some members contain only the sterol-binding domain. This family member functions as a cholesterol transfer protein that regulates Golgi structure and function. Multiple transcript variants, most of which encode distinct isoforms, have been identified. Related pseudogenes have been identified on chromosomes 3, 11 and 12.
Model organisms:
Model organisms have been used in the study of OSBPL9 function. A conditional knockout mouse line, called Osbpl9tm1a(KOMP)Wtsi was generated as part of the International Knockout Mouse Consortium program — a high-throughput mutagenesis project to generate and distribute animal models of disease to interested scientists — at the Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute.Male and female animals underwent a standardized phenotypic screen to determine the effects of deletion. Twenty four tests were carried out on homozygous mutant adult mice, however no significant abnormalities were observed.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**KronoScope**
KronoScope:
KronoScope is a peer-reviewed academic journal dedicated to the interdisciplinary study of time, both in the humanities and in the sciences. It is published biannually under the imprint of Brill Publishers on behalf of the International Society for the Study of Time. It is indexed in Sociological Abstracts.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Phosphate permease**
Phosphate permease:
Phosphate permeases are membrane transport proteins that facilitate the diffusion of phosphate into and out of a cell or organelle. Some of these families include: TC# 2.A.1.4 - Organophosphate:Pi Antiporter (OPA) Family, (i.e., Pho-84 of Neurospora crassa; TC# 2.A.1.9.2) TC# 2.A.20 - Inorganic Phosphate Transporter (PiT) Family TC# 2.A.47.2 - Phosphate porters of the Divalent Anion:Na+ Symporter (DASS) Family, includes Pho87/90/91 TC# 2.A.58 - Phosphate:Na+ Symporter (PNaS) Family TC# 2.A.94 - Phosphate Permease (Pho1) Family
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Bustle**
Bustle:
A bustle is a padded undergarment used to add fullness, or support the drapery, at the back of women's dresses in the mid-to-late 19th century. Bustles are worn under the skirt in the back, just below the waist, to keep the skirt from dragging. Heavy fabric tended to pull the back of a skirt down and flatten it. As a result a woman's petticoated skirt would lose its shape during everyday wear (from merely sitting down or moving about).
History:
In the early stages of the fashion for the bustle, the fullness to the back of the skirts was carried quite low and often fanned out to create a train. The transition from the voluminous crinoline-enhanced skirts of the 1850s and 1860s can be seen in the loops and gathers of fabric and trimmings worn during this period. The bustle later evolved into a much more pronounced humped shape on the back of the skirt immediately below the waist, with the fabric of the skirts falling quite sharply to the floor, changing the shape of the silhouette.
History:
Transition from crinoline (1867–1872) As the fashion for crinolines wore on, their shape changed. Instead of the large bell-like silhouette previously in vogue, they began to flatten out at the front and sides, creating more fullness at the back of the skirts. One type of crinoline, the crinolette, created a shape very similar to the one produced by a bustle. Crinolettes were more restrictive than traditional crinolines, as the flat front and bulk created around the posterior made sitting down more difficult for the wearer. The excess skirt fabric created by this alteration in shape was looped around to the back, again creating increased fullness.
History:
Early bustle (1869–1876) The bustle later developed into a feature of fashion on its own after the overskirt of the late 1860s was draped up toward the back and some kind of support was needed for the new draped shape. Fullness of some sort was still considered necessary to make the waist look smaller and the bustle eventually replaced the crinoline completely. The bustle was worn in different shapes for most of the 1870s and 1880s, with a short period of non-bustled, flat-backed dresses from 1878 to 1882.
History:
Late bustle (1881–1889) The bustle reappeared in late 1881, and was exaggerated to become a major fashion feature in the mid and late 1880s, in 1885 reaching preposterous proportions to modern eyes, as used in the play Arms and the Man by George Bernard Shaw. The fashion for large bustles ended in 1889.
History:
1889–1913 The bustle then survived into the 1890s and early 20th century, as a skirt support was still needed and the stylish shape dictated a curve in the back of the skirt to balance the curve of the bust in front. The bustle had completely disappeared by 1905, as the long corset of the early 20th century was now successful in shaping the body to protrude behind.
History:
Contemporary fashion Bustles and bustle gowns are rarely worn in contemporary society. Notable exceptions occur in the realm of haute couture, bridal fashion, steampunk fashion and Lolita fashion. Bustles are employed as part of period costuming in film and theatre: an example would be the 1992 film Bram Stoker's Dracula, for which costume designer Eiko Ishioka won an Academy Award. The film features several extravagant bustle gowns created for female leads Winona Ryder and Sadie Frost.
Other usage:
Bustle was also the term used for an additional external space at the rear of a tank's turret used for storing extra equipment, a notable usage being the added box at the rear of the turret on the Sherman Firefly variant. Its positioning on the vehicle resembling the similar placement of the bustle as used on the dress item.In sailboat design, a bustle stern refers to any kind of stern that has a large "bustle" or blister at the waterline below the stern to prevent the stern from squatting when getting underway, or to a similar shape produced by the IOR measuring system in the late '70, '80 and early '90s.The term bustleback was used to describe cars styled with an additional rear protrusion that were produced in the early 1980s, such as the Cadillac Bustleback Seville.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**American Warmblood**
American Warmblood:
The American Warmblood is a horse of warmblood type, intended primarily for the traditional sport horse disciplines of dressage, show jumping, eventing and combined driving.
Characteristics:
The American Warmblood is usually between 15 and 17 hands (60 and 68 inches, 152 and 173 cm) high and may come in any color, though the solid colors are the most common. Horses of nearly all bloodlines are eligible for registration as American Warmbloods, as long as they are of a sport horse or warmblood type, and are able to meet the appropriate studbook selection or performance criteria.
Characteristics:
The emphasis is on the quality of each individual horse, for both registration and breeding approval. While the ideal horse for registration is already a warmblood type, there are no breed restrictions for American Warmbloods. Horses which are 100% hot or cold blooded are not typical, but can be registered if they are able to meet the registry's performance standards (this would include draft horses, Arabians, and Thoroughbreds). Gaited horse breeds (like the Tennessee Walker, Missouri Fox Trotter, or Icelandic horses) are also non-typical, though if they are able to perform walk-trot-canter in the appropriate levels of the accepted disciplines, they too can be eligible for registration.
Characteristics:
Horses which fail to meet or have yet to meet these performance criteria may still be issued recording papers, but are not considered registered American Warmbloods until they satisfy performance or inspection standards.Breeding stock must be approved for breeding through studbook inspection, which requires mares and stallions to meet even more stringent inspection and/or performance criteria.
Breed history:
There are two registries in the United States which recognize American Warmbloods - the American Warmblood Society & Sporthorse Registry and the American Warmblood Registry, both of which are recognized by the World Breeding Federation for Sport Horses (WBFSH).
Breed history:
The American Warmblood is more of a "type" than a "breed". Like most of the European warmbloods, the American Warmblood has an "open" book. There is more emphasis on producing quality sport horses, rather than the preservation of any particular bloodlines, which allows for much diversity in the bloodlines of American Warmbloods.The American Warmblood has been influenced by the European warmbloods, the Thoroughbred and the Arabian, as well as some draft horse breeds.
Breed history:
Both registries have also begun sport pony books, creating similar performance registries for North American ponies.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**History of the Theory of Numbers**
History of the Theory of Numbers:
History of the Theory of Numbers is a three-volume work by Leonard Eugene Dickson summarizing work in number theory up to about 1920. The style is unusual in that Dickson mostly just lists results by various authors, with little further discussion. The central topic of quadratic reciprocity and higher reciprocity laws is barely mentioned; this was apparently going to be the topic of a fourth volume that was never written (Fenster 1999).
Volumes:
Volume 1 - Divisibility and Primality - 486 pages Volume 2 - Diophantine Analysis - 803 pages Volume 3 - Quadratic and Higher Forms - 313 pages
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**.cym**
.cym:
.cym is a GeoTLD reserved for eventual assignment to the Cayman Islands. The primary top-level domain used by the Cayman Islands is .ky. The Islands already have the international three letter code, CYM. ICANN plans to increase the number of generic top-level domains, and it is through this process that a .cym top-level domain might be awarded. The Cayman Islands were previously in competition with Wales over use of the top-level domain. A campaign named "dot.CYM", not overly supported at government level, sought to have the .cym suffix for websites concerning Wales (Welsh: Cymru), the Welsh language (Welsh: Cymraeg) and Welsh culture. However, .cym was eventually assigned to the Cayman Islands because ICANN's policy states that new applications for 3-letter domains will not be accepted if they match existing ISO 3-letter codes. Wales was eventually granted the domain .cymru.
.cymru and .wales:
In June 2012, ICANN opened the process of applications for new top level domains. Nominet, who own the .uk TLD, applied to ICANN for both .cymru and .wales.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Parachute tower**
Parachute tower:
A parachute tower is a tower used for parachute training, often by members of a military paratroop unit. A mixture of tower heights are used at different stages of training. Trainees typically begin on towers around 35 feet (11 m) in height in fall-arrest harnesses before progressing onto parachute descents from towers that can be in excess of 250 feet (76 m). The use of towers allows trainees to practice their landing technique before jumping from an aircraft.
Use:
Parachute towers are used to train people, particularly military paratroopers, in parachute jump technique. Towers are typically divided into low towers of approximately 35 feet (11 m) and high towers of around 100–200 feet (30–61 m) or higher. The shorter towers are used by trainees jumping in harnesses with a fall-restraint cable to simulate the exit from an aircraft and safe landing technique.Trainees then pass onto the high tower jumps with parachutes. The high tower typically has one or more arms at the top from which the trainee is winched up into the air and released to descend by parachute. The parachutes used are specific variants developed for training and were originally modified commercial systems, though the US military later developed the Type J-I parachute specifically for high tower jumps.The high tower allows trainees to practice the "body landing" (or parachute landing fall) technique, which is essential to avoid injuries such as broken legs or ankles. The high tower can also be used to carry out "shock harness drills", intended to simulate the initial shock of a parachute canopy opening. The trainee is hauled up into the air and dropped to free fall approximately 15 feet (4.6 m) before being brought to a complete stop. After high tower training is passed troops proceed onto aircraft jumps from an altitude of approximately 1,250 feet (380 m). In the United States Army during the Second World War, five jumps from aircraft were sufficient to complete the course; the British Army required trainees to undertake an additional two jumps from tethered balloons prior to jumping from aircraft.
Military history:
The first parachute tower in the United States was a 115-foot-tall (35 m) tower in Ocean County, New Jersey, built by Stanley Switlik and first used by Amelia Earhart on 2 June 1935. The 262-foot (80 m) Parachute Jump ride at the 1939 New York World's Fair (later moved to Coney Island) was a parachute tower, though the United States Army parachute training centre at Fort Benning had only 34-foot (10 m) towers until 1941. Major William Lee of the United States Army, in charge of the training of the first 48-man platoon of US paratroopers, saw the Parachute Jump ride and constructed a similar tower at Fort Benning. Three further towers were later erected. Each stood 254 feet (77 m) high and had four arms—each of which could hoist a single paratrooper—that spanned 134 feet (41 m).The Polish Army used the Parachute Tower Katowice for training. The tower was used as a vantage point on 4 September 1939 during the defence of the town from the German invasion. The story of its defence by Polish boy and girl scouts has been described as a "heroic myth". Some of the Polish Army escaped to the United Kingdom after the fall of Poland and was based at Largo House, Scotland. Here they constructed a parachute tower, the first to be built in the British Empire, which was used to train the 1st Independent Parachute Brigade. The British military later constructed their own parachute tower (with capacity for two paratroopers) at RAF Ringway, which was moved to RAF Abingdon in 1950.The USSR had a large number of parachute training towers, with 559 in operation by 1939. Japan had at least four in operation during the Second World War. The Turkish Aeronautical Association constructed two parachute towers in İzmir and Ankara between 1935 and 1937 based on a Russian tower in use at Gorky Park. Rhodesia also had a parachute tower at New Sarum Air Force Base.
Fairground rides:
As well as the original Parachute Jump at the 1939 World's Fair, there have been several other fairground rides based on a similar premise. The Pair-O-Chutes ride operated at Chicago's Riverview Park but was demolished in 1968. Parachute towers, known as "Parachute Drops" were developed by Intamin for the Six Flags theme parks. The Texas Chute Out operated at Six Flags Over Texas from 1976 to 2012; Great Gasp operated at Six Flags Over Georgia from 1976 to 2005 and Sky Chuter was at Six Flags Over Mid-America from 1978 to 1982. Sky Chuter was relocated to Six Flags Great Adventure, where it reopened in 1983 as Parachuter's Perch, and as of 2019, it is still operational under the name "Parachute Training Center". Intamin also produced a "Parachute Drop" for Knott's Berry Farm in California in the late 1970s, which was named "Sky Jump". The parachute jump portion of the tower was removed but its observation tower remains in operation. Tokyo Dome City Attractions, Japan, has an Intamin parachute drop ride named Sky Flower.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Klein paradox**
Klein paradox:
In 1929, physicist Oskar Klein obtained a surprising result by applying the Dirac equation to the familiar problem of electron scattering from a potential barrier. In nonrelativistic quantum mechanics, electron tunneling into a barrier is observed, with exponential damping. However, Klein's result showed that if the potential is at least of the order of the electron mass, Ve∼mc2 , the barrier is nearly transparent. Moreover, as the potential approaches infinity, the reflection diminishes and the electron is always transmitted.
Klein paradox:
The immediate application of the paradox was to Rutherford's proton–electron model for neutral particles within the nucleus, before the discovery of the neutron. The paradox presented a quantum mechanical objection to the notion of an electron confined within a nucleus. This clear and precise paradox suggested that an electron could not be confined within a nucleus by any potential well. The meaning of this paradox was intensely debated at the time.
Massless particles:
Consider a massless relativistic particle approaching a potential step of height V0 with energy E0<V0e and momentum p The particle's wave function, ψ , follows the time-independent Dirac equation: (σxp+V)ψ=E0ψ,V={0,x<0V0,x>0 And σx is the Pauli matrix: σx=(0110) Assuming the particle is propagating from the left, we obtain two solutions — one before the step, in region (1) and one under the potential, in region (2): ψ1=Aeipx(11)+A′e−ipx(−11),p=E0 ψ2=Beikx(11),|k|=V0−E0 where the coefficients A, A′ and B are complex numbers.
Massless particles:
Both the incoming and transmitted wave functions are associated with positive group velocity (Blue lines in Fig.1), whereas the reflected wave function is associated with negative group velocity. (Green lines in Fig.1) We now want to calculate the transmission and reflection coefficients, T,R.
They are derived from the probability amplitude currents.
The definition of the probability current associated with the Dirac equation is: Ji=ψi†σxψi,i=1,2 In this case: J1=2[|A|2−|A′|2],J2=2|B|2 The transmission and reflection coefficients are: R=|A′|2|A|2,T=|B|2|A|2 Continuity of the wave function at x=0 , yields: |A|2=|B|2 |A′|2=0 And so the transmission coefficient is 1 and there is no reflection.
Massless particles:
One interpretation of the paradox is that a potential step cannot reverse the direction of the group velocity of a massless relativistic particle. This explanation best suits the single particle solution cited above. Other, more complex interpretations are suggested in literature, in the context of quantum field theory where the unrestrained tunnelling is shown to occur due to the existence of particle–antiparticle pairs at the potential.
Massive case:
For the massive case, the calculations are similar to the above.
The results are as surprising as in the massless case. The transmission coefficient is always larger than zero, and approaches 1 as the potential step goes to infinity.
The Klein zone If the energy of the particle is in the range mc2<E<Ve−mc2 , then partial reflection rather than total reflection will result.
Massive case:
Resolutions for the massive case While the traditional resolution uses particle–anti-particle pair production in the context of quantum field theory (Hansen 1981), a simpler resolution exists that substitutes physical pair production for the scattering of negative energy solutions under the barrier (Alhaidari 2009). This strategy was also applied to obtain analytic solutions to the Dirac equation for an infinite square well.
Other cases:
These results were expanded to higher dimensions, and to other types of potentials, such as a linear step, a square barrier, a smooth potential, etc.
Many experiments in electron transport in graphene rely on the Klein paradox for massless particles.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Abacha (food)**
Abacha (food):
Abacha (listen) is a type of food originating with the Igbos in south eastern Nigeria.
Ingredients:
Dried shredded cassava Ugba or ukpaka Palm oil Powdered potash Fish (spiced cooked) Ponmo (cooked and sliced) Onion (sliced) Garden eggs (diced) Garden egg leaves (chopped) Salt and dry pepper Crayfish Seasoning cubes Calabash nutmeg Ogiri Fresh utazi leaves Boiling water
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Dunkirk Formation**
Dunkirk Formation:
The Dunkirk Formation is a geologic formation in New York. It preserves fossils dating back to the Devonian period.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Hematocrit**
Hematocrit:
The hematocrit () (Ht or HCT), also known by several other names, is the volume percentage (vol%) of red blood cells (RBCs) in blood, measured as part of a blood test. The measurement depends on the number and size of red blood cells. It is normally 40.7–50.3% for males and 36.1–44.3% for females. It is a part of a person's complete blood count results, along with hemoglobin concentration, white blood cell count and platelet count.
Hematocrit:
Because the purpose of red blood cells is to transfer oxygen from the lungs to body tissues, a blood sample's hematocrit—the red blood cell volume percentage—can become a point of reference of its capability of delivering oxygen. Hematocrit levels that are too high or too low can indicate a blood disorder, dehydration, or other medical conditions. An abnormally low hematocrit may suggest anemia, a decrease in the total amount of red blood cells, while an abnormally high hematocrit is called polycythemia. Both are potentially life-threatening disorders.
Names:
There are other names for the hematocrit, such as packed cell volume (PCV), volume of packed red cells (VPRC), or erythrocyte volume fraction (EVF). The term hematocrit (or haematocrit in British English) comes from the Ancient Greek words haima (αἷμα, "blood") and kritēs (κριτής, "judge"), and hematocrit means "to separate blood". It was coined in 1891 by Swedish physiologist Magnus Blix as haematokrit, modeled after lactokrit.
Measurement methods:
With modern lab equipment, the hematocrit can be calculated by an automated analyzer or directly measured, depending on the analyzer manufacturer. Calculated hematocrit is determined by multiplying the red cell count by the mean cell volume. The hematocrit is slightly more accurate, as the PCV includes small amounts of blood plasma trapped between the red cells. An estimated hematocrit as a percentage may be derived by tripling the hemoglobin concentration in g/dL and dropping the units.The packed cell volume (PCV) can be determined by centrifuging EDTA-treated or heparinized blood in a capillary tube (also known as a microhematocrit tube) at 10,000 RPM for five minutes. This separates the blood into layers. The volume of packed red blood cells divided by the total volume of the blood sample gives the PCV. Since a tube is used, this can be calculated by measuring the lengths of the layers.Another way of measuring hematocrit levels is by optical methods such as spectrophotometry. Through differential spectrophotometry, the differences in optical densities of a blood sample flowing through small-bore glass tubes at isosbestic wavelengths for deoxyhemoglobin and oxyhemoglobin and the product of the luminal diameter and hematocrit create a linear relationship that is used to measure hematocrit levels.Other than potential bruising at the puncture site, and/or dizziness, there are no complications associated with this test.While known hematocrit levels are used in detecting conditions, it may fail at times due to hematocrit being the measure of concentration of red blood cells through volume in a blood sample. It does not account for the mass of the red blood cells, and thus the changes in mass can alter a hematocrit level or go undetected while affecting a subject's condition. Additionally, there have been cases in which the blood for testing was inadvertently drawn proximal to an intravenous line that was infusing packed red cells or fluids. In these situations, the hemoglobin level in the blood sample will not be the true level for the patient because the sample will contain a large amount of the infused material rather than what is diluted into the circulating whole blood. That is, if packed red cells are being supplied, the sample will contain a large amount of those cells and the hematocrit will be artificially very high.
Levels:
Hematocrit can vary from the determining factors of the number of red blood cells. These factors can be from the age and sex of the subject. Typically, a higher hematocrit level signifies the blood sample's ability to transport oxygen, which has led to reports that an "optimal hematocrit level" may exist. Optimal hematocrit levels have been studied through combinations of assays on blood sample's hematocrit itself, viscosity, and hemoglobin level.Hematocrit levels also serve as an indicator of health conditions. Thus, tests on hematocrit levels are often carried out in the process of diagnosis of such conditions, and may be conducted prior to surgery. Additionally, the health conditions associated with certain hematocrit levels are the same as ones associated with certain hemoglobin levels. As blood flows from the arterioles into the capillaries, a change in pressure occurs. In order to maintain pressure, the capillaries branch off to a web of vessels that carry blood into the venules. Through this process blood undergoes micro-circulation. In micro-circulation, the Fåhræus effect will take place, resulting in a large change in hematocrit. As blood flows through the arterioles, red cells will act a feed hematocrit (Hf), while in the capillaries, a tube hematocrit (Ht) occurs. In tube hematocrit, plasma fills most of the vessel while the red cells travel through in somewhat of a single file line. From this stage, blood will enter the venules increasing in hematocrit, in other words the discharge hematocrit (Hd).In large vessels with low hematocrit, viscosity dramatically drops and red cells take in a lot of energy. While in smaller vessels at the micro-circulation scale, viscosity is very high. With the increase in shear stress at the wall, a lot of energy is used to move cells.
Shear rate relations:
Relationships between hematocrit, viscosity, and shear rate are important factors to put into consideration. Since blood is non-Newtonian, the viscosity of the blood is in relation to the hematocrit, and as a function of shear rate. This is important when it comes to determining shear force, since a lower hematocrit level indicates that there is a need for more force to push the red blood cells through the system. This is because shear rate is defined as the rate to which adjacent layers of fluid move in respect to each other. Plasma is a more viscous material than typically red blood cells, since they are able to adjust their size to the radius of a tube; the shear rate is purely dependent on the amount of red blood cells being forced in a vessel.
Shear rate relations:
Elevated Generally at both sea levels and high altitudes, hematocrit levels rise as children mature. These health-related causes and impacts of elevated hematocrit levels have been reported: Fall in blood plasma levels Dehydration Administering of testosterone supplement therapy In cases of dengue fever, a high hematocrit is a danger sign of an increased risk of dengue shock syndrome. Hemoconcentration can be detected by an escalation of over 20% in hematocrit levels that will come before shock. For early detection of dengue hemorrhagic fever, it is suggested that hematocrit levels be kept under observations at a minimum of every 24 hours; 3–4 hours is suggested in suspected dengue shock syndrome or critical cases of dengue hemorrhagic fever.
Shear rate relations:
Polycythemia vera (PV), a myeloproliferative disorder in which the bone marrow produces excessive numbers of red cells, is associated with elevated hematocrit.
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and other pulmonary conditions associated with hypoxia may elicit an increased production of red blood cells. This increase is mediated by the increased levels of erythropoietin by the kidneys in response to hypoxia.
Shear rate relations:
Professional athletes' hematocrit levels are measured as part of tests for blood doping or erythropoietin (EPO) use; the level of hematocrit in a blood sample is compared with the long-term level for that athlete (to allow for individual variations in hematocrit level), and against an absolute permitted maximum (which is based on maximum expected levels within the population, and the hematocrit level that causes increased risk of blood clots resulting in strokes or heart attacks).
Shear rate relations:
Anabolic androgenic steroid (AAS) use can also increase the amount of RBCs and, therefore, impact the hematocrit, in particular the compounds boldenone and oxymetholone.
Capillary leak syndrome also leads to abnormally high hematocrit counts, because of the episodic leakage of plasma out of the circulatory system.
Shear rate relations:
At higher altitudes, there is a lower oxygen supply in the air and thus hematocrit levels may increase over time.Hematocrit levels were also reported to be correlated with social factors that influence subjects. In the 1966–80 Health Examination Survey, there was a small rise in mean hematocrit levels in female and male adolescents that reflected a rise in annual family income. Additionally, a higher education in a parent has been put into account for a rise in mean hematocrit levels of the child.
Shear rate relations:
Lowered Lowered hematocrit levels also pose health impacts. These causes and impacts have been reported: A low hematocrit level is a sign of a low red blood cell count. One way to increase the ability of oxygen transport in red blood cells is through blood transfusion, which is carried out typically when the red blood cell count is low. Prior to the blood transfusion, hematocrit levels are measured to help ensure the transfusion is necessary and safe.
Shear rate relations:
A low hematocrit with a low mean corpuscular volume (MCV) with a high red cell distribution width (RDW) suggests a chronic iron-deficient anemia resulting in abnormal hemoglobin synthesis during erythropoiesis. The MCV and the RDW can be quite helpful in evaluating a lower-than-normal hematocrit, because they can help the clinician determine whether blood loss is chronic or acute, although acute blood loss typically does not manifest as a change in hematocrit, since hematocrit is simply a measure of how much of the blood volume is made up of red blood cells. The MCV is the size of the red cells and the RDW is a relative measure of the variation in size of the red cell population.
Shear rate relations:
Decreased hematocrit levels could indicate life-threatening diseases such as leukemia. When the bone marrow no longer produces normal red blood cells, hematocrit levels deviate from normal as well and thus can possibly be used in detecting acute myeloid leukemia. It can also be related to other conditions, such as malnutrition, water intoxication, anemia, and bleeding.
Pregnancy may lead to women having additional fluid in blood. This could potentially lead to a small drop in hematocrit levels.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Kinetic energy penetrator**
Kinetic energy penetrator:
A kinetic energy penetrator (KEP), also known as long-rod penetrator (LRP), is a type of ammunition designed to penetrate vehicle armour using a flechette-like, high-sectional density projectile. Like a bullet or kinetic energy weapon, this type of ammunition does not contain explosive payloads and uses purely kinetic energy to penetrate the target. Modern KEP munitions are typically of the armour-piercing fin-stabilized discarding sabot (APFSDS) type.
History:
Early cannons fired kinetic energy ammunition, initially consisting of heavy balls of worked stone and later of dense metals. From the beginning, combining high muzzle energy with projectile weight and hardness have been the foremost factors in the design of such weapons. Similarly, the foremost purpose of such weapons has generally been to defeat protective shells of armored vehicles or other defensive structures, whether it is stone walls, sailship timbers, or modern tank armour. Kinetic energy ammunition, in its various forms, has consistently been the choice for those weapons due to the highly focused terminal ballistics.
History:
The development of the modern KE penetrator combines two aspects of artillery design, high muzzle velocity and concentrated force. High muzzle velocity is achieved by using a projectile with a low mass and large base area in the gun barrel. Firing a small-diameter projectile wrapped in a lightweight outer shell, called a sabot, raises the muzzle velocity. Once the shell clears the barrel, the sabot is no longer needed and falls off in pieces. This leaves the projectile traveling at high velocity with a smaller cross-sectional area and reduced aerodynamic drag during the flight to the target (see external ballistics and terminal ballistics). Germany developed modern sabots under the name "treibspiegel" ("thrust mirror") to give extra altitude to its anti-aircraft guns during the Second World War. Before this, primitive wooden sabots had been used for centuries in the form of a wooden plug attached to or breech loaded before cannonballs in the barrel, placed between the propellant charge and the projectile. The name "sabot" (pronounced SAB-oh in English usage) is the French word for clog (a wooden shoe traditionally worn in some European countries).
