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**Erbium(III) acetate**
Erbium(III) acetate:
Erbium(III) acetate is the acetate salt of erbium, with the proposed chemical formula of Er(CH3COO)3. It can be used to synthesize some optical materials.
Physical properties:
The tetrahydrate of erbium(III) acetate is thermally decomposed at 90 °C, giving a proposed anhydride: Er(CH3COO)3·4H2O → Er(CH3COO)3 + 4 H2OContinued heating to 310 °C will form ketene: Er(CH3COO)3 → Er(OH)(CH3COO)2 + CH2=C=OAt 350 °C, the proposed Er(OH)(CH3COO)2 loses acetic acid to yield a material of the formula ErOCH3COO, forming Er2O2CO3 at 390 °C, finally obtaining Er2O3 at 590 °C. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Canon EF 35-70mm lens**
Canon EF 35-70mm lens:
The Canon EF 35-70mm f/3.5-4.5 is an EF mount wide-to-normal zoom lens. It is one of the first lenses in the Canon EF series. It has the same zoom system and 9 lenses in 8 groups layout as the Canon New FD 35-70mm f/3.5-4.5 although it is unclear whether the actual optical design is identical.
In October 1988, Canon announced the EF 35-70mm f/3.5-4.5A lens. This lens has similar physical values, but was sold at a lower price. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Sum of squares function**
Sum of squares function:
In number theory, the sum of squares function is an arithmetic function that gives the number of representations for a given positive integer n as the sum of k squares, where representations that differ only in the order of the summands or in the signs of the numbers being squared are counted as different, and is denoted by rk(n).
Definition:
The function is defined as rk(n)=|{(a1,a2,…,ak)∈Zk:n=a12+a22+⋯+ak2}| where || denotes the cardinality of a set. In other words, rk(n) is the number of ways n can be written as a sum of k squares.
For example, r2(1)=4 since 1=02+(±1)2=(±1)2+02 where each sum has two sign combinations, and also r2(2)=4 since 2=(±1)2+(±1)2 with four sign combinations. On the other hand, r2(3)=0 because there is no way to represent 3 as a sum of two squares.
Formulae:
k = 2 The number of ways to write a natural number as sum of two squares is given by r2(n). It is given explicitly by r2(n)=4(d1(n)−d3(n)) where d1(n) is the number of divisors of n which are congruent to 1 modulo 4 and d3(n) is the number of divisors of n which are congruent to 3 modulo 4. Using sums, the expression can be written as: mod 4)(−1)(d−1)/2 The prime factorization n=2gp1f1p2f2⋯q1h1q2h2⋯ , where pi are the prime factors of the form mod 4), and qi are the prime factors of the form mod 4) gives another formula r2(n)=4(f1+1)(f2+1)⋯ , if all exponents h1,h2,⋯ are even. If one or more hi are odd, then r2(n)=0 k = 3 Gauss proved that for a squarefree number n > 4, 24 if mod if mod 12 otherwise , where h(m) denotes the class number of an integer m.
Formulae:
There exist extensions of Gauss' formula to arbitrary integer n.
k = 4 The number of ways to represent n as the sum of four squares was due to Carl Gustav Jakob Jacobi and it is eight times the sum of all its divisors which are not divisible by 4, i.e.
r4(n)=8∑d∣n,4∤dd.
Representing n = 2km, where m is an odd integer, one can express r4(n) in terms of the divisor function as follows: min {k,1}m).
k = 6 The number of ways to represent n as the sum of six squares is given by r6(n)=4∑d∣nd2(4(−4n/d)−(−4d)), where (⋅⋅) is the Kronecker symbol.
k = 8 Jacobi also found an explicit formula for the case k = 8: 16 ∑d∣n(−1)n+dd3.
Generating function:
The generating function of the sequence rk(n) for fixed k can be expressed in terms of the Jacobi theta function: ϑ(0;q)k=ϑ3k(q)=∑n=0∞rk(n)qn, where 16 +⋯.
Numerical values:
The first 30 values for rk(n),k=1,…,8 are listed in the table below: | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Hilbert's tenth problem**
Hilbert's tenth problem:
Hilbert's tenth problem is the tenth on the list of mathematical problems that the German mathematician David Hilbert posed in 1900. It is the challenge to provide a general algorithm which, for any given Diophantine equation (a polynomial equation with integer coefficients and a finite number of unknowns), can decide whether the equation has a solution with all unknowns taking integer values.
Hilbert's tenth problem:
For example, the Diophantine equation 3x2−2xy−y2z−7=0 has an integer solution: x=1,y=2,z=−2 . By contrast, the Diophantine equation x2+y2+1=0 has no such solution.
Hilbert's tenth problem:
Hilbert's tenth problem has been solved, and it has a negative answer: such a general algorithm cannot exist. This is the result of combined work of Martin Davis, Yuri Matiyasevich, Hilary Putnam and Julia Robinson which spans 21 years, with Matiyasevich completing the theorem in 1970. The theorem is now known as Matiyasevich's theorem or the MRDP theorem (an initialism for the surnames of the four principal contributors to its solution).
Hilbert's tenth problem:
When all coefficients and variables are restricted to be positive integers, the related problem of polynomial identity testing becomes a decidable (exponentiation-free) variation of Tarski's high school algebra problem, sometimes denoted HSI¯.
Background:
Original formulation Hilbert formulated the problem as follows: Given a Diophantine equation with any number of unknown quantities and with rational integral numerical coefficients: To devise a process according to which it can be determined in a finite number of operations whether the equation is solvable in rational integers.
Background:
The words "process" and "finite number of operations" have been taken to mean that Hilbert was asking for an algorithm. The term "rational integral" simply refers to the integers, positive, negative or zero: 0, ±1, ±2, ... . So Hilbert was asking for a general algorithm to decide whether a given polynomial Diophantine equation with integer coefficients has a solution in integers.
Background:
Hilbert's problem is not concerned with finding the solutions. It only asks whether, in general, we can decide whether one or more solutions exist. The answer to this question is negative, in the sense that no "process can be devised" for answering that question. In modern terms, Hilbert's 10th problem is an undecidable problem. Although it is unlikely that Hilbert had conceived of such a possibility, before going on to list the problems, he did presciently remark: Occasionally it happens that we seek the solution under insufficient hypotheses or in an incorrect sense, and for this reason do not succeed. The problem then arises: to show the impossibility of the solution under the given hypotheses or in the sense contemplated.
Background:
Proving the 10th problem undecidable is then a valid answer even in Hilbert's terms, since it is a proof about "the impossibility of the solution".
Background:
Diophantine sets In a Diophantine equation, there are two kinds of variables: the parameters and the unknowns. The Diophantine set consists of the parameter assignments for which the Diophantine equation is solvable. A typical example is the linear Diophantine equation in two unknowns, a1x1+a2x2=a3 ,where the equation is solvable when the greatest common divisor of a1,a2 divides a3 . The values for a1,a2,a3 that satisfy this restriction are a Diophantine set and the equation above is its Diophantine definition.
Background:
Diophantine definitions can be provided by simultaneous systems of equations as well as by individual equations because the system p1=0,…,pk=0 is equivalent to the single equation 0.
Sets of natural numbers, of pairs of natural numbers (or even of n-tuples of natural numbers) that have Diophantine definitions are called Diophantine sets. In these terms, Hilbert's tenth problem asks whether there is an algorithm to determine if a given Diophantine set is non-empty.
Background:
The work on the problem has been in terms of solutions in natural numbers (understood as the non-negative integers) rather than arbitrary integers. The two problems are equivalent: any general algorithm that can decide whether a given Diophantine equation has an integer solution could be modified into an algorithm that decides whether a given Diophantine equation has a natural number solution, and vice versa. This can be seen as follows: The requirement that solutions be natural numbers can be expressed with the help of Lagrange's four-square theorem: every natural number is the sum of the squares of four integers, so we simply replace every parameter with the sum of squares of four extra parameters. Similarly, since every integer can be written as the difference of two natural numbers, we can replace every parameter that ranges in integers with the difference of two parameters that range in natural numbers.
Background:
Recursively enumerable sets A recursively enumerable set can be characterized as one for which there exists an algorithm that will ultimately halt when a member of the set is provided as input, but may continue indefinitely when the input is a non-member. It was the development of computability theory (also known as recursion theory) that provided a precise explication of the intuitive notion of algorithmic computability, thus making the notion of recursive enumerability perfectly rigorous. It is evident that Diophantine sets are recursively enumerable (a.k.a. semi-decidable). This is because one can arrange all possible tuples of values of the unknowns in a sequence and then, for a given value of the parameter(s), test these tuples, one after another, to see whether they are solutions of the corresponding equation. The unsolvability of Hilbert's tenth problem is a consequence of the surprising fact that the converse is true: Every recursively enumerable set is Diophantine.
Background:
This result is variously known as Matiyasevich's theorem (because he provided the crucial step that completed the proof) and the MRDP theorem (for Yuri Matiyasevich, Julia Robinson, Martin Davis, and Hilary Putnam). Because there exists a recursively enumerable set that is not computable, the unsolvability of Hilbert's tenth problem is an immediate consequence. In fact, more can be said: there is a polynomial p(a,x1,…,xn) with integer coefficients such that the set of values of a for which the equation p(a,x1,…,xn)=0 has solutions in natural numbers is not computable. So, not only is there no general algorithm for testing Diophantine equations for solvability, even for this one parameter family of equations, there is no algorithm.
Applications:
The Matiyasevich/MRDP Theorem relates two notions – one from computability theory, the other from number theory — and has some surprising consequences. Perhaps the most surprising is the existence of a universal Diophantine equation: There exists a polynomial p(a,n,x1,…,xk) such that, given any Diophantine set S there is a number n0 such that This is true simply because Diophantine sets, being equal to recursively enumerable sets, are also equal to Turing machines. It is a well known property of Turing machines that there exist universal Turing machines, capable of executing any algorithm.
Applications:
Hilary Putnam has pointed out that for any Diophantine set S of positive integers, there is a polynomial q(x0,x1,…,xn) such that S consists of exactly the positive numbers among the values assumed by q as the variables x0,x1,…,xn range over all natural numbers. This can be seen as follows: If p(a,y1,…,yn)=0 provides a Diophantine definition of S , then it suffices to set So, for example, there is a polynomial for which the positive part of its range is exactly the prime numbers. (On the other hand, no polynomial can only take on prime values.) The same holds for other recursively enumerable sets of natural numbers: the factorial, the binomial coefficients, the fibonacci numbers, etc.
Applications:
Other applications concern what logicians refer to as Π10 propositions, sometimes also called propositions of Goldbach type. These are like Goldbach's conjecture, in stating that all natural numbers possess a certain property that is algorithmically checkable for each particular number. The Matiyasevich/MRDP theorem implies that each such proposition is equivalent to a statement that asserts that some particular Diophantine equation has no solutions in natural numbers. A number of important and celebrated problems are of this form: in particular, Fermat's Last Theorem, the Riemann hypothesis, and the Four color theorem. In addition the assertion that particular formal systems such as Peano arithmetic or ZFC are consistent can be expressed as Π10 sentences. The idea is to follow Kurt Gödel in coding proofs by natural numbers in such a way that the property of being the number representing a proof is algorithmically checkable.
Applications:
Π10 sentences have the special property that if they are false, that fact will be provable in any of the usual formal systems. This is because the falsity amounts to the existence of a counter-example which can be verified by simple arithmetic. So if a Π10 sentence is such that neither it nor its negation is provable in one of these systems, that sentence must be true.A particularly striking form of Gödel's incompleteness theorem is also a consequence of the Matiyasevich/MRDP theorem: Let p(a,x1,…,xk)=0 provide a Diophantine definition of a non-computable set. Let A be an algorithm that outputs a sequence of natural numbers n such that the corresponding equation p(n,x1,…,xk)=0 has no solutions in natural numbers. Then there is a number n0 which is not output by A while in fact the equation p(n0,x1,…,xk)=0 has no solutions in natural numbers.
Applications:
To see that the theorem is true, it suffices to notice that if there were no such number n0 , one could algorithmically test membership of a number n in this non-computable set by simultaneously running the algorithm A to see whether n is output while also checking all possible k -tuples of natural numbers seeking a solution of the equation p(n,x1,…,xk)=0 and we may associate an algorithm A with any of the usual formal systems such as Peano arithmetic or ZFC by letting it systematically generate consequences of the axioms and then output a number n whenever a sentence of the form ¬∃x1,…,xk[p(n,x1,…,xk)=0] is generated. Then the theorem tells us that either a false statement of this form is proved or a true one remains unproved in the system in question.
Further results:
We may speak of the degree of a Diophantine set as being the least degree of a polynomial in an equation defining that set. Similarly, we can call the dimension of such a set the fewest unknowns in a defining equation. Because of the existence of a universal Diophantine equation, it is clear that there are absolute upper bounds to both of these quantities, and there has been much interest in determining these bounds.
Further results:
Already in the 1920s Thoralf Skolem showed that any Diophantine equation is equivalent to one of degree 4 or less. His trick was to introduce new unknowns by equations setting them equal to the square of an unknown or the product of two unknowns. Repetition of this process results in a system of second degree equations; then an equation of degree 4 is obtained by summing the squares. So every Diophantine set is trivially of degree 4 or less. It is not known whether this result is best possible.
Further results:
Julia Robinson and Yuri Matiyasevich showed that every Diophantine set has dimension no greater than 13. Later, Matiyasevich sharpened their methods to show that 9 unknowns suffice. Although it may well be that this result is not the best possible, there has been no further progress. So, in particular, there is no algorithm for testing Diophantine equations with 9 or fewer unknowns for solvability in natural numbers. For the case of rational integer solutions (as Hilbert had originally posed it), the 4-squares trick shows that there is no algorithm for equations with no more than 36 unknowns. But Zhi Wei Sun showed that the problem for integers is unsolvable even for equations with no more than 11 unknowns.
Further results:
Martin Davis studied algorithmic questions involving the number of solutions of a Diophantine equation. Hilbert's tenth problem asks whether or not that number is 0. Let A={0,1,2,3,…,ℵ0} and let C be a proper non-empty subset of A . Davis proved that there is no algorithm to test a given Diophantine equation to determine whether the number of its solutions is a member of the set C . Thus there is no algorithm to determine whether the number of solutions of a Diophantine equation is finite, odd, a perfect square, a prime, etc.
Further results:
The proof of the MRDP theorem has been formalized in Coq.
Extensions of Hilbert's tenth problem:
Although Hilbert posed the problem for the rational integers, it can be just as well asked for many rings (in particular, for any ring whose number of elements is countable). Obvious examples are the rings of integers of algebraic number fields as well as the rational numbers.
Extensions of Hilbert's tenth problem:
There has been much work on Hilbert's tenth problem for the rings of integers of algebraic number fields. Basing themselves on earlier work by Jan Denef and Leonard Lipschitz and using class field theory, Harold N. Shapiro and Alexandra Shlapentokh were able to prove: Hilbert's tenth problem is unsolvable for the ring of integers of any algebraic number field whose Galois group over the rationals is abelian.
Extensions of Hilbert's tenth problem:
Shlapentokh and Thanases Pheidas (independently of one another) obtained the same result for algebraic number fields admitting exactly one pair of complex conjugate embeddings.
Extensions of Hilbert's tenth problem:
The problem for the ring of integers of algebraic number fields other than those covered by the results above remains open. Likewise, despite much interest, the problem for equations over the rationals remains open. Barry Mazur has conjectured that for any variety over the rationals, the topological closure over the reals of the set of solutions has only finitely many components. This conjecture implies that the integers are not Diophantine over the rationals and so if this conjecture is true a negative answer to Hilbert's Tenth Problem would require a different approach than that used for other rings. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**J. N. Reddy (engineer)**
J. N. Reddy (engineer):
Junuthula N. Reddy (born 12 August 1945) is a Distinguished Professor, Regent's Professor, and inaugural holder of the Oscar S. Wyatt Endowed Chair in Mechanical Engineering at Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, USA.[1] He is an authoritative figure in the broad area of mechanics and one of the researchers responsible for the development of the Finite Element Method (FEM). He has made significant seminal contributions in the areas of finite element method, plate theory, solid mechanics, variational methods, mechanics of composites, functionally graded materials, fracture mechanics, plasticity, biomechanics, classical and non-Newtonian fluid mechanics, and applied functional analysis. Reddy has over 620 journal papers and 20 books (with several second and third editions) and has given numerous (over 150) national and international talks. He served as a member of the International Advisory Committee at ICTACEM, in 2001 and keynote addressing in 2014.[2][3] He has advised around 36 postdoctoral fellows, 65 PhD students, and 46 M.S students over 40 years. Many of his (former) PhD and postdoctoral students are currently faculty members in major universities throughout the world. He has been listed as an ISI Highly Cited Author in Engineering by the ISI Web of Knowledge, Thomson Scientific Company. Reddy is one of the original top 100 ISI Highly Cited Researchers in Engineering around world, with h-index of over 66 as per Web of Science; the number of citations is over 54,000 with h-index of 94 and i10-index of 438 (i.e., 438 papers are cited at least 10 times) as per Google Scholar.
Education:
Post Doctoral Fellow, Texas Institute for Computational Mechanics, University of Texas at Austin, 1973–1974.
PhD. - Engineering Mechanics (Advisor: Dr. J. Tinsley Oden), University of Alabama in Huntsville, Alabama, 1973.
M.S. - Mechanical Engineering, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma, 1970.
B.E. - Mechanical Engineering, Osmania University, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India, 1968.
Awards:
Timoshenko Medal, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2019.
ASME Medal, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2016.
Prager Medal, Society of Engineering Science (medal to be presented at 53rd Annual Technical Meeting at University of Maryland, 4–6 October 2016).
Simpson Distinguished Visiting Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Northwestern University, April–May, 2016.
Inductee, The Hall of Fame of the College of Engineering, Architecture and Technology, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, 17 October 2015.
Foreign Fellow, the Indian National Academy of Engineering, September 2015.
Awards:
Special Sessions organized in honor of Professor JN Reddy at the Eighth International Conference on Advances in Steel Structures (ICASS) and IJSSD Symposium on Progress in Structural Stability and Dynamics, held in Lisbon, Portugal, 22–24 July 2015, Technical University of Lisbon, Portugal (a special issue of the International Journal of Structural Stability and Dynamics in honor of JN Reddy is published).
Awards:
Special Sessions organized in honor of Professor JN Reddy at the 18th International Conference on Composite Structures, held in Lisbon, Portugal, 15–18 June 2015, Lisbon, Portugal (a special issue of the Composite Structures journal in honor of JN Reddy is planned).
The IACM O.C. Zienkiewicz Award from the International Association for Computational Mechanics, 2014.
Raymond D. Mindlin Medal from the American Society of Civil Engineers, 2014.
Finland Distinguished Professor (FiDiPro), Aalto University and National Technology Agency of Finland (Tekes), 2014–2018.
Visiting Professor of the Science without Borders Program of Brazil (University of São Paulo), 2014–2016.
Chair of Excellence, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Spain, 2014–2015.Elected to prestigious NAE (Class of 2015) for contributions to composite structures and to engineering education and practice.
Distinguished Visiting Fellowship, The Royal Academy of Engineering, London, UK, 2013.
Satish Dhawan Visiting Professor, Department of Aerospace Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, 2012–2013.
Computational Mechanics Award, the Japanese Society of Mechanical Engineers (JSME), October 2012.
Top 100 Scientists, International Biographical Centre, Cambridge, England, 2012.
Honorary Doctorate Degree, Odlar Yurdu University, Baku, Azerbaijan, 2011.
Life Fellow, American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), June 2011.
Regents' Professor, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, 2010.
Honorary degree (Honoris Causa) from the Technical University of Lisbon, Portugal, 2009.
Fellow of American Institute of Aeronautical and Astronautics, 2005.
Distinguished Research Award of the American Society for Composites, 2004.
Computational Solids Mechanics award for the US Association for Computational Mechanics, 2003.
Outstanding Man of the 21st century, 2000.
The Nathan M. Newmark medal from the American Society of Civil Engineering, 1998.
Fellow of the International Association of Computational Mechanics, 1998.
Charles Russ Richards Memorial Award, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 1995.
Men of Achievement, 1994.
Books:
J. T. Oden and J. N. Reddy, A Mathematical Theory of Finite Elements, Wiley-Interscience (1976) J. T. Oden and J. N. Reddy, Variational Methods in Theoretical Mechanics, 2nd ed., Springer-Verlag (1982) J. N. Reddy and M. L. Rasmussen, Advanced Engineering Analysis, John Wiley (1982) reprinted by Krieger, Melbourne, FL, 1990 J. N. Reddy, Applied Functional Analysis and Variational Methods in Engineering, McGraw-Hill (1986); reprinted by Krieger, Melbourne (1991) O. O. Ochoa and J. N. Reddy, Finite Element Analysis of Composite Laminates, 2nd ed., Kluwer Academic Publishers, The Netherlands (1992) ISBN 0-7923-1125-6 J. N. Reddy and A. Miravete, Practical Analysis of Laminated Composite Structures, 3rd ed., CRC Press, FL, 1995. ISBN 0-8493-9401-5 C. M. Wang, J. N. Reddy and K.H. Lee, Shear Deformation Theories of Beams and Plates Dynamics Relationships with Classical Solution, Elsevier, U.K., 2000. ISBN 0-08-043784-2 J. N. Reddy, Energy Principles and Variational Methods in Applied Mechanics, 2nd ed., John Wiley (2002) ISBN 0-471-17985-X, 3rd edition to appear in 2017.
Books:
J. N. Reddy, An Introduction to Nonlinear Finite Element Analysis, Oxford University Press, USA (2004). ISBN 0-19-852529-X J. N. Reddy, Mechanics of Laminated Composite Plates and Shells: Theory and Analysis, 2nd ed., CRC Press (2004). ISBN 0-8493-1592-1 J. N. Reddy, An Introduction to the Finite Element Method, 3rd ed., McGraw-Hill Education (2005). ISBN 0-07-124473-5 J. N. Reddy and D. K. Gartling, The Finite Element Method in Heat Transfer and Fluid Dynamics, 3rd ed., CRC Press, FL, 2010. ISBN 1-4200-8598-0 J. N. Reddy, Theory and Analysis of Elastic Plates and Shells, 2nd ed., Taylor & Francis (2007) ISBN 0-8493-8415-X C. M. Wang, C. Y. Wang, and J. N. Reddy, Exact Solutions for Buckling of Structural Members, CRC Press (2005) ISBN 0-8493-2222-7 J. N. Reddy, Principles of Continuum Mechanics. A Study of Conservation Principles with Applications, Cambridge University Press (2010) ISBN 0-521-51369-3 R. T. Fenner and J. N. Reddy, Mechanics of Solids and Structures, 2nd ed., CRC Press (2012) ISBN 0-632-02018-0 J. N. Reddy, An Introduction to Continuum Mechanics with Applications, 2nd ed., Cambridge University Press (2013) ISBN 978-0-521-87044-3 J. N. Reddy, An Introduction to Nonlinear Finite Element Analysis, 2nd ed., Oxford University Press (2015) ISBN 0-19-852529-X Ashwin Rao, A.R. Srinivasa and J. N. Reddy, Design of Shape Memory Alloy (SMA) Actuators, Springer (2015) ISBN 978-3-319-03187-3 (Print) and ISBN 978-3-319-03188-0 (Online) K.S. Surana and J.N. Reddy, The Finite Element Method for Boundary Value Problems, Mathematics and Computations, CRC Press, to appear (2017) | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Alternative giving**
Alternative giving:
Alternative giving is a form of gift giving in which the giver makes a donation to a charitable organization on the gift recipient's behalf, rather than giving them an item. The idea of giving something to one person by paying another was applied by Benjamin Franklin as a "trick ... for doing a deal of good with a little money", which came to be known as "pay it forward". This form of giving is often used as an alternative to consumerism and to mitigate the impact of gift-giving on the environment.Charities that promote this type of donating will normally provide a card or certificate describing the donation, often with an example of how the donation will be used (such as one day's worth of food for a hungry person) or a symbolic denomination, called "ownership" or "adoption" (of an animal or a tree for example). Some charities promote alternative giving at weddings in place of wedding favors, normally providing several cards to be left on tables at the reception letting guests know a donation has been made rather than individual cards for each guest. In 2011, Kate Middleton and Prince William made the decision to "pay it forward" with their wedding gifts, asking that the money to be used for gifts be given to charities and good causes.The concept was spoofed in the 1997 Seinfeld episode "The Strike". George Costanza, angry at having received a donation to charity instead of an actual gift, made up his own non-existent charity and handed out fake donations to save money on gifts and cheques. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Arthurite**
Arthurite:
Arthurite is a mineral composed of divalent copper and iron ions in combination with trivalent arsenate, phosphate and sulfate ions with hydrogen and oxygen. Initially discovered by Sir Arthur Russell in 1954 at Hingston Down Consols mine in Calstock, Cornwall, England, arthurite is formed as a resultant mineral in the oxidation region of some copper deposits by the variation of enargite or arsenopyrite. The chemical formula of Arthurite is CuFe23+(AsO4,PO4,SO4)2(O,OH)2•4H2O.Arthurite is named after Arthur W. G. Kingsbury (1906–1968), a British mineralogist, and Sir Arthur Russell (1878–1964), a collector of minerals.
Introduction:
Arthurite was determined to be a uniquely new mineral by R.J. Davis and M.H. Hey in 1964 after its initial discovery. A second specimen was confirmed by A.H Clark and R.H. Sillitoe (1969) from Potrerillos, Atacama Province, Chile in 1969. Subsequently, several other arthurite-like minerals have been discovered. There are variations in which the copper (Cu) ions are replaced with cobalt (Co), in the case of cobaltarthurite, manganese (Mn) replaces Cu in the case of earlshannonite, iron (Fe) in the case of bendadaite and whitmoreite and zinc (Zn) in the case of ojuelaite. Arthurite is the copper-dominant end-member of the arthurite group.
Composition:
The theoretical chemical formula of Arthurite was originally determined to be Cu2Fe4(AsO4)3(O,OH)7•6H2O. The breakdown of the composition of arthurite in weight percent oxides is given in Table 1.
Composition:
Table 1. Chemical composition of Arthurite in weight percent oxides Arthurite crystallizes from an aqueous solution with whichever applicable anions are accessible in the solution. These available anions may be carbonate, arsenate, sulphate and phosphate. Some other minerals belonging to the arthurite group are cobaltarthurite, Co2+Fe3+2(AsO4)2(OH)2•4H2O, whitmoreite Fe2+Fe3+2(PO4)2(OH)2•4H2O, ojuelaite, ZnFe2(AsO4)2(OH)2•4H2O, earlshannonite, (Mn,Fe)Fe2(PO4)2(OH)2•4H2O and bendadaite, Fe2+Fe3+2(AsO4)2(OH)2•4H2O. The optimal compositions of the members of the arthurite group can be represented by A2+Fe3+2(XO4)2(OH)2•4H2O and are summarized in Table 2.
Composition:
Table 2. Compositional breakdown of the arthurite group members
Structure:
Arthurite is of the monoclinic space group: P21/c with a = 10.189(2)Å, b = 9.649(2)Å, c = 5.598(1)Å and β = 92.16(2). The coordination polyhedron of the Cu2+ ion is clearly tetragonally lengthened as compared to whitmoreite with the Phosphorus (P) and Arsenic (As). Figure 1 shows the crystal structure of arthurite.
Physical properties:
Table 3. General and physical properties of arthurite
Geologic occurrence:
The first specimen on record was sent to the British Museum of Natural History, Department of Mineralogy by Sir Arthur Russell in 1954. The sample specimen was collected by Sir Russell from Hingston Down Consols mine in Calstock, Cornwall, England. A second sample was found in 1966 in the Potrerillos copper deposit, Atacama Province, northern Chile. Each of these locations have porphyritic copper deposits where circulating groundwater interacts with the cooling porphyritic intrusions and their fluids to form copper-bearing minerals and copper ore deposits. The copper ore found at the Chilean site was composed mainly of massive djurleite deposits that strongly oxidized to form goethite, minor cuprite and malachite. The arthurite formed as thin (0.1 – 0.5 mm) and sparsely coated areas growing along the inner walls of minor fractures splitting through malachite-rich encased djurleite forms.
Biographic sketch:
Arthurite is named after two people, Arthur William Gerald Kingsbury and Sir Arthur Edward Ian Montagu Russell. Arthur Kingsbury was the son of a farmer in East Meon, Hampshire, England. He attended Bradfield College in Berkshire prior to an apprenticeship at a London law firm. He passed the bar exam in 1929 and became a solicitor at Sherborne and then later Crewkerne in the West of England. He began collecting minerals in 1927. After the war he accepted a position as a research assistant in the mineralogy department of the Oxford University Museum where he added 50 species to the list of minerals known to occur in Great Britain. Sir Arthur Edward Ian Montagu Russell was born in 1878 and became the 6th Baronet of Swallowfield Park Reading when his older brother died in 1944. Sir Arthur attended the prestigious Eton College and then studied chemistry at Kings College, London. During his life he amassed an amazing collection of minerals, many from the collections of others, but also from his own field work. When Sir Arthur died in 1964 his collection of 12,000 mineral specimens went to The Natural History Museum in London with the stipulation that the collection not be dispersed, but remain as a British regional collection. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Well test**
Well test:
In hydrology, a well test is conducted to evaluate the amount of water that can be pumped from a particular water well. More specifically, a well test will allow prediction of the maximum rate at which water can be pumped from a well, and the distance that the water level in the well will fall for a given pumping rate and duration of pumping. Well testing differs from aquifer testing in that the behaviour of the well is primarily of concern in the former, while the characteristics of the aquifer (the geological formation or unit that supplies water to the well) are quantified in the latter.
Well test:
When water is pumped from a well the water level in the well falls. This fall is called drawdown. The amount of water that can be pumped is limited by the drawdown produced. Typically, drawdown also increases with the length of time that the pumping continues.
Well losses vs. aquifer losses:
The components of observed drawdown in a pumping well were first described by Jacob (1947), and the test was refined independently by Hantush (1964) and Bierschenk (1963) as consisting of two related components, s=BQ+CQ2 ,where s is drawdown (units of length e.g., m), Q is the pumping rate (units of volume flowrate e.g., m³/day), B is the aquifer loss coefficient (which increases with time — as predicted by the Theis solution) and C is the well loss coefficient (which is constant for a given flow rate).
Well losses vs. aquifer losses:
The first term of the equation ( BQ ) describes the linear component of the drawdown; i.e., the part in which doubling the pumping rate doubles the drawdown.
Well losses vs. aquifer losses:
The second term ( CQ2 ) describes what is often called the 'well losses'; the non-linear component of the drawdown. To quantify this it is necessary to pump the well at several different flow rates (commonly called steps). Rorabaugh (1953) added to this analysis by making the exponent an arbitrary power (usually between 1.5 and 3.5). To analyze this equation, both sides are divided by the discharge rate ( Q ), leaving s/Q on the left side, which is commonly referred to as specific drawdown. The right hand side of the equation becomes that of a straight line. Plotting the specific drawdown after a set amount of time ( Δt ) since the beginning of each step of the test (since drawdown will continue to increase with time) versus pumping rate should produce a straight line.
Well losses vs. aquifer losses:
sQ=B+CQ Fitting a straight line through the observed data, the slope of the best fit line will be C (well losses) and the intercept of this line with Q=0 will be B (aquifer losses). This process is fitting an idealized model to real world data, and seeing what parameters in the model make it fit reality best. The assumption is then made that these fitted parameters best represent reality (given the assumptions that went into the model are true).
Well losses vs. aquifer losses:
The relationship above is for fully penetrating wells in confined aquifers (the same assumptions used in the Theis solution for determining aquifer characteristics in an aquifer test).
Well efficiency:
Often the well efficiency is determined from this sort of test, this is a percentage indicating the fraction of total observed drawdown in a pumping well which is due to aquifer losses (as opposed to being due to flow through the well screen and inside the borehole). A perfectly efficient well, with perfect well screen and where the water flows inside the well in a frictionless manner would have 100% efficiency. Unfortunately well efficiency is hard to compare between wells because it depends on the characteristics of the aquifer too (the same amount of well losses compared to a more transmissive aquifer would give a lower efficiency).
Specific capacity:
Specific capacity is a quantity that which a water well can produce per unit of drawdown. It is normally obtained from a step drawdown test. Specific capacity is expressed as: Sc=Qh0−h where Sc is the specific capacity ([L2T−1]; m²/day or USgal/day/ft) Q is the pumping rate ([L3T−1]; m³/day or USgal/day), and h0−h is the drawdown ([L]; m or ft)The specific capacity of a well is also a function of the pumping rate it is determined at. Due to non-linear well losses the specific capacity will decrease with higher pumping rates. This complication makes the absolute value of specific capacity of little use; though it is useful for comparing the efficiency of the same well through time (e.g., to see if the well requires rehabilitation). | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**IEEE 754**
IEEE 754:
The IEEE Standard for Floating-Point Arithmetic (IEEE 754) is a technical standard for floating-point arithmetic established in 1985 by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). The standard addressed many problems found in the diverse floating-point implementations that made them difficult to use reliably and portably. Many hardware floating-point units use the IEEE 754 standard.
IEEE 754:
The standard defines: arithmetic formats: sets of binary and decimal floating-point data, which consist of finite numbers (including signed zeros and subnormal numbers), infinities, and special "not a number" values (NaNs) interchange formats: encodings (bit strings) that may be used to exchange floating-point data in an efficient and compact form rounding rules: properties to be satisfied when rounding numbers during arithmetic and conversions operations: arithmetic and other operations (such as trigonometric functions) on arithmetic formats exception handling: indications of exceptional conditions (such as division by zero, overflow, etc.)IEEE 754-2008, published in August 2008, includes nearly all of the original IEEE 754-1985 standard, plus the IEEE 854-1987 Standard for Radix-Independent Floating-Point Arithmetic. The current version, IEEE 754-2019, was published in July 2019. It is a minor revision of the previous version, incorporating mainly clarifications, defect fixes and new recommended operations.
History:
The first standard for floating-point arithmetic, IEEE 754-1985, was published in 1985. It covered only binary floating-point arithmetic.
History:
A new version, IEEE 754-2008, was published in August 2008, following a seven-year revision process, chaired by Dan Zuras and edited by Mike Cowlishaw. It replaced both IEEE 754-1985 (binary floating-point arithmetic) and IEEE 854-1987 Standard for Radix-Independent Floating-Point Arithmetic. The binary formats in the original standard are included in this new standard along with three new basic formats, one binary and two decimal. To conform to the current standard, an implementation must implement at least one of the basic formats as both an arithmetic format and an interchange format.
History:
The international standard ISO/IEC/IEEE 60559:2011 (with content identical to IEEE 754-2008) has been approved for adoption through ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 25 under the ISO/IEEE PSDO Agreement and published.The current version, IEEE 754-2019 published in July 2019, is derived from and replaces IEEE 754-2008, following a revision process started in September 2015, chaired by David G. Hough and edited by Mike Cowlishaw. It incorporates mainly clarifications (e.g. totalOrder) and defect fixes (e.g. minNum), but also includes some new recommended operations (e.g. augmentedAddition).The international standard ISO/IEC 60559:2020 (with content identical to IEEE 754-2019) has been approved for adoption through ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 25 and published.The next projected revision of the standard is in 2028.
Formats:
An IEEE 754 format is a "set of representations of numerical values and symbols". A format may also include how the set is encoded.A floating-point format is specified by a base (also called radix) b, which is either 2 (binary) or 10 (decimal) in IEEE 754; a precision p; an exponent range from emin to emax, with emin = 1 − emax for all IEEE 754 formats.A format comprises Finite numbers, which can be described by three integers: s = a sign (zero or one), c = a significand (or coefficient) having no more than p digits when written in base b (i.e., an integer in the range through 0 to bp − 1), and q = an exponent such that emin ≤ q + p − 1 ≤ emax. The numerical value of such a finite number is (−1)s × c × bq. Moreover, there are two zero values, called signed zeros: the sign bit specifies whether a zero is +0 (positive zero) or −0 (negative zero).
Formats:
Two kinds of NaN (not-a-number): a quiet NaN (qNaN) and a signaling NaN (sNaN).For example, if b = 10, p = 7, and emax = 96, then emin = −95, the significand satisfies 0 ≤ c ≤ 9999999, and the exponent satisfies −101 ≤ q ≤ 90. Consequently, the smallest non-zero positive number that can be represented is 1×10−101, and the largest is 9999999×1090 (9.999999×1096), so the full range of numbers is −9.999999×1096 through 9.999999×1096. The numbers −b1−emax and b1−emax (here, −1×10−95 and 1×10−95) are the smallest (in magnitude) normal numbers; non-zero numbers between these smallest numbers are called subnormal numbers.
Formats:
Representation and encoding in memory Some numbers may have several possible exponential format representations. For instance, if b = 10, and p = 7, then −12.345 can be represented by −12345×10−3, −123450×10−4, and −1234500×10−5. However, for most operations, such as arithmetic operations, the result (value) does not depend on the representation of the inputs.
For the decimal formats, any representation is valid, and the set of these representations is called a cohort. When a result can have several representations, the standard specifies which member of the cohort is chosen.
Formats:
For the binary formats, the representation is made unique by choosing the smallest representable exponent allowing the value to be represented exactly. Further, the exponent is not represented directly, but a bias is added so that the smallest representable exponent is represented as 1, with 0 used for subnormal numbers. For numbers with an exponent in the normal range (the exponent field being neither all ones nor all zeros), the leading bit of the significand will always be 1. Consequently, a leading 1 can be implied rather than explicitly present in the memory encoding, and under the standard the explicitly represented part of the significand will lie between 0 and 1. This rule is called leading bit convention, implicit bit convention, or hidden bit convention. This rule allows the binary format to have an extra bit of precision. The leading bit convention cannot be used for the subnormal numbers as they have an exponent outside the normal exponent range and scale by the smallest represented exponent as used for the smallest normal numbers.
Formats:
Due to the possibility of multiple encodings (at least in formats called interchange formats), a NaN may carry other information: a sign bit (which has no meaning, but may be used by some operations) and a payload, which is intended for diagnostic information indicating the source of the NaN (but the payload may have other uses, such as NaN-boxing).
Formats:
Basic and interchange formats The standard defines five basic formats that are named for their numeric base and the number of bits used in their interchange encoding. There are three binary floating-point basic formats (encoded with 32, 64 or 128 bits) and two decimal floating-point basic formats (encoded with 64 or 128 bits). The binary32 and binary64 formats are the single and double formats of IEEE 754-1985 respectively. A conforming implementation must fully implement at least one of the basic formats.
Formats:
The standard also defines interchange formats, which generalize these basic formats. For the binary formats, the leading bit convention is required. The following table summarizes the smallest interchange formats (including the basic ones).
Formats:
Note that in the table above, the minimum exponents listed are for normal numbers; the special subnormal number representation allows even smaller numbers to be represented (with some loss of precision). For example, the smallest positive number that can be represented in binary64 is 2−1074; contributions to the −1074 figure include the E min value −1022 and all but one of the 53 significand bits (2−1022 − (53 − 1) = 2−1074).
Formats:
Decimal digits is digits × log10 base. This gives an approximate precision in number of decimal digits.
Decimal E max is Emax × log10 base. This gives an approximate value of the maximum decimal exponent.
The binary32 (single) and binary64 (double) formats are two of the most common formats used today. The figure below shows the absolute precision for both formats over a range of values. This figure can be used to select an appropriate format given the expected value of a number and the required precision.
An example of a layout for 32-bit floating point is and the 64 bit layout is similar.
Formats:
Extended and extendable precision formats The standard specifies optional extended and extendable precision formats, which provide greater precision than the basic formats. An extended precision format extends a basic format by using more precision and more exponent range. An extendable precision format allows the user to specify the precision and exponent range. An implementation may use whatever internal representation it chooses for such formats; all that needs to be defined are its parameters (b, p, and emax). These parameters uniquely describe the set of finite numbers (combinations of sign, significand, and exponent for the given radix) that it can represent.
Formats:
The standard recommends that language standards provide a method of specifying p and emax for each supported base b. The standard recommends that language standards and implementations support an extended format which has a greater precision than the largest basic format supported for each radix b. For an extended format with a precision between two basic formats the exponent range must be as great as that of the next wider basic format. So for instance a 64-bit extended precision binary number must have an 'emax' of at least 16383. The x87 80-bit extended format meets this requirement.
Formats:
Interchange formats Interchange formats are intended for the exchange of floating-point data using a bit string of fixed length for a given format.
Binary For the exchange of binary floating-point numbers, interchange formats of length 16 bits, 32 bits, 64 bits, and any multiple of 32 bits ≥ 128 are defined. The 16-bit format is intended for the exchange or storage of small numbers (e.g., for graphics).
Formats:
The encoding scheme for these binary interchange formats is the same as that of IEEE 754-1985: a sign bit, followed by w exponent bits that describe the exponent offset by a bias, and p − 1 bits that describe the significand. The width of the exponent field for a k-bit format is computed as w = round(4 log2(k)) − 13. The existing 64- and 128-bit formats follow this rule, but the 16- and 32-bit formats have more exponent bits (5 and 8 respectively) than this formula would provide (3 and 7 respectively).
Formats:
As with IEEE 754-1985, the biased-exponent field is filled with all 1 bits to indicate either infinity (trailing significand field = 0) or a NaN (trailing significand field ≠ 0). For NaNs, quiet NaNs and signaling NaNs are distinguished by using the most significant bit of the trailing significand field exclusively, and the payload is carried in the remaining bits.
Formats:
Decimal For the exchange of decimal floating-point numbers, interchange formats of any multiple of 32 bits are defined. As with binary interchange, the encoding scheme for the decimal interchange formats encodes the sign, exponent, and significand. Two different bit-level encodings are defined, and interchange is complicated by the fact that some external indicator of the encoding in use may be required.
Formats:
The two options allow the significand to be encoded as a compressed sequence of decimal digits using densely packed decimal or, alternatively, as a binary integer. The former is more convenient for direct hardware implementation of the standard, while the latter is more suited to software emulation on a binary computer. In either case, the set of numbers (combinations of sign, significand, and exponent) that may be encoded is identical, and special values (±zero with the minimum exponent, ±infinity, quiet NaNs, and signaling NaNs) have identical encodings.
Rounding rules:
The standard defines five rounding rules. The first two rules round to a nearest value; the others are called directed roundings: Roundings to nearest Round to nearest, ties to even – rounds to the nearest value; if the number falls midway, it is rounded to the nearest value with an even least significant digit.
Rounding rules:
Round to nearest, ties away from zero (or ties to away) – rounds to the nearest value; if the number falls midway, it is rounded to the nearest value above (for positive numbers) or below (for negative numbers).At the extremes, a value with a magnitude strictly less than emax (b−12b1−p) will be rounded to the minimum or maximum finite number (depending on the value's sign). Any numbers with exactly this magnitude are considered ties; this choice of tie may be conceptualized as the midpoint between emax (b−b1−p) and emax +1 , which, were the exponent not limited, would be the next representable floating-point numbers larger in magnitude. Numbers with a magnitude strictly larger than k are rounded to the corresponding infinity."Round to nearest, ties to even" is the default for binary floating point and the recommended default for decimal. "Round to nearest, ties to away" is only required for decimal implementations.
Rounding rules:
Directed roundings Round toward 0 – directed rounding towards zero (also known as truncation).
Round toward +∞ – directed rounding towards positive infinity (also known as rounding up or ceiling).
Round toward −∞ – directed rounding towards negative infinity (also known as rounding down or floor).Unless specified otherwise, the floating-point result of an operation is determined by applying the rounding function on the infinitely precise (mathematical) result. Such an operation is said to be correctly rounded. This requirement is called correct rounding.
Required operations:
Required operations for a supported arithmetic format (including the basic formats) include: Conversions to and from integer Previous and next consecutive values Arithmetic operations (add, subtract, multiply, divide, square root, fused multiply–add, remainder, minimum, maximum) Conversions (between formats, to and from strings, etc.) Scaling and (for decimal) quantizing Copying and manipulating the sign (abs, negate, etc.) Comparisons and total ordering Classification of numbers (subnormal, finite, etc.) and testing for NaNs Testing and setting status flags Comparison predicates The standard provides comparison predicates to compare one floating-point datum to another in the supported arithmetic format. Any comparison with a NaN is treated as unordered. −0 and +0 compare as equal.
Required operations:
Total-ordering predicate The standard provides a predicate totalOrder, which defines a total ordering on canonical members of the supported arithmetic format. The predicate agrees with the comparison predicates when one floating-point number is less than the other. The totalOrder predicate does not impose a total ordering on all encodings in a format. In particular, it does not distinguish among different encodings of the same floating-point representation, as when one or both encodings are non-canonical. IEEE 754-2019 incorporates clarifications of totalOrder.
Required operations:
For the binary interchange formats whose encoding follows the IEEE 754-2008 recommendation on placement of the NaN signaling bit, the comparison is identical to one that type puns the floating-point numbers to a sign–magnitude integer (assuming a payload ordering consistent with this comparison), an old trick for FP comparison without an FPU.
Exception handling:
The standard defines five exceptions, each of which returns a default value and has a corresponding status flag that is raised when the exception occurs. No other exception handling is required, but additional non-default alternatives are recommended (see § Alternate exception handling).
The five possible exceptions are Invalid operation: mathematically undefined, e.g., the square root of a negative number. By default, returns qNaN.
Division by zero: an operation on finite operands gives an exact infinite result, e.g., 1/0 or log(0). By default, returns ±infinity.
Overflow: a finite result is too large to be represented accurately (i.e., its exponent with an unbounded exponent range would be larger than emax). By default, returns ±infinity for the round-to-nearest modes (and follows the rounding rules for the directed rounding modes).
Underflow: a result is very small (outside the normal range). By default, returns a number less than or equal to the minimum positive normal number in magnitude (following the rounding rules); a subnormal number always implies an underflow exception, but by default, if it is exact, no flag is raised.
Inexact: the exact (i.e., unrounded) result is not representable exactly. By default, returns the correctly rounded result.These are the same five exceptions as were defined in IEEE 754-1985, but the division by zero exception has been extended to operations other than the division.
Exception handling:
Some decimal floating-point implementations define additional exceptions, which are not part of IEEE 754: Clamped: a result's exponent is too large for the destination format. By default, trailing zeros will be added to the coefficient to reduce the exponent to the largest usable value. If this is not possible (because this would cause the number of digits needed to be more than the destination format) then an overflow exception occurs.
Exception handling:
Rounded: a result's coefficient requires more digits than the destination format provides. An inexact exception is signaled if any non-zero digits are discarded.Additionally, operations like quantize when either operand is infinite, or when the result does not fit the destination format, will also signal invalid operation exception.
Special values:
Signed zero In the IEEE 754 standard, zero is signed, meaning that there exist both a "positive zero" (+0) and a "negative zero" (−0). In most run-time environments, positive zero is usually printed as "0" and the negative zero as "-0". The two values behave as equal in numerical comparisons, but some operations return different results for +0 and −0. For instance, 1/(−0) returns negative infinity, while 1/+0 returns positive infinity (so that the identity 1/(1/±∞) = ±∞ is maintained). Other common functions with a discontinuity at x=0 which might treat +0 and −0 differently include log(x), signum(x), and the principal square root of y + xi for any negative number y. As with any approximation scheme, operations involving "negative zero" can occasionally cause confusion. For example, in IEEE 754, x = y does not always imply 1/x = 1/y, as 0 = −0 but 1/0 ≠ 1/−0.
Special values:
Subnormal numbers Subnormal values fill the underflow gap with values where the absolute distance between them is the same as for adjacent values just outside the underflow gap. This is an improvement over the older practice to just have zero in the underflow gap, and where underflowing results were replaced by zero (flush to zero).Modern floating-point hardware usually handles subnormal values (as well as normal values), and does not require software emulation for subnormals.
Special values:
Infinities The infinities of the extended real number line can be represented in IEEE floating-point datatypes, just like ordinary floating-point values like 1, 1.5, etc. They are not error values in any way, though they are often (depends on the rounding) used as replacement values when there is an overflow. Upon a divide-by-zero exception, a positive or negative infinity is returned as an exact result. An infinity can also be introduced as a numeral (like C's "INFINITY" macro, or "∞" if the programming language allows that syntax).
Special values:
IEEE 754 requires infinities to be handled in a reasonable way, such as (+∞) + (+7) = (+∞) (+∞) × (−2) = (−∞) (+∞) × 0 = NaN – there is no meaningful thing to do NaNs IEEE 754 specifies a special value called "Not a Number" (NaN) to be returned as the result of certain "invalid" operations, such as 0/0, ∞×0, or sqrt(−1). In general, NaNs will be propagated, i.e. most operations involving a NaN will result in a NaN, although functions that would give some defined result for any given floating-point value will do so for NaNs as well, e.g. NaN ^ 0 = 1. There are two kinds of NaNs: the default quiet NaNs and, optionally, signaling NaNs. A signaling NaN in any arithmetic operation (including numerical comparisons) will cause an "invalid operation" exception to be signaled.
Special values:
The representation of NaNs specified by the standard has some unspecified bits that could be used to encode the type or source of error; but there is no standard for that encoding. In theory, signaling NaNs could be used by a runtime system to flag uninitialized variables, or extend the floating-point numbers with other special values without slowing down the computations with ordinary values, although such extensions are not common.
Design rationale:
It is a common misconception that the more esoteric features of the IEEE 754 standard discussed here, such as extended formats, NaN, infinities, subnormals etc., are only of interest to numerical analysts, or for advanced numerical applications. In fact the opposite is true: these features are designed to give safe robust defaults for numerically unsophisticated programmers, in addition to supporting sophisticated numerical libraries by experts. The key designer of IEEE 754, William Kahan notes that it is incorrect to "... [deem] features of IEEE Standard 754 for Binary Floating-Point Arithmetic that ...[are] not appreciated to be features usable by none but numerical experts. The facts are quite the opposite. In 1977 those features were designed into the Intel 8087 to serve the widest possible market... Error-analysis tells us how to design floating-point arithmetic, like IEEE Standard 754, moderately tolerant of well-meaning ignorance among programmers".
Design rationale:
The special values such as infinity and NaN ensure that the floating-point arithmetic is algebraically complete: every floating-point operation produces a well-defined result and will not—by default—throw a machine interrupt or trap. Moreover, the choices of special values returned in exceptional cases were designed to give the correct answer in many cases. For instance, under IEEE 754 arithmetic, continued fractions such as R(z) := 7 − 3/[z − 2 − 1/(z − 7 + 10/[z − 2 − 2/(z − 3)])] will give the correct answer on all inputs, as the potential divide by zero, e.g. for z = 3, is correctly handled by giving +infinity, and so such exceptions can be safely ignored. As noted by Kahan, the unhandled trap consecutive to a floating-point to 16-bit integer conversion overflow that caused the loss of an Ariane 5 rocket would not have happened under the default IEEE 754 floating-point policy.
Design rationale:
Subnormal numbers ensure that for finite floating-point numbers x and y, x − y = 0 if and only if x = y, as expected, but which did not hold under earlier floating-point representations.
Design rationale:
On the design rationale of the x87 80-bit format, Kahan notes: "This Extended format is designed to be used, with negligible loss of speed, for all but the simplest arithmetic with float and double operands. For example, it should be used for scratch variables in loops that implement recurrences like polynomial evaluation, scalar products, partial and continued fractions. It often averts premature Over/Underflow or severe local cancellation that can spoil simple algorithms". Computing intermediate results in an extended format with high precision and extended exponent has precedents in the historical practice of scientific calculation and in the design of scientific calculators e.g. Hewlett-Packard's financial calculators performed arithmetic and financial functions to three more significant decimals than they stored or displayed. The implementation of extended precision enabled standard elementary function libraries to be readily developed that normally gave double precision results within one unit in the last place (ULP) at high speed.
Design rationale:
Correct rounding of values to the nearest representable value avoids systematic biases in calculations and slows the growth of errors. Rounding ties to even removes the statistical bias that can occur in adding similar figures.
Directed rounding was intended as an aid with checking error bounds, for instance in interval arithmetic. It is also used in the implementation of some functions.
Design rationale:
The mathematical basis of the operations, in particular correct rounding, allows one to prove mathematical properties and design floating-point algorithms such as 2Sum, Fast2Sum and Kahan summation algorithm, e.g. to improve accuracy or implement multiple-precision arithmetic subroutines relatively easily.A property of the single- and double-precision formats is that their encoding allows one to easily sort them without using floating-point hardware. Their bits interpreted as a two's-complement integer already sort the positives correctly, with the negatives reversed. With an xor to flip the sign bit for positive values and all bits for negative values, all the values become sortable as unsigned integers (with −0 < +0). It is unclear whether this property is intended.