History:
Concentration of force into a smaller area was initially attained by replacing the single metal (usually steel) shot with a composite shot using two metals, a heavy core (based on tungsten) inside a lighter metal outer shell. These designs were known as armour-piercing composite rigid (APCR) by the British, high-velocity armor-piercing (HVAP) by the US, and hartkern (hard core) by the Germans. On impact, the core had a much more concentrated effect than plain metal shot of the same weight and size. The air resistance and other effects were the same as for the shell of identical size. High-velocity armor-piercing (HVAP) rounds were primarily used by tank destroyers in the US Army and were relatively uncommon as the tungsten core was expensive and prioritized for other applications.
History:
Between 1941 and 1943, the British combined the two techniques in the armour-piercing discarding sabot (APDS) round. The sabot replaced the outer metal shell of the APCR. While in the gun, the shot had a large base area to get maximum acceleration from the propelling charge but once outside, the sabot fell away to reveal a heavy shot with a small cross-sectional area. APDS rounds served as the primary kinetic energy weapon of most tanks during the early-Cold War period, though they suffered the primary drawback of inaccuracy. This was resolved with the introduction of the armour-piercing fin-stabilized discarding sabot (APFSDS) round during the 1970s, which added stabilising fins to the penetrator, greatly increasing accuracy.
Design:
The principle of the kinetic energy penetrator is that it uses its kinetic energy, which is a function of its mass and velocity, to force its way through armor. If the armor is defeated, the heat and spalling (particle spray) generated by the penetrator going through the armor, and the pressure wave that develops, ideally destroys the target.The modern kinetic energy weapon maximizes the stress (kinetic energy divided by impact area) delivered to the target by: maximizing the mass – that is, using the densest metals practical, which is one of the reasons depleted uranium or tungsten carbide is often used – and muzzle velocity of the projectile, as kinetic energy scales with the mass m and the square of the velocity v of the projectile (mv2/2).
Design:
minimizing the width, since if the projectile does not tumble, it will hit the target face first. As most modern projectiles have circular cross-sectional areas, their impact area will scale with the square of the radius r (the impact area being πr2 )The penetrator length plays a large role in determining the ultimate depth of penetration. Generally, a penetrator is incapable of penetrating deeper than its own length, as the sheer stress of impact and perforation ablates it. This has led to the current designs which resemble a long metal arrow.
Design:
For monobloc penetrators made of a single material, a perforation formula devised by Wili Odermatt and W. Lanz can calculate the penetration depth of an APFSDS round.In 1982, an analytical investigation drawing from concepts of gas dynamics and experiments on target penetration led to the conclusion on the efficiency of impactors that penetration is deeper using unconventional three-dimensional shapes.The opposite method of KE-penetrators uses chemical energy penetrators. Two types of such shells are in use: high-explosive anti-tank (HEAT) and high-explosive squash head (HESH). They have been widely used against armour in the past and still have a role but are less effective against modern composite armour, such as Chobham as used on main battle tanks today. Main battle tanks usually use KE-penetrators, while HEAT is mainly found in missile systems that are shoulder-launched or vehicle-mounted, and HESH is usually favored for fortification demolition.
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**Ocean-V RNA motif**
Ocean-V RNA motif:
The Ocean-V RNA motif is a conserved RNA structure discovered using bioinformatics. Only a few Ocean-V RNA sequences have been detected, all in sequences derived from DNA that was extracted from uncultivated bacteria found in ocean water. As of 2010, no Ocean-V RNA has been detected in any known, cultivated organism.
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**Cyclophilin**
Cyclophilin:
Cyclophilins (CYPs) are a family of proteins named after their ability to bind to ciclosporin (cyclosporin A), an immunosuppressant which is usually used to suppress rejection after internal organ transplants. They are found in all domains of life. These proteins have peptidyl prolyl isomerase activity, which catalyzes the isomerization of peptide bonds from trans form to cis form at proline residues and facilitates protein folding.
Cyclophilin:
Cyclophilin A is a cytosolic and highly abundant protein. The protein belongs to a family of isozymes, including cyclophilins B and C, and natural killer cell cyclophilin-related protein. Major isoforms have been found within single cells, including inside the Endoplasmic reticulum, and some are even secreted.
Mammalian cyclophilins:
Human genes encoding proteins containing the cyclophilin domain include: PPIA, PPIB, PPIC, PPID, PPIE, PPIF, PPIG, PPIH PPIL1, PPIL2, PPIL3, PPIL4, PPIAL4, PPIL6 PPWD1 Cyclophilin A Cyclophilin A (CYPA) also known as peptidylprolyl isomerase A (PPIA), which is found in the cytosol, has a beta barrel structure with two alpha helices and a beta-sheet. Other cyclophilins have similar structures to cyclophilin A. The cyclosporin-cyclophilin A complex inhibits a calcium/calmodulin-dependent phosphatase, calcineurin, the inhibition of which is thought to suppress organ rejection by halting the production of the pro-inflammatory molecules TNF alpha and interleukin 2.
Mammalian cyclophilins:
Cyclophilin A is also known to be recruited by the Gag polyprotein during HIV-1 virus infection, and its incorporation into new virus particles is essential for HIV-1 infectivity.
Mammalian cyclophilins:
Cyclophilin D Cyclophilin D (PPIF, note that literature is confusing, the mitochondrial cyclophilin is encoded by the PPIF gene), which is located in the matrix of mitochondria, is only a modulatory, but may or may not be a structural component of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore. The pore opening raises the permeability of the mitochondrial inner membrane, allows influx of cytosolic molecules into the mitochondrial matrix, increases the matrix volume, and disrupts the mitochondrial outer membrane. As a result, the mitochondria fall into a functional disorder, so the opening of the pore plays an important role in cell death. Cyclophilin D is thought to regulate the opening of the pore because cyclosporin A, which binds to CyP-D, inhibits the pore opening.
Mammalian cyclophilins:
However, mitochondria obtained from the cysts of Artemia franciscana, do not exhibit the mitochondrial permeability transition pore
Clinical significance:
Diseases Overexpression of Cyclophilin A has been linked to poor response to inflammatory diseases, the progression or metastasis of cancer, and aging.
Cyclophilins as drug targets Cyclophilin inhibitors, such as cyclosporin, are being developed to treat neurodegenerative diseases. Cyclophilin inhibition may also be a therapy for liver diseases.
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**Dedekind domain**
Dedekind domain:
In abstract algebra, a Dedekind domain or Dedekind ring, named after Richard Dedekind, is an integral domain in which every nonzero proper ideal factors into a product of prime ideals. It can be shown that such a factorization is then necessarily unique up to the order of the factors. There are at least three other characterizations of Dedekind domains that are sometimes taken as the definition: see below.
Dedekind domain:
A field is a commutative ring in which there are no nontrivial proper ideals, so that any field is a Dedekind domain, however in a rather vacuous way. Some authors add the requirement that a Dedekind domain not be a field. Many more authors state theorems for Dedekind domains with the implicit proviso that they may require trivial modifications for the case of fields.
Dedekind domain:
An immediate consequence of the definition is that every principal ideal domain (PID) is a Dedekind domain. In fact a Dedekind domain is a unique factorization domain (UFD) if and only if it is a PID.
The prehistory of Dedekind domains:
In the 19th century it became a common technique to gain insight into integer solutions of polynomial equations using rings of algebraic numbers of higher degree. For instance, fix a positive integer m . In the attempt to determine which integers are represented by the quadratic form x2+my2 , it is natural to factor the quadratic form into (x+−my)(x−−my) , the factorization taking place in the ring of integers of the quadratic field Q(−m) . Similarly, for a positive integer n the polynomial zn−yn (which is relevant for solving the Fermat equation xn+yn=zn ) can be factored over the ring Z[ζn] , where ζn is a primitive n-th root of unity.
The prehistory of Dedekind domains:
For a few small values of m and n these rings of algebraic integers are PIDs, and this can be seen as an explanation of the classical successes of Fermat ( m=1,n=4 ) and Euler ( m=2,3,n=3 ). By this time a procedure for determining whether the ring of all algebraic integers of a given quadratic field Q(D) is a PID was well known to the quadratic form theorists. Especially, Gauss had looked at the case of imaginary quadratic fields: he found exactly nine values of D<0 for which the ring of integers is a PID and conjectured that there were no further values. (Gauss' conjecture was proven more than one hundred years later by Kurt Heegner, Alan Baker and Harold Stark.) However, this was understood (only) in the language of equivalence classes of quadratic forms, so that in particular the analogy between quadratic forms and the Fermat equation seems not to have been perceived. In 1847 Gabriel Lamé announced a solution of Fermat's Last Theorem for all n>2 ; that is, that the Fermat equation has no solutions in nonzero integers, but it turned out that his solution hinged on the assumption that the cyclotomic ring Z[ζn] is a UFD. Ernst Kummer had shown three years before that this was not the case already for 23 (the full, finite list of values for which Z[ζn] is a UFD is now known). At the same time, Kummer developed powerful new methods to prove Fermat's Last Theorem at least for a large class of prime exponents n using what we now recognize as the fact that the ring Z[ζn] is a Dedekind domain. In fact Kummer worked not with ideals but with "ideal numbers", and the modern definition of an ideal was given by Dedekind.
The prehistory of Dedekind domains:
By the 20th century, algebraists and number theorists had come to realize that the condition of being a PID is rather delicate, whereas the condition of being a Dedekind domain is quite robust. For instance the ring of ordinary integers is a PID, but as seen above the ring OK of algebraic integers in a number field K need not be a PID. In fact, although Gauss also conjectured that there are infinitely many primes p such that the ring of integers of Q(p) is a PID, as of 2016 it is not yet known whether there are infinitely many number fields K (of arbitrary degree) such that OK is a PID. On the other hand, the ring of integers in a number field is always a Dedekind domain.
The prehistory of Dedekind domains:
Another illustration of the delicate/robust dichotomy is the fact that being a Dedekind domain is, among Noetherian domains, a local property: a Noetherian domain R is Dedekind iff for every maximal ideal M of R the localization RM is a Dedekind ring. But a local domain is a Dedekind ring iff it is a PID iff it is a discrete valuation ring (DVR), so the same local characterization cannot hold for PIDs: rather, one may say that the concept of a Dedekind ring is the globalization of that of a DVR.
Alternative definitions:
For an integral domain R that is not a field, all of the following conditions are equivalent: (DD1) Every nonzero proper ideal factors into primes.
(DD2) R is Noetherian, and the localization at each maximal ideal is a discrete valuation ring.
(DD3) Every nonzero fractional ideal of R is invertible.
(DD4) R is an integrally closed, Noetherian domain with Krull dimension one (that is, every nonzero prime ideal is maximal).
Alternative definitions:
(DD5) For any two ideals I and J in R , I is contained in J if and only if J divides I as ideals. That is, there exists an ideal H such that I=JH . A commutative ring (not necessarily a domain) with unity satisfying this condition is called a containment-division ring (CDR).Thus a Dedekind domain is a domain that either is a field, or satisfies any one, and hence all five, of (DD1) through (DD5). Which of these conditions one takes as the definition is therefore merely a matter of taste. In practice, it is often easiest to verify (DD4).
Alternative definitions:
A Krull domain is a higher-dimensional analog of a Dedekind domain: a Dedekind domain that is not a field is a Krull domain of dimension 1. This notion can be used to study the various characterizations of a Dedekind domain. In fact, this is the definition of a Dedekind domain used in Bourbaki's "Commutative algebra".
A Dedekind domain can also be characterized in terms of homological algebra: an integral domain is a Dedekind domain if and only if it is a hereditary ring; that is, every submodule of a projective module over it is projective. Similarly, an integral domain is a Dedekind domain if and only if every divisible module over it is injective.
Some examples of Dedekind domains:
All principal ideal domains and therefore all discrete valuation rings are Dedekind domains.
Some examples of Dedekind domains:
The ring R=OK of algebraic integers in a number field K is Noetherian, integrally closed, and of dimension one: to see the last property, observe that for any nonzero prime ideal I of R, R/I is a finite set, and recall that a finite integral domain is a field; so by (DD4) R is a Dedekind domain. As above, this includes all the examples considered by Kummer and Dedekind and was the motivating case for the general definition, and these remain among the most studied examples.
Some examples of Dedekind domains:
The other class of Dedekind rings that is arguably of equal importance comes from geometry: let C be a nonsingular geometrically integral affine algebraic curve over a field k. Then the coordinate ring k[C] of regular functions on C is a Dedekind domain. This is largely clear simply from translating geometric terms into algebra: the coordinate ring of any affine variety is, by definition, a finitely generated k-algebra, hence Noetherian; moreover curve means dimension one and nonsingular implies (and, in dimension one, is equivalent to) normal, which by definition means integrally closed.
Some examples of Dedekind domains:
Both of these constructions can be viewed as special cases of the following basic result: Theorem: Let R be a Dedekind domain with fraction field K. Let L be a finite degree field extension of K and denote by S the integral closure of R in L. Then S is itself a Dedekind domain.Applying this theorem when R is itself a PID gives us a way of building Dedekind domains out of PIDs. Taking R = Z, this construction says precisely that rings of integers of number fields are Dedekind domains. Taking R = k[t], one obtains the above case of nonsingular affine curves as branched coverings of the affine line.
Some examples of Dedekind domains:
Zariski and Samuel were sufficiently taken with this construction to ask whether every Dedekind domain arises from it; that is, by starting with a PID and taking the integral closure in a finite degree field extension. A surprisingly simple negative answer was given by L. Claborn.If the situation is as above but the extension L of K is algebraic of infinite degree, then it is still possible for the integral closure S of R in L to be a Dedekind domain, but it is not guaranteed. For example, take again R = Z, K = Q and now take L to be the field Q¯ of all algebraic numbers. The integral closure is nothing else than the ring Z¯ of all algebraic integers. Since the square root of an algebraic integer is again an algebraic integer, it is not possible to factor any nonzero nonunit algebraic integer into a finite product of irreducible elements, which implies that Z¯ is not even Noetherian! In general, the integral closure of a Dedekind domain in an infinite algebraic extension is a Prüfer domain; it turns out that the ring of algebraic integers is slightly more special than this: it is a Bézout domain.
Fractional ideals and the class group:
Let R be an integral domain with fraction field K. A fractional ideal is a nonzero R-submodule I of K for which there exists a nonzero x in K such that xI⊂R.
Given two fractional ideals I and J, one defines their product IJ as the set of all finite sums ∑ninjn,in∈I,jn∈J : the product IJ is again a fractional ideal. The set Frac(R) of all fractional ideals endowed with the above product is a commutative semigroup and in fact a monoid: the identity element is the fractional ideal R.
For any fractional ideal I, one may define the fractional ideal I∗=(R:I)={x∈K∣xI⊂R}.
Fractional ideals and the class group:
One then tautologically has I∗I⊂R . In fact one has equality if and only if I, as an element of the monoid of Frac(R), is invertible. In other words, if I has any inverse, then the inverse must be I∗ A principal fractional ideal is one of the form xR for some nonzero x in K. Note that each principal fractional ideal is invertible, the inverse of xR being simply 1xR . We denote the subgroup of principal fractional ideals by Prin(R).
Fractional ideals and the class group:
A domain R is a PID if and only if every fractional ideal is principal. In this case, we have Frac(R) = Prin(R) = K×/R× , since two principal fractional ideals xR and yR are equal iff xy−1 is a unit in R.
Fractional ideals and the class group:
For a general domain R, it is meaningful to take the quotient of the monoid Frac(R) of all fractional ideals by the submonoid Prin(R) of principal fractional ideals. However this quotient itself is generally only a monoid. In fact it is easy to see that the class of a fractional ideal I in Frac(R)/Prin(R) is invertible if and only if I itself is invertible.
Fractional ideals and the class group:
Now we can appreciate (DD3): in a Dedekind domain (and only in a Dedekind domain) every fractional ideal is invertible. Thus these are precisely the class of domains for which Frac(R)/Prin(R) forms a group, the ideal class group Cl(R) of R. This group is trivial if and only if R is a PID, so can be viewed as quantifying the obstruction to a general Dedekind domain being a PID.
Fractional ideals and the class group:
We note that for an arbitrary domain one may define the Picard group Pic(R) as the group of invertible fractional ideals Inv(R) modulo the subgroup of principal fractional ideals. For a Dedekind domain this is of course the same as the ideal class group. However, on a more general class of domains, including Noetherian domains and Krull domains, the ideal class group is constructed in a different way, and there is a canonical homomorphism Pic(R) → Cl(R)which is however generally neither injective nor surjective. This is an affine analogue of the distinction between Cartier divisors and Weil divisors on a singular algebraic variety.
Fractional ideals and the class group:
A remarkable theorem of L. Claborn (Claborn 1966) asserts that for any abelian group G whatsoever, there exists a Dedekind domain R whose ideal class group is isomorphic to G. Later, C.R. Leedham-Green showed that such an R may be constructed as the integral closure of a PID in a quadratic field extension (Leedham-Green 1972). In 1976, M. Rosen showed how to realize any countable abelian group as the class group of a Dedekind domain that is a subring of the rational function field of an elliptic curve, and conjectured that such an "elliptic" construction should be possible for a general abelian group (Rosen 1976). Rosen's conjecture was proven in 2008 by P.L. Clark (Clark 2009).
Fractional ideals and the class group:
In contrast, one of the basic theorems in algebraic number theory asserts that the class group of the ring of integers of a number field is finite; its cardinality is called the class number and it is an important and rather mysterious invariant, notwithstanding the hard work of many leading mathematicians from Gauss to the present day.
Finitely generated modules over a Dedekind domain:
In view of the well known and exceedingly useful structure theorem for finitely generated modules over a principal ideal domain (PID), it is natural to ask for a corresponding theory for finitely generated modules over a Dedekind domain.
Finitely generated modules over a Dedekind domain:
Let us briefly recall the structure theory in the case of a finitely generated module M over a PID R . We define the torsion submodule T to be the set of elements m of M such that rm=0 for some nonzero r in R . Then: (M1) T can be decomposed into a direct sum of cyclic torsion modules, each of the form R/I for some nonzero ideal I of R . By the Chinese Remainder Theorem, each R/I can further be decomposed into a direct sum of submodules of the form R/Pi , where Pi is a power of a prime ideal. This decomposition need not be unique, but any two decompositions T≅R/P1a1⊕⋯⊕R/Prar≅R/Q1b1⊕⋯⊕R/Qsbs differ only in the order of the factors.
Finitely generated modules over a Dedekind domain:
(M2) The torsion submodule is a direct summand. That is, there exists a complementary submodule P of M such that M=T⊕P (M3PID) P isomorphic to Rn for a uniquely determined non-negative integer n . In particular, P is a finitely generated free module.
Finitely generated modules over a Dedekind domain:
Now let M be a finitely generated module over an arbitrary Dedekind domain R . Then (M1) and (M2) hold verbatim. However, it follows from (M3PID) that a finitely generated torsionfree module P over a PID is free. In particular, it asserts that all fractional ideals are principal, a statement that is false whenever R is not a PID. In other words, the nontriviality of the class group Cl(R) causes (M3PID) to fail. Remarkably, the additional structure in torsionfree finitely generated modules over an arbitrary Dedekind domain is precisely controlled by the class group, as we now explain. Over an arbitrary Dedekind domain one has (M3DD) P is isomorphic to a direct sum of rank one projective modules: P≅I1⊕⋯⊕Ir . Moreover, for any rank one projective modules I1,…,Ir,J1,…,Js , one has I1⊕⋯⊕Ir≅J1⊕⋯⊕Js if and only if r=s and I1⊗⋯⊗Ir≅J1⊗⋯⊗Js.
Finitely generated modules over a Dedekind domain:
Rank one projective modules can be identified with fractional ideals, and the last condition can be rephrased as [I1⋯Ir]=[J1⋯Js]∈Cl(R).
Finitely generated modules over a Dedekind domain:
Thus a finitely generated torsionfree module of rank n>0 can be expressed as Rn−1⊕I , where I is a rank one projective module. The Steinitz class for P over R is the class [I] of I in Cl(R) : it is uniquely determined. A consequence of this is: Theorem: Let R be a Dedekind domain. Then K0(R)≅Z⊕Cl(R) , where K0(R) is the Grothendieck group of the commutative monoid of finitely generated projective R modules.
Finitely generated modules over a Dedekind domain:
These results were established by Ernst Steinitz in 1912.
An additional consequence of this structure, which is not implicit in the preceding theorem, is that if the two projective modules over a Dedekind domain have the same class in the Grothendieck group, then they are in fact abstractly isomorphic.
Locally Dedekind rings:
There exist integral domains R that are locally but not globally Dedekind: the localization of R at each maximal ideal is a Dedekind ring (equivalently, a DVR) but R itself is not Dedekind. As mentioned above, such a ring cannot be Noetherian. It seems that the first examples of such rings were constructed by N. Nakano in 1953. In the literature such rings are sometimes called "proper almost Dedekind rings".
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**Explanatory journalism**
Explanatory journalism:
Explanatory journalism or explanatory reporting is a form of reporting that attempts to present ongoing news stories in a more accessible manner by providing greater context than would be presented in traditional news sources. The term is often associated with the explanatory news website Vox, but explanatory reporting (previously explanatory journalism) has also been a Pulitzer Prize category since 1985. Other examples include The Upshot by The New York Times, Bloomberg Quicktake, The Conversation, and FiveThirtyEight.
Relation to analytic journalism:
Journalism professor Michael Schudson says explanatory journalism and analytic journalism are the same, because both attempt to "explain a complicated event or process in a comprehensible narrative" and require "intelligence and a kind of pedagogical flair, linking the capacity to understand a complex situation with a knack for transmitting that understanding to a broad public." Schudson says explanatory journalists "aid democracy."
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**Space tug**
Space tug:
A space tug is a type of spacecraft used to transfer spaceborne cargo from one orbit to another orbit with different energy characteristics. An example would be moving a spacecraft from a low Earth orbit (LEO) to a higher-energy orbit like a geostationary transfer orbit, a lunar transfer, or an escape trajectory.
The term is often used to refer to reusable, space-based vehicles. Some previously proposed or built space tugs include the NASA 1970s STS proposal or the proposed Russian Parom, and has sometimes been used to refer to expendable upper stages, such as Fregat, or Spaceflight Industries Sherpa.
Background:
The space tug was first envisioned in the post-World War II era as a support vehicle for a permanent, Earth-orbiting space station. It was used by science fiction writer Murray Leinster as the title of a novel published in 1953 as the sequel to Space Platform, another novel about such a space station.
Existing space tugs:
Space tugs can be roughly categorised into a few types: Large tugs that dock with satellites in orbit which may be able to perform services like refuelling or repairs or enhancements as well as changing the satellites orbit whether that is to extend life of satellite or to deorbit it.
Rocket Kick Stage used to distribute different payloads to different orbits. An example would be Photon Satellite Bus but this might just be considered part of the rocket system rather than a space tug and this article does not really consider these in detail.
Smaller tugs that are mainly cubesat deployers with some propulsion to deploy the cubesats to different orbits.
Existing space tugs:
Large tugs that dock Mission Extension Vehicle In 2011 ViviSat a joint project between U.S. Space and ATK proposed the Mission Extension Vehicle. In 2016 ViviSat was dissolved when U.S. Space declared bankruptcy and ATK merged with Orbital Science Corporation to form Orbital ATK. In 2017 Orbital ATK got the go ahead from the FCC to begin development of the spacecraft with new partner Northrop Grumman who was developing a tug of their own. In June 2018, both companies pooled their resources and merged to form a new company called Northrop Grumman Innovation Systems. On 9 October 2019 the first of these tugs MEV-1 was launched from Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan on a Proton-M rocket. In February 2020, MEV-1 successfully docked with Intelsat 901 and returned it to geosynchronous orbit, allowing it to continue operating 4 years past its service life. MEV-1 will continue to maintain this position for a 5-year period, after which it will move the satellite back into a graveyard orbit for retirement. MEV-2 was launched 15 August 2020 with Galaxy 30 on an Ariane 5 to perform a similar maneuver with Intelsat-1002.
Existing space tugs:
Shijian-21 In December 2021 - January 2022, China's Shijian-21 space debris mitigation satellite has docked with the defunct Beidou-2 G2 navigation satellite to drastically alter its geostationary orbit, demonstrating capabilities only previously exhibited by the United States.
Existing space tugs:
Smaller tugs and dispensers SHERPA Spaceflight Inc. developed SHERPA, which builds upon the capabilities of the Spaceflight Secondary Payload System (SSPS) by incorporating propulsion and power generation subsystems, which creates a propulsive tug dedicated to maneuvering to an optimal orbit to place secondary and hosted payloads. The maiden flight of two separate unpropelled variants of the dispenser was in December 2018 on a Falcon 9 rocket. This flight deployed 64 small satellites from 17 countries.
Existing space tugs:
ION Satellite Carrier D-Orbit, an Italian space logistics and transportation company, developed the InOrbit NOW ION Satellite Carrier. The first launch occurred on 3 September 2020 on a Vega rocket, but subsequent launches have all been on SpaceX Falcon 9 Transporter missions. On January 3, 2023 the company launched its seventh and eighth vehicles, Second star to the right, aboard the SpaceX Transporter-6 Mission.
Existing space tugs:
Long Duration Propulsive ESPA (LDPE) LDPE is based on a Northrop Grumman payload adapter used to help attach the upper stage to the main satellite in addition to hosting a few slots for other smallsats. However, the entire system is powered by the ESPAStar satellite bus, which is in charge of power consumption and distribution as well as propulsion making it a fully operational space tug capable of deploying different payloads at different orbits. ESPAStar has the capability to host 6 smallsat payloads totaling 1,920 kg (4,230 lb). The system is also able to provide 400 meters per second of delta-V via a Hydrazine propulsion module.The first LDPE was launched on 7 December 2021 on an Atlas V rocket as part of the STP-3 mission. The second launch was on 1 November 2022 on a Falcon Heavy rocket as part of the USSF-44 mission. A third mission was on 15 January 2023 on USSF-67 mission.
Existing space tugs:
Momentus Space Momentus Space develops different space tug versions focusing on large velocity changes over 1 km/s. Two demonstration missions of their Vigoride platform took place on 25 May 2022 and 3 January 2023 with key tests occurring through 2022. Momentus Space became widely known in October 2020 when it reached a SPAC investment deal with Stable Road Acquisition Corp valuing the combined entity at over $1 billion.
Existing space tugs:
Epic Aerospace Epic Aerospace's Chimera LEO 1 launched on 3 January 2023.
Existing space tugs:
Launcher Reports surfaced circa June 15, 2021 of Launcher's Orbiter space tug. Launching on its own rocket as well as SpaceX’s Falcon 9 it provides 150 kilograms of payload, either 90 units of CubeSat or else larger satellites using standard smallsat separation systems. With a chemical propulsion system using ethylene and nitrous oxide propellants it is capable of 500 meters per second of delta-v, more with additional propellant tanks. Orbiter SN1 launched on 3 January 2023.