Recommendations:
Alternate exception handling The standard recommends optional exception handling in various forms, including presubstitution of user-defined default values, and traps (exceptions that change the flow of control in some way) and other exception handling models that interrupt the flow, such as try/catch. The traps and other exception mechanisms remain optional, as they were in IEEE 754-1985.
Recommended operations Clause 9 in the standard recommends additional mathematical operations that language standards should define. None are required in order to conform to the standard.
Recommendations:
The following are recommended arithmetic operations, which must round correctly: ex , 2x , 10 x ex−1 , 2x−1 , 10 x−1 ln x , log 2x , log 10 x ln (1+x) , log 2(1+x) , log 10 (1+x) x2+y2 x (1+x)n x1n xn , xy sin x , cos x , tan x arcsin x , arccos x , arctan x , atan2 (y,x) sinPi sin πx , cosPi cos πx , tanPi tan πx (see also: Multiples of π) asinPi arcsin xπ , acosPi arccos xπ , atanPi arctan xπ , atan2Pi atan2 (y,x)π (see also: Multiples of π) sinh x , cosh x , tanh x arsinh x , arcosh x , artanh x The asinPi, acosPi and tanPi functions were not part of the IEEE 754-2008 standard because they were deemed less necessary. asinPi, acosPi were mentioned, but this was regarded as an error. All three were added in the 2019 revision.
Recommendations:
The recommended operations also include setting and accessing dynamic mode rounding direction, and implementation-defined vector reduction operations such as sum, scaled product, and dot product, whose accuracy is unspecified by the standard.
Recommendations:
As of 2019, augmented arithmetic operations for the binary formats are also recommended. These operations, specified for addition, subtraction and multiplication, produce a pair of values consisting of a result correctly rounded to nearest in the format and the error term, which is representable exactly in the format. At the time of publication of the standard, no hardware implementations are known, but very similar operations were already implemented in software using well-known algorithms. The history and motivation for their standardization are explained in a background document.
Recommendations:
As of 2019, the formerly required minNum, maxNum, minNumMag, and maxNumMag in IEEE 754-2008 are now deprecated due to their non-associativity. Instead, two sets of new minimum and maximum operations are recommended. The first set contains minimum, minimumNumber, maximum and maximumNumber. The second set contains minimumMagnitude, minimumMagnitudeNumber, maximumMagnitude and maximumMagnitudeNumber. The history and motivation for this change are explained in a background document.
Recommendations:
Expression evaluation The standard recommends how language standards should specify the semantics of sequences of operations, and points out the subtleties of literal meanings and optimizations that change the value of a result. By contrast, the previous 1985 version of the standard left aspects of the language interface unspecified, which led to inconsistent behavior between compilers, or different optimization levels in an optimizing compiler.
Recommendations:
Programming languages should allow a user to specify a minimum precision for intermediate calculations of expressions for each radix. This is referred to as preferredWidth in the standard, and it should be possible to set this on a per-block basis. Intermediate calculations within expressions should be calculated, and any temporaries saved, using the maximum of the width of the operands and the preferred width if set. Thus, for instance, a compiler targeting x87 floating-point hardware should have a means of specifying that intermediate calculations must use the double-extended format. The stored value of a variable must always be used when evaluating subsequent expressions, rather than any precursor from before rounding and assigning to the variable.
Recommendations:
Reproducibility The IEEE 754-1985 version of the standard allowed many variations in implementations (such as the encoding of some values and the detection of certain exceptions). IEEE 754-2008 has reduced these allowances, but a few variations still remain (especially for binary formats). The reproducibility clause recommends that language standards should provide a means to write reproducible programs (i.e., programs that will produce the same result in all implementations of a language) and describes what needs to be done to achieve reproducible results.
Character representation:
The standard requires operations to convert between basic formats and external character sequence formats. Conversions to and from a decimal character format are required for all formats. Conversion to an external character sequence must be such that conversion back using round to nearest, ties to even will recover the original number. There is no requirement to preserve the payload of a quiet NaN or signaling NaN, and conversion from the external character sequence may turn a signaling NaN into a quiet NaN.
Character representation:
The original binary value will be preserved by converting to decimal and back again using: 5 decimal digits for binary16, 9 decimal digits for binary32, 17 decimal digits for binary64, 36 decimal digits for binary128.For other binary formats, the required number of decimal digits is log 10 (2)⌉, where p is the number of significant bits in the binary format, e.g. 237 bits for binary256.
Character representation:
When using a decimal floating-point format, the decimal representation will be preserved using: 7 decimal digits for decimal32, 16 decimal digits for decimal64, 34 decimal digits for decimal128.Algorithms, with code, for correctly rounded conversion from binary to decimal and decimal to binary are discussed by Gay, and for testing – by Paxson and Kahan.
Character representation:
Hexadecimal literals The standard recommends providing conversions to and from external hexadecimal-significand character sequences, based on C99's hexadecimal floating point literals. Such a literal consists of an optional sign (+ or -), the indicator "0x", a hexadecimal number with or without a period, an exponent indicator "p", and a decimal exponent with optional sign. The syntax is not case-sensitive. The decimal exponent scales by powers of 2, so for example 0x0.1p-4 is 1/256. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Genoa Joint Laboratories**
Genoa Joint Laboratories:
Genoa Joint Laboratories (GJL) is a scientific research activity founded in 2002, combining expertise in electroceramics and electrochemistry of three facilities: National Research Council - Institute for Energetics and Interphases (CNR-IENI), Department of Chemical and Process Engineering with University of Genova (DICHeP), and the Department of Chemistry and Industrial Chemistry with University of Genova (DCCI), all located in Genoa, Italy.
Research focus:
The focus of GJL's research is across four fundamental factors that are critical to production and implementation of High-Temperature Solid Oxide Fuel Cells: Synthesis and sintering of electrolytes Cell design, testing and analysis Electrocatalysis InterconnectsBridging these four factors, GJL is engaged in research in six interdependent fields: Synthesis of cathode and anode materials for IT-SOFCs Synthesis of protonic electrolyte for IT/LT-SOFCs Production of engineered electrodes Electrochemical kinetics at the anode and cathode for SOFCs and MCFCs Study of metallic interconnect behaviour Model the distribution of active sites in composite electrodesUsing Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy, it has been found that the rate determining step of the oxygen reduction reaction changes between 700 and 800 °C. This is important because it proves the existence of a critical temperature, previously only theorised, for activation of the entire composite cathode volume close to 750 °C. Below this temperature, ionic transport is slower; as the temperature increases, so does ionic activity through the cathode. Additionally, GJL researchers have demonstrated that the volume ratio between Lanthanum Strontium Manganite (LSM) and Yttria Stabilised Zirconia (YSZ) composite cathodes which is close to 1:1 gives the best electrochemical activity because of the extension of the three phase boundary (TPB) in the electrode. By means of impedance analysis and potentiodynamic polarisation, this finding has strong implications for optimal SOFC design.
Affiliated research facilities:
National Research Council - Institute for Energetics and Interphases (CNR-IENI) [1](Italian: Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Istituto per l'Energetica e le Interfasi) Department of Chemical and Process Engineering – University of Genova (DICHeP) [2](Italian: Dipartimento di Ingegneria Chimica e di Processo)The principal element within DICHeP participating is the Electrochemistry Lab [3].
Department of Chemistry and Industrial Chemistry – University of Genova (DCCI) [4](Italian: Dipartimento di Chimica e Chimica Industriale) | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**All-trans-nonaprenyl-diphosphate synthase (geranyl-diphosphate specific)**
All-trans-nonaprenyl-diphosphate synthase (geranyl-diphosphate specific):
All-trans-nonaprenyl-diphosphate synthase (geranyl-diphosphate specific) (EC 2.5.1.84, nonaprenyl diphosphate synthase, solanesyl diphosphate synthase, SolPP synthase, SPP-synthase, SPP synthase, solanesyl-diphosphate synthase, OsSPS2) is an enzyme with systematic name geranyl-diphosphate:isopentenyl-diphosphate transtransferase (adding 7 isopentenyl units). This enzyme catalyses the following chemical reaction geranyl diphosphate + 7 isopentenyl diphosphate ⇌ 7 diphosphate + all-trans-nonaprenyl diphosphateThis enzyme is involved in the synthesis of the side chain of menaquinone-9. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Time's Arrow and Archimedes' Point**
Time's Arrow and Archimedes' Point:
Time's Arrow and Archimedes Point: New Directions for the Physics of Time is a 1996 book by Huw Price, on the physics and philosophy of the Arrow of Time. It explores the problem of the direction of time, looking at issues in thermodynamics, cosmology, electromagnetism, and quantum mechanics. Price argues that it is fruitful to think about time from a hypothetical Archimedean Point - a viewpoint outside of time. In later chapters, Price argues that retrocausality can resolve many of the philosophical issues facing quantum mechanics and along these lines proposes an interpretation involving what he calls 'advanced action'.
Summary:
Chapter 1 - The View From Nowhen Price briefly introduces the stock philosophical questions about time, starting with Saint Augustine's observations in Confessions, highlighting the questions 'What is the difference between past and future?', 'Could the future affect the past?' and 'what gives time its direction?'.
Summary:
He then introduces the block universe view where the 'present' is regarded as a subjective notion, which changes from observer to observer, in the same way that the concept of 'here' changes depending on where the observer is. The block universe view rejects the notion that there exists an objective present and grants that the past, present and future are all equally real. He then surveys reasons to favour this view and common objections to it. Price then introduces the idea of viewing the block universe from an Archimedean Point from outside of time, which is the view that is taken in the rest of the book.
Summary:
Finally, Price introduces two problems regarding the Arrow of Time, which he calls the taxonomy problem and the genealogy problem. The taxonomy problem is the problem characterizing and finding the relationship between different arrows of time (e.g. the thermodynamic and cosmological arrows of time). The genealogy problem is to explain why asymmetries (ie arrows) exist in time, given that the laws of physics seem to be reversible (i.e. symmetric) in time.
Summary:
Chapter 2 - "More apt to be Lost than Got": The Lessons of the Second Law Covers the thermodynamics arrow of time, arising from the Second Law of Thermodynamics. Discusses Ludwig Boltzmann and his development of the second law as a statistical law. The chapter also discusses Boltzmann's H-Theorem and Loschmidt's Paradox. Price takes a time-symmetric view and comes to the conclusion that the mystery of the second law is not the question of the why entropy increases, but why entropy was low at the beginning of the universe. Taking a time-symmetric view, he then speculates that entropy may decrease again, reaching a minimum at the end of the universe.
Summary:
Chapter 3 - New Light of the Arrow of Radiation This chapter discusses the apparent asymmetry of radiation. Namely, radiation is often observed spreading outwards from a source, but coherent radiation is not observed converging in a sink. Price criticizes explanations of this phenomenon from Karl Popper and Paul Davies and Dieter Zeh. The Wheeler–Feynman absorber theory is discussed and Price concludes that the arrow of time from radiation is a more general case of the thermodynamic arrow of time.
Summary:
Chapter 4 - Arrows and Errors in Contemporary Cosmology In this chapter Price tackles the problem of why entropy was low at the big bang and whether or not we should expect entropy to be low at the other temporal extreme of the universe. He introduces the Gold Universe model, which suggests that the universe will begin and end in a low entropy state. Explanations from Stephen Hawking and Paul Davies of the low entropy big bang are scrutinized. Price concludes that both Hawking and Davies apply a 'temporal double standard' with different standards being applied towards the past and the future. Thus, Price concludes that the arguments are flawed. The Gold Universe view is defended and some of its implications are explored.
Summary:
Chapter 5 - Innocence and Symmetry in Microphysics Price explores what he calls 'The Principle of Independence of Incoming Influences', which is the idea that systems are uncorrelated before they interact, but become correlated after interaction. He distinguishes two versions of this claim. The first is the macroscopic version which Price claims is associated with the low entropy past. The second is the microscopic version, which Price terms μInnocence. Price argues that, while the low entropy past gives us some reason to accept the macroscopic version, there is less reason to accept μInnocence. It is argued that, while μInnocence is intuitively plausible, it arises from a temporal double standard with respect to causality.
Summary:
Chapter 6 - In Search of the Third Arrow This chapter explores the idea of causation. Price argues that ideas about causation exert greater influence on physicists than is generally acknowledged. He explores the argument that the temporal asymmetry of causation comes from physical asymmetry, but ultimately finds this argument unconvincing, especially on the microscopic level. He concludes the chapter by claiming that the most plausible explanation is that the apparent asymmetry of causation is anthropocentric. That is: causation is not asymmetric in time, but we view it as being so because we (human beings) are ourselves thermodynamically asymmetric in time.
Summary:
Chapter 7 - Convention Objectified and the Past Unlocked The chapter introduces the 'conventionalist view' of causation: that the direction of causation is an anthropocentric convention and addresses some common criticisms of the view. The 'bilking argument' against retrocausality is introduced, and Michael Dummett's strategy for avoiding paradoxes in a world with retrocausality is examined.
Summary:
Chapter 8 - Einstein's Issue: The Puzzle of Contemporary Quantum Theory This chapter is a self-contained introduction to quantum mechanics. It introduces the EPR paradox and the measurement problem. Bell's Theorem and the GHZ experiment are then introduced in the context of hidden-variables interpretations of quantum mechanics. De Broglie–Bohm theory, the Many-worlds interpretation, the Many-minds interpretation and the quantum decoherence approach are all examined, though Price finds them all ultimately unconvincing. He points out that Bell's theorem relies on the assumption that, when a measurement basis is chosen, this choice is independent of the state of the quantum system being measured. This, he points out, would not necessarily be the case in a world with advanced action.
Summary:
Chapter 9 - The Case for Advanced Action Price notes that the independence assumption in Bell's Theorem can be relaxed in two ways: the first being that the measurement basis and the state of the quantum system are correlated through a common cause in the past, and the second being what Price calls 'advanced action' - a 'common cause' in the future. He argues against superdeterminism, the idea that a quantum system and measurement apparatus are correlated due to a common cause in the past. In contrast, he suggests that the 'advanced action' interpretation is elegant and appealing and fits in better with his 'Archimedean viewpoint'. He briefly discusses the relationship between advanced action and free will.
Release:
The book was published by Oxford University Press on the 9th October 1997. It was initially released in hardback, but is now available in hardback, paperback and ebook formats.
Reception:
Time's Arrow and Archimedes' Point was generally well received. Many reviewers found Price's arguments stimulating and praised his explanations of the issues. However, many took issues with some of his specific arguments.
Reception:
Joel Lebowitz gave the book a mixed review for Physics Today where he called Price's arguments regarding backward causation "unconvincing", but praised the section on quantum mechanics, writing "his discussion ... of the Bohr-Einstein 'debate' about the completeness of the quantum description of reality is better than much of the physics literature".Peter Coveney gave the book a mixed review for the New Scientist, criticizing Price's treatment of non-equilibrium statistical mechanics, but concluding by saying "[a]lthough I didn't find many of the arguments convincing, Price's book is a useful addition to the literature on time, particularly as it reveals the influence of modern science on the way a philosopher thinks. But given its restricted and idiosyncratic character, this book should be read only in conjunction with more broadly based works."John D. Barrow reviewed the book in Nature, strongly criticizing the chapter on the cosmological arrow of time but writing "the author has done physicists a great service in laying out so clearly and critically the nature of the various time-asymmetry problems of physics".Craig Callender gave the book a detailed, positive review for The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science, calling it "exceptionally readable and entertaining" as well as "a highly original and important contribution to the philosophy and physics of time".Gordon Belot reviewed the book for The Philosophical Review, writing "[t]his is a fertile and fascinating area, and Price's book provides an exciting entree, even if it does not provide all the answers" .Carlo Rovelli chose the book as one of his favourite books on the subject of time, calling Huw Price one of the best living philosophers" and saying that it "teaches us an important lesson: we are so used to think time as naturally oriented that we instinctively think that the future is determined by the past even if we try not to" | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Chunking (psychology)**
Chunking (psychology):
In cognitive psychology, chunking is a process by which small individual pieces of a set of information are bound together to create a meaningful whole later on in memory. The chunks, by which the information is grouped, are meant to improve short-term retention of the material, thus bypassing the limited capacity of working memory and allowing the working memory to be more efficient. A chunk is a collection of basic units that are strongly associated with one another, and have been grouped together and stored in a person's memory. These chunks can be retrieved easily due to their coherent grouping. It is believed that individuals create higher-order cognitive representations of the items within the chunk. The items are more easily remembered as a group than as the individual items themselves. These chunks can be highly subjective because they rely on an individual's perceptions and past experiences, which are linked to the information set. The size of the chunks generally ranges from two to six items but often differs based on language and culture.According to Johnson (1970), there are four main concepts associated with the memory process of chunking: chunk, memory code, decode and recode. The chunk, as mentioned prior, is a sequence of to-be-remembered information that can be composed of adjacent terms. These items or information sets are to be stored in the same memory code. The process of recoding is where one learns the code for a chunk, and decoding is when the code is translated into the information that it represents.
Chunking (psychology):
The phenomenon of chunking as a memory mechanism is easily observed in the way individuals group numbers, and information, in day-to-day life. For example, when recalling a number such as 12101946, if numbers are grouped as 12, 10, and 1946, a mnemonic is created for this number as a month, day, and year. It would be stored as December 10, 1946, instead of a string of numbers. Similarly, another illustration of the limited capacity of working memory as suggested by George Miller can be seen from the following example: While recalling a mobile phone number such as 9849523450, we might break this into 98 495 234 50. Thus, instead of remembering 10 separate digits that are beyond the putative "seven plus-or-minus two" memory span, we are remembering four groups of numbers. An entire chunk can also be remembered simply by storing the beginnings of a chunk in the working memory, resulting in the long-term memory recovering the remainder of the chunk.
Modality effect:
A modality effect is present in chunking. That is, the mechanism used to convey the list of items to the individual affects how much "chunking" occurs.
Modality effect:
Experimentally, it has been found that auditory presentation results in a larger amount of grouping in the responses of individuals than visual presentation does. Previous literature, such as George Miller's The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on our Capacity for Processing Information (1956) has shown that the probability of recall of information is greater when the chunking strategy is used. As stated above, the grouping of the responses occurs as individuals place them into categories according to their inter-relatedness based on semantic and perceptual properties. Lindley (1966) showed that since the groups produced have meaning to the participant, this strategy makes it easier for an individual to recall and maintain information in memory during studies and testing. Therefore, when "chunking" is used as a strategy, one can expect a higher proportion of correct recalls.
Memory training systems, mnemonic:
Various kinds of memory training systems and mnemonics include training and drills in specially-designed recoding or chunking schemes. Such systems existed before Miller's paper, but there was no convenient term to describe the general strategy and no substantive and reliable research. The term "chunking" is now often used in reference to these systems. As an illustration, patients with Alzheimer's disease typically experience working memory deficits; chunking is an effective method to improve patients' verbal working memory performance. Patients with Schizophrenia also experience working memory deficits which influence executive function; memory training procedures positively influence cognitive and rehabilitative outcomes. Chunking has been proven to decrease the load on the working memory in many ways. As well as remembering chunked information easier, a person can also recall other non-chunked memories easier due to the benefits chunking has on the working memory. For instance, in one study, participants with more specialized knowledge could reconstruct sequences of Chess moves because they had larger chunks of procedural knowledge, which means that the level of expertise and the sorting order of the information retrieved is essential in the influence of procedural knowledge chunks retained in short-term memory. Chunking has been shown to have an influence in linguistics, such as boundary perception.
Efficient Chunk sizes:
According to the research conducted by Dirlam (1972), a mathematical analysis was conducted to see what the efficient chunk size is. We’re familiar with the size range that chunking holds, but Dirlam (1972) wanted to discover the most efficient chunk size. The mathematical findings have discovered that four or three items in each chunk is the most optimal.
Channel capacity, "Magic number seven", Increase of short-term memory:
The word chunking comes from a famous 1956 paper by George A. Miller, "The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on Our Capacity for Processing Information". At a time when information theory was beginning to be applied in psychology, Miller observed that some human cognitive tasks fit the model of a "channel capacity" characterized by a roughly constant capacity in bits, but short-term memory did not. A variety of studies could be summarized by saying that short-term memory had a capacity of about "seven plus-or-minus two" chunks. Miller (1956) wrote, "With binary items, the span is about nine and, although it drops to about five with monosyllabic English words, the difference is far less than the hypothesis of constant information would require (see also, memory span). The span of immediate memory seems to be almost independent of the number of bits per chunk, at least over the range that has been examined to date." Miller acknowledged that "we are not very definite about what constitutes a chunk of information."Miller (1956) noted that according to this theory, it should be possible to increase short-term memory for low-information-content items effectively by mentally recoding them into a smaller number of high-information-content items. He imagined this process is useful in scenarios such as "a man just beginning to learn radio-telegraphic code hears each dit and dah as a separate chunk. Soon he is able to organize these sounds into letters and then he can deal with the letters as chunks. Then the letters organize themselves as words, which are still larger chunks, and he begins to hear whole phrases." Thus, a telegrapher can effectively "remember" several dozen dits and dahs as a single phrase. Naïve subjects can remember a maximum of only nine binary items, but Miller reports a 1954 experiment in which people were trained to listen to a string of binary digits and (in one case) mentally group them into groups of five, recode each group into a name (for example, "twenty-one" for 10101), and remember the names. With sufficient practice, people found it possible to remember as many as forty binary digits. Miller wrote: It is a little dramatic to watch a person get 40 binary digits in a row and then repeat them back without error. However, if you think of this merely as a mnemonic trick for extending the memory span, you will miss the more important point that is implicit in nearly all such mnemonic devices. The point is that recoding is an extremely powerful weapon for increasing the amount of information that we can deal with.
Expertise and skilled memory effects:
Studies have shown that people have better memories when they are trying to remember items with which they are familiar. Similarly, people tend to create familiar chunks. This familiarity allows one to remember more individual pieces of content, and also more chunks as a whole. One well-known chunking study was conducted by Chase and Ericsson, who worked with an undergraduate student, SF, for over two years. They wanted to see if a person's digit span memory could be improved with practice. SF began the experiment with a normal span of 7 digits. SF was a long-distance runner, and chunking strings of digits into race times increased his digit span. By the end of the experiment, his digit span had grown to 80 numbers. A later description of the research in The Brain-Targeted Teaching Model for 21st Century Schools states that SF later expanded his strategy by incorporating ages and years, but his chunks were always familiar, which allowed him to recall them more easily. It is important to note that a person who does not have knowledge in the expert domain (e.g. being familiar with mile/marathon times) would have difficulty chunking with race times and ultimately be unable to memorize as many numbers using this method. The idea that a person who does not have knowledge in the expert domain would have difficulty chunking could also be seen in an experiment of novice and expert hikers to see if they could remember different mountain scenes. From this study, it was found that the expert hikers had better recall and recognition of structured stimuli. Another example could be seen with expert musicians in being able to chunk and recall encoded material that best meets the demands they are presented with at any given moment during the performance. Chunking and memory in chess revisited Previous research has shown that chunking is an effective tool for enhancing memory capacity due to the nature of grouping individual pieces into larger, more meaningful groups that are easier to remember. Chunking is a popular tool for people who play chess, specifically a master. Chase and Simon (1973a) discovered that the skill levels of chess players are attributed to long-term memory storage and the ability to copy and recollect thousands of chunks. The process helps acquire knowledge at a faster pace. Since it is an excellent tool for enhancing memory, a chess player who utilizes chunking has a higher chance of success. According to Chase and Simon, while re-examining (1973b), an expert chess master is able to access information in long-term memory storage quickly due to the ability to recall chunks. Chunks stored in long-term memory are related to the decision of the movement of board pieces due to obvious patterns.
Expertise and skilled memory effects:
Chunking models for education Many years of research has concluded that chunking is a reliable process for gaining knowledge and organization of information. Chunking provides explanation to the behavior of experts, such as a teacher. A teacher can utilize chunking in their classroom as a way to teach the curriculum. Gobet (2005) proposed that teachers can use chunking as a method to segment the curriculum into natural components. A student learns better when focusing on key features of material, so it is important to create the segments to highlight the important information. By understanding the process of how an expert is formed, it is possible to find general mechanisms for learning that can be implemented into classrooms.
Chunking in motor learning:
Chunking is a method of learning that can be applied in a number of contexts and is not limited to learning verbal material. Karl Lashley, in his classic paper on serial order, argued that the sequential responses that appear to be organized in a linear and flat fashion concealed an underlying hierarchical structure. This was then demonstrated in motor control by Rosenbaum et al. in 1983. Thus sequences can consist of sub-sequences and these can, in turn, consist of sub-sub-sequences. Hierarchical representations of sequences have an advantage over linear representations: They combine efficient local action at low hierarchical levels while maintaining the guidance of an overall structure. While the representation of a linear sequence is simple from a storage point of view, there can be potential problems during retrieval. For instance, if there is a break in the sequence chain, subsequent elements will become inaccessible. On the other hand, a hierarchical representation would have multiple levels of representation. A break in the link between lower-level nodes does not render any part of the sequence inaccessible, since the control nodes (chunk nodes) at the higher level would still be able to facilitate access to the lower-level nodes. Chunks in motor learning are identified by pauses between successive actions in Terrace (2001). It is also suggested that during the sequence performance stage (after learning), participants download list items as chunks during pauses. He also argued for an operational definition of chunks suggesting a distinction between the notions of input and output chunks from the ideas of short-term and long-term memory. Input chunks reflect the limitation of working memory during the encoding of new information (how new information is stored in long-term memory), and how it is retrieved during subsequent recall. Output chunks reflect the organization of over-learned motor programs that are generated on-line in working memory. Sakai et al. (2003) showed that participants spontaneously organize a sequence into a number of chunks across a few sets and that these chunks were distinct among participants tested on the same sequence. They also demonstrated that the performance of a shuffled sequence was poorer when the chunk patterns were disrupted than when the chunk patterns were preserved. Chunking patterns also seem to depend on the effectors used.
Chunking in motor learning:
Perlman found in his series of experiments that tasks that are larger in size and broken down into smaller sections had faster respondents than the task as a large whole. The study suggests that chunking a larger task into a smaller more manageable task can produce a better outcome. The research also found that completing the task in a coherent order rather than swapping from one task to another can also produce a better outcome.
Chunking in infants:
Chunking is used in adults in different ways which can include low-level perceptual features, category membership, semantic relatedness, and statistical co-occurrences between items. Although due to recent studies we are starting to realize that infants also use chunking. They also use different types of knowledges to help them with chunking like conceptual knowledge, spatiotemporal cue knowledge, and knowledge of their social domain.
Chunking in infants:
There have been studies that use different chunking models like PARSER and the Bayesian model. PARSER is a chunking model designed to account for human behavior by implementing psychologically plausible processes of attention, memory, and associative learning. In a recent study, it was determined that these chunking models like PARSER are seen in infants more than chunking models like Bayesian. PARSER is seen more because it is typically endowed with the ability to process up to three chunks simultaneously.When it comes to infants using their social knowledge they need to use abstract knowledge and subtle cues because they can not create a perception of their social group on their own. Infants can form chunks using shared features or spatial proximity between objects.
Chunking in infants:
Chunking in seven-month-old infants Previous research shows that the mechanism of chunking is available in seven-month-old infants. This means that chunking can occur even before the working memory capacity has completely developed. Knowing that the working memory has a very limited capacity, it can be beneficial to utilize chunking. In infants, whose working memory capacity is not completely developed, it can be even more helpful to chunk memories. These studies were done using the violation-of-expectation method and recording the amount of time the infants watched the objects in front of them. Although the experiment showed that infants can use chunking, researchers also concluded that an infant's ability to chunk memories will continue to develop over the next year of their lives.
Chunking in infants:
Chunking in 14-month-old infants Working memory appears to store no more than three objects at a time in newborns and early toddlers. A study conducted in 2014 on, Infants use temporal regularities to chunk objects in memory allowed for new information and knowledge. This research has shown that 14-month-old infants, like adults, can chunk using their knowledge of object categories: they remembered four total objects when an array contained two tokens of two different types (e.g., two cats and two cars), but not when the array contained four tokens of the same type (e.g., four different cats). It demonstrates that newborns may employ spatial closeness to tie representations of particular items into chunks, benefiting memory performance as a result. Despite the fact that newborns' working memory capacity is restricted, they may employ numerous forms of information to tie representations of individual things into chunks, enhancing memory efficiency.
Chunking as the learning of long-term memory structures:
This usage derives from Miller's (1956) idea of chunking as grouping, but the emphasis is now on long-term memory rather than only on short-term memory. A chunk can then be defined as "a collection of elements having strong associations with one another, but weak associations with elements within other chunks". The emphasis of chunking on long-term memory is supported by the idea that chunking only exists in long-term memory, but it assists with redintegration, which is involved in the recall of information in short-term memory. It may be easier to recall information in short-term memory if the information has been represented through chunking in long-term memory. Norris and Kalm (2021) argued that “redintegration can be achieved by treating recall from memory as a process of Bayesian inference whereby representations of chunks in LTM (long-term memory) provide the priors that can be used to interpret a degraded representation in STM (short-term memory)”. In Bayesian inference, priors refer to the initial beliefs regarding the relative frequency of an event occurring instead of other plausible events occurring. When one who holds the initial beliefs receives more information, one will determine the likelihood of each of the plausible events that could happen and thus predict the specific event that will occur. Chunks in long-term memory are involved in forming the priors, and they assist with determining the likelihood and prediction of the recall of information in short-term memory. For example, if an acronym and its full meaning already exist in long-term memory, the recall of information regarding that acronym will be easier in short-term memory.Chase and Simon in 1973 and later Gobet, Retschitzki, and de Voogt in 2004 showed that chunking could explain several phenomena linked to expertise in chess. Following a brief exposure to pieces on a chessboard, skilled chess players were able to encode and recall much larger chunks than novice chess players. However, this effect is mediated by specific knowledge of the rules of chess; when pieces were distributed randomly (including scenarios that were not common or allowed in real games), the difference in chunk size between skilled and novice chess players was significantly reduced. Several successful computational models of learning and expertise have been developed using this idea, such as EPAM (Elementary Perceiver and Memorizer) and CHREST (Chunk Hierarchy and Retrieval Structures). Chunking may be demonstrated in the acquisition of a memory skill, which was demonstrated by S. F., an undergraduate student with average memory and intelligence, who increased his digit span from seven to almost 80 within 20 months or after at least 230 hours. S. F. was able to improve his digit span partly through mnemonic associations, which is a form of chunking. S. F. associated digits, which were unfamiliar information to him, with running times, ages, and dates, which were familiar information to him. Ericsson et al. (1980) initially hypothesized that S. F. increased digit span was due to an increase in his short-term memory capacity. However, they rejected this hypothesis when they found that his short-memory capacity was always the same, considering that he “chunked” only three to four digits at once. Furthermore, he never rehearsed more than six digits at once nor rehearsed more than four groups in a supergroup. Lastly, if his short-term memory capacity increased, then he would have shown a greater capacity for the alphabets; he did not. Based on these contradictions, Ericsson et al. (1980) later concluded that S. F. was able to increase his digit span due to “the use of mnemonic associations in long-term memory,” which further supports that chunking may exist in short-term memory rather than long-term memory.
Chunking as the learning of long-term memory structures:
Chunking has also been used with models of language acquisition. The use of chunk-based learning in language has been shown to be helpful. Understanding a group of basic words and then giving different categories of associated words to build on comprehension has shown to be an effective way to teach reading and language to children. Research studies have found that adults and infants were able to parse the words of a made-up language when they were exposed to a continuous auditory sequence of words arranged in random order. One of the explanations was that they may parse the words using small chunks that correspond to the made-up language. Subsequent studies have supported that when learning involves statistical probabilities (e.g., transitional probabilities in language), it may be better explained via chunking models. Franco and Destrebecqz (2012) further studied chunking in language acquisition and found that the presentation of a temporal cue was associated with a reliable prediction of the chunking model regarding learning, but the absence of the cue was associated with increased sensitivity to the strength of transitional probabilities. Their findings suggest that the chunking model can only explain certain aspects of learning, specifically language acquisition.
Chunking learning style and short-term memory:
Norris conducted a study in 2020 of chunking and short-term memory recollection and found that when a chunk is given it is stored as a single item even though it is a relatively large amount of information. This finding suggests that chunks should be less susceptible to decay or interference when they are recalled. The study used visual stimuli where all the items were given simultaneously. Items of two and three were found to be recalled easier than singles, and more singles were recalled when in a group with threes.Chunking can be form of data suppression that allows for more information to be stored in short-term memory. Rather than verbal short-memory measured by the number of items stored, Miller (1956) suggested that verbal short-term memory are stored as chunks. Later studies were done to determine if chunking was a form data compression when there is limited space for memory. Chunking works as data compression when it comes to redundant information and it allows for more information to be stored in short-term memory. However, memory capacity may vary.
Chunking and working memory:
A experiment was done to see how chunking could beneficial to patients who had Alzheimer’s disease. This study was based on the how chunking was used to improve working memory in normal young people. Working memory is impaired in the early stages of Alzheimer's disease affects the ability to everyday task. It also affects executive control of working memory. It was found that participants who has mild Alzheimer's disease were able to use working memory strategies to enhance verbal and spatial working memory performance.It has been long thought that chunking can improve working memory. A study was done to see how chunking can improve working memory when it came to symbolic sequences and gating mechanisms. This was done by having 25 participants learn 16 sequences through trial and error. The target was presented alongside a distractor and participants were to able to identify the target by using right or left buttons on a computer mouse. The final analysis was done on only 19 participants. The results showed that chunking does improve symbolic sequence performance through decreasing cognitive load and real-time strategy. Chunking has provided to be effective in reducing the load on adding items into the working memory. Having chunking allows for more items to be encoded into working memory with more availably to transfer into the long-term memory.
Chunking and Two-Factor Theory:
Chekaf, Cowan, and Mathy (2016) looked at how immediate memory relates to the formation of chunks. In the immediate memory, they came up with a two-factor theory of the formation of chunks. These factors are compressibility and the order of the information. Compressibility refers to making information more compact and condensed. The material is transformed from something complex to something more simplified. Thus, compressibility relates to chunking due to the predictability factor. As for the second factor, the sequence of the information can impact what is being discovered. So the order, along with the process of compressing the material, may increase the probability that chunking occurs. These two factors interact with one another and matter in the concept of chunking. Chekaf, Cowan, and Mathy (2016) gave an example where the material “1,2,3,4” can be compressed to “numbers one through four.” However, if the material was presented as “1,3,2,4” you cannot compress it because the order in which it’s presented is different. Therefore, compressibility and order play an important role in chunking. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Avulsion injury**
Avulsion injury:
In medicine, an avulsion is an injury in which a body structure is torn off by either trauma or surgery (from the Latin avellere, meaning "to tear off"). The term most commonly refers to a surface trauma where all layers of the skin have been torn away, exposing the underlying structures (i.e., subcutaneous tissue, muscle, tendons, or bone). This is similar to an abrasion but more severe, as body parts such as an eyelid or an ear can be partially or fully detached from the body.
Skin avulsions:
The most common avulsion injury, skin avulsion often occurs during motor vehicle collisions. The severity of avulsion ranges from skin flaps (minor) to degloving (moderate) and amputation of a finger or limb (severe). Suprafascial avulsions are those in which the depth of the removed skin reaches the subcutaneous tissue layer, while subfascial avulsions extend deeper than the subcutaneous layer. Small suprafascial avulsions can be repaired by suturing, but most avulsions require skin grafts or reconstructive surgery.
Skin avulsions:
Rock climbing In rock climbing, a "flapper" is an injury in which parts of the skin are torn off, resulting in a loose flap of skin on the fingers. This is usually the result of friction forces between the climber's fingers and the holds, arising when the climber slips off a hold.
To fix this injury and to be able to continue climbing, many climbers will apply sports tape to the flapped finger to cover up the sensitive area of broken skin. Some climbers may even use super-glue to adhere the loose skin back to the finger.
Ear avulsions:
The ear is particularly vulnerable to avulsion injuries because of its position on the side of the head. The most common cause of ear avulsions is human bites, followed by falls, motor vehicle collisions, and dog bites. A partially avulsed ear can be reattached through suturing or microvascular surgery, depending on the severity of the injury. Microvascular surgery can also be used to reattach a completely avulsed ear, but its success rate is lower because of the need for venous drainage. The ear can also be reconstructed with cartilage and skin grafts or an external ear prosthesis can be made by an anaplastologist.
Eyelid avulsions:
Eyelid avulsions are uncommon, but can be caused by motor vehicle collisions, dog bites, or human bites. Eyelid avulsions are repaired by suturing after a CT scan is performed to determine where damage to the muscles, nerves, and blood vessels of the eyelid has occurred. More severe injuries require reconstruction, however, this usually results in some loss of function and subsequent surgeries may be necessary to improve structure and function. Microvascular surgery is another method of repair but is rarely used to treat eye avulsions. Sometimes botulinum toxin is injected into the eyelid to paralyze the muscles while the eyelid heals.
Nail avulsions:
Trauma to the nail can cause the nail plate to be torn from the nail bed. Unlike other types of avulsion, when a nail is lost, it is not typically reattached. Following the loss of the nail, the nail bed forms a germinal layer which hardens as the cells acquire keratin and becomes a new nail. Until this layer has formed, the exposed nail bed is highly sensitive, and is typically covered with a non-adherent dressing, as an ordinary dressing will stick to the nail bed and cause pain upon removal. In the average person, fingernails require 3 to 6 months to regrow completely, while toenails require 12 to 18 months.
Brachial plexus avulsions:
In brachial plexus avulsions, the brachial plexus (a bundle of nerves that communicates signals between the spine and the arms, shoulders, and hands) is torn from its attachment to the spinal cord. One common cause of brachial plexus avulsions is when a baby's shoulders rotate in the birth canal during delivery, which causes the brachial plexus to stretch and tear. It occurs in 1 to 2 out of every 1,000 births. Shoulder trauma during motor vehicle collisions is another common cause of brachial plexus avulsions. Detachment of the nerves can cause pain and loss of function in the arms, shoulders, and hands. Neuropathic pain can be treated with medication, but it is only through surgical reattachment or nerve grafts that function can be restored. For intractable pain, a procedure called dorsal root entry zone (DREZ) lesioning can be effective.
Tooth avulsions:
During a tooth avulsion, a tooth is completely or partially (such that the dental pulp is exposed) detached from its socket. Secondary (permanent) teeth can be replaced and stabilised by a dentist. Primary (baby) teeth are not replaced because they tend to become infected and to interfere with the growth of the secondary teeth. A completely avulsed tooth that is replaced within one hour of the injury can be permanently retained. The long-term retention rate decreases as the time that the tooth is detached increases, and eventually root resorption makes replacement of the tooth impossible. To minimize damage to the root, the tooth should be kept in milk or sterile saline while it is outside the mouth.
Periosteal avulsions:
During a periosteal avulsion, the periosteum (a fibrous layer that surrounds a bone) detaches the bone's surface. An example of a periosteal avulsion is an ALPSA (anterior labral periosteal sleeve avulsion).
Surgical avulsions:
An avulsion is sometimes performed surgically to relieve symptoms of a disorder, or to prevent a chronic condition from recurring. Small incision avulsion (also called ambulatory phlebectomy) is used to remove varicose veins from the legs in disorders such as chronic venous insufficiency. A nail avulsion is performed to remove all or part of a chronic ingrown nail. Facial nerve avulsion is used to treat the involuntary twitching involved in benign essential blepharospasm. However, it often requires additional surgeries to retain function and botulinum toxin injections have been shown to be more effective than surgical avulsions in treating benign essential blepharospasm, while causing fewer complications. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Jean Walrand**
Jean Walrand:
Jean Camille Walrand is a professor of Computer Science at UC Berkeley. He received his Ph.D. from the Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences department at the University of California, Berkeley, and has been on the faculty of that department since 1982. He is the author of "An Introduction to Queueing Networks" (Prentice Hall, 1988), "Communication Networks: A First Course" (2nd ed. McGraw-Hill, 1998), "Probability in Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences: An Application-Driven Course" (Amazon, 2014), and "Uncertainty: A User Guide" (Amazon, 2019), and co-author of "High-Performance Communication Networks" (2nd ed, Morgan Kaufmann, 2000), "Communication Networks: A Concise Introduction" (Morgan & Claypool, 2010), "Scheduling and Congestion Control for Communication and Processing networks" (Morgan & Claypool, 2010), and "Sharing Network Resources" (Morgan & Claypool, 2014). His research interests include stochastic processes, queuing theory, communication networks, game theory, and the economics of the Internet.
Jean Walrand:
Walrand has received numerous awards for his work over the years. He is a Fellow of the Belgian American Education Foundation and of the IEEE. Additionally, he is a recipient of the Lanchester Prize, the Stephen O. Rice Prize., the IEEE Kobayashi Award, and the ACM SIGMETRICS Achievement award. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Web Techniques**
Web Techniques:
Web Techniques (ISSN 1086-556X) was a monthly magazine published in the United States by CMP Technology. It covered topics aimed at web developers. It ran from February 1996 until its last issue in February 2002, after which it changed formats and titles, becoming New Architect.
Columns:
Programming with Perl, by Randal L. Schwartz At Your Server, by Jim Jagielski Java@Work, by Al Williams
Awards:
Maggie Award, Best Signed Editorial in a trade publication, 2001 | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Partial autocorrelation function**
Partial autocorrelation function:
In time series analysis, the partial autocorrelation function (PACF) gives the partial correlation of a stationary time series with its own lagged values, regressed the values of the time series at all shorter lags. It contrasts with the autocorrelation function, which does not control for other lags.
Partial autocorrelation function:
This function plays an important role in data analysis aimed at identifying the extent of the lag in an autoregressive (AR) model. The use of this function was introduced as part of the Box–Jenkins approach to time series modelling, whereby plotting the partial autocorrelative functions one could determine the appropriate lags p in an AR (p) model or in an extended ARIMA (p,d,q) model.
Definition:
Given a time series zt , the partial autocorrelation of lag k , denoted ϕk,k , is the autocorrelation between zt and zt+k with the linear dependence of zt on zt+1 through zt+k−1 removed. Equivalently, it is the autocorrelation between zt and zt+k that is not accounted for by lags 1 through k−1 , inclusive.where z^t+k and z^t are linear combinations of {zt+1,zt+2,...,zt+k−1} that minimize the mean squared error of zt+k and zt respectively. For stationary processes, the coefficients in z^t+k and z^t are the same, but reversed:
Calculation:
The theoretical partial autocorrelation function of a stationary time series can be calculated by using the Durbin–Levinson Algorithm:where ϕn,k=ϕn−1,k−ϕn,nϕn−1,n−k for 1≤k≤n−1 and ρ(n) is the autocorrelation function.The formula above can be used with sample autocorrelations to find the sample partial autocorrelation function of any given time series.
Examples:
The following table summarizes the partial autocorrelation function of different models: The behavior of the partial autocorrelation function mirrors that of the autocorrelation function for autoregressive and moving-average models. For example, the partial autocorrelation function of an AR(p) series cuts off after lag p similar to the autocorrelation function of an MA(q) series with lag q. In addition, the autocorrelation function of an AR(p) process tails off just like the partial autocorrelation function of an MA(q) process.
Autoregressive model identification:
Partial autocorrelation is a commonly used tool for identifying the order of an autoregressive model. As previously mentioned, the partial autocorrelation of an AR(p) process is zero at lags greater than p. If an AR model is determined to be appropriate, then the sample partial autocorrelation plot is examined to help identify the order.
Autoregressive model identification:
The partial autocorrelation of lags greater than p for an AR(p) time series are approximately independent and normal with a mean of 0. Therefore, a confidence interval can be constructed by dividing a selected z-score by n . Lags with partial autocorrelations outside of the confidence interval indicate that the AR model's order is likely greater than or equal to the lag. Plotting the partial autocorrelation function and drawing the lines of the confidence interval is a common way to analyze the order of an AR model. To evaluate the order, one examines the plot to find the lag after which the partial autocorrelations are all within the confidence interval. This lag is determined to likely be the AR model's order. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Glulx**
Glulx:
Glulx is a 32-bit portable virtual machine intended for writing and playing interactive fiction. It was designed by Andrew Plotkin to relieve some of the restrictions in the venerable Z-machine format. For example, the Z-machine provides native support for 16-bit integers, while Glulx natively supports 32-bit integers.
Versions and popularity:
The Inform compiler, starting with version 6.30, can produce either Z-machine or Glulx story files. A Spanish interactive fiction development system called Superglús also uses Glulx.
Glulx continues to trail the Z-machine in popularity despite being a virtual machine more suited for contemporary computing hardware and as accessible to developers. This is partly because interpreters are more scarce than on the Z-machine. The most popular interpreter for Glulx is Andrew Plotkin's Glulxe. Glulxe uses the Glk API for input and output.
File and email extensions:
The MIME type for Glulx is "application/x-glulx".
Glulx files have the file extension .ulx, but they are commonly archived in Blorb packages. For Blorb packages containing a Glulx work, accepted file extensions are .gblorb, .glb, .blorb and .blb. The former two extensions are intended to make it easy for interpreters to figure out which type of game is inside the Blorb file. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Memetracker**
Memetracker:
A memetracker is a tool for studying the migration of memes across a group of people. The term is typically used to describe websites that either: analyze blog posts to determine what web pages are being discussed or cited most often on the World Wide Web, or allow users to vote for links to web pages that they find of interest.Sites in the latter group are often referred to as social media sites.
Sample systems:
The original publicly viewable memetracker was Blogdex, which is now defunct. However, many sites inspired by it exist today, such as: Digg.com (a popular social media site) Slashdot Reddit Technorati Techmeme Polymeme WikioMemetrackers are frequently characterized by purely automatic operation in determining the most popular links, though many modern sites incorporate some level of human editorial control in an effort to combat spam links and other efforts to exploit the services commercially.
Sample systems:
The introduction of memetrackers was instrumental in the rise of blogs as a serious competitor to traditional printed news media. Through automating (or reducing to one click) the effort to spread ideas through word of mouth, it became possible for casual blog readers to focus on the best of the blogosphere rather than having to scan numerous individual blogs. The steady and frequent appearance of citations of or votes for the work of certain popular bloggers also helped create the so-called "A List" of bloggers. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**City rhythm**
City rhythm:
City rhythm is a metaphor for the regular coming and going in cities, the repetitive activities, the sounds and smells that occur regularly in cities. The recognition of city rhythms is a useful metaphor, helping to understand modern city life. The concept of city rhythm makes it possible to understand the multitude of aspects of city life. Traditional approaches to urban thinking focus on one such rhythm only, normally the dominant one. This leads to the omission of many aspects of city life.
City rhythm:
Dominant rhythm is a metaphor used in conjunction with city rhythm. It is the most powerful rhythm in a city, enabling the shaping and forming of time and space, both within the city and in faraway places through networks.
These dominant rhythms are not fixed and indeed change. Religious rhythms were more dominant in the past, whereas at present economic rhythms prevail. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**IPCC list of greenhouse gases**
IPCC list of greenhouse gases:
This is a list of the most influential long-lived, well-mixed greenhouse gases, along with their tropospheric concentrations and direct radiative forcings, as identified by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Abundances of these trace gases are regularly measured by atmospheric scientists from samples collected throughout the world. Since the 1980s, their forcing contributions (relative to year 1750) are also estimated with high accuracy using IPCC-recommended expressions derived from radiative transfer models.This list excludes: water vapor which is responsible overall for about half of all atmospheric gas forcing. Water vapor and clouds are more dynamic atmospheric constituents and contribute strong climate change feedback influences.
IPCC list of greenhouse gases:
other short-lived gases (e.g. carbon monoxide, NOx) and aerosols (e.g. mineral dust, black carbon) that also vary more strongly over location and time. Ozone has warming influences comparable to nitrous oxide and CFCs, and is longer lived and more abundant in the stratosphere than in the troposphere.
IPCC list of greenhouse gases:
many refrigerants and other halogenated gases that have been mass-produced in smaller quantities. Most are long-lived and well-mixed. Some are also listed in Appendix 8A of the 2013 IPCC Assessment Report.: 731–738 and Annex III of the 2021 IPCC WG1 Report: 4–9 oxygen, nitrogen, argon, and other gases that are less influenced by human activity and interact relatively little with Earth's thermal radiation.
Combined Summary from IPCC Assessment Reports (TAR, AR4, AR5, AR6):
Mole fractions: μmol/mol = ppm = parts per million (106); nmol/mol = ppb = parts per billion (109); pmol/mol = ppt = parts per trillion (1012).
Combined Summary from IPCC Assessment Reports (TAR, AR4, AR5, AR6):
A The IPCC states that "no single atmospheric lifetime can be given" for CO2.: 731 This is mostly due to the rapid growth and cumulative magnitude of the disturbances to Earth's carbon cycle by the geologic extraction and burning of fossil carbon. As of year 2014, fossil CO2 emitted as a theoretical 10 to 100 GtC pulse on top of the existing atmospheric concentration was expected to be 50% removed by land vegetation and ocean sinks in less than about a century, as based on the projections of coupled models referenced in the AR5 assessment. A substantial fraction (20-35%) was also projected to remain in the atmosphere for centuries to millennia, where fractional persistence increases with pulse size.B Values are relative to year 1750. AR6 reports the effective radiative forcing which includes effects of rapid adjustments in the atmosphere and at the surface.
Gases from IPCC Fourth Assessment Report:
The following table has its sources in Chapter 2, p. 141, Table 2.1. of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, Climate Change 2007 (AR4), Working Group 1 Report, The Physical Science Basis.
Gases from IPCC Third Assessment Report:
The following table has its sources in Chapter 6, p. 358, Table 6.1. of the IPCC Third Assessment Report, Climate Change 2001 (TAR), Working Group 1, The Scientific Basis.
Gases relevant to radiative forcing only Gases relevant to radiative forcing and ozone depletion | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**2016 PQ**
2016 PQ:
2016 PQ is an approximately 20-meter sized asteroid and near-Earth object of the Apollo group, with one of the smallest known minimum orbital intersection distances with Earth.
Discovery:
The asteroid was discovered by the Pan-STARRS telescope on 2 August 2016, when it had reached magnitude 20.5, and it had brightened by magnitude 19.0 three nights later, after which it became too close to the Sun to spot with ground-based telescopes. It reached its closest approach to the Earth on 7 August 2016, at 0.025 AU, or 9.8 lunar distances.
Orbit:
2016 PQ orbits the Sun at a distance of 0.9–2.9 AU once every 2 years and 8 months (961 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.54 and an inclination of 3° with respect to the ecliptic.
Orbit:
MOID 2016 PQ has a very small minimum orbit intersection distance (MOID) to the Earth – only around 14,693 kilometres (9,130 miles), corresponding to 0.038 lunar distances or 2.3 Earth radii. It has the 19th lowest MOID of any known asteroid, as well as the 7th lowest MOID of any object larger than it (after (433953) 1997 XR2, 2006 QV89, (85236) 1993 KH, 2013 TX68, 2014 DA, and 2004 FH).
Orbit:
Despite its very low MOID, it is not on the Sentry Risk Table, as it is not going to make any nearby close approaches to Earth in the near future. It is too small to be classified as a potentially hazardous asteroid. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Strict function**
Strict function:
In computer science and computer programming, a function f is said to be strict if, when applied to a non-terminating expression, it also fails to terminate. A strict function in the denotational semantics of programming languages is a function f where =⊥ . The entity ⊥ , called bottom, denotes an expression that does not return a normal value, either because it loops endlessly or because it aborts due to an error such as division by zero. A function that is not strict is called non-strict. A strict programming language is one in which user-defined functions are always strict.
Strict function:
Intuitively, non-strict functions correspond to control structures. Operationally, a strict function is one that always evaluates its argument; a non-strict function is one that might not evaluate some of its arguments. Functions having more than one parameter can be strict or non-strict in each parameter independently, as well as jointly strict in several parameters simultaneously.
Strict function:
As an example, the if-then-else expression of many programming languages, called ?: in languages inspired by C, may be thought of as a function of three parameters. This function is strict in its first parameter, since the function must know whether its first argument evaluates to true or to false before it can return; but it is non-strict in its second parameter, because (for example) if(false, ⊥ ,1) = 1, as well as non-strict in its third parameter, because (for example) if(true,2, ⊥ ) = 2. However, it is jointly strict in its second and third parameters, since if(true, ⊥ ,⊥ ) = ⊥ and if(false, ⊥ ,⊥ ) = ⊥ In a non-strict functional programming language, strictness analysis refers to any algorithm used to prove the strictness of a function with respect to one or more of its arguments. Such functions can be compiled to a more efficient calling convention, such as call by value, without changing the meaning of the enclosing program. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Penultimate Glacial Period**
Penultimate Glacial Period:
The Penultimate Glacial Period (PGP) is the glacial age that occurred before the Last Glacial Period. The penultimate glacial period is officially unnamed just like the Last Glacial Period. The word penultimate simply means second to last. While the PGP is a part of the ongoing Quaternary ice age, which began 2.58 million years ago, the PGP lasted from ~194,000 years ago, to ~135,000 years ago. The PGP also occurred during the Marine Isotope age 6 (MIS6). At the glacial ages’ height, it is known to be the most extensive expansion of glaciers in the last 400,000 years over Eurasia, and could be the second or third coolest glacial period over the last 1,000,000 years, as shown by ice cores. Due to this, the global sea level dropped to between 92 and 150 metres below modern-day global mean sea level. The penultimate glacial period expanded ice sheets and shifted temperature zones worldwide, which had a variety of effects on the world's environment, and the organisms that lived in it. At its height, the penultimate glacial period was a more severe glaciation than the Last Glacial Maximum. The PGP is an unofficial name for the last period of the Saalian glaciation, called the Wolstonian Stage in Britain.
Cause:
Much like the last glacial period, the penultimate glacial period was caused by a great orbital eccentricity of Earth. This eccentricity causes greater seasonal impacts than normal because it limits the amount of sunlight that reaches the earth's surface, lowering the temperature. Due to this, northern insolation (the amount of sunlight that reaches the surface) is reduced, this means when it's summer, less heat is exposed to the snows of the winter, which don't completely melt. This buildup of ice and snow over thousands of years eventually leads to residual ice sheets, which would also reflect light away from the earth, further cooling the earth. A decrease in greenhouse gas concentrations such as CO2, are a result of the expanded ice sheets. This is because as the Earth cooled, and ice sheets expanded, the ocean waters became colder, which then could absorb more CO2 from the atmosphere. These factors all feedback into each other: as the ice sheets extended, more CO2 was absorbed, and more light was reflected off the ice sheets, furthermore expanding the ice sheets, this self-reinforcing cooling setting the world into a glacial period.
Effects in Europe:
In northern Europe, the biggest expansion of glaciation of the last 400,000 years covered the northern region in a thick ice sheet, which caused a drastic reduction of vegetation. In the Mediterranean, polar winds from the now extended ice sheets brought cooler and wetter conditions that caused a significant reduction in large vegetation such as trees. Pollen sequences found from MIS 6 indicated that early in the glacial period, tree abundance fluctuated heavily.Later in the glacial period, extreme conditions were followed by a mainly treeless landscape all across Europe. This rendered Europe a polar desert just south of the now expanded ice sheets, and the rest of Europe was left with a sporadic herb based plant cover. Europe north of the Alps was a tundra-steppe of predominantly grasses, sedges, and chenopods, while land south of the Alps featured discontinuous steppe vegetation patterns. There were some refugia in the sheltered areas of the mountainous Alps and the western Balkans where tree populations survived. This was due to temperature variations not being extreme in these locations, as well as precipitation still being sufficient. This is unlike the rest of Europe, such as in France where pollen samples revealed a precipitation decrease of almost 60% compared to the modern day. The drastic changes in the climate also resulted in increased storms in the North Atlantic, affecting Europe as well as North America.
Effects in Asia:
Isotope dating was conducted in Hulu Cave, eastern China, and found that the penultimate glacial period's presence was felt in central China. The dating showed an increased presence of oxygen-18, an isotope that reflects the meteoric water and cave temperature, as well as precipitation of the penultimate glacial period. This data led to the confirmation of intense monsoons that impacted most of south-east Asia, and up to modern day Xi’an China. The increase in the intensity of monsoons was due to the orbital shifting of the planet, but was amplified by the ice sheets that formed for the same reason. These factors combined then affected the atmospheric hydrological cycle, creating more intense seasonal winds that led to increased precipitation over south-east Asia.
Effects in North America:
In contrast to Europe, there is no geological evidence to support a similarly sized ice sheet in North America. Ice-rafted debris from the Hudson area indicates that during MIS6, there were far fewer icebergs in the North Atlantic than in the last glacial period. Simulations testing the extent of an ice sheet in North America have shown that a smaller ice sheet is probable, as the simulation produced weather data that is consistent with hypothesized temperatures at the time. This simulation showed the precipitation rates over North America doubled during MIS6, which would have been a result of the icy winds expanding southward further into the continent, as well as the increased storms.
Effects on Homo sapiens in Africa:
Several studies have suggested that Homo sapiens went through a genetic bottleneck during the Penultimate Glacial Period which reduced numbers to a low level, but a 2012 analysis of three modern African populations finds no evidence for a bottleneck at this time. Oceanic cores, taken from western Africa, show the deserts expanded, pushing the savannah and the tropical rainforests downward, and oak trees occupying the Mediterranean coast, disappeared. This is thought to have occurred due to southward migration of the subtropical, and high pressure zone of the Mediterranean. This dislocation of vegetation was thought to have displaced Homo sapiens. However, studies have shown that the region which the early humans occupied was very lightly disturbed, and a bottleneck due to the Penultimate Glacial Period is unlikely. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Ecosophy**
Ecosophy:
Ecosophy or ecophilosophy (a portmanteau of ecological philosophy) is a philosophy of ecological harmony or equilibrium. The term was coined by the French post-structuralist philosopher and psychoanalyst Félix Guattari and the Norwegian father of deep ecology, Arne Næss.
Félix Guattari:
Ecosophy also refers to a field of practice introduced by psychoanalyst, poststructuralist philosopher, and political activist Félix Guattari. In part Guattari's use of the term demarcates a necessity for the proponents of social liberation, whose struggles in the 20th century were dominated by the paradigm of social revolution, to embed their arguments within an ecological framework which understands the interconnections of social and environmental spheres.
Félix Guattari:
Guattari holds that traditional environmentalist perspectives obscure the complexity of the relationship between humans and their natural environment through their maintenance of the dualistic separation of human (cultural) and nonhuman (natural) systems; he envisions ecosophy as a new field with a monistic and pluralistic approach to such study. Ecology in the Guattarian sense, then, is a study of complex phenomena, including human subjectivity, the environment, and social relations, all of which are intimately interconnected. Despite this emphasis on interconnection, throughout his individual writings and more famous collaborations with Gilles Deleuze, Guattari has resisted calls for holism, preferring to emphasize heterogeneity and difference, synthesizing assemblages and multiplicities in order to trace rhizomatic structures rather than creating unified and holistic structures.
Félix Guattari:
Without modifications to the social and material environment, there can be no change in mentalities. Here, we are in the presence of a circle that leads me to postulate the necessity of founding an "ecosophy" that would link environmental ecology to social ecology and to mental ecology.
Guattari's concept of the three interacting and interdependent ecologies of mind, society, and environment stems from the outline of the three ecologies presented in Steps to an Ecology of Mind, a collection of writings by cyberneticist Gregory Bateson.
Næss's definition:
Næss defined ecosophy in the following way: By an ecosophy I mean a philosophy of ecological harmony or equilibrium. A philosophy as a kind of sofia (or) wisdom, is openly normative, it contains both norms, rules, postulates, value priority announcements and hypotheses concerning the state of affairs in our universe. Wisdom is policy wisdom, prescription, not only scientific description and prediction. The details of an ecosophy will show many variations due to significant differences concerning not only the 'facts' of pollution, resources, population, etc. but also value priorities.
Næss's definition:
While a professor at University of Oslo in 1972, Arne Næss, introduced the terms "deep ecology movement" and "ecosophy" into environmental literature. Næss based his article on a talk he gave in Bucharest in 1972 at the Third World Future Research Conference. As Drengson notes in Ecophilosophy, Ecosophy and the Deep Ecology Movement: An Overview, "In his talk Næss discussed the longer-range background of the ecology movement and its connection with respect for Nature and the inherent worth of other beings." Næss's view of humans as an integral part of a "total-field image" of Nature contrasts with the alternative construction of ecosophy outlined by Guattari.
Næss's definition:
The term ecological wisdom, synonymous with ecosophy, was introduced by Næss in 1973. The concept has become one of the foundations of the deep ecology movement. All expressions of values by Green Parties list ecological wisdom as a key value—it was one of the original Four Pillars of the Green Party and is often considered the most basic value of these parties. It is also often associated with indigenous religion and cultural practices. In its political context, it is necessarily not as easily defined as ecological health or scientific ecology concepts. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Gog (Marvel Comics)**
Gog (Marvel Comics):
== G-Type == G-Type is a fictional character from Marvel comics.
Fictional character biography:
G-Type is one of the Shi'ar's Imperial Guard, and is also an alien. He was engineered in the stellar nurseries of Hodinn and was composed of a living solar plasma, with a constant surface temperature of 6000 kelvins (about 10,000 degrees Fahrenheit or 5,700 degrees Celsius). Because of this G-Type wears a specially-constructed suit of armour which assists him in retaining a humanoid form, and containing the incredible heat he generates. G-Type can focus the intense energies that his body generates through a pair of wrist-mounted flamethrowers. G-Type is also a telepath, although the nature and extent of this telepathy is unknown.
Fictional character biography:
His mind, like the minds of many other Shi'ar soldiers, was overtaken by the telepath Cassandra Nova. He was defeated by Cyclops and the entity known as Xorn, whom he was planning to fire into the Earth's atmosphere.
Other versions X-Men: The End G-Type plays a part in the final battles of the alternate-future of X-Men: The End. Due to behind the scenes manipulations, the Guardians originally attack the X-Men. G-Type vaporizes Angel.
Gaea:
Gaea is one of the Elder Gods of Earth.
Gaia:
Gaia, also known as the Guardian of the Universal Amalgamator, is a fictional superhero, depicted as possibly being a mutant or extraterrestrial. Created by Larry Hama, she first appeared in Generation X #37.
Gaia:
Not much is known about Gaia's origin besides her having spent thousands of years chained to the Universal Amalgamator at the end of Time, a device that would be used to merge all sentient consciousnesses into one being. Gaia was apparently the safeguard that was supposed to prevent the Amalgamator from being activated by malicious people. She even claimed that her entire galaxy was wiped out at one point for her refusing to activate the Amalgamator.However, when M-Plate, the synthesis of Emplate and M, tried to have Synch use his power to tap into Gaia's and activate the Amalgamator, Everett refused. The Citadel of the Universal Amalgamator began to crumble around them and Generation X wanted to leave, but Synch went back, along with Penance, to save Gaia. Banshee thought him lost but Gaia knew of a secret portal that was hidden underneath the altar that she had been chained to and—coincidentally—led back near the academy. With the Amalagamator destroyed, Gaia was freed from her responsibility and ran off to live a life that was now her own.When she was seen next, she had gotten into an accident with a sports car and had pink hair. The policeman who came to the wreck knew of the academy, and suggested that she be put into their hands. She lost some of her abilities to the Shadow King's telepathic shockwave, and stayed with Gen X, hoping to sort out that difficulty with their help.Gaia formally enrolled in the Xavier's School for Gifted Youngsters, but left after a short time, saying that she wanted to experience Earth, not just learn about it.It is unknown if Gaia was one of the 90–95% of mutants who lost their mutant powers on M-Day.Gaia has been shown to have a degree of superhuman strength, limited invulnerability, telepathy, psychokinesis, and the ability to draw on an extra-dimensional source of matter and energy in order to create or reshape anything according to her will. She is capable of warping reality to a limited degree, although she is largely inexperienced with this power and its use requires great concentration. Gaia also appears to be either extremely long lived or completely immortal as she stated that she visited Earth 600 years ago and still has the appearance of a teenage girl.
Michele Gonzales:
Michele Gonzales is a supporting character of Spider-Man in Marvel Comics' main shared universe. She is a criminal defense lawyer and the hot-tempered sister of Peter's roommate Vin Gonzales. She temporarily is Peter's roommate while Vin serves time for his involvement in the Spider-Tracer Killings frame-up. When Michele attempts to kick Peter out (who is actually the Chameleon in disguise) she is instead seduced by him and become infatuated with him. She is almost constantly angry, but is also a helpful and kind person, by trying hard to help her clients get their lives back on track. After pestering and bothering Peter tirelessly, she returned to her previous home in Chicago shortly after Vin's release.
Galacta:
Galacta is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. She is the daughter of Galactus.
Gamesmaster:
Gamesmaster is a fictional mutant character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. He first appeared in The Uncanny X-Men #283 (1991).
Gamesmaster:
Fictional character biography Gamesmaster is a mutant with the ability to have omnipathy. In his life before becoming the Gamesmaster, he led a regular life with a wife and child; however, years of omnipathic exposure to other people's minds drove him to a point where he eventually forgot his own real name. At some point, Gamesmaster was contacted by the immortal sorceress Selene and then-Black Queen of the Hellfire Club. Together, they organized the Upstarts, a competition for wealthy and powerful individuals with the sole purpose of killing mutants for points in a twisted game. He agreed only to provide a distraction from the constant chatter in his mind. By focusing on the ambitious and powerful thoughts of the Upstarts, Gamesmaster was able to drown out the rest of the world.In his capacity as the referee of the Upstarts' games, Gamesmaster oversaw the Upstarts' activities, which included confrontations with the team of adolescent mutants known as the Hellions and the team of superhuman mutant adventurers known as the X-Men. After Selene was removed from the game by the Upstart Trevor Fitzroy, Gamesmaster continued to monitor the competition. After the Upstarts captured several former young members of the mutant trainee team, the New Mutants, and took them to Gamesmaster's base in the Swiss Alps, their teammates in X-Force and the New Warriors attempted to rescue them. Gamesmaster would have defeated them if it were not for the intervention of Paige Guthrie, the mutant sister of X-Force's Cannonball, who argued that a greater game would be to compete with Professor X, the telepathic founder of the X-Men, and others like him who hoped to find and guide the next generation of mutants. Gamesmaster agreed and disbanded the Upstarts after allowing the heroes to leave.Later, Gamesmaster captured both Doctor Weisman of the Weisman Institute for the Criminally Insane and one of the patients, a young boy named Jeremy Stevens. The Institute had a history of involvement with Xavier, who sensed something was amiss and sent Siryn, the mutant daughter of former X-Man Banshee, to investigate. On arrival, Gamesmaster clouded Siryn's memories, but she was rescued by her ally, the mercenary known as Deadpool. Unbeknownst to Siryn, Deadpool had been captured, but she eventually became aware of his predicament and, with the help of her X-Force teammate Shatterstar, came to his rescue.Gamesmaster later forced Shatterstar to return to the institute. Shatterstar's life had become intertwined with that of one of the institute's patients, Benjamin Russell, and Shatterstar merged with the body of Russell to live. As all of this occurred under the watchful eye of Gamesmaster, the full implications of these events are yet to be revealed. Soon after, Gamesmaster attempted to control the minds of members of the X-Men by trapping them in a world of his own design to hide the fact that he had kidnapped the telepathic Jean Grey. However, the X-Men learned of Gamesmaster's deception and confronted him. Gamesmaster subsequently revealed that it was part of a game he was playing with the X-Men to see how they would react to their perfect world, where mutants were no longer feared. He took Grey prisoner, as she was the only telepath among the X-Men who could challenge him. However, Gamesmaster had underestimated the X-Man Joseph, who was unknowingly a clone of the self-styled master of magnetism, Magneto. This error allowed Grey to break free and defeat Gamesmaster.Years later, Gamesmaster resurfaced, still in possession of his mutant powers following the events of M-Day. He showed a strong interest in the mutant X-23 and promised to watch her closely, even against her will.
Gamesmaster:
Powers and abilities The Games Master is an omnipath, a superhuman telepath able to hear the thoughts of every being on the planet. However, he cannot block the thoughts out, and thus his mind is constantly filled with seven billion voices, unless he is able to intensely concentrate on a distraction. Gamesmaster also possesses the ability to manipulate the thoughts of others and has suggested that, in addition to controlling minds en masse (as he once did with Salem Center in New York), he can manipulate the thoughts of the entire population of Earth simultaneously (though Jean Grey determined this to be a fallacy while in combat with him). To a lesser extent, Gamesmaster is also able to control the actions of other sentient beings. He was also shown to be capable of keeping other superhuman abilities in check, as he once did with the X-Man Rogue. So far, only three people have proven to be immune to his powers: Jean Grey, Husk (although Husk was only able to resist his telepathy by "husking" into a certain form), and Speedball.
Ganymede:
Ganymede is a fictional extraterrestrial superhero in the Marvel Comics Universe. Her first appearance was Silver Surfer (vol. 3) #80 (May 1993).
Ganymede:
Ganymede is the last surviving member of a race of warrior women known as the Spinsterhood, a group which was formed with the sole purpose of destroying the cosmic being known as Tyrant. After a centuries long cryogenic sleep, she awakened to find Tyrant's servants kidnapping powerful cosmic entities in order to drain their powers for their master's own ends. Mistaking Silver Surfer for a minion of Tyrant, Ganymede attacked him and the two fought until Tyrant's minions ambushed and kidnapped them both.
Ganymede:
Ganymede, along with Tyrant's other hostages, Silver Surfer, Terrax, Morg, Beta Ray Bill, Gladiator and Jack of Hearts escaped their imprisonment and attacked Tyrant together, only to fail miserably. Galactus arrived and ended the battle. After that, those involved went their separate ways except for Ganymede, who decided to stay with Jack of Hearts to help nurse him back to health after his selfless sacrifice that freed his fellow captives. Ganymede and Jack of Hearts had a few adventures together, wherein they struck up a romantic relationship.
Garko the Man-Frog:
Garko the Man-Frog is a one off villain in Marvel Comics. The character was created by Steve Gerber and Frank Brunner and solely appeared in Giant-Size Man-Thing #4 (February 1975).
Garko the Man-Frog:
Garko was an ordinary human who somehow possessed a vial of chemicals that he debated over ingesting. He ultimately decided to drink it and transforms into a humanoid frog creature. He runs into Howard the Duck, who had just landed in Cleveland, Ohio and was helped out by a couple of kids. The two of them battle, but during the fight, Garko begins to realize that he losing his humanity and continues to further transform into a mindless normal frog. He eventually shrinks down, unnoticed by the police officers who mistakenly believe that Howard was causing a disruption in the neighborhood, and promptly gets crushed to death by a police cruiser.
Garko the Man-Frog:
Garko appears in Moon Girl and Devil Dinosaur, voiced by Gary Anthony Williams, in the episode "Skip This Ad...olescence". This version is a professional criminal who briefly encounters the heroic duo. As he declares his history and plans, Moon Girl uses her new skip app, but tries to ask afterwards what he had said. Confused, Garko promptly hops away.
Gauntlet:
Inhuman Gauntlet is a member of the Dark Riders, employed by Apocalypse, and is one of the Inhumans. He is fitted with a cybernetic gauntlet, high-powered weapons, and wears a mechanical device over one eye used for tracking and scoping out prey.
Gauntlet first appeared in X-Factor #65 and was created by Jim Lee, Chris Claremont and Whilce Portacio.
Gauntlet made an appearance in the X-Men: Evolution episode "Target X" voiced by Mark Gibbon.
Joseph Green
Blackie Gaxton:
Blackie Gaxton was a gangster to whom Bennett Brant owed a large gambling debt. He blackmailed Brant into getting his sister Betty to contact Doctor Octopus when he was released from prison in order to spring Gaxton from prison himself. When Spider-Man caught up with Gaxton and Octopus on his getaway ship, Gaxton accidentally shot Bennett during a struggle with Spider-Man. He was arrested again and supposedly returned to prison.
Blackie Gaxton:
Blackie Gaxton in other media Gaxton appears in The Spectacular Spider-Man voiced by Steve Blum. In the episode "Reinforcements", Blackie Gaxton is the manager and bookie in the Big Sky Lounge and was one of the men responsible for turning Mark Allan into Molten Man. Mark Allen was a gambling addict who regularly visited Blackie to place bets, but after a while, he started to owe a lot of money. Gaxton used this opportunity to work with The Big Man and Hammerhead and has Mark Allen pay off his debt by turning him into a guinea pig in their experiment. His bar was later destroyed in a fire started by Molten Man, during a fight with Spider-Man.
Geist:
Geist (Nikolaus Geist) was a supervillain in Marvel Comics. He was created by Archie Goodwin, and first appeared in Wolverine (vol. 2) #17 (November 1989).
Geist:
Geist had been an adviser for Adolf Hitler during World War II, and gave Hitler ideas on how to run the concentration camps. To escape war crime punishment, he used German rocket scientists to help the OSS. He later participated in questionable CIA operations. During Wolverine (vol. 2) #17 and later issues, however, he was an adviser to President Caridad, of the fictional South American country Tierra Verde. Caridad wanted Geist to create a superhero and champion for Tierra Verde, much like Captain America. He was experimenting on humans with a special crop of cocaine, which drove the victims mad. His main guinea pig was Roughouse. Wolverine learned of this, and even though Roughouse had been his enemy, he helped him escape.
Geist:
Wolverine cut off Geist's metal shell, leaving him to die. However, Tierra Verde allowed CIA agents to bring Geist out of the country allowing subsequent repairs. Soon after that, Magneto caught up with him and brought him into an abandoned house, exacting his revenge for the death of Magnus' wife and supposedly killing him off-panel.
Geist was a cyborg, but had no superpowers. Due to his advanced age he was encased in a metal shell simply to survive.
Gemini:
Joshua Link Android Ecliptic Gemini Thanos' Gemini
Annie Ghazikhanian:
Annie Ghazikhanian is a fictional nurse who worked with the X-Men. She first appeared in The Uncanny X-Men #411, and was created by Chuck Austen and Ron Garney.
Annie Ghazikhanian:
When the X-Man Havok is found in a comatose state, she is assigned to his care. Despite Havok's only real reaction being an energetic appreciation of the sunlight, she develops romantic feelings towards him. When the X-Men discover he is still alive (as he was presumed dead), Cyclops, Alex's brother, comes to collect him. Annie and her son soon move in.
Annie Ghazikhanian:
While Annie is a normal human, her son, Carter Ghazikhanian, is a mutant. Annie has some anti-mutant prejudices, but she tries getting over them. She developed a personal friendship with the X-Man Northstar, and kept secret his romantic feelings for Iceman. She is seen many times administering to wounded X-Men.
Annie Ghazikhanian:
When Havok wakes from his coma he pursues a relationship with Annie, even after becoming engaged to Polaris. Havok later leaves Polaris at the wedding altar, further damaging the woman's already-shaky mental state. He and Annie have a romantic relationship (despite her occasional flirts with Iceman) until she leaves the mansion. She fears for her son's safety because of supervillain attacks upon the mansion.
Carter Ghazikhanian:
Carter Ghazikhanian is a fictional mutant character in the Marvel Comics Universe. His first appearance was in The Uncanny X-Men #411, created by Chuck Austen and Ron Garney.
Carter Ghazikhanian:
Carter is the son of Annie Ghazikhanian, the former nurse at the Xavier Institute. Since their move to the school, Carter struck up a friendship with the young aquatic mutant Sammy, alias the Squidboy. When Carter tries to help Alex Summers, the X-Man known as Havok, from his coma, something strange occurs which rendered Carter unconscious. His consciousness became ensnared by the essence of the evil counterpart of Havok from the Mutant X universe, but Carter and the real Alex were rescued by Professor X. After the rescue, the Professor indicates he wants to talk to Annie about Carter's father, whose identity has yet to be revealed.
Carter Ghazikhanian:
Annie later took him away from the Xavier Institute when she found it a too dangerous place for him. During their exit from the facilities, the new Brotherhood of Evil Mutants led by the ex-Acolyte Exodus, attack the institute. One of the Brotherhood's many victims is Sammy. Carter telepathically detects Sammy's brutal death.
Carter Ghazikhanian:
Also, while they leave, the astral projection of an undetermined person is shown next to Carter's face. Annie seems unaware of this projection. Carter's dialogue and expression at this time hint that he is under the control of this individual. The projection was later revealed by Austen as the intended return of Cassandra Nova, but on his departure from the books, the storyline was dropped.Carter Ghazikhanian is a mutant who possesses both telepathic and telekinetic abilities. The full extent of Carter's powers, however, are still undetermined.
Carter Ghazikhanian:
Other versions of Carter Ghazikhanian In X-Men: The End Carter is depicted as a deeply traumatized child, possibly as a result of the deaths of both his mother and Havok. His powers have evolved to the point of being able to create solid psionic constructs, as he is seen playing in a castle he created. He is killed, along with most of the student body, when Skrulls invade the mansion.
Ghost Girl:
Ghost Girl is an alias used by multiple superheroes in the Marvel Universe.
Ghost Girl:
Ghost Girl (Wendy Hunt) Ghost Girl (Wendy Hunt) is a fictional superhero in the Marvel Universe. She first appeared in The Invaders #14 (March 1977) and was created by Roy Thomas and Frank Robbins as an homage to DC Comics' Phantom Lady. She is a member of the Crusaders, and possesses a belt which enables her to generate a holographic double of herself.
Ghost Girl:
Ghost Girl ll (Lili Stephens) Ghost Girl (Lili Stephens) is a fictional mutant superhero in the Marvel Universe. She was created by Steve Seagle & Scott Clark, and first appeared in Alpha Flight (vol. 2) #2.
Ghost Girl:
Ghost Girl is a former member of the superhero team Alpha Flight. Department H call her a "Legacy" case, but it is never explained what that means.She possesses the ability to "phase" or pass through solid matter by passing her atoms through the spaces between the atoms of the object through which she is moving. While intangible, she is invulnerable to physical attacks. She can also use her intangible body to create gateways through solid objects for others to use, which she finds ticklish.
Ghost Rider:
Johnny Blaze Danny Ketch Alejandra Jones Robbie Reyes
G'iah:
G'iah is a character appearing in comic books for Marvel Comics. The character, created by Robbie Thompson and Niko Henrichon, first appeared in Meet the Skrulls #1 (March 2019). She is a Skrull who is a general that operated on Earth as Gloria Warner as part of a group of Skrulls posing as an ordinary American family.
G'iah in other media G'iah appears in live-action media set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU). This version is the daughter of Talos and Soren.
The character is introduced as a child in the film Captain Marvel (2019), portrayed primarily by Auden L. Ophuls and Harriet L. Ophuls. She is among the Skrull refugees stranded on a space station whom Carol Danvers escorts to safety.
Emilia Clarke portrays an adult version of G'iah in the series Secret Invasion.
Giant-Man:
Hank Pym Bill Foster Raz Malhotra
Gilded Lily:
Gilded Lily (Lillian von Loont) was featured in the series Alpha Flight, first appearing in Alpha Flight volume 1 issue 20. She was an alchemist of great talent and a student of Diablo. Lily was initially seen to be a woman in a golden mask, golden gloves, and a fur coat that covered her slender body to her feet. She had lived for an inordinate length of time, her makeup (on her mask) and hair were very much in the style of the 1920s, particularly that of Louise Brooks.
Glob:
Joseph "Joe" Timms Sumner Samuel Beckwith
Glob Herman:
Glob Herman (Robert Herman) is a fictional mutant character, a supervillain and later superhero appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. His first appearance was in New X-Men #117. Glob was created by Grant Morrison and Ethan Van Sciver.The young mutant called Glob Herman has skin that is completely transparent and made up of bio-paraffin, or "living wax". Though he lives among other mutants, Glob Herman easily stands out. Herman is friends with Kid Omega, one of Professor X's top students.Glob Herman enrolled into the Xavier Institute for Higher Learning after Professor X was publicly revealed to be a mutant. Herman joins the unsanctioned, teenage Omega Gang, led by Kid Omega, as they secretly take a hard line stance for mutant rights. With the Omega Gang, Herman attacks the humans who they thought had murdered Jumbo Carnation. He later participates in the slaughter of a group of U-Men. When the Omega Gang instigate a riot at the Xavier Institute, Herman has Redneck light him on fire. He then pursues a bus full of human civilians, chasing it at full speed down the highway. Cyclops, Xorn and Beast pursue. Beast saves the lives of two men in a sports car who cross Herman's way, which he turns into scrap metal without slowing down. When the chase nears a gas station with a cement mixer, the X-Men manage to surround Herman. They use the mixer to cover him with cement and the Beast uses water bottles from the station himself to put out Herman's fire. At that point, much of Herman's covering of bio-paraffin has burned away, and he is reduced to a skeleton with only a relative thin layer of wax. Later, Herman is seen, still covered in cement, being ferried back to the X-Mansion on a specialized truck. For his crimes, the X-Men send him to help the needy in Africa.
Glob Herman:
During the event of Schism, Glob Herman chose to join Wolverine and became a student at the Jean Grey School. During an expedition with some other students and Wolverine in the Savage Land, Glob Herman was upset by the teaching methods of Wolverine, and he was proposed by Sauron to leave the X-Men. This plan was interrupted by the time-traveling villain 'Dog Logan', Wolverine's brother, who tormented the students Glob had been in the Savage Land with. He left them behind to seemingly face death at the hands of Dog, instead they defeated the villain. Glob agreed to join the Hellfire Club and becomes a recruit of the new Club's School: the Hellfire Academy.Glob is back on friendly terms with his X-Academy teammates. He is allowed to rejoin as a student. As part of a remedial class he travels to New York with Spider-Man. There he's turned into a dinosaur and recovers. The entire class is kidnapped by Mojo, an inter dimensional villain. He is seen socializing with Kid Gladiator, Broo and Idie at a black-tie affair party. As part of the self-proclaimed 'special class', Glob Herman now goes on weekly crime fighting patrols with Spider-Man.Herman is later seen volunteering to assist mutants and their family members in need at the school. Glob graduates to official X-Men status during his efforts to fight off a demonic invasion threatening innocent civilians. As part of the X-Men, he is on a squad sent after six hundred mutant embryos. This team and the embryos themselves are sent into the far future, in a world dominated by the villain Apocalypse. Glob, Anole, Ernst and No-Girl become lost in this far-future and as a four-some travel for a full year among many dangers before other X-Men show up to bring them home.On an alternate universe, Glob, Beak and Quentin Quire were part of a villainous trio. As most of the heroes had been killed, villains ran rampant. Glob talked about his enjoyment of burning people before his entire group was taken down by that world's Nighthawk.
Glob Herman:
Glob Herman in other media Glob Herman appears in X-Men: The Last Stand, portrayed by Clayton Dean Watmough. This version is a member of the Omegas, who join forces with the Brotherhood of Mutants to oppose a mutant cure.
Glow Worm:
Glowworm is the name of two unrelated fictional characters appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. Though created only a few months apart, they have little in common except the name.
Glow Worm:
William Blake First appeared in Power Man and Iron Fist #123 (May 1986). This Glowworm was William Blake, a former soldier who had volunteered for experiments to re-create the Super-Soldier Serum. After leaving the Marine Corps, one night he transformed into a huge, glowing white creature who began screaming racial slurs and attacking black people in Power Man's neighborhood. When news got out that a "white mutant" was attacking blacks, it nearly sparked a race riot, but once Cage defeated the creature, it reverted to human form, revealing that he was a black man himself. Blake had grown up in the Deep South, at a time when rampant racism led him to believe that blacks were inferior to whites, resulting in his own hatred of himself and his own race.It has been revealed that Glowworm has remained in custody since his initial capture.
Glow Worm:
Glow Worm The second Glowworm first appeared in X-Factor #7 (August 1986). This Glowworm is a mutant with a humanoid torso, and a worm-like tail instead of legs. He is the partner of Bulk, a mutant with enormous size and strength.
Glow Worm:
Bulk and Glowworm were outcasts, not just for their mutant status or unusual appearance, but because both continually gave off toxic levels of hard radiation. The two sought shelter in a toxic waste dump in New Jersey, but upon hearing about the group X-Factor (who at that time were posing as mutant hunters), the pair decided to attack them to "protect mutants". After a short battle, the members of X-Factor explained their true nature as mutants themselves. The two returned to their isolation.In The New Mutants Annual #4, Bulk and Glowworm seemingly sacrificed their lives to save Danielle Moonstar.
Glyph:
Glyph (Nadeen Hassan) is a teenager that became a beacon that summoned ancient Egyptian spirits. She was ultimately recruited into the Howling Commandos.
Goblin King:
Goblin King is the name of different supervillains appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics.
Goblin King:
Norman Osborn Norman Osborn is the first character to use the Goblin King alias. When the children that work for the Vulture are discussing what to do after the Superior Spider-Man (Otto Octavius's mind in Spider-Man's body) brutally defeats the Vulture, he approaches the children and tells the group that he will be the one that crushes Superior Spider-Man. He is later shown having gathered a new gang of followers together in the sewers formed from discarded members of other villains' gangs like the Vulture, the Owl and the third White Dragon's gangs; these henchmen escaped their organizations unharmed because Superior Spider-Man is more focused on the larger threats (where the original Spider-Man would focus on individuals).
Goblin King:
While building an army to attack the Superior Spider-Man, he acts as the Goblin King. The Hand ninjas who evaded capture arrive at the sewers and join up with the Goblin Nation. The group revels in the news that, thanks to Superior Spider-Man's assault, the Goblin King now owns over half of New York's organized crime. He claims he now owns New York City as the Goblin Kingpin of Crime. With the help of Menace, the Goblin King later releases Phil Urich from a prison transport and upgrades the latter's Goblin armor and weapons, asking in return only that his enforcer's only identity from here on shall be Goblin Knight. The Goblin King trains the Goblin Knight, anxious to confront the Superior Spider-Man. The Goblin King later poses as the Hobgoblin and is sighted by some of the Spiderlings.Upon Carlie Cooper being brought to the Goblin King's lair by Menace, he receives Carlie's journal from Menace which reveals to him that Octavius's mind is in his nemesis's body. The Goblin King douses Carlie with the Goblin formula, causing the woman to mutate into the new superhuman villain Monster. He demands to know Spider-Man's identity, but Monster first asks the Goblin King to reveal his own identity. The Goblin King assures Monster that he is Osborn, but refuses to remove his mask until Carlie has proven a loyal follower and dispatches Monster and Menace on a mission. The Goblin King battles and kills the Hobgoblin, although the Goblin Knight discovers that it was the butler Claude with Roderick Kingsley still in hiding abroad.Having staged a coup of New York after spreading his resources by exploiting the Superior Spider-Man's reliance on technology, the Goblin King directly confronts the Superior Spider-Man, angry that he was cheated out of the opportunity to defeat his nemesis, but offering the Superior Spider-Man the chance to join him and the former rejects the offer. With the Superior Spider-Man unable to win against Goblin King's resources, having had various allies abandoned, and with faith in his own abilities gone, Octavius sacrifices himself to restore the original Spider-Man's mind in order to save Anna Maria Marconi. Spider-Man arrives for the final confrontation to which the Goblin King quickly realizes that the original Spider-Man is back when responding to his nemesis' taunts with his own wisecracks. In the duel that follows, Spider-Man unmasks the Goblin King, learning that he has undergone plastic surgery to change his appearance, acting as Alchemax's CEO and intending to re-establish himself as businessman Mason Banks, now that Osborn has become too publicly known as a supervillain. Spider-Man defeats and strips the villain of his powers with a serum devised by Octavius, but Osborn manages to escape through Liz Allan's discreet aid. In hiding once again, he reflects that the various heroes will be unprepared for him when he returns with his new identity and approach as a businessman, seemingly no longer afflicted by the mental illness associated with the Goblin formula.
Goblin King:
Phil Urich Philip "Phil" Urich is the second character to use the Goblin King alias. Following the conclusion of The Superior Spider-Man storyline where the true Spider-Man returns, he now leads the Goblin Nation's remnants as the self-proclaimed Goblin King. He meets with Mister Negative where they wait for Eel to show up in order to divide the criminal underground following his predecessor's defeat. The meeting is crashed by the Black Cat and Electro. Black Cat mentions to the Goblin King and Mister Negative that Spider-Man had outed them and wants a share in their plans.During the "AXIS" storyline, the Goblin King attempts to rescue Lily Hollister from a police transport; this mission goes awry and Lily is rendered amnesiac. When the Goblin King confronts Kingsley in the latter's headquarters, the Queen Cat comes to the defense. The Goblin King recognizes Hollister as the Queen Cat, but Lily does not recognize him. Following the attack, Missile Mate is convinced by the Goblin King that the Hobgoblin would soon abandon the heroes that were trained. Missile Mate goes to the Goblin Nation's headquarters and asks the Goblin King to join and be a supervillain. The Goblin King is reluctant, but Missile Mate shows him that he has also gathered all the supervillains that the Hobgoblin had "abandoned" (consisting of 8-Ball III, Killer Shrike II, Melter III, Tiger Shark II, and Unicorn IV) after becoming a good guy. While the celebration of Hobgoblin Day is being held with a parade in Kingsley's honor, Missile Mate betrays the Hobgoblin and attempts to murder in the Goblin King's name. Kingsley, however, had already expected the betrayal and had been using a hologram decoy which took Missile Mate's blow. As soon as Kinglsey confronts Missile Mate, the Goblin King appears with his Goblin Nation and attacks the celebration. The Hobgoblin bests the Goblin King in combat and delivers him and the Goblin Nation members with him to the authorities.Having escaped prison under undisclosed circumstances during the "Go Down Swinging" storyline, the Goblin King raids an old gentlemen's club to acquire the Goblin weaponry stored there, but Norman Osborn- currently wielding the Carnage symbiote's power- apparently kills Urich by tearing his heart out.
Goblin King:
In other media The Norman Osborn version of the Goblin King appears in the Ultimate Spider-Man episode "Nightmare on Christmas", voiced by Steven Weber. This version wears medieval armour and has ram-like horns. In an alternate reality which is actually Nightmare's illusion, he rules New York at Oscorp with his own Spider-Soldier army as personal enforcers and 'trophies' after having defeated and killed most of the Earth's heroes: Iron Man's armor, Black Widow's gauntlets, Captain America's shield, Falcon's wings and Thor's hammer. The Goblin King fights Spider-Man who defeats him in an intense battle.
Goblin King:
A variation of the Goblin King appears in the Spider-Man four-part episode "Goblin War" as the alter-ego of Adrian Toomes (voiced by Alastair Duncan). This version is the Goblin Nation's leader, sporting a Green Goblin battle suit and later utilities a giant mech which controls technology.
Goblyn:
Goblyn (Goblyn Dean) is a fictional mutant character in the Marvel Comics universe. She first appeared in Alpha Flight #48 (July 1987), and was created by Bill Mantlo and Terry Shoemaker.
Goblyn:
Goblyn is one of a pair of fraternal twins. Before birth, it was revealed that Goblyn was a mutant and would be of monstrous appearance. Her parents decided that for her own good she would be aborted. Sensing the danger, her sister Laura (later known as Pathway) used her own mutant ability to send Goblyn to another dimension where she would be safe. Later Laura would return her to Earth, where they would both become involved with Alpha Flight.
Gog:
Gog is a fictional supervillain appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The character has appeared in The Amazing Spider-Man and X-Men.
Publication history Created by writer Roy Thomas and Gil Kane, the character first appears in The Amazing Spider-Man #103.
Gog:
Fictional character biography While traveling through the Savage Land, Kraven the Hunter finds a crashed spaceship in quicksand and ventures inside. There, he finds the juvenile Gog and another member of his species, who died during the crash landing of the spaceship. Deciding to save the young Gog from his sinking ship, Kraven takes him with him and decides to raise him as a pet; much to Kraven's surprise, Gog rapidly grows to a gigantic size only days after being found. Kraven, realizing how useful Gog can be, decides to use him in a plot to conquer the Savage Land. After kidnapping the visiting Gwen Stacy from a camp in the Savage Land, Kraven and Gog battle the heroes Ka-Zar and Spider-Man. While Ka-Zar deals with Kraven, Spider-Man defeats Gog by luring him into a patch of quicksand, which he then sinks to the bottom of. Gog would later be saved from dying in the quicksand by the Plunderer. Having Gog (who created a device that allowed him to speak English) act as his servant, the Plunderer uses him in a plot to try to steal the super-soldier serum in New York City. Followed to New York by Ka-Zar, Gog and the Plunderer battle him before Gog, using his teleportation bracelets, escapes, first to the Statue of Liberty, then the World Trade Center and finally, to another dimension.Gog is later found by Doctor Octopus and the Sinister Six, who induct the creature into their group as the sixth and final member. Whilst engaged in battle with several heroes, Gog is beaten in combat by the hero Solo and shrunken by Mister Fantastic, who sends him back to the dimension the Sinister Six found him in.Gog later appeared on Monster Isle when Shadowcat and Magik appeared to look for a mutant girl named Bo. Gog was among the monsters that attacked the three until Magik teleported herself, Shadowcat, and Bo to the Jean Grey School for Higher Learning.Gog reappeared in The Amazing Spider-Man with underwriter Nick Spencer detailing his new origin as an alien pet and voyage to Earth as Kraven's bodyguard.
Gog:
Powers and abilities Gog possesses superhuman strength. He also wears bracelets that are capable of granting him interdimensional teleportation.
Gog:
In film In 2014, Sony Pictures were in progress of developing a spin-off film to the 2012 film The Amazing Spider-Man featuring the Sinister Six, with Drew Goddard attached to write and direct. Due to the hacking of Sony's database in 2014 and massive confidential leaks, information regarding the Sinister Six revealed Gog was considered to appear in the movie in an early draft of the script.
Golden Archer:
Golden Archer (Wyatt McDonald) is a fictional superhero appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The character was created by Roy Thomas and John Buscema and first appeared in The Avengers #85 (February 1971). He is a member of the Squadron Supreme. He has also gone by the codenames Hawkeye and Black Archer.
Golden Archer:
Wyatt McDonald, an Australian cab driver in his civilian guise, was a master archer with a large selection of specialized trick arrows. He originally began his career as a masked superhero under the identity of Hawkeye. He developed a relationship with Linda Lewis (a.k.a. Lady Lark), a former vocalist whose vocal cords had been altered by the criminal mastermind Dr. Decibel. Together they fought crime in the city of New Babylon, eventually gaining enough fame to draw the attention of the superhero group Squadron Supreme, who invited them to join.
Golden Archer:
The character first appeared when Avengers Vision, Scarlet Witch, Quicksilver, and Goliath (Clint Barton) end up in the Squadron Supreme's universe and briefly battle them.Alongside the Squadron, he falls under the influence of the Serpent Cartel. The team travels to the mainstream Marvel Universe and battles the Avengers. As there is already a Hawkeye in that universe, McDonald changes his name to the Golden Archer to "avoid confusion", picking a name that the Avenger Hawkeye had once used as an alias. The Avengers eventually convince the Squadron that the Serpent Cartel is evil, and the team denounces them.Alongside the Squadron, he is mind-controlled by the Overmind. The team is freed by the Defenders, and the two teams battle the Overmind and Null, the Living Darkness. To repair the global chaos wrought by the Overmind, the Golden Archer joins in the Squadron's decision to take control of the United States to implement the Utopia Program, and with the rest of the team publicly reveals his secret identity. Wyatt was captured, and nearly executed by vigilantes.McDonald's relationship with Lady Lark becomes strained as she develops romantic feelings for fellow Squadron member Blue Eagle. McDonald proposes to Linda, but she rejects him. Desperate to maintain their relationship, he uses a behavior-modifying machine (created to reform criminals) to make her love him, completely changing her personality in the process.He is soon captured by the Squadron's enemies, the Institute of Evil. The Institute tortures the Archer into revealing the location of the Squadron's new base of operations, and attack and capture the Squadron. They use the behavior modification device on the heroes to make them be on their side, but it is revealed that after the Archer had used the machine on Lady Lark, the machine had been modified so it could not affect other Squadron members. The Golden Archer later admits what he did to Lady Lark, and the team votes to expel him. He later changes his name to the Black Archer and joins the Redeemers, a team founded by Nighthawk to oppose the Squadron's domination of the planet. The teams eventually battle each other, and Black Archer is killed by a blow from Blue Eagle.The Golden Archer has no superhuman powers, but he is a superb archer. He uses a customized double-recurve bow, with both conventional arrows and a wide variety of "trick arrows". He is a good hand-to-hand combatant, trained by Nighthawk. He also wore a protective force field belt, as a Squadron member, designed by Tom Thumb.
Golden Archer:
Supreme Power Golden Archer An African-American superhero called Black Archer appears in the Supreme Power: Hyperion miniseries, set in a possible future of the Supreme Power universe.
Golden Archer:
Heroes Reborn Golden Archer In the 2021 "Heroes Reborn" reality, Golden Archer is a member of the Secret Squadron. During the fight with Siege Society, Golden Archer had a duel with Hawkeye before being stepped on by an enlarged Fire Ant. Following the fight with the Siege Society, Tom Thumb, Nighthawk, and Blur mourn the deaths of Amphibian, Arcanna Jones, Blue Eagle, and Golden Archer.Hawkeye Hawkeye uses the alias when Steve Rogers gives up the Captain America persona to try and make Steve realize he can't give up being a hero; it works and Steve takes up the Nomad persona
Golden Girl:
Golden Girl is the name of two superhero characters: Betsy Ross Gwenny Lou Sabuki
Gordon:
Gordon is a fictional character that originated in the Marvel Cinematic Universe before appearing in Marvel Comics. The character, created by Jeffrey Bell, Jed Whedon and Maurissa Tancharoen, first appeared in "What They Become" of Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. (December 9, 2014) and is portrayed by Jamie Harris.
Gordon:
Comics Gordon made his comic book debut in Uncanny Inhumans #0 (June 2015) from Ryan Stegman and Ryan Lee. Gordon was imprisoned in another dimension with the monstrous Inhuman named Snarkle. Both were exiled by the Great King Kalden 2,000 years ago for unknown reasons. In modern-day New Attilan, two young Inhumans named Flint and Iso activate a portal to this other dimension. Snarkle enters their dimension with the intent of having their revenge, but Gordon chooses to stay declaring "Goodbye Snarkle. I never liked you", leaving Snarkle to be comically defeated by the younger Inhumans.
Gorilla-Man:
Ken Hale Dr. Arthur Nagan Franz Radzik
Gosamyr:
Gosamyr is a fictional character, a supervillain turned superhero appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The character first appeared in The New Mutants #66 (August 1988), and was created by Louise Simonson and Bret Blevins.
Simonson said she was considering having Gosamyr reform and join the New Mutants, depending on how much Simonson liked her. Gosamyr was written out of the series with The New Mutants #74.
Gosamyr:
Gosamyr is a member of a rare, ancient race of alien beings. In line with her heritage, Gosamyr is a very beautiful and delicate humanoid creature in her early stage. Once they reach adulthood, members of her race cocoon themselves for several thousand years before finally emerging as large powerful monstrosities. If released too early they can be powerful enough to destroy planets, even solar systems. The females of the species also have empathic powers which, even without intent, can cause conflict between even the closest of friends to the point of destruction. Provoking such conflict has evolved into the cultural norm for the species as a means of vying for dominance. As part of this, Gosamyr used her beauty to seduce male humans. She even tries to chat up eight-year-old Jack Power, who resents her approaches.Through some bad business dealings by her brother, Gosamyr and her family are forfeited to the evil alien businessman Spyder. Spyder keeps most of Gosamyr's family imprisoned while she herself is kept at the end of a leash as a pet.Through similar arrangements, Spyder had also acquired "property rights" over Lila Cheney. Lila is kidnapped by Spyder's men in spite of the efforts of her friends from the New Mutants. While in Earth's orbit, Gosamyr gives Spyder the slip, steals a space yacht and goes to Earth to find the New Mutants and ask for their help to save both her family and Lila.Gosamyr and the New Mutants follow Spyder to a planet where greed and the search for profit is the norm. On their space voyage, Gosamyr manipulates the New Mutants and causes conflict between them in order to establish herself as the alpha female of the group. Only Warlock, being a Technarch, is immune to her manipulations and suspects that Gosamyr is a threat before it is too late, and her manipulations have exposed Rahne's repressed feelings for Lila's boyfriend Cannonball, caused Magik to lose control of her demonic essence, and brought the New Mutants to blows with each other. Magik breaks the spell by striking Gosamyr with her Soulsword. Now with Gosamyr as their prisoner, the New Mutants break into Spyder's palace to rescue Lila, but are captured by Spyder, who has been monitoring their progress and using Gosamyr's nature to lead them into a trap.Gosamyr frees the New Mutants by using a trick which makes her invisible. They then discover that Gosamyr's family are in their cocoon stage and Spyder intends to force them out and kill them to use their bodies to make valuable textiles. Exiting their cocoons long before their time, the creatures grow with every passing minute and threaten to destroy the planet and its solar system. To prevent this, Lila apparently teleports them and herself into the Sun. Now orphaned, Gosamyr nonetheless accepts that Lila's killing her family was necessary.Magik then uses her own teleportation powers to get the New Mutants and Gosamyr away from the planet and into Limbo, only to find themselves trapped there. Gosamyr remains on the fringes, using her emphatic power to keep the demons away from her. She no longer actively manipulates her companions, and though Warlock remains suspicious of her, New Mutants co-leader Mirage has forgiven her earlier misdeeds.Gosamyr helps out clearing the damage after a demonic invasion of Manhattan. She uses her powers to help relieve the pain of male patients in a local hospital. More controversially, she helps the kids from Power Pack reconcile with their parents who, in the course of fighting an enemy, discovered that their children had super-powers which they had kept secret from them. The parents suffered a nervous breakdown as a result, but Gosamyr convinces them that their children are still normal. (This "cover-up" was highly criticized in the readers' letters column.) Gosamyr and her companions decide to take up residence in the spacecraft Ship, the ally and mobile headquarters of X-Factor. Upon scanning Gosamyr, Ship recognizes her species and tries to kill her. Though the New Mutants fight Ship to a standstill in her defense, the incident convinces Gosamyr that her nature makes her too much of a danger to the New Mutants and their friends. Ship informs her of a planet of mystics who might be able to teach her to curb her nature and provides her with a spacecraft with which to go there. Resolved to not cause any more harm to her friends, Gosamyr takes Ship's suggestion and leaves Earth.While in the larval stage, Gosamyr possesses wings that allow her to glide over short distances. She can also become invisible once she wraps herself in them. She also possesses some empathic control over males, which she mostly uses to seduce or bring about conflict.
Gosamyr:
The pupal stage of Gosamyr's species lasts for millennia, during which they become exceptionally mature of spirit and gain great size and strength, enough to destroy a whole solar system. In adult form they are gentle and solitary.
Grasshopper:
Doug Taggert Neil Shelton Unnamed Skrull
Great Gambonnos:
Ernesto and Luigi Gambonno were born in Milan, Italy. They are acrobats and aerialists working for the criminal organization, the Circus of Crime. They are identical twins and though they perceive themselves as the "Kings of the High Trapeze", they are defeated pretty easily by Spider-Man and Daredevil who prove to be superior acrobats to the both of them.
Green Goblin:
Norman Osborn Harry Osborn Dr. Bart Hamilton Phil Urich Construct
Grendel:
Grendel, also known as the Symbiote Dragon, is a character appearing in American comic books for Marvel Comics. The character first appeared in Venom vol. 4 #1 (May 2018), and was created by Donny Cates and Ryan Stegman.
Grendel:
Symbiote Dragon Grendel is a symbiote created by Knull billions of years in the past, sent out into the cosmos alongside its brethren to destroy and devour everything they came across. Arriving on Earth in the 6th century, it was subdued by Thor and imprisoned in a glacier, where it's exhumed by S.H.I.E.L.D. centuries later. Lying dormant for several decades, Grendel is indwelled by Knull and rampaged through New York, but is ultimately defeated by Eddie Brock / Venom.
Grendel:
Grendel in other media A variation of Grendel called the Kyntar Dragon appears in the Spider-Man series finale "Maximum Venom".
Grendel:
Tyrannosaurus Tyrannosaurus is the first offshoot of the Grendel symbiote thanks to S.H.I.E.L.D. and bonded to soldiers in the Vietnam War as a black-ops super-soldier initiative. Tyrannosaurus was bonded to Rex Strickland; it initially seized control of its host which it tried to corrupt before gradually being touched by Rex's compassion, nobility and goodness, and tried to shield Rex from an explosion but failed. Feeling guilty, Tyrannosaurus emulated its host's appearance/identity and personality for decades. Tyrannosaurus worked with Brock and helped Venom against Knull and Gendrel, revealing its true form and amalgamating itself with its ally before sacrificing itself in an attempt to immolate the superior symbiotes.