Early Concepts - NASA Space Transportation System:
A reusable space tug was studied by NASA in the late 60s and early 70s as part of a reusable Space Transportation System (STS). This consisted of a basic propulsion module, to which a crew module or other payload could be attached. Optional legs could be added to land payloads on the surface of the Moon. This, along with all other elements of STS except the Space Shuttle, was never funded after cutbacks to NASA's budget during the 1970s in the wake of the Apollo program.
Space Shuttle era:
Expendable upper stages The Shuttle program filled the role of high-energy orbital transfer by the development of a solid-fueled single-stage Payload Assist Module and two-stage Inertial Upper Stage.A more powerful liquid hydrogen fueled Centaur-G stage was developed for use on the Shuttle, but was cancelled as too dangerous after the Challenger disaster.
Space Shuttle era:
Orbital Maneuvering Vehicle NASA studied another space tug design, termed the Orbital Maneuvering Vehicle (OMV), along with its plans for Space Station Freedom. The OMV's role would have been a reusable space vehicle that would retrieve satellites, such as Hubble, and bring them to Freedom for repair or retrieval, or to service uncrewed orbital platforms. In 1984, the Orbital Maneuvering Vehicle (OMV) preliminary design studies were initiated through a competitive award process with systems studies conducted by TRW, Martin Marietta Aerospace, and LTV Corporation.
Twenty-first century proposals:
Parom The Russian RKK Energia corporation proposed a space tug named Parom in 2005 which could be used to ferry both the proposed Kliper crew vehicle or uncrewed cargo and fuel resupply modules to ISS. Keeping the tug in space would have allowed for a less massive Kliper, enabling launch on a smaller booster than the original Kliper design.
Twenty-first century proposals:
VASIMR The VASIMR electric plasma rocket could be used to power a high-efficiency space tug, using only 9 tons of Argon propellant to make a round trip to the Moon, delivering 34 tons of cargo from Low Earth Orbit to low lunar orbit. As of 2014, Ad Astra Rocket Company had put forward a concept proposal to utilize the technology to make a space tug.
Twenty-first century proposals:
ISRO PAM-G Indian Space Research Organisation has built an upper stage called PAM-G (Payload Assist Module for GSLV) capable of pushing payloads directly to MEO or GEO orbits from low Earth orbits. PAM-G is powered by hypergolic liquid motor with restart capability, derived from PSLV's fourth stage. As of 2013, ISRO has realized the structure, control systems, and motors of PAM-G and has conducted hot tests.
Twenty-first century proposals:
PAM-G would form the fourth stage of GSLV Mk2C launch vehicle, sitting on top of GSLV's cryogenic third stage.
Twenty-first century proposals:
Jupiter Lockheed Martin made a concept proposal to NASA in 2015 for a design called the Jupiter space tug, to be based on the designs of two earlier Lockheed Martin spacecraft—Mars Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution Mission and the Juno—as well as a robotic arm from MDA derived from technology used on Canadarm, the robotic arm technology previously used on the Space Shuttle. In addition to the Jupiter space tug itself, the Lockheed concept included the use of a new 4.4 m (14 ft)-diameter cargo transport module called Exoliner for carrying cargo to the ISS. Exoliner is based on the earlier (2000s) ESA-developed Automated Transfer Vehicle, and was to be jointly developed with Thales Alenia Space.
Twenty-first century proposals:
In the event, NASA did not agree to fund the Jupiter development, and Lockheed Martin is not developing the tug with private capital.
Twenty-first century proposals:
Artemis Transfer Stages One of NASA's Artemis Program's proposed lunar landers is a partially reusable three stage design. One of its main elements is a transfer stage to move the lander from the Lunar Gateway's orbit to a low lunar orbit. Future versions should be able to return to the Gateway for refueling and reuse with another lander. Northrop Grumman has proposed building this transfer stage based on its Cygnus spacecraft. NASA chose to select a different approach in April 2021.
Twenty-first century proposals:
Moon Cruiser Designed by Airbus, the Moon Cruiser is a conceptual lunar logistics vehicle based on the ATV and ESM that is proposed to be used to support the international Lunar Gateway. If funded, it would make up a part of ESA's contribution to the Lunar Gateway program. As of January 2020, it was in the early design process. Planned to be launched on the Ariane 6—with the capability to also be launched with US heavy launchers: 1:56 —the vehicle is intended to be able to refuel lunar landers and deliver cargo to the Gateway. It will also be used to deliver the European ESPRIT module to the Gateway no earlier than 2025. It has also been proposed to turn the vehicle into a transfer stage for a lunar lander. Concepts for a lander variant of the vehicle exist but have not received funding.
Twenty-first century proposals:
Skyrora Space Tug British launch vehicle manufacturer Skyrora shared details of their Space Tug in 2021, revealing it to be usable as the third stage of their Skyrora XL rocket. The company shared a video of the Space Tug undergoing a live test in January 2021. As well as being able to move a satellite from one orbit to another the Space Tug can perform a number of in-space operations including space debris removal.
Twenty-first century proposals:
Exotrail SpaceVan Orbital Transfer Vehicle Exotrail unveils the April 12, 2022 of Orbital Transfer Vehicle, SpaceVan. The debut SpaceVan mission will launch on board a Falcon 9 rideshare mission in October 2023 following a launch service agreement signed between Exotrail and SpaceX. At least three subsequent missions are planned throughout 2024 onboard multiple different launchers.
Impulse Space's Mira Demonstration orbital maneuvering and servicing vehicle, Mira is due to launch on SpaceX's Transporter-9 mission in October 2023.
Atomos Space In January 2022, Atomos Space announced it had raised $5 million it had been trying to raise since 2020. Atomos plans to launch two of its Quark reusable orbital transfer vehicle in 2023.
Firefly Aerospace Firefly Aerospace is developing an OTV called the Space Utility Vehicle that will fly on its Alpha rocket.
Space Machine's Optimus In October 2022 Space Machines announced a deal with Arianespace to produce Optimus-1 a 270 kg space tug aiming to launch on SpaceX Falcon 9 in Q2 2023.
Exolaunch's Reliant tugs Exolaunch Reliant tugs have standard and pro versions. Testing and flight qualification was planned to begin in 2022 on SpaceX's rideshare missions.
Astroscale's Lexi Astroscale is developing Life Extension In-orbit (LEXI™).
Orbit Fab Orbit fab is attempting to develop an in-space propellant supply chain aiming to provide 'Gas Stations in Space™'. On 11 January 2022 it was announced they had reached an agreement to refuel Astroscale's LEXI.
Twenty-first century proposals:
ULA Common Centaur as a SpaceTug The Flexible Lunar Architecture for Exploration (FLARE) is a concept to deliver four crew to the lunar surface for a minimum of seven days and then return them safely to Earth. A key component of FLARE is the modified ULA Common Centaur used as a SpaceTug to deliver an uncrewed human lander to lunar orbit and to assist NASA's Orion capsule returning crew to Earth
Other sources:
NASA Report, Technical Study for the Use of the Saturn 5, INT-21 and Other Saturn 5 Derivatives to Determine an Optimum Fourth Stage (space tug). Volume 1: Technical Volume, Book 1.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Pitting enamel hypoplasia**
Pitting enamel hypoplasia:
Enamel hypoplasia can take a variety of forms, but all types are associated with a reduction of enamel formation due to disruption in ameloblast production. One of the most common types, Pitting Enamel Hypoplasia (PEH), ranges from small circular pinpricks to larger irregular depressions. Pits also vary in how they occur on a tooth surface, some forming rows and others more randomly scattered. PEH can be associated with other types of hypoplasia, but it is often the only defect observed. Causes of PEH can range from genetic conditions to environmental factors, and the frequency of occurrence varies substantially between populations and species, likely due to environmental, genetic and health differences. The most striking example of this is in Paranthropus robustus, with half of all primary molars, and a quarter of permanent molars, displaying PEH defects, thought to be caused by a specific genetic condition, amelogenesis imperfecta.
Pitting enamel hypoplasia:
It is not always clear why PEH forms instead of other hypoplasia types, particularly linear enamel hypoplasia. However, the position on the crown, the tooth type and the cause of the disruption are all likely contributing factors. It has been suggested that because it is relatively rare to have both linear enamel hypoplasia and PEH, these types of defects may be commonly caused by different factors.Each pit is linked to the ceasing of ameloblasts at a particular point in enamel formation. Sometimes, only a couple of ameloblasts stop forming enamel, leading to small PEH defects, with large pits forming when hundreds of these enamel-forming cells stop production. This does not occur in other forms of enamel hypoplasia, such as linear and plane-form, in which all ameloblast activity is affected. Typically with PEH described in archaeological reports, researchers can not specify a cause, with a non-specific stress often concluded. However, in modern clinical studies it is often possible to suggest a cause and these can include the following conditions: hypocalcaemia vitamin D deficiency amelogenesis imperfecta nutritional deficiency maternal diabetes mellitus congenital syphilis premature birth low birth weight hypoparathyroidism neonatal tetany kernicterus
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Bushman poison**
Bushman poison:
Bushman poison can refer to a number of plants or insects used as ingredients by the San people when preparing arrow poisons: Toxicodendron species of the Western Cape province Bushman's poison, Acokanthera spectabilis Bushman's poison, Acokanthera oblongifolia Bushman's poison, Acokanthera oppositifolia Bushman's poison, Acokanthera venenata, of the south and east coasts of South AfricaAlso see genus AcokantheraSucculents: The Gifboom Euphorbias:Euphorbia avesmantana Euphorbia virosaThe Pylgif or Bushman poison:Adenium boehmianumInsects: A beetle genus, Diamphidia
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Julian Togelius**
Julian Togelius:
Julian Togelius is an associate professor at the Department of Computer Science and Engineering at the New York University Tandon School of Engineering.
Career:
Togelius holds a BA from Lund University, an MSc from the University of Sussex, and a PhD from the University of Essex.He was an associate professor at the Center for Computer Games Research, IT University of Copenhagen before moving to NYU.Togelius is the editor in chief of the IEEE Transactions on Games journal. He is also, with Georgios N. Yannakakis, the co-author of the Artificial Intelligence and Games textbook and the co-organiser of the Artificial Intelligence and Games Summer School series.Togelius co-edited the book Procedural Content Generation Book for games.
Research:
Togelius was described by Kenneth O. Stanley as one of "the world's most accomplished experts at the intersection of games and AI". His research has appeared in media such as New Scientist, and Le Monde, The Verge, The Economist, and the MIT Technology Review.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Casimir element**
Casimir element:
In mathematics, a Casimir element (also known as a Casimir invariant or Casimir operator) is a distinguished element of the center of the universal enveloping algebra of a Lie algebra. A prototypical example is the squared angular momentum operator, which is a Casimir element of the three-dimensional rotation group.
More generally, Casimir elements can be used to refer to any element of the center of the universal enveloping algebra. The algebra of these elements is known to be isomorphic to a polynomial algebra through the Harish-Chandra isomorphism.
The Casimir element is named after Hendrik Casimir, who identified them in his description of rigid body dynamics in 1931.
Definition:
The most commonly-used Casimir invariant is the quadratic invariant. It is the simplest to define, and so is given first. However, one may also have Casimir invariants of higher order, which correspond to homogeneous symmetric polynomials of higher order.
Definition:
Quadratic Casimir element Suppose that g is an n -dimensional Lie algebra. Let B be a nondegenerate bilinear form on g that is invariant under the adjoint action of g on itself, meaning that ad ad XZ)=0 for all X, Y, Z in g . (The most typical choice of B is the Killing form if g is semisimple.) Let {Xi}i=1n be any basis of g , and {Xi}i=1n be the dual basis of g with respect to B. The Casimir element Ω for B is the element of the universal enveloping algebra U(g) given by the formula Ω=∑i=1nXiXi.
Definition:
Although the definition relies on a choice of basis for the Lie algebra, it is easy to show that Ω is independent of this choice. On the other hand, Ω does depend on the bilinear form B. The invariance of B implies that the Casimir element commutes with all elements of the Lie algebra g , and hence lies in the center of the universal enveloping algebra U(g) Quadratic Casimir invariant of a linear representation and of a smooth action Given a representation ρ of g on a vector space V, possibly infinite-dimensional, the Casimir invariant of ρ is defined to be ρ(Ω), the linear operator on V given by the formula ρ(Ω)=∑i=1nρ(Xi)ρ(Xi).
Definition:
A specific form of this construction plays an important role in differential geometry and global analysis. Suppose that a connected Lie group G with Lie algebra g acts on a differentiable manifold M. Consider the corresponding representation ρ of G on the space of smooth functions on M. Then elements of g are represented by first order differential operators on M. In this situation, the Casimir invariant of ρ is the G-invariant second order differential operator on M defined by the above formula.
Definition:
Specializing further, if it happens that M has a Riemannian metric on which G acts transitively by isometries, and the stabilizer subgroup Gx of a point acts irreducibly on the tangent space of M at x, then the Casimir invariant of ρ is a scalar multiple of the Laplacian operator coming from the metric.
More general Casimir invariants may also be defined, commonly occurring in the study of pseudo-differential operators in Fredholm theory.
Casimir elements of higher order The article on universal enveloping algebras gives a detailed, precise definition of Casimir operators, and an exposition of some of their properties. All Casimir operators correspond to symmetric homogeneous polynomials in the symmetric algebra of the adjoint representation ad g.
:C(m)=κij⋯kXi⊗Xj⊗⋯⊗Xk where m is the order of the symmetric tensor κij⋯k and the Xi form a vector space basis of g.
This corresponds to a symmetric homogeneous polynomial c(m)=κij⋯ktitj⋯tk in m indeterminate variables ti in the polynomial algebra K[ti,tj,⋯,tk] over a field K. The reason for the symmetry follows from the PBW theorem and is discussed in much greater detail in the article on universal enveloping algebras.
Moreover, a Casimir element must belong to the center of the universal enveloping algebra, i.e. it must obey [C(m),Xi]=0 for all basis elements Xi.
In terms of the corresponding symmetric tensor κij⋯k , this condition is equivalent to the tensor being invariant: fijkκjl⋯m+fijlκkj⋯m+⋯+fijmκkl⋯j=0 where fijk are the structure constants of the Lie algebra i.e. [Xi,Xj]=fijkXk
Properties:
Uniqueness of the quadratic Casimir element Since for a simple Lie algebra every invariant bilinear form is a multiple of the Killing form, the corresponding Casimir element is uniquely defined up to a constant. For a general semisimple Lie algebra, the space of invariant bilinear forms has one basis vector for each simple component, and hence the same is true for the space of corresponding Casimir operators.
Properties:
Relation to the Laplacian on G If G is a Lie group with Lie algebra g , the choice of a nondegenerate invariant bilinear form on g corresponds to a choice of bi-invariant Riemannian metric on G . Then under the identification of the universal enveloping algebra of g with the left invariant differential operators on G , the Casimir element of the bilinear form on g maps to the Laplacian of G (with respect to the corresponding bi-invariant metric).
Properties:
Casimir elements and representation theory By Racah's theorem, for a semisimple Lie algebra the dimension of the center of the universal enveloping algebra is equal to its rank. The Casimir operator gives the concept of the Laplacian on a general semisimple Lie group; but there is no unique analogue of the Laplacian, for rank > 1.
Properties:
By definition any member of the center of the universal enveloping algebra commutes with all other elements in the algebra. By Schur's Lemma, in any irreducible representation of the Lie algebra, any Casimir element is thus proportional to the identity. The eigenvalues of all Casimir elements can be used to classify the representations of the Lie algebra (and hence, also of its Lie group).Physical mass and spin are examples of these eigenvalues, as are many other quantum numbers found in quantum mechanics. Superficially, topological quantum numbers form an exception to this pattern; although deeper theories hint that these are two facets of the same phenomenon..
Properties:
Let L(λ) be the finite dimensional highest weight module of weight λ . Then the quadratic Casimir element Ω acts on L(λ) by the constant ⟨λ,λ+2ρ⟩=⟨λ+ρ,λ+ρ⟩−⟨ρ,ρ⟩, where ρ is the weight defined by half the sum of the positive roots. If L(λ) is nontrivial (i.e. if λ≠0 ), then this constant is nonzero. After all, since λ is dominant, if λ≠0 , then ⟨λ,λ⟩>0 and ⟨λ,ρ⟩≥0 , showing that ⟨λ,λ+2ρ⟩>0 . This observation plays an important role in the proof of Weyl's theorem on complete reducibility. It is also possible to prove the nonvanishing of the eigenvalue in a more abstract way—without using an explicit formula for the eigenvalue—using Cartan's criterion; see Sections 4.3 and 6.2 in the book of Humphreys.
Symmetric invariant tensors of simple Lie algebras:
A Casimir element of order m corresponds to a symmetric invariant tensor of the same order via C(m)=κi1i2⋯imXi1Xi2⋯Xim . Constructing and relating Casimir elements is equivalent to doing the same for symmetric invariant tensors.
Construction of symmetric invariant tensors Symmetric invariant tensors may be constructed as symmetrized traces in the defining representation Tr (X(i1Xi2⋯Xim)) where indices are raised and lowered by the Killing form, and symmetrized under all permutations.
Symmetric invariant tensors of simple Lie algebras:
It is also possible to construct symmetric invariant tensors from the antisymmetric invariant tensors of the type Ωi1i2⋯i2m−1(2m−1)=fi1[i2j1⋯fi2m−3i2m−2]jm−1kj1⋯jm−1i2m−1(m) The symmetric invariant tensor ti1i2⋯im(m)=Ωj1j2⋯j2m−2im(2m−1)fi1j1j2⋯fim−1j2m−2j2m−3 is traceless for m>2 . Such invariant tensors are orthogonal to one another in the sense that ti1i2⋯im(m)(t(n))i1i2⋯imim+1⋯in=0 if n>m In the case of the simple Lie algebra Al=sll+1 , let us introduce the fully symmetric tensor of order three dijk such that, in the defining representation, XiXj=2ℓ+1δij+fijkXk+dijkXk Then the Sudbery symmetric invariant tensors are di1i2(2)=δi1i2 di1i2i3(3)=di1i2i3 di1i2i3i4(4)=d(i1i2jdi3i4)j di1i2i3i4i5(5)=d(i1i2jdji3kdi4i5)k Relations between symmetric invariant tensors For a simple Lie algebra of rank r , there are r algebraically independent symmetric invariant tensors. Therefore, any such tensor can be expressed in terms of r given tensors. There is a systematic method for deriving complete sets of identities between symmetric invariant tensors.In the case of the Lie algebra Al , the symmetric invariant tensors t(m) obey t(m>l+1)=0 . Reexpressing these tensors in terms of other families such as d(m) or k(m) gives rise to nontrivial relations within these other families. For example, the Sudbery tensors d(m>l+1) may be expressed in terms of d(2),⋯,d(l+1) , with relations of the type di1i2i3i4(4)=l=213δ(i1i2δi3i4) di1i2i3i4i5(5)=l=213d(i1i2i3δi4i5) di1i2i3i4i5(5)=l=323d(i1i2i3δi4i5) Structure constants also obey identities that are not directly related to symmetric invariant tensors, for example 3dabedcde−facefbde−fadefbce=l=2δacδbd+δadδbc−δabδcd
Examples:
Case of sl(2) The Lie algebra sl2C consists of two-by-two complex matrices with zero trace. There are three standard basis elements, e ,f , and h , with e=[0100],f=[0010],h=[100−1].
The commutators are [e,f]=h,[h,f]=−2f,[h,e]=2e.
Examples:
One can show that the Casimir element is Case of so(3) The Lie algebra so(3) is the Lie algebra of SO(3), the rotation group for three-dimensional Euclidean space. It is simple of rank 1, and so it has a single independent Casimir. The Killing form for the rotation group is just the Kronecker delta, and so the Casimir invariant is simply the sum of the squares of the generators Lx,Ly,Lz of the algebra. That is, the Casimir invariant is given by L2=Lx2+Ly2+Lz2.
Examples:
Consider the irreducible representation of so(3) in which the largest eigenvalue of Lz is ℓ , where the possible values of ℓ are {\textstyle 0,\,{\frac {1}{2}},\,1,\,{\frac {3}{2}},\,\ldots } . The invariance of the Casimir operator implies that it is a multiple of the identity operator I . This constant can be computed explicitly, giving the following result L2=Lx2+Ly2+Lz2=ℓ(ℓ+1)I.
In quantum mechanics, the scalar value ℓ is referred to as the total angular momentum. For finite-dimensional matrix-valued representations of the rotation group, ℓ always takes on integer values (for bosonic representations) or half-integer values (for fermionic representations).
Examples:
For a given value of ℓ , the matrix representation is (2ℓ+1) -dimensional. Thus, for example, the three-dimensional representation for so(3) corresponds to ℓ=1 , and is given by the generators Lx=i(00000−1010);Ly=i(001000−100);Lz=i(0−10100000), where the factors of i are needed for agreement with the physics convention (used here) that the generators should be skew-self-adjoint operators.The quadratic Casimir invariant can then easily be computed by hand, with the result that L2=Lx2+Ly2+Lz2=2(100010001) as ℓ(ℓ+1)=2 when ℓ=1 This is what is meant when we say that the eigenvalues of the Casimir operator is used to classify the irreducible representations of a Lie algebra (and of an associated Lie Group Lie Group): two irreducible representations of a Lie Algebra are equivalent if and only if their Casimir element have the same eigenvalue. In this case, the irreps of so(3) are completely determined by the value of ℓ , or equivalently, by the value of ℓ(ℓ+1) Similarly, the two dimensional representation has a basis given by the Pauli matrices, which correspond to spin 1⁄2, and one can again check the formula for the Casimir by direct computation.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**PLATO (computer system)**
PLATO (computer system):
PLATO (Programmed Logic for Automatic Teaching Operations), also known as Project Plato and Project PLATO, was the first generalized computer-assisted instruction system. Starting in 1960, it ran on the University of Illinois' ILLIAC I computer. By the late 1970s, it supported several thousand graphics terminals distributed worldwide, running on nearly a dozen different networked mainframe computers. Many modern concepts in multi-user computing were first developed on PLATO, including forums, message boards, online testing, email, chat rooms, picture languages, instant messaging, remote screen sharing, and multiplayer video games.
PLATO (computer system):
PLATO was designed and built by the University of Illinois and functioned for four decades, offering coursework (elementary through university) to UIUC students, local schools, prison inmates, and other universities. Courses were taught in a range of subjects, including Latin, chemistry, education, music, Esperanto, and primary mathematics. The system included a number of features useful for pedagogy, including text overlaying graphics, contextual assessment of free-text answers, depending on the inclusion of keywords, and feedback designed to respond to alternative answers.
PLATO (computer system):
Rights to market PLATO as a commercial product were licensed by Control Data Corporation (CDC), the manufacturer on whose mainframe computers the PLATO IV system was built. CDC President William Norris planned to make PLATO a force in the computer world, but found that marketing the system was not as easy as hoped. PLATO nevertheless built a strong following in certain markets, and the last production PLATO system was in use until 2006.
Innovations:
PLATO was either the first or an earlier example of many now-common technologies: Hardware Plasma display (PLATO IV), c. 1964. Donald Bitzer Touchscreen (PLATO IV), c. 1964. Donald Bitzer Gooch Synthetic Woodwind (music device for the terminal), c. 1972 Display Graphics Charset Editor (bitmapped picture drawing program) storing in downloadable fonts.
Show Display Mode (graphics application generator (TUTOR)), 1975.
Online communities Pad (General-purpose computer message board), 1973 Notesfiles (precursor to newsgroups), 1973.
Talkomatic (real-time text-based chat, with six rooms each allowing five participants), 1973 Term-talk (1:1 chat) Screen software sharing: Monitor Mode, 1974, used by instructors to help students, precursor of Timbuktu.
Common Computer Game Genres, including many of the early (first?) real time multi-player games Multiplayer Games Spacewar! (Multiplayer space battle game), c. 1969. Rick Bloome Dungeon Games dnd (dungeon crawl game), 1974–75. Included the first video game boss.
Pedit5, c. 1974, likely the first graphical dungeon computer game.
Avatar (60-player 2.5-D graphical Multi-User Dungeon (MUD)), c. 1978.
Space combat Empire (30 person multi-player inter-terminal 2-D real-time space simulation), c. 1974 Spasim (32-player first-person 3D space battle game), c. 1974 Flight Simulation: Fortner, Brand (1974), Airfight (3-D flight simulator); this probably inspired UIUC student Bruce Artwick to start Sublogic which was acquired and later became Microsoft Flight Simulator.
Military simulations: Haefeli, John (c. 1975), Panther (3-D tank simulation).
3D Maze games: Wallace, Bruce (1975), Build-Up, based on a story by J. G. Ballard, the first PLATO 3-D walkthru maze game.
Quest Simulation: Think15 (2-D outdoor wilderness quest simulation), c. 1977, like Trek with monsters, trees, treasures.
Solitaire: Alfille, Paul (1979), Freecell solitaire, Lockard, Brodie (1981), Mahjong solitaire Educational Answer Judging Machinery (set of about 25 commands in TUTOR that made it easy to test a student's understanding of a complex concept).
Training systems; Kaven, Luke (1979), The Procedure Logic Simulator (PLS) (intelligent CAI authoring system) an ambitious ICAI programming system featuring partial-order plans, used to train Con Edison steam plant operators.
History:
Impetus Before the 1944 G.I. Bill that provided free college education to World War II veterans, higher education was limited to a minority of the US population, though only 9% of the population was in the military. The trend towards greater enrollment was notable by the early 1950s, and the problem of providing instruction for the many new students was a serious concern to university administrators. To wit, if computerized automation increased factory production, it could do the same for academic instruction.
History:
The USSR's 1957 launching of the Sputnik I artificial satellite energized the United States' government into spending more on science and engineering education. In 1958, the U.S. Air Force's Office of Scientific Research had a conference about the topic of computer instruction at the University of Pennsylvania; interested parties, notably IBM, presented studies.
History:
Genesis Around 1959, Chalmers W. Sherwin, a physicist at the University of Illinois, suggested a computerised learning system to William Everett, the engineering college dean, who, in turn, recommended that Daniel Alpert, another physicist, convene a meeting about the matter with engineers, administrators, mathematicians, and psychologists. After weeks of meetings they were unable to agree on a single design. Before conceding failure, Alpert mentioned the matter to laboratory assistant Donald Bitzer, who had been thinking about the problem, suggesting he could build a demonstration system.
History:
Project PLATO was established soon afterwards, and in 1960, the first system, PLATO I, operated on the local ILLIAC I computer. It included a television set for display and a special keyboard for navigating the system's function menus; PLATO II, in 1961, featured two users at once, one of the first implementations of multi-user time-sharing.The PLATO system was re-designed, between 1963 and 1969; PLATO III allowed "anyone" to design new lesson modules using their TUTOR programming language, conceived in 1967 by biology graduate student Paul Tenczar. Built on a CDC 1604, given to them by William Norris, PLATO III could simultaneously run up to 20 terminals, and was used by local facilities in Champaign–Urbana that could enter the system with their custom terminals. The only remote PLATO III terminal was located near the state capitol in Springfield, Illinois at Springfield High School. It was connected to the PLATO III system by a video connection and a separate dedicated line for keyboard data.