Grendel:
Dark Carnage Dark Carnage, also simply known as Carnage, is another offshoot of the Grendel symbiote. It initially bonded with the damaged form of Cletus Kasady / Carnage due a cult worshiping symbiote using Grendel's remnants which was stolen from the Maker. He consumed the various symbiotes for his own cult, such as Lee Price / Maniac which is the Mania symbiote's host. His form as Dark Carnage is a thirteen-foot-tall skeletal monster with Knull's spiral on its forehead and a white dragon/spider emblem on his chest, and effectively is a demigod possessing power far beyond what a regular symbiote bestows its host, due to his connections to Chthon through the curse of the Darkhold and Knull through Grendel. Dark Carnage fights Peter Parker / Spider-Man and Brock, but is surprised by the Hulk. Caught off-guard by Parker's various allies, Dark Carnage tried to use Dylan Brock and Normie Osborn as hostages before Brock cut Kasady's corpse in half which also reawakened Knull in the process. One of the splintered versions bonded to Miles Morales / Spider-Man as a unique six-armed symbiote.Afterwards, Devil Carnage assimilated Venom while tormenting Eddie and Dylan before beind separated and defeated yet bonding to a great white shark to escape.Carnage bonded to a great white shark to escape from the Isla de Huesos, and prowled the ocean for several months as the "red king of darkness". Eventually it stumbled upon a boat full of whalers and seizing the opportunity, Carnage catches one of the whalers and bonds to him, climbs aboard and prepares to slaughter the crew, intent on taking its place as the Red Right Hand of the King in Black, however, Knull is killed by Brock which causes the symbiote dome encasing Earth to shatter into countless symbiotes. Through the symbiote hive-mind, Venom is the new god of the symbiotes and calls out to Carnage who snarls to get out of his head. As symbiotes rain from the sky onto the ship and into the ocean, they bond to the crew of the ship and state that they are Venom, leaving Carnage shocked and incredulous. Manifesting an arm-blade, Carnage snarls as Venom states that Knull is dead. As Carnage sinks back into the ocean, Eddie says Carnage is not welcome in the reformed Hive and sentences to execution. Countless symbiote-controlled sharks began swarming Carnage and devouring in a feeding frenzy until the symbiote completely disappears in the darkness of the ocean.Following the confrontation with the new King in Black, a piece of the symbiote survived and chooses a fish for a host and then attacks a shark. It eventually moves up the food chain and arrives on a fishing boat and begins again a killing spree. Inspired by what Eddie had done, Carnage formulated a new plan to make a comeback using the power Knull had bequeathed it to create a rival Hive with itself as its nexus. Carnage slowly made its way back to New York – restoring itself by devouring everyone it came across en route. Once back in Manhattan, Carnage bonded to Senator Arthur Krane to run a campaign to get Earth rid of aliens, both the good and bad type, and is working with Alchemax and the Friends of Humanity. Carnage also began to infect many symbiotes, such as Phage, Lasher, Riot and Agony. Once all his soldiers were in place, Carnage killed on live television at one of his rallies and directed his Hive to slaughter as many attending civilians as possible, but was opposed by Flash Thompson, Silence, Toxin and Sleeper. Carnage assimilated Extrembiote – a symbiote-dragon mutated by Extremis – while abandoning Krane, transforming into a symbiote-dragon and flew away while using Agony as a loyal pawn.
Grendel:
Dark Carnage in other media Dark Carnage appears as an alternate skin for Cletus Kasady / Carnage in Marvel: Future Fight.
John Grey:
John Grey is a history professor and member of the extended "Grey Family" in the Marvel Universe.
The character, created by Stan Lee and Jack Kirby, first appeared in X-Men #5 (May 1964).
John Grey:
Within the context of the stories, John Grey is the father of Jean Grey and husband of Elaine Grey. He was portrayed as a history professor employed at Bard College in Annandale-on-Hudson, New York.After the death of his daughter Sara, he and Elaine take in and care for their grandchildren, Gailyn and Joey Bailey.During the "End of Greys" story arc, Doctor Grey is the first of his extended family to be killed by the Shi'ar Death Commandos.
John Grey:
Other versions of John Grey X-Men: The End features an alternate future of the X-Men in which Doctor Grey is still alive.
In the Ultimate Marvel continuity Professor Grey appears in various issues of Ultimate X-Men and in Ultimate War #2. Within this continuity he and his wife place Jean into a mental institution at a young age as her telepathy manifests. In a later appearance it is stated that he can recognize the feeling of telepathic scanning.
John Grey in other media Television John Grey makes a non-speaking cameo in X-Men: Evolution.
John appears in Wolverine and the X-Men episodes as an old friend of Charles Xavier.
Film John Grey appears in the prologue of X-Men: The Last Stand played by Adrian Hough.
John Grey:
He appears in Dark Phoenix played by Scott Shepherd. He witnesses first hand Jean's powers manifest when she accidentally kills Elaine in a car crash. While John survives, he becomes emotionally distraught and has Xavier take Jean away and have her believe that he died in the crash as well. Years later, she comes looking for him and becomes upset that he did nothing to find her. He is later visited by Vuk, posing as an FBI agent, and is killed by her.
Greystone:
Devlin Greystone is a fictional Māori character in the Marvel Universe, who was part of the second incarnation of X-Factor. He was created by Howard Mackie, and first appeared in X-Factor #140 (December, 1997).
Greystone is from the same alternate future as Bishop, Archer, Fixx, and Shard. He is a member of the Xavier Underground Enforcers (XUE), a rogue branch of the Xavier's Security Enforcers (XSE) who wanted to travel back in time and change their future.
Greystone:
When he was a child, Greystone lived with his mother in a type of mutant concentration camp. As part of their punishment, each prisoner was required to have an "M" branded over their right eye to outwardly signify their status as a mutant. During his branding process by an evil man named Micah, Greystone panicked and – due to the large amount of stress – manifested his mutant power years before the traditional onset at puberty. This resulted in him breaking the machine (leaving him with only a partial brand), and trying to break out with his mother. Micah shot and killed her and was about to kill Greystone too if not for the incitement of the Summers Rebellion which ultimately led to mutant freedom. However, this was not as grand as it seemed, for Greystone became an orphan and a street urchin outside the confines of the camp.
Greystone:
Upon discovering that Shard was in the present, the X.U.E. managed to travel back in time due to the psionic link Fixx created between the members of the X.U.E. which Shard was also a member of, and inhabited the bodies of three recently deceased people. Greystone inhabited the body of the adolescent teen Brian Young.
Greystone:
While looking in the newspaper one day, Greystone happens to see the picture of a young boy named Micah. He immediately recognizes him as the same Micah who murdered his mother and concocts a plan to murder the child, thus averting his future and his mother's death. He, along with Fixx and Archer, track down the boy and Greystone tries to kill him. Archer and Fixx convince him that it is unethical to condemn the child for crimes he has not yet committed and the trio leaves. They had tried to change the future but instead ended up joining X-Factor.
Greystone:
Greystone slowly developed temporal insanity, believing that his mission was accomplished, and he could go home to a better world and be reunited with his mother, who might theoretically be alive. In an attempt to return to his own time, Greystone built a flying time machine, but due to shoddy craftmanship and unsound theories, the craft exploded, seemingly killing Greystone and Havok, who was attempting to stop him.
Greystone:
Greystone can increase his body mass, density, durability, stamina and strength exponentially but at a price: the bigger he gets, the more deformed and horrific-looking he becomes. Greystone can appear as his host body or in his original body—humorously a small, white child—also carrying the memories from both bodies.
Grizzly:
Ace Fenton A.I.M. operative Maxwell Markham Theodore Winchester
Grotesk:
Grotesk is a fictional character in the Marvel Universe. He first appeared in X-Men #41–42 (February–March 1968), and was created by Roy Thomas and Don Heck.The character subsequently appears in Ms. Marvel #6 (June 1977) and #8 (August 1977), The Avengers Annual #20 (1991), Avengers West Coast Annual #6 (1991), Iron Man Annual #12 (1991), and Thor #481 (December 1994).
Grotesk:
Prince Gor-Tok, also known as Grotesk, is the former prince of a warlike, civilized race of Gortokian Subterraneans with human intelligence and virtually human appearance. Underground atomic explosions created by surface humans led to the extinction of the entire race except for Grotesk, who, his mind and body first distorted by radiation, vows to destroy the entire surface world.
Grotesk encounters the heroic mutants the X-Men on his first foray to the surface world. He fights them, and kills the Changeling (who, at the time was posing as Professor X to the X-Men).Grotesk later encounters Ms. Marvel. He also sides with the Mole Man and Tyrannus in their war against the surface world and the Avengers.
Grotto:
Grotto is a fictional character appearing in Marvel comics. He was created by Frank Miller and first appeared in Daredevil #168.
Grotto:
Grotto is a small-time criminal and the frequent partner of Turk Barrett. Like Turk, he works for Eric Slaughter and the Kingpin, resulting in frequent encounters with Daredevil and at one point encountered Elektra. Although generally regarded as unintelligent, Grotto often tries to act as a voice of reason to Turk's aggressive and overconfident behavior such as refusing to escape prison so that they can fill out their time and return to the streets without problem. When the Kingpin returned to San Francisco, Grotto was rehired as one of his elite members.
Grotto:
Grotto in other media Grotto, legal name Elliot Grote, appears in the second season of Daredevil, portrayed by McCaleb Burnett. He is a low-ranking member of the Kitchen Irish mob, serving as a driver and occasional assassin for their leader Nesbitt. After Frank Castle attacks a Kitchen Irish meeting, of which Grotto is the sole survivor, Grotto flees to Josie's Bar, coincidentally while Matt Murdock, Karen Page and Foggy Nelson are there. Matt, tipped off by Grotto's adrenaline spike and observing that he's carrying a weapon, approaches Grotto, who in turn asks the Nelson & Murdock trio to get him witness protection. While Karen guards Grotto as he recovers in the hospital from a shrapnel wound he received in the shooting, Frank shows up and makes a second attempt to kill him, but Karen manages to get Grotto out of the hospital and to the 15th Precinct. With Matt recuperating from getting shot in the head by Frank during the attack, Karen and Foggy are left to negotiate a plea deal for Grotto with District Attorney Smanatha Reyes and Assistant District Attorney Blake Tower. As part of the deal, Grotto will give up an associate in the mafia named Edgar Brass in exchange for witness protection. However, Reyes double-crosses Nelson & Murdock, instead using Grotto as bait for Frank, with "Brass" actually being an ESU officer. A firefight breaks out and Grotto flees the scene. He later calls Karen from a payphone to unceremoniously fire the firm, despite Karen's efforts to apologize for Reyes' double-cross. He does not get far, as Frank captures him and takes him to a rooftop where he has already captured and chained up Matt. Frank gives Matt a gun, and the choice of killing either one of them. Matt shoots the chains securing him, but is unable to stop Frank from fatally shooting Grotto. Out of guilt, Matt, Karen and Foggy hold a private funeral for Grotto at Matt's church. In his eulogy, the most positive thing Father Lantom can say about Grotto is that he went to and donated to the church, and he explains to Matt afterwards that if they ignored his criminal past, there would be no learning from it.
Growing Man:
The Growing Man is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics, first appearing in Thor #140 (May 1967); and reappearing in Avengers #69 (October 1969). The character was created by Stan Lee and Jack Kirby. After an appearance in Iron Man #108 (March 1978), the Growing Man is not seen in Marvel continuity until The Avengers #268 (June 1986), and then #300 (February 1989). After being found and used by new masters HYDRA in Thunderbolts #5 (August 1997), the android appeared in Young Avengers #3 (June 2005) and in upgraded form in Sentinel Squad O*N*E #2 (April 2006). The Growing Man later appeared in Avengers vs. Atlas #1 (January 2010).
Growing Man:
The Growing Man is an android built by an enslaved alien race on the time-traveling villain Kang the Conqueror's behalf. First appearing on Earth as an inert doll-sized figure, the android is found by New York police, reactivating and causing havoc until coming into conflict with the Thunder God Thor. The Growing Man is then deactivated and recovered by Kang who is in turn defeated by Thor. Kang also uses the Growing Man to abduct Tony Stark (the alter-ego of Iron Man) from a hospital. The superhero Avengers team (including Thor) attack the Growing Man and follow the android into the future, where they're involved in a competition between Kang and the Elder of the Universe known as the Grandmaster. The alien colonizers of Rigel eventually find the Growing Man in one of Kang's abandoned vessels and send it back to Earth to use it against Iron Man who defeats the android by overloading its circuitry. The Growing Man reappears in the dimension of Limbo and attacks the Avenger Hercules who hit it so hard that it collapses as its cells are overtaxed. Eventually, it finds its way to Earth, where temporary member Mister Fantastic devises a means of reversing the growing process, causing the android to shrink from sight.The Growing Man is found and reactivated by the subversive organization HYDRA. HYDRA's leader Baron Strucker orders the android to attack New York as part of a ploy to destroy the Thunderbolts team. The heroes manage to defeat the android by forcing it to grow large enough that the team could hack its circuitry and shut it down. However, this also activate a beacon in its circuitry that will warn the ancestors of the original aliens of Kang's coming. Kang uses another variation of the android when attempting to track his younger self, with this version splitting into several smaller versions once hit with sufficient force, but they all withdraw once the young Kang identifies himself. An upgraded form is sent by HYDRA to disrupt a political rally, but is stopped when its powers are overloaded.
Growing Man:
Growing Man in other media The Growing Man appears in the Avengers Assemble episode "The Thunderbolts", voiced by Travis Willingham. This version is a stimuloid that Justin Hammer modified with Stark Industries' stolen technology, though it was defeated by the Avengers and the Thunderbolts.
Growing Man:
Growing Man androids appear in the X-Men/Spider-Man crossover trilogy Time's Arrow, specifically in the third novel The Future, when a group of X-Men face them in Limbo. The X-Men find various ways to defeat them, including Bishop grabbing one so that he can absorb the energy it would have used to grow to Iceman subtly freezing one Growing Man without explicitly attacking it.
Guillotine:
Guillotine or Jeannine Sauvage is a fictional mystic character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. Guillotine has no superpowers but is an expert swordswoman and wields the mystic Fleur du Mal, a sword with dark supernatural powers (the sword name means literally "The Flower of Evil" in French). Born of a mixed French-Algerian heritage, she is the latest in her bloodline to inherit the sword. The character was conceived by writer Al Ewing and the full design was developed by Kabam art director Gabriel Frizzera and artist Paco Medina. She first appeared in the second volume of Contest of Champions released October 7, 2015 (cover dated December 2015). Shortly after, she made her debut in the game Marvel: Contest of Champions. In 2017, Guillotine was briefly featured in the title U.S.Avengers.
Guillotine:
In 1793, an ancestor of Sauvage, Jean Desmarais, found the mythical Fleur du Mal sword in the Paris catacombs when escaping the authorities for being a revolutionary. Since then, it was passed on to his descendants with the most recent one being Jeannine Sauvage. Jeannine discovered the sword at age twelve by being lured to a room that was usually locked by a voice. While inspecting the sword, she slit her finger with its edge, and the blood dripped into the sword. This caused Jeannine to become cursed to wield this sword like her ancestors before her. During the Secret Empire storyline, Guillotine appears as a member of the Champions of Europe alongside Ares, Captain Britain, Excalibur, Outlaw, and Peregrine. With help from Squirrel Girl and Enigma, the team manages to liberate Paris, France from Hydra occupation.
Guillotine:
In other media Guillotine is a playable character in the online game Marvel: Contest of Champions. This marked the first time that a Marvel character appeared in comics that was developed for a game.
Melody Guthrie:
Melody Guthrie is the younger sister of Cannonball, Husk, and Icarus. Her father dies early in her life due to black lung. Melody is seen in multiple issues of the New Mutants, living at their Kentucky farm, as her brother Cannonball is a featured character in that series. Many stories focus on his home life.
Melody Guthrie:
Melody sees her siblings develop powers one by one. Her brother Sam is the first, followed by Paige (aka Husk). Husk comes to the attention of the alien entities known as the Phalanx; they come to the farm, endangering the lives of the entire family, kidnapping Paige, and destroying the family home. Much later Josh/Icarus manifests his wings during a music festival; the resulting chaos draws all the Guthries into a brutal feud with another family. Melody then develops the ability to produce an aura that allows her to fly. After this manifestation, she becomes known as Aero. She then joins Xavier's team as a student during a time when Cannonball is one of the supporting staff. At one point he rebukes her for showing off in front of a helicopter news crew.
Melody Guthrie:
Due to the effects of Scarlet Witch going insane in the Marvel crossover event "Decimation", a majority of Earth's mutants lose their powers. Aero and her brother Jeb both lost their powers following the events of M-Day. She doesn't quite understand how this affects her. In an attempt to prove to one of her teachers, Emma Frost, that she still has her powers, she leaps off of a roof; another teacher, Hank McCoy, managed to save her from injury.
Melody Guthrie:
Melody moves back home with her mother, Lucinda, and her other siblings. She later appears as an astral projection caused by Emma Frost during a confrontation with Ms. Marvel. She and her mother later receive a call from Emma Frost concerning the death of Melody's brother, Joshua, who was killed in an attack on Xavier's.Melody was allowed to live in the newly created mutant-only nation of Krakoa because she was a former mutant and a member of the Guthrie family, known for their strong X-Gene. There, she became the first to undergo a novel ritual called the Crucible, a trial of combat against Apocalypse to earn the right to die and be resurrected by the Five, to regain her lost powers. In front of a large ensemble of mutants, she was brutalized by Apocalypse, who urged her to give up and ask to heal instead of persisting in the fight. Melody refused and was ultimately killed by Apocalypse, passing the trial of Crucible. She later claimed her prize when she was resurrected by the Five, with her former powers returned to her. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Parkerian Hexad**
Parkerian Hexad:
The Parkerian hexad is a set of six elements of information security proposed by Donn B. Parker in 1998. The Parkerian hexad adds three additional attributes to the three classic security attributes of the CIA triad (confidentiality, integrity, availability).
Parkerian Hexad:
The Parkerian Hexad attributes are the following: Confidentiality Possession or Control Integrity Authenticity Availability UtilityThese attributes of information are atomic in that they are not broken down into further constituents; they are non-overlapping in that they refer to unique aspects of information. Any information security breach can be described as affecting one or more of these fundamental attributes of information.
Attributes from the CIA triad:
Confidentiality Confidentiality refers to limits on who can get what kind of information. For example, executives concerned about protecting their enterprise's strategic plans from competitors; individuals are concerned about unauthorized access to their financial records.
Attributes from the CIA triad:
Integrity Integrity refers to being correct or consistent with the intended state of information. Any unauthorized modification of data, whether deliberate or accidental, is a breach of data integrity. For example, data stored on disk are expected to be stable – they are not supposed to be changed at random by problems with a disk controller. Similarly, application programs are supposed to record information correctly and not introduce deviations from the intended values.
Attributes from the CIA triad:
From Donn Parker: "My definition of information integrity comes from the dictionaries. Integrity means that the information is whole, sound, and unimpaired (not necessarily correct). It means nothing is missing from the information it is complete and in intended good order." The author's statement comes close in saying that the information is in a correct...state. Information may be incorrect or not authentic but have integrity or correct and authentic but lacking in integrity.
Attributes from the CIA triad:
Availability Availability means having timely access to information. For example, a disk crash or denial-of-service attacks both cause a breach of availability. Any delay that exceeds the expected service levels for a system can be described as a breach of availability.
Parker's added attributes:
Authenticity Authenticity refers to the veracity of the claim of origin or authorship of the information. For example, one method for verifying the authorship of a hand written document is to compare the handwriting characteristics of the document to a sampling of others which have already been verified. For electronic information, a digital signature could be used to verify the authorship of a digital document using public-key cryptography (could also be used to verify the integrity of the document).
Parker's added attributes:
Possession or control Possession or control: Suppose a thief were to steal a sealed envelope containing a bank debit card and its personal identification number. Even if the thief did not open that envelope, it's reasonable for the victim to be concerned that the thief could do so at any time. That situation illustrates a loss of control or possession of information but does not involve the breach of confidentiality.
Parker's added attributes:
Utility Utility means usefulness. For example, suppose someone encrypted data on disk to prevent unauthorized access or undetected modifications–and then lost the decryption key: that would be a breach of utility. The data would be confidential, controlled, integral, authentic, and available–they just wouldn't be useful in that form. Similarly, conversion of salary data from one currency into an inappropriate currency would be a breach of utility, as would the storage of data in a format inappropriate for a specific computer architecture; e.g., EBCDIC instead of ASCII or 9-track magnetic tape instead of DVD-ROM. A tabular representation of data substituted for a graph could be described as a breach of utility if the substitution made it more difficult to interpret the data. Utility is often confused with availability because breaches such as those described in these examples may also require time to work around the change in data format or presentation. However, the concept of usefulness is distinct from that of availability. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Casas-Alvero conjecture**
Casas-Alvero conjecture:
In mathematics, the Casas-Alvero conjecture is an open problem about polynomials which have factors in common with their derivatives, proposed by Eduardo Casas-Alvero in 2001.
Formal statement:
Let f be a polynomial of degree d defined over a field K of characteristic zero. If f has a factor in common with each of its derivatives f(i), i = 1, ..., d − 1, then the conjecture predicts that f must be a power of a linear polynomial.
Analogue in non-zero characteristic:
The conjecture is false over a field of characteristic p: any inseparable polynomial f(Xp) without constant term satisfies the condition since all derivatives are zero. Another, separable, counterexample is Xp+1 − Xp
Special cases:
The conjecture is known to hold in characteristic zero for degrees of the form pk or 2pk where p is prime and k is a positive integer. Similarly, it is known for degrees of the form 3pk where p ≠ 2, for degrees of the form 4pk where p ≠ 3, 5, 7, and for degrees of the form 5pk where p ≠ 2, 3, 7, 11, 131, 193, 599, 3541, 8009. Similar results are available for degrees of the form 6pk and 7pk. It has recently been established for d = 12, making d = 20 the smallest open degree. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Nabataean (Unicode block)**
Nabataean (Unicode block):
Nabataean is a Unicode block containing characters for writing the ancient Nabataean language.
History:
The following Unicode-related documents record the purpose and process of defining specific characters in the Nabataean block: | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**BookBrowse**
BookBrowse:
BookBrowse is an online magazine and website that provides book reviews, author interviews, book previews, and reading guides. The magazine is independent of publishers and does not sell books that it reviews. The site offers both free and premium content that is available by subscription.
History:
BookBrowse was founded by Davina and Paul Morgan-Witts in 1997. The idea for the website came from a trip to a bookstore the same year. The visit to the bookstore was cut short and they decided to look on the internet for book information, finding very little at that time. This brought on the idea to create something that allowed readers to flip through various pages of a book, similar to at a bookstore. BookBrowse was launched allowing visitors to view excerpts of books, later evolving into publishing of book reviews.The website grew in popularity and in 1998 was featured by Yahoo! as its Incredibly Useful Site of the Day. In the early 2000s, it started publishing its own reviews of various books as well as publishing reader reviews. BookBrowse also launched an online magazine that is published twice-monthly, containing reviews, previews, articles, book club recommendations, and author interviews. It also provides a book club section for those seeking advice on starting a book club and finding suitable books to read, as well as book reviews by active book clubs.The site generates revenue by offering subscription access to premium features outside the content it publishes for free, including offering subscription access for public libraries. One feature of the website is that BookBrowse does not sell books that it reviews. BookBrowse also conducts and publishes author interviews. Published interviews have included Jennifer Egan, Elisabeth Tova Bailey, John Twelve Hawks, and Kathryn Stockett.In July 2015, BookBrowse published a research report titled Book Clubs in the USA. In February 2019, BookBrowse published a research report titled The Inner Lives of Book Clubs, and in November 2020 it published a third in its series of reports titled Book Clubs in Lockdown
Awards and recognition:
In 2015 and 2017, BookBrowse received a Modern Library Award from LibraryWorks in recognition of it being a top product in the library industry. In 2020 it was awarded Platinum in the Modern Library Awards | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Embedded database**
Embedded database:
An embedded database system is a database management system (DBMS) which is tightly integrated with an application software; it is embedded in the application. It is a broad technology category that includes: database systems with differing application programming interfaces (SQL as well as proprietary, native APIs) database architectures (client-server and in-process) storage modes (on-disk, in-memory, and combined) database models (relational, object-oriented, entity–attribute–value model, network/CODASYL) target marketsThe term embedded database can be confusing because only a small subset of embedded database products are used in real-time embedded systems such as telecommunications switches and consumer electronics. (See mobile database for small-footprint databases that could be used on embedded devices.)
Implementations:
Major embedded database products include, in alphabetical order: Advantage Database Server from Sybase Inc.
ArcticDB from Man Group Berkeley DB from Oracle Corporation DuckDB from DuckDB Labs CSQL from csqlcache.com Extensible Storage Engine from Microsoft eXtremeDB from McObject Firebird Embedded HSQLDB from HSQLDB.ORG, Informix Dynamic Server (IDS) from IBM InfinityDB from Boiler Bay Inc.
InnoDB from Oracle Corporation InterBase (Both server and mobile friendly deeply embedded version) from Embarcadero Technologies KùzuDB LanceDB Lightning Memory-Mapped Database (LMDB) from Symas Corp.
Mimer SQL Raima Database Manager from Raima solidDB SQLite SQL Server Compact from Microsoft Corporation Sophia Embeddable key-value storage
Comparisons of database storage engines:
Advantage Database Server Sybase's Advantage Database Server (ADS) is an embedded database management system. It provides both ISAM and relational data access and is compatible with multiple platforms including Windows, Linux, and Netware. It is available as a royalty-free local file-server database or a full client-server version. ADS is highly scalable, with no administration, and has support for a variety of IDEs including .NET Framework (.NET), Object Pascal (Delphi), Visual FoxPro (FoxPro), PHP, Visual Basic (VB), Visual Objects (VO), Vulcan, Clipper, Perl, Java, xHarbour, etc.
Comparisons of database storage engines:
Apache Derby Derby is an embeddable SQL engine written entirely in Java. Fully transactional, multi-user with a decent SQL subset, Derby is a mature engine and freely available under the Apache license and is actively maintained. Derby project page. It is also distributed as part of Oracle's Java SE Development Kit (JDK) under the name of Java DB.
Comparisons of database storage engines:
Empress Embedded Database Empress Software, Inc., developer of the Empress Embedded Database, is a privately held company founded in 1979. Empress Embedded Database is a full-function, relational database that has been embedded into applications by organizations small to large, with deployment environments including medical systems, network routers, nuclear power plant monitors, satellite management systems, and other embedded system applications that require reliability and power. Empress is an ACID compliant, SQL database engine with C, C++, Java, JDBC, ODBC, SQL, ADO.NET and kernel level APIs. Applications developed using these APIs may be run in standalone and/or server modes. Empress Embedded Database runs on Linux, Unix, Microsoft Windows and real-time operating systems.
Comparisons of database storage engines:
Extensible Storage Engine ESE is an Indexed Sequential Access Method (ISAM) data storage technology from Microsoft. ESE is notably a core of Microsoft Exchange Server and Active Directory. Its purpose is to allow applications to store and retrieve data via indexed and sequential access. Windows Mail and Desktop Search in the Windows Vista operating system also make use of ESE to store indexes and property information respectively.
Comparisons of database storage engines:
eXtremeDB McObject LLC launched eXtremeDB as the first in-memory embedded database designed from scratch for real-time embedded systems. The initial product was soon joined by eXtremeDB High Availability (HA) for fault tolerant applications. The product family now includes 64-bit and transaction logging editions, and the hybrid eXtremeDB Fusion, which combines in-memory and on-disk data storage. In 2008, McObject introduced eXtremeDB Kernel Mode, the first embedded DBMS designed to run in an operating system kernel. Today, eXtremeDB is used in millions of real-time and embedded systems worldwide. McObject also offers Perst, an open source, object-oriented embedded database for Java, Java ME, .NET, .NET Compact Framework and Silverlight.
Comparisons of database storage engines:
Firebird Embedded Firebird Embedded is a relational database engine. As an open source fork of InterBase, it is ACID compliant, supports triggers and stored procedures, and is available on Linux, OSX and Windows systems. It has the same features as the classic and superserver version of Firebird, two or more threads (and applications) can access the same database at the same time starting with Firebird 2.5. So Firebird embedded acts as a local server for one threaded client accessing its databases (that means it works properly for ASP.NET web applications, because there, each user has its own thread, which means two users could access the same database at the same time, but they would not be in the same thread, because ASP.NET opens a new thread for each user). It exports the standard Firebird API entry points. The main advantage of Firebird embedded databases is, that unlike SQLite or Access databases, they can be plugged into a full Firebird server without any modifications at all also is multiplatform (runs on Linux, OS X with full ASP.NET Mono support) Firebird is not truly embedded since it can not be statically linked H2 Written in Java Open source database engine. Embedded and Server mode, Clustering support, can run inside the Google App Engine. Supports encrypted database files (AES or XTEA). The development of H2 was started in May 2004, but it was first published on December 14, 2005. H2 is dual licensed and available under a modified version of the MPL 1.1 (Mozilla Public License) or under the (unmodified) EPL 1.0 (Eclipse Public License).
Comparisons of database storage engines:
HailDB, formerly Embedded InnoDB HailDB is a standalone, embeddable form of the InnoDB Storage Engine. Given that HailDB is based on the same code base as the InnoDB Storage Engine, it contains many of the same features: high-performance and scalability, multiversion concurrency control (MVCC), row-level locking, deadlock detection, fault tolerance, automatic crash recovery, etc. However, because the embedded engine is completely independent from MySQL, it lacks server components such as networking, object-level permissions, etc. By eliminating the MySQL server overhead, InnoDB has a small footprint and is well-suited for embedding in applications which require high-performance and concurrency. As with most embedded database systems, HailDB is designed to be accessed primarily with an ISAM-like C API rather than SQL (though an extremely rudimentary SQL variant is supported).The project is no longer maintained.
Comparisons of database storage engines:
HSQLDB HSQLDB is an opensource relational database management system with a BSD-like license that runs in the same Java Virtual Machine as the embedded application. HSQLDB supports a variety of in-memory and disk-based table modes, Unicode and SQL:2016.
Comparisons of database storage engines:
InfinityDB InfinityDB Embedded Java DBMS is a sorted hierarchical key/value store. It now has an Encrypted edition and a Client/Server edition. The multi-core speed is patent-applied-for. InfinityDB is secure, transactional, compressing, and robust, in a single file for instant installation and zero administration. APIs include the simple fast 'ItemSpace', a ConcurrentNavigableMap view, and JSON. A RemoteItemSpace can transparently redirect the embedded APIs to other db instances. Client/Server includes a light-weight Servlet server, web admin and database browsing, and REST for python.
Comparisons of database storage engines:
Informix Dynamic Server Informix Dynamic Server (IDS) is characterized as an enterprise class embeddable database server, combining embeddable features such as low footprint, programmable and autonomic capabilities with enterprise class database features such as high availability and flexible replication features. IDS is used in deeply embedded scenarios such as IP telephony call-processing systems, point of sale applications and financial transaction processing systems.
Comparisons of database storage engines:
InterBase InterBase is an IoT Award-winning cross-platform, Unicode enabled SQL database platform able to be embedded within turn-key applications. Out of the box SMP support and on disk AES strength 256bit encryption, SQL 92 & ACID compliance and support for Windows, Macintosh, Linux, Solaris, iOS and Android platforms. Ideal for both small-to-medium and large enterprises supporting hundreds of users and mobile application development. InterBase Light is a free version that can be used on any mobile device and is ideal for mobile applications. Enterprises can switch to a paid version as requirements for change management and security increase. InterBase has high adoption in defense, airspace, oil and gas, and manufacturing industries.
Comparisons of database storage engines:
LevelDB LevelDB is an ordered key/value store created by Google as a lightweight implementation of the Bigtable storage design. As a library (which is the only way to use LevelDB), its native API is C++. It also includes official C wrappers for most functionality. Third-party API wrappers exist for Python, PHP, Go (pure Go LevelDB implementation exists but is in progress still), Node.js and Objective C. Google distributes LevelDB under the New BSD License.
Comparisons of database storage engines:
LMDB Lightning Memory-Mapped Database (LMDB) is a memory-mapped key-value database for the OpenLDAP Project. It is written in C and the API is modeled after the Berkeley DB API, though much simplified. The library is extremely compact, compiling down to under 40KB of x86 object code, being usually faster than similar libraries like Berkeley DB, LevelDB, etc. The library implements B+trees with multiversion concurrency control (MVCC), single-level store, Copy on write and provides full ACID transactions with no deadlocks. The library is optimized for high read concurrency; readers need no locks at all. Readers don't block writers and writers don't block readers, so read performance scales perfectly linearly across arbitrarily many threads and CPUs. Third-party wrappers exist for C++, Erlang and Python. LMDB is distributed by the OpenLDAP Project under the OpenLDAP Public License. As of 2013 the OpenLDAP Project is deprecating the use of Berkeley DB, in favor of LMDB.
Comparisons of database storage engines:
Mimer SQL An embedded zero maintenance version of the proprietary Mimer SQL relational database server is available. It has a small footprint due to its modular design, full support for the SQL standard, and with ports to Windows, Linux, Automotive Grade Linux, Android, QNX, INTEGRITY, among others.
MonetDB/e MonetDB/e is the embedded version of the open source MonetDB SQL column store engine. Available for C, C++, Java (JDBC) and Python. MonetDB License, based on MPL 2.0. The predecessor MonetDBLite (for R, Python and Java) is no longer maintained. It's replaced by MonetDB/e.
Comparisons of database storage engines:
MySQL Embedded Server Library The Embedded MySQL Server Library provides most of the features of regular MySQL as a linkable library that can be run in the context of a client process. After initialization, clients can use the same C API calls as when talking to a separate MySQL server but with less communication overhead and with no need for a separate database process.
Comparisons of database storage engines:
NexusDB NexusDB is the commercial successor to the FlashFiler database which is now open source. They can both be embedded in Delphi applications to create stand-alone executables with full database functionality.
Comparisons of database storage engines:
Oracle Berkeley DB As the name implies, Oracle's embedded database is actually Berkeley DB, which Oracle acquired from Sleepycat Software. It was originally developed at the University of California. Berkeley DB is a fast, open-source embedded database and is used in several well-known open-source products, including the Linux and BSD Unix operating systems, Apache Web server, OpenOffice productivity suite. Nonetheless, over recent years many well-known projects switched to using LMDB, because it outperform Berkeley DB in key scenarios on the ground of "less is more" design, as well due to the license changing.
Comparisons of database storage engines:
Raima Database Manager Raima Database Manager, produced by Raima. According to Raima's definition, the product is embedded in two senses: first, it is embedded within an application, becoming an extension to the application, and second, it is possible to use it in embedded computer/OS or real-time environments because of its small footprint and efficient operation. Its APIs (for C/C++, SQL, JDBC, ODBC, ADO.NET, and RESTful) have been designed to support the limited resources of embedded environments.
Comparisons of database storage engines:
RocksDB RocksDB, created at Facebook, began as a fork of LevelDB. It focuses on performance, especially on SSDs. It adds many features, including transactions, backups, snapshots, bloom filters, column families, expiry, custom merge operators, more tunable compaction, statistics collection, and geospatial indexing. It is used as a storage engine inside of several other databases, including ArangoDB, Ceph, CockroachDB, MongoRocks, MyRocks, Rocksandra, TiKV. and YugabyteDB.
Comparisons of database storage engines:
solidDB solid DB is a hybrid on-disk/in-memory, relational database and is often used as an embedded system database in telecommunications equipment, network software, and similar systems. In-memory database technology is used to achieve throughput of tens of thousands of transactions per second with response times measured in microseconds. High availability option maintains two copies of the data synchronized at all times. In case of system failure, applications can recover access to solid DB in less than a second without loss of data.
Comparisons of database storage engines:
SQLite SQLite is a software library that implements a self-contained, server-less, zero-configuration, transactional SQL database engine. SQLite is the most widely deployed SQL database engine in the world. The source code, chiefly C, for SQLite is in the public domain. It includes both a native C library and a simple command line client for its database. It's included in several operating systems; among them are Android, FreeBSD, iOS, OS X and Windows 10.
Comparisons of database storage engines:
SQL Server Compact SQL Server Compact is an embedded database by Microsoft with wide variety of features like multi-process connections, T-SQL, ADO.NET Sync Services to sync with any back end database, Merge Replication with SQL Server, Programming API: LINQ to SQL, LINQ to Entities, ADO.NET. The product runs on both Desktop and Mobile Windows platforms. It has been in the market for long time, used by many enterprises in production software (Case Studies). The product went through multiple re-brandings and was known with multiple names like: SQL CE, SQL Server CE, SQL Server Mobile, SQL Mobile. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Trismus**
Trismus:
Trismus, commonly called lockjaw as associated with tetanus, is a condition of limited jaw mobility. It may be caused by spasm of the muscles of mastication or a variety of other causes. Temporary trismus occurs much more frequently than permanent trismus. It is known to interfere with eating, speaking, and maintaining proper oral hygiene. This interference, specifically with an inability to swallow properly, results in an increased risk of aspiration. In some instances, trismus presents with altered facial appearance. The condition may be distressing and painful. Examination and treatments requiring access to the oral cavity can be limited, or in some cases impossible, due to the nature of the condition itself.
Definition:
Trismus is defined as painful restriction in opening the mouth due to a muscle spasm, however it can also refer to limited mouth opening of any cause. Another definition of trismus is simply a limitation of movement. Historically and commonly, the term lockjaw was sometimes used as a synonym for both trismus and tetanus.Normal mouth-opening ranges from 35 to 45 mm. Males usually have slightly greater mouth opening than females. (40–60 mm, average of 50 mm). The normal lateral movement is 8–12 mm, and normal protrusive movement is approximately 10 mm. Some have distinguished mild trismus as 20–30 mm interincisal opening, moderate as 10–20 mm and severe as less than 10 mm.Trismus is derived from the Greek word trigmos/trismos meaning "a scream; a grinding, rasping or gnashing".
Differential diagnosis:
Traditionally causes of trismus are divided into intra-articular (factors within the temporomandibular joint [TMJ]) and extra-articular (factors outside the joint, see table).
Joint problems Ankylosis True bony ankylosis: can result from trauma to chin, infections and from prolonged immobilization following condylar fracture Treatment – several surgical procedures are used to treat bony ankylosis, e.g.: Gap arthroplasty using interpositional materials between the cut segments.
Fibrous ankylosis: usually results due to trauma and infection Treatment – trismus appliances in conjunction with physical therapy.
Differential diagnosis:
Arthritis synovitis Meniscus pathology Extra-articular causes Infection Odontogenic- Pulpal Periodontal Pericoronal Non-odontogenic- Peritonsillar abscess Tetanus Meningitis Brain abscess Parotid abscess The hallmark of a masticatory space infection is trismus or infection in anterior compartment of lateral pharyngeal space results in trismus. If these infections are unchecked, can spread to various facial spaces of the head and neck and lead to serious complications such as cervical cellulitis or mediastinitis.
Differential diagnosis:
Treatment: Elimination of etiologic agent along with antibiotic coverage Trismus or lock jaw due to masseter muscle spasm, can be a primary presenting symptom in tetanus, Caused by Clostridium tetani, where tetanospasmin (toxin) is responsible for muscle spasms.
Differential diagnosis:
Prevention: primary immunization (DPT) Dental treatment Dental trismus is defined by difficulty in opening the jaw. It is a temporary condition that usually lasts no more than two weeks. Dental trismus is caused by an injury to the masticatory muscles, such as opening the jaw for an extended period of time or having a needle pass through a muscle. Typical dental anesthesia for the lower jaw involves inserting a needle into or through a muscle. In these cases it is usually the medial pterygoid or the buccinator muscles.
Differential diagnosis:
Oral surgery procedures, as in the extraction of lower molar teeth, may cause trismus as a result either of inflammation to the muscles of mastication or direct trauma to the TMJ.
Barbing of needles at the time of injection followed by tissue damage on withdrawal of the barbed needle causes post-injection persistent paresthesia, trismus and paresis.
Treatment: in acute phase: Heat therapy Analgesics A soft diet Muscle relaxants (if necessary) Note: When acute phase is over the patient should be advised to initiate physiotherapy for opening and closing mouth.
Trauma Fractures, particularly those of the mandible and fractures of zygomatic arch and zygomatic arch complex, accidental incorporation of foreign bodies due to external traumatic injury.
Treatment: fracture reduction, removal of foreign bodies with antibiotic coverage TMJ disorders Extra-capsular disorders – Myofascial pain dysfunction syndrome Intra-capsular problems – Disc displacement, arthritis, fibrosis, etc.
Acute closed locked conditions – displaced meniscus Tumors and oral care Rarely, trismus is a symptom of nasopharyngeal or infratemporal tumors/ fibrosis of temporalis tendon, when patient has limited mouth opening, always premalignant conditions like oral submucous fibrosis (OSMF) should also be considered in differential diagnosis.
Drug therapy Succinyl choline, phenothiazines and tricyclic antidepressants causes trismus as a secondary effect. Trismus can be seen as an extra-pyramidal side-effect of metoclopromide, phenothiazines and other medications.
Radiotherapy and chemotherapy Complications of radiotherapy: Osteoradionecrosis may result in pain, trismus, suppuration and occasionally a foul smelling wound.
When muscles of mastication are within the field of radiation, it leads to fibrosis and result in decreased mouth opening.
Complications of Chemotherapy: Oral mucosal cells have high growth rate and are susceptible to the toxic effects of chemotherapy, which lead to stomatitis.
Congenital and developmental causes Hypertrophy of coronoid process causes interference of coronoid against the anteromedial margin of the zygomatic arch.
Treatment: Coronoidectomy Trismus-pseudo-camtodactyly syndrome is a rare combination of hand, foot and mouth abnormalities and trismus.
Miscellaneous disorders Hysteric patients: Through the mechanisms of conversion, the emotional conflict are converted into a physical symptom. E.g.: trismus Scleroderma: A condition marked by edema and induration of the skin involving facial region can cause trismus Common causes Pericoronitis (inflammation of soft tissue around impacted third molar) is the most common cause of trismus.
Differential diagnosis:
Inflammation of muscles of mastication. It is a frequent sequel to surgical removal of mandibular third molars (lower wisdom teeth). The condition is usually resolved on its own in 10–14 days, during which time eating and oral hygiene are compromised. The application of heat (e.g. heat bag extraorally, and warm salt water intraorally) may help, reducing the severity and duration of the condition.
Differential diagnosis:
Peritonsillar abscess, a complication of tonsillitis which usually presents with sore throat, dysphagia, fever, and change in voice.
Temporomandibular joint dysfunction (TMD).
Differential diagnosis:
Trismus is often mistaken as a common temporary side effect of many stimulants of the sympathetic nervous system. Users of amphetamines as well as many other pharmacological agents commonly report bruxism as a side-effect; however, it is sometimes mis-referred to as trismus. Users' jaws do not lock, but rather the muscles become tight and the jaw clenched. It is still perfectly possible to open the mouth.
Differential diagnosis:
Submucous fibrosis.
Fracture of the zygomatic arch.
Other causes Acute osteomyelitis Ankylosis of the TMJ (fibrous or bony) Condylar fracture or other trauma.
Gaucher disease which is caused by deficiency of the enzyme glucocerebrosidase.
Giant cell arteritis Sympathomimetic drugs, such as amphetamine, methamphetamine, MDA, MDMA, MDEA, methylphenidate, ethylphenidate, and related substances.
Infection Local anesthesia (dental injections into the infratemporal fossa) Needle prick to the medial pterygoid muscle Oral submucous fibrosis.
Radiation therapy to the head and neck.
Tetanus, also called lockjaw for this reason Malignant hyperthermia Malaria severa Secondary to neuroleptic drug use Malignant otitis externa Mumps Peritonsillar abscess Retropharyngeal or parapharyngeal abscess Seizure Stroke Toothache
Diagnostic approach:
X-ray/CT scan taken from the TMJ to see if there is any damage to the TMJ and surrounding structures.
Treatment:
Treatment requires treating the underlying condition with dental treatments, speech therapy for swallowing difficulty and mouth opening restrictions, physical therapy, and passive range of motion devices. Additionally, control of symptoms with pain medications (NSAIDs), muscle relaxants, and warm compresses may be used.
Splints have been used.
History:
Historically, the term trismus was used to describe the early effects of tetany, also called "lockjaw". | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Resource-oriented computing**
Resource-oriented computing:
Resource Oriented Computing (ROC) is a simple abstract computing model used for describing, designing, and implementing software and software systems. The fundamental idea behind ROC is derived from the World Wide Web, Unix, and other sources as well as original research conducted at HP Laboratories.
Fundamental concepts:
Resource-oriented computing describes an abstract computing model. The fundamental idea is that sets of information known as resources are treated as abstracts; that is, a resource is a Platonic concept of the information that is the subject of a computation process.
Resources are identified by logical addresses (typically a URI) and processing is defined using compositions and sequences of resource requests.
At the physical level, a ROC system processes resource-representations, executes transformations and, in so doing, computes new resources. In this respect ROC is no different from any other computational model - computation is performed to collate and reveal new information.
The fundamental principles of ROC include: Resource A resource is an abstract set of information.
Identity Each resource may be identified by one or more logical identifiers.
Resolution A logical identifier may be resolved within an information-context to obtain a physical resource-representation.
Computation Computation is the reification of a resource to a physical resource-representation.
Immutability Resource representations are immutable.
Transreption Transreption (short for transrepresentation) is the isomorphic lossless transformation of one physical resource-representation to another. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**HD 15558**
HD 15558:
HD 15558 (HIP 11832) is a massive O-type multiple star system in Cassiopeia and is specifically in our galaxy's Heart Nebula in open cluster IC 1805. The primary is a very massive star with 152 M☉ and 660,000 L☉.
Physical characteristics:
HD 15558 A is a spectroscopic binary system containing at least two massive luminous class O stars. The primary is an O4.5 giant star with a surface temperature over 46,800 K. It has a mass of 152 M☉ and a luminosity of 660,000 L☉, making it one of the most massive stars in the Milky Way Galaxy. The star loses 1.5×10−5 M☉ per year. The secondary is an O7V star. It has a mass of 46 M☉. The primary may itself be a double star, suggested by the improbably large mass found from the binary orbit when compared to the other stellar parameters.The Washington Double Star Catalog lists 11 companions within one arc minute of HD 15558 A, all fainter than 10th magnitude. In addition, it lists component E just over one arc minute away; it is another hot massive star, the 9th magnitude BD+60°501 with a spectral type of O7 V(n)((f))z. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Centrifugal abdominal lipodystrophy**
Centrifugal abdominal lipodystrophy:
Centrifugal abdominal lipodystrophy is a skin condition characterized by areas of subcutaneous fat loss that slowly enlarge.: 496–7 | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**3-Nitrochlorobenzene**
3-Nitrochlorobenzene:
3-Nitrochlorobenzene is an organic compound with the formula C6H4ClNO2. It is a yellow crystalline solid that is important as a precursor to other compounds due to the two reactive sites present on the molecule.
Synthesis:
Nitrochlorobenzene is typically synthesized by nitration of chlorobenzene in the presence of sulfuric acid: C6H5Cl + HNO3 → O2NC6H4Cl + H2OThis reaction affords a mixture of isomers. Using an acid ratio of 30/56/14, the product mix is typically 34-36% 2-nitrochlorobenzene and 63-65% 4-nitrochlorobenzene, with only about 1% 3-nitrochlorobenzene. Since the above synthetic route does not efficiently produce the 3-isomer, the route most commonly used by chemists is the chlorination of nitrobenzene. This reaction must be carried out with a sublimed iron(III) catalyst at 33-45 °C.Purification of 3-nitrochlorobenzene is somewhat difficult since other isomers are formed even via chlorination of nitrobenzene, and all of these isomers have similar physical properties. Hydrolysis at the activated chlorine site of the 2- and 4-isomers (but not at the resistant 3-chlorine center) makes separation by physical means much less tedious.
Reactions:
Unlike the other isomers of nitrochlorobenzene, the meta isomer is not activated to nucleophilic substitution at the chlorine center. However, 3-nitrochlorobenzene has other interesting reactivity. 3-Nitrochlorobenzene can be reduced to 3-chloroaniline with Fe/HCl mixture, the Bechamp reduction. Electrophilic aromatic substitution is possible on 3-nitrochlorobenzene, yielding many possible products.
Applications:
3-Nitrochlorobenzene is not useful itself but is a precursor to other useful compounds. Its derivative 3-chloroaniline, a useful compound sometimes referred to as Orange GC Base. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Windows 9x**
Windows 9x:
Windows 9x is a generic term referring to a series of Microsoft Windows computer operating systems produced from 1995 to 2000, which were based on the Windows 95 kernel and its underlying foundation of MS-DOS, both of which were updated in subsequent versions. The first version in the 9x series was Windows 95, which was succeeded by Windows 98 and then Windows Me, which was the third and last version of Windows on the 9x line, until the series was superseded by Windows XP.Windows 9x is predominantly known for its use in home desktops. In 1998, Windows made up 82% of operating system market share.Internal release versions for versions of Windows 9x are 4.x. The internal versions for Windows 95, 98, and Me are 4.0, 4.1, and 4.9, respectively. Previous MS-DOS-based versions of Windows used version numbers of 3.2 or lower. Windows NT, which was aimed at professional users such as networks and businesses, used a similar but separate version number between 3.1 and 4.0. All versions of Windows from Windows XP onwards are based on the Windows NT codebase.
History:
Windows prior to 95 The first independent version of Microsoft Windows, version 1.0, released on November 20, 1985, achieved little popularity. Its name was initially "Interface Manager", but Rowland Hanson, the head of marketing at Microsoft, convinced the company that the name Windows would be more appealing to consumers. Windows 1.0 was not a complete operating system, but rather an "operating environment" that extended MS-DOS. Consequently, it shared the inherent flaws and problems of MS-DOS.
History:
The second installment of Microsoft Windows, version 2.0, was released on December 9, 1987, and used the real-mode memory model, which confined it to a maximum of 1 megabyte of memory. In such a configuration, it could run under another multitasking system like DESQview, which used the 286 Protected Mode.
Microsoft Windows scored a significant success with Windows 3.0, released in 1990. In addition to improved capabilities given to native applications, Windows also allowed users to better multitask older MS-DOS-based software compared to Windows/386, thanks to the introduction of virtual memory.
History:
Microsoft developed Windows 3.1, which included several minor improvements to Windows 3.0, but primarily consisted of bugfixes and multimedia support. It also excluded support for Real mode, and only ran on an Intel 80286 or better processor. In November 1993 Microsoft also released Windows 3.11, a touch-up to Windows 3.1 which included all of the patches and updates that followed the release of Windows 3.1 in early 1992.
History:
Meanwhile, Microsoft continued to develop Windows NT. The main architect of the system was Dave Cutler, one of the chief architects of VMS at Digital Equipment Corporation. Microsoft hired him in August 1988 to create a successor to OS/2, but Cutler created a completely new system instead based on his MICA project at Digital.Microsoft announced at its 1991 Professional Developers Conference its intentions to develop a successor to both Windows NT and Windows 3.1's replacement (Windows 95, code-named Chicago), which would unify the two into one operating system. This successor was codenamed Cairo. In hindsight, Cairo was a much more difficult project than Microsoft had anticipated and, as a result, NT and Chicago would not be unified until Windows XP.
History:
Windows 95 After Windows 3.11, Microsoft began to develop a new consumer oriented version of the operating system code-named Chicago. Chicago was designed to have support for 32-bit preemptive multitasking, that of which was available in OS/2 and Windows NT, although a 16-bit kernel would remain for the sake of backward compatibility. The Win32 API first introduced with Windows NT was adopted as the standard 32-bit programming interface, with Win16 compatibility being preserved through a technique known as "thunking". A new GUI was not originally planned as part of the release, although elements of the Cairo user interface were borrowed and added as other aspects of the release (notably Plug and Play) slipped.
History:
Microsoft did not change all of the Windows code to 32-bit; parts of it remained 16-bit (albeit not directly using real mode) for reasons of compatibility, performance and development time. Additionally it was necessary to carry over design decisions from earlier versions of Windows for reasons of backwards compatibility, even if these design decisions no longer matched a more modern computing environment. These factors immediately began to impact the operating system's efficiency and stability.
History:
Microsoft marketing adopted Windows 95 as the product name for Chicago when it was released on August 24, 1995.
Microsoft went on to release five different versions of Windows 95: Windows 95 – original release Windows 95 A – included Windows 95 OSR1 slipstreamed into the installation.
Windows 95 B – (OSR2) included several major enhancements, Internet Explorer (IE) 3.0 and full FAT32 file system support.
Windows 95 B USB – (OSR2.1) included basic USB support.
History:
Windows 95 C – (OSR2.5) included all the above features, plus IE 4.0. This was the last 95 version produced.OSR2, OSR2.1, and OSR2.5 were not released to the general public, rather, they were available only to OEMs that would preload the OS onto computers. Some companies sold new hard drives with OSR2 preinstalled (officially justifying this as needed due to the hard drive's capacity).
History:
The first Microsoft Plus! add-on pack was sold for Windows 95.
History:
Windows 98 On June 25, 1998, Microsoft released Windows 98. It included new hardware drivers and better support for the FAT32 file system which allows support for disk partitions larger than the 2 GB maximum accepted by Windows 95. The USB support in Windows 98 was more robust than the basic support provided by the OEM editions of Windows 95. It also controversially integrated the Internet Explorer 4 browser into the Windows GUI and Windows Explorer file manager.
History:
On May 5, 1999, Microsoft released Windows 98 Second Edition, an interim release whose notable features were the addition of Internet Connection Sharing and improved WDM audio and modem support. Internet Connection Sharing is a form of network address translation, allowing several machines on a LAN (Local Area Network) to share a single Internet connection. Windows 98 Second Edition has certain improvements over the original release. Hardware support through device drivers was increased. Many minor problems present in the original Windows 98 were found and fixed which make it, according to many, the most stable release of Windows 9x family—to the extent that commentators used to say that Windows 98's beta version was more stable than Windows 95's final (gamma) version.
History:
Windows Me On September 14, 2000, Microsoft introduced Windows Me (Millennium Edition), which upgraded Windows 98 with enhanced multimedia and Internet features. It also introduced the first version of System Restore, which allowed users to revert their system state to a previous "known-good" point in the case of system failure. The first release of Windows Movie Maker was introduced as well.
History:
Windows Me was conceived as a quick one-year project that served as a stopgap release between Windows 98 and Whistler (soon to be renamed to Windows XP). Many of the new features were available from the Windows Update site as updates for older Windows versions. As a result, Windows Me was not acknowledged as a distinct operating system along the lines of 95 or 98, and is often included in the Windows 9x series.
History:
Windows Me was criticized by users for its instability and unreliability, due to frequent freezes and crashes. A PC World article dubbed Windows Me the "Mistake Edition" and placed it 4th in their "Worst Tech Products of All Time" feature.The inability of users to easily boot into real mode MS-DOS, as in Windows 95 and 98, led users to quickly learn how to hack their Windows Me installations to provide the needed service.
History:
Decline The release of Windows 2000 marked a shift in the user experience between the Windows 9x series and the Windows NT series. Windows NT 4.0 suffered from a lack of support for USB, Plug and Play and DirectX versions after 3.0, preventing its users from playing contemporary games, whereas Windows 2000 featured an updated user interface, and better support for both Plug and Play and USB.
History:
The release of Windows XP confirmed the change of direction for Microsoft, bringing the consumer and business operating systems together under Windows NT.
One by one, support for the Windows 9x series ended, and Microsoft stopped selling the software to end users, then later to OEMs. By March 2004, it was impossible to purchase any versions of the Windows 9x series.
History:
End of service life Microsoft continued to support the use of the Windows 9x series until July 11, 2006, when extended support ended for Windows 98, Windows 98 Second Edition (SE), and Windows Millennium Edition (Me) (extended support for Windows 95 ended on December 31, 2001).Microsoft DirectX, a set of standard gaming APIs, stopped being updated on Windows 95 at Version 8.0a. The last version of DirectX supported for Windows 98 and Me is 9.0c.
History:
Support for Microsoft Internet Explorer running on any Windows 9x system has also since ended. Internet Explorer 5.5 with Service Pack 2 is the last version of Internet Explorer compatible with Windows 95 and Internet Explorer 6 with Service Pack 1 is the last version compatible with Windows 98 and Me. Internet Explorer 7, the first major update to Internet Explorer 6 in half a decade, was only available for Windows XP SP2 and Windows Vista.
History:
The Windows Update website continued to be available for Windows 98, Windows 98SE, and Windows Me after their end of support date; however, during 2011, Microsoft retired the Windows Update v4 website and removed the updates for Windows 98, Windows 98SE, and Windows Me from its servers. Microsoft announced in July 2019 that the Microsoft Internet Games services on Windows Me (and XP) would end on July 31, 2019.The growing number of important updates caused by the end of service life of these pieces of software have slowly made Windows 9x even less practical for everyday use. Today, even open source projects such as Mozilla Firefox will not run on Windows 9x without rework.RetroZilla is a fork of Gecko 1.8.1 aimed at bringing "improved compatibility on the modern web" for versions of Windows as old as Windows 95 and NT 4.0. The latest version, 2.2, was released in February 2019 and added support for TLS 1.2.
Design:
Kernel Windows 9x is a series of hybrid 16/32-bit operating systems.
Design:
Like most operating systems, Windows 9x consists of kernel space and user space memory. Although Windows 9x features some memory protection, it does not protect the first megabyte of memory from userland applications for compatibility reasons. This area of memory contains code critical to the functioning of the operating system, and by writing into this area of memory an application can crash or freeze the operating system. This was a source of instability as faulty applications could accidentally write into this region, potentially corrupting important operating system memory, which usually resulted in some form of system error and halt.
Design:
User mode The user-mode parts of Windows 9x consist of three subsystems: the Win16 subsystem, the Win32 subsystem and MS-DOS.Windows 9x/Me set aside two blocks of 64 KB memory regions for GDI and heap resources. By running multiple applications, applications with numerous GDI elements or by running applications over a long span of time, it could exhaust these memory areas. If free system resources dropped below 10%, Windows would become unstable and likely crash.
Design:
Kernel mode The kernel mode parts consist of the Virtual Machine Manager (VMM), the Installable File System Manager (IFSHLP), the Configuration Manager, and in Windows 98 and later, the WDM Driver Manager (NTKERN). As a 32-bit operating system, virtual memory space is 4 GiB, divided into a lower 2 GiB for applications and an upper 2 GiB for kernel per process.
Design:
Registry Like Windows NT, Windows 9x stores user-specific and configuration-specific settings in a large information database called the Windows registry. Hardware-specific settings are also stored in the registry, and many device drivers use the registry to load configuration data. Previous versions of Windows used files such as AUTOEXEC.BAT, CONFIG.SYS, WIN.INI, SYSTEM.INI and other files with an .INI extension to maintain configuration settings. As Windows became more complex and incorporated more features, .INI files became too unwieldy for the limitations of the then-current FAT filesystem. Backwards-compatibility with .INI files was maintained until Windows XP succeeded the 9x and NT lines.
Design:
Although Microsoft discourages using .INI files in favor of Registry entries, a large number of applications (particularly 16-bit Windows-based applications) still use .INI files. Windows 9x supports .INI files solely for compatibility with those applications and related tools (such as setup programs). The AUTOEXEC.BAT and CONFIG.SYS files also still exist for compatibility with real-mode system components and to allow users to change certain default system settings such as the PATH environment variable.
Design:
The registry consists of two files: User.dat and System.dat. In Windows Me, Classes.dat was added.
Design:
Virtual Machine Manager The Virtual Machine Manager (VMM) is the 32-bit protected mode kernel at the core of Windows 9x. Its primary responsibility is to create, run, monitor and terminate virtual machines. The VMM provides services that manage memory, processes, interrupts and protection faults. The VMM works with virtual devices (loadable kernel modules, which consist mostly of 32-bit ring 0 or kernel mode code, but may include other types of code, such as a 16-bit real mode initialisation segment) to allow those virtual devices to intercept interrupts and faults to control the access that an application has to hardware devices and installed software. Both the VMM and virtual device drivers run in a single, 32-bit, flat model address space at privilege level 0 (also called ring 0). The VMM provides multi-threaded, preemptive multitasking. It runs multiple applications simultaneously by sharing CPU (central processing unit) time between the threads in which the applications and virtual machines run.
Design:
The VMM is also responsible for creating MS-DOS environments for system processes and Windows applications that still need to run in MS-DOS mode. It is the replacement for WIN386.EXE in Windows 3.x, and the file vmm32.vxd is a compressed archive containing most of the core VxD, including VMM.vxd itself and ifsmgr.vxd (which facilitates file system access without the need to call the real mode file system code of the DOS kernel).
Design:
Software support Unicode Partial support for Unicode can be installed on Windows 9x through the Microsoft Layer for Unicode.
File systems Windows 9x does not natively support NTFS or HPFS, but there are third-party solutions which allow Windows 9x to have read-only access to NTFS volumes.
Early versions of Windows 95 did not support FAT32.
Like Windows for Workgroups 3.11, Windows 9x provides support for 32-bit file access based on IFSHLP.SYS, and unlike Windows 3.x, Windows 9x has support for the VFAT file system, allowing file names with a maximum of 255 characters instead of having 8.3 filenames.
Event logging and tracing Also, there is no support for event logging and tracing or error reporting which the Windows NT family of operating systems has, although software like Norton CrashGuard can be used to achieve similar capabilities on Windows 9x.
Design:
Security Windows 9x is designed as a single-user system. Thus, the security model is much less effective than the one in Windows NT. One reason for this is the FAT file systems (including FAT12/FAT16/FAT32), which are the only ones that Windows 9x supports officially, though Windows NT also supports FAT12 and FAT16 (but not FAT32) and Windows 9x can be extended to read and write NTFS volumes using third-party Installable File System drivers. FAT systems have very limited security; every user that has access to a FAT drive also has access to all files on that drive. The FAT file systems provide no access control lists and file-system level encryption like NTFS.Some operating systems that were available at the same time as Windows 9x are either multi-user or have multiple user accounts with different access privileges, which allows important system files (such as the kernel image) to be immutable under most user accounts. In contrast, while Windows 95 and later operating systems offer the option of having profiles for multiple users, they have no concept of access privileges, making them roughly equivalent to a single-user, single-account operating system; this means that all processes can modify all files on the system that aren't open, in addition to being able to modify the boot sector and perform other low-level hard drive modifications. This enables viruses and other clandestinely installed software to integrate themselves with the operating system in a way that is difficult for ordinary users to detect or undo. The profile support in the Windows 9x family is meant for convenience only; unless some registry keys are modified, the system can be accessed by pressing "Cancel" at login, even if all profiles have a password. Windows 95's default login dialog box also allows new user profiles to be created without having to log in first.
Design:
Users and software can render the operating system unable to function by deleting or overwriting important system files from the hard disk. Users and software are also free to change configuration files in such a way that the operating system is unable to boot or properly function.
Installation software often replaced and deleted system files without properly checking if the file was still in use or of a newer version. This created a phenomenon often referred to as DLL hell.
Windows Me introduced System File Protection and System Restore to handle common problems caused by this issue.
Network sharing Windows 9x offers share-level access control security for file and printer sharing as well as user-level access control if a Windows NT-based operating system is available on the network. In contrast, Windows NT-based operating systems offer only user-level access control but integrated with the operating system's own user account security mechanism.
Design:
Hardware support Drivers Device drivers in Windows 9x can be virtual device drivers or (starting with Windows 98) WDM drivers. VxDs usually have the filename extension .vxd or .386, whereas WDM compatible drivers usually use the extension .sys. The 32-bit VxD message server (msgsrv32) is a program that is able to load virtual device drivers (VxDs) at startup and then handle communication with the drivers. Additionally, the message server performs several background functions, including loading the Windows shell (such as Explorer.exe or Progman.exe).Another type of device drivers are .DRV drivers. These drivers are loaded in user-mode, and are commonly used to control devices such as multimedia devices. To provide access to these devices, a dynamic link library is required (such as MMSYSTEM.DLL).
Design:
Windows 9x retains backwards compatibility with many drivers made for Windows 3.x and MS-DOS. Using MS-DOS drivers can limit performance and stability due to their use of conventional memory and need to run in real mode which requires the CPU to switch in and out of protected mode.
Drivers written for Windows 9x/Windows Me are loaded into the same address space as the kernel. This means that drivers can by accident or design overwrite critical sections of the operating system. Doing this can lead to system crashes, freezes and disk corruption. Faulty operating system drivers were a source of instability for the operating system.
Other monolithic and hybrid kernels, like Linux and Windows NT, are also susceptible to malfunctioning drivers impeding the kernel's operation.
Design:
Often the software developers of drivers and applications had insufficient experience with creating programs for the 'new' system, thus causing many errors which have been generally described as "system errors" by users, even if the error is not caused by parts of Windows or DOS. Microsoft has repeatedly redesigned the Windows Driver architecture since the release of Windows 95 as a result.
Design:
CPU and bus technologies Windows 9x has no native support for hyper-threading, Data Execution Prevention, symmetric multiprocessing, or multi-core processors.
Design:
Windows 9x has no native support for SATA host bus adapters (and neither did Windows 2000 nor Windows XP), or USB drives (except Windows Me). There are, however, many SATA-I controllers for which Windows 98/Me drivers exist, and USB mass storage support has been added to Windows 95 OSR2 and Windows 98 through third party drivers. Hardware driver support for Windows 98/Me began to decline in 2005, most notably for motherboard chipsets and video cards.
Design:
Early versions of Windows 95 had no support for USB or AGP acceleration.
Design:
MS-DOS Windows 95 was able to reduce the role of MS-DOS in Windows much further than had been done in Windows 3.1x and earlier. According to Microsoft developer Raymond Chen, MS-DOS served two purposes in Windows 95: as the boot loader, and as the 16-bit legacy device driver layer.When Windows 95 started up, MS-DOS loaded, processed CONFIG.SYS, launched COMMAND.COM, ran AUTOEXEC.BAT and finally ran WIN.COM. The WIN.COM program used MS-DOS to load the virtual machine manager, read SYSTEM.INI, load the virtual device drivers, and then turn off any running copies of EMM386 and switch into protected mode. Once in protected mode, the virtual device drivers (VxDs) transferred all state information from MS-DOS to the 32-bit file system manager, and then shut off MS-DOS. These VxDs allow Windows 9x to interact with hardware resources directly, as providing low-level functionalities such as 32-bit disk access and memory management. All future file system operations would get routed to the 32-bit file system manager. In Windows Me, win.com was no longer executed during the startup process; instead it went directly to execute VMM32.VXD from IO.SYS.
Design:
The second role of MS-DOS (as the 16-bit legacy device driver layer) was as a backward compatibility tool for running DOS programs in Windows. Many MS-DOS programs and device drivers interacted with DOS in a low-level way, for example, by patching low-level BIOS interrupts such as int 13h, the low-level disk I/O interrupt. When a program issued an int 21h call to access MS-DOS, the call would go first to the 32-bit file system manager, which would attempt to detect this sort of patching. If it detects that the program has tried to hook into DOS, it will jump back into the 16-bit code to let the hook run. A 16-bit driver called IFSMGR.SYS would previously have been loaded by CONFIG.SYS, the job of which was to hook MS-DOS first before the other drivers and programs got a chance, then jump from 16-bit code back into 32-bit code, when the DOS program had finished, to let the 32-bit file system manager continue its work. According to Windows developer Raymond Chen, "MS-DOS was just an extremely elaborate decoy. Any 16-bit drivers and programs would patch or hook what they thought was the real MS-DOS, but which was in reality just a decoy. If the 32-bit file system manager detected that somebody bought the decoy, it told the decoy to quack." MS-DOS Virtualization Windows 9x can run MS-DOS applications within itself using a method called "Virtualization", where an application is run on a Virtual DOS machine.
Design:
MS-DOS Mode Windows 95 and Windows 98 also offer regressive support for DOS applications in the form of being able to boot into a native "DOS Mode" (MS-DOS can be booted without booting Windows, not putting the CPU in protected mode). Through Windows 9x's memory managers and other post-DOS improvements, the overall system performance and functionality is improved. This differs from the emulation used in Windows NT-based operating systems. Some old applications or games may not run properly in a DOS box within Windows and require real DOS Mode.
Design:
Having a command line mode outside of the GUI also offers the ability to fix certain system errors without entering the GUI. For example, if a virus is active in GUI mode it can often be safely removed in DOS mode, by deleting its files, which are usually locked while infected in Windows.
Similarly, corrupted registry files, system files or boot files can be restored from the command line. Windows 95 and Windows 98 can be started from DOS Mode by typing 'WIN' <enter> at the command prompt. However, the Recovery Console for Windows 2000, which as a version of Windows NT played a similar role in removing viruses.
Because DOS was not designed for multitasking purposes, Windows versions such as 9x that are DOS-based lack File System security, such as file permissions. Further, if the user uses 16-bit DOS drivers, Windows can become unstable. Hard disk errors often plague the Windows 9x series.
User interface Users can control a Windows 9x-based system through a command-line interface (or CLI), or a graphical user interface (or GUI). For desktop systems, the default mode is usually graphical user interface, where the CLI is available through MS-DOS windows.
The GDI, which is a part of the Win32 and Win16 subsystems, is also a module that is loaded in user mode, unlike Windows NT where the GDI is loaded in kernel mode.
Alpha compositing and therefore transparency effects, such as fade effects in menus, are not supported by the GDI in Windows 9x.
On desktop machines, Windows Explorer is the default user interface, though a variety of additional Windows shell replacements exist.
Other GUIs include LiteStep, bbLean and Program Manager. The GUI provides a means to control the placement and appearance of individual application windows, and interacts with the Window System. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**V-Prop**
V-Prop:
The V-Prop is an automatic self-powering electronic variable-pitch propeller developed by Silence Aircraft, the manufacturers of the Silence Twister single-seat elliptical-winged kitplane.
Design and development:
The V-Prop was fitted to the prototype Twister and to some of the Twisters built in the EU. Designed by brothers Thomas and Mattheus Strieker, this microprocessor-controlled automatic propeller has a vaned spinner ahead of the main spinner. The main spinner is fixed to the output shaft in the normal fashion; but the vaned spinner is free to contra-rotate, and in doing so both generates its own power and derives rpm data that it uses to determine the ideal blade angle. The unit then automatically adjusts the blades between the coarse and fine positions. On the ground, the electronic control system can be tailored to suit each aircraft by varying some soldered connections, which give some 16 options.The V-Prop has both 2-bladed and 3-bladed versions, but only for clockwise rotation (as seen from the cockpit). The advantage of the V-Prop is that it is very light and compact, it requires no exterior power source, is fail-safe, and being completely automatic, requires no pilot input.The V-Prop has been successfully fitted to many light aircraft in Europe, including Denmark, but despite the EU's principle of free movement of goods, the LAA would not approve it for UK kit aircraft without further extensive testing.In May 2013, Mattheus Strieker confirmed that the V-Prop went out of production some two years earlier. The design rights were sold to Hoffmann Propeller, an established propeller manufacturer in Germany. Hoffman Propeller plans to develop the V-Prop for fitment to certified aircraft as well as to kit planes. Stefan Bichlmeyr from Technical Engineering at Hoffmann Propeller has said that the firm is working with Thomas Strieker to redesign the VProp system for bigger engines.As of June 2016 this redesign is in process but still not finished. Although the original 5kg two-bladed propeller was effective and was fitted to several European ultralights, Hoffman have suspended any further development. Instead, Hoffmann are focusing on the more lucrative certified aircraft market, and their current prototype is a five-fold heavier (25kg) three-bladed propeller for engines such as the Lycoming O-360.
Technical data:
Source: Silence VProp manual Maximum airspeed: 300 km/h Maximum acceleration: +8g/-5g Optimum flight altitudes: 0-15,000 feet Flight in Icing condition: Not permitted Flight in Rain: Protect blades with 3M Tape Weight of 2 Bladed propeller: 5 kg Weight 3 Bladed propeller: 6 kg | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Expressions of dominance**
Expressions of dominance:
Power and dominance-submission are two key dimensions of relationships, especially close relationships in which parties rely on one another to achieve their goals and as such it is important to be able to identify indicators of dominance.Power is the ability to influence behavior and may not be fully assessable until it is challenged with equal force. Unlike power, which can be latent, dominance is a manifest condition characterized by individual, situational and relationship patterns in which attempts to control another party or parties may or may not be accepted. Moskowitz, Suh, and Desaulniers (1994) describe two similar ways that people can relate to society as parties to interpersonal relationships: agency and communion. Agency includes status and is on a continuum from assertiveness-dominance to passive-submissiveness; it can be measured by subtracting submissiveness from dominance. Communion includes love and falls on a continuum from warm-agreeable to cold-hostile-quarrelsome. Those with the greatest and least power typically do not assert dominance while those with more equal relationships make more control attempts.Power and dominance are closely related concepts that greatly impact relationships. In order to understand how dominance captures relationships one must understand the influence of gender and social roles while watching for verbal and nonverbal indicators of dominance.
Expressions of dominance:
Individuals may dominate through strategies that is a modifier of the function of others in the group, modifying the on-going social dynamics: 1. Restrict or have preferential treatment to what amounts one can access the food, potential and actual mates, territory, resting and sleeping areas, and the locations for that group that's most protected from predators; 2. The movements of others; or 3. How the attention of others can be utilized, an idea put forth by Michael Chance and Ray Larsen. Through the generations there are allotted hierarchy legitimizing myths by the power structure which suggests what beliefs and attitudes are permissible which determines whom deserves their status and for what reasons. That in effect is the dominant groups who have a favorable position get to have the final say on why subordinate groups have the status they do. Attitudes and beliefs are what help determine a dominant group its position rather than merely because its been practiced that way.
Verbal indicators:
Verbal indicators influence perceptions of dominance. To date, dominance has been linked to vocal control (Lamb, 1981, as cited in Dunbar and Burgoon, 2005), loudness as measured by amplitude (Burgoon and Hoobler, 2002, as cited in Dunbar and Burgoon, 2005; and Dillard, 2000), pitch as measured by frequency (Burgoon and Hoobler, 2002, as cited in Dunbar and Burgoon, 2005; Dillard, 2000), interruptions (Karawosky et al.., as cited in Youngquist, 2009; Karakowsky, McBey, and Miller, as cited in Youngquist, 2009), disfluencies (Dunbar and Burgoon, 2005), amount of talk time (Burgoon and Hoobler, 2002, as cited in Dunbar and Burgoon, 2005), speech rate or the number of words used in an encounter, and message length (Dunbar and Burgoon, 2005; and Dillard, 2000). An important factor for humans and animals to detect in order to survive is the idea of involvement which can be indicated through change and intensity (Tusing and Dillard, 2000). Vocal characteristics such as amplitude and frequency variation indicate change while speech rate can indicate intensity (Tusing and Dillard, 2000). Those with a high speech rate talk faster and as such are usually perceived as more dominant (Aronvitch; Buller and Aune; Buller and Burgoon; Harrigan et al..; Scherer et al.., as cited in Tusing and Dillard, 2000). Interruptions, vocal control, loudness, pitch, verbosity, speech rate and message length were found to predict perceptions of dominance.
Verbal indicators:
In general, interruptions and perceptions of dominance follows a curvilinear relationship (Dunbar and Burgoon, 2005; Youngquist, 2009). Also, when asked to think of typical behaviors of powerful individuals, Obama, Sydni, and Guy (2006) found that those that were thought to hold more power were also perceived to have more successful interruptions as well as fewer disfluencies. As promised earlier, gender differences exist within interruptions too. Youngquist (2009) chose to look at how dominance as indicated by intrusive interruptions is perceived differently depending on the gender composition of dyads. This was done by asking 378 individuals to listen to one of 4 recordings with 3 subsections, each subsection contained 2 interruptions. The recording was paused after each subsection and assessments were made about dominance. In addition, the conversations varied by gender composition, male/male, female/male, etc. with the same actor making a total of six interruptions within one recording. His findings show that overall, female interrupters in the same sex dyad are perceived as most dominant while male interrupters in a cross sex dyad are perceived as least dominant. This is in contrast to Dunbar and Burgoon's (2005) finding that men overall are perceived as the most dominant with increased interruptions. Youngquist (2009) additionally finds that females in the same sex groups, who interrupt, are perceived as more dominant than males in the same sex group. Though an interrupter in the same sex group was seen more dominant than the male in the cross sex group, it was only for the first two interruptions. Also, for the first section of the survey (with two interruptions, in the same conversation) but not the second or third sections it was found that the female interrupter, compared to a male interrupter, was seen as more dominant in a cross sex dyad. Vocal control, loudness, and pitch also have been found to be associated with dominance. Dunbar and Burgoon (2005) had partners and third party observers rate dominance after participating or observing an interaction. Couples were initially separated and asked to write a list of items they would like to spend a hypothetical gift of money on. The couple was then reunited and then asked to jointly decide the top things their money would be spent on. Participants rated their partners' dominance after the interaction while third party observers rated their perceptions during the interaction. They found that observers rated males and females more dominant when they expressed higher vocal control (.76, .70) respectively and only male partners perceived their partner to be more dominant when she had greater vocal control (.23). In an additional experiment, Tusling (2000) used 760 participants and divided them into three groups. Group one watched and listened to a video across various influence goals, while group two was given a transcript of the messages and group three watched the video without sounds. Each group gauged dominance levels using a Likert scale from 1-5. He found that amplitude, a measure of loudness, and amplitude variation, an indicator of change dictated perceptions of dominance. It was also found that frequency, a measure of pitch, and frequency variations were reliable predictors of dominance. Verbosity, speech rate, and message length were all found to be reliable predictors of dominance. The increased amount of words used in an interaction or verbosity was linked to more dominant perceptions by observers for males (.53) and for females (.46) by observers, though only females perceived their partner as more dominant with increased verbosity (.21) (Dunbar and Burgoon, 2005). Tussling and Dillard (2009) found that slower speech rates were found to predict increased dominance perceptions. Shorter messages were also found to predict dominance.
Nonverbal indicators:
Nonverbal communication indicators are most readily located on the face such as Visual Dominance Ratio and indicators expressed through the hands such as adaptor and illustrator gestures have been linked to dominance. An individual's body can indicate dominance as well through posture, elevation, relaxation and body lean. Nonverbal behavioral indicators can be seen in the face through factors like expressiveness, visual dominance ratio, gaze, and emotions, and through the body through body control, posture, lean, openness and gestures. Facial indicators such as expressiveness, visual dominance ratio, and gaze, and as well were all found to relate to dominance.
Nonverbal indicators:
In terms of expressiveness, males, but not females, were rated as more dominant when they were facially expressive (.26, -.36) respectively. In addition, Carney, Hall, and LeBeau found that more facial expressiveness was appropriate for those with more power and that these individuals were also more likely to have self-assured expressions. The eyes also have something to offer in terms of dominance. Dunbar and Burgoon found that higher visual dominance ratios were correlated with higher perceived dominance for males and females (.37, .28) respectively as rated by observers. Also, Carney, Hall, and LeBeau found that more glaring, more mutual gaze, longer gazing, and more looking while speaking would be more appropriate coming from an individual with more power.
Nonverbal indicators:
Emotions are readily expressed by individuals making it easier to identify expressions of dominance. Hareli and Shomrat (2009) looked at various approach, neutral, and avoidance emotions. They ran two studies in order to understand perceptions of emotions as they related to dominance. Both studies asked participants to gauge levels of dominance. In study one, 208 individuals rated pictures of men and women with different emotions expressed. In study two, 96 individuals watched a male technician fail at his job and then explain himself showing a neutral, angry or shameful expression. Emotions surveyed included approach emotions such as anger and happiness, neutral emotions and inhibitive or avoidance emotions such as shame, fear or sadness. Approach emotions are rated as the most dominant when compared to inhibitory emotions (Carney, Hall, and LeBeau, 2005; Hareli and Shomrat, 2009; Montepare and Dobish, 2003.) In contrast, Montepare and Dobish (2003) found that happiness was perceived as more dominant than anger, while Hareli and Shomrat (2009) found the opposite. Females were perceived as more dominant than males when expressing happiness and males were perceived as slightly more dominant than females when expressing anger (Hareli and Shomrat, 2009). Hareli and Shomrat (2009) also found interesting results as it relates to neutral expressions. For instance, males were seen as significantly more dominant than females when expressing neutral expressions and neutral expressions were seen about as dominant as angry expressions for men, which is more dominant than inhibitory emotions. Inhibitory or avoidance emotions were seen as the least dominant (Carney, Hall, and LeBeau. 2005; Hareli and Shomrat, 2009; Montepare and Dobish, 2003). Sadness as opposed to fear was seen as the least dominant (Hareli and Shomrat, 2009; Montepare and Dobish, 2003). Females expressing fear or sadness were seen as less dominant than males expressing the same emotion (Carney, Hall, and LeBeau. 2005; Hareli, Shomrat, 2009). Sadness and fear were also seen as more fitting for an individual with lower power (Carney, Hall, and LeBeau, 2005) Hareli and Shomrat (2009) found that shame tended to decrease perceptions of dominance more so than anger increases perceptions of dominance for males. For females anger was perceived as the most dominant emotion followed by happiness, then a neutral expression, then fear and least dominant of all sadness. In comparison, anger was perceived as the most dominant expression for males, closely followed by a neutral expression, then happiness, then fear and least dominant of all sadness.
Nonverbal indicators:
Furthermore, body control, posture, lean, and openness all were found to relate to dominance. For instance, Dunbar and Burgoon (2005) found that the more body control a woman had the more observers perceived her as dominant (.27) and that in general the most powerful are also the most facially expressive and the least controlled in their body. Carney, Hall, and LeBeau (2005) found high power individuals were perceived to lean forward, have open body positions, orient towards the other, and have an erect body posture more so than those of less power.
Nonverbal indicators:
In addition, gestures also relate to dominance perceptions. Carney, Hall, and LeBeau (2005) found that high power individuals were more likely to use gestures, initiate more hand shaking and engage in a higher frequency of invasive touch. Dunbar and Burgoon (2005) found that observers rated only males as more dominant with increased use of illustrator gestures. The researchers also found that males perceived their partner to be less dominant when she used more adapter gestures.
Nonverbal indicators:
In conclusion, one can see how dominance is a complex topic. Dominance relates to both power, status, and affiliation. Dominance is seen through manifest behaviors as indicated through the nonverbal and verbal indicators outlined above. Gender differences also exist within dominance perceptions though it depends on if one's work role or ones gender role is more salient.
Nonverbal indicators:
Russel (as cited in Dunbar and Burgoon, 2005) stated that "the fundamental concept in social science is power, in the same way that energy is the fundamental concept in physics". It is true power and dominance are essential components in all of the world from cells to plants to reptiles, and humans that all have to fight for resources. As humans it is essential to use one's knowledge to make the world a more harmonious place using tools of assessment in order to understand individual and group behavior. This can be done through contemplating gender, social roles, and looking to verbal and non verbal indicators of dominance and submission to see how we as individuals relate to the world and each other. One can use this knowledge to one's advantage, for instance, if a boss is deciding between two individuals who are of relatively equal credentials. An individual could appear more competent by displaying dominant behaviors in reason which would could indicate confidence and the ability for leadership. A knowledge of dominant and submissive indicators could be used to help others in distress feel more equal in a relationship by monitoring one's own dominance displays and possibly by strategically using submissive displays. Overall, it is essential to understand how dominance is manifested in relationships in order to understand how power and dominance influence us.
Gender differences:
Gender variations exist because of differences in our expectations about what is appropriate for a particular gender (sex differences in psychology), what is appropriate depending on the composition of two or more people and whether gender or role norms are most salient. For instance, women who display dominance can be judged differently than men exhibiting the same behavior (Burgoon et al..; Carli and Winn, as cited by Youngquist, 2009). This is because women are perceived as less competitive and dominant than men and are thought to be less likely to display dominance (Burgoon et al., as cited by Youngquist, 2009); a woman who displays dominance might potentially be perceived as more dominant than a man displaying the same behavior because her behavior will be seen as unusual. Gender composition can influence dominant behaviors differently. For instance, individuals in a same-sex group can be perceived to be of equal status and are expected per norms to play fairly (Orcutt and Harvey, as cited by Youngquist, 2009). Gender differences in behavior are often found in mixed sex groups, though some have found that women can become more assertive with men in mixed group settings (Maccoby, as cited in Moskowitz, Suh, and Desaulniers, 1994).Therefore, dominance is more readily perceived when an individual displays a control act in a same sex group as opposed to a mixed sex group.
Gender differences:
Mixed findings have occurred when one attempts to explain dominance displays by gender or role salience. Moskowitz, Suh, and Desaulniers (1994) believe this is because an individual in a lab has less role salience and more gender salience and therefore is inclined to use more gender stereotypical behaviors in the lab while an individual at work has more role salience and gender differences are thought to be reduced (Johnson, as cited in Moskowitz, Suh, and Desaulniers, 1994). Moskowitz, Suh and Desaulniers (1994) had individuals complete survey forms for 20 days over interactions with individuals at work that lasted over five minutes. Individuals completed an average of four forms a day. The forms were divided out across behavioral indicators to keep participants from selecting the same set of behaviors. The forms had equal amounts of behaviors assessing dominance, submission, agreeableness and combativeness. The researchers found that social roles determined agentic behavior at work, not gender roles. When looking at gender composition and communal behavior it was found that gender role, and not social role influenced communal behaviors. Men were indeed more quarrelsome than women in same sex groups, whereas women were more communal with one another. In addition to gender differences it is important to be able to identify and understand how verbal indicators relate to dominance. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Simplex signaling**
Simplex signaling:
Simplex signaling (SX) is signaling in which two conductors are used for a single telecommunication circuit, and a center-tapped coil, or its equivalent, is used to split the signaling current equally between the two conductors. The return path for the current is through ground. It is distinct from a phantom circuit in which the return current path for power or signaling is provided through different signal conductors.
Simplex signaling:
SX signaling may be one-way, for intra-central-office use, or the simplex legs may be connected to form full duplex signaling circuits that function like composite (CX) signaling circuits with E&M lead control.
Simplex is also used to describe a powering method where one or more signal conductors carries direct current to power a remote device, which sends its output signal back on the same conductor. Phantom powering as used in audio is a form of simplex powering, as the return current flows through the ground or shield conductor. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Overcategorization**
Overcategorization:
Overcategorization, overcategorisation or category clutter is the process of assigning too many categories, classes or index terms to a given document. It is related to the Library and Information Science (LIS) concepts of document classification and subject indexing.
Overcategorization:
In LIS, the ideal number of terms that should be assigned to classify an item are measured by the variables precision and recall. Assigning few category labels that are most closely related to the content of the item being classified will result in searches that have high precision, I.e., where a high proportion of the results are closely related to the query. Assigning more category labels to each item will reduce the precision of each search, but increase the recall, retrieving more relevant results. Related LIS concepts include exhaustivity of indexing and information overload.
Basic principles:
If too many categories are assigned to a given document, the implications for users depend on how informative the links are. If the user is able to distinguish between useful and not useful links, the damage is limited: The user only wastes time selecting links. In many cases, however, the user cannot judge whether or not a given link will turn out to be fruitful. In that case he or she has to follow the link and to read or skim another document. The worst case scenario is, of course, that even after reading the new document the user is unable to decide whether or not it might be useful if its subject matter is not thoroughly investigated. Overcategorization also has another unpleasant implication: It makes the system (for example in Wikipedia) difficult to maintain in a consistent way. If the system is inconsistent, it means that when the user considers the links in a given category, he or she will not find all documents relevant to that category.
Basic principles:
Basically, the problem of overcategorization should be understood from the perspective of relevance and the traditional measures of recall and precision. If too few relevant categories are assigned to a document, recall may decrease. If too many non-relevant categories are assigned, precision becomes lower. The hard job is to say which categories are fruitful or relevant for future use of the document. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Electric shaver**
Electric shaver:
An electric shaver (also known as the dry razor, electric razor, or simply shaver) is a razor with an electrically powered rotating or oscillating blade. The electric shaver usually does not require the use of shaving cream, soap, or water. The razor may be powered by a small DC motor, which is either powered by batteries or mains electricity. Many modern ones are powered using rechargeable batteries. Alternatively, an electro-mechanical oscillator driven by an AC-energized solenoid may be used. Some very early mechanical shavers had no electric motor and had to be powered by hand, for example by pulling a cord to drive a flywheel.
Electric shaver:
Electric shavers fall into two main categories: foil or rotary-style. Users tend to prefer one or the other. Many modern shavers are cordless; they are charged up with a plug charger or they are placed within a cleaning and charging unit.
History:
The first person to receive a patent for a razor powered by electricity was John Francis O'Rourke, a New York civil engineer, with his US patent 616554 filed in 1898. The first working electric razor was invented in 1915 by German engineer Johann Bruecker. Others followed suit, such as the American manufacturer Col. Jacob Schick who patented their first electric razor in 1930. The Remington Rand Corporation developed the electric razor further, first producing the electric razor in 1937. Another important inventor was Prof. Alexandre Horowitz, from Philips Laboratories in the Netherlands, who invented the concept of the revolving (rotary) electric razor. It has a shaving head consisting of cutters that cut off the hair entering the head of the razor at skin level. Roland Ullmann from Braun in Germany was another inventor who was decisive for development of the modern electric razor. He was the first to fuse rubber and metal elements on shavers and developed more than 100 electrical razors for Braun. In the course of his career Ullmann filed well over 100 patents for innovations in the context of dry shavers. The major manufacturers introduce new improvements to the hair-cutting mechanism of their products every few years. Each manufacturer sells several different generations of cutting mechanism at the same time, and for each generation, several models with different features and accessories to reach various price points. The improvements to the cutting mechanisms tend to 'trickle-down' to lower-priced models over time.Early versions of electric razors were meant to be used on dry skin only. Many recent electric razors have been designed to allow for wet/dry use, which also allows them to be cleaned using running water or an included cleaning machine, reducing cleaning effort. Some patience is necessary when starting to use a razor of this type, as the skin usually takes some time to adjust to the way that the electric razor lifts and cuts the hairs. Moisturizers designed specifically for electric shaving are available.
History:
Battery-powered electric razors In the late 1940s, the first electric razors that were battery-powered entered the market. In 1960, Remington introduced the first rechargeable battery-powered electric razor. Battery-operated electric razors have been available using rechargeable batteries sealed inside the razor's case, previously nickel cadmium or, more recently, nickel metal hydride. Some modern shavers use Lithium-ion batteries (which do not suffer from memory effect). Sealed battery shavers either have built-in or external charging devices. Some shavers may be designed to plug directly into a wall outlet with a swing-out or pop-up plug, or have a detachable AC cord. Other shavers have recharging base units that plug into an AC outlet and provide DC power at the base contacts (eliminating the need for the AC-to-DC converter to be inside the razor, reducing the risk of electric shock). In order to prevent any risk of electric shock, shavers designed for wet use usually do not allow corded use and will not turn on until the charging adapter cord is disconnected or the shaver is removed from the charging base. In 2017, Xiaomi released an electric shaver with USB-C charging.
History:
Razor vs. trimmer An electric razor and an electric trimmer are essentially the same devices by build. But the major difference between both comes in terms of their usage and the blades that they come with.
Electric razors are made specifically for providing a clean shave. It has lesser battery power but more aggression towards clipping hair. Electric Trimmers, on the other hand, are not meant for clean shaves. They come with special combs fixed onto them that aid in proper grooming and trimming of the beard stubs to desired shapes and sizes.
General:
Some models, generally marketed as "travel razors" (or "travel shavers"), use removable rechargeable or disposable batteries, usually size AA or AAA. This offers the option of purchasing batteries while traveling instead of carrying a charging device.
Water-resistance and wet/dry electric shavers:
Many modern electric shavers are water-resistant, allowing the user to clean the shaver in water. In order to ensure electrical safety, the charging/power cord for the shaver must be unplugged from it before the unit is cleaned using water.
Water-resistance and wet/dry electric shavers:
Some shavers are labeled as "Wet/Dry" which means the unit can be used in wet environments, for wet shaving. Such models are always battery-powered and usually the electronics will not allow turning the unit on while the charging adapter is plugged-in. This is necessary to ensure electrical safety, as it would be unsafe to use a plugged-in shaver in bathtub or shower.
Water-resistance and wet/dry electric shavers:
Philips/Norelco produced CoolSkin and NIVEA FOR MEN shavers that were designed specifically for wet shaving using special NIVEA gel in special cartridges.
Lady shaver:
A lady shaver is a device designed to shave a woman's body hair. The design is usually similar to a man's foil shaver. Often a shaving attachment is a feature of an epilator which is supplied as a separate head-attachment (different from the epilating one).
Body hair shaver:
Traditional men shavers are designed for shaving facial hair. However, products such as BodyGroom by Philips/Norelco are made specially to facilitate shaving of body hair. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Imageability**
Imageability:
Imageability is a measure of how easily a physical object, word or environment will evoke a clear mental image in the mind of any person observing it. It is used in architecture and city planning, in psycholinguistics, and in automated computer vision research. In automated image recognition, training models to connect images with concepts that have low imageability can lead to biased and harmful results.
History and components:
Kevin A. Lynch first introduced the term, "imageability" in his 1960 book, The Image of the City. In the book, Lynch argues cities contain a key set of physical elements that people use to understand the environment, orient themselves inside of it, and assign it meaning.Lynch argues the five key elements that impact the imageability of a city are Paths, Edges, Districts, Nodes, and Landmarks.
History and components:
Paths: channels in which people travel. Examples: streets, sidewalks, trails, canals, railroads.
Edges: objects that form boundaries around space. Examples: walls, buildings, shoreline, curbstone, streets ,and overpasses.
Districts: medium to large areas people can enter into and out of that have a common set of identifiable characteristics.
Nodes: large areas people can enter, that serve as the foci of the city, neighborhood, district, etc.
History and components:
Landmarks: memorable points of reference people cannot enter into. Examples: signs, mountains and public art.In 1914, half a century before The Image of the City was published, Paul Stern discussed a concept similar to imageability in the context of art. Stern, in Susan Langer's Reflections on Art, names the attribute that describes how vividly and intensely an artistic object could be experienced apparency.
In computer vision:
Automated image recognition was developed by using machine learning to find patterns in large, annotated datasets of photographs, like ImageNet. Images in ImageNet are labelled using concepts in WordNet. Concepts that are easily expressed verbally, like "early", are seen as less "imageable" than nouns referring to physical objects like "leaf". Training AI models to associate concepts with low imageability with specific images can lead to problematic bias in image recognition algorithms. This has particularly been critiqued as it relates to the "person" category of WordNet and therefore also ImageNet. Trevor Pagan and Kate Crawford demonstrated in their essay "Excavating AI" and their art project ImageNet Roulette how this leads to photos of ordinary people being labelled by AI systems as "terrorists" or "sex offenders".Images in datasets are often labelled as having a certain level of imageability. As described by Kaiyu Yang, Fei-Fei Li and co-authors, this is often done following criteria from Allan Paivio and collaborators' 1968 psycholinguistic study of nouns. Yang el.al. write that dataset annotators tasked with labelling imageability "see a list of words and rate each word on a 1-7 scale from 'low imagery' to 'high imagery'.To avoid biased or harmful image recognition and image generation, Yang et.al. recommend not training vision recognition models on concepts with low imageability, especially when the concepts are offensive (such as sexual or racial slurs) or sensitive (their examples for this category include "orphan", "separatist", "Anglo-Saxon" and "crossover voter"). Even "safe" concepts with low imageability, like "great-niece" or "vegetarian" can lead to misleading results and should be avoided. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Show, don't tell**
Show, don't tell:
Show, don't tell is a narrative technique used in various kinds of texts to allow the reader to experience the story through actions, words, subtext, thoughts, senses, and feelings rather than through the author's exposition, summarization, and description. It avoids adjectives describing the author's analysis and instead describes the scene in such a way that readers can draw their own conclusions. The technique applies equally to nonfiction and all forms of fiction, literature including haiku and Imagism poetry in particular, speech, movie making, and playwriting.The concept is often attributed to Russian playwright Anton Chekhov, reputed to have said "Don't tell me the moon is shining; show me the glint of light on broken glass." In a letter to his brother, Chekhov actually said, "In descriptions of Nature one must seize on small details, grouping them so that when the reader closes his eyes he gets a picture. For instance, you’ll have a moonlit night if you write that on the mill dam a piece of glass from a broken bottle glittered like a bright little star, and that the black shadow of a dog or a wolf rolled past like a ball."It has become, by the mid-twentieth century, an important element in Anglo-Saxon narratological theory, according to dramatist and author Arthur E. Krows, the American dramatist Mark Swan told Krows about the playwriting motto "Show – not tell" on an occasion during the 1910s. In 1921, the same distinction, but in the form picture-versus-drama, was utilized in a chapter of Percy Lubbock's analysis of fiction, The Craft of Fiction. In 1927, Swan published a playwriting manual that made prominent use of the showing-versus-telling distinction throughout.
Writers on "Show, don't tell":
Mark Swan The American playwright and scriptwriter Mark Swan (1871-1942) "could talk of little else" than the motto he'd placed on the wall above his writing desk "Show–not tell". Swan elaborated on it in his 1927 primer, You Can Write Plays. Among numerous examples:"Events that have happened in the past, which cannot possibly be acted in the present, must be 'told about.' The telling of them is the only narrative or description that should be in a play. Make the 'telling' as brief and crisp as possible, without being too obvious. See if the facts can be told in a scene, or scenes, which give the actors a chance for emotional work, thus getting an emotional response from the audience while it is absorbing facts - in other words sugar-coat the pill." [...] "In the planting of characterization, motivation and relationship: don't 'talk it,' ' show it.' Express these things in acted scenes, not in narrative or description.""The novelist can fire the imagination of the reader with a scene. The dramatist must show the scene. All that the novelist gets by suggestion, by implication, the playwright must get by literal presentation." Percy Lubbock In Chapter VIII of The Craft of Fiction (1921), British essayist Percy Lubbock (1879–1965) wrote:Picture and drama—this is an antithesis which continually appears in a novel[.... ...]Henry James used them in discussing his own novels, when he reviewed them all in his later years; but I use them, I must add, in a rather more extended sense than he did. [...W]hen the subject of criticism is fiction generally, not his alone, picture will take a wider meaning, as opposed to drama. [...] It is a question, I said, of the reader's relation to the writer; in one case the reader faces towards the story-teller and listens to him, in the other he turns towards the story and watches it. In the drama of the stage, in the acted play, the spectator evidently has no direct concern with the author at all, while the action is proceeding. The author places their parts in the mouths of the players, leaves them to make their own impression, leaves us, the audience, to make what we can of it. The motion of life is before us, the recording, registering mind of the author is eliminated. That is drama; and when we think of the story-teller as opposed to the dramatist, it is obvious that in the full sense of the word there is no such thing as drama in a novel. The novelist may give the very words that were spoken by his characters, the dialogue, but of course he must interpose on his own account to let us know how the people appeared, and where they were, and what they were doing. If he offers nothing but the bare dialogue, he is writing a kind of play; just as a dramatist, amplifying his play with 'stage-directions' and putting it forth to be read in a book, has really written a kind of novel.
Writers on "Show, don't tell":
Ernest Hemingway Nobel Prize–winning novelist Ernest Hemingway was a notable proponent of the "show, don't tell" style. His Iceberg Theory, also known as the "theory of omission", developed from his background as a newspaper reporter. The term itself originates from his 1932 bullfighting treatise, Death in the Afternoon: If a writer of prose knows enough of what he is writing about he may omit things that he knows and the reader, if the writer is writing truly enough, will have a feeling of those things as strongly as though the writer had stated them. The dignity of movement of an iceberg is due to only one-eighth of it being above water. Creative literature (as opposed to technical writing or objective journalism) in general hinges on the artful use of a wide range of devices (such as inference, metaphor, understatement, the unreliable narrator, and ambiguity) that reward the careful reader's appreciation of subtext and extrapolation of what the author chooses to leave unsaid, untold, and/or unshown. This suggests a form of respect for the reader, who should be trusted to develop a feeling for the meaning behind the action, without having the point painfully laid out for them.
Writers on "Show, don't tell":
Chuck Palahniuk In a 2013 article, Chuck Palahniuk (author of the novel Fight Club) goes as far as recommending a ban of what he calls "thought verbs" ("Thinks, Knows, Understands, Realizes, Believes, Wants, Remembers, Imagines, Desires […]") favoring instead the use of "specific sensory detail: action, smell, taste, sound, and feeling." James Scott Bell In his book, Exceptions to the Rule, James Scott Bell argues that "show, don't tell" should not be applied to all incidents in a story. "Sometimes a writer tells as a shortcut, to move quickly to the meaty part of the story or scene. Showing is essentially about making scenes vivid. If you try to do it constantly, the parts that are supposed to stand out won't, and your readers will get exhausted." Showing requires more words; telling may cover a greater span of time more concisely. A novel that contains only showing would be incredibly long; therefore, a narrative can contain some legitimate telling.
Writers on "Show, don't tell":
Orson Scott Card Scenes that are important to the story should be dramatized with showing, but sometimes what happens between scenes can be told so the story can make progress. According to Orson Scott Card and others, "showing" is so terribly time-consuming that it is to be used only for dramatic scenes. The objective is to find the right balance of telling versus showing, summarization versus action. Factors like rhythm, pace, and tone come into play.
Writers on "Show, don't tell":
Yves Lavandier In his book Constructing a Story and his webseries Hats Off to the Screenwriters!, Yves Lavandier argues that one can show with dialogue. He takes the example of a scene from Prison Break in which pure dialogue between Michael Scofield (Wentworth Miller) and Tweener (Lane Garrison) shows (and does not tell) that Tweener is an expert pickpocket.
Tabletop roleplaying:
The storytelling performed by dungeon masters as well as players in tabletop roleplaying games such as Dungeons & Dragons is based on the concept of "show don't tell". Good dungeon masters convey information by stressing intonation and imagery—they do not merely telegraph it.
Critical commentary:
In 2017, Vietnamese-American writer Viet Thanh Nguyen questioned the validity of continuing to teach "show, don't tell" in creative writing classes in a New York Times op-ed on the subject. His position was that such teaching is biased against immigrant writers, who may describe emotions in ways readers from outside their culture might not understand, rendering "tell" necessary. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Mr. Ouch**
Mr. Ouch:
Mr. Ouch is a hazard symbol developed by the US’s National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) to represent electrical hazard within pad-mounted transformers. Unlike other high-voltage warning symbols, Mr. Ouch was specifically designed with young children in mind. It is part of NEMA Standard 260-1996, Safety Labels for Pad-Mounted Switchgear and Transformers Sited in Public Areas, which lays out design guidelines for a complete label design that incorporates the Mr. Ouch symbol.Mr. Ouch is similar in name, purpose, and concept to the UPMC Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh's "Mr. Yuk" design used to label poisonous substances, although the two symbols were developed independently.
Appearance:
Mr. Ouch is anthropomorphized electricity. The design shows a snarling, octopus like creature with jagged, lightning-bolt arms throwing a child backwards.
Background:
In early 1981, several member companies of NEMA began studying how to prevent young children from being electrocuted by electrical transformers. This followed incidents where transformer cabinets were vandalized or left unlocked, allowing access to the high-voltage equipment inside and resulting in disfigurement and death. NEMA realized that existing signage did not adequately convey the danger, either because it required literacy (text-only warnings) or because existing symbols were too abstract to register on a child (typically bolts of electricity).Concerned about "failure to warn" lawsuits, NEMA began exploring ways of warning young children about the dangers of exposed high-voltage equipment. Member companies within NEMA's Transformer Section formed a task force—the Task Force on Safety Labels for Pad-Mounted Switchgear and Transformers Sited in Public Areas—to design a safety label that very young children would understand, as well as standards on how that label was to be used.
Design process:
At the beginning of the project, the task force reached out to transformer manufacturers in an effort to build consensus for standardizing a design. Two goals were decided on: a symbol that would warn young children away from electrical equipment, and a label that would make the hazards within the equipment clear to adults, and encourage them to contact utility companies when unsecured equipment was discovered. NEMA hired the Agnew Moyer Smith company of Pittsburgh, PA to design the label, and the George R. Fraich Associates Testing Organization of Chicago to test children's reactions to it. Testing of the first iterations of symbol designs in fall of 1981, initially choosing sixteen different illustrations to test on children.The test groups were located in Chicago, IL and San Antonio, Texas, and consisted of an equal number of English and non-English-speaking children, aged 2.5 to 6 years old, both boys and girls. Of the sixteen symbols, they were placed into groups of four, and children were asked questions while being shown the symbols.