History:
PLATO I, II, and III were funded by small grants from a combined Army-Navy-Air Force funding pool. By the time PLATO III was in operation, everyone involved was convinced it was worthwhile to scale up the project. Accordingly, in 1967, the National Science Foundation granted the team steady funding, allowing Alpert to set up the Computer-based Education Research Laboratory (CERL) at the University of Illinois Urbana–Champaign campus. The system was capable of supporting 20 time-sharing terminals.
History:
Multimedia experiences (PLATO IV) In 1972, with the introduction of PLATO IV, Bitzer declared general success, claiming that the goal of generalized computer instruction was now available to all. However, the terminals were very expensive (about $12,000). The PLATO IV terminal had several major innovations: Plasma Display Screen: Bitzer's orange plasma display, incorporated both memory and bitmapped graphics into one display. The display was a 512×512 bitmap, with both character and vector plotting done by hardwired logic. It included fast vector line drawing capability, and ran at 1260 baud, rendering 60 lines or 180 characters per second. . Users could provide their own characters to support rudimentary bitmap graphics.
History:
Touch panel: A 16×16 grid infrared touch panel, allowing students to answer questions by touching anywhere on the screen.
Microfiche images: Compressed air powered a piston-driven microfiche image selector that permitted colored images to be projected on the back of the screen under program control.
History:
A hard drive for Audio snippets: The random-access audio device used a magnetic disc with a capacity to hold 17 total minutes of pre-recorded audio. It could retrieve for playback any of 4096 audio clips within 0.4 seconds. By 1980, the device was being commercially produced by Education and Information Systems, Incorporated with a capacity of just over 22 minutes.
History:
A Votrax voice synthesizer The Gooch Synthetic Woodwind (named after inventor Sherwin Gooch), a synthesizer that offered four-voice music synthesis to provide sound in PLATO courseware. This was later supplanted on the PLATO V terminal by the Gooch Cybernetic Synthesizer, which had sixteen voices that could be programmed individually, or combined to make more complex sounds.Bruce Parello, a student at the University of Illinois in 1972, created the first digital emojis on the PLATO IV system.
History:
Influence on PARC and Apple Early in 1972, researchers from Xerox PARC were given a tour of the PLATO system at the University of Illinois. At this time, they were shown parts of the system, such as the Insert Display/Show Display (ID/SD) application generator for pictures on PLATO (later translated into a graphics-draw program on the Xerox Star workstation); the Charset Editor for "painting" new characters (later translated into a "Doodle" program at PARC); and the Term Talk and Monitor Mode communications programs. Many of the new technologies they saw were adopted and improved upon, when these researchers returned to Palo Alto, California. They subsequently transferred improved versions of this technology to Apple Inc.
History:
CDC years As PLATO IV reached production quality, William Norris (CDC) became increasingly interested in it as a potential product. His interest was twofold. From a strict business perspective, he was evolving Control Data into a service-based company instead of a hardware one, and was increasingly convinced that computer-based education would become a major market in the future. At the same time, Norris was troubled by the unrest of the late 1960s, and felt that much of it was due to social inequalities that needed to be addressed. PLATO offered a solution by providing higher education to segments of the population that would otherwise never be able to afford a university education.
History:
Norris provided CERL with machines on which to develop their system in the late 1960s. In 1971, he set up a new division within CDC to develop PLATO "courseware", and eventually many of CDC's own initial training and technical manuals ran on it. In 1974, PLATO was running on in-house machines at CDC headquarters in Minneapolis, and in 1976, they purchased the commercial rights in exchange for a new CDC Cyber machine.
History:
CDC announced the acquisition soon after, claiming that by 1985, 50% of the company's income would be related to PLATO services. Through the 1970s, CDC tirelessly promoted PLATO, both as a commercial tool and one for re-training unemployed workers in new fields. Norris refused to give up on the system, and invested in several non-mainstream courses, including a crop-information system for farmers, and various courses for inner-city youth. CDC even went as far as to place PLATO terminals in some shareholder's houses, to demonstrate the concept of the system.
History:
In the early 1980s, CDC started heavily advertising the service, apparently due to increasing internal dissent over the now $600 million project, taking out print and even radio ads promoting it as a general tool. The Minneapolis Tribune was unconvinced by their ad copy and started an investigation of the claims. In the end, they concluded that while it was not proven to be a better education system, everyone using it nevertheless enjoyed it, at least. An official evaluation by an external testing agency ended with roughly the same conclusions, suggesting that everyone enjoyed using it, but it was essentially equal to an average human teacher in terms of student advancement.
History:
Of course, a computerized system equal to a human should have been a major achievement, the very concept for which the early pioneers in CBT were aiming. A computer could serve all the students in a school for the cost of maintaining it, and wouldn't go on strike. However, CDC charged $50 an hour for access to their data center, in order to recoup some of their development costs, making it considerably more expensive than a human on a per-student basis. PLATO was, therefore, a failure as a profitable commercial enterprise, although it did find some use in large companies and government agencies willing to invest in the technology.
History:
An attempt to mass-market the PLATO system was introduced in 1980 as Micro-PLATO, which ran the basic TUTOR system on a CDC "Viking-721" terminal and various home computers. Versions were built for the TI-99/4A, Atari 8-bit family, Zenith Z-100 and, later, Radio Shack TRS-80 and IBM Personal Computer. Micro-PLATO could be used stand-alone for normal courses, or could connect to a CDC data center for multiuser programs. To make the latter affordable, CDC introduced the Homelink service for $5 an hour.
History:
Norris continued to praise PLATO, announcing that it would be only a few years before it represented a major source of income for CDC as late as 1984. In 1986, Norris stepped down as CEO, and the PLATO service was slowly killed off. He later claimed that Micro-PLATO was one of the reasons PLATO got off-track. They had started on the TI-99/4A, but then Texas Instruments pulled the plug and they moved to other systems like the Atari, who soon did the same. He felt that it was a waste of time anyway, as the system's value was in its online nature, which Micro-PLATO lacked initially.
History:
Bitzer was more forthright about CDC's failure, blaming their corporate culture for the problems. He noted that development of the courseware was averaging $300,000 per delivery hour, many times what the CERL was paying for similar products. This meant that CDC had to charge high prices in order to recoup their costs, prices that made the system unattractive. The reason, he suggested, for these high prices was that CDC had set up a division that had to keep itself profitable via courseware development, forcing them to raise the prices in order to keep their headcount up during slow periods.
History:
PLATO V: multimedia Intel 8080 microprocessors were introduced in the new PLATO V terminals. They could download small software modules and execute them locally. It was a way to augment the PLATO courseware with rich animation and other sophisticated capabilities.
Online community:
Although PLATO was designed for computer-based education, perhaps its most enduring legacy is its place in the origins of online community. This was made possible by PLATO's groundbreaking communication and interface capabilities, features whose significance is only lately being recognized by computer historians. PLATO Notes, created by David R. Woolley in 1973, was among the world's first online message boards, and years later became the direct progenitor of Lotus Notes.PLATO's plasma panels were well suited to games, although its I/O bandwidth (180 characters per second or 60 graphic lines per second) was relatively slow. By virtue of 1500 shared 60-bit variables per game (initially), it was possible to implement online games. Because it was an educational computer system, most of the user community were keenly interested in games.
Online community:
In much the same way that the PLATO hardware and development platform inspired advances elsewhere (such as at Xerox PARC and MIT), many popular commercial and Internet games ultimately derived their inspiration from PLATO's early games. As one example, Castle Wolfenstein by PLATO alum Silas Warner was inspired by PLATO's dungeon games (see below), in turn inspiring Doom and Quake. Thousands of multiplayer online games were developed on PLATO from around 1970 through the 1980s, with the following notable examples: Daleske's Empire a top-view multiplayer space game based on Star Trek. Either Empire or Colley's Maze War is the first networked multiplayer action game. It was ported to Trek82, Trek83, ROBOTREK, Xtrek, and Netrek, and also adapted (without permission) for the Apple II computer by fellow PLATO alum Robert Woodhead (of Wizardry fame), as a game called Galactic Attack.
Online community:
The original Freecell by Alfille (from Baker's concept).
Fortner's Airfight, probably the direct inspiration for (PLATO alum) Bruce Artwick's Microsoft Flight Simulator.
Haefeli and Bridwell's Panther (a vector graphics-based tankwar game, anticipating Atari's Battlezone).
Many other first-person shooters, most notably Bowery's Spasim and Witz and Boland's Futurewar, believed to be the first FPS.
Online community:
Countless games inspired by the role-playing game Dungeons & Dragons, including the original Rutherford/Whisenhunt and Wood dnd (later ported to the PDP-10/11 by Lawrence, who earlier had visited PLATO). and is believed to be the first dungeon crawl game and was followed by: Moria, Rogue, Dry Gulch (a western-style variation), and Bugs-n-Drugs (a medical variation)—all presaging MUDs (Multi-User Domains) and MOOs (MUDs, Object Oriented) as well as popular first-person shooters like Doom and Quake, and MMORPGs (Massively multiplayer online role-playing game) like EverQuest and World of Warcraft. Avatar, PLATO's most popular game, is one of the world's first MUDs and has over 1 million hours of use.. The games Doom and Quake can trace part of their lineage back to PLATO programmer Silas Warner.PLATO's communication tools and games formed the basis for an online community of thousands of PLATO users, which lasted for well over twenty years. PLATO's games became so popular that a program called "The Enforcer" was written to run as a background process to regulate or disable game play at most sites and times – a precursor to parental-style control systems that regulate access based on content rather than security considerations.
Online community:
In September 2006 the Federal Aviation Administration retired its PLATO system, the last system that ran the PLATO software system on a CDC Cyber mainframe, from active duty. Existing PLATO-like systems now include NovaNET and Cyber1.org.
Online community:
By early 1976, the original PLATO IV system had 950 terminals giving access to more than 3500 contact hours of courseware, and additional systems were in operation at CDC and Florida State University. Eventually, over 12,000 contact hours of courseware was developed, much of it developed by university faculty for higher education. PLATO courseware covers a full range of high-school and college courses, as well as topics such as reading skills, family planning, Lamaze training and home budgeting. In addition, authors at the University of Illinois School of Basic Medical Sciences (now, the University of Illinois College of Medicine) devised a large number of basic science lessons and a self-testing system for first-year students. However the most popular "courseware" remained their multi-user games and role-playing video games such as dnd, although it appears CDC was uninterested in this market. As the value of a CDC-based solution disappeared in the 1980s, interested educators ported the engine first to the IBM PC, and later to web-based systems.
Custom character sets:
In the early 1970s, some people working in the modern foreign languages group at the University of Illinois began working on a set of Hebrew lessons, originally without good system support for leftward writing. In preparation for a PLATO demo in Tehran, that Bruce Sherwood would participate in, Sherwood worked with Don Lee to implement support for leftward writing, including Persian (Farsi), which uses the Arabic script. There was no funding for this work, which was undertaken only due to Sherwood's personal interest, and no curriculum development occurred for either Persian or Arabic. However, Peter Cole, Robert Lebowitz, and Robert Hart used the new system capabilities to re-do the Hebrew lessons. The PLATO hardware and software supported the design and use of one's own 8-by-16 characters, so most languages could be displayed on the graphics screen (including those written right-to-left).
University of Illinois School of Music PLATO Project (Technology and Research-based Chronology):
A PLATO-compatible music language known as OPAL (Octave-Pitch-Accent-Length) was developed for these synthesizers, as well as a compiler for the language, two music text editors, a filing system for music binaries, programs to play the music binaries in real time, and print musical scores, and many debugging and compositional aids. A number of interactive compositional programs have also been written. Gooch's peripherals were heavily used for music education courseware as created, for example, by the University of Illinois School of Music PLATO Project.
University of Illinois School of Music PLATO Project (Technology and Research-based Chronology):
From 1970 to 1994, the University of Illinois (U of I) School of Music explored the use of the Computer-based Education Research Laboratory (CERL) PLATO computer system to deliver online instruction in music. Led by G. David Peters, music faculty and students worked with PLATO’s technical capabilities to produce music-related instructional materials and experimented with their use in the music curriculum.Peters began his work on PLATO III. By 1972, the PLATO IV system made it technically possible to introduce multimedia pedagogies that were not available in the marketplace until years later.
University of Illinois School of Music PLATO Project (Technology and Research-based Chronology):
Between 1974 and 1988, 25 U of I music faculty participated in software curriculum development and more than 40 graduate students wrote software and assisted the faculty in its use. In 1988, the project broadened its focus beyond PLATO to accommodate the increasing availability and use of microcomputers. The broader scope resulted in renaming the project to The Illinois Technology-based Music Project. Work in the School of Music continued on other platforms after the CERL PLATO system shutdown in 1994. Over the 24-year life of the music project, its many participants moved into educational institutions and into the private sector. Their influence can be traced to numerous multimedia pedagogies, products, and services in use today, especially by musicians and music educators.
University of Illinois School of Music PLATO Project (Technology and Research-based Chronology):
Significant early efforts Pitch recognition/performance judging In 1969, G. David Peters began researching the feasibility of using PLATO to teach trumpet students to play with increased pitch and rhythmic precision. He created an interface for the PLATO III terminal. The hardware consisted of (1) filters that could determine the true pitch of a tone, and (2) a counting device to measure tone duration. The device accepted and judged rapid notes, two notes trilled, and lip slurs. Peters demonstrated that judging instrumental performance for pitch and rhythmic accuracy was feasible in computer-assisted instruction.
University of Illinois School of Music PLATO Project (Technology and Research-based Chronology):
Rhythm notation and perception By 1970, a random access audio device was available for use with PLATO III.In 1972, Robert W. Placek conducted a study that used computer-assisted instruction for rhythm perception. Placek used the random access audio device attached to a PLATO III terminal for which he developed music notation fonts and graphics. Students majoring in elementary education were asked to (1) recognize elements of rhythm notation, and (2) listen to rhythm patterns and identify their notations. This was the first known application of the PLATO random-access audio device to computer-based music instruction.
University of Illinois School of Music PLATO Project (Technology and Research-based Chronology):
Study participants were interviewed about the experience and found it both valuable and enjoyable. Of particular value was PLATO’s immediate feedback. Though participants noted shortcomings in the quality of the audio, they generally indicated that they were able to learn the basic skills of rhythm notation recognition.These PLATO IV terminal included many new devices and yielded two notable music projects: Visual diagnostic skills for instrumental music educators By the mid-1970s, James O. Froseth (University of Michigan) had published training materials that taught instrumental music teachers to visually identify typical problems demonstrated by beginning band students. For each instrument, Froseth developed an ordered checklist of what to look for (i.e., posture, embouchure, hand placement, instrument position, etc.) and a set of 35mm slides of young players demonstrating those problems. In timed class exercises, trainees briefly viewed slides and recorded their diagnoses on the checklists which were reviewed and evaluated later in the training session.
University of Illinois School of Music PLATO Project (Technology and Research-based Chronology):
In 1978, William H. Sanders adapted Froseth’s program for delivery using the PLATO IV system. Sanders transferred the slides to microfiche for rear-projection through the PLATO IV terminal’s plasma display. In timed drills, trainees viewed the slides, then filled in the checklists by touching them on the display. The program gave immediate feedback and kept aggregate records. Trainees could vary the timing of the exercises and repeat them whenever they wished.
University of Illinois School of Music PLATO Project (Technology and Research-based Chronology):
Sanders and Froseth subsequently conducted a study to compare traditional classroom delivery of the program to delivery using PLATO. The results showed no significant difference between the delivery methods for a) student post-test performance and b) their attitudes toward the training materials. However, students using the computer appreciated the flexibility to set their own practice hours, completed significantly more practice exercises, and did so in significantly less time.
University of Illinois School of Music PLATO Project (Technology and Research-based Chronology):
Musical instrument identification In 1967, Allvin and Kuhn used a four-channel tape recorder interfaced to a computer to present pre-recorded models to judge sight-singing performances.In 1969, Ned C. Deihl and Rudolph E. Radocy conducted a computer-assisted instruction study in music that included discriminating aural concepts related to phrasing, articulation, and rhythm on the clarinet. They used a four-track tape recorder interfaced to a computer to provide pre-recorded audio passages. Messages were recorded on three tracks and inaudible signals on the fourth track with two hours of play/record time available. This research further demonstrated that computer-controlled audio with four-track tape was possible.In 1979, Williams used a digitally controlled cassette tape recorder that had been interfaced to a minicomputer (Williams, M.A. "A comparison of three approaches to the teaching of auditory-visual discrimination, sight singing and music dictation to college music students: A traditional approach, a Kodaly approach, and a Kodaly approach augmented by computer-assisted instruction," University of Illinois, unpublished). This device worked, yet was slow with variable access times.
University of Illinois School of Music PLATO Project (Technology and Research-based Chronology):
In 1981, Nan T. Watanabe researched the feasibility of computer-assisted music instruction using computer-controlled pre-recorded audio. She surveyed audio hardware that could interface with a computer system.Random-access audio devices interfaced to PLATO IV terminals were also available. There were issues with sound quality due to dropouts in the audio. Regardless, Watanabe deemed consistent fast access to audio clips critical to the study design and selected this device for the study.
University of Illinois School of Music PLATO Project (Technology and Research-based Chronology):
Watanabe’s computer-based drill-and-practice program taught elementary music education students to identify musical instruments by sound. Students listened to randomly selected instrument sounds, identified the instrument they heard, and received immediate feedback. Watanabe found no significant difference in learning between the group who learned through computer-assisted drill programs and the group receiving traditional instruction in instrument identification. The study did, however, demonstrate that use of random-access audio in computer-assisted instruction in music was feasible.
University of Illinois School of Music PLATO Project (Technology and Research-based Chronology):
The Illinois Technology-based music project By 1988, with the spread of micro-computers and their peripherals, the University of Illinois School of Music PLATO Project was renamed The Illinois Technology-based Music Project. Researchers subsequently explored the use of emerging, commercially available technologies for music instruction until 1994.
University of Illinois School of Music PLATO Project (Technology and Research-based Chronology):
Influences and impacts Educators and students used the PLATO System for music instruction at other educational institutions including Indiana University, Florida State University, and the University of Delaware. Many alumni of the University of Illinois School of Music PLATO Project gained early hands-on experience in computing and media technologies and moved into influential positions in both education and the private sector.
University of Illinois School of Music PLATO Project (Technology and Research-based Chronology):
The goal of this system was to provide tools for music educators to use in the development of instructional materials, which might possibly include music dictation drills, automatically graded keyboard performances, envelope and timbre ear-training, interactive examples or labs in musical acoustics, and composition and theory exercises with immediate feedback. One ear-training application, Ottaviano, became a required part of certain undergraduate music theory courses at Florida State University in the early 1980s.
University of Illinois School of Music PLATO Project (Technology and Research-based Chronology):
Another peripheral was the Votrax speech synthesizer, and a "say" instruction (with "saylang" instruction to choose the language) was added to the Tutor programming language to support text-to-speech synthesis using the Votrax.
Other Efforts:
One of CDC's greatest commercial successes with PLATO was an online testing system developed for National Association of Securities Dealers (now the Financial Industry Regulatory Authority), a private-sector regulator of the US securities markets. During the 1970s Michael Stein, E. Clarke Porter and PLATO veteran Jim Ghesquiere, in cooperation with NASD executive Frank McAuliffe, developed the first "on-demand" proctored commercial testing service. The testing business grew slowly and was ultimately spun off from CDC as Drake Training and Technologies in 1990. Applying many of the PLATO concepts used in the late 1970s, E. Clarke Porter led the Drake Training and Technologies testing business (today Thomson Prometric) in partnership with Novell, Inc. away from the mainframe model to a LAN-based client server architecture and changed the business model to deploy proctored testing at thousands of independent training organizations on a global scale. With the advent of a pervasive global network of testing centers and IT certification programs sponsored by, among others, Novell and Microsoft, the online testing business exploded. Pearson VUE was founded by PLATO/Prometric veterans E. Clarke Porter, Steve Nordberg and Kirk Lundeen in 1994 to further expand the global testing infrastructure. VUE improved on the business model by being one of the first commercial companies to rely on the Internet as a critical business service and by developing self-service test registration. The computer-based testing industry has continued to grow, adding professional licensure and educational testing as important business segments.
Other Efforts:
A number of smaller testing-related companies also evolved from the PLATO system. One of the few survivors of that group is The Examiner Corporation. Dr. Stanley Trollip (formerly of the University of Illinois Aviation Research Lab) and Gary Brown (formerly of Control Data) developed the prototype of The Examiner System in 1984.
Other Efforts:
In the early 1970s, James Schuyler developed a system at Northwestern University called HYPERTUTOR as part of Northwestern's MULTI-TUTOR computer assisted instruction system. This ran on several CDC mainframes at various sites.Between 1973 and 1980, a group under the direction of Thomas T. Chen at the Medical Computing Laboratory of the School of Basic Medical Sciences at the University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign ported PLATO's TUTOR programming language to the MODCOMP IV minicomputer. Douglas W. Jones, A.B. Baskin, Tom Szolyga, Vincent Wu and Lou Bloomfield did most of the implementation. This was the first port of TUTOR to a minicomputer and was largely operational by 1976. In 1980, Chen founded Global Information Systems Technology of Champaign, Illinois, to market this as the Simpler system. GIST eventually merged with the Government Group of Adayana Inc. Vincent Wu went on to develop the Atari PLATO cartridge.
Other Efforts:
CDC eventually sold the "PLATO" trademark and some courseware marketing segment rights to the newly formed The Roach Organization (TRO) in 1989. In 2000 TRO changed their name to PLATO Learning and continue to sell and service PLATO courseware running on PCs. In late 2012, PLATO Learning brought its online learning solutions to market under the name Edmentum.CDC continued development of the basic system under the name CYBIS (CYber-Based Instructional System) after selling the trademarks to Roach, in order to service their commercial and government customers. CDC later sold off their CYBIS business to University Online, which was a descendant of IMSATT. University Online was later renamed to VCampus.
Other Efforts:
The University of Illinois also continued development of PLATO, eventually setting up a commercial on-line service called NovaNET in partnership with University Communications, Inc. CERL was closed in 1994, with the maintenance of the PLATO code passing to UCI. UCI was later renamed NovaNET Learning, which was bought by National Computer Systems (NCS). Shortly after that, NCS was bought by Pearson, and after several name changes now operates as Pearson Digital Learning.
Other Efforts:
The Evergreen State College received several grants from CDC to implement computer language interpreters and associated programming instruction. Royalties received from the PLATO computer-aided instruction materials developed at Evergreen support technology grants and an annual lecture series on computer-related topics.
Other versions:
In South Africa During the period when CDC was marketing PLATO, the system began to be used internationally. South Africa was one of the biggest users of PLATO in the early 1980s. Eskom, the South African electrical power company, had a large CDC mainframe at Megawatt Park in the northwest suburbs of Johannesburg. Mainly this computer was used for management and data processing tasks related to power generation and distribution, but it also ran the PLATO software. The largest PLATO installation in South Africa during the early 1980s was at the University of the Western Cape, which served the "native" population, and at one time had hundreds of PLATO IV terminals all connected by leased data lines back to Johannesburg. There were several other installations at educational institutions in South Africa, among them Madadeni College in the Madadeni township just outside Newcastle.
Other versions:
This was perhaps the most unusual PLATO installation anywhere. Madadeni had about 1,000 students, all of them who were original inhabitants i.e. native population and 99.5% of Zulu ancestry. The college was one of 10 teacher preparation institutions in kwaZulu, most of them much smaller. In many ways Madadeni was very primitive. None of the classrooms had electricity and there was only one telephone for the whole college, which one had to crank for several minutes before an operator might come on the line. So an air-conditioned, carpeted room with 16 computer terminals was a stark contrast to the rest of the college. At times the only way a person could communicate with the outside world was through PLATO term-talk.
Other versions:
For many of the Madadeni students, most of whom came from very rural areas, the PLATO terminal was the first time they encountered any kind of electronic technology. Many of the first-year students had never seen a flush toilet before. There initially was skepticism that these technologically illiterate students could effectively use PLATO, but those concerns were not borne out. Within an hour or less most students were using the system proficiently, mostly to learn math and science skills, although a lesson that taught keyboarding skills was one of the most popular. A few students even used on-line resources to learn TUTOR, the PLATO programming language, and a few wrote lessons on the system in the Zulu language.
Other versions:
PLATO was also used fairly extensively in South Africa for industrial training. Eskom successfully used PLM (PLATO learning management) and simulations to train power plant operators, South African Airways (SAA) used PLATO simulations for cabin attendant training, and there were a number of other large companies as well that were exploring the use of PLATO.
Other versions:
The South African subsidiary of CDC invested heavily in the development of an entire secondary school curriculum (SASSC) on PLATO, but unfortunately as the curriculum was nearing the final stages of completion, CDC began to falter in South Africa—partly because of financial problems back home, partly because of growing opposition in the United States to doing business in South Africa, and partly due to the rapidly evolving microcomputer, a paradigm shift that CDC failed to recognize.
Other versions:
Cyber1 In August 2004, a version of PLATO corresponding to the final release from CDC was resurrected online. This version of PLATO runs on a free and open-source software emulation of the original CDC hardware called Desktop Cyber. Within six months, by word of mouth alone, more than 500 former users had signed up to use the system. Many of the students who used PLATO in the 1970s and 1980s felt a special social bond with the community of users who came together using the powerful communications tools (talk programs, records systems and notesfiles) on PLATO.The PLATO software used on Cyber1 is the final release (99A) of CYBIS, by permission of VCampus. The underlying operating system is NOS 2.8.7, the final release of the NOS operating system, by permission of Syntegra (now British Telecom [BT]), which had acquired the remainder of CDC's mainframe business. Cyber1 runs this software on the Desktop Cyber emulator. Desktop Cyber accurately emulates in software a range of CDC Cyber mainframe models and many peripherals.Cyber1 offers free access to the system, which contains over 16,000 of the original lessons, in an attempt to preserve the original PLATO communities that grew up at CERL and on CDC systems in the 1980s. The load average of this resurrected system is about 10–15 users, sending personal and notesfile notes, and playing inter-terminal games such as Avatar and Empire (a Star Trek-like game), which had both accumulated more than 1.0 million contact hours on the original PLATO system at UIUC.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Eptapirone**
Eptapirone:
Eptapirone (F-11,440) is a very potent and highly selective 5-HT1A receptor full agonist of the azapirone family. Its affinity for the 5-HT1A receptor was reported to be 4.8 nM (Ki) (or 8.33 (pKi)), and its intrinsic activity approximately equal to that of serotonin (i.e., 100%).Eptapirone and related high-efficacy 5-HT1A full and super agonists such as befiradol and F-15,599 were developed under the hypothesis that the maximum exploitable therapeutic benefits of 5-HT1A receptor agonists might not be able to be seen without the drugs employed possessing sufficiently high intrinsic activity at the receptor. As 5-HT1A receptor agonism, based on animal and other research, looked extremely promising for the treatment of depression from a theoretical perspective, this idea was developed as a potential explanation for the relatively modest clinical effectiveness seen with already available 5-HT1A receptor agonists like buspirone and tandospirone, which act merely as weak-to-moderate partial agonists of the receptor.