Design process:
In phase 1 testing, the following questions were posed: The child was asked to explain what the symbol showed or describe it.
The child was asked to explain what would they do if they encountered a "big box or cabinet" outdoors with the symbol.
The child was asked to identify the "most threatening" symbol, of the four they were shown, and what was the threat/danger.From that group of sixteen illustrations, NEMA selected the four most successful designs for further testing and review: Pictogram N: A hand shocked by a wire.
Pictogram F: A hand being 'bitten' by a lightening bolt, with eyes.
Pictogram K: An angry face on a blob with four lightening bolts shooting out of the blob.
Pictogram C: A pair of symbols, which showed a child being shocked by an open cabinet, and the same person then laying face down beside the cabinet.In Phase 2 testing, the revised versions of these symbols would respectively become Pictograms Q, R, S, and T.
Design process:
Phase 2 testing, the four symbols recommended from Phase 1 testing, were revised, based on responses given during testing. Among changes from Phase 1 testing were: Pictogram N had a plug added to the end of the wire, Pictogram R removed the cartoon elements and had the lightening bolt stab the palm of the hand, Pictogram S would see a total redesign, that retained the core concept of a angry ball of energy with lightening bolts shooting out, while adding a drawing of a child being electrocuted, Pictogram T eliminated the two symbol design in favor of a single symbol showing a child being shocked by an open cabinet. These revised symbols would be placed through testing in Chicago, in early 1982. The children were similar to the groups of Phase 1 testing, identical in age range and language. Phase 2 testing was similar to, but more detailed, adding additional questions, and using photographs as part of the question asking process.Phase 2 questions were: The child was asked to explain what the symbol showed or describe it.
Design process:
The child was asked to explain what was happening in the symbol.
The child was shown a photograph of a child standing near a pad-mounted utility cabinet, and asked "If you saw that drawing (pictogram) on this box (cabinet), what would you do?" The child was asked to identify the "most threatening" symbol, and what was the threat/danger.
Design process:
The child was asked to identify the "second-most threatening" symbol, of the remaining three pictograms, and what was the threat/danger.Of the four symbols, the one children most strongly associated with danger was Pictogram S, Mr. Ouch. While it was not the most successful at conveying to children the hazard was electrical, it was the most successful at conveying the presence of a hazard and encouraging avoidance. Pictogram Q, with the wire with a plug shocking the hand, was more successful at conveying that the hazard was specifically posed by electricity, it failed to inspire the same recognition of danger from children, and in some cases children were encouraged by the symbol to engage in a hazardous behavior. For these reasons, Pictogram S, then referred to as "Mr. Lightening", was selected by the NEMA as the symbol for inclusion on their new label system.
Design process:
Our concern is for the safety of children.Our emphasis must be placed on that Pictogram which most consistently and strongly communicates a threat or danger, regardless of whether the child realizes that the threat is electric or not, and also induces safe behavior.
Therefore, we recommend the immediate adoption of Pictogram S (Mr. Lightening) for the safety label program.
Design process:
NEMA standard 260 was the first warning label system developed and standardized by an industry. It went beyond just the Mr. Ouch symbol, incorporating the new symbol as part of complete label design that would include a new header design with the 'international alert symbol', an exclamation mark inside a triangle, on a single solid color background. The accompanying text message went beyond just stating the hazard posed, high voltage electricity; and included a clear statement of the consequences, how to avoid them, and what to do if the equipment wasn't secured. These additions helped impress the gravity of the danger, and alerted the public that an unsecured box was dangerous, should be reported promptly, and who to report it to. The standard included two designs, one intended for use on the outside of equipment, and a more urgent label for placing inside equipment, where danger of electric shock was always present.The continued effectiveness of the symbol was shown in a 1995 study, presented at the annual meeting of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, which confirmed that Mr. Ouch most effectively suggested an electrical hazard, out of four other symbols.
Usage:
The intended usage of 'Mr. Ouch' labels, are ground level electrical equipment, often pad-mounted transformers, that are accessible by members of the public, such as those situated in residential neighborhoods, parks, shopping centers, and near schools.
Usage:
The Mr. Ouch symbol is copyrighted by the NEMA, to protect the symbol by limiting its use to safety signage and educational purposes. Usage guidance for the signage is specified in NEMA Standards Publication 260-1996, Safety Labels for Pad-Mounted Switchgear and Transformers Sited in Public Areas. The label for use on the external housing of equipment uses the "Warning" signal word, for situations that could result in serious injury or death, and referred to "Hazardous voltage inside" and "Can shock, burn...". The other design, intended for the inside of equipment, visible when equipment is opened or unsecured, uses the "Danger" signal word, for situations that will result in serious injury or death and "Will shock, burn..."When first introduced in 1983, the Mr. Ouch label design was not considered a replacement for OSHA warning signage, and had to accompany signage compliant with OSHA's existing ANSI Z35.1968-based standards in order to satisfy OSHA safety regulations. However, the Mr. Ouch label designs shown in the 1996 revision of NEMA-260 share many characteristics of OSHA's current ANSI-Z535-based safety standards —clear pictogram, international alert symbol, and direct explanatory language—and NEMA-260-1996 does not specify that Mr. Ouch labels must be used in accordance with other signage. Since the mid-2010s, the label has been able to appear alone, without older ANSI Z35-1968 labels.
Usage:
Wisconsin Energies created an educational video for schools, to help children recognize Mr. Ouch. An educational comic book, Mr. Ouch and Electrical Safety, intended to educate children to stay away from equipment marked with the Mr. Ouch label, was also designed. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Charge contrast imaging**
Charge contrast imaging:
Charge contrast imaging is a scanning electron microscope imaging mode which can produce images of otherwise invisible microstructures in insulating materials and in fossils. While the technique clearly illustrates changes in minerals which reflect genuine compositional differences, the method by which such phenomena occur is not understood. It is thought to involve the interaction of several electronic forces, including the incoming electrons emitted by the SEM machine, local charge variations in the sample being imaged, the flow of ions in the sample, and any electric fields existing; these may be controlled by structures within the sample which assist in the accumulation of charge. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Voltage controller**
Voltage controller:
A voltage controller, also called an AC voltage controller or AC regulator is an electronic module based on either thyristors, triodes for alternating current, silicon-controlled rectifiers or insulated-gate bipolar transistors, which converts a fixed voltage, fixed frequency alternating current (AC) electrical input supply to obtain variable voltage in output delivered to a resistive load. This varied voltage output is used for dimming street lights, varying heating temperatures in homes or industry, speed control of fans and winding machines and many other applications, in a similar fashion to an autotransformer. Voltage controller modules come under the purview of power electronics. Because they are low-maintenance and very efficient, voltage controllers have largely replaced such modules as magnetic amplifiers and saturable reactors in industrial use.
Modes of operation:
Electronic voltage controllers work in two different ways; either through "on-and-off control" or through "phase control".
Modes of operation:
On-and-off control In an on-and-off controller, thyristors are used to switch on the circuits for a few cycles of voltage and off for certain cycles, thus altering the total RMS voltage value of the output and acting as a high speed AC switch. The rapid switching results in high frequency distortion artifacts which can cause a rise in temperature, and may lead to interference in nearby electronics. Such designs are not practical except in low power applications.
Modes of operation:
Phase angle control In phase angle control, thyristors are used to selectively pass only a part of each AC cycle through to the load. By controlling the phase angle or trigger angle, the output RMS voltage of the load can be varied. The thyristor is turned on for every half-cycle and switched off for each remaining half-cycle. The phase angle is the position at which the thyristor is switched on.
Applications:
Light dimming circuits Temperature control of electrical heating systems Speed control of motors AC magnet controls | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**DAVID**
DAVID:
DAVID (the database for annotation, visualization and integrated discovery) is a free online bioinformatics resource developed by the Laboratory of Human Retrovirology and Immunoinformatics (LHRI). All tools in the DAVID Bioinformatics Resources aim to provide functional interpretation of large lists of genes derived from genomic studies, e.g. microarray and proteomics studies. DAVID can be found at https://david.ncifcrf.gov/ The DAVID Bioinformatics Resources consists of the DAVID Knowledgebase and five integrated, web-based functional annotation tool suites: the DAVID Gene Functional Classification Tool, the DAVID Functional Annotation Tool, the DAVID Gene ID Conversion Tool, the DAVID Gene Name Viewer and the DAVID NIAID Pathogen Genome Browser. The expanded DAVID Knowledgebase now integrates almost all major and well-known public bioinformatics resources centralized by the DAVID Gene Concept, a single-linkage method to agglomerate tens of millions of diverse gene/protein identifiers and annotation terms from a variety of public bioinformatics databases. For any uploaded gene list, the DAVID Resources now provides not only the typical gene-term enrichment analysis, but also new tools and functions that allow users to condense large gene lists into gene functional groups, convert between gene/protein identifiers, visualize many-genes-to-many-terms relationships, cluster redundant and heterogeneous terms into groups, search for interesting and related genes or terms, dynamically view genes from their lists on bio-pathways and more.
DAVID:
DAVID 2021 update was released in December 2021. The knowledgebase has been scheduled to update quarterly.
Functionality:
DAVID provides a comprehensive set of functional annotation tools for investigators to understand biological meaning behind large list of genes. For any given gene list, DAVID tools are able to: Identify enriched biological themes, particularly GO terms Discover enriched functional-related gene groups Cluster redundant annotation terms Visualize genes on BioCarta & KEGG pathway maps Display related many-genes-to-many-terms on 2-D view.
Functionality:
Search for other functionally related genes not in the list List interacting proteins Explore gene names in batch Link gene-disease associations Highlight protein functional domains and motifs Redirect to related literatures Convert gene identifiers from one type to another. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Nanochannel glass materials**
Nanochannel glass materials:
Nanochannel glass materials are an experimental mask technology that is an alternate method for fabricating nanostructures, although optical lithography is the predominant patterning technique.Nanochannel glass materials are complex glass structures containing large numbers of parallel hollow channels. In its simplest form, the hollow channels are arranged in geometric arrays with packing densities as great as 1011 channels/cm2. Channel dimensions are controllable from micrometers to tens of nanometers, while retaining excellent channel uniformity. Exact replicas of the channel glass can be made from a variety of materials. This is a low cost method for creating identical structures with nanoscale features in large numbers.
Characteristics:
These materials have high density of uniform channels with diameters from 15 micrometres to 15 nanometers. These are rigid structures with serviceable temperatures to at least 300 °C, with potential up to 1000 °C. Furthermore, these are optically transparent photonic structures with high degree of reproducibility.
Applications:
These can be used as a material for chromatographic columns, unidirectional conductors, Microchannel plate and nonlinear optical devices. Other uses are as masks for semiconductor development, including ion implantation, optical lithography, and reactive ion etching. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Acyltransferase like 2**
Acyltransferase like 2:
Acyltransferase like 2 (or lysophosphatidylcholine acyltransferase) is an enzyme which converts lysophospatidylcholine and phosphatidylcholine. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Pettis integral**
Pettis integral:
In mathematics, the Pettis integral or Gelfand–Pettis integral, named after Israel M. Gelfand and Billy James Pettis, extends the definition of the Lebesgue integral to vector-valued functions on a measure space, by exploiting duality. The integral was introduced by Gelfand for the case when the measure space is an interval with Lebesgue measure. The integral is also called the weak integral in contrast to the Bochner integral, which is the strong integral.
Definition:
Let f:X→V where (X,Σ,μ) is a measure space and V is a topological vector space (TVS) with a continuous dual space V′ that separates points (that is, if x∈V is nonzero then there is some l∈V′ such that l(x)≠0 ), for example, V is a normed space or (more generally) is a Hausdorff locally convex TVS. Evaluation of a functional may be written as a duality pairing: The map f:X→V is called weakly measurable if for all φ∈V′, the scalar-valued map φ∘f is a measurable map. A weakly measurable map f:X→V is said to be weakly integrable on X if there exists some e∈V such that for all φ∈V′, the scalar-valued map φ∘f is Lebesgue integrable (that is, φ∘f∈L1(X,Σ,μ) ) and The map f:X→V is said to be Pettis integrable if φ∘f∈L1(X,Σ,μ) for all φ∈V′ and also for every A∈Σ there exists a vector eA∈V such that In this case, eA is called the Pettis integral of f on A.
Definition:
Common notations for the Pettis integral eA include To understand the motivation behind the definition of "weakly integrable", consider the special case where V is the underlying scalar field; that is, where V=R or V=C.
In this case, every linear functional φ on V is of the form φ(y)=sy for some scalar s∈V (that is, φ is just scalar multiplication by a constant), the condition simplifies to In particular, in this special case, f is weakly integrable on X if and only if f is Lebesgue integrable.
Relation to Dunford integral:
The map f:X→V is said to be Dunford integrable if φ∘f∈L1(X,Σ,μ) for all φ∈V′ and also for every A∈Σ there exists a vector dA∈V″, called the Dunford integral of f on A, such that where ⟨dA,φ⟩=dA(φ).
Identify every vector x∈V with the map scalar-valued functional on V′ defined by φ∈V′↦φ(x).
This assignment induces a map called the canonical evaluation map and through it, V is identified as a vector subspace of the double dual V″.
The space V is a semi-reflexive space if and only if this map is surjective. The f:X→V is Pettis integrable if and only if dA∈V for every A∈Σ.
Properties:
An immediate consequence of the definition is that Pettis integrals are compatible with continuous, linear operators: If Φ:V1→V2 is and linear and continuous and f:X→V1 is Pettis integrable, then Φ∘f is Pettis integrable as well and: The standard estimate for real- and complex-valued functions generalises to Pettis integrals in the following sense: For all continuous seminorms p:V→R and all Pettis integrable f:X→V, holds. The right hand side is the lower Lebesgue integral of a [0,∞] -valued function, that is, Taking a lower Lebesgue integral is necessary because the integrand p∘f may not be measurable. This follows from the Hahn-Banach theorem because for every vector v∈V there must be a continuous functional φ∈V∗ such that φ(v)=p(v) and for all w∈V, |φ(w)|≤p(w).
Properties:
Applying this to := ∫Xfdμ it gives the result.
Properties:
Mean value theorem An important property is that the Pettis integral with respect to a finite measure is contained in the closure of the convex hull of the values scaled by the measure of the integration domain: This is a consequence of the Hahn-Banach theorem and generalizes the mean value theorem for integrals of real-valued functions: If V=R, then closed convex sets are simply intervals and for f:X→[a,b], the following inequalities hold: Existence If V=Rn is finite-dimensional then f is Pettis integrable if and only if each of f 's coordinates is Lebesgue integrable.
Properties:
If f is Pettis integrable and A∈Σ is a measurable subset of X, then by definition f|A:A→V and f⋅1A:X→V are also Pettis integrable and If X is a topological space, Σ=BX its Borel- σ -algebra, μ a Borel measure that assigns finite values to compact subsets, V is quasi-complete (that is, every bounded Cauchy net converges) and if f is continuous with compact support, then f is Pettis integrable. More generally: If f is weakly measurable and there exists a compact, convex C⊆V and a null set N⊆X such that f(X∖N)⊆C, then f is Pettis-integrable.
Law of large numbers for Pettis-integrable random variables:
Let (Ω,F,P) be a probability space, and let V be a topological vector space with a dual space that separates points. Let vn:Ω→V be a sequence of Pettis-integrable random variables, and write E[vn] for the Pettis integral of vn (over X ). Note that E[vn] is a (non-random) vector in V, and is not a scalar value.
Let denote the sample average. By linearity, v¯N is Pettis integrable, and Suppose that the partial sums converge absolutely in the topology of V, in the sense that all rearrangements of the sum converge to a single vector λ∈V.
The weak law of large numbers implies that ⟨φ,E[v¯N]−λ⟩→0 for every functional φ∈V∗.
Consequently, E[v¯N]→λ in the weak topology on X.
Without further assumptions, it is possible that E[v¯N] does not converge to λ.
To get strong convergence, more assumptions are necessary. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Loosemore–Hanby index**
Loosemore–Hanby index:
The Loosemore–Hanby index measures disproportionality of electoral systems, how much the principle of one person, one vote is violated. It computes the absolute difference between votes cast and seats obtained using the formula: LH=12∑i=1n|vi−si| ,where vi is the vote share and si the seat share of party i such that Σivi=Σisi=1 and n is the overall number of parties.
This index is minimized by the largest remainder (LR) method with the Hare quota. Any apportionment method that minimizes it will always apportion identically to LR-Hare. Other methods, including the widely used divisor methods such as the Webster/Sainte-Laguë method or the D'Hondt method minimize the Sainte-Laguë index instead.
The index is named after John Loosemore and Victor J. Hanby, who first published the formula in 1971 in a paper entitled "The Theoretical Limits of Maximum Distortion: Some Analytic Expressions for Electoral Systems". Along with Douglas W. Rae's, the formula is one of the two most cited disproportionality indices.
Loosemore–Hanby index:
Whereas the Rae index measures the average deviation, the Loosemore–Hanby index measures the total deviation. Michael Gallagher used least squares to develop the Gallagher index, which takes a middle ground between the Rae and Loosemore–Hanby indices.The LH index is related to the Schutz index of inequality, which is defined as where ei is the expected share of individual i and ai her allocated share. Under the LH index, parties take the place of individuals, vote shares replace expectation shares, and seat shares allocation shares. The LH index is also related to the dissimilarity index of segregation. All three indexes are special cases of the more general Δ index of dissimilarity. The LH index is related to the amount of wasted vote, which only measures the difference between votes cast and seats obtained for parties which did not obtain any seats. The complement of the LH index is called Party Total Representativity, also called Rose index R. The Rose index is typically expressed in % and can be calculated by subtracting the LH index from 1: R=1−LH=1−12∑i=1n|vi−si|
Example of calculating distortion:
Netherlands This table uses the 2021 Dutch general election result. The Netherlands uses a nationwide party list system, with seats allocated by the D'Hondt method. The low figure achieved through this calculation suggests the election was very proportional.
Application:
Europe The following table displays a calculation of the Rose Index by Nohlen of the most, or second most, recent legislative election in each European country prior to 2009. This calculation ranges from 0-100, with 100 being the most proportional score possible, and 0 the least. Parties which received less than 0.5% of the vote were not included.
Notes
Software implementation:
Loosemore-Hanby Index in PolRep, an R package. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Sic1**
Sic1:
Sic1, a protein, is a stoichiometric inhibitor of Cdk1-Clb (B-type cyclins) complexes in the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Because B-type cyclin-Cdk1 complexes are the drivers of S-phase initiation, Sic1 prevents premature S-phase entry. Multisite phosphorylation of Sic1 is thought to time Sic1 ubiquitination and destruction, and by extension, the timing of S-phase entry.
Cell cycle control:
In the G1 phase of the cell cycle, Sic1 binds tightly to the Cdc28-Clb complex and inhibits it. Low Cdc28-Clb activity leads to the disassembly of the mitotic spindle, the assembly of the prereplicative complex and initiation of bud formation in yeast.
Cell cycle control:
At the START point in the yeast cell cycle, the G1-cyclins Cln3, Cln1 and Cln 2 activate Cdc28. The activated complex will phosphorylate Sic1 at multiple sites which leads to its degradation by the SCF complex. When Sic1 is degraded, the Cdc28-Clb complex is no longer inhibited and the cell can enter the S/M-phase. Thus Sic1 inactivation is essential for transition into S phase (Fig.1).
Cell cycle control:
Cdc28 in complex with B-type cyclin (Cdc28-Clb) phosphorylates Swi5, the transcription factor of Sic1. This promotes the export of Swi5 from the nucleus to the cytoplasm and avoids further transcription of the cdk inhibitor. Cdc28-Clb also phosphorylates any Sic1 molecules still available and triggers their ubiquitin-dependent degradation, exactly like Cdc28-Cln. High Cdc28-Clb levels also initiate DNA replication and duplication of the spindle pole bodies (SPBs). Then the metaphase spindle assembles and chromosome segregation can occur. The transcription of Sic1 starts during telophase, mediated by Swi5. Aca2 is another transcription factor of Sic1, but remains inactive until G1. At the end of mitosis, Sic1 is involved in the inactivation of Cdc28-Clb.
Ubiquitin-dependent degradation:
In order to be recognized by Cdc4 of the SCF complex, Sic1 has to be phosphorylated, often by Cyclin-Cdk complexes, at least at 6 of the 9 cdk sites (Fig. 2). Sic1 can also be phosphorylated by other kinases, such as Pho85-Pc11, a kinase which becomes essential when Cln1 and Cln2 are absent. Sic1 has also a role in the response to osmostress. The stress-activated protein kinase (SAPK) Hog1 phosphorylates Sic1 at a single residue at the carboxyl terminus. This leads to downregulation of cyclin expression and Sic1 stabilization which arrests the cell cycle.
Phosphorylation:
Sic1 needs to be phosphorylated at multiple sites for ubiquitination-driven degradation (Fig. 2). The multiple phosphorylations are required for Sic1 to be recruited by Cdc4 to the SCF complex. The Cdc4 substrate recognition mechanism includes the interaction with consensus binding motifs on the surface of the folded and phosphorylated Sic1, the so-called Cdc4 phospho-degrons (CPD). It has been shown that the optimal consensus sequence for Cdc4 is a phosphorylated serine or threonine followed by a proline and a basic amino acid. However, none of the CPDs on the surface of the Sic1 show such a composition. Therefore, multiple phosphorylation of Sic1 is necessary to get high-affinity binding to Cdc4. Although this mechanism looks inefficient, it provides advantages for a cell because it is possible to measure the environmental Cln/cdc28 concentration. The number of phosphorylated sites corresponds to the concentration of Cln/cdc28 and Sic1 could be considered as a sensor for this protein. In contrast to the many sharp transitions of ultrasensitive kinase cascade feedback loops, this mechanism allows fine tuned regulation. Moreover, because multiple phosphorylations are required, the probability that Sic1 is degraded by random is small. Using multiple phosphorylation of Sic1, the cell evolved a strategy to highly regulate the onset of DNA replication that is absolutely vital to provide genetic stability.
Phosphorylation:
A simplified understanding of the regulation of Sic1 degradation involves the phosphorylation of multiple CDK sites, which consist of optimal and suboptimal consensus phosphorylation motifs. Recent studies conducted by Koivomagi et al. have revealed the many intricacies of the multi-phosphorylation reaction between the cyclin-CDK complex and the Sic1 protein. These studies unveil the important characteristics of the Sic1 CDK phosphorylation sites, which include priming sites, binding sites, degron pairs, distancing of phosphorylation sites, and relative site location. In addition, the studies also emphasize the influence of other factors on Sic1 phosphorylation, including the Cks1 phospho-binding pocket, cyclin docking motifs, and Cdk1 active site specificity. All of these mechanisms contribute to the dynamics of the sequence of events leading to Sic1 degradation and initiation of S-phase.
Phosphorylation:
Function Apart from being an often-overlooked component of the Cdk1 cyclin complex, Cks1 is critical for Sic1 multi-phosphorylation and degradation. The phospho-binding pocket of Cks1 is capable of binding independently to phosphorylated CDK sites on Sic1. Additionally, the binding affinity of Cks1 for phosphoserines is extremely weak, essentially making Cks1 binding dependent on the presence of phosphothreonines only. Thus, in Sic1 mutants with one Cdk1 phosphorylation site or only phosphoserines present, Cks1 is unable to properly bind to the substrate and promote Sic1 multi-phosphorylation. This provides a strong argument for a processive phosphorylation mechanism instead of the previous theory of a random distributive phosphorylation model. In addition to requiring threonine, Cks1 binding to Sic1 can be enhanced with the introduction of a proline residue at the -2 position relative to the threonine residue.
Phosphorylation:
Site positioning Sic1 is a molecule with disordered regions, which aids in the manipulation of phosphorylation site distances. For the following findings, Koivomagi et al. utilized a Sic1 construct with a T33 optimal consensus motif, acting as the primary phosphorylation site, and a suboptimal motif, acting as a secondary site.When limiting observations to only double-phosphorylated Sic1 constructs, a two-step phosphorylation process was observed, where the first step was primary site phosphorylation. However, the secondary site must be located towards the C-terminus of the protein relative to the primary site for phosphorylation to occur. Secondary site phosphorylation is also sensitive to positioning. Peak phosphorylation rates were found between the +12 to +16 amino acid distances, with a distinct increase around the +10 to +12 range and gradual decrease across the +20 to +30 range. The introduction of the -2 proline residue enhances phosphorylation both in vitro by expanding the peak phosphorylation range, but does not increase phosphorylation activity at distances less than +10. This expansion of the peak phosphorylation range could possibly be attributed to enhanced binding of the priming site to Cks1.A simple Sic1 construct containing 5 phosphorylation residues (1 priming site and two phosphodegron pairs) revealed that any slight movement of the priming site can have significant effects on cell cycle progression. The priming site should be within the +12 to +16 range of both residues in the phosphodegron pair to maximize phosphorylation.
Phosphorylation:
Directionality Sic1 phosphorylation is initiated by the G1 cyclins, Cln1,2, and then completed by S-phase cyclins, Clb5,6 (Fig. 1). The docking motifs of the cyclin participate in Sic1 phosphorylation dynamics. S-phase cyclins use RXL docking while G1 cyclins use LLPP docking. Sic1 phosphorylation increases when the RXL motif of Clb5 is +16 to +20 positions relative to the optimal CDK motif. RXL positioning located N-terminal to the motif led to negligible amounts of phosphorylation. In contrast, moving the LLPP motif away from the priming site increases Cln2 phosphorylation, regardless of directionality.
Phosphorylation:
Processivity Cks1-dependent multi-phosphorylation occurs in a processive or semi-processive manner, evidenced by the lack of intermediate Sic1 phosphorylation states in normal cells. This processivity is also dependent on the presence of the cyclin docking site since increasing the numbers of mutations in this site decreases the net phosphorylation rate. Processive phosphorylation has two plausible mechanisms where a single binding event leads to the phosphorylation of two or more sites. The first mechanism proposes that, without dissociating from the enzyme complex, the primary site is phosphorylated and immediately shifted from the active site to the Cks1 binding pocket to allow for the additional phosphorylation of other CDK sites. The second mechanism proposes that the phosphorylated primary site binds to another location and is continuously bound while other CDK sites bind to the active site in a sequential manner for multi-phosphorylation. Simulations predict that the probability of a second phosphorylation event after the first, without dissociation, is 40% and 20-40% for the first and second mechanism, respectively.Sic1 is targeted for degradation by SCF (Cdc4), which recognizes Sic1 phosphodegron pairs. These phosphodegron pairs are closely positioned paired phosphorylation residues that each have strong affinities for Cdc4. In a Sic1 construct with the S69/S76/S80 cluster, processive phosphorylation of these phosphodegron pairs are reliant on Cdk1 sites. Clb5 processivity is dependent on the T5 and T33 sites, while Cln2 processivity is dependent on T5. Reintroduction of various residues led to the discovery of the T33 residue serving as a docking site for the T45/T48 phosphodegron pair, which is able to promote Sic1 degradation to a certain extent in the absence of other phosphodegron pairs.
Phosphorylation:
Mechanism The following is a proposed mechanism by Koivomagi et al. of the in vivo cascade to promote Sic1 phosphorylation and degradation.
Phosphorylation:
In late G1, Sic1 is inhibiting the Clb5-Cdk1 complex, simultaneously inhibiting its own degradation. The phosphorylation cascade proceeds by Cln2-Cdk1 phosphorylation of the T5 priming site. Following this, the T33, T45, and S76 residues are phosphorylated by Cln2-Cdk1, but no degron pairs are phosphorylated. However, these phosphorylated sites enhance Clb5-Cdk1 docking, leading to increased Sic1 phosphorylation at suboptimal sites and a positive feedback loop where Clb5-Cdk1 inhibition is continually decreased while Sic1 degradation is increased.
Sic1 homologue in human and diseases:
The protein p27Kip1 is a human homologue of Sic1, both having a conserved inhibitory domain, but p27Kip1 inhibits G1 cyclins and not cyclin B.
Sic1 homologue in human and diseases:
There are several human diseases that are linked to p27Kip1 and other cyclin kinase inhibitors: All Papillary microcarcinomas (PMCs) of the thyroid have a lower expression of p27Kip1 than normal thyroid tissue. Additionally, the expression of p27Kip1 in more aggressive, metastasising Papillary microcarcinomas is strongly reduced compared to nonmetastasing microcarcinomas. These results suggest that p27Kip1 acts as a tumor suppressor.
Sic1 homologue in human and diseases:
Kaposi's sarcoma is a type of cancer which appears in combination with AIDS and presumably is caused by the human herpesvirus 8 (HHV8). This virus expresses a viral cyclin which builds a complex with Cdk6. This KSHV-cyclin-Cdk6 complex phosphorylates and destabilises p27Kip1, which results in a low level of p27Kip1. This suggests that the degradation of p27Kip1 is associated with the development of the tumors.
Sic1 homologue in human and diseases:
Patients with a gastric adenocarcinoma (stomach cancer) have a higher chance of survival if the tumor has high p27Kip1 expression. Low p27Kip1 expression can lead to tumor de-differentiation, increased penetration through the gastric wall, lymph node metastasis and advanced tumor stage.Thus, the human Cdk inhibitor p27Kip1 is a potential tumor suppressor protein. If its expression is reduced, the result might be unregulated progression from G1 to S-phase which deregulates cell division and simplifies the formation of tumors. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Solar eclipse of June 20, 1974**
Solar eclipse of June 20, 1974:
A total solar eclipse occurred on June 20, 1974. A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun, thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon's apparent diameter is larger than the Sun's, blocking all direct sunlight, turning day into darkness. Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth's surface, with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide.
Solar eclipse of June 20, 1974:
The path of totality passed over the Indian Ocean, Amsterdam Island, and Western Australia. The partial eclipse was visible from Madagascar, Indonesia, Australia, and the southwestern coast of South Island, New Zealand.
Related eclipses:
Eclipses in 1974 A partial lunar eclipse on Tuesday, 4 June 1974.
A total solar eclipse on Thursday, 20 June 1974.
A total lunar eclipse on Friday, 29 November 1974.
A partial solar eclipse on Friday, 13 December 1974.
Solar eclipses of 1971–1974 This eclipse is a member of a semester series. An eclipse in a semester series of solar eclipses repeats approximately every 177 days and 4 hours (a semester) at alternating nodes of the Moon's orbit.Note: Partial solar eclipses on February 25, 1971 and August 20, 1971 occur in the next lunar year set.
Related eclipses:
Saros 146 It is a part of Saros cycle 146, repeating every 18 years, 11 days, containing 76 events. The series started with partial solar eclipse on September 19, 1541. It contains total eclipses from May 29, 1938 through October 7, 2154, hybrid eclipses from October 17, 2172 through November 20, 2226, and annular eclipses from December 1, 2244 through August 10, 2659. The series ends at member 76 as a partial eclipse on December 29, 2893. The longest duration of totality was 5 minutes, 21 seconds on June 30, 1992.
Related eclipses:
Metonic series The metonic series repeats eclipses every 19 years (6939.69 days), lasting about 5 cycles. Eclipses occur in nearly the same calendar date. In addition, the octon subseries repeats 1/5 of that or every 3.8 years (1387.94 days). | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Comparison of browser synchronizers**
Comparison of browser synchronizers:
The following tables compare general and technical information for a number of web-based browser synchronizers. Please see the individual products' articles for further information. Unless otherwise specified in footnotes, comparisons are based on the stable versions.
History:
History of bookmarks (favorites) sync: 2020 - Maxthon 1.3 2020 - Google Browser Sync (extension for Firefox) 2020 - Opera 2020 - Firefox 2020 - Google Chrome 2020 - Eversync (extension for Firefox) | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Tongue diagnosis**
Tongue diagnosis:
Tongue diagnosis in Chinese Medicine is a method of diagnosing disease and disease patterns by visual inspection of the tongue and its various features. It is one of the major diagnostic methods in Chinese Medicine since the time of the Yellow Emperor's Inner Classic. It is considered a part of the “Inspection” method within the four methods of diagnosis. Practitioners claim that the tongue provides important clues reflecting the conditions of the internal organs. Like other diagnostic methods in Traditional Chinese Medicine, tongue diagnosis is based on the “outer reflects the inner” principle, which is that external structures often reflect the conditions of the internal structures and can give us important indications of internal disharmony.
Topography of the Tongue:
The tongue is divided into topographic regions corresponding to the Triple Burner and Zang Fu organs. By observing the various regions of the tongue, one can determine where the disease is located within the body.
Topography of the Tongue:
One method of mapping the tongue is by dividing it into three sections to correspond to the Triple Burner. The tip of the tongue corresponds to the Upper Burner (Heart, Lungs); the middle corresponds to the Middle Burner (Stomach, Spleen), and the base of the tongue corresponds to the Lower Burner (Kidneys, Bladder, Intestines).Another method is to map the tongue by Zang Fu organs. The tip of the tongue corresponds with the Heart, the region at the front of the tongue between the tip and the center corresponds to the Lung, the center corresponds with Stomach and Spleen, the right side corresponds to the Gallbladder, the left side corresponds to the Liver, and the base of the tongue corresponds to Kidney, Bladder, Large Intestine, and Small Intestine.The mapping of organs to areas of the tongue in Chinese Medicine hold correlation with mapping of the reflex zones of the tongue in ancient Greek medicine.
Aspects of the Tongue:
The aspects of the tongue considered in diagnosis include: Tongue spirit or vitality Body color Body shape Tongue coating Tongue moistureIn addition, various features are also considered, including absence or presence of and the characteristics of movement, bristles, cracks, and teethmarks.
Normal tongue:
A normal, healthy tongue is pale red or pink with a thin white coating. The tongue should have spirit, but it should not tremble or quiver. It should have a shape which is not too swollen or flabby, with no cracks, and be slightly moist.
Significance of the Tongue in Diagnosis:
When differentiating between various patterns in clinical settings, tongue diagnosis plays a significant role. In a situation in which a patient has complex or even conflicting clinical presentations, the tongue body color nearly always reflects the true underlying condition. For example, a patient may present with various localized signs of Heat, however, the tongue may reflect an underlying condition of Cold from Yang deficiency. In this case it is important to consider the underlying condition in the treatment principle.
Scientific evaluation:
A 2008 study found that interpractitioner and intrapractitioner reliability levels were low. The features of the tongue are claimed to be tied to specific body parts, but evidence is lacking. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**KNDy neuron**
KNDy neuron:
Kisspeptin, neurokinin B, and dynorphin (KNDy) neurons are neurons in the hypothalamus of the brain that are central to the hormonal control of reproduction.
KNDy neurons in the hypothalamus coexpress kisspeptin, neurokinin B (NKB) and dynorphin. They are involved in the negative feedback of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) release in the hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal (HPG) axis. Sex steroids released from the gonads act on KNDy neurons as inhibitors of kisspeptin release. This inhibition provides negative feedback control on the HPG axis.
KNDy neuron:
KNDy peptide colocalization was first discovered in 2007 in sheep and was later confirmed to be present in mice, rats, cows and nonhuman primates. KNDy neurons are thought to be located in the hypothalamus region of human brains due to conservation across most mammalian species.Other roles of KNDy neurons include influences on prolactin production; puberty; stress' effects on reproduction; and the control of thermoregulation.
GnRH pulse regulation:
KNDy neurons control GnRH pulse generation by through release of three known peptides: neurokinin B (NKB), dynorphin and kisspeptin. NKB and dynorphin are the two peptides that regulate the secretion of kisspeptin. NKB is the stimulating peptide that initiates the pulsatile release of GnRH by activating NKB receptors, called TACR3, on mutually connected KNDy neurons to release kisspeptin in an autocrine signalling pathway. Kisspeptin then activates the GPR54 receptors on GnRH neurons inducing the pulsatile release of GnRH and on KNDy neurons, adding to the stimulatory effect of NKB. Eventually the pulse is terminated by dynorphin, which acts on κ-opioid receptors (KOR) in KNDy neurons to inhibit NKB and kisspeptin secretion and inhibits GnRH secretion acting directly on GnRH neuron receptors.
Sexual dimorphism in KNDy neuron populations:
KNDy neurons are most densely located in the arcuate nucleus (ARC) of the hypothalamus, but also exist in the rostral periventricular area of third ventricle (RP3V) and the preoptic area (POA). Expression of the KNDy peptides highlighted has been shown to differentiate between species, sexes, and with fluctuating steroidal hormonal levels. Improvements in immunohistochemistry and deep-brain imaging techniques have revealed information about KNDy cell populations and sexual dimorphism. Larger populations appear in the female ARC than in the male ARC. The RP3V is composed of the anteroventral periventricular nucleus (APVN) and the preoptic periventricular nucleus, where KNDy neurons are sexually dimorphic. KNDy populations and sexual dimorphism appear in most species studied, including humans, but presence in the RP3V is primarily associated with rodents, with similar sexual dimorphism.
Steroid hormone feedback:
Negative feedback of steroid hormones in both males and females controls the pulsatile nature of GnRH secretion, subsequently increasing or decreasing the release of LH and FSH from the anterior pituitary. This is mediated by estrogen receptor α (ERα), expressed on KNDy neurons. The binding of estrogen or testosterone to this receptor in the ARC region inhibits KNDy neurons and therefore prevents GnRH release. KNDy neurons are involved in positive feedback of the HPG axis. This mechanism is best exemplified by the LH surge in the female reproductive cycle, where the increase of estrogen from the growing ovarian follicle causes positive feedback in the AVPV region, and subsequently a rise in LH from the pituitary. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Folk psychology**
Folk psychology:
In philosophy of mind and cognitive science, folk psychology, or commonsense psychology, is a human capacity to explain and predict the behavior and mental state of other people. Processes and items encountered in daily life such as pain, pleasure, excitement, and anxiety use common linguistic terms as opposed to technical or scientific jargon.Traditionally, the study of folk psychology has focused on how everyday people—those without formal training in the various academic fields of science—go about attributing mental states. This domain has primarily been centred on intentional states reflective of an individual's beliefs and desires; each described in terms of everyday language and concepts such as "beliefs", "desires", "fear", and "hope".Eliminative materialism is the claim that folk psychology is false and should be discarded (or "eliminated").
Key folk concepts:
Intentionality When perceiving, explaining, or criticizing human behaviour, people distinguish between intentional and unintentional actions. An evaluation of an action as stemming from purposeful action or accidental circumstances is one of the key determinants in social interaction. Others are the environmental conditions or pre-cognitive matters. For example, a critical remark that is judged to be intentional on the part of the receiver of the message can be viewed as a hurtful insult. Conversely, if considered unintentional, the same remark may be dismissed and forgiven.
Key folk concepts:
The folk concept of intentionality is applied in the legal system to distinguish between murder and manslaughter. It is also used to distinguish between intentional and unintentional behaviour in several sports, where intentional fouls are punished more harshly than ones deemed to be unintentional.
Key folk concepts:
The importance of this concept transcends almost all aspects of everyday life: with empirical studies in social and developmental psychology exploring perceived intentionality's role as a mediator for aggression, relationship conflict, judgments of responsibility blame or punishment.Recent empirical literature on folk psychology has shown that people's theories regarding intentional actions involve four distinct factors: beliefs, desires, causal histories, and enabling factors. Here, beliefs and desires represent the central variables responsible for the folk theories of intention.
Key folk concepts:
Desires embody outcomes that an individual seeks, including those that are impossible to achieve. The key difference between desires and intentions is that desires can be purely hypothetical, whereas intentions specify an outcome that the individual is actually trying to bring to fruition.In terms of beliefs, there are several types that are relevant to intentions—outcome beliefs and ability beliefs. Outcome beliefs are beliefs as to whether a given action will fulfill an intention, as in "purchasing a new watch will impress my friends". Ability consists of an actor's conviction regarding his or her ability to perform an action, as in "I really can afford the new watch". In light of this, Heider postulated that ability beliefs could be attributed with causing individuals to form goals that would not otherwise have been entertained.
Key folk concepts:
Comprehension and prediction Context model Folk psychology is crucial to evaluating and ultimately understanding novel concepts and items. Developed by Medin, Altom, and Murphy, the Context Model hypothesizes that as a result of mental models in the form of prototype and exemplar representations, individuals are able to more accurately represent and comprehend the environment around them.
According to the model, the overall similarity between the prototype and a given instance of a category is evaluated based on multiple dimensions (e.g., shape, size, color). A multiplicative function modeled after this phenomenon was created.
s(P,Ei)=∏ks(P,Eik) Here, s(P,Ei) represents the similarity between the prototype and the i th exemplar, k is the subscript for the dimensions (k=1,…,K) , and s(P,Eik) is the similarity between the prototype and the i th exemplar on the k th dimension.
Key folk concepts:
Explanation Conversational Model Given that folk psychology represents causal knowledge associated with the mind's categorization processes, it follows that folk psychology is actively employed in aiding the explanation of everyday actions. Denis Hilton's (1990) Conversational Model was created with this causal explanation in mind, with the model having the ability to generate specific predictions. Hilton coined his model the 'conversational' model because he argued that as a social activity, unlike prediction, explanation requires an audience: to whom the individual explains the event or action. According to the model, causal explanations follow two particular conversational maxims from Grice's (1975) models of conversation—the manner maxim and the quantity maxim. Grice indicated that the content of a conversation should be relevant, informative, and fitting of the audience's gap in knowledge. Cognizant of this, the Conversational Model indicates that the explainer, upon evaluation of his audience, will modify his explanation to cater their needs. In essence, demonstrating the inherent need for mental comparison and in subsequent modification of behaviour in everyday explanations.
Application and functioning:
Belief–desire model The belief–desire model of psychology illustrates one method in which folk psychology is utilized in everyday life. According to this model, people perform an action if they want an outcome and believe that it can be obtained by performing the action. However, beliefs and desires are not responsible for immediate action; intention acts as a mediator of belief/desire and action. In other words, consider a person who wants to achieve a goal, "G", and believes action "A" will aid in attaining "G"; this leads to an intention to perform "A", which is then carried out to produce action "A". Schank & Abelson (1977) described this inclusion of typical beliefs, desires, and intentions underlying an action as akin to a "script" whereby an individual is merely following an unconscious framework that leads to the ultimate decision of whether an action will be performed. Similarly, Barsalou (1985) described the category of the mind as an "ideal" whereby if a desire, a belief, and an intention were all present, they would "rationally" lead to a given action. They coined this phenomenon the "ideal of rational action".
Application and functioning:
Goal-intentional action model Existing literature has widely corroborated the fact that social behavior is greatly affected by the causes to which people attribute actions. In particular, it has been shown that an individual's interpretation of the causes of behaviour reflects their pre-existing beliefs regarding the actor's mental state and motivation behind his or her actions. It follows that they draw on the assumed intentions of actors to guide their own responses to punish or reward the actor. This concept is extended to cover instances in which behavioural evidence is lacking. Under these circumstances, it has been shown that the individual will again draw on assumed intentions in order to predict the actions of the third party.Although the two components are often used interchangeably in common parlance, there is an important distinction between the goals and intentions. This discrepancy lies in the fact that individuals with an intention to perform an action also foster the belief that it will be achieved, whereas the same person with a goal may not necessarily believe that the action is able to be performed in spite of having a strong desire to do so.
Application and functioning:
Predicting goals and actions, much like the Belief-Desire Model, involves moderating variables that determine whether an action will be performed. In the Goal-Intentional Action Model, the predictors of goals and actions are: the actors' beliefs about his or her abilities and their actual possession of preconditions required to carry out the action. Additionally, preconditions consist of the various conditions necessary in order for realization of intentions. This includes abilities and skills in addition to environmental variables that may come into play. Schank & Abelson raises the example of going to a restaurant, where the preconditions include the ability to afford the bill and get to the correct venue, in addition to the fact that the restaurant must be open for business. Traditionally, people prefer to allude to preconditions to explain actions that have a high probability of being unattainable, whereas goals tend to be described as a wide range of common actions.
Application and functioning:
Model of everyday inferences Models of everyday inferences capture folk psychology of human informal reasoning. Many models of this nature have been developed. They express and refine our folk psychological ways of understanding of how one makes inferences.
For example, one model describes human everyday reasoning as combinations of simple, direct rules and similarity-based processes. From the interaction of these simple mechanisms, seemingly complex patterns of reasoning emerge. The model has been used to account for a variety of reasoning data.
Controversy:
Folk psychology remains the subject of much contention in academic circles with respect to its scope, method and the significance of its contributions to the scientific community. A large part of this criticism stems from the prevailing impression that folk psychology is a primitive practice reserved for the uneducated and non-academics in discussing their everyday lives.There is significant debate over whether folk psychology is useful for academic purposes; specifically, whether it can be relevant with regard to the scientific psychology domain. It has been argued that a mechanism used for laypeople's understanding, predicting, and explaining each other's actions is inapplicable with regards to the requirements of the scientific method. Conversely, opponents have called for patience, seeing the mechanism employed by laypeople for understanding each other's actions as important in their formation of bases for future action when encountering similar situations. Malle & Knobe hailed this systematization of people's everyday understanding of the mind as an inevitable progression towards a more comprehensive field of psychology. Medin et al. provide another advantage of conceptualizing folk psychology with their Mixture Model of Categorization: it is advantageous as it helps predict action. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Japanese Pharmacopoeia**
Japanese Pharmacopoeia:
The Japanese Pharmacopoeia (日本薬局方) is the official pharmacopoeia of Japan. It is published by the Pharmaceuticals and Medical Devices Agency (独立行政法人 医薬品医療機器総合機構, Dokuritsu-gyōsei hōjin iyakuhin-iryō-kiki-sōgō-kikō). The first edition was published on 25 June 1886, with revisions being issued from time to time. The current revision is number 18, issued electronically on 7 June 2021. An official English translation is in preparation (status: 06 Aug 2021). | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Ore genesis**
Ore genesis:
Various theories of ore genesis explain how the various types of mineral deposits form within Earth's crust. Ore-genesis theories vary depending on the mineral or commodity examined.
Ore-genesis theories generally involve three components: source, transport or conduit, and trap. (This also applies to the petroleum industry: petroleum geologists originated this analysis.) Source is required because metal must come from somewhere, and be liberated by some process.
Transport is required first to move the metal-bearing fluids or solid minerals into their current position, and refers to the act of physically moving the metal, as well as to chemical or physical phenomena which encourage movement.
Trapping is required to concentrate the metal via some physical, chemical, or geological mechanism into a concentration which forms mineable ore.The biggest deposits form when the source is large, the transport mechanism is efficient, and the trap is active and ready at the right time.
Ore genesis processes:
Endogenous Magmatic processes Fractional crystallization: separates ore and non-ore minerals according to their crystallization temperature. As early crystallizing minerals form from magma, they incorporate certain elements, some of which are metals. These crystals may settle onto the bottom of the intrusion, concentrating ore minerals there. Chromite and magnetite are ore minerals that form in this way.
Ore genesis processes:
Liquid immiscibility: sulfide ores containing copper, nickel, or platinum may form from this process. As a magma changes, parts of it may separate from the main body of magma. Two liquids that will not mix are called immiscible; oil and water are an example. In magmas, sulfides may separate and sink below the silicate-rich part of the intrusion or be injected into the rock surrounding it. These deposits are found in mafic and ultramafic rocks.
Ore genesis processes:
Hydrothermal processes These processes are the physicochemical phenomena and reactions caused by movement of hydrothermal water within the crust, often as a consequence of magmatic intrusion or tectonic upheavals. The foundations of hydrothermal processes are the source-transport-trap mechanism.
Sources of hydrothermal solutions include seawater and meteoric water circulating through fractured rock, formational brines (water trapped within sediments at deposition), and metamorphic fluids created by dehydration of hydrous minerals during metamorphism.
Metal sources may include a plethora of rocks. However most metals of economic importance are carried as trace elements within rock-forming minerals, and so may be liberated by hydrothermal processes. This happens because of: incompatibility of the metal with its host mineral, for example zinc in calcite, which favours aqueous fluids in contact with the host mineral during diagenesis.
Ore genesis processes:
solubility of the host mineral within nascent hydrothermal solutions in the source rocks, for example mineral salts (halite), carbonates (cerussite), phosphates (monazite and thorianite), and sulfates (barite) elevated temperatures causing decomposition reactions of mineralsTransport by hydrothermal solutions usually requires a salt or other soluble species which can form a metal-bearing complex. These metal-bearing complexes facilitate transport of metals within aqueous solutions, generally as hydroxides, but also by processes similar to chelation.
Ore genesis processes:
This process is especially well understood in gold metallogeny where various thiosulfate, chloride, and other gold-carrying chemical complexes (notably tellurium-chloride/sulfate or antimony-chloride/sulfate). The majority of metal deposits formed by hydrothermal processes include sulfide minerals, indicating sulfur is an important metal-carrying complex.
Ore genesis processes:
Sulfide deposition: Sulfide deposition within the trap zone occurs when metal-carrying sulfate, sulfide, or other complexes become chemically unstable due to one or more of the following processes; falling temperature, which renders the complex unstable or metal insoluble loss of pressure, which has the same effect reaction with chemically reactive wall rocks, usually of reduced oxidation state, such as iron-bearing rocks, mafic or ultramafic rocks, or carbonate rocks degassing of the hydrothermal fluid into a gas and water system, or boiling, which alters the metal carrying capacity of the solution and even destroys metal-carrying chemical complexesMetal can also precipitate when temperature and pressure or oxidation state favour different ionic complexes in the water, for instance the change from sulfide to sulfate, oxygen fugacity, exchange of metals between sulfide and chloride complexes, et cetera.
Ore genesis processes:
Metamorphic processes Lateral secretion: Ore deposits formed by lateral secretion are formed by metamorphic reactions during shearing, which liberate mineral constituents such as quartz, sulfides, gold, carbonates, and oxides from deforming rocks, and focus these constituents into zones of reduced pressure or dilation such as faults. This may occur without much hydrothermal fluid flow, and this is typical of podiform chromite deposits.
Ore genesis processes:
Metamorphic processes also control many physical processes which form the source of hydrothermal fluids, outlined above.
Sedimentary or surficial processes (exogenous) Surficial processes are the physical and chemical phenomena which cause concentration of ore material within the regolith, generally by the action of the environment. This includes placer deposits, laterite deposits, and residual or eluvial deposits. Superficial deposits processes of ore formation include; Erosion of non-ore material.
Deposition by sedimentary processes, including winnowing, density separation (e.g.; gold placers).
Weathering via oxidation or chemical attack of a rock, either liberating rock fragments or creating chemically deposited clays, laterites, or supergene enrichment.
Deposition in low-energy environments in beach environments.
Sedimentary Exhalative Deposits (SEDEX), formed on the sea floor from metal-bearing brines.
Classification of ore deposits:
Classification of hydrothermal ore deposits is also achieved by classifying according to the temperature of formation, which roughly also correlates with particular mineralising fluids, mineral associations and structural styles. This scheme, proposed by Waldemar Lindgren (1933) classified hydrothermal deposits as follows: Hypothermal — mineral ore deposits formed at great depth under conditions of high temperature.
Mesothermal — mineral ore deposits formed at moderate temperature and pressure, in and along fissures or other openings in rocks, by deposition at intermediate depths, from hydrothermal fluids.
Epithermal — mineral ore deposits formed at low temperatures (50–200 °C) near the Earth's surface (<1500 m), that fill veins, breccias, and stockworks.
Classification of ore deposits:
Telethermal — mineral ore deposits formed at shallow depth and relatively low temperatures, with little or no wall-rock alteration, presumably far from the source of hydrothermal solutions.Ore deposits are usually classified by ore formation processes and geological setting. For example, sedimentary exhalative deposits (SEDEX), are a class of ore deposit formed on the sea floor (sedimentary) by exhalation of brines into seawater (exhalative), causing chemical precipitation of ore minerals when the brine cools, mixes with sea water, and loses its metal carrying capacity.
Classification of ore deposits:
Ore deposits rarely fit neatly into the categories in which geologists wish to place them. Many may be formed by one or more of the basic genesis processes above, creating ambiguous classifications and much argument and conjecture. Often ore deposits are classified after examples of their type, for instance Broken Hill type lead-zinc-silver deposits or Carlin–type gold deposits.
Genesis of common ores:
As they require the conjunction of specific environmental conditions to form, particular mineral deposit types tend to occupy specific geodynamic niches, therefore, this page has been organised by metal commodity. It is also possible to organise theories the other way, namely according to geological criteria of formation. Often ores of the same metal can be formed by multiple processes, and this is described here under each metal or metal complex.
Genesis of common ores:
Iron Iron ores are overwhelmingly derived from ancient sediments known as banded iron formations (BIFs). These sediments are composed of iron oxide minerals deposited on the sea floor. Particular environmental conditions are needed to transport enough iron in sea water to form these deposits, such as acidic and oxygen-poor atmospheres within the Proterozoic Era.
Often, more recent weathering is required to convert the usual magnetite minerals into more easily processed hematite. Some iron deposits within the Pilbara of Western Australia are placer deposits, formed by accumulation of hematite gravels called pisolites which form channel-iron deposits. These are preferred because they are cheap to mine.
Lead zinc silver Lead-zinc deposits are generally accompanied by silver, hosted within the lead sulfide mineral galena or within the zinc sulfide mineral sphalerite.
Genesis of common ores:
Lead and zinc deposits are formed by discharge of deep sedimentary brine onto the sea floor (termed sedimentary exhalative or SEDEX), or by replacement of limestone, in skarn deposits, some associated with submarine volcanoes (called volcanogenic massive sulfide ore deposits or VMS), or in the aureole of subvolcanic intrusions of granite. The vast majority of SEDEX lead and zinc deposits are Proterozoic in age, although there are significant Jurassic examples in Canada and Alaska.
Genesis of common ores:
The carbonate replacement type deposit is exemplified by the Mississippi valley type (MVT) ore deposits. MVT and similar styles occur by replacement and degradation of carbonate sequences by hydrocarbons, which are thought important for transporting lead.
Gold Gold deposits are formed via a very wide variety of geological processes. Deposits are classified as primary, alluvial or placer deposits, or residual or laterite deposits. Often a deposit will contain a mixture of all three types of ore.
Plate tectonics is the underlying mechanism for generating gold deposits. The majority of primary gold deposits fall into two main categories: lode gold deposits or intrusion-related deposits.
Genesis of common ores:
Lode gold deposits, also referred to as orogenic gold are generally high-grade, thin, vein and fault hosted. They are primarily made up of quartz veins also known as lodes or reefs, which contain either native gold or gold sulfides and tellurides. Lode gold deposits are usually hosted in basalt or in sediments known as turbidite, although when in faults, they may occupy intrusive igneous rocks such as granite.
Genesis of common ores:
Lode-gold deposits are intimately associated with orogeny and other plate collision events within geologic history. It is thought that most lode gold deposits are sourced from metamorphic rocks by the dehydration of basalt during metamorphism. The gold is transported up faults by hydrothermal waters and deposited when the water cools too much to retain gold in solution.
Genesis of common ores:
Intrusive related gold (Lang & Baker, 2001) is generally hosted in granites, porphyry, or rarely dikes. Intrusive related gold usually also contains copper, and is often associated with tin and tungsten, and rarely molybdenum, antimony, and uranium. Intrusive-related gold deposits rely on gold existing in the fluids associated with the magma (White, 2001), and the inevitable discharge of these hydrothermal fluids into the wall-rocks (Lowenstern, 2001). Skarn deposits are another manifestation of intrusive-related deposits.
Genesis of common ores:
Placer deposits are sourced from pre-existing gold deposits and are secondary deposits. Placer deposits are formed by alluvial processes within rivers and streams, and on beaches. Placer gold deposits form via gravity, with the density of gold causing it to sink into trap sites within the river bed, or where water velocity drops, such as bends in rivers and behind boulders. Often placer deposits are found within sedimentary rocks and can be billions of years old, for instance the Witwatersrand deposits in South Africa. Sedimentary placer deposits are known as 'leads' or 'deep leads'.
Genesis of common ores:
Placer deposits are often worked by fossicking, and panning for gold is a popular pastime.
Genesis of common ores:
Laterite gold deposits are formed from pre-existing gold deposits (including some placer deposits) during prolonged weathering of the bedrock. Gold is deposited within iron oxides in the weathered rock or regolith, and may be further enriched by reworking by erosion. Some laterite deposits are formed by wind erosion of the bedrock leaving a residuum of native gold metal at surface.
Genesis of common ores:
A bacterium, Cupriavidus metallidurans plays a vital role in the formation of gold nuggets, by precipitating metallic gold from a solution of gold (III) tetrachloride, a compound highly toxic to most other microorganisms.
Similarly, Delftia acidovorans can form gold nuggets.
Genesis of common ores:
Platinum Platinum and palladium are precious metals generally found in ultramafic rocks. The source of platinum and palladium deposits is ultramafic rocks which have enough sulfur to form a sulfide mineral while the magma is still liquid. This sulfide mineral (usually pentlandite, pyrite, chalcopyrite, or pyrrhotite) gains platinum by mixing with the bulk of the magma because platinum is chalcophile and is concentrated in sulfides. Alternatively, platinum occurs in association with chromite either within the chromite mineral itself or within sulfides associated with it.
Genesis of common ores:
Sulfide phases only form in ultramafic magmas when the magma reaches sulfur saturation. This is generally thought to be nearly impossible by pure fractional crystallisation, so other processes are usually required in ore genesis models to explain sulfur saturation. These include contamination of the magma with crustal material, especially sulfur-rich wall-rocks or sediments; magma mixing; volatile gain or loss.
Often platinum is associated with nickel, copper, chromium, and cobalt deposits.
Nickel Nickel deposits are generally found in two forms, either as sulfide or laterite.
Genesis of common ores:
Sulfide type nickel deposits are formed in essentially the same manner as platinum deposits. Nickel is a chalcophile element which prefers sulfides, so an ultramafic or mafic rock which has a sulfide phase in the magma may form nickel sulfides. The best nickel deposits are formed where sulfide accumulates in the base of lava tubes or volcanic flows — especially komatiite lavas.
Genesis of common ores:
Komatiitic nickel-copper sulfide deposits are considered to be formed by a mixture of sulfide segregation, immiscibility, and thermal erosion of sulfidic sediments. The sediments are considered to be necessary to promote sulfur saturation.
Some subvolcanic sills in the Thompson Belt of Canada host nickel sulfide deposits formed by deposition of sulfides near the feeder vent. Sulfide was accumulated near the vent due to the loss of magma velocity at the vent interface. The massive Voisey's Bay nickel deposit is considered to have formed via a similar process.
The process of forming nickel laterite deposits is essentially similar to the formation of gold laterite deposits, except that ultramafic or mafic rocks are required. Generally nickel laterites require very large olivine-bearing ultramafic intrusions. Minerals formed in laterite nickel deposits include gibbsite.
Copper Copper is found in association with many other metals and deposit styles. Commonly, copper is either formed within sedimentary rocks, or associated with igneous rocks.
The world's major copper deposits are formed within the granitic porphyry copper style. Copper is enriched by processes during crystallisation of the granite and forms as chalcopyrite — a sulfide mineral, which is carried up with the granite.
Sometimes granites erupt to surface as volcanoes, and copper mineralisation forms during this phase when the granite and volcanic rocks cool via hydrothermal circulation.
Sedimentary copper forms within ocean basins in sedimentary rocks. Generally this forms by brine from deeply buried sediments discharging into the deep sea, and precipitating copper and often lead and zinc sulfides directly onto the sea floor. This is then buried by further sediment. This is a process similar to SEDEX zinc and lead, although some carbonate-hosted examples exist.
Often copper is associated with gold, lead, zinc, and nickel deposits.
Genesis of common ores:
Uranium Uranium deposits are usually sourced from radioactive granites, where certain minerals such as monazite are leached during hydrothermal activity or during circulation of groundwater. The uranium is brought into solution by acidic conditions and is deposited when this acidity is neutralised. Generally this occurs in certain carbon-bearing sediments, within an unconformity in sedimentary strata. The majority of the world's nuclear power is sourced from uranium in such deposits.
Genesis of common ores:
Uranium is also found in nearly all coal at several parts per million, and in all granites. Radon is a common problem during mining of uranium as it is a radioactive gas.
Uranium is also found associated with certain igneous rocks, such as granite and porphyry. The Olympic Dam deposit in Australia is an example of this type of uranium deposit. It contains 70% of Australia's share of 40% of the known global low-cost recoverable uranium inventory.
Genesis of common ores:
Titanium and zirconium Mineral sands are the predominant type of titanium, zirconium, and thorium deposit. They are formed by accumulation of such heavy minerals within beach systems, and are a type of placer deposits. The minerals which contain titanium are ilmenite, rutile, and leucoxene, zirconium is contained within zircon, and thorium is generally contained within monazite. These minerals are sourced from primarily granite bedrock by erosion and transported to the sea by rivers where they accumulate within beach sands. Rarely, but importantly, gold, tin, and platinum deposits can form in beach placer deposits.
Genesis of common ores:
Tin, tungsten, and molybdenum These three metals generally form in a certain type of granite, via a similar mechanism to intrusive-related gold and copper. They are considered together because the process of forming these deposits is essentially the same. Skarn type mineralisation related to these granites is a very important type of tin, tungsten, and molybdenum deposit. Skarn deposits form by reaction of mineralised fluids from the granite reacting with wall rocks such as limestone. Skarn mineralisation is also important in lead, zinc, copper, gold, and occasionally uranium mineralisation.
Genesis of common ores:
Greisen granite is another related tin-molybdenum and topaz mineralisation style.
Rare-earths, niobium, tantalum, lithium The overwhelming majority of rare-earth elements, tantalum, and lithium are found within pegmatite. Ore genesis theories for these ores are wide and varied, but most involve metamorphism and igneous activity. Lithium is present as spodumene or lepidolite within pegmatite.
Carbonatite intrusions are an important source of these elements. Ore minerals are essentially part of the unusual mineralogy of carbonatite.
Genesis of common ores:
Phosphate Phosphate is used in fertilisers. Immense quantities of phosphate rock or phosphorite occur in sedimentary shelf deposits, ranging in age from the Proterozoic to currently forming environments. Phosphate deposits are thought to be sourced from the skeletons of dead sea creatures which accumulated on the seafloor. Similar to iron ore deposits and oil, particular conditions in the ocean and environment are thought to have contributed to these deposits within the geological past.
Genesis of common ores:
Phosphate deposits are also formed from alkaline igneous rocks such as nepheline syenites, carbonatites, and associated rock types. The phosphate is, in this case, contained within magmatic apatite, monazite, or other rare-earth phosphates.
Vanadium Due to the presence of vanabins, concentration of vanadium found in the blood cells of Ascidia gemmata belonging to the suborder Phlebobranchia is 10,000,000 times higher than that in the surrounding seawater. A similar biological process might have played a role in the formation of vanadium ores.
Vanadium is also present in fossil fuel deposits such as crude oil, coal, oil shale, and oil sands. In crude oil, concentrations up to 1200 ppm have been reported.
Genesis of common ores:
Cosmic origins of rare metals Precious metals such as gold and platinum, but also many other rare and noble metals, largely originated within neutron star collisions - collisions between exceedingly heavy massive and dense remnants of supernovas. In the final moments of the collision, the physical conditions are so extreme that these heavy rare elements can be formed, and are sprayed into space. Interstellar dust and gas clouds contain some of these elements, as did the dust cloud from which our solar system formed. Those heavy metals fell to the centre of the molten core of earth, and are no longer accessible. However about 200 million years after Earth formed, a late heavy bombardment of meteors impacted earth. As Earth had already begun to cool and solidify, the material (including heavy metals) in that bombardment became part of earth's crust, rather than falling deep into the core. They became processed and exposed by geological processes over billions of years. It is believed that this represents the origin of many elements, and all heavy metals, that are found on earth today. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Kōauau**
Kōauau:
A kōauau is a small flute, ductless and notchless, four to eight inches (ten to twenty centimetres) long, open at both ends and having from three to six fingerholes placed along the pipe.
Kōauau:
Kōauau resemble flutes the world over both in tone quality and in the range of sounds that can be produced by directing the breath across the sharp edge of the upper aperture. Māori kōauau players were renowned for the power it gave them over the affections of women (notably illustrated by the story of Tūtānekai, who, by playing his kōauau, convinced Hinemoa to swim to him across Lake Rotorua). Kōauau are made of wood or bone. Formerly the bone was of bird bone such as albatross or moa; some instruments were also of human bone and were associated with chiefly status and with the cultural practice of utu. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Environmental Fluid Mechanics**
Environmental Fluid Mechanics:
Environmental Fluid Mechanics is a bimonthly peer-reviewed scientific journal on Earth sciences published by Springer Science+Business Media.
Abstracting and indexing:
The journal is abstracted and indexed in: Current Contents/Physical, Chemical & Earth Sciences GEOBASE INSPEC PASCAL Science Citation Index Expanded ScopusAccording to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2018 impact factor of 1.846. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Oxford Formation**
Oxford Formation:
The Oxford Formation is a geologic formation in Ontario, Canada. It preserves fossils dating back to the Ordovician period. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**PRKACA**
PRKACA:
The catalytic subunit α of protein kinase A is a key regulatory enzyme that in humans is encoded by the PRKACA gene. This enzyme is responsible for phosphorylating other proteins and substrates, changing their activity. Protein kinase A catalytic subunit (PKA Cα) is a member of the AGC kinase family (protein kinases A, G, and C), and contributes to the control of cellular processes that include glucose metabolism, cell division, and contextual memory. PKA Cα is part of a larger protein complex that is responsible for controlling when and where proteins are phosphorylated. Defective regulation of PKA holoenzyme activity has been linked to the progression of cardiovascular disease, certain endocrine disorders and cancers.
Discovery:
Edmond H. Fischer and Edwin G. Krebs at the University of Washington discovered PKA in the late 1950s while working through the mechanisms that govern glycogen phosphorylase. They realized that a key metabolic enzyme called phosphorylase kinase was activated by another kinase that was dependent on the second messenger cyclic AMP (cAMP). They named this new enzyme the cAMP-dependent protein kinase, and proceeded to purify and characterize this new enzyme. Fischer and Krebs won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1992 for this discovery and their continued work on kinases, and their counterparts the protein phosphatases. Today, this cAMP-dependent protein kinase is more simply noted as PKA.
Discovery:
Another key event in the history of PKA occurred when Susan Taylor and Janusz Sowadski at the University of California San Diego solved the three dimensional structure of the catalytic subunit of the enzyme. It was also realized that inside cells, PKA catalytic subunits are found in complex with regulatory subunits and inhibitor proteins that block the activity of the enzyme. An additional facet of PKA action that was pioneered by John Scott at the University of Washington and Kjetil Tasken at the University of Oslo is that the enzyme is tethered within the cell through its association with a family of A-kinase-anchoring proteins (AKAPs). This led to the hypothesis that the subcellular localization of anchored PKA controls what proteins are regulated by the kinase.
Catalytic subunits:
PRKACA is found on chromosome 19 in humans. There are two well-described transcripts of this gene, arising from alternative splicing events. The most common form, called Cα1, is expressed throughout human tissue. Another transcript, called Cα2, is found primarily in sperm cells and differs from Cα1 only in the first 15 amino acids.In addition, there are two other isoforms of the catalytic subunit of PKA called Cβ and Cγ arising from different genes but have similar functions as Cα. Cβ is found abundantly in the brain and in lower levels in other tissues, while Cγ is most likely expressed in the testis.
Signaling:
Inactive PKA holoenzyme exists as a tetramer composed of two regulatory (R) subunits and two catalytic (C) subunits. Biochemical studies demonstrated that there are two types of R subunits. The type I R subunits of which there are two isoforms (RIα, and RIβ) bind the catalytic subunits to create the type I PKA holoenzyme. Likewise type II R subunits, of which there are two isoforms (RIIα, and RIIβ), create the type II PKA holoenzyme. In the presence of cAMP, each R subunit binds 2 cAMP molecules and causes a conformational change in the R subunits that releases the C subunits to phosphorylate downstream substrates. The different R subunits differ in their sensitivity to cAMP, expression levels and subcellular locations. A-kinase-anchoring proteins (AKAPs) bind a surface formed between both R subunits and target the kinase to different locations in the cell. This optimizes where and when cellular communication occurs within the cell.
Clinical significance:
Protein kinase A has been implicated in a number of diseases, including cardiovascular disease, tumors of the adrenal cortex, and cancer. It has been speculated that abnormally high levels of PKA phosphorylation contributes to heart disease. This affects excitation-contraction coupling, which is a rhythmic process that controls the contraction of cardiac muscle through the synchronized actions of calcium and cAMP responsive enzymes. There is also evidence to support that the mis-localization of PKA signaling contributes to cardiac arrhythmias, specifically Long QT syndrome. This results in irregular heartbeats that can cause sudden death.
Clinical significance:
Mutations in the PRKACA gene that promote abnormal enzyme activity have been linked to disease of the adrenal gland. Several mutations in PRKACA have been found in patients with Cushing’s syndrome that result in an increase in the ability of PKA to broadly phosphorylate other proteins. One mutation in the PRKACA gene that causes an amino acid substitution of leucine to arginine in position 206, was found in over 60% of patients with adrenocortical tumors. Other mutations and genetic alterations in the PRKACA gene have been identified in adrenocortical adenomas that also disrupt PKA signaling, leading to aberrant PKA phosphorylation. The Cα gene has also been incriminated in a variety of cancers, including colon, renal, rectal, prostate, lung, breast, adrenal carcinomas and lymphomas.
Clinical significance:
There is recent and growing interest in fibrolamellar hepatocellular carcinoma. The molecular basis for this rare form of liver cancer that afflicts young adults is a genetic deletion on chromosome 19. The loss of DNA has been found in a very high percent of patients. The consequence of this deletion is the abnormal fusion of two genes- DNAJB1, which is the gene that codes for the heat shock protein 40 (Hsp40), and PRKACA. Further analyses of fibrolamellar hepatocellular carcinoma tissues show an increase in protein levels of this DNAJ-PKAc fusion protein. This is consistent with the hypothesis that increased kinase in liver tissues can initiate or perpetuate this rare form of liver cancer. Given the wealth of information on the three dimensional structures of DNAJ and PKA Cα there is some hope that new drugs can be developed to target this atypical and potentially tumorigenic fusion kinase. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Simulcast**
Simulcast:
Simulcast (a portmanteau of simultaneous broadcast) is the broadcasting of programmes/programs or events across more than one resolution, bitrate or medium, or more than one service on the same medium, at exactly the same time (that is, simultaneously). For example, Absolute Radio is simulcast on both AM and on satellite radio. Likewise, the BBC's Prom concerts were formerly simulcast on both BBC Radio 3 and BBC Television. Another application is the transmission of the original-language soundtrack of movies or TV series over local or Internet radio, with the television broadcast having been dubbed into a local language.
Early radio simulcasts:
Before launching stereo radio, experiments were conducted by transmitting left and right channels on different radio channels. The earliest record found was a broadcast by the BBC in 1926 of a Halle Orchestra concert from Manchester, using the wavelengths of the regional stations and Daventry.In its earliest days, the BBC often transmitted the same programme on the "National Service" and the "Regional Network".
Early radio simulcasts:
An early use of the word "simulcast" is from 1925.Between 1990 and 1994 the BBC broadcast a channel of entertainment (Radio 5) which offered a wide range of simulcasts, taking programmes from the BBC World Service and Radio 1, 2, 3 and 4 for simultaneous broadcast.
Simulcasting to provide stereo sound for TV broadcasts:
Before stereo TV sound transmission was possible, simulcasting on TV and radio was a method of effectively transmitting "stereo" sound to music TV broadcasts. Typically, an FM frequency in the broadcast area for viewers to tune their stereo systems to would be displayed on the screen. The band Grateful Dead and their concert "Great Canadian Train Ride" in 1970 was the first TV broadcast of a live concert with FM simulcast. In the 1970s WPXI in Pittsburgh broadcast a live Boz Scaggs performance which had the audio simultaneously broadcast on two FM radio stations to create a quadrophonic sound, the first of its kind. The first such transmission in the United Kingdom was on 14 November 1972, when the BBC broadcast a live classical concert from the Royal Albert Hall on both BBC2 and Radio 3. The first pop/rock simulcast was almost two years later, a recording of Van Morrison's London Rainbow Concert simultaneously on BBC2 TV and Radio 2 (see It's Too Late to Stop Now) on 27 May 1974.Similarly, in the 1980s, before Multichannel Television Sound or home theater was commonplace in American households, broadcasters would air a high fidelity version of a television program's audio portion over FM stereo simultaneous with the television broadcast. PBS stations were the most likely to use this technique, especially when airing a live concert. It was also a way of allowing MTV and similar music channels to run stereo sound through the cable-TV network. This method required a stereo FM transmitter modulating MTV's stereo soundtrack through the cable-TV network, and customers connecting their FM receiver's antenna input to the cable-TV outlet. They would then tune the FM receiver to the specified frequency that would be published in documentation supplied by the cable-TV provider.
Simulcasting to provide stereo sound for TV broadcasts:
With the introduction of commercial FM stations in Australia in July 1980, commercial TV channels began simulcasting some music based programs with the new commercial FM stations and continued to do so into the early 1990s. These were initially rock based programs, such as late night music video shows and rock concerts, but later included some major rock musicals such as The Rocky Horror Picture Show and The Blues Brothers when they first aired on TV. During the mid-1980s the final Australian concert of several major rock artists such as Dire Straits were simulcast live on a commercial TV and FM station. The ABC also simulcast some programs on ABC Television and ABC FM, including the final concert of Elton John with the Melbourne Symphony Orchestra.
Simulcasting to provide stereo sound for TV broadcasts:
In South Africa, the SABC radio station Radio 2000 was established in 1986 to simulcast SABC 1 programming, especially imported American and British television shows, in their original English, before South Africa adopted a stereo standard which allowed secondary audio tracks through the television spectrum.
Simulcasting to provide stereo sound for TV broadcasts:
The first cable TV concert simulcast was Frank Zappa's Halloween show (31 October 1981), live from NYC's Palladium and shown on MTV with the audio-only portion simulcast over FM's new "Starfleet Radio" network. Engineered by Mark G. Pinske with the UMRK mobile recording truck. A later, notable application for simulcasting in this context was the Live Aid telethon concert that was broadcast around the world on 13 July 1985. Most destinations where this concert was broadcast had the concert simulcast by at least one TV network and at least one of the local FM stations.
Simulcasting to provide stereo sound for TV broadcasts:
Most stereo-capable video recorders made through the 1980s and early 1990s had a "simulcast" recording mode where they recorded video signals from the built-in TV tuner and audio signals from the VCR's audio line-in connectors. This was to allow one to connect a stereo FM tuner that is tuned to the simulcast frequency to the VCR's audio input in order to record the stereo sound of a TV program that would otherwise be recorded in mono. The function was primarily necessary with stereo VCRs that didn't have a stereo TV tuner or were operated in areas where stereo TV broadcasting wasn't in place. This was typically selected through the user setting the input selector to "Simulcast" or "Radio" mode or, in the case of some JVC units, the user setting another "audio input" switch from "TV" or "Tuner" to "Line".
Simulcasting to provide stereo sound for TV broadcasts:
In the mid to late 1990s, video game developer Nintendo utilized simulcasting to provide enhanced orchestral scoring and voice-acting for the first ever "integrated radio-games" – its Satellaview video games. Whereas digital game data was broadcast to the Satellaview unit to provide the basic game and game sounds, Nintendo's partner, satellite radio company St.GIGA, simultaneously broadcast the musical and vocal portion of the game via radio. These two streams were combined at the Satellaview to provide a unified audiotrack analogous to stereo.
Other uses:
The term "simulcast" (describing simultaneous radio/television broadcast) was coined in 1948 by a press agent at WCAU-TV, Philadelphia. NBC and CBS had begun broadcasting a few programs both to their established nationwide radio audience and to the much smaller—though steadily-growing—television audience. NBC's "Voice of Firestone" is sometimes mentioned in this regard, but NBC's "Voice of Firestone Televues" program, reaching a small Eastern audience beginning in 1943, was a TV-only show, distinct from the radio "Voice of Firestone" broadcasts. Actual TV-AM radio simulcasts of the very same "Voice of Firestone" program began only on 5 September 1949. A documented candidate for first true simulcast may well be NBC's "We the People." Toscanini's NBC Symphony performance of 15 March 1952 is perhaps a first instance of radio/TV simulcasting of a concert, predating the much-heralded rock concert simulcasts beginning in the 1980s. It could, however, be argued that these Toscanini presentations—with admission controlled by NBC, as with all its programming—were no more "public concerts" than NBC's "Voice of Firestone" broadcasts beginning in 1949, or its "Band of America" programs, which were simulcast starting 17 October 1949. Likewise Toscanini's simulcast NBC presentation of two acts of Verdi's "Aida" on 3 April 1949.Presently, in the United States, simulcast most often refers to the practice of offering the same programming on an FM and AM station owned by the same entity, in order to cut costs. With the advent of solid state AM transmitters and computers, it has become very easy for AM stations to broadcast a different format without additional cost; therefore, simulcast between FM/AM combinations are rarely heard today outside of rural areas, and in urban areas, where often the talk radio, sports radio, or all-news radio format of an AM station is simulcast on FM, mainly for the convenience of listeners in office buildings in urban cores which easily block AM signals, as well as those with FM-only tuners. In another case, popular programs will be aired simultaneously on different services in adjacent countries, such as animated sitcom The Simpsons, airing Sunday evenings at 8:00 p.m. (Eastern and Pacific times) on both Fox in the United States and Global (1989 to 2018) and Citytv (2018 to 2021) in Canada and entertainment show Ant & Dec's Saturday Night Takeaway, airing Saturday nights at various times between 7:00 pm and 7:30 pm on ITV in the United Kingdom and Virgin Media One in the Republic of Ireland.
Other uses:
During apartheid in South Africa, many foreign programmes on SABC television were dubbed in Afrikaans. The original soundtrack, usually in English, but sometimes in German or Dutch was available on the Radio 2000 service. This could be selected using a button labeled simulcast on many televisions manufactured before 1995.
Other uses:
Radio programs have been simulcast on television since the invention thereof however, as of recent, perhaps the most visible example of radio shows on television is The Howard Stern Show, which currently airs on Sirius Satellite Radio as well as Howard TV. Another prominent radio show that was simulcast on television is Imus in the Morning, which until the simulcast ended in 2015, aired throughout the years on MSNBC, RFD-TV and Fox Business Network, in addition to its radio broadcast distributed by Citadel Media. Multiple sports talk radio shows, including Mike & Mike, The Herd with Colin Cowherd and Boomer and Carton also are carried on television, saving those networks the burden of having to air encores of sporting events or other paid sports programming which may draw lower audiences. In New Zealand, breakfast programme The AM Show airs on television channel Three and was simulcast on radio station Magic Talk; both networks were owned and operated by MediaWorks New Zealand until December 2020, when Three was sold to Discovery, Inc. In 2022, the programme was rebranded as AM and ceased simulcasting on Magic Talk, becoming a TV-only format.
Other uses:
Following the acquisition of the assets of the professional wrestling promotion World Championship Wrestling (WCW) by the rival World Wrestling Federation (WWF), a segment simulcast between their two flagship programs—WCW Monday Nitro on TNT (which was airing its series finale from Panama City) and the WWF's Raw on USA Network (from Cleveland)— on March 26, 2001, featured WWF owner Vince McMahon addressing the sale, only for his son Shane McMahon to reveal in-universe that he had bought WCW instead.Simulcasts are also used for the purposes of television ratings, mainly with awards ceremonies such as the MTV Video Music Awards and the Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards where the ceremony airs on other sister channels in the same corporate family. These allow a bulk ratings number to be competed which allows for more homes to be calculated in a final rating, along with removing any in-house competition, with each of the networks carrying the same ceremony and same advertising. Another example is a "roadblock strategy", where a family of networks will air the premiere of a new series, music video or other event such as a telethon at the same time to maximize their audiences "Live Simulcast" is also used throughout South America for a real-time live broadcasting from the US, where it differs from just a live broadcasting in that, on the former case, the event is being broadcast live while it is happening in real time (e.g. the NFL games), while, the latter, a show may be a live recording but not necessarily being broadcast in real time of when the event took place (e.g. a live concert recording). Yet, local live productions (football games, for instance) being broadcast in real time in South America are often just called live, without the use of the word simulcast.
Other uses:
Simulcasting of sporting events In sports, such as American football and baseball, simulcasts are when a single announcer broadcasts play-by-play coverage both over television and radio. The practice was common in the early years of television, but since the 1980s, most teams have used a separate team for television and for radio. In the National Hockey League, two teams currently use a simulcast: The Buffalo Sabres, with play-by-play announcer Rick Jeanneret or Dan Dunleavy and analyst Rob Ray via MSG Western New York The Dallas Stars, with play-by-play announcer Josh Bogorad and analyst Daryl Reaugh via Bally Sports SouthwestAl McCoy (Phoenix), Chick Hearn (Los Angeles), Kevin Calabro (Seattle) and Rod Hundley (Utah) were the last National Basketball Association team broadcasters to be simulcast. Until his retirement in 2016, the first three innings of Vin Scully's commentary for Los Angeles Dodgers home and NL West road games were simulcast on radio and television, with the remainder of the game called by Scully exclusively for television viewers. For the final game before his retirement, Scully's commentary was simulcast on the radio for the entirety of the game.In the 2021 season, the Toronto Blue Jays broadcast the audio of the Sportsnet play-by-play with Dan Shulman and Buck Martinez over their radio network in what was stated to be a COVID-19-related measure. Media outlets disputed the decision and felt it was actually a cost-cutting move by team owner Rogers Communications, as the team had maintained dedicated radio broadcasts in 2020 with a remote crew.As all NFL television broadcasts are done by the national networks or via cable, there are no regular TV-to-radio football simulcasts. However, NFL rules require that games airing on cable and satellite networks (ESPN, NFL Network) be simulcast on local over-air TV stations in markets serving the two local teams participating in each game.
Other uses:
In greyhound racing and horse racing, a simulcast is a broadcast of a greyhound or horse race which allows wagering at two or more sites; the simulcast often involves the transmission of wagering information to a central site, so that all bettors may bet in the same betting pool, as well as the broadcast of the race, or bet from home as they watch on a network such as TVG Network or the Racetrack Television Network.
Other uses:
The regional sports network MASN previously used simulcasts for MLB games played between the Baltimore Orioles and Washington Nationals—regional rivals who share the same market and broadcaster. MASN and MASN2 simulcast a single feed of the games with a "mixed booth" featuring Jim Hunter and Bob Carpenter alternating play-by-play duties, joined by both teams' color commentators. This arrangement ended in 2014, with both channels now originating their own Orioles- and Nationals-specific telecasts as normal.For larger marquee events, ESPN has occasionally employed simulcasts across its channels—currently branded as a "Megacast", and formerly ESPN Full Circle—in which ESPN's television networks and streaming channels carry feeds of the event featuring different camera angles, alternative commentary options, or enhanced in-game statistics and analysis. In 2021, ESPN introduced a simulcast of selected Monday Night Football games featuring Eli and Peyton Manning, joined by celebrity guests; the success of these broadcasts prompted ESPN to extend the format to other sports, with the Mannings' production company Omaha Productions being involved in some of these broadcasts.
Other uses:
Distribution of channels On cable television systems, analog-digital simulcasting (ADS) means that analog channels are duplicated as digital subchannels. Digital tuners are programmed to use the digital subchannel instead of the analog. This allows for smaller, cheaper cable boxes by eliminating the analog tuner and some analog circuitry. On DVRs, it eliminates the need for an MPEG encoder to convert the analog signal to digital for recording. The primary advantage is the elimination of interference, and as analog channels are dropped, the ability to put 10 or more SDTV (or two HDTV, or various other combinations) channels in its place. The primary drawback is the common problem of over-compression (quantity over quality) resulting in fuzzy pictures and pixelation. Multiplexing—also sometimes called "multicasting"—is something of a reversal of this situation, where multiple program streams are combined into a single broadcast. The two terms are sometimes confused.
Other uses:
In universities with multiple campuses, simulcasting may be used for a single teacher to teach class to students in two or more locations at the same time, using videoconferencing equipment.
Other uses:
In many public safety agencies, simulcast refers to the broadcasting of the same transmission on the same frequency from multiple towers either simultaneously, or offset by a fixed number of microseconds. This allows for a larger coverage area without the need for a large number of channels, resulting in increased spectral efficiency. This comes at the cost of overall poorer voice quality, as multiple sources increase multipath interference significantly, resulting in what is called simulcast distortion. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**International Journal of Humanoid Robotics**
International Journal of Humanoid Robotics:
The International Journal of Humanoid Robotics is a quarterly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering the development of intelligent humanoid robots, both theoretical and practical, with an emphasis on future projections. Some areas covered include design, mental architecture, kinematics, visual perception and human–robot interaction. It was established in 2004 and is published by World Scientific. The editors-in-chief are Ming Xie (Nanyang Technological University), Juyang Weng (Michigan State University), and Jean-Guy Fontaine (Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia).
Abstracting and indexing:
The journal is abstracted and indexed in Compendex, Science Citation Index Expanded, Current Contents/Engineering, Computing, and Technology, Inspec, and Scopus. According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2012 impact factor of 0.368. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Endpaper**
Endpaper:
The endpapers or end-papers of a book (also known as the endsheets) are the pages that consist of a double-size sheet folded, with one half pasted against an inside cover (the pastedown), and the other serving as the first free page (the free endpaper or flyleaf). Thus, the front endpapers precede the title page and the text, whereas the back endpapers follow the text. Booksellers sometimes refer to the front endpaper as FEP.
Endpaper:
Before mass printing in the 20th century, it was common for the endpapers of books to have paper marbling. Sometimes the endpapers are used for maps or other relevant information. They are the traditional place to put bookplates, or an owner's inscription.
There are many styles of endsheets or endpapers that are specifically designed for use with different bindings. For example, endsheets reinforced with cloth are used in sewn bindings. The cloth holds the stitches and prevents the paper from perforating and tearing.
Endpaper:
Other styles are designed for use with perfect binders. Combined and Universal Endsheets are loaded into the cover feeder of an automatic perfect binder and attached – instead of the soft cover – automatically, producing a book block reinforced from head to tail. The Folded Tabbed End sheet is collated with the text pages, milled and bound along with the book block.
Endpaper:
There are also many styles of endpapers that are engineered to meet textbook standards and library binding standards, as well as endsheets for conservation and book repair. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Isoliquiritigenin**
Isoliquiritigenin:
Isoliquiritigenin is a phenolic chemical compound found in licorice.
Metabolism:
The enzyme 6'-deoxychalcone synthase uses malonyl-CoA, 4-coumaroyl-CoA, NADPH, and H+ to produce CoA, isoliquiritigenin, CO2, NADP+, and H2O.
The enzyme isoliquiritigenin 2'-O-methyltransferase further transforms isoliquiritigenin into 2'-O-methylisoliquiritigenin.
Mechanism of action:
Isoliquiritigenin has been found to be a potent (65 times higher affinity than diazepam) GABA-A benzodiapine receptor positive allosteric modulator. It can target miR-301b/LRIG1 signaling pathways, resulting in the inhibition of melanoma growth in vitro. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Hover cover**
Hover cover:
A hover cover is a specialised hovercraft used at major cricket grounds to cover and protect the cricket pitch from inclement weather, particularly showers of rain. The hover cover can be stored close to the edge of the cricket field, and when required can be moved over the pitch within minutes, and then removed easily when weather conditions improve. A hover cover can be used instead of more traditional wheeled covers, typically with a metal frame covered with fabric or metal, but two or three separate sections are necessary to cover the pitch completely, which take much longer and require more effort to push into place and remove.
Hover cover:
Usually around 100 ft (30 m) long and 15 ft (4.6 m) wide, sufficient to entirely cover the pitch of 66 ft × 10 ft (20.1 m × 3.0 m), the hover cover has a petrol motor at either end driving fans which generate an air cushion to lift the device, and also provide propulsion which allows the hover cover to be moved by a few people with relatively little effort, hovering smoothly over the field of play without causing any damage. The hovercraft can also carry plastic sheets or tarpaulins which can be quickly rolled out to increase the covered area, with sheets at each end to cover the bowlers' run ups, and at either side to protect other pitches on the square. It can also incorporate gutters and drainage pipes so the collected water may be directed way from the square and towards the drains. The concept was developed by the fabric manufacturer Stuart Canvas, which also makes and sells cricket accessories including sight screens, cricket nets, scoreboards, and wheeled covers. The first hover cover was trialled in Cheshire in 1998 and used at Lord's in 1999. The first hover cover at Lord's was replaced with a new model in 2020. Hover covers are used at most Test cricket grounds in the UK, including Edgbaston, Trent Bridge, Old Trafford, Sophia Gardens in Cardiff, and the Rose Bowl near Southampton, and at some grounds outside the UK, including the Sher-e-Bangla National Cricket Stadium at Dakha in Bangladesh and the Maharashtra Cricket Association Stadium at Pune in India. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Rose position**
Rose position:
Rose position is a position in which a patient is placed while undergoing a tonsillectomy, adenoidectomy or uvulopalatopharyngoplasty.
Position:
In this position both the head and neck are extended. This is done by keeping a sand bag under the supine patient's shoulder blade. For a patient with a kyphosis or a stiff neck, the head piece of the table is raised so that the head ring really does support the head. Its contraindicated in patients with Down syndrome owing to atlanto-axial instability.
History:
This position owes its name to a staff nurse named Rose who suggested this position to the surgeon. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Website defacement**
Website defacement:
Website defacement is an attack on a website that changes the visual appearance of a website or a web page. These are typically the work of defacers, who break into a web server and replace the hosted website with malware or a website of their own. Defacement is generally meant as a kind of electronic graffiti and, like other forms of vandalism, is used to spread messages by politically motivated "cyber protesters" or hacktivists. Website defacement can involve adding questionable content or removing or changing the content to make it questionable, or including nonsensical or whimsical references to websites or publicly editable repositories to harm its reputation. Methods such as a web shell may be used to aid in website defacement.
Common targets:
Religious and government sites are regularly targeted by hackers in order to display political or religious beliefs, whilst defacing the views and beliefs of others. Disturbing images and offensive phrases might be displayed in the process, as well as a signature of sorts, to show who was responsible for the defacement. Websites are not only defaced for political reasons; many defacers do it just for the thrill. For example, there are online contests in which hackers are awarded points for defacing the largest number of web sites in a specified amount of time. Corporations are also targeted more often than other websites on the World Wide Web and they often seek to take measures to protect themselves from defacement or hacking in general. Websites represent the image of a company or organisation for whom defacement may cause significant loss. Visitors may lose faith in sites that cannot promise security and will become wary of performing online transactions. After defacement, sites have to be shut down for repairs and security review, sometimes for an extended period of time, causing expenses and loss of profit and value. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Sleeper Either Class**
Sleeper Either Class:
A Sleeper Either class (SLE) and Sleeper Either class with Pantry (SLEP) are a type of railway sleeping car used in Great Britain. Some units were later modified for better wheelchair access as Sleeper Either class Disabled (SLED). A smaller number reused in Denmark were classified as WLABr.A total of 208 vehicles were built at Derby Litchurch Lane Works by British Rail Engineering Limited between 1982–1984 to the British Rail Mark 3A profile for British Rail. They were introduced to replace an ageing fleet of Mark 1 sleeper cars built to various designs and which dated from the late 1950s to early 1960s. The order consisted of 88 SLE variants, numbered 10646–10733, were constructed with thirteen bedrooms each, and 120 SLEP variants, numbered 10500–10619 constructed with twelve bedrooms with the last compartment used for an attendant. The Mark 3 air-conditioned sleeping cars were introduced including many additional safety features that had been lacking in the Mark 1 carriages that had caught fire at Taunton. The Night Riviera stock was the first on the route fitted with controlled emission toilets.As of October 2019, the only mainline operator of this type of carriages are Great Western Railway on the Night Riviera, whose fleet was refurbished in 2017.With the decline of overnight sleeper services in the United Kingdom shortly after their introduction at the end of the 1980s, many of the carriages later were moved to heritage railways to provide sleeping accommodation for heritage staff and volunteers.
Service:
Mk3 sleeper vehicles remain in use on the Great Western Railway's Night Riviera from London Paddington to Penzance in Cornwall. All Night Riviera sleeper carriages have been refurbished, and feature keycard locks, new lighting, a wardrobe and under-bed storage. SLED vehicles, with disabled-accessible berth and toilet, were also added.The various Scottish services continue to depart from London Euston for final destinations at Glasgow Central, Edinburgh Waverley, Aberdeen, Inverness and Fort William, but the Caledonian Sleeper Mark 3 sleeper sets were withdrawn in October 2019.
Service:
Between 1988 and 1998, ten SLE carriages were leased to Danish State Railways (DSB) for use in Denmark. This lease came to an end following the opening of the Great Belt Fixed Link combined bridge and tunnel. During this time, the vehicles were classified as WLABr and each carried a UIC number.Five former Caledonian Sleeper vehicles, now owned by Eastern Rail Services, are on lease to Network Rail for use on their Ultrasonic Test Unit, having been fitted with blue-star 27-way through wiring to enable push-pull working.
Preservation:
Following the withdrawal of many overnight sleeper services in the late-1980s, many Mark 3 SLEP sleeper carriages were obtained by heritage railways in order to provide sleeping accommodation for heritage staff and volunteers. In 2019, some of the former Caledonian Sleeper carriages were preserved.As of 2020 there were 1 SLED, 15 SLEs and 33 SLEPs in preservation at heritage railways. Since 2016, a sleeper repatriated from Denmark has been operated as a static hostel for members of the public by the Telford Steam Railway. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Glycoside hydrolase family 77**
Glycoside hydrolase family 77:
In molecular biology, glycoside hydrolase family 77 is a family of glycoside hydrolases.
Glycoside hydrolase family 77:
Glycoside hydrolases EC 3.2.1. are a widespread group of enzymes that hydrolyse the glycosidic bond between two or more carbohydrates, or between a carbohydrate and a non-carbohydrate moiety. A classification system for glycoside hydrolases, based on sequence similarity, has led to the definition of >100 different families. This classification is available on the CAZy web site, and also discussed at CAZypedia, an online encyclopedia of carbohydrate active enzymes.The enzymes in this family have amylomaltase or 4-α-glucanotransferase activity (EC 2.4.1.25) CAZY GH_77, they transfer a segment of a (1,4)-alpha-D-glucan to a new 4-position in an acceptor, which may be glucose or (1,4)-alpha-D-glucan. They belong to the disproportionating family of enzymes. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Volcanic plateau**
Volcanic plateau:
A volcanic plateau is a plateau produced by volcanic activity. There are two main types: lava plateaus and pyroclastic plateaus.
Lava plateau:
Lava plateaus are formed by highly fluid basaltic lava during numerous successive eruptions through numerous vents without violent explosions (quiet eruptions). These eruptions are quiet because of low viscosity of lava, so that it is very fluid and contains a small amount of trapped gases. The resulting sheet lava flows may be extruded from linear fissures or rifts or gigantic volcanic eruptions through multiple vents characteristic of the prehistoric era which produced giant flood basalts. Multiple successive and extensive lava flows cover the original landscape to eventually form a plateau, which may contain lava fields, cinder cones, shield volcanoes and other volcanic landforms. In some cases, a lava plateau may be part of a single volcano. An example is the massive Level Mountain shield volcano in northern British Columbia, Canada, which covers an area of 1,800 km2 (690 sq mi) and a volume of 860 km3 (210 cu mi).Perhaps the most extensive of all the subaerial basaltic plateaus existed during the Paleogene and possibly extended over 1,800,000 km2 (690,000 sq mi) of the northern Atlantic Ocean region. This region, known as the Thulean Plateau, is generally believed to have been broken up by foundering of the Earth's crust to form the present ocean basin.
Lava plateau:
Earth features numerous subaerial and submarine volcanic plateaus such as the Columbia River Plateau (subaerial) and the vast Ontong Java Plateau (submarine).
Pyroclastic plateau:
Pyroclastic plateaus are produced by massive pyroclastic flows. They are underlain by pyroclastic rocks: agglomerates, tephra, volcanic ashes cemented into tuffs, mafic or felsic. Pyroclastic plateaus are also called ignimbrite plateaus.
Examples include Shirasu-Daichi which covers almost all of southern Kyūshū, Japan and the North Island Volcanic Plateau in New Zealand. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Bit plane**
Bit plane:
A bit plane of a digital discrete signal (such as image or sound) is a set of bits corresponding to a given bit position in each of the binary numbers representing the signal.For example, for 16-bit data representation there are 16 bit planes: the first bit plane contains the set of the most significant bit, and the 16th contains the least significant bit.
Bit plane:
It is possible to see that the first bit plane gives the roughest but the most critical approximation of values of a medium, and the higher the number of the bit plane, the less is its contribution to the final stage. Thus, adding a bit plane gives a better approximation.
Bit plane:
If a bit on the nth bit plane on an m-bit dataset is set to 1, it contributes a value of 2m−n, otherwise it contributes nothing. Therefore, bit planes can contribute half of the value of the previous bit plane. For example, in the 8-bit value 10110101 (181 in decimal) the bit planes work as follows: Bit plane is sometimes used as synonymous to Bitmap; however, technically the former refers to the location of the data in memory and the latter to the data itself.One aspect of using bit-planes is determining whether a bit-plane is random noise or contains significant information.
Bit plane:
One method for calculating this is to compare each pixel (X, Y) to three adjacent pixels (X − 1, Y), (X, Y − 1) and (X − 1, Y − 1). If the pixel is the same as at least two of the three adjacent pixels, it is not noise. A noisy bit-plane will have 49% to 51% pixels that are noise.
Applications:
Media file formats As an example, in PCM sound encoding the first bit in the sample denotes the sign of the function, or in other words defines the half of the whole amplitude values range, and the last bit defines the precise value. Replacement of more significant bits result in more distortion than replacement of less significant bits. In lossy media compression that uses bit-planes it gives more freedom to encode less significant bit-planes and it is more critical to preserve the more significant ones.As illustrated in the image above, the early bitplanes, particularly the first, may have constant runs of bits, and thus can be efficiently encoded by run-length encoding. This is done (in the transform domain) in the Progressive Graphics File image format, for instance.
Applications:
Bitmap displays Some computers displayed graphics in bit-plane format, most notably PC with EGA graphics card, the Amiga and Atari ST, contrasting with the more common packed format. This allowed certain classes of image manipulation to be performed using bitwise operations (especially by a blitter chip), and parallax scrolling effects.
Applications:
Video motion estimation Some motion estimation algorithms can be performed using bit planes (e.g. after the application of a filter to turn salient edge features into binary values). This can sometimes provide a good enough approximation for correlation operations with minimal computational cost. This relies on an observation that the spatial information is more significant than the actual values. Convolutions may be reduced to bit shift and popcount operations, or performed in dedicated hardware.
Applications:
Neural nets Bitplane formats may be used for passing images to Spiking neural networks, or low precision approximations to neural networks/convolutional neural networks.
Programs:
Many image processing packages can split an image into bit-planes. Open source tools such as Pamarith from Netpbm and Convert from ImageMagick can be used to generate bit-planes. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Octorad**
Octorad:
Octorad is a term coined to describe a style of stadium architecture in the late 1960s. The term suggests eight radiuses, the design incorporating four arcs of a large circle to comprise most of the structure, and four arcs of a smaller circle to round out the corners. It was a variant on the archetypal multi-purpose stadiums of the time, many of which were either conventionally circular or oval, and were often criticized for poor sight line angles for many spectators at baseball and football games.
Octorad:
The most prominent examples of the octorad style were San Diego Stadium in San Diego, which opened in 1967 and was demolished in 2021; and Veterans Stadium in Philadelphia, which opened in 1971 and was demolished in 2004.
Both stadiums accomplished the goal of providing better sight lines for spectators. However, the architecture of those two stadiums still put a large majority of the fans far away from the action.
Other terms sometimes used for this design were "super circle" and "square circle". | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Elsevier**
Elsevier:
Elsevier (Dutch: [ˈɛlzəviːr]) is a Dutch academic publishing company specializing in scientific, technical, and medical content. Its products include journals such as The Lancet, Cell, the ScienceDirect collection of electronic journals, Trends, the Current Opinion series, the online citation database Scopus, the SciVal tool for measuring research performance, the ClinicalKey search engine for clinicians, and the ClinicalPath evidence-based cancer care service. Elsevier's products and services include digital tools for data management, instruction, research analytics, and assessment.Elsevier is part of the RELX Group, known until 2015 as Reed Elsevier, a publicly-traded company. According to RELX reports, in 2022 Elsevier published more than 600,000 articles annually in over 2,800 journals; as of 2018 its archives contained over 17 million documents and 40,000 e-books, with over one billion annual downloads.Researchers have criticized Elsevier for its high profit margins and copyright practices. The company earned £942 million in profit with an adjusted operating margin of 37% in 2018. Much of the research that Elsevier publishes is publicly funded; its high costs have led to accusations of rent-seeking, boycotts, and the rise of alternate avenues for publication and access, such as preprint servers and shadow libraries.
History:
Elsevier was founded in 1880 and adopted the name and logo from the Dutch publishing house Elzevir that was an inspiration and has no connection to the contemporary Elsevier. The Elzevir family operated as booksellers and publishers in the Netherlands; the founder, Lodewijk Elzevir (1542–1617), lived in Leiden and established that business in 1580. As a company logo, Elsevier used the Elzevir family's printer's mark, a tree entwined with a vine and the words Non Solus, which is Latin for "not alone". According to Elsevier, this logo represents "the symbiotic relationship between publisher and scholar".The expansion of Elsevier in the scientific field after 1945 was funded with the profits of the newsweekly Elsevier, which published its first issue on 27 October 1945. The weekly was an instant success and very profitable. The weekly was a continuation, as is stated in its first issue, of the monthly Elsevier, which was founded in 1891 to promote the name of the publishing house and had to stop publication in December 1940 because of the German occupation of the Netherlands.In May 1939 Klautz established the Elsevier Publishing Company Ltd. in London to distribute these academic titles in the British Commonwealth (except Canada). When the Nazis occupied the Netherlands for the duration of five years from May 1940, he had just founded a second international office, the Elsevier Publishing Company Inc. in New York.In 1947, Elsevier began publishing its first English-language journal, Biochimica et Biophysica Acta.In 1971 the firm acquired Excerpta Medica, a small medical abstract publisher based in Amsterdam. As the first and only company in the world that employed a database for the production of journals, it introduced computer technology to Elsevier. In 1978 Elsevier merged with Dutch newspaper publisher NDU, and devised a strategy to broadcast textual news to people's television sets through Viewdata and Teletext technology.In 1979 Elsevier Science Publishers launched the Article Delivery Over Network Information System (ADONIS) project in conjunction with four business partners. The project aims to find a way to deliver scientific articles to libraries electronically, and would continue for over a decade. In 1991, in conjunction with nine American universities, Elsevier's The University Licensing Project (TULIP) was the first step in creating published, copyrighted material available over the Internet. It formed the basis for ScienceDirect, launched six years later. In 1997, after almost two decades of experiments, ScienceDirect was launched as the first online repository of electronic (scientific) books and articles. Though librarians and researchers were initially hesitant regarding the new technology, more and more of them switched to e-only subscriptions.In 2004 Elsevier launched Scopus- a multidisciplinary metadata database of scholarly publications, only the second (after the Web of Science) of such kind. Scopus covers journals, some conference papers and books from various publishers, and measures performance on both author and publication levels. In 2009 SciVal Spotlight was released. This tool enabled research administrators to measure their institution's relative standing in terms of productivity, grants, and publications .In 2013, Elsevier acquired Mendeley, a UK company making software for managing and sharing research papers. Mendeley, previously an open platform for sharing of research, was greatly criticized for the sale, which users saw as acceding to the "paywall" approach to research literature. Mendeley's previously open-sharing system now allows exchange of paywalled resources only within private groups. The New Yorker described Elsevier's reasons for buying Mendeley as two-fold: to acquire its user data, and to "destroy or coöpt an open-science icon that threatens its business model".