Animal studies:
In the Porsolt forced swimming test, eptapirone was found to suppress immobility more robustly than buspirone, ipsapirone, flesinoxan, paroxetine, and imipramine, which was suggestive of strong antidepressant-like effects. In this assay, unlike the other drugs screened, buspirone actually increased the immobility time with a single administration, while repeated administration decreased it, an effect that may have been related to buspirone's relatively weak intrinsic activity (~30%) at the 5-HT1A receptor and/or its preferential activation of 5-HT1A somatodendritic autoreceptors over postsynaptic receptors.After repeated administration, high dose paroxetine was able to rival the reduction in immobility seen with eptapirone. However, efficacy was seen on the first treatment with eptapirone, which suggested that eptapirone may have the potential for a more rapid onset of antidepressant effectiveness in comparison. Imipramine was unable to match the efficacy of eptapirone or high dose paroxetine, which was probably the result of the fact that higher doses were fatal.In the conflict procedure, eptapirone produced substantial increases in punished responding without affecting unpunished responding, which was suggestive of marked anxiolytic-like effects. In addition, the efficacy of eptapirone in this assay was more evident than that of buspirone, ipsapirone, and flesinoxan.
Human studies:
Eptapirone has been assayed in humans in preclinical trials at an oral dose of 1.5 mg. In these studies, eptapirone reduced body temperature, prolonged REM sleep, increased cortisol and growth hormone levels, and produced side effects such as dizziness and drowsiness while being overall well tolerated. It peaked rapidly within 30–60 minutes and had an estimated half-life of two hours, with a total duration of approximately three hours.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Conway triangle notation**
Conway triangle notation:
In geometry, the Conway triangle notation, named after John Horton Conway, allows trigonometric functions of a triangle to be managed algebraically. Given a reference triangle whose sides are a, b and c and whose corresponding internal angles are A, B, and C then the Conway triangle notation is simply represented as follows: sin sin sin C where S = 2 × area of reference triangle and cot φ.
Conway triangle notation:
in particular cot cos A=b2+c2−a22 cot cos B=a2+c2−b22 cot cos C=a2+b2−c22 cot ω=a2+b2+c22 where ω is the Brocard angle. The law of cosines is used: cos A cot π3=S33 S2φ=Sφ2−S22SφSφ2=Sφ+Sφ2+S2 for values of φ where 0<φ<π Sϑ+φ=SϑSφ−S2Sϑ+SφSϑ−φ=SϑSφ+S2Sφ−Sϑ.
Furthermore the convention uses a shorthand notation for SϑSφ=Sϑφ and SϑSφSψ=Sϑφψ.
Hence: sin cos tan A=SSA a2=SB+SCb2=SA+SCc2=SA+SB.
Some important identities: cyclic SA=SA+SB+SC=Sω S2=b2c2−SA2=a2c2−SB2=a2b2−SC2 SBC=SBSC=S2−a2SASAC=SASC=S2−b2SBSAB=SASB=S2−c2SC SABC=SASBSC=S2(Sω−4R2)Sω=s2−r2−4rR where R is the circumradius and abc = 2SR and where r is the incenter, s=a+b+c2 and a+b+c=Sr.
Some useful trigonometric conversions: sin sin sin cos cos cos C=Sω−4R24R2 cyclic sin cyclic cos cyclic tan tan tan tan C.
Some useful formulas: cyclic cyclic a4=2(Sω2−S2) cyclic cyclic cyclic cyclic b2c2=Sω2+S2.
Some examples using Conway triangle notation: Let D be the distance between two points P and Q whose trilinear coordinates are pa : pb : pc and qa : qb : qc. Let Kp = apa + bpb + cpc and let Kq = aqa + bqb + cqc. Then D is given by the formula: cyclic a2SA(paKp−qaKq)2.
Using this formula it is possible to determine OH, the distance between the circumcenter and the orthocenter as follows: For the circumcenter pa = aSA and for the orthocenter qa = SBSC/a cyclic cyclic SBSC=S2.
Hence: cyclic cyclic cyclic cyclic cyclic cyclic cyclic cyclic cyclic a2−32(Sω−4R2)=3R2−12Sω−32Sω+6R2=9R2−2Sω.
This gives: OH=9R2−2Sω.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**All Sky Automated Survey for SuperNovae**
All Sky Automated Survey for SuperNovae:
The All Sky Automated Survey for SuperNovae (ASAS-SN) is an automated program to search for new supernovae and other astronomical transients, headed by astronomers from the Ohio State University, including Christopher Kochanek and Krzysztof Stanek. It has 20 robotic telescopes in both the northern and southern hemispheres. It can survey the entire sky approximately once every day.Initially, there were four ASAS-SN telescopes at Haleakala and another four at Cerro Tololo, a Las Cumbres Observatory site. Twelve more telescopes were deployed in 2017 in Chile, South Africa and Texas, with funds from the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation, the Ohio State University, the Mount Cuba Astronomical Foundation, China, Chile, Denmark, and Germany. All the telescopes (Nikon telephoto 400mm/F2.8 lenses) have a diameter of 14 cm and ProLine PL230 CCD cameras. The pixel resolution in the cameras is 7.8 arc seconds, so follow-up observations on other telescopes are usually required to get a more accurate location.The main goal of the project is to look for bright supernovae, and its discoveries have included the most powerful supernova event ever discovered, ASASSN-15lh. However, other transient objects are frequently discovered, including nearby tidal disruption events (TDEs) (e.g., ASASSN-19bt), Galactic novae (e.g., ASASSN-16kt, ASASSN-16ma, and ASASSN-18fv), cataclysmic variables, and stellar flares, including several of the largest flares ever seen. In July 2017 ASAS-SN discovered its first comet, ASASSN1, and in July 2019 it provided crucial data for the near-Earth asteroid 2019 OK. It can detect new objects with magnitudes between 18 and 8.Objects discovered receive designations starting with ASASSN followed by a dash, a two digit year and letters, for example ASASSN-19bt.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Thia-crown ether**
Thia-crown ether:
In organic chemistry, thia-crown ethers are organosulfur compounds which are the thia analogues of crown ethers (cyclic polyethers). That is, they have a sulfur atom (sulfide linkage, −S−) in place of each oxygen atom (ether linkage, −O−) around the ring. While the parent crown ethers have the formulae (CH2CH2O)n, the parent thia-crown ethers have the formulae (CH2CH2S)n, where n = 3, 4, 5, 6. They have trivial names "x-ane-Sy", where x and y are the number of atoms in the ring and the number of those atoms that are sulfur, respectively. Thia-crown ethers exhibit affinities for transition metals.
Thia-crown ether:
1,4,7-Trithiacyclononane (9-ane-S3) is a tridentate ligand and forms complexes with many metal ions, including those considered hard, such as copper(II) and iron(II).Tetradentate 14-ane-S4 and the hexadentate 18-ane-S6 are also known.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Open microfluidics**
Open microfluidics:
Microfluidics refers to the flow of fluid in channels or networks with at least one dimension on the micron scale. In open microfluidics, also referred to as open surface microfluidics or open-space microfluidics, at least one boundary confining the fluid flow of a system is removed, exposing the fluid to air or another interface such as a second fluid.
Types of open microfluidics:
Open microfluidics can be categorized into various subsets. Some examples of these subsets include open-channel microfluidics, paper-based, and thread-based microfluidics.
Open-channel microfluidics In open-channel microfluidics, a surface tension-driven capillary flow occurs and is referred to as spontaneous capillary flow (SCF). SCF occurs when the pressure at the advancing meniscus is negative. The geometry of the channel and contact angle of fluids has been shown to produce SCF if the following equation is true.
pfpw<cos(θ) Where pf is the free perimeter of the channel (i.e., the interface not in contact with the channel wall), and pw is the wetted perimeter (i.e., the walls in contact with the fluid), and θ is the contact angle of the fluid on the material of the device.
Types of open microfluidics:
Paper-based microfluidics Paper-based microfluidics utilizes the wicking ability of paper for functional readouts. Paper-based microfluidics is an attractive method because paper is cheap, easily accessible, and has a low environmental impact. Paper is also versatile because it is available in various thicknesses and pore sizes. Coatings such as wax have been used to guide flow in paper microfluidics. In some cases, dissolvable barriers have been used to create boundaries on the paper and control the fluid flow. The application of paper as a diagnostic tool has shown to be powerful because it has successfully been used to detect glucose levels, bacteria, viruses, and other components in whole blood. Cell culture methods within paper have also been developed. Lateral flow immunoassays, such as those used in pregnancy tests, are one example of the application of paper for point of care or home-based diagnostics. Disadvantages include difficulty of fluid retention and high limits of detection.
Types of open microfluidics:
Thread-based microfluidics Thread-based microfluidics, an offshoot from paper-based microfluidics, utilizes the same capillary based wicking capabilities. Common thread materials include nitrocellulose, rayon, nylon, hemp, wool, polyester, and silk. Threads are versatile because they can be woven to form specific patterns. Additionally, two or more threads can converge together in a knot bringing two separate ‘streams’ of fluid together as a reagent mixing method. Threads are also relatively strong and difficult to break from handling which makes them stable over time and easy to transport. Thread-based microfluidics has been applied to 3D tissue engineering and analyte analysis.
Capillary filaments in open microfluidics:
Open capillary microfluidics are channels that expose fluids to open air by excluding the ceiling and/or floor of the channel. Rather than rely on using pumps or syringes to maintain flow, open capillary microfluidics uses surface tension to facilitate the flow. The elimination of and infusion source reduces the size of the device and associated apparatus, along with other aspects that could obstruct their use. The dynamics of capillary-driven flow in open microfluidics are highly reliant on two types of geometric channels commonly known as either rectangular U-grooves or triangular V-grooves. The geometry of the channels dictates the flow along the interior walls fabricated with various ever-evolving processes.
Capillary filaments in open microfluidics:
Capillary filaments in U-groove Rectangular open-surface U-grooves are the easiest type of open microfluidic channel to fabricate. This design can maintain the same order of magnitude velocity in comparison to V-groove. Channels are made of glass or high clarity glass substitutes such as polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), polycarbonate (PC), or cyclic olefin copolymer (COC). To eliminate the remaining resistance after etching, channels are given hydrophilic treatment using oxygen plasma or deep reactive-ion etching(DRIE).
Capillary filaments in open microfluidics:
Capillary filaments in V-groove V-groove, unlike U-groove, allows for a variety of velocities depending on the groove angle. V-grooves with sharp groove angle result in the interface curvature at the corners explained by reduced Concus-Finn conditions. In a perfect inner corner of a V-groove, the filament will advance indefinitely in the groove allowing the formation of capillary filament depending on the wetting conditions. The width of the groove plays an important role in controlling the fluid flow. The narrower the V-groove is, the better the capillary flow of liquids is even for highly viscous liquids such as blood; this effect has been used to produce an autonomous assay. The fabrication of a V-groove is more difficult than a U-groove as it poses a higher risk for faulty construction, since the corner has to be tightly sealed.
Advantages:
One of the main advantages of open microfluidics is ease of accessibility which enables intervention (i.e., for adding or removing reagents) to the flowing liquid in the system. Open microfluidics also allows simplicity of fabrication thus eliminating the need to bond surfaces. When one of the boundaries of a system is removed, a larger liquid-gas interface results, which enables liquid-gas reactions. Open microfluidic devices enable better optical transparency because at least one side of the system is not covered by the material which can reduce autofluorescence during imaging. Further, open systems minimize and sometimes eliminate bubble formation, a common problem in closed systems.In closed system microfluidics, the flow in the channels is driven by pressure via pumps (syringe pumps), valves (trigger valves), or electrical field. An example of one of these methods for achieving low flow rates using temperature-controlled evaporation has been described for an open microfluidics system, allowing for long incubation hours for biological applications and requiring small sample volumes. Open system microfluidics enable surface-tension driven flow in channels thereby eliminating the need for external pumping methods. For example, some open microfluidic devices consist of a reservoir port and pumping port that can be filled with fluid using a pipette. Eliminating external pumping requirements lowers cost and enables device use in all laboratories with pipettes.
Advantages:
Materials Solutions Thankfully, while many problems exist with PDMS, many solutions have also been developed. To address the negative hydrophobicity and porosity that PDMS exhibits, researchers have started to use coatings such as BSA (bovine serum albumin) or charged molecules to create a layer between the native PDMS and the cells. Other researchers have successfully employed several of the Pluronic surfactants, a tri-block copolymer that has two hydrophilic blocks surrounding a hydrophobic core often used to increase the hydrophilic nature of numerous substrates, and even borosilicate glass coatings to address the hydrophobicity problem. Interestingly, treatment with either of the prior two compounds can result in prevention of non-specific protein adsorption, as they (and other coatings) form stable adsorption interactions with the PDMS, which aides in reducing PDSM interference with cell culture media. These compounds and materials can affect surface properties and should be carefully tested to note the impact on cultured cells. Researchers developed 3D scaffolding systems to mimic in vivo environments so that more cells and cell types can grow in an effort to address the problem that not all cell types can grow on PDMS. Like coating the PDMS, 3D scaffolding systems employ alternatives materials like ECM (extracellular matrix) proteins so rather than not binding the native PDMS, cells are more likely to bind to the proteins. Lastly, researchers have addressed the permeability of PDMS to water vapor using some elegant solutions. For example, a portion of the microfluidic system can be designated for humidification and cast in PDMS, or other material like glass.
Disadvantages:
Some drawbacks of open microfluidics include evaporation, contamination, and limited flow rate. Open systems are susceptible to evaporation which can greatly affect readouts when fluid volumes are on the microscale. Additionally, due to the nature of open systems, they are more susceptible to contamination than closed systems. Cell culture and other methods where contamination or small particulates are a concern must be carefully performed to prevent contamination. Lastly, open systems have a limited flow rate because induced pressures cannot be used to drive flow.
Disadvantages:
Materials Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) is an ideal material to fabricate microfluidic devices for cell culture applications due to several advantageous properties such as low processing costs, ease of manufacture, rapid prototyping, ease of surface modification, and cellular non-toxicity. While there are several benefits that arise from using native Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), there are also some drawbacks that researchers must account for in their experiments. First, PDMS is both hydrophobic and porous, meaning that small molecules or other hydrophobic molecules can be adsorbed onto it. Such molecules include anything from methyl- or alkyl-containing molecules, and even certain dyes like Nile Red. Researchers identified in 2008 that plasma could be used to reduce the hydrophobicity of PDMS, though it returned about two weeks after treatment. Some researchers postulate that integrating removable polycaprolactone (PCL) fiber-based electrospun scaffolds under NaOH treatment enhances hydrophilicity as well as mitigating hydrophobicity, while promoting more efficient cell communication. Another problem that arises with PDMS is that it can interfere with the media that circulates in the channels. Incomplete curing of PDMS channels can lead to PDMS leaching into the media and, even when complete curing takes place, components of the media can still unintentionally attach to free hydrophobic sites on the PDMS walls. Yet another problem arises with the gas permeability of PDMS. Most researchers take advantage of this to oxygenate both the PDMS and the circulating media, but this trait also makes the microfluidic system especially vulnerable to water vapor loss. Lastly, not all cell types can grow, or will grow at the same levels, on native PDMS. For instance, high levels of rapid cell death in two fibroblast types grown on native PDMS were observed as early as 1994, which posed problems for the widespread use of PDMS in microfluidic cell culture.
Applications:
Like many microfluidic technologies, open system microfluidics has been applied to nanotechnology, biotechnology, fuel cells, and point of care (POC) testing. For cell-based studies, open-channel microfluidic devices enable access to cells for single cell probing within the channel. Other applications include capillary gel electrophoresis, water-in-oil emulsions, and biosensors for POC systems. Suspended microfluidic devices, open microfluidic devices where the floor of the device is removed, have been used to study cellular diffusion and migration of cancer cells. Suspended and rail-based microfluidics have been used for micropatterning and studying cell communication.
Applications:
Materials Solutions Applications Applications of these solutions are still in use today, as seen by the following examples. In 2014, Lei et al was testing the impedance of human oral cancer cells in the presence of cisplatin, a known anti-cancer drug, by molding the cells into a 3D scaffolding. The authors had noted from previous studies that cellular impedance could be correlated to cellular viability and proliferation in 2D cell culture and hoped to translate that correlation into 3D cell culture. Using agarose to create the 3D scaffolding, the researchers measured the growth and proliferation of human oral cancer cells in the presence and absence of cisplatin using fluorescent DNA assays and observed that there was indeed a correlation like that observed in 2D model. Not only did this prove that principles from 2D cell culture could be translated to 3D open microfluidic cell culture, but it also potentially lays the foundation for a more personalized treatment plan for cancer patients. They postulated that future developments could transform this method into an assay that could test patient cancer cell response to known anti-cancer drugs. Another group used a similar method, but instead of creating a 3D scaffolding, they employed several different PDMS coatings to determine the best option for studying cancer stem cells. The group looked at BSA and ECM proteins and found that, while their experimental evidence supported BSA as the best coating for circulating cancer cells (CSC’s), phenotypic changes did occur to the cells (namely, elongation), but did not impact the cells’ ability to perform normal cell functions. A key caveat to note here is that BSA is not a blanket solution that works for every cell type- different coatings work better or worse for certain cell types and these differences should be considered when developing an experiment.
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**Music criticism**
Music criticism:
The Oxford Companion to Music defines music criticism as "the intellectual activity of formulating judgments on the value and degree of excellence of individual works of music, or whole groups or genres". In this sense, it is a branch of musical aesthetics. With the concurrent expansion of interest in music and information media over the past century, the term has come to acquire the conventional meaning of journalistic reporting on musical performances.
Nature of music criticism:
The musicologist Winton Dean has suggested that "music is probably the most difficult of the arts to criticise." Unlike the plastic or literary arts, the 'language' of music does not specifically relate to human sensory experience – Dean's words, "the word 'love' is common coin in life and literature: the note C has nothing to do with breakfast or railway journeys or marital harmony." Like dramatic art, music is recreated at every performance, and criticism may, therefore, be directed both at the text (musical score) and the performance. More specifically, as music has a temporal dimension that requires repetition or development of its material "problems of balance, contrast, expectation and fulfilment... are more central to music than to other arts, supported as these are by verbal or representational content." The absence of a systematic or consensus-based musical aesthetics has also tended to make music criticism a highly subjective issue. "There is no counter-check outside the critic's own personality."
History:
To end of 18th century Critical references to music (often deprecating performers or styles) can be found in early literature, including, for example, in Plato's Laws and in the writings of medieval music theorists.
History:
According to Richard Taruskin, the active concert life of late 18th-century London meant that "the role and the function of arts criticism as we know it today were the creations of the English public." However, the first magazines specifically devoted to music criticism seem to have developed in Germany, for example, Georg Philipp Telemann's Der getreue Music-Meister (1728), which included publications of new compositions, and Der kritische Musikus which appeared in Hamburg between 1737 and 1740. In France in the 1750s, the Querelle des Bouffons (the dispute between supporters of French and Italian opera styles as represented by Jean-Philippe Rameau and Jean-Baptiste Lully respectively) generated essays from Jean-Jacques Rousseau and others, including Denis Diderot's Rameau's Nephew (1761). The English composer Charles Avison (1709–1770) published the first work on musical criticism in the English language – an Essay on Musical Expression published in 1752. In it, Avison claims that since the time of Palestrina and Raphael, music had improved in status whilst pictorial art had declined. However, he believes that George Frideric Handel is too much concerned with naturalistic imitation than with expression, and criticises the habit, in Italian operas, of that egregious absurdity of repeating, and finishing many songs with the first part; when it often happens, after the passions of anger and revenge have been sufficiently expressed, that reconcilement and love are the subjects of the second, and, therefore, should conclude the performance. Typically, until the late eighteenth century, music criticism centred on vocal rather than instrumental music – "vocal music ... was the apex of [the] aesthetic hierarchy. One knew what music was expressing." Age of Romanticism The last years of the eighteenth century reflected both a change of patronage of music from the aristocracy to the rising middle-classes, and the rise of Romanticism in the arts. Both of these had consequences for the practice of music criticism; "the tone of the critic was lowered as his audience expanded: he began to approach the reader as a colleague rather than a pedagogue", and a new generation of critics began to widen their consideration to other aspects of music than its pure representative aspects, becoming increasingly interested in instrumental music. Prominent amongst these was E. T. A. Hoffmann, who wrote in 1809That instrumental music has now risen to a level of which one probably had no inkling not long ago and that the symphony, especially following...Haydn and Mozart, has become the ultimate form of instrumental music – the opera of instruments, as it were – all this is well-known to every music-lover.
History:
A further impetus to the direction of music criticism was given by the changing nature of concert programming with the establishment of the European classical music canon; indeed it is at this period that the word 'classical' is first applied to a received musical tradition. At the same time, the proportion of new music to 'canonic' music in concert programming began to decline, meaning that living composers were increasingly in competition with their dead predecessors. This was particularly the case in respect of the rise of Beethoven's reputation in his last year and posthumously. This gave rise both to writings on the value of the 'canon' and also to writings by composers and their supporters defending newer music.
History:
In 1798 the Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung, edited by Friedrich Rochlitz (1769–1842), began publication in Leipzig, and this is often regarded as the precursor of a new genre of criticism aimed at a wider readership than qualified connoisseurs. In subsequent years several regular journals dedicated to music criticism and reviews began to appear in major European centres, including The Harmonicon (London 1823–33), The Musical Times (London, 1844-date), the Revue et gazette musicale de Paris (Paris 1827–1880, founded by François-Joseph Fétis), the Berliner allgemeine musikalische Zeitung founded in 1825 by A.M. Schlesinger and edited by A. B. Marx, and the Neue Zeitschrift für Musik founded in 1834 in Leipzig by Robert Schumann and Friedrich Wieck, and later edited by Franz Brendel. Other journals at this period also began to carry extensive writings on music: Hector Berlioz wrote for the Parisian Journal des débats, Heinrich Heine reported on music and literature in Paris for the Stuttgart Allgemeine Zeitung, the young Richard Wagner wrote articles for Heinrich Laube's magazine Zeitung für die elegante Welt and during his 1839–42 stay in Paris for Schlesinger's publishing house and German newspapers. The writer George Henry Caunter (1791–1843) was called "one of the first musical critics in the metropolis [London]". In 1835 James William Davison (1813–85) began his lifelong career as a music critic, writing 40 years for The Times.
Sources:
Avison, Charles (1752). Essay on Musical Expression. London. Downloadable from IMSLP.
Bujic, Bojan (n.d.) "Criticism of Music" in The Oxford Companion to Music, Oxford Music Online, accessed 1 January 2013.
Charlton, David (2003). "Hoffmann as a Writer on Music", in Hoffmann (2003, 1–22).
Conway, David (2012). Jewry in Music: Entry to the Profession from the Enlightenment to Richard Wagner. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-01538-8.
Davison, J.W., ed. Henry Davison (1912). FromMendelssohnto Wagner: Memoirs of J. W. Davison". London: William Reeves.
Dean, Winton (1980). "Criticism", in New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians (ed. Stanley Sadie) vol. 5, 36–50. London: Macmillan ISBN 0-333-23111-2.
Hoffmann, E. T. A., ed. David Charlton (2003).E. T. A. Hoffmann's Musical Writings. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0 521 23520 0.
Taruskin, Richard (2010). Music in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries, Oxford: Oxford University Press ISBN 978-0-19-538482-6.
Urban, Sylvanus, ed. (1843). "Deaths", in The Gentleman's Magazine. London: William Pickering; John Bowyer Nichols and Son.
Weber, William (2001). "From Miscellany to Homogeneity in Concert Programming", in Poetics 29, 127–34.
Weber, William (2003). "Consequences of Canon: The Institutionalization of Enmity between Contemporary and Classical Music", Common Knowledge 9/2, 78–99.
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**Exploding-bridgewire detonator**
Exploding-bridgewire detonator:
The exploding-bridgewire detonator (EBW, also known as exploding wire detonator) is a type of detonator used to initiate the detonation reaction in explosive materials, similar to a blasting cap because it is fired using an electric current. EBWs use a different physical mechanism than blasting caps, using more electricity delivered much more rapidly, and explode in a much more precise timing after the electric current is applied, by the process of exploding wire method. This has led to their common use in nuclear weapons.The slapper detonator is a more recent development along similar lines.
History:
The EBW was invented by Luis Alvarez and Lawrence Johnston for the Fat Man–type bombs of the Manhattan Project, during their work in Los Alamos National Laboratory. The Fat Man Model 1773 EBW detonators used an unusual, high reliability detonator system with two EBW "horns" attached to a single booster charge, which then fired each of the 32 explosive lens units.
Description:
EBWs were developed as a means of detonating multiple explosive charges simultaneously, mainly for use in plutonium-based nuclear weapons in which a plutonium core (called a pit) is compressed very rapidly. This is achieved via conventional explosives placed uniformly around the pit. The implosion must be highly symmetrical or the plutonium would simply be ejected at the low-pressure points. Consequently, the detonators must have very precise timing.
Description:
An EBW has two main parts: a piece of fine wire which contacts the explosive, and a high-voltage high-current low-impedance electricity source; it must reliably and consistently supply a rapid starting pulse. When the wire is connected across this voltage, the resulting high current melts and then vaporizes the wire in a few microseconds. The resulting shock and heat initiate the high explosive.
Description:
This accounts for the heavy cables seen in photos of the Trinity "Gadget"; high voltage cable requires good insulation and they had to deliver a large current with little voltage drop, lest the EBW not achieve the phase transition quickly enough.
Description:
The precise timing of EBWs is achieved by the detonator using direct physical effects of the vaporized bridgewire to initiate detonation in the detonator's booster charge. Given a sufficiently high and well known amount of electric current and voltage, the timing of the bridgewire vaporization is both extremely short (a few microseconds) and extremely precise and predictable (standard deviation of time to detonate as low as a few tens of nanoseconds).
Description:
Conventional blasting caps use electricity to heat a bridge wire rather than vaporize it, and that heating then causes the primary explosive to detonate. Imprecise contact between the bridgewire and the primary explosive changes how quickly the explosive is heated up, and minor electrical variations in the wire or leads will change how quickly it heats up as well. The heating process typically takes milliseconds to tens of milliseconds to complete and initiate detonation in the primary explosive. This is roughly 1,000 to 10,000 times longer and less precise than the EBW electrical vaporization.
Description:
Use in nuclear weapons Since explosives detonate at typically 7–8 kilometers per second, or 7–8 meters per millisecond, a 1 millisecond delay in detonation from one side of a nuclear weapon to the other would be longer than the time the detonation would take to cross the weapon. The time precision and consistency of EBWs (0.1 microsecond or less) are roughly enough time for the detonation to move 1 millimeter at most, and for the most precise commercial EBWs this is 0.025 microsecond and about 0.2 mm variation in the detonation wave. This is sufficiently precise for very tight tolerance applications such as nuclear weapon explosive lenses.
Description:
In the US, due to their common use in nuclear weapons, these devices are subject to the nuclear control authorities in every state, according to the Guidelines for the Export of Nuclear Material, Equipment and Technology. EBWs are on the United States Munitions List, and exports are highly regulated.
Description:
Civilian use EBWs have found uses outside nuclear weapons, such as the Titan IV, safety conscious applications where stray electrical currents might detonate normal blasting caps, and applications requiring very precise timing for multiple point commercial blasting in mines or quarries. EBW detonators are much safer than regular electric detonators because unlike regular detonators EBWs do not have primary explosives. Primary explosives such as lead azide are very sensitive to static electricity, radio frequency, shock, etc.
Mechanism of operation:
The bridgewire is usually made of gold, but platinum or gold/platinum alloys can also be used. The most common commercial wire size is 0.038 mm (1.5 mils) in diameter and 1 mm (40 mils) in length, but lengths ranging from 0.25 mm to 2.5 mm (10 mils to 100 mils) can be encountered. From the available explosives, only PETN at low densities can be initiated by sufficiently low shock to make its use practical in commercial systems as a part of the EBW initiator. It can be chained with another explosive booster, often a pellet of tetryl, RDX or some PBX (e.g., PBX 9407). Detonators without such booster are called initial pressing detonators (IP detonators).
Mechanism of operation:
During initiation, the wire heats with the passing current until melting point is reached. The heating rate is high enough that the liquid metal has no time to flow away, and heats further until it vaporizes. During this phase the electrical resistance of the bridgewire assembly rises. Then an electric arc forms in the metal vapor, leading to drop of electrical resistance and sharp growth of the current, quick further heating of the ionized metal vapor, and formation of a shock wave. To achieve the melting and subsequent vaporizing of the wire in time sufficiently short to create a shock wave, a current rise rate of at least 100 amperes per microsecond is required.
Mechanism of operation:
If the current rise rate is lower, the bridge may burn, perhaps causing deflagration of the PETN pellet, but it will not cause detonation. PETN-containing EBWs are also relatively insensitive to a static electricity discharge. Their use is limited by the thermal stability range of PETN. Slapper detonators, which can use high density hexanitrostilbene, may used in temperatures up to almost 300 °C (572 °F) in environments ranging from vacuum to high pressures.
Firing system:
The EBW and the slapper detonator are the safest known types of detonators, as only a very high-current fast-rise pulse can successfully trigger them. However, they require a bulky power source for the current surges required. The extremely short rise times are usually achieved by discharging a low-inductance, high-capacitance, high-voltage capacitor (e.g., oil-filled, Mylar-foil, or ceramic) through a suitable switch (spark gap, thyratron, krytron, etc.) into the bridge wire. A very rough approximation for the capacitor is a rating of 5 kilovolts and 1 microfarad, and the peak current ranges between 500 and 1000 amperes. The high voltage may be generated using a Marx generator. Low-impedance capacitors and low-impedance coaxial cables are required to achieve the necessary current rise rate.
Firing system:
The flux compression generator is one alternative to capacitors. When fired, it creates a strong electromagnetic pulse, which is inductively coupled into one or more secondary coils connected to the bridge wires or slapper foils. A low energy density capacitor equivalent to a compression generator would be roughly the size of a soda can. The energy in such a capacitor would be 1⁄2·C·V2, which for the above-mentioned capacitor is 12.5 J. (By comparison, a defibrillator delivers ~200 J from 2 kV and perhaps 20 µF. The flash-strobe in a disposable camera is typically 3 J from a 300 V capacitor of 100 µF.) In a fission bomb, the same or similar circuit is used for powering the neutron trigger, the initial source of fission neutrons.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**MARKINT**
MARKINT:
Market intelligence, MARKINT is an intelligence gathering discipline used by the United States Intelligence Community (IC) that focuses on intelligence gathered from the global capital markets. It is analogous to other “INTs” in the IC’s domain, such as SIGINT (signals intelligence), ELINT (electronic intelligence) of (signals Intelligence), MASINT (measurement and signature intelligence), IMINT (imagery intelligence) and HUMINT (human intelligence). It is complementary to but different from FININT (financial intelligence), in which information about the financial affairs of entities of interest is gathered.
MARKINT:
Within the IC, MARKINT is defined as, “the systematic collection and analysis of confidential and open-source information from the global capital and commodities markets in order to derive actionable intelligence from the activities of market participants”. MARKINT is different from the traditional definition of Market Intelligence or Marketing Intelligence, in which information is gathered for purposes of enhancing commercial marketing efforts rather than for purposes of analysis relating to national security.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Yamaha P-115**
Yamaha P-115:
The Yamaha P-115 is a portable digital piano introduced in 2015. It replaces its best-selling predecessor, the P-105.The P-115 has 14 different voices which range from Grand Piano to Rock Organ, and comes pre-loaded with 64 preset songs. There is a built in metronome as well as a built in recorder which can store roughly 100 KB (11,000 notes) for play back or upload to an external device. Keys are Yamaha's Graded hammer standard (GHS) which range in weight from the low keys to high keys to more accurately mimic the feel of an acoustic piano. The overall weight of the keyboard is 26 pounds. The keyboard can come in colors black or white (p115B or p115WH).
Features:
64 preset songs (14 demo, 50 piano) USB to host line AUX out ([L/L+R][R]) 2 6.3mm front-facing headphone jacks Pedal output to accompany either a standard pedal or Yamaha's LP-5 three pedal unit.
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**Jerry M. Chow**
Jerry M. Chow:
Jerry M. Chow is a physicist who conducts research in quantum information processing. He has worked as the manager of the Experimental Quantum Computing group at the IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Center in Yorktown Heights, New York since 2014 and is the primary investigator of the IBM team for the IARPA Multi-Qubit Coherent Operations and Logical Qubits programs. After graduating magna cum laude with a B.A. in physics and M.S. in applied mathematics from Harvard University, he went on to earn his Ph.D. in 2010 under Robert J. Schoelkopf at Yale University. While at Yale, he participated in experiments in which superconducting qubits were coupled via a cavity bus for the first time and two-qubit algorithms were executed on a superconducting quantum processor.His work at IBM has led to the publication of findings related to the characterization of a universal set of all-microwave gates that can be executed on two transmon qubits, as well as the implementation of a subsection of a surface code fault-tolerant superconducting quantum computing architecture. His leadership at IBM has led to progress being made in quantum error correction and quantum machine learning, as well as the release of the cloud-based IBM Quantum Experience. He was named a Fellow of the American Physical Society in 2021.
Personal life:
Jerry grew up in Sheepshead Bay neighborhood of Brooklyn.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Fierz identity**
Fierz identity:
In theoretical physics, a Fierz identity is an identity that allows one to rewrite bilinears of the product of two spinors as a linear combination of products of the bilinears of the individual spinors. It is named after Swiss physicist Markus Fierz. The Fierz identities are also sometimes called the Fierz–Pauli–Kofink identities, as Pauli and Kofink described a general mechanism for producing such identities.
Fierz identity:
There is a version of the Fierz identities for Dirac spinors and there is another version for Weyl spinors. And there are versions for other dimensions besides 3+1 dimensions. Spinor bilinears in arbitrary dimensions are elements of a Clifford algebra; the Fierz identities can be obtained by expressing the Clifford algebra as a quotient of the exterior algebra. When working in 4 spacetime dimensions the bivector ψχ¯ may be decomposed in terms of the Dirac matrices that span the space: ψχ¯=14(cS1+cVμγμ+cTμνTμν+cAμγμγ5+cPγ5) .The coefficients are cS=(χ¯ψ),cVμ=(χ¯γμψ),cTμν=−(χ¯Tμνψ),cAμ=−(χ¯γμγ5ψ),cP=(χ¯γ5ψ) and are usually determined by using the orthogonality of the basis under the trace operation. By sandwiching the above decomposition between the desired gamma structures, the identities for the contraction of two Dirac bilinears of the same type can be written with coefficients according to the following table.
Fierz identity:
where S=χ¯ψ,V=χ¯γμψ,T=χ¯[γμ,γν]ψ/22,A=χ¯γ5γμψ,P=χ¯γ5ψ.
The table is symmetric with respect to reflection across the central element. The signs in the table correspond to the case of commuting spinors, otherwise, as is the case of fermions in physics, all coefficients change signs. For example, under the assumption of commuting spinors, the V × V product can be expanded as, (χ¯γμψ)(ψ¯γμχ)=(χ¯χ)(ψ¯ψ)−12(χ¯γμχ)(ψ¯γμψ)−12(χ¯γμγ5χ)(ψ¯γμγ5ψ)−(χ¯γ5χ)(ψ¯γ5ψ).
Combinations of bilinears corresponding to the eigenvectors of the transpose matrix transform to the same combinations with eigenvalues ±1. For example, again for commuting spinors, V×V + A×A, (χ¯γμψ)(ψ¯γμχ)+(χ¯γ5γμψ)(ψ¯γ5γμχ)=−((χ¯γμχ)(ψ¯γμψ)+(χ¯γ5γμχ)(ψ¯γ5γμψ)).
Simplifications arise when the spinors considered are Majorana spinors, or chiral fermions, as then some terms in the expansion can vanish from symmetry reasons.
For example, for anticommuting spinors this time, it readily follows from the above that χ¯1γμ(1+γ5)ψ2ψ¯3γμ(1−γ5)χ4=−2χ¯1(1−γ5)χ4ψ¯3(1+γ5)ψ2.
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**Supplemental Punctuation**
Supplemental Punctuation:
Supplemental Punctuation is a Unicode block containing historic and specialized punctuation characters, including biblical editorial symbols, ancient Greek punctuation, and German dictionary marks.
Additional punctuation characters are in the General Punctuation block and sprinkled in dozens of other Unicode blocks.
History:
The following Unicode-related documents record the purpose and process of defining specific characters in the Supplemental Punctuation block:
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**5-meter band**
5-meter band:
The 5-meter band (60 MHz) is the middle portion of the very high frequency (VHF) radio spectrum allocated to amateur radio use.
History:
On October 10, 1924, the 5-meter band (56–64 MHz) was first made available to amateurs in the United States by the Third National Radio Conference. On October 4, 1927, the band was allocated on a worldwide basis by the International Radiotelegraph Conference in Washington, D.C. 56–60 MHz was allocated for amateur and experimental use.At the 1938 International Radiocommunication Conference in Cairo, television broadcasting was given priority in a portion of the 5- and 6-meter band in Europe. Television and low power stations, meaning those with less than 1 kW power, were allocated 56–58.5 MHz and amateurs, experimenters and low power stations were allocated 58.5–60 MHz in the European region. The conference maintained the 56–60 MHz allocation for other regions and allowed administrations in Europe latitude to allow amateurs to continue using 56–58.5 MHz.In 1940, television channel 2 was reallocated to 60 MHz and TV channel 1 was moved to 50–56 MHz maintaining a gap for the 5-meter amateur band. When the US entered World War II, transmissions by amateur radio stations were suspended for the duration of the war. After the war, the 5-meter band was briefly reopened to amateurs from 56 to 60 MHz until March 1, 1946. For British and some European amateurs were allocated the 5-meter band (58.5 MHz to 60 MHz) till 1949–1951, as by then the 5-metre band was given for television broadcasting.
History:
But 1955-1962 due to TV channel allocations Australian and New Zealand (shorter time) authorities allocated 56-60 MHz instead 50 MHz, but for International Geophysical Year additionally again returned 50-54 MHz range.
History:
Also around this time permission to YA1AA for 5-meter band in Afghanistan has been issued. In September 1957 (IGY) 56.5-58 MHz band allocated for local experiments in Romania, some UK stations in this range were heard.Following a request to be able to track the progression of propagation openings DSI report (CEPT Phase II) of 1995 noted the possibility that a beacon's allocation at 60 MHz should be reassessed when TV broadcasting is no longer operating below 68 MHz of VHF Band I.
History:
From 2007 the IARU R1 is encouraging member societies to try and obtain small allocation for beacons cluster at 60 MHz. In Viena Interim conference 2019 accepted to add the 40 MHz and the 60 MHz Bandplan (used in some countries) in the VHF-Handbook as separate dedicated section. They can serve as an example for future use in other countries of Region 1.
Allocations:
In January 1949 the 5-meter Band is removed from the amateur service (in some countries a transitional period up to 1951 was applied).
1955.11.01 - 1962.06.01 56-60 MHz band allocated for radio amateurs in Australia (VK).
1956.06.01 - 1959.01.31 56-60 MHz band allocated for radio amateurs in New Zealand (ZL) and overseas territories (ZK, ZM).
In April 2018, Ireland (EI) allocated much of the low VHF spectrum to Irish radio amateurs including 60 MHz.
Beacons:
In August 2007, the UK (G) approved the use of beacon at 60.050 MHz. Inactive from 2017.
2019.12.16 The Irish beacon EI1KNH started at 60.013 MHz 25 W, vertical dipole.
2022.09.25 The British beacon GB3MCB started at 60.3 MHz FT8/CW 5W, omnidirectional.
Propagation:
The 5-metre band shares many characteristics with the neighbouring 6-metre band and is a unique transition spot. However, as it is somewhat higher in frequency it does not display the same propagation mechanisms via the F2 ionospheric layer normally seen at HF which occasionally appear in 6 metres, leastwise not at temperate latitudes. However, Sporadic E is common on the band in summer, tropospheric propagation is marginally more successful than on the 6-metre band, and propagation via the Aurora Borealis and meteor scatter is highly effective.
Activity:
Around 1949, at least 18 countries worked in Europe on this band including Iceland and some overseas territories. A bit later from 1956 5-meter cross band (first VK-JA) and interstate Es activities take place in Australia, New Zealand and its overseas territories. 2019-08-29: Es EI4GNB - LY2YR FT8 2,036.3 km (1265 miles) 2022-05-18: Tropo EI9KP - EI4GNB FT8 ~205 km
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Amenable number**
Amenable number:
An amenable number is a positive integer for which there exists a multiset of as many integers as the original number that both add up to the original number and when multiplied together give the original number. To put it algebraically, for a positive integer n, there is a multiset of n integers {a1, ..., an}, for which the equalities n=∑i=1nai=∏i=1nai hold. Negative numbers are allowed in the multiset. For example, 5 is amenable since 5 = 1 + (-1) + 1 + (-1) + 5. All and only those numbers congruent to 0 or 1 (mod 4), except 4, are amenable. (Tamvakis & Lossers 1998) The first few amenable numbers are: 1, 5, 8, 9, 12, 13 ... OEIS: A100832 A solution for integers of the form n = 4k + 1 could be given by a set of 2k (+1)s and 2k (-1)s and n itself. (This generalizes the example of 5 given above.) Although not obvious from the definition, the set of amenable numbers is closed under multiplication (the product of two amenable numbers is an amenable number). All composite numbers would be amenable if the multiset was allowed to be of any length, because, even if other solutions are available, one can always obtain a solution by taking the prime factorization (expressed with repeated factors rather than exponents) and add as many 1s as necessary to add up to n. The product of this set of integers will yield n no matter how many 1s there are in the set. Furthermore, still under this assumption, any integer n would be amenable. Consider the inelegant solution for n of {1, -1, 1, -1, n}. In the sum, the positive ones are cancelled out by the negative ones, leaving n, while in the product, the two negative ones cancel out the effect of their signs.
Amenable number:
Amenable numbers should not be confused with amicable numbers, which are pairs of integers whose divisors add up to each other.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Solar eclipse of December 25, 2000**
Solar eclipse of December 25, 2000:
A partial solar eclipse occurred on December 25, 2000, also known as the "Christmas 2000 Solar Eclipse". A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun, thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A partial solar eclipse occurs in the polar regions of the Earth when the center of the Moon's shadow misses the Earth. It is also the last solar eclipse of the 20th century.
Christmas:
This is the first Solar Eclipse on Christmas day since the annular solar eclipse of 1954.
Related eclipses:
Eclipses of 2000 A total lunar eclipse on January 21.
A partial solar eclipse on February 5.
A partial solar eclipse on July 1.
A total lunar eclipse on July 16.
A partial solar eclipse on July 31.
A partial solar eclipse on December 25.
Solar eclipses 2000–2003 This eclipse is a member of a semester series. An eclipse in a semester series of solar eclipses repeats approximately every 177 days and 4 hours (a semester) at alternating nodes of the Moon's orbit.Partial solar eclipses on February 5, 2000 and July 31, 2000 occur in the previous lunar year set.
Metonic series The metonic series repeats eclipses every 19 years (6939.69 days), lasting about 5 cycles. Eclipses occur in nearly the same calendar date. In addition, the octon subseries repeats 1/5 of that or every 3.8 years (1387.94 days). All eclipses in this table occur at the Moon's descending node.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Tone policing**
Tone policing:
A tone argument (also called tone policing) is a type of ad hominem aimed at the tone of an argument instead of its factual or logical content in order to dismiss a person's argument. Ignoring the truth or falsity of a statement, a tone argument instead focuses on the emotion with which it is expressed. This is a logical fallacy because a person can be angry while still being rational. Nonetheless, a tone argument may be useful when responding to a statement that itself does not have rational content, such as an appeal to emotion.The notion of tone policing became widespread in U.S. social activist circles by the mid-2010s. It was widely disseminated in a 2015 comic issued by the Everyday Feminism website. Activists have argued that tone policing has been regularly employed against feminist and anti-racism advocates, criticizing the way that they presented their arguments rather than engaging with the arguments themselves.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Gaplus**
Gaplus:
Gaplus is a 1984 fixed shooter arcade game developed and released by Namco. It is the third game in the Galaxian series, serving as a direct sequel to Galaga (1981). In North America, a modification kit was later released to change the name to Galaga 3, possibly to reflect its position in the series. It was the only game other than Phozon to run on the Namco Phozon hardware. A contemporary home port for the Commodore 64 was released in 1988. A "demastered" version of the game (in the style of the Nintendo Entertainment System) was included in Namco Museum Archives Vol. 2 as a bonus title.
Gameplay:
The objective of Gaplus is to score as many points as possible by defeating successive waves of enemies in levels called "Parsecs". Its core gameplay is very similar to Galaga: Enemies fly onto the screen in rows and join a formation near the top, then begin attacking the player's ship with kamikaze-like dives. The ship can move left and right, as well as vertically. Bonus lives are earned at certain score intervals, and can also be gained by collecting ship parts dropped by some enemies, as well as collecting Rally-X bonus flags from shooting stars. The player loses a life when struck by an enemy or one of their shots; the game ends when all lives are lost.
Gameplay:
Certain enemies drop upgrades that include a tractor beam which the player can use to capture enemies, a large drill that can destroy many enemies at once, powerups that temporarily slow down enemies or nullify their shots, and parts to create a new ship that awards an extra life when completed. Some stages begin with the star field reversing direction, with harder and faster waves of enemies appearing before resuming a normal formation.
Gameplay:
The game features bonus "Challenging Stages" just as Galaga did. However, instead of defeating a certain number of enemies, the objective of the challenging stage in Gaplus is to juggle enemies by hitting them as many times as possible. Each hit grants a dot (represented by a bee) in a word or phrase, with extra hits adding to horizontal lines above and below the word. Spelling the entire word or phrase will earn a bonus related to that phrase, and each hit scores bonus points at the end of the round.
Reception:
In Japan, Game Machine listed Gaplus on their May 15, 1984 issue as being the most-successful table arcade unit of the month.
Legacy:
The arcade version of Gaplus was released on mobile phones, and is also part of Namco Museum Remix (2007) and Namco Museum Megamix (2010) for the Wii with its original title being used. The original version was later re-released under its original name for the Wii Virtual Console on March 25, 2009. In 2011, Gaplus was released for iOS devices as part of Galaga 30th Collection, featuring updated visuals, sound, and achievements.In 2020, Namco released a "demastered" version of the game as a bonus game in the Namco Museum Archives Vol. 2 compilation. Developed by M2, this game emulates the visual style of the Nintendo Entertainment System, similar to the NES-style remake of Pac-Man Championship Edition in Vol. 1.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Database trigger**
Database trigger:
A database trigger is procedural code that is automatically executed in response to certain events on a particular table or view in a database. The trigger is mostly used for maintaining the integrity of the information on the database. For example, when a new record (representing a new worker) is added to the employees table, new records should also be created in the tables of the taxes, vacations and salaries. Triggers can also be used to log historical data, for example to keep track of employees' previous salaries.
Triggers in DBMS:
Below follows a series of descriptions of how some popular DBMS support triggers.
Oracle In addition to triggers that fire (and execute PL/SQL code) when data is modified, Oracle 10g supports triggers that fire when schema-level objects (that is, tables) are modified and when user logon or logoff events occur.
Triggers in DBMS:
Schema-level triggers After Creation Before Alter After Alter Before Drop After Drop Before InsertThe four main types of triggers are: Row-level trigger: This gets executed before or after any column value of a row changes Column-level trigger: This gets executed before or after the specified column changes For each row type: This trigger gets executed once for each row of the result set affected by an insert/update/delete For each statement type: This trigger gets executed only once for the entire result set, but also fires each time the statement is executed.
Triggers in DBMS:
System-level triggers From Oracle 8i, database events - logons, logoffs, startups - can fire Oracle triggers.
Microsoft SQL Server A list of all available firing events in Microsoft SQL Server for DDL triggers is available on Microsoft Docs.Performing conditional actions in triggers (or testing data following modification) is done through accessing the temporary Inserted and Deleted tables.
PostgreSQL Introduced support for triggers in 1997. The following functionality in SQL:2003 was previously not implemented in PostgreSQL: SQL allows triggers to fire on updates to specific columns; As of version 9.0 of PostgreSQL this feature is also implemented in PostgreSQL.
Triggers in DBMS:
The standard allows the execution of a number of SQL statements other than SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, such as CREATE TABLE as the triggered action. This can be done through creating a stored procedure or function to call CREATE TABLE.Synopsis: Firebird Firebird supports multiple row-level, BEFORE or AFTER, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE (or any combination of thereof) triggers per table, where they are always "in addition to" the default table changes, and the order of the triggers relative to each other can be specified where it would otherwise be ambiguous (POSITION clause.) Triggers may also exist on views, where they are always "instead of" triggers, replacing the default updatable view logic. (Before version 2.1, triggers on views deemed updatable would run in addition to the default logic.) Firebird does not raise mutating table exceptions (like Oracle), and triggers will by default both nest and recurse as required (SQL Server allows nesting but not recursion, by default.) Firebird's triggers use NEW and OLD context variables (not Inserted and Deleted tables,) and provide UPDATING, INSERTING, and DELETING flags to indicate the current usage of the trigger.
Triggers in DBMS:
As of version 2.1, Firebird additionally supports the following database-level triggers: CONNECT (exceptions raised here prevent the connection from completing) DISCONNECT TRANSACTION START TRANSACTION COMMIT (exceptions raised here prevent the transaction from committing, or preparing if a two-phase commit is involved) TRANSACTION ROLLBACKDatabase-level triggers can help enforce multi-table constraints, or emulate materialized views. If an exception is raised in a TRANSACTION COMMIT trigger, the changes made by the trigger so far are rolled back and the client application is notified, but the transaction remains active as if COMMIT had never been requested; the client application can continue to make changes and re-request COMMIT.
Triggers in DBMS:
Syntax for database triggers: MySQL/MariaDB Limited support for triggers in the MySQL/MariaDB DBMS was added in the 5.0 version of MySQL, launched in 2005.As of version 8.0, they allow for DDL (Data Definition Language) triggers and for DML (Data Manipulation Language) triggers. They also allow either type of DDL trigger (AFTER or BEFORE) to be used to define triggers. They are created by using the clause CREATE TRIGGER and deleted by using the clause DROP TRIGGER. The statement called upon an event happens is defined after the clause FOR EACH ROW, followed by a keyword (SET or BEGIN), which indicates whether what follows is an expression or a statement respectively.
Triggers in DBMS:
IBM DB2 LUW IBM DB2 for distributed systems known as DB2 for LUW (LUW means Linux, Unix, Windows) supports three trigger types: Before trigger, After trigger and Instead of trigger. Both statement level and row level triggers are supported. If there are more triggers for same operation on table then firing order is determined by trigger creation data. Since version 9.7 IBM DB2 supports autonomous transactions.Before trigger is for checking data and deciding if operation should be permitted. If exception is thrown from before trigger then operation is aborted and no data are changed. In DB2 before triggers are read only — you can't modify data in before triggers. After triggers are designed for post processing after requested change was performed. After triggers can write data into tables and unlike some other databases you can write into any table including table on which trigger operates. Instead of triggers are for making views writeable.
Triggers in DBMS:
Triggers are usually programmed in SQL PL language.
SQLite SQLite only supports row-level triggers, not statement-level triggers.
Updateable views, which are not supported in SQLite, can be emulated with INSTEAD OF triggers.
XML databases An example of implementation of triggers in non-relational database can be Sedna, that provides support for triggers based on XQuery. Triggers in Sedna were designed to be analogous to SQL:2003 triggers, but natively base on XML query and update languages (XPath, XQuery and XML update language).
A trigger in Sedna is set on any nodes of an XML document stored in database. When these nodes are updated, the trigger automatically executes XQuery queries and updates specified in its body. For example, the following trigger cancels person node deletion if there are any open auctions referenced by this person:
Row and statement level triggers:
To understand how trigger behavior works, you need to be aware of the two main types of triggers; these are Row and Statement level triggers. The distinction between the two is how many times the code within the trigger is executed, and at what time.
Row and statement level triggers:
Suppose you have a trigger that is made to be called on an UPDATE to a certain table. Row level triggers would execute once for each row that is affected by the UPDATE. It is important to keep in mind if no rows are affected by the UPDATE command, the trigger will not execute any code within the trigger. Statement level triggers will be called once regardless of how many rows are affected by the UPDATE. Here it is important to note that even if the UPDATE command didn't affect any rows, the code within the trigger will still be executed once.
Row and statement level triggers:
Using the BEFORE and AFTER options determine when the trigger is called. Suppose you have a trigger that is called on an INSERT to a certain table. If your trigger is using the BEFORE option, the code within the trigger will be executed before the INSERT into the table occurs. A common use of the BEFORE trigger is to verify the input values of the INSERT, or modify the values accordingly. Now let's say we have a trigger that uses AFTER instead. The code within the trigger is executed after the INSERT happens to the table. An example use of this trigger is creating an audit history of who has made inserts into the database, keeping track of the changes made. When using these options you need to keep a few things in mind. The BEFORE option does not allow you to modify tables, that is why input validation is a practical use. Using AFTER triggers allows you to modify tables such as inserting into an audit history table.
Row and statement level triggers:
When creating a trigger to determine if it is statement or row level simply include the FOR EACH ROW clause for a row level, or omit the clause for a statement level. Be cautious of using additional INSERT/UPDATE/DELETE commands within your trigger, because trigger recursion is possible, causing unwanted behavior. In the examples below each trigger is modifying a different table, by looking at what is being modified you can see some common applications of when different trigger types are used.
Row and statement level triggers:
The following is an Oracle syntax example of a row level trigger that is called AFTER an update FOR EACH ROW affected. This trigger is called on an update to a phone book database. When the trigger is called it adds an entry into a separate table named phone_book_audit. Also take note of triggers being able to take advantage of schema objects like sequences, in this example audit_id_sequence.nexVal is used to generate unique primary keys in the phone_book_audit table.
Row and statement level triggers:
Now calling an UPDATE on the phone_book table for people with the last name 'Jones'.
Notice that the phone_number_audit table is now populated with two entries. This is due to the database having two entries with the last name of 'Jones'. Since the update modified two separate row values, the created trigger was called twice; once after each modification.
Row and statement level triggers:
After - statement-level trigger An Oracle syntax statement trigger that is called after an UPDATE to the phone_book table. When the trigger gets called it makes an insert into phone_book_edit_history table Now doing exactly the same update as the above example, however this time with a statement level trigger. The result shows that the trigger was only called once, even though the update did change two rows.
Row and statement level triggers:
Before each - row-level trigger This example demonstrates a BEFORE EACH ROW trigger that modifies the INSERT using a WHEN conditional. If the last name is larger than 10 letters, using the SUBSTR function we change the last_name column value to an abbreviation.
Now performing an INSERT of someone with a large name.
The trigger worked as per the result above, modifying the value of the INSERT before it was executed.
Before - statement-level trigger Using a BEFORE statement trigger is particularly useful when enforcing database restrictions. This example demonstrate how to enforce a restriction upon someone named "SOMEUSER" on the table phone_book.
Now, when "SOMEUSER" is logged in after attempting any INSERT this error message will show: SQL Error: ORA-20050: Error message goes here.
Custom errors such as this one has a restriction on what the num variable can be defined as. Because of the numerous other pre-defined errors this variable must be in the range of -20000 to -20999.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Web development**
Web development:
Web development is the work involved in developing a website for the Internet (World Wide Web) or an intranet (a private network). Web development can range from developing a simple single static page of plain text to complex web applications, electronic businesses, and social network services. A more comprehensive list of tasks to which Web development commonly refers, may include Web engineering, Web design, Web content development, client liaison, client-side/server-side scripting, Web server and network security configuration, and e-commerce development.
Web development:
Among Web professionals, "Web development" usually refers to the main non-design aspects of building Web sites: writing markup and coding. Web development may use content management systems (CMS) to make content changes easier and available with basic technical skills.
Web development:
For larger organizations and businesses, Web development teams can consist of hundreds of people (Web developers) and follow standard methods like Agile methodologies while developing Web sites. Smaller organizations may only require a single permanent or contracting developer, or secondary assignment to related job positions such as a graphic designer or information systems technician. Web development may be a collaborative effort between departments rather than the domain of a designated department. There are three kinds of Web developer specialization: front-end developer, back-end developer, and full-stack developer. Front-end developers are responsible for behavior and visuals that run in the user browser, while back-end developers deal with the servers. Since the commercialization of the Web with Tim Berners-Lee developing the World Wide Web at CERN, the industry has boomed and has become one of the most used technologies ever.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Subversion and containment**
Subversion and containment:
Subversion and containment is a concept in literary studies introduced by Stephen Greenblatt in his 1988 essay "Invisible Bullets". It has subsequently become a much-used concept in new historicist and cultural materialist approaches to textual analysis. Literary critic Louis A. Montrose writes that the terms are often used to refer to the "capacity of the dominant order to generate subversion so as to use it to its own ends".
The English in the New World:
In his essay "Invisible Bullets", Stephen Greenblatt introduced the concept of subversion and containment as an instrument by describing Thomas Hariot's report on his experience in the colony of Virginia in 1586. Sir Walter Raleigh's duty had been in part to bring civilisation to the Native Americans (then referred to as Indians). As civilisation was purportedly impossible without Christianity, this was to be imposed upon the Native Americans. Harriot documented two relevant observations in his Brief and True Report of the New Found Land of Virginia. Firstly, that the natives had a degree of religion to their culture of which Harriot drew parallels to Christianity. Secondly, he noticed that everyday non-divine objects caused the natives to believe in the divinity of the invaders, noting "Most things they saw with us, as mathematical instruments, sea compasses, the virtue of the lodestone in drawing iron, a perspective glass whereby was shown many strange sights, burning glasses, wildfire works, gun, book, writing and reading, spring clocks that seemed to go off by themselves, and many other things that we had, were so strange unto them and so far exceeded their capabilities to comprehend the reason and means how they should be made and done that they thought they were rather the works of gods than of men, or at the leastwise they had been given and taught us of the gods"It would seem that Harriot used this to impose Christianity upon the natives. At one point, as the native crop was scarce one year, Harriot suggested that the Christian God would provide better for their land. Thus the subversion was both produced and contained. This theory immediately implies maliciousness and Machiavellian callousness; this is not always the case. Greenblatt takes pains to stress that Harriot may not have been acting maliciously. The name of the essay Invisible Bullets is so as the Subversion must be invisible to the Subverted; Harriot could not simply state that the Natives were being converted to (or assimilated into) another religion and culture. If the subversion and containment were invisible to Harriot, he would be merely an agent of hegemony. It is not unlikely that Harriot wholeheartedly believed that England and its people were blessed by the only true Christian God, that the very fact that he was born into the bourgeoisie provided his intellectual (and divine) superiority - in which case he would have been acting out of compassion.
Calculated production of subversion:
During Columbus's fourth voyage, the natives began aggression towards the invaders. Columbus, after consulting his calendars warned that God would demonstrate his favour towards the Europeans. Only he knew that a solar eclipse was to shortly occur. This subverted the natives' belief system.
Application as Theatrical Theory:
Greenblatt originally wrote of this theory in its application to theatre. He applied it extensively to Shakespeare's Henry IV, Part 1, Henry IV, Part 2 and Henry V, but has largely been disputed in his initial findings.Stephen Weeks, in his essay The Question of Liz: Staging the Prisoner in 'Our Country's Good' applied the Theory to Timberlake Wertenbaker's Our Country's Good. Here, Weeks chronicles the Machiavellian connotations shadowing the teaching of 'high' language to a group of convicts. The convicts have their own codes and culture. They are offered the chance to take part in a theatrical performance, which gives them 'high language' that can be used to get them out of trouble. The language, however, is packaged with parts of culture which eventually causes them to betray their own culture and dreams. On the surface, Our Country's Good is a play about people discovering art but Weeks exposes this as an empirical act of production and containment and subversion. Again it is ambiguous whether the English officer is callously converting the convicts or whether he is merely an agent of English imperial hegemony attempting benevolence.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Lens board**
Lens board:
A lens board or lensboard is a photographic part used for securing a lens to the front standard of a large format view camera. The lens board itself is usually flat, square, and made of metal (most commonly aluminum), wood, or plastic. The lens board will have a hole of various diameters drilled dead center on the board. A lens board typically varies between 1 and 4 millimeters in thickness. The overall size and shape of the lens board depends on the brand of camera and film format used. Some cameras will use 2 to 4 screws to secure the lens board to the front standard of the view camera, most commonly however, the lens board will be secured by one or more locking levers or tabs to allow tool-less removal of the lens board. The rear surface of a lens board is usually painted matte black to keep light entering the camera through the lens during exposure from reflecting off the surface and interfering with the projected image.
Lens board:
While most lens boards are flat, some are recessed to accommodate wider focal length lenses which must be positioned closer to the film plane. A recessed lens board effectively reduces the flange focal distance of a camera.
Sizes:
Depending on the size and focal length of a particular lens, a certain diameter of hole is drilled in the center of the lens board to accommodate the shutter assembly. Lens boards are typically available pre-drilled by the camera manufacturer, however, if no replacement lens board is available from a camera manufacturer, then one can be custom fabricated by a machinist. Nearly all large format leaf shutters made since the 1990s are manufactured by the Nidec Copal Corporation, therefore the diameter of hole drilled is commonly referred to as the ‘Copal Number’.
Sizes:
The Copal sizes are as follows: Copal #0 - 34.6 mm Copal #1 - 41.6 mm Copal #3 – 65 mm Copal #3s - 64.5 mmThe origin Compur/Compound sizes are as follows: Compur #00 - 26.3 mm Compur #0 - 34.6 mm Compur #1 - 41.6 mm Compur #2 - 52.5 mm (there were different versions like Compur II and Compur II 5/2) Compur #3 - 65.0 mm Compound Dagor - 38.0 mm Compound #3 Hülse 7 - 63.2 mm Compound #4 Hülse 9 - 69.1 mm Compound #4 Hülse 10 - 80.0 mm Compound #5 Hülse 12 - 93.4 mm
Lens mounting:
Lenses are fitted to a lens board by placing the shutter assembly through the front of the board and securing the shutter assembly by threading a locknut to rear of the shutter. A front lens element will thread onto the mounted shutter and if necessary, a second lens element will thread onto the rear of the mounted shutter. This procedure can be accomplished by a camera technician, or by an end-user with the appropriate tools.
Other uses:
Lens boards are used in photographic enlargers to secure an enlarging lens to the focus stage of the device.
Similar to large format photographic view cameras, a lens board is utilized by some reprographic cameras in the printing industry.
Lens boards may also be used by some medical and scientific imaging devices.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Mir-671 microRNA precursor family**
Mir-671 microRNA precursor family:
In molecular biology mir-671 microRNA is a short RNA molecule. MicroRNAs function to regulate the expression levels of other genes by several mechanisms.
Alcoholic and Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease:
miR-671 expression levels have been found to be vary significantly between the alcoholic and non-alcoholic forms of fatty liver disease.
CDR1 regulation:
miR-671 has been seen to negatively regulate the CDR1 (Cerebellar Degeneration-Related protein 1) gene, through the targeting and cleavage of a circular antisense transcript of the CDR1 locus. There is a partnered decrease in CDR1 mRNA levels with this downregulation.
FN1 repression:
miR-671 is able to bind to and repress fibronection type 1 (FN1) mRNA at its 3'untranslated region binding site.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Saturated set**
Saturated set:
In mathematics, particularly in the subfields of set theory and topology, a set C is said to be saturated with respect to a function f:X→Y if C is a subset of f 's domain X and if whenever f sends two points c∈C and x∈X to the same value then x belongs to C (that is, if f(x)=f(c) then x∈C ). Said more succinctly, the set C is called saturated if C=f−1(f(C)).
Saturated set:
In topology, a subset of a topological space (X,τ) is saturated if it is equal to an intersection of open subsets of X.
In a T1 space every set is saturated.
Definition:
Preliminaries Let f:X→Y be a map. Given any subset S⊆X, define its image under f to be the set: and define its preimage or inverse image under f to be the set: Given y∈Y, the fiber of f over y is defined to be the preimage: Any preimage of a single point in f 's codomain Y is referred to as a fiber of f.
Definition:
Saturated sets A set C is called f -saturated and is said to be saturated with respect to f if C is a subset of f 's domain X and if any of the following equivalent conditions are satisfied: C=f−1(f(C)).
There exists a set S such that C=f−1(S).
Any such set S necessarily contains f(C) as a subset and moreover, it will also necessarily satisfy the equality Im f, where Im := f(X) denotes the image of f.
If c∈C and x∈X satisfy f(x)=f(c), then x∈C.
If y∈Y is such that the fiber f−1(y) intersects C (that is, if f−1(y)∩C≠∅ ), then this entire fiber is necessarily a subset of C (that is, f−1(y)⊆C ).
For every y∈Y, the intersection C∩f−1(y) is equal to the empty set ∅ or to f−1(y).
Examples:
Let f:X→Y be any function. If S is any set then its preimage := f−1(S) under f is necessarily an f -saturated set. In particular, every fiber of a map f is an f -saturated set. The empty set ∅=f−1(∅) and the domain X=f−1(Y) are always saturated. Arbitrary unions of saturated sets are saturated, as are arbitrary intersections of saturated sets.
Properties:
Let S and T be any sets and let f:X→Y be any function. If S or T is f -saturated then If T is f -saturated then where note, in particular, that no requirements or conditions were placed on the set S.
If τ is a topology on X and f:X→Y is any map then set τf of all U∈τ that are saturated subsets of X forms a topology on X.
If Y is also a topological space then f:(X,τ)→Y is continuous (respectively, a quotient map) if and only if the same is true of f:(X,τf)→Y.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Avaya ERS 5600 Series**
Avaya ERS 5600 Series:
Ethernet Routing Switch 5600 Series or (ERS 5600) in computer networking terms are stackable routers and switches designed and manufactured by Avaya. The ERS 5600 Switches can be stacked up to 8 units high to create a 1.152 Tbit/s backplane through the Flexible Advanced Stacking Technology (FAST) stacking technology configuration. The 5600 Series consists of five stackable models that can be mixed and matched together with other ERS 5600 models or other ERS 5500 models to meet configuration requirements. Additionally the ports on the switches incorporates the Avaya Energy Saver (AES) which can manage and dim down (reduce the wattage requirements of each port and/or the PoE wattage) the power requirements to save energy across all switches in the enterprise.
Avaya ERS 5600 Series:
The switches have an integrated time-domain reflectometer (TDR) built into every copper port, providing the ability to accomplish diagnostic monitoring and troubleshooting capabilities of the connected cables. This allows the equipment manager the ability to test and troubleshoot the cables for defects (crimped, cut, shorted or damaged cables) without going out to the switch room to test the cables from the switch to the end equipment. The tests can be accomplished on a single port or on multiple ports at the same time. The test can be accomplished through the command line or through one of several Graphical user interfaces called Device Manager (DM), Java Device Manager (JDM) or Enterprise Device Manager (EDM).
History:
In 2008 this Switch became available with the software release 6.0, which could be loaded on the newer 5600 models or the original 5500 models. The developmental history of this system extends back to the BayStack 5000 family shortly after the technology was bought from Bay Networks. Software version 6.0 added PIM-SM and Dual Agents. In June 2009 Software version 6.1 was released removing the licensing requirements for the IP Flow Information Export {IPFIX} feature, added force stack mode, and several security features. In July 2010 software version 6.2 became available adding Avaya Energy Saver, Bi-directional monitor port, and environmental commands.
History:
In March 2011 the Australian Department of Defense began deploying these Switches as routing and switching platforms within the Wiring Closet, Data Center aggregation and network core. In December 2011 this system completed evaluation and certification by the U.S. Joint Interoperability Test Command (JITC) testing center for use in the United States Department of Defense as an Assured Services Local Area Network (ASLAN).In July 2017 Extreme Networks acquired all of Avaya's core networking business, including the ERS 5600 series of switches.
System Scaling:
Systems scaling is accomplished by stacking up to eight of the ERS 5632FD units to provide up to 64 ports of 10-gigabit ethernet through XFP transceivers and 192 ports of 1000BASE-X Small form-factor pluggable transceivers; or stacking four ERS 5698TFD units to provide up to 8 ports of 10-gigabit Ethernet through XFP transceivers modules and 24 ports of 1000BASE-X Small form-factor pluggable transceivers and 144 ports of copper 10/100/1000BASE-T; or stacking eight ERS 5650TD units to provide 16 ports of 10-gigabit ethernet through XFP transceivers and 384 ports of copper 10/100/1000BASE-T connections. The ERS 5600 also has the ability to mix any combination of Switches of up to 8 units or up to 384 ports, whichever is reached first.
Models:
The specific models are the ERS 5632, 5650 and 5698 and the below table identifies the ports on each Switch.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Load–store architecture**
Load–store architecture:
In computer engineering, a load–store architecture (or a register–register architecture) is an instruction set architecture that divides instructions into two categories: memory access (load and store between memory and registers) and ALU operations (which only occur between registers).: 9–12 Some RISC architectures such as PowerPC, SPARC, RISC-V, ARM, and MIPS are load–store architectures.: 9–12 For instance, in a load–store approach both operands and destination for an ADD operation must be in registers. This differs from a register–memory architecture (for example, a CISC instruction set architecture such as x86) in which one of the operands for the ADD operation may be in memory, while the other is in a register.: 9–12 The earliest example of a load–store architecture was the CDC 6600.: 54–56 Almost all vector processors (including many GPUs) use the load–store approach.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Automorphic Forms on GL(2)**
Automorphic Forms on GL(2):
Automorphic Forms on GL(2) is a mathematics book by H. Jacquet and Robert Langlands (1970) where they rewrite Erich Hecke's theory of modular forms in terms of the representation theory of GL(2) over local fields and adele rings of global fields and prove the Jacquet–Langlands correspondence. A second volume by Jacquet (1972) gives an interpretation of some results by Rankin and Selberg in terms of the representation theory of GL(2) × GL(2).
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Crushed red pepper**
Crushed red pepper:
Crushed red pepper or red pepper flakes is a condiment or spice consisting of dried and crushed (as opposed to ground) red chili peppers. This condiment is most often produced from cayenne-type peppers, although commercial producers may use a variety of different cultivars, usually within the 30,000–50,000 Scoville unit range. Often there is a high ratio of seeds, which are erroneously believed to contain the most heat. Crushed red pepper is used by food manufacturers in pickling blends, chowders, spaghetti sauce, pizza sauce, soups and sausage.
Crushed red pepper:
Crushed red pepper in Turkey, served as a common condiment with very few seeds, is known as pul biber. One specially prepared variety of it is the urfa pul biber (isot).
Background:
Crushed red pepper, known for its spicy heat, comes with a range of capsicum peppers. Red pepper chilis originally start off green before ripening into an orange-red to deep dark red color and are best grown in the summer months—between 70–84 °F (21–29 °C) and sunny weather. One or multiple red chile peppers—up to four cultivars—can be used to create crushed red pepper. Jalapeños, serranos and Anaheim chilis are some of the most commonly used chilies to make crushed red pepper. Crushed red pepper are frequently found in a variety of dishes including Italian, Indian, Mexican and Caribbean.Over time, crushed red pepper loses its spiciness level and typically lasts up to 12 to 18 months. Today, China and Turkey are among the top countries to produce crushed red pepper.
History:
Red chili peppers, which are a part of the Solanaceae (nightshade) family, were first found in Central and South America and have been harvested for use since about 7,500 BC. Spanish explorers were introduced to the pepper while on a search for black pepper. Once brought back to Europe, the red peppers were traded in Asian countries and were enjoyed primarily by Indian cooks. The village of Bukovo, North Macedonia, is often credited with the creation of crushed red pepper. The name of the village—or a derivative of it—is now used as a name for crushed red pepper in general in many Southeast European languages: "буковска пипер/буковец" (bukovska piper/bukovec, Macedonian), "bukovka" (Serbo-Croatian and Slovene) and "μπούκοβο" (boukovo, búkovo, Greek).
History:
Southern Italians popularized crushed red pepper beginning in the 19th century and heavily used them in the U.S. when they migrated over. Crushed red pepper was served with dishes at some of the oldest Italian restaurants in the U.S. Crushed red pepper shakers have become a standard on tables at Mediterranean restaurants—and especially pizzerias—around the world.
Health benefits:
The source of bright red color that the peppers hold comes from carotenoids. Crushed red pepper also has antioxidants that are thought to help fight off heart disease and cancer. In addition, crushed red pepper contains fiber, capsaicin—the source of the heat in pepper chilis—and vitamins A, C, and B6. Capsaicin is believed to help kill off prostate cancer cells, to serve as an appetite suppressant which can contribute to weight loss, to improve digestion, and to help prevent diabetes and constipation.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Vapor-compression refrigeration**
Vapor-compression refrigeration:
Vapour-compression refrigeration or vapor-compression refrigeration system (VCRS), in which the refrigerant undergoes phase changes, is one of the many refrigeration cycles and is the most widely used method for air conditioning of buildings and automobiles. It is also used in domestic and commercial refrigerators, large-scale warehouses for chilled or frozen storage of foods and meats, refrigerated trucks and railroad cars, and a host of other commercial and industrial services. Oil refineries, petrochemical and chemical processing plants, and natural gas processing plants are among the many types of industrial plants that often utilize large vapor-compression refrigeration systems. Cascade refrigeration systems may also be implemented using two compressors.
Vapor-compression refrigeration:
Refrigeration may be defined as lowering the temperature of an enclosed space by removing heat from that space and transferring it elsewhere. A device that performs this function may also be called an air conditioner, refrigerator, air source heat pump, geothermal heat pump, or chiller (heat pump).
Description:
Vapor-compression uses a circulating liquid refrigerant as the medium which absorbs and removes heat from the space to be cooled and subsequently rejects that heat elsewhere. Figure 1 depicts a typical, single-stage vapor-compression system. All such systems have four components: a compressor, a condenser, a metering device or thermal expansion valve (also called a throttle valve), and an evaporator. Circulating refrigerant enters the compressor in the thermodynamic state known as a saturated vapor and is compressed to a higher pressure, resulting in a higher temperature as well. The hot, compressed vapor is then in the thermodynamic state known as a superheated vapor and it is at a temperature and pressure at which it can be condensed with either cooling water or cooling air flowing across the coil or tubes.
Description:
The superheated vapor then passes through the condenser. This is where heat is transferred from the circulating refrigerant to an external medium, allowing the gaseous refrigerant to cool and condense into a liquid. The rejected heat is carried away by either the water or the air, depending on the type of condenser.
Description:
The condensed liquid refrigerant, in the thermodynamic state known as a saturated liquid, is next routed through an expansion valve where it undergoes an abrupt reduction in pressure. That pressure reduction results in the adiabatic flash evaporation of a part of the liquid refrigerant. The auto-refrigeration effect of the adiabatic flash evaporation lowers the temperature of the liquid and vapor refrigerant mixture to where it is colder than the temperature of the enclosed space to be refrigerated.
Description:
The cold refrigerant liquid and vapor mixture is then routed through the coil or tubes in the evaporator. Air in the enclosed space circulates across the coil or tubes due to either thermal convection or a fan. Since the air is warmer than the cold liquid refrigerant, heat is transferred which cools the air and causes evaporation of the liquid, returning it to a gaseous state whilst absorbing heat. While liquid remains in the refrigerant flow, its temperature will not rise above the boiling point of the refrigerant, which depends on the pressure in the evaporator. Most systems are designed to evaporate all of the refrigerant to ensure that no liquid is returned to the compressor.
Description:
To complete the refrigeration cycle, the refrigerant vapor from the evaporator is again a saturated vapor and is routed back into the compressor. Over time, the evaporator may collect ice or water from ambient humidity. The ice is melted through defrosting. The water from the melted ice or the evaporator then drips into a drip pan, and the water is carried away by gravity or a condensate pump.
Description:
Refrigerants The selection of working fluid has a significant impact on the performance of the refrigeration cycles and as such it plays a key role when it comes to designing or simply choosing an ideal machine for a certain task. One of the most widespread refrigerants is "Freon". Freon is a trade name for a family of haloalkane refrigerants manufactured by DuPont and other companies. These refrigerants were commonly used due to their superior stability and safety properties: they were not flammable at room temperature and atmospheric pressure, nor obviously toxic as were the fluids they replaced, such as sulfur dioxide. Haloalkanes are also an order(s) of magnitude more expensive than petroleum-derived flammable alkanes of similar or better cooling performance.
Description:
Unfortunately, chlorine- and fluorine-bearing refrigerants reach the upper atmosphere when they escape. In the stratosphere, substances like CFCs and HCFCs break up due to UV radiation, releasing their chlorine free-radicals. These chlorine free-radicals act as catalysts in the breakdown of ozone through chain reactions. One CFC molecule can cause thousands of ozone molecules to break down. This causes severe damage to the ozone layer that shields the Earth's surface from the Sun's strong UV radiation and has been shown to lead to increased rates of skin cancer. The chlorine will remain active as a catalyst until and unless it binds with another particle, forming a stable molecule. CFC refrigerants in common but receding usage include R-11 and R-12.
Description:
Newer refrigerants that have reduced ozone depletion effects compared to CFCs have replaced most CFC use. Examples include HCFCs (such as R-22, used in most homes) and HFCs (such as R-134a, used in most cars). HCFCs in turn are being phased out under the Montreal Protocol and replaced by hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), which do not contain chlorine atoms. However, CFCs, HCFCs, and HFCs all have very large global warming potential (GWP).
Description:
More benign refrigerants are currently the subject of research, such as supercritical carbon dioxide, known as R-744. These have similar efficiencies compared to existing CFC- and HFC-based compounds, and have many orders of magnitude lower global warming potential. General industry and governing body push are toward more GWP-friendly refrigerants. In industrial settings ammonia, as well gasses like ethylene, propane, iso-butane and other hydrocarbons are commonly used (and have own R-x customary numbers), depending on required temperatures and pressures. Many of these gases are unfortunately flammable, explosive, or toxic; making their use restricted (i.e. well-controlled environment by qualified personnel, or a very small amount of refrigerant used). HFOs which can be considered to be HFC with some carbon-carbon bonds being double bounds, do show promise of lowering GWP very low to be of no further concern. In the meantime, various blends of existing refrigerants are used to achieve the required properties and efficiency, at a reasonable cost and lower GWP.
Thermodynamic analysis of the system:
The thermodynamics of the vapor compression cycle can be analyzed on a temperature versus entropy diagram as depicted in Figure 2. At point 1 in the diagram, the circulating refrigerant enters the compressor as a low-temperature, low-pressure saturated vapor. From point 1 to point 2, the vapor is isentropically compressed (compressed at constant entropy) and exits the compressor as a high-pressure, high-temperature superheated vapor. Superheat is the amount of sensible heat added to the vapor above its saturation point, i.e. its boiling point.
Thermodynamic analysis of the system:
From point 2 to point 3, the vapor travels through part of the condenser which removes the superheat by cooling the vapor. Between point 3 and point 4, the vapor travels through the remainder of the condenser and is condensed into a high-temperature, high-pressure subcooled liquid. Subcool is the amount of sensible heat removed from the liquid below its maximum saturation. The condensation process occurs at essentially constant pressure.
Thermodynamic analysis of the system:
Between points 4 and 5, the subcooled liquid refrigerant passes through the expansion valve and undergoes an abrupt decrease of pressure. That process results in the adiabatic flash evaporation and auto-refrigeration of a portion of the liquid (typically, less than half of the liquid flashes). The adiabatic flash evaporation process is isenthalpic (occurs at constant enthalpy).
Thermodynamic analysis of the system:
Between points 5 and 1, the cold and partially vaporized refrigerant travels through the coil or tubes in the evaporator where it is totally vaporized by the warm air (from the space being refrigerated) that a fan circulates across the coil or tubes in the evaporator. The evaporator operates at essentially constant pressure and boils off all available liquid after adding 4–8 kelvins of superheat to the refrigerant in order to make sure the liquid has evaporated completely. This is a safeguard for the compressor, as it cannot pump liquid.
Thermodynamic analysis of the system:
The resulting superheated vapor returns to the compressor inlet at point 1 to complete the thermodynamic cycle.
The above discussion is based on the ideal vapor-compression refrigeration cycle which does not take into account real world items like frictional pressure drop in the system, slight internal irreversibility during the compression of the refrigerant vapor, or non-ideal gas behavior (if any).
Types of gas compressors:
The most common compressors used in refrigeration are reciprocating and scroll compressors, but large chillers or industrial cycles may use rotary screw or centrifugal compressors. Each application prefers one or another due to size, noise, efficiency, and pressure issues. Compressors are often described as being either open, hermetic, or semi-hermetic, to describe how the compressor and/or motor is situated in relation to the refrigerant being compressed. Variations of motor/compressor types can lead to the following configurations: Hermetic motor, hermetic compressor Hermetic motor, semi-hermetic compressor Open motor (belt driven or close coupled), hermetic compressor Open motor (belt driven or close coupled), semi-hermetic compressorTypically in hermetic, and most semi-hermetic compressors (sometimes known as accessible hermetic compressors), the compressor and motor driving the compressor are integrated, and operate within the refrigerant system. The motor is hermetic and is designed to operate, and be cooled by, the refrigerant being compressed. The obvious disadvantage of hermetic motor compressors is that the motor drive cannot be maintained in situ, and the entire compressor must be removed if a motor fails. A further disadvantage is that burnt out windings can contaminate whole refrigeration systems requiring the system to be entirely pumped down, and the refrigerant replaced.
Types of gas compressors:
An open compressor has a motor drive which is outside of the refrigeration system, and provides drive to the compressor by means of an input shaft with suitable gland seals. Open compressor motors are typically air-cooled and can be fairly easily exchanged or repaired without degassing of the refrigeration system. The disadvantage of this type of compressor is a failure of the shaft seals, leading to loss of refrigerant.
Types of gas compressors:
Open motor compressors are generally easier to cool (using ambient air) and therefore tend to be simpler in design and more reliable, especially in high pressure applications where compressed gas temperatures can be very high. However the use of liquid injection for additional cooling can generally overcome this issue in most hermetic motor compressors.
Reciprocating compressors Reciprocating compressors are piston-style, positive displacement compressors.
Rotary screw compressors Rotary screw compressors are also positive displacement compressors. Two meshing screw-rotors rotate in opposite directions, trapping refrigerant vapor, and reducing the volume of the refrigerant along the rotors to the discharge point.
Small units are not practical due to back-leakage but large units have very high efficiency and flow capacity.
Centrifugal compressors Centrifugal compressors are dynamic compressors. These compressors raise the pressure of the refrigerant by imparting velocity or dynamic energy, using a rotating impeller, and converting it to pressure energy.
Types of gas compressors:
Centrifugal Compressor Surge Chillers with centrifugal compressors have a 'Centrifugal Compressor Map' that shows the "surge line" and the "choke line." For the same capacity ratings, across a wider span of operating conditions, chillers with the larger diameter lower-speed compressor have a wider 'Centrifugal Compressor Map' and experience surge conditions less than those with the smaller diameter, less expensive, higher-speed compressors. The smaller diameter, higher-speed compressors have a flatter curve.,As the refrigerant flow rate decreases, some compressors change the gap between the impeller and the volute to maintain the correct velocity to avoid surge conditions.
Types of gas compressors:
Scroll compressors Scroll compressors are also positive displacement compressors. The refrigerant is compressed when one spiral orbits around a second stationary spiral, creating smaller and smaller pockets and higher pressures. By the time the refrigerant is discharged, it is fully pressurized.
Others
Compressor lubrication:
In order to lubricate the moving parts of the compressor, oil is added to the refrigerant during installation or commissioning. The type of oil may be mineral or synthetic to suit the compressor type, and also chosen so as not to react with the refrigerant type and other components in the system. In small refrigeration systems the oil is allowed to circulate throughout the whole circuit, but care must be taken to design the pipework and components such that oil can drain back under gravity to the compressor. In larger more distributed systems, especially in retail refrigeration, the oil is normally captured at an oil separator immediately after the compressor, and is in turn re-delivered, by an oil level management system, back to the compressor(s). Oil separators are not 100% efficient so system pipework must still be designed so that oil can drain back by gravity to the oil separator or compressor.
Compressor lubrication:
Some newer compressor technologies use magnetic bearings or air bearings and require no lubrication, for example the Danfoss Turbocor range of centrifugal compressors. Avoiding the need for oil lubrication and the design requirements and ancillaries associated with it, simplifies the design of the refrigerant system, increases the heat transfer coefficient in evaporators and condensers, eliminates the risk of refrigerant being contaminated with oil, and reduces maintenance requirements.
Control:
In simple commercial refrigeration systems the compressor is normally controlled by a simple pressure switch, with the expansion performed by a capillary tube or thermal expansion valve. In more complex systems, including multiple compressor installations, the use of electronic controls is typical, with adjustable set points to control the pressure at which compressors cut in and cut out, and temperature control by the use of electronic expansion valves.
Control:
In addition to the operational controls, separate high-pressure and low-pressure switches are normally utilised to provide secondary protection to the compressors and other components of the system from operating outside of safe parameters.
In more advanced electronic control systems the use of floating head pressure, and proactive suction pressure, control routines allow the compressor operation to be adjusted to accurately meet differing cooling demands while reducing energy consumption.
Other features and facts of interest:
The schematic diagram of a single-stage refrigeration system shown in Figure 1 does not include other equipment items that would be provided in a large commercial or industrial vapor compression refrigeration system, such as: A horizontal or vertical pressure vessel, equipped internally with a demister, between the evaporator and the compressor inlet to capture and remove any residual, entrained liquid in the refrigerant vapor because liquid may damage the compressor. Such vapor-liquid separators are most often referred to as "suction line accumulators". (In other industrial processes, they are called "compressor suction drums" or "knockout pots".) Large commercial or industrial refrigeration systems may have multiple expansion valves and multiple evaporators in order to refrigerate multiple enclosed spaces or rooms. In such systems, the condensed liquid refrigerant may be routed into a pressure vessel, called a receiver, from which liquid refrigerant is withdrawn and routed through multiple pipelines to the multiple expansion valves and evaporators.
Other features and facts of interest:
Filter Dryers, installed before the compressors to catch any moisture or contaminants in the system and thus protect the compressors from internal damage Some refrigeration units may have multiple stages which requires the use of multiple compressors in various arrangements.In most of the world, the cooling capacity of refrigeration systems is measured in watts. Common residential air conditioning units range in capacity from 3.5 to 18 kilowatt. In a few countries it is measured in "tons of refrigeration", with common residential air conditioning units from about 1 to 5 tons of refrigeration.
Economic analysis:
Advantages Very mature technology.
Relatively inexpensive.
Can be driven directly using mechanical energy (water, car or truck motor) or with electrical energy.
Economic analysis:
Efficient up to 60% of Carnot's theoretical limit (as evaluated in ASHRAE testing conditions: evaporation temperature of −23.3 °C, condensing temperature of 54.4 °C, and ambient temperature of 32 °C) based on some of the best commercially available compressors, as produced by manufacturers Danfoss, Matsushita, Copeland, Embraco, Bristol, and Tecumseh. However, many refrigeration systems use compressors that have lower efficiencies of between 40 and 55%, since the 60% efficient ones cost almost twice as much as the lower efficiency ones.
Economic analysis:
Disadvantages Many systems still use HCFC refrigerants, which contribute to depletion of the Earth's ozone layer. In countries adhering to the Montreal Protocol, HCFCs are due to be phased out and are largely being replaced by ozone-friendly HFCs. However, systems using HFC refrigerants tend to be slightly less efficient than systems using HCFCs. HFCs also have an extremely large global warming potential, because they remain in the atmosphere for many years and trap heat more effectively than carbon dioxide.
Economic analysis:
With the ultimate phasing out of HCFCs already a certainty, alternative non-haloalkane refrigerants are gaining popularity. In particular, once-abandoned refrigerants such as hydrocarbons (butane for example) and CO2 are coming back into more extensive use. For example, Coca-Cola's vending machines at the 2006 FIFA World Cup in Germany used refrigeration utilizing CO2. Ammonia (NH3) is one of the oldest refrigerants, with excellent performance and essentially no pollution problems. However, ammonia has two disadvantages: it is toxic and it is incompatible with copper tubing.
History:
In 1805, the American inventor Oliver Evans described a closed vapor-compression refrigeration cycle for the production of ice by ether under vacuum. Heat would be removed from the environment by recycling vaporized refrigerant, where it would move through a compressor and condenser, and would eventually revert to a liquid form in order to repeat the refrigeration process over again. However, no such refrigeration unit was built by Evans.In 1834, an American expatriate to Great Britain, Jacob Perkins, built the first working vapor-compression refrigeration system in the world. It was a closed-cycle that could operate continuously, as he described in his patent: I am enabled to use volatile fluids for the purpose of producing the cooling or freezing of fluids, and yet at the same time constantly condensing such volatile fluids, and bringing them again into operation without waste.His prototype system worked although it did not succeed commercially.A similar attempt was made in 1842, by American physician, John Gorrie, who built a working prototype, but it was a commercial failure. American engineer Alexander Twining took out a British patent in 1850 for a vapor compression system that used ether.
History:
The first practical vapor compression refrigeration system was built by James Harrison, a British journalist who had emigrated to Australia. His 1856 patent was for a vapor compression system using ether, alcohol or ammonia. He built a mechanical ice-making machine in 1851 on the banks of the Barwon River at Rocky Point in Geelong, Victoria, and his first commercial ice-making machine followed in 1854. Harrison also introduced commercial vapor-compression refrigeration to breweries and meat packing houses and, by 1861, a dozen of his systems were in operation in Australia and England.
History:
The first gas absorption refrigeration system using gaseous ammonia dissolved in water (referred to as "aqua ammonia") was developed by Ferdinand Carré of France in 1859 and patented in 1860. Carl von Linde, an engineering professor at the Technological University Munich in Germany, patented an improved method of liquefying gases in 1876. His new process made possible using gases such as ammonia, sulfur dioxide SO2, and methyl chloride (CH3Cl) as refrigerants and they were widely used for that purpose until the late 1920s.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Rockslide**
Rockslide:
A rockslide is a type of landslide caused by rock failure in which part of the bedding plane of failure passes through compacted rock and material collapses en masse and not in individual blocks. Note that a rockslide is similar to an avalanche because they are both slides of debris that can bury a piece of land. While a landslide occurs when loose dirt or sediment falls down a slope, a rockslide occurs only when solid rocks are transported down slope. The rocks tumble downhill, loosening other rocks on their way and smashing everything in their path. Fast-flowing rock slides or debris slides behave similarly to snow avalanches, and are often referred to as rock avalanches or debris avalanches.
Definition:
The term landslide refers to a variety of mass wasting events (geologic slope failures) that include slumps, slides, falls, and flows. The two major types of slides are rotational slides and translational slides. Rockslides are a type of translational event since the rock mass moves along a roughly planar surface with little rotation or backward tilting. Rock slides are the most dangerous form of mass-wasting because they incorporate a sudden, incredibly fast-paced release of bedrock along a uniform plane of weakness. These uniform weaknesses are key to identifying rock slides because unlike slumps, flows, or falls, the failed material moves in a fairly uniform direction over a layer of solid, pre-existing rock. Rock may break down while falling during rockslides. The sudden, rapid release of material found in rock slides combined with the sheer size and weight of the material that is falling is what gives these events the potential to have devastating effects on human life and infrastructure. Rock slides are very common in the over steepened canyons and drainages of Idaho, particularly in those areas like the Salmon River Canyon where more than 5,000 feet of elevation may exist between the ridge tops and the canyon bottoms.
Causes:
Mass-wasting occurs whenever the gravitational force on the rock exceeds the ability of the slope to resist that force. Therefore, anything that erodes or impedes the mountain's ability to resist this force may be one of the causes of mass-wasting. While a major event such as an earthquake can cause large rockslides to happen, a majority of slides occur due to a combination of gravitational pressure and erosional influences.
Causes:
Amongst these erosional properties, water is arguably the most effective geologic agent that causes mass-wasting events to occur. Water aids in the downslope movement of surface material by adding weight to the soil and by filling pores which tends to push apart individual grains, decreasing the resistance of the material to movement. While these processes can cause a slide to happen, the speed and potential devastation of a rockslide is often determined by the severity of steepness presented by the failing slope.
Disaster prevention:
With increasing populations in rural areas around the world, the hazards presented by potential rock slides are becoming more of a pressing issue moving forward. Luckily, individuals working in the fields of geologic science and engineering continue to perfect methods of rock slide detection, assessment, and warning. New earth observation tools have supplied a much enhanced ability to detect potential rock slide hazards. Analysis of sequential InSAR and LiDAR data provides a very valuable regional view of slope movement. Once susceptible areas are discovered, detailed analysis can be carried out at the specific site. These assessments are used to determine the amount of material that will be released as well as the speed at which this material will be transported.
Disaster prevention:
Once a site is deemed hazardous, different types of geologic engineering techniques are used in order to prevent the compromised slope from failing. Some of these designs are listed below.
Disaster prevention:
Wire meshing A corrosion resistant material that is installed at the crest and foot of the slope. This insures that any falling debris is trapped behind the mesh.Retaining walls One of the oldest forms of ground engineering, retaining walls are built in order to neutralize the effects of unstable slopes by holding fallen rocks and soil back from roads and other structures.Soil nailing An economical method of constructing a form of retaining wall from the top of a slope down. In this process closely spaced steel tendons are drilled into the soil. These nails significantly increase the cohesion of soil through the ability of these rods to carry tensile loads. these steel beams are usually reinforced through the use of welded wire mesh.Rock bolting Rock bolts are always a primary means of reinforcement, Bolts are placed in a specific pattern in order to transfer the faces load from the slopes exterior, to its interior.
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**Fresh water skin disease**
Fresh water skin disease:
Fresh water skin disease (FWSD) is a disease of marine cetaceans in coastal and estuarine environments, caused when they are exposed for extended periods to water with lower than normal levels of salt (hypo-saline). It has been observed in dolphins that were displaced into freshwater lakes, and in normally-salty lakes and estuaries where salinity has dropped suddenly due to flooding or storm runoff.The symptoms are widespread skin lesions and ulcers. Circular lesions can resemble cetacean pox, which is more common in juveniles. Chronic lesions may have overgrowths of algal and/or fungal mats. Extended exposure can lead to over-hydration, electrolyte imbalance, and organ failure.The syndrome has been observed particularly with bottlenose dolphins Tursiops truncatus in Lake Pontchartrain, Louisiana from 2007, thought to have been trapped by Hurricane Katrina in 2005; with T. australis at Gippsland Lakes in 2007; with T. aduncus at the Swan Canning Riverpark (Swan and Canning rivers) in 2009; and with T. truncatus in Texas following Hurricane Harvey in 2017. In the Gippsland Lakes, the sudden decrease in salinity followed a slow build-up during ten years of drought. Plaques or ulcers have also been observed in the Chilean dolphin (Cephalorhynchus eutropia) in Patagonia, Guiana dolphins (Sotalia guianensis) in Brazil, and a pair of a humpback whales (Megaptera novaengliae) in northern California. The histology and pathology from dolphins that died in the 2007 and 2009 Australian events was published in 2020, with the name "fresh water skin disease".
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**Half knot**
Half knot:
Half knot may refer to the overhand knot, as it forms the first half of a reef knot, thief knot, granny knot, grief knot, or: Half-Windsor knot Half blood knot Half hitch (Two half-hitches)
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**Fondant potatoes**
Fondant potatoes:
Fondant potatoes, or pommes fondant, is a method of preparing potatoes that traditionally involves cutting them into cylinders, browning the ends, and then slowly roasting the potatoes in butter and stock.
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**Cefditoren**
Cefditoren:
Cefditoren, also known as cefditoren pivoxil is an antibiotic used to treat infections caused by Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria that are resistant to other antibiotics. It is mainly used for treatment of community acquired pneumonia. It is taken by mouth and is in the cephalosporin family of antibiotics, which is part of the broader beta-lactam group of antibiotics.
Structure:
Like other cephalosporins, cefditoren has a β-lactam ring at the 7 position of cephalosporin ring that is responsible for its inhibitory action on bacterial cell wall synthesis. In addition to the cephem nucleus common to all cephalosporins, cefditoren has an aminothiazole group that enhances its activity against Gram-negative organisms, a methylthiazole group that enhances its activity against Gram-positive organisms, a methoxyimino group that gives it stability against β-lactamases, and a pivoxil ester group that enhances oral bioavailability.
Antimicrobial activity:
The spectrum of cefditoren includes both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacterial species. It has strong antimicrobial activity because of its high affinity for penicillin binding protein 2X, which responsible for cephalosporin resistance when mutated. Cefditoren pivoxil high intrinsic activity against Streptococcus pneumoniae, including penicillin-resistant strains. Cefditoren holds a balanced antimicrobial spectrum that includes the three major pathogens of community-acquired lower-respiratory tract infections: Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, and Moraxella catarrhalis. Aerobic Gram-positive microorganisms: Staphylococcus aureus (methicillin-susceptible strains, including β-lactamase-producing strains), Streptococcus pneumoniae, Streptococcus pyogenes Aerobic Gram-negative microorganisms: Haemophilus influenzae (including β-lactamase-producing strains), Haemophilus parainfluenzae (including β-lactamase-producing strains), Moraxella catarrhalis (including β-lactamase-producing strains.
Pharmacokinetics:
Absorption Oral bioavailability: following oral administration, cefditoren pivoxil is absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and hydrolyzed to cefditoren by esterases. Maximal plasma concentrations of cefditoren under fasting conditions average 1.8 ± 0.6 µg/mL following 200 mg dose and occur 1.5 to 3 hours following dosing. Cefditoren does not accumulate in plasma following twice daily administration to subjects with normal renal function. Under fasting conditions, the estimated absolute bioavailability of cefditoren pivoxil is approximately 14%.
Pharmacokinetics:
Distribution Binding of cefditoren to plasma proteins averages 88%, and the mean volume of distribution of cefditoren at steady state is 9.3L. Cefditoren has been shown to penetrate into bronchial mucosa, epithelial lining fluid, skin blister fluid and tonsillar tissue and clinically relevant concentrations against common pathogens are achieved in these tissues for at least 4 hours.
Metabolism and Excretion Cefditoren is predominantly eliminated by the kidneys as unchanged drug and has a renal clearance of 4.1–5.6 L/h after multiple doses; its elimination half-life is 1.5 hours.
Medical uses:
Cefditoren pivoxil is indicated to treat uncomplicated skin and skin structure infections, community-acquired pneumonia, acute bacterial exacerbation of chronic bronchitis, pharyngitis, and tonsillitis, acute maxillary sinusitis, otitis media (indications may differ in some countries).
Spectrum of bacterial susceptibility Cefditoren pivoxil has a broad spectrum of activity and has been used to treat bacterial infections of the skin and respiratory tract, including bronchitis, pneumonia, and tonsillitis. The following represents minimum inhibitory concentration data for several medically significant microorganisms.
Haemophilus influenzae: ≥0.063 – 0.25 μg/ml Staphylcoccus aureus: 0.25 – >128 μg/ml (not includes methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus) Streptococcus pyogenes: ≤0.004 – 2 μg/mlCefditoren does not have antibacterial activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
Dosage and administration:
Adults and Adolescents (≥12 Years) Community-acquired pneumonia: 400 mg twice daily for 14 days Acute bacterial exacerbation of chronic bronchitis: 400 mg twice daily for 10 days Pharyngitis/tonsillitis, otitis media, sinusitis: 200 mg twice daily for 10 days Uncomplicated skin and skin structure infections: 200 mg twice daily for 10 days Children (2 months to 12 years of age) Pneumonia, otitis media or sinusitis: 3 mg/kg/dose, 3 times a day, after meals. The dosage may be increased up to 6 mg/kg/dose as needed, but not exceed the maximum dose for adults.
Dosage and administration:
For children with diseases other than above: 3 mg/kg/dose, 3 times a day after meals. The dosage may be adjusted according to the disease or the patients age and symptoms, but not exceed the maximum dose for adults. Safety in low birth weight infants and newborns has not been established.
Pregnancy:
Pregnancy Category B Cefditoren pivoxil was not teratogenic up to the highest doses tested in rats and rabbits. In rats, this dose was 1000 mg/kg/day, which is approximately 24 times a human dose of 200 mg twice daily based on mg/m2/day. In rabbits, the highest dose tested was 90 mg/kg/day, which is approximately four times a human dose of 200 mg twice daily based on mg/m2/day. This dose produced severe maternal toxicity and resulted in fetal toxicity and abortions.
Pregnancy:
In a postnatal development study in rats, cefditoren pivoxil produced no adverse effects on postnatal survival, physical and behavioral development, learning abilities, and reproductive capability at sexual maturity when tested at doses of up to 750 mg/kg/day, the highest dose tested. This is approximately 18 times a human dose of 200 mg twice daily based on mg/m2/day. There are, however, no adequate and well-controlled studies in pregnant women. Because animal reproductive studies are not always predictive of human response, this drug should be used during pregnancy only if clearly needed.
Geriatric use:
Of the 2675 patients in clinical studies who received cefditoren pivoxil 200 mg twice daily, 308 (12%) were >65 years of age. Of the 2159 patients in clinical studies who received cefditoren pivoxil 400 mg twice daily, 307 (14%) were >65 years of age. No clinically significant differences in effectiveness or safety were observed between older and younger patients. No dose adjustments are necessary in geriatric patients with normal renal function. This drug is substantially excreted by the kidney, and the risk of toxic reactions to this drug may be greater in patients with impaired renal function. Because elderly patients are more likely to have decreased renal function, care should be taken in dose selection, and it may be useful to monitor renal function.
International approvals:
Cefditoren pivoxil is available as 200 and 400 mg tablets in the United States. It was marketed under the trade name Spectracef by Vansen Pharma Inc. Cefditoren is also marketed under the name Meiact by Meiji Seika Pharma Co., Ltd. In India it is marketed under the brand name Zostum-O by Zuventus Healthcare.
Proprietary Preparations and Countries US:Spectracef; India:Zostum-O; Japan:Meiact; Russia:Spectracef; China:Meiact; Greece:Spectracef; Indonesia:Meiact; Italy:Giasion; Mexico:Spectracef; Portugal:Meiact; Thailand:Meiact; Turkey: Cftiten, Meiact; Sefporin Spain: Spectracef, Meiact.
Contraindications:
In patients with known allergy to the cephalosporin class of antibiotics or any of its components.
Patients with carnitine deficiency or inborn errors of metabolism that may result in clinically significant carnitine deficiency, because use of cefditoren causes renal excretion of carnitine.
Safety and tolerability:
Cefditoren pivoxil is generally well-tolerated, with most adverse events being of mild-to-moderate severity and self-limiting. Gastrointestinal adverse events (e.g., diarrhoea, nausea and abdominal pain) were the most commonly reported adverse events, although they seldom led to treatment discontinuation.
Safety and tolerability:
In a post-marketing surveillance evaluating safety in 2006 children with acute otitis media treated with cefditoren (median daily dose: 10.0 mg/kg with a median total treatment period of 7 days), the incidence of adverse reactions was 1.79%, without unexpected or serious adverse drug reactions reported. The most frequent adverse drug reaction was diarrhea (1.30%) that resolved or subsided during treatment or after discontinuation or completion of therapy in all cases.
Safety and tolerability:
Data from the clinical studies carried out with cefditoren in the treatment of pharyngotonsillitis from 2007 to 2010 in Japan showed that the percentage of adverse events was very low and diarrhea was the most frequent event. In the largest study (734 children), the incidence of adverse reactions was 1.50% (11 events in 11 patients), with 3 events of diarrhea and three of hematuria in urinalysis without clinical symptoms. In a study carried out in children in Thailand comparing cefditoren (66 patients) with amoxicillin/clavulanic acid (72 patients) for 10 days in the treatment of acute bacterial rhinosinusitis, the most frequent adverse event was diarrhea, with significant (P = 0.02) differences in the percentages found for both compounds (4.5% with cefditoren vs. 18.1% for amoxicillin/clavulanic acid).
Guidelines:
Japanese Guidelines Japanese guidelines for the management of respiratory infectious diseases in children recommend cefditoren pivoxil as an initial antimicrobial therapy in children (2 months and older).
A panel of 70 pulmonologists, coordinated by 9 experts in respiratory care recommendations A consensus on appropriate prescribing in lower respiratory tract infection therapy was appraised by Delphi exercise, based on a panel of 70 pulmonologists, coordinated by a scientific committee of nine experts in respiratory medical care.
Amongst 3rd-generation oral cephalosporins, cefditoren pivoxil has the highest intrinsic activity against Streptococcus pneumoniae, penicillin-resistant strains included.
Amongst 3rd-generation oral cephalosporins, the spectrum of cefditoren is particularly balanced, includes both Gram-positive and Gram-negative species.
The experts expressed the opinion that, due to its high intrinsic activity, cefditoren appears as an appropriate agent for either the treatment of lower respiratory tract infections and for parenteral to oral switch therapy as well.
Ideal for switch therapy:
The characteristics of oral antibiotics to be considered for the switch therapy (parenteral to oral antibiotic) are: (i) similar antimicrobial spectrum, (ii) high bioavailability, (iii) administration time 12–24 hours, (iv) good tolerability The expert panel reached a high level of consensus on cefditoren pivoxil as the most appropriate option for the switch therapy from parenteral third-generation cephalosporins (like cefotaxime or ceftriaxone) to oral therapy, because of the similar spectrum and the highest intrinsic activity.
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**The Wavewatcher's Companion**
The Wavewatcher's Companion:
The Wavewatcher's Companion is a 2010 science book by Gavin Pretor-Pinney.
The book was the 2011 winner of the Royal Society Winton Prize for Science Books.
Theme:
The book is a wide-ranging discussion on waves in all their forms and how waves are such an intimate part of our lives.
Theme:
The book's topics include: waves that exist within our bodies; the waves that give rise to music and colour; the waves that drive the information age; and the waves of nature, of the earth, sea and air.As Jennifer Ouellette of the Wall Street Journal describes, Pretor-Pinney 'employs a chatty, conversational tone, with clear technical explanations enlivened by real-world examples, whimsical asides, personal anecdotes and inventive analogies' to explain his subject.
Reception:
The book was well received on its publication. Victoria Segal of The Guardian enthused that Pretor-Pinney "has the gifted teacher's knack for finding the right metaphor to hook the attention". Toby Clements of the Daily Telegraph felt it was a worthy sequel to Pretor-Pinney's previous surprise best-seller, 'The Cloudspotter's Guide.The book was the 2011 winner of the Royal Society Winton Prize for Science Books, the prestigious award for science writing.
Reception:
Richard Holmes, the Chair of judging panel, said it was a 'highly unusual and outstandingly effective piece of popular science writing and that Pretor-Pinney "had managed to use relatively straight-forward science to transform the readers' perspective of the world around them". Richard Holmes noted the importance of the award stating “Popular science is an increasingly important genre, and this is an increasingly important prize".
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