Company statistics:
During 2018, researchers submitted over 1.8 million research papers to Elsevier-based publications. Over 20,000 editors managed the peer review and selection of these papers, resulting in the publication of more than 470,000 articles in over 2,500 journals. Editors are generally unpaid volunteers who perform their duties alongside a full-time job in academic institutions, although exceptions have been reported. In 2013, the five editorial groups Elsevier, Springer, Wiley-Blackwell, Taylor & Francis, and SAGE Publications published more than half of all academic papers in the peer-reviewed literature. At that time, Elsevier accounted for 16% of the world market in science, technology, and medical publishing. In 2019, Elsevier accounted for the review, editing and dissemination 18% of the world's scientific articles. About 45% of revenue by geography in 2019 derived from North America, 24% from Europe, and the remaining 31% from the rest of the world. Around 84% of revenue by format came from electronic usage and 16% came from print.The firm employs 8,100 people. The CEO is Kumsal Bayazit, who was appointed on 15 February 2019. In 2018, it reported a mean 2017 gender pay gap of 29.1% for its UK workforce, while the median was 40.4%, the highest yet reported by a publisher in UK. Elsevier attributed the result to the under-representation of women in its senior ranks and the prevalence of men in its technical workforce. The UK workforce consists of 1,200 people in the UK, and represents 16% of Elsevier's global employee population. Elsevier's parent company, RELX, has a global workforce that is 51% female to 49% male, with 43% female and 57% male managers, and 29% female and 71% male senior operational managers.In 2018, Elsevier accounted for 34% of the revenues of RELX group (£2.538 billion of £7.492 billion). In operating profits, it represented 40% (£942 million of £2,346 million). Adjusted operating profits (with constant currency) rose by 2% from 2017 to 2018. Profits grew further from 2018 to 2019, to a total of £982 million. the first half of 2019, RELX reported the first slowdown in revenue growth for Elsevier in several years: 1% vs. an expectation of 2% and a typical growth of at least 4% in the previous 5 years. Overall for 2019, Elsevier reported revenue growth of 3.9% from 2018, with the underlying growth at constant currency at 2%. In 2019, Elsevier accounted for 34% of the revenues of RELX (£2.637billion of £7.874billion). In adjusted operating profits, it represented 39% (£982m of £2.491bn). Adjusted operating profits (with constant currency) rose by 2% from 2018 to 2019.In 2019, researchers submitted over two million research papers to Elsevier-based publications. Over 22,000 editors managed the peer review and selection of these papers, resulting in the publication of about 500,000 articles in over 2,500 journals.In 2020 Elsevier was the largest academic publisher, with approximately 16% of the academic publishing market and more than 3000 journals."
Market model:
Products and services Products and services include electronic and print versions of journals, textbooks and reference works, and cover the health, life, physical, and social sciences.
The target markets are academic and government research institutions, corporate research labs, booksellers, librarians, scientific researchers, authors, editors, physicians, nurses, allied health professionals, medical and nursing students and schools, medical researchers, pharmaceutical companies, hospitals, and research establishments. It publishes in 13 languages including English, German, French, Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, Polish, Japanese, Hindi, and Chinese.
Flagship products and services include VirtualE, ScienceDirect, Scopus, Scirus, EMBASE, Engineering Village, Compendex, Cell, Knovel, SciVal, Pure, and Analytical Services, The Consult series (FirstCONSULT, PathCONSULT, NursingCONSULT, MDConsult, StudentCONSULT), Virtual Clinical Excursions, and major reference works such as Gray's Anatomy, Nelson Pediatrics, Dorland's Illustrated Medical Dictionary, Netter's Atlas of Human Anatomy, and online versions of many journals including The Lancet.
Market model:
ScienceDirect is Elsevier's platform for online electronic access to its journals and over 40,000 e-books, reference works, book series, and handbooks. The articles are grouped in four main sections: Physical Sciences and Engineering, Life Sciences, Health Sciences, and Social Sciences and Humanities. For most articles on the website, abstracts are freely available; access to the full text of the article (in PDF, and also HTML for newer publications) often requires a subscription or pay-per-view purchase.In 2019, Elsevier published 49,000 gratis open access articles and 370 full open access journals. Moreover, 1,900 of its journals sold hybrid open access options.
Market model:
Pricing The subscription rates charged by the company for its journals have been criticized; some very large journals (with more than 5,000 articles) charge subscription prices as high as £9,634, far above average, and many British universities pay more than a million pounds to Elsevier annually. The company has been criticized not only by advocates of a switch to the open-access publication model, but also by universities whose library budgets make it difficult for them to afford current journal prices.
Market model:
For example, in 2004, a resolution by Stanford University's senate singled out Elsevier's journals as being "disproportionately expensive compared to their educational and research value", which librarians should consider dropping, and encouraged its faculty "not to contribute articles or editorial or review efforts to publishers and journals that engage in exploitive or exorbitant pricing". Similar guidelines and criticism of Elsevier's pricing policies have been passed by the University of California, Harvard University, and Duke University.In July 2015, the Association of Universities in the Netherlands announced a plan to start boycotting Elsevier, which refused to negotiate on any open access policy for Dutch universities.In October 2018, a complaint against Elsevier was filed with the European Commission, alleging anticompetitive practices stemming from Elsevier's confidential subscription agreements and market dominance. The European Commission decided not to investigate.The elevated pricing of field journals in economics, most of which are published by Elsevier, was one of the motivations that moved the American Economic Association to launch the American Economic Journal in 2009.
Market model:
Mergers and acquisitions RELX Group has been active in mergers and acquisitions. Elsevier has incorporated other businesses that were either complementing or competing in the field of research and publishing and that reinforce its market power, such as Mendeley (after the closure of 2collab), SSRN, bepress/Digital Commons, PlumX, Hivebench, Newsflo, Science-Metrix, and Interfolio.
Conferences Elsevier also conducts conferences, exhibitions, and workshops around the world, with over 50 conferences a year covering life sciences, physical sciences and engineering, social sciences, and health sciences.
Market model:
Shill review offer According to the BBC, in 2009, the firm [Elsevier] offered a £17.25 Amazon voucher to academics who contributed to the textbook Clinical Psychology if they would go on Amazon.com and Barnes & Noble (a large US books retailer) and give it five stars. Elsevier responded by stating "Encouraging interested parties to post book reviews isn't outside the norm in scholarly publishing, nor is it wrong to offer to nominally compensate people for their time. But in all instances the request should be unbiased, with no incentives for a positive review, and that's where this particular e-mail went too far", and that it was a mistake by a marketing employee.
Market model:
Blocking text mining research Elsevier seeks to regulate text and data mining with private licenses, claiming that reading requires extra permission if automated and that the publisher holds copyright on output of automated processes. The conflict on research and copyright policy has often resulted in researchers being blocked from their work. In November 2015, Elsevier blocked a scientist from performing text mining research at scale on Elsevier papers, even though his institution already pays for access to Elsevier journal content. The data was collected using the R package "statcheck".
Market model:
Fossil fuel company consulting and advocacy Elsevier is one of the most prolific publishers of books aimed at expanding the production of fossil fuels. Since at least 2010 the company has worked with the fossil fuel industry to optimise fossil fuel extraction. It commissions authors, journal advisory board members and editors who are employees of the largest oil firms. In addition it markets data services and research portals directly to the fossil fuel industry to help "increase the odds of exploration success".
Criticism of academic practices:
"Who's Afraid of Peer Review" In 2013, one of Elsevier's journals was caught in the sting set up by John Bohannon, published in Science, called "Who's Afraid of Peer Review?" The journal Drug Invention Today accepted an obviously bogus paper made up by Bohannon that should have been rejected by any good peer-review system. Instead, Drug Invention Today was among many open-access journals that accepted the fake paper for publication. As of 2014, this journal had been transferred to a different publisher.
Criticism of academic practices:
Fake journals At a 2009 court case in Australia where Merck & Co. was being sued by a user of Vioxx, the plaintiff alleged that Merck had paid Elsevier to publish the Australasian Journal of Bone and Joint Medicine, which had the appearance of being a peer-reviewed academic journal but in fact contained only articles favourable to Merck drugs. Merck described the journal as a "complimentary publication", denied claims that articles within it were ghost written by Merck, and stated that the articles were all reprinted from peer-reviewed medical journals. In May 2009, Elsevier Health Sciences CEO Hansen released a statement regarding Australia-based sponsored journals, conceding that they were "sponsored article compilation publications, on behalf of pharmaceutical clients, that were made to look like journals and lacked the proper disclosures." The statement acknowledged that it "was an unacceptable practice." The Scientist reported that, according to an Elsevier spokesperson, six sponsored publications "were put out by their Australia office and bore the Excerpta Medica imprint from 2000 to 2005," namely the Australasian Journal of Bone and Joint Medicine (Australas. J. Bone Joint Med.), the Australasian Journal of General Practice (Australas. J. Gen. Pract.), the Australasian Journal of Neurology (Australas. J. Neurol.), the Australasian Journal of Cardiology (Australas. J. Cardiol.), the Australasian Journal of Clinical Pharmacy (Australas. J. Clin. Pharm.), and the Australasian Journal of Cardiovascular Medicine (Australas. J. Cardiovasc. Med.). Excerpta Medica was a "strategic medical communications agency" run by Elsevier, according to the imprint's web page. In October 2010, Excerpta Medica was acquired by Adelphi Worldwide.
Criticism of academic practices:
Chaos, Solitons & Fractals There was speculation that the editor-in-chief of Elsevier journal Chaos, Solitons & Fractals, Mohamed El Naschie, misused his power to publish his own work without appropriate peer review. The journal had published 322 papers with El Naschie as author since 1993. The last issue of December 2008 featured five of his papers. The controversy was covered extensively in blogs. The publisher announced in January 2009 that El Naschie had retired as editor-in-chief. As of November 2011 the co-Editors-in-Chief of the journal were Maurice Courbage and Paolo Grigolini. In June 2011, El Naschie sued the journal Nature for libel, claiming that his reputation had been damaged by their November 2008 article about his retirement, which included statements that Nature had been unable to verify his claimed affiliations with certain international institutions. The suit came to trial in November 2011 and was dismissed in July 2012, with the judge ruling that the article was "substantially true", contained "honest comment", and was "the product of responsible journalism". The judgement noted that El Naschie, who represented himself in court, had failed to provide any documentary evidence that his papers had been peer-reviewed. Judge Victoria Sharp also found "reasonable and serious grounds" for suspecting that El Naschie used a range of false names to defend his editorial practice in communications with Nature, and described this behavior as "curious" and "bizarre".
Criticism of academic practices:
Plagiarism Elsevier's 'Duties of Authors' states that authors should ensure they have written entirely original works, and that proper acknowledgement of other's work must always be given. Elsevier claims plagiarism in all its forms constitutes unethical behaviour. Some Elsevier journals automatically screen submissions for plagiarism, but not all.Albanian politician, Taulant Muka claimed that Elsevier journal Procedia had plagiarized in the abstract of one of its articles. It is unclear whether or not Muka had access to the entirety of the article.
Criticism of academic practices:
Scientific racism Angela Saini has criticized the two Elsevier journals Intelligence and Personality and Individual Differences for having included on their editorial boards such well-known proponents of scientific racism as Richard Lynn and Gerhard Meisenberg; in response to her inquiries, Elsevier defended their presence as editors. The journal Intelligence has been criticized for having "occasionally included papers with pseudoscientific findings about intelligence differences between races." It is the official journal of the International Society for Intelligence Research, which organizes the controversial series of conferences London Conference on Intelligence, described by the New Statesman as a forum for scientific racism.In response to a 2019 open letter, efforts by Retraction Watch and a petition signed by over 1000 people, on 17 June 2020 Elsevier announced it was retracting an article that J. Philippe Rushton and Donald Templer published in 2012 in the Elsevier journal Personality and Individual Differences. The article had claimed that there was scientific evidence that skin color was related to aggression and sexuality in humans.One of their Journals, Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, was involved in the manipulation of the peer review report.
Criticism of academic practices:
Manipulation of bibliometrics According to the signatories of the San Francisco Declaration on Research Assessment (see also Goodhart's law), commercial academic publishers benefit from manipulation of bibliometrics and scientometrics, such as the journal impact factor. The impact factor, which is often used as a proxy of prestige, can influence revenues, subscriptions, and academics' willingness to contribute unpaid work. However, there's evidence suggesting that reliability of published research works in several fields may decrease with increasing journal rank.Nine Elsevier journals, which exhibited unusual levels of self-citation, had their journal impact factor of 2019 suspended from Journal Citation Reports in 2020, a sanction which hit 34 journals in total.In 2023, the International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, which is published by Elsevier, was criticized for desk-rejecting a submitted article for the main reason that it did not cite enough articles from the same journal.
Control of journals:
Resignation of editorial boards The editorial boards of a number of journals have resigned because of disputes with Elsevier over pricing: In 1999, the entire editorial board of the Journal of Logic Programming resigned after 16 months of unsuccessful negotiations with Elsevier about the price of library subscriptions. The personnel created a new journal, Theory and Practice of Logic Programming, with Cambridge University Press at a much lower price, while Elsevier continued publication with a new editorial board and a slightly different name (the Journal of Logic and Algebraic Programming).
Control of journals:
In 2002, dissatisfaction at Elsevier's pricing policies caused the European Economic Association to terminate an agreement with Elsevier designating Elsevier's European Economic Review as the official journal of the association. The EEA launched a new journal, the Journal of the European Economic Association.
In 2003, the entire editorial board of the Journal of Algorithms resigned to start ACM Transactions on Algorithms with a different, lower-priced, not-for-profit publisher, at the suggestion of Journal of Algorithms founder Donald Knuth. The Journal of Algorithms continued under Elsevier with a new editorial board until October 2009, when it was discontinued.
In 2005, the editors of the International Journal of Solids and Structures resigned to start the Journal of Mechanics of Materials and Structures. However, a new editorial board was quickly established and the journal continues in apparently unaltered form.
In 2006, the entire editorial board of the distinguished mathematical journal Topology resigned because of stalled negotiations with Elsevier to lower the subscription price. This board then launched the new Journal of Topology at a far lower price, under the auspices of the London Mathematical Society. Topology then remained in circulation under a new editorial board until 2009.
Control of journals:
In 2023, the editorial board of the open access journal NeuroImage resigned and started a new journal, because of Elsevier's unwillingness to reduce article-processing charges. The editors called Elsevier's $3,450 per article processing charge "unethical and unsustainable".Editorial boards have also resigned over open access policies or other issues: In 2015, Stephen Leeder was removed from his role as editor of the Medical Journal of Australia when its publisher decided to outsource the journal's production to Elsevier. As a consequence, all but one of the journal's editorial advisory committee members co-signed a letter of resignation.
Control of journals:
In 2015, the entire editorial staff of the general linguistics journal Lingua resigned in protest of Elsevier's unwillingness to agree to their terms of Fair Open Access. Editor-in-chief Johan Rooryck also announced that the Lingua staff would establish a new journal, Glossa.
In 2019, the entire editorial board of Elsevier's Journal of Informetrics resigned over the open-access policies of its publisher and founded open-access journal called Quantitative Science Studies.
In 2020, Elsevier effectively severed the tie between the Journal of Asian Economics and the academic society that founded it, the American Committee on Asian Economic Studies (ACAES), by offering the ACAES-appointed editor, Calla Wiemer, a terminal contract for 2020. As a result, a majority of the editorial board eventually resigned.
Control of journals:
"The Cost of Knowledge" boycott In 2003, various university librarians began coordinating with each other to complain about Elsevier's "big deal" journal bundling packages, in which the company offered a group of journal subscriptions to libraries at a certain rate, but in which librarians claimed no economical option was available to subscribe to only the popular journals at a rate comparable to the bundled rate. Librarians continued to discuss the implications of the pricing schemes, many feeling pressured into buying the Elsevier packages without other options.On 21 January 2012, mathematician Timothy Gowers publicly announced he would boycott Elsevier, noting that others in the field have been doing so privately. The reasons for the boycott are high subscription prices for individual journals, bundling subscriptions to journals of different value and importance, and Elsevier's support for SOPA, PIPA, and the Research Works Act, which would have prohibited open-access mandates for U.S. federally-funded research and severely restricted the sharing of scientific data.Following this, a petition advocating noncooperation with Elsevier (that is, not submitting papers to Elsevier journals, not refereeing articles in Elsevier journals, and not participating in journal editorial boards), appeared on the site "The Cost of Knowledge". By February 2012, this petition had been signed by over 5,000 academics, growing to over 17,000 by November 2018. The firm disputed the claims, claiming that their prices are below the industry average, and stating that bundling is only one of several different options available to buy access to Elsevier journals. The company also claimed that its profit margins are "simply a consequence of the firm's efficient operation". The academics replied that their work was funded by public money, thus should be freely available.
Control of journals:
On 27 February 2012, Elsevier issued a statement on its website that declared that it has withdrawn support from the Research Works Act. Although the Cost of Knowledge movement was not mentioned, the statement indicated the hope that the move would "help create a less heated and more productive climate" for ongoing discussions with research funders. Hours after Elsevier's statement, the sponsors of the bill, US House Representatives Darrell Issa and Carolyn Maloney, issued a joint statement saying that they would not push the bill in Congress.
Control of journals:
Plan S The Plan S open-access initiative, which began in Europe and has since spread to some US research funding agencies, would require researchers receiving some grants to publish in open-access journals by 2020. A spokesman for Elsevier said "If you think that information should be free of charge, go to Wikipedia". In September 2018, UBS advised to sell Elsevier (RELX) stocks, noting that Plan S could affect 5-10% of scientific funding and may force Elsevier to reduce pricing.
Relationship with academic institutions:
Colombia For 14 years, Colciencias, now Minciencias, led negotiations with Elsevier, as a practical and effective response to the informative growth of presumptive problems, allowing a greater number of Higher Education Institutions to join this project, thanks to it saves the scale that is obtained. Colombia has converted in the fourth country with the largest number of documents indexed in Scopus in Latin America (except for Brazil), growing by 57% in the last five years, a rate visibly greater in neighboring countries.The Colombian National Consortium "Consorcio Colombia" managed by Consortia S.A.S. agreed in 2016 to have better prices for the Consortium members. The current agreement is that (Colombia National Ministry of Science and Technology) Minciencias and (Colombian National ministry of Education) Mineducación reintegrate money to institutions on the total payment of products, with the condition that money must be reinvested in academic and research resources.
Relationship with academic institutions:
Finland In 2015, Finnish research organizations paid a total of 27 million euros in subscription fees. Over one-third of the total costs went to Elsevier. The information was revealed after successful court appeal following a denied request on the subscription fees, due to confidentiality clauses in contracts with the publishers. Establishing of this fact lead to creation of tiedonhinta.fi petition demanding more reasonable pricing and open access to content signed by more than 2800 members of the research community. While deals with other publishers have been made, this was not the case for Elsevier, leading to the nodealnoreview.org boycott of the publisher signed more than 600 times.In January 2018, it was confirmed that a deal had been reached between those concerned.
Relationship with academic institutions:
France The French Couperin consortium agreed in 2019 to a 4-year contract with Elsevier, despite criticism from the scientific community.The French École Normale Supérieure has stopped having Elsevier publish the journal Annales Scientifiques de l'École Normale Supérieure (as of 2008).Effective on 1 January 2020, the French Academy of Sciences stopped publishing its 7 journals Comptes rendus de l'Académie des Sciences with Elsevier and switched to Centre Mersenne.
Relationship with academic institutions:
Germany Almost no academic institution in Germany is subscribed to Elsevier.Germany's DEAL project (Projekt DEAL), which includes over 60 major research institutions, has announced that all of its members are cancelling their contracts with Elsevier, effective 1 January 2017. The boycott is in response to Elsevier's refusal to adopt "transparent business models" to "make publications more openly accessible". Horst Hippler, spokesperson for the DEAL consortium states that "taxpayers have a right to read what they are paying for" and that "publishers must understand that the route to open-access publishing at an affordable price is irreversible". In July 2017, another 13 institutions announced that they would also be cancelling their subscriptions to Elsevier journals. In August 2017, at least 185 German institutions had cancelled their contracts with Elsevier. In 2018, whilst negotiations were ongoing, around 200 German universities that cancelled their subscriptions to Elsevier journals were granted complimentary open access to them until this ended in July of the year.On 19 December 2018, the Max Planck Society (MPS) announced that the existing subscription agreement with Elsevier would not be renewed after the expiration date of 31 December 2018. MPS counts 14,000 scientists in 84 research institutes, publishing 12,000 articles each year.
Relationship with academic institutions:
Hungary In March 2018, the Hungarian Electronic Information Service National Programme entered negotiations on its 2019 Elsevier subscriptions, asking for a read-and-publish deal. Negotiations were ended by the Hungarian consortium in December 2018, and the subscription was not renewed.
Relationship with academic institutions:
Iran In 2013, Elsevier changed its policies in response to sanctions announced by the US Office of Foreign Assets Control that year. This included a request that all Elsevier journals avoid publishing papers by Iranian nationals who are employed by the Iranian government. Elsevier executive Mark Seeley expressed regret on behalf of the company, but did not announce an intention to challenge this interpretation of the law.
Relationship with academic institutions:
Italy CRUI (an association of Italian universities) sealed a 5-year-long deal for 2018–2022, despite protests from the scientific community, protests focused on aspects such as the lack of prevention of cost increases by means of the double dipping.
Relationship with academic institutions:
Netherlands In 2015, a consortium of all of Netherlands' 14 universities threatened to boycott Elsevier if it could not agree that articles by Dutch authors would be made open access and settled with the compromise of 30% of its Dutch papers becoming open access by 2018. Gerard Meijer, president of Radboud University in Nijmegen and lead negotiator on the Dutch side noted, "it's not the 100% that I hoped for".
Relationship with academic institutions:
Norway In March 2019, the Norwegian government on behalf of 44 institutions — universities, university colleges, research institutes, and hospitals — decided to break negotiations on renewal of their subscription deal with Elsevier, because of disagreement regarding open-access policy and Elsevier's unwillingness to reduce the cost of reading access.
South Korea In 2017, over 70 university libraries confirmed a "contract boycott" movement involving three publishers including Elsevier. As of January 2018, whilst negotiations remain underway, a decision will be made as to whether or not continue the participating libraries will continue the boycott. It was subsequently confirmed that an agreement had been reached.
Relationship with academic institutions:
Sweden In May 2018, the Bibsam Consortium, which negotiates license agreements on behalf of all Swedish universities and research institutes, decided not to renew their contract with Elsevier, alleging that the publisher does not meet the demands of transition towards a more open-access model, and referring to the rapidly increasing costs for publishing. Swedish universities will still have access to articles published before 30 June 2018. Astrid Söderbergh Widding, chairman of the Bibsam Consortium, said, "the current system for scholarly communication must change and our only option is to cancel deals when they don't meet our demands for a sustainable transition to open access". Sweden has a goal of open access by 2026. In November 2019 the negotiations concluded, with Sweden paying for reading access to Elsevier journals and open access publishing for all its researchers' articles.
Relationship with academic institutions:
Taiwan In Taiwan, more than 75% of universities, including the country's top 11 institutions, have joined a collective boycott against Elsevier. On 7 December 2016, the Taiwanese consortium, CONCERT, which represents more than 140 institutions, announced it would not renew its contract with Elsevier.
Relationship with academic institutions:
United States In March 2018, Florida State University's faculty elected to cancel its $2 million subscription to a bundle of several journals. Starting in 2019, it will instead buy access to titles à la carte.In February 2019, the University of California said it would terminate subscriptions "in [a] push for open access to publicly funded research." After months of negotiations over open access to research by UC researchers and prices for subscriptions to Elsevier journals, a press release by the UC Office of the President issued Thursday, 28 February 2019 stated "Under Elsevier's proposed terms, the publisher would have charged UC authors large publishing fees on top of the university's multimillion dollar subscription, resulting in much greater cost to the university and much higher profits for Elsevier." On 10 July 2019, Elsevier began restricting access to all new paywalled articles and approximately 5% of paywalled articles published before 2019.In April 2020, the University of North Carolina elected not to renew its bundled Elsevier package, citing a failure "to provide an affordable path". Rather than extend the license, which was stated to cost $2.6 million annually, the university decided to continue subscribing to a smaller set of individual journals. The State University of New York Libraries Consortium also announced similar outcome, with the help of estimates from Unpaywall Journals. Similarly, MIT announced in June 2020 that it would no longer pay for access to new Elsevier articles.In 2022 Elsevier and the University of Michigan have established an agreement to support authors who wish to publish open access.
Relationship with academic institutions:
Ukraine In June 2020 the Ukrainian government cancelled subscriptions for all universities in the country after failed negotiations. The Ministry of Education stated that Elsevier indexes journals in its register which call themselves Russian but are from occupied territories.
Dissemination of research:
Lobbying efforts against open access Elsevier have been known to be involved in lobbying against open access. These have included the likes of: The Federal Research Public Access Act (FRPPA) The Research Works Act PRISM. In the case of PRISM, the Association of American Publishers hired Eric Dezenhall, the so-called "Pit Bull Of Public Relations".
Horizon 2020 Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP) The European Union's Open Science Monitor was criticised after Elsevier were confirmed as a subcontractor.
Dissemination of research:
UK Research and Innovation Selling open-access articles In 2014, 2015, 2016, and 2017, Elsevier was found to be selling some articles that should have been open access, but had been put behind a paywall. A related case occurred in 2015, when Elsevier charged for downloading an open-access article from a journal published by John Wiley & Sons. However, whether Elsevier was in violation of the license under which the article was made available on their website was not clear.
Dissemination of research:
Action against academics posting their own articles online In 2013, Digimarc, a company representing Elsevier, told the University of Calgary to remove articles published by faculty authors on university web pages; although such self-archiving of academic articles may be legal under the fair dealing provisions in Canadian copyright law, the university complied. Harvard University and the University of California, Irvine also received takedown notices for self-archived academic articles, a first for Harvard, according to Peter Suber.Months after its acquisition of Academia.edu rival Mendeley, Elsevier sent thousands of takedown notices to Academia.edu, a practice that has since ceased following widespread complaint by academics, according to Academia.edu founder and chief executive Richard Price.After Elsevier acquired the repository SSRN in May 2016, academics started complaining that some of their work has been removed without notice. The action was explained as a technical error.
Dissemination of research:
Sci-Hub and LibGen lawsuit In 2015, Elsevier filed a lawsuit against the sites Sci-Hub and LibGen, which make copyright-protected articles available for free. Elsevier also claimed illegal access to institutional accounts.
Dissemination of research:
Initial rejection of the Initiative for Open Citations Among the major academic publishers, Elsevier alone declined to join the Initiative for Open Citations. In the context of the resignation of the Journal of Informetrics' editorial board, the firm stated: "Elsevier invests significantly in citation extraction technology. While these are made available to those who wish to license this data, Elsevier cannot make such a large corpus of data, to which it has added significant value, available for free."Elsevier finally joined the initiative in January 2021 after the data was already available with an Open Data Commons license in Microsoft Academic.
Dissemination of research:
ResearchGate take down A chamber of the Munich Regional Court has ruled that the research networking site ResearchGate has to take down articles uploaded without consent from their original publishers and ResearchGate must take down Elsevier articles. A case was brought forward in 2017 by the Coalition for Responsible Sharing, a group of publishers that includes Elsevier and the American Chemical Society.
Imprints:
Elsevier uses its imprints (that is, brand names used in publishing) to market to different consumer segments. Many of the imprints have previously been the names of publishing companies that were purchased by Reed Elsevier. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Bean bag round**
Bean bag round:
A bean bag round, also known by its trademarked name flexible baton round, is a type of baton round, fired from a shotgun, and used for less lethal apprehension of suspects.
Description:
The bean bag round consists of a small fabric "pillow" filled with #9 lead shot weighing about 40 grams (1.4 oz). It is fired from a normal 12-gauge shotgun. When fired, the bag is expelled at around 70 to 90 metres per second (230 to 300 ft/s); it spreads out in flight and distributes its impact over about 6 square centimetres (1 sq in) of the target. It is designed to deliver a blow that will cause minimum long-term trauma and no penetration but will result in a muscle spasm or other reaction to briefly render a violent suspect immobile. It still can cause serious injury and death. The shotgun round is inaccurate over about 6 metres (20 ft) and has a maximum range of around 20 metres (70 ft). Changes to the bean bag round since its inception in the early 1970s have included a velocity reduction from 120 to 90 meters per second (400 to 300 ft/s) as well as a shift from a square shape to a more rounded sock-shaped projectile.Shotguns dedicated to being used for bean bag rounds are often visibly modified with either yellow or green markings, or bright orange stocks and stops, to reduce the possibility that a user might inadvertently load lethal munitions into the weapon.
Use:
Bean bag rounds are used when a person is a danger to themselves or others but is not a direct threat in such a manner that deadly force would be appropriate – typically a suicidal individual with a bladed weapon. The round is intended to disable the person without killing them.
Dangers:
A bean bag round can severely injure or kill in a wide variety of ways. They have caused around one death a year since their introduction in the US. A round can hit the chest, break the ribs and send the broken ribs into the heart. A shot to the head can break the nose, crush the larynx or break the neck or skull of the subject. This is why many officers are taught to aim for the extremities when using a bean bag round. A strike in the abdominal area can cause internal bleeding or strike the celiac plexus which can disrupt breathing or heartbeat, but such a hit is generally safer than most other areas as well as presenting a larger target than an extremity. Fatalities are occasionally the result of mistaking other shotgun rounds for bean bags.
Dangers:
In 2006, during anti-corruption protests in Budapest, Hungary, protestors were shot by beanbag rounds to the head. At least 3 of them were permanently blinded. One of the victims committed suicide in 2013 due to psychological complications arising from his blindness. In addition, many people suffered minor injuries (nose and finger fractures, hemorrhagic bruises). Furthermore, a few victims suffered from long-term psychological trauma due to the shock.
Dangers:
In 2013, in Park Forest, Illinois, an autopsy showed that a 95-year-old man had died from hemoperitoneum as a result of being shot by police with a bean bag gun.
11 August 2019, during the Hong Kong anti-extradition bill protests, a female First Aider was suspected to have been hit with a bean bag round, resulting in rupture of one of her eyeballs.
On 23 November 2019, a bean bag round fired by the Colombian riot police hit student Dilan Cruz in the head, killing him.
31 May 2020, 20-year-old Justin Howell was shot in the head by the Austin PD, suffering a skull fracture leading to seizure and brain trauma. The next day, 1 June 2020, 16-year-old Brad Levi Ayala also suffered a skull fracture after being shot in the head with a beanbag round by the Austin PD.
22 August 2022, Chris Amyotte, 42, an Ojibwa man from Manitoba, died after being hit by a beanbag round fired at him by an officer of the Vancouver Police Department in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Paczyński–Wiita potential**
Paczyński–Wiita potential:
The Paczyński–Wiita potential is an approximation of the gravitational potential around a non-rotating black hole. It was introduced by Bohdan Paczyński and Paul Wiita in 1980. The article is one of the 40 most-cited from the first 40 years of the journal Astronomy & Astrophysics. The mathematical form of the potential is ΦPW(r)=−GMr−rS where r is the radial distance from the black hole, G is the gravitational constant, M is the mass of the black hole, and rS=2GM/c2 is its Schwarzschild radius. ( c is the speed of light.) The potential exactly reproduces the locations of the innermost stable circular orbit and the marginally bound orbit. It also exactly reproduces the form of the angular momentum distribution and accurately approximates the Keplerian angular velocity and epicyclic frequency. Because the Paczyński–Wiita potential reproduces these general relativistic effects and is easy to calculate, it is widely used in analytical studies and numerical simulations of black hole accretion. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Schimmelbusch mask**
Schimmelbusch mask:
The Schimmelbusch mask is an open breathing system for delivering an anesthetic. The device was invented by Curt Schimmelbusch in 1889, and was used until the 1950s (though it is still applied in some developing countries). The device consists of a wire frame which is covered with several beds of gauze and applied to the patient's face over the mouth and nose. Then high-volatility anesthetic (usually diethyl ether or halothane, and historically chloroform) is dripped on it, allowing the patient to inhale a mix of the evaporated anesthetic and air. The device is designed to prevent the anesthetic from coming in contact with the patient's skin, where it can cause irritation. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Hysteroid dysphoria**
Hysteroid dysphoria:
Hysteroid dysphoria is a name given to repeated episodes of depressed mood in response to feeling rejected.Hysteroid dysphoria has been described in outpatient populations and is thought to be a subtype of atypical depression involving rejection sensitivity and therapeutic response to monoamine oxidase inhibitors.While some research shows that hysteroid dysphoria responds well to MAOIs, other research has suggested that the difference actually comes from the condition being less sensitive to tricyclic antidepressants.Other studies have examined the symptoms associated with hysteroid dysphoria and found that while the symptoms are observable, they are not unique or distinct enough to be considered their own condition. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**G protein-coupled receptor kinase 3**
G protein-coupled receptor kinase 3:
G-protein-coupled receptor kinase 3 (GRK3) is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the ADRBK2 gene. GRK3 was initially called Beta-adrenergic receptor kinase 2 (βARK-2), and is a member of the G protein-coupled receptor kinase subfamily of the Ser/Thr protein kinases that is most highly similar to GRK2.
Function:
G protein-coupled receptor kinases phosphorylate activated G protein-coupled receptors, which promotes the binding of an arrestin protein to the receptor. Arrestin binding to phosphorylated, active receptor prevents receptor stimulation of heterotrimeric G protein transducer proteins, blocking their cellular signaling and resulting in receptor desensitization. Arrestin binding also directs receptors to specific cellular internalization pathways, removing the receptors from the cell surface and also preventing additional activation. Arrestin binding to phosphorylated, active receptor also enables receptor signaling through arrestin partner proteins. As a result, the G protein-coupled receptors' complicated signaling switch is the GRK/arrestin system.GRK3 and the closely related GRK2 phosphorylate receptors at sites that encourage arrestin-mediated receptor desensitization, internalization and trafficking rather than arrestin-mediated signaling (in contrast to GRK5 and GRK6, which have the opposite effect). This difference is one basis for pharmacological biased agonism (also called functional selectivity), where a drug binding to a receptor may bias that receptor’s signaling toward a particular subset of the actions stimulated by that receptor.GRK3 is expressed broadly in tissues, but generally at lower levels than the related GRK2. GRK3 has particularly high expression in olfactory neurons, and mice lacking the ADRBK2 gene exhibit defects in olfaction. Gene linkage techniques were used to identify a polymorphism in the promoter of the human ADRBK2 gene as a possible cause of up to 10% of cases of bipolar disorder. However, the significance of GRK3 in bipolar disorder has been controversial due to conflicting reports. GRK3 has also been implicated in regulation of dopamine receptors in Parkinson disease in animal models. Reduced expression of GRK3 has been associated with the immunodeficient WHIM syndrome in humans, and appears causative in a mouse model of the disease. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Peter Hedström**
Peter Hedström:
Peter Hedström is one of the founders of the field of analytical sociology. He has made contributions to the analysis of social contagion processes and complex social networks, as well as to the philosophical and meta-theoretical foundations of analytical sociology. He is one of the key contributors to the literature on social mechanisms.
Peter Hedström:
Hedström received his Ph.D. at Harvard University in 1987. He then took a post as assistant professor at the University of Chicago, and, in 1989, he received a professor chair at the department of sociology, Stockholm University. In 2003, he assumed a position as Official Fellow and professor at Nuffield College, University of Oxford, which he left in 2011 to become the director of the Institute for Futures Studies in Stockholm. During the 2008/2009 he was dean of the School of Social Sciences at the Singapore Management University. in 2014, Hedström started the Institute for Analytical Sociology at Linköping University. Hedström is past president of the Swedish Sociological Association and has served as editor of Acta Sociologica and as associate editor of the American Journal of Sociology, Annual Review of Sociology, and Rationality and Society. He is the president of the International Network of Analytical Sociology, past president of the European Academy of Sociology, and a Fellow of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, the Royal Swedish Academy of Letters, History and Antiquities, the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters and the Academia Europaea.
Key publications:
P. Hedström Dissecting the Social: On the Principles of Analytical Sociology. Cambridge University Press, 2005.
P. Hedström and Peter Bearman (Eds.) The Oxford Handbook of Analytical Sociology. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009.
P Hedström Causal mechanisms in the social sciences (with Petri Ylikoski). Annual Review of Sociology 36: 49–67.
P. Hedström and Richard Swedberg (eds.) Social Mechanisms: An Analytical Approach to Social Theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Reed switch**
Reed switch:
The reed switch is an electromechanical switch operated by an applied magnetic field. It was invented in 1922 by professor Valentin Kovalenkov at the Petrograd Electrotechnical University, and later evolved at Bell Telephone Laboratories in 1936 by Walter B. Ellwood into the reed relay. In its simplest and most common form, it consists of a pair of ferromagnetic flexible metal contacts in a hermetically sealed glass envelope. The contacts are usually normally open, closing when a magnetic field is present, or they may be normally closed and open when a magnetic field is applied. The switch may be actuated by an electromagnetic coil, making a reed relay, or by bringing a permanent magnet near it. When the magnetic field is removed, the contacts in the reed switch return to their original position. The "reed" is the metal part inside the reed switch envelope that is relatively thin and wide to make it flexible. It somewhat resembles part of some reed plants. The term "reed" may also include the external wire lead as well as the internal part.A common example of a reed switch application is to detect the opening of a door or windows, for a security alarm.
Description:
The most common type of reed switch contains a pair of magnetizable, flexible, metal reeds whose end portions are separated by a small gap when the switch is open. The reeds are hermetically sealed within a tubular glass envelope. Another type of reed switch contains one flexible reed that moves between a fixed normally-open contact and a fixed normally-closed contact. The normally-closed contact is non-ferromagnetic and is closed by the flexible reed's spring force. Although reed switches with multiple poles are possible, more often an assembly of single-pole reed switches is used for multi-pole applications.
Description:
A magnetic field from an electromagnet or a permanent magnet will cause the reeds to attract each other, thus completing an electrical circuit. The spring force of the reeds causes them to separate, and open the circuit, when the magnetic field ceases. Another configuration contains a non-ferromagnetic normally-closed contact that opens when the ferromagnetic normally-open contact closes. A thin layer of non-ferromagnetic material is applied to the reed switch contact area to serve as an electrical contact switching (wear) surface and, for normally-open contacts, as a magnetic spacer whose thickness is important in controlling the magnetic field level at which the contact opens (the drop-out). Reed switch contacts are typically rhodium, ruthenium, iridium, or tungsten. There are also versions of reed switches with mercury-wetted contacts. Such switches must be mounted in a particular orientation, lest drops of mercury bridge the contacts even when not activated.
Description:
Since the contacts of the reed switch are sealed away from the atmosphere, they are protected against atmospheric corrosion. The hermetic sealing of a reed switch make them suitable for use in explosive atmospheres where tiny sparks from conventional switches would constitute a hazard.
Description:
One important quality of the switch is its sensitivity, the amount of magnetic field necessary to actuate it. Sensitivity is measured in units of ampere-turns (AT), corresponding to the current in a test coil multiplied by the number of turns in the test coil. Typical pull-in sensitivities for commercial devices are in the 10 to 60 AT range. The lower the AT, the more sensitive the reed switch. Smaller reed switches, which have smaller parts, are generally more sensitive to magnetic fields.
Description:
In production, a metal reed is inserted in each end of a glass tube and the ends of the tube are heated so that they seal around a shank portion on the reeds. Green-colored infrared-absorbing glass is frequently used, so an infrared heat source can concentrate the heat in the small sealing zone of the glass tube. The thermal coefficient of expansion of the glass material and metal parts must be similar to prevent breaking the glass-to-metal seal. The glass used must have a high electrical resistance and must not contain volatile components, such as lead oxide and fluorides, which can contaminate the contacts during the sealing operation. The leads of the switch must be handled carefully to prevent breaking the glass envelope. The glass envelope can be damaged if the reed switch is subjected to mechanical stress.
Description:
Most reed switches are filled with nitrogen at atmospheric pressure. After the final seal is made, the switch cools and the internal pressure is less than one atmosphere. Reed switches sealed with a pressurized nitrogen atmosphere have a higher breakdown voltage and are useful for switching 220–240 VAC power. Reed switches with a vacuum inside the glass envelope can switch thousands of volts.
Description:
Reed switches can be used to directly switch a variety of loads ranging from nanovolts to kilovolts, femtoamperes to amperes, and DC to radio frequency. Other magnetically-activated switching devices have a limited range of output voltages and currents, and generally do not directly control a final device such as a lamp, solenoid, or motor.
Description:
Reed switches have small leakage currents compared to solid state devices; this may be useful, for example, in medical devices requiring protection of a patient from tiny leakage currents. The reed is hermetically sealed and can therefore operate in almost any environment, such as where flammable gas is present or where corrosion would affect open switch contacts. A reed switch has very low resistance when closed, typically as low as 50 milliohms, whereas the Hall Effect devices can be in the hundreds of ohms. A reed switch requires only two wires whereas most solid-state devices require three wires. A reed switch can be said to require zero power to operate it.
Uses:
Reed relays One or more reed switches inside an electromagnetic coil constitute a reed relay. Reed relays are used when operating currents are relatively low, and offer high operating speed, good performance with very small currents that are not reliably switched by conventional contacts, high reliability and long life. Millions of reed relays were used in telephone exchanges in the 1970s and 1980s. In particular, they were used for switching in the British TXE family of telephone exchanges. The inert atmosphere around the reed contacts ensures that oxidation will not affect the contact resistance. Mercury-wetted reed relays are sometimes used, especially in high-speed counting circuits.
Uses:
Magnetic sensors Reed switches actuated by magnets are commonly used in mechanical systems as proximity sensors. Examples are door and window sensors in burglar alarm systems and tamperproofing methods. Reed switches have been used in laptops to put the laptop into sleep/hibernation mode when the lid is closed. Speed sensors on bicycle wheels frequently use a reed switch to actuate briefly each time a magnet on the wheel passes the sensor. Reed switches were formerly used in the keyboards for computer terminals, where each key had a magnet and a reed switch actuated by depressing the key. Electric and electronic pedal keyboards used by pipe organ and Hammond organ players often use reed switches, where the glass enclosure of the contacts protects them from dirt, dust, and other particles. They may also be used to control diving equipment, such as flashlights or cameras, which must be sealed to keep water out under high pressure.
Uses:
At one time brushless DC electric motors used reed switches to sense the rotor's position relative to the field poles. This allowed switching transistors to act as a commutator, but without the contact problems, wear and electrical noise of a traditional DC commutator. The motor design could also be "inverted", placing permanent magnets onto the rotor and switching the field through the external, fixed coils. This avoided the need for any rubbing contact to provide power to the rotor. Such motors were used in low-power long-service-life items, such as computer cooling fans and disk drives. As cheap Hall effect sensors became available, they replaced the reed switches and gave even longer service lifetimes.
Uses:
Reed switches are used in at least one brand of endoscopic capsule to switch on the power source only when the unit is removed from the sterile packaging.
Reed switches may be selected for a particular sensor application when a solid-state device does not meet requirements such as power consumption or electrical interface compatibility.
Life:
The mechanical motion of the reeds is below the fatigue limit of the materials, so the reeds do not break due to fatigue. Wear and life are almost entirely dependent on the electrical load's effect on the contacts along with the properties of the specific reed switch used. Contact surface wear occurs only when the switch contacts open or close. Because of this, manufacturers rate life in number of operations rather than hours or years. In general, higher voltages and higher currents cause faster wear and shorter life. Depending on the electrical load, life can be in the range of thousands of operations or billions of operations. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Unistd.h**
Unistd.h:
In the C and C++ programming languages, unistd.h is the name of the header file that provides access to the POSIX operating system API. It is defined by the POSIX.1 standard, the base of the Single Unix Specification, and should therefore be available in any POSIX-compliant operating system and compiler. For instance, this includes Unix and Unix-like operating systems, such as GNU variants, distributions of Linux and BSD, and macOS, and compilers such as GCC and LLVM.
Unistd.h:
On Unix-like systems, the interface defined by unistd.h is typically made up largely of system call wrapper functions such as fork, pipe and I/O primitives (read, write, close, etc.).
Unistd.h:
Unix compatibility layers such as Cygwin and MinGW also provide their own versions of unistd.h. In fact, those systems provide it along with the translation libraries that implement its functions in terms of win32 functions. E.g. In Cygwin, a header file can be found in /usr/include that sub-includes a file of the same name in /usr/include/sys. Not everything is defined in there but some definitions are done by references to the GNU C standard library headers (like stddef.h) which provide the type size_t and many more. Thus, unistd.h is only a generically defined adaptive layer that might be based upon already existing system and compiler specific definitions. This has the general advantage of not having a possibly concurrent set of header file defined, but one that is built upon the same root which, for this reason, will raise much fewer concerns in combined usage cases. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Bolast Formation**
Bolast Formation:
The Bolast Formation is a geologic formation in France. It preserves fossils dating back to the Devonian period. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Hydrocodone/ibuprofen**
Hydrocodone/ibuprofen:
Hydrocodone/ibuprofen (INNs), sold under the brand name Vicoprofen, is a fixed-dose combination analgesic medication used in short-term therapy to relieve severe pain. Vicoprofen combines the analgesic and antitussive properties of hydrocodone with the analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and antipyretic properties of ibuprofen. In contrast to hydrocodone/acetaminophen combination analgesics such as Vicodin, this hydrocodone/ibuprofen avoids some of the liver toxicity which may occur from acetaminophen, but still presents significant dangers in hydrocodone overdose, namely respiratory depression. Vicoprofen is supplied in a fixed dose combination tablet which contains hydrocodone bitartrate, USP 7.5 mg with ibuprofen, USP 200 mg. Additional strengths of generic Vicoprofen are now available, in combinations of 5 mg/200 mg and 10 mg/200 mg respectively.
Medical uses:
Hydrocodone/ibuprofen has a labeled indication for "short-term (generally <10 days) management of acute pain severe enough to require an opioid analgesic and for which alternative treatments are inadequate".
Medical uses:
Pregnancy Opioids such as hydrocodone cross the placenta, and can therefore affect the fetus. Studies have shown a possible association between opioids and adverse outcomes such as birth defects, poor fetal growth, stillbirth, and preterm delivery. Prolonged use of opioids by a pregnant mother can also lead to neonatal withdrawal syndrome. NSAIDs such as ibuprofen should generally be avoided in pregnancy, as there are conflicting reports of birth defects after in utero exposure. However, it is accepted that NSAIDs prevent closure of the fetal ductus arteriosus, which happens during the later stages of pregnancy. Because of this, ibuprofen should be avoided after 30 weeks gestation.
Medical uses:
Breastfeeding Hydrocodone and ibuprofen are excreted in breast milk, so appropriate caution should be taken when prescribing to breastfeeding mothers.
Special populations There is no evidence to support altered pharmacokinetic properties due to differences in gender or age. However, this drug combination has not been tested in children.
Adverse effects:
The side effects for hydrocodone/ibuprofen are a combination of the side effects of the component drugs. Side effects experienced in more than 10% of the population taking the drug include: headache, drowsiness, dizziness, constipation, nausea, and dyspepsia.
Pharmacology:
Pharmacokinetics The two active components of the drug, ibuprofen and hydrocodone, do not affect each other's absorption characteristics or other pharmacokinetic parameters. After an oral dose, the peak level of hydrocodone in the blood is reached 1.7 hours after administration. The blood levels of ibuprofen peak 1.8 hours after oral administration.
History:
Discovery and development The patent for Vicoprofen was filed in December 1984, and U.S. patent number 4,587,252 was granted in May 1986. Although ibuprofen and hydrocodone were already available on the market at this time, the fact that they had never been supplied together in a single formulation required approval from the FDA as if it were a new drug. Knoll filed an investigational new drug application on 30 December 1986. A new drug application was later filed by Knoll on 25 April 1996, and received final approval from the FDA on 23 September 1997. Vicoprofen tablets were initially formulated and packaged by Knoll, with ibuprofen supplied by Albemarle Corporation and hydrocodone supplied by Mallinckrodt Pharmaceuticals.The validity of Knoll's patent on Vicoprofen has been challenged in federal court. In September 2002, the U.S. District Court for the Norther District of Illinois granted a motion of invalidity filed by Teva Pharmaceuticals against Knoll's patent on Vicoprofen, ruling the patent was invalid as obvious. This ruling paved the way for Teva's abbreviated new drug application to be approved by the FDA which would allow them to manufacture and market their own generic. Knoll appealed the decision. In April 2003, Teva announced that its abbreviated new drug application had been approved by the FDA, and its generic would begin shipping immediately. In May 2004, the United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit vacated the previous judgment by the U.S. District Court for the Northern District of Illinois, and the case was remanded back for further court proceedings. Teva continued to sell its generic during this time. The patent for Vicoprofen expired on 18 December 2004, officially opening the drug to generic manufacture. In July 2016, the FDA approved another generic equivalent, manufactured by Aurobindo Pharma Limited.
History:
Ownership and promotion Knoll pharmaceuticals, originally founded in Germany in 1886, became a subsidiary of BASF (a German chemical company) in 1975. It was under their control when Vicoprofen was originally developed and approved. In March 2000, Knoll Pharmaceuticals and Abbott Laboratories, an American health care company, announced a co-promotion agreement for Vicoprofen, in which Abbott would promote Vicoprofen to its network of buyers, including physicians, hospitals, and surgical centers. In June 2002, Abbott Laboratories, paid $6.9 billion to acquire the entire Knoll pharmaceutical unit from BASF, including Vicoprofen.
History:
DEA classification Vicoprofen was originally approved as a schedule III drug, but was later reclassified to a schedule II drug based on the DEA reclassification of hydrocodone containing products effective 6 October 2014.
Research:
The new drug application for Vicoprofen was approved based on data from both single and multiple dose analgesia trials.
Research:
The single dose analgesia studies occurred in multiple surgical settings, including dental, back, and abdominal/gynecologic surgery in the U.S. and Puerto Rico. There were 1,537 patients enrolled over all trials, with 79% of the participants being female. There were 10 single dose analgesia trials included in the new drug application. All studies were similarly designed: after completion of a procedure in which pain was rated as moderate or severe, patients would be randomized into various treatment groups. The treatment groups included: ibuprofen only, hydrocodone only, Vicoprofen (hydrocodone/ibuprofen), and placebo. The participant's pain would then be tracked over the next several hours by the self reporting of pain scores.There were four multiple dose trials included in the new drug application. These studies were all completed in the U.S., in settings including burn unit, post-operatively, and chronic pain settings. A total of 683 patients were enrolled in all of the multiple dose trials, with 57% of the participants being women. These studies also looked at self reported pain intensities over a 5-day period of multiple dosing. In these studies, patients were either given the trial drug Vicoprofen or one of two an active controls: codeine with acetaminophen (Tylenol #3) or oxycodone with acetaminophen (Percocet), depending on the trial. Patients were allowed to take a dose as needed but no more than every 4 to 6 hours for up to 5 days. These trials measured efficacy based on parameters including self reported pain scores, number of doses used, and duration of treatment.
Society and culture:
Cost The average wholesale price (AWP) of generic Vicoprofen varies based on the strength of the preparation. Pricing data gathered from Lexicomp in October 2017 indicates the AWP for a 100 count bottle of 7.5 mg/200 mg strength to be $114.62, a 100 count of 5 mg/200 mg strength to be $356.62 and a 100 count of 10 mg/200 mg strength to be $470.35. These prices are all for generic equivalents of Vicoprofen.
Society and culture:
Utilization In 2003, at the time of the approval announcement for the first generic equivalent, it was reported that annual sales of brand name Vicoprofen totaled $104 million. According to IMS, the hydrocodone/ibuprofen tablets 7.5 mg/200 mg, had an estimated market size of $15.7 million for the 12 months preceding May 2016. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Tropical Storm Amy**
Tropical Storm Amy:
The name Amy or Ami has been used for sixteen tropical cyclones worldwide: one in the Atlantic Ocean, two in the Australian region of the Indian Ocean, one in the South-West Indian Ocean, one in the South Pacific Ocean, and eleven in the Western Pacific Ocean.
Tropical Storm Amy:
In the Atlantic: Tropical Storm Amy (1975), neared the coast of North Carolina before turning out to seaIn the Australian region: Cyclone Amy (1967) Cyclone Amy (1980), struck Western Australia as a Category 5 cycloneIn the South-West Indian: Tropical Storm Amy (1962), passed near Rodrigues and brushed St. BrandonIn the South Pacific: Cyclone Ami (2003) (10P, 5F), made landfall on Vanua Levu before subsequently crossing the western tip of Taveuni and then traversing the Lau GroupIn the Western Pacific: Typhoon Amy (1951), struck the Central Philippines as a Category 4 typhoon Typhoon Amy (1956) Typhoon Amy (1959) (40W), struck Japan Typhoon Amy (1962), first made landfall in Taiwan as a Category 4 super typhoon, then in China as a typhoon; moved out into the South China Sea, and finally made landfall in South Korea as a tropical storm Typhoon Amy (1965) (7W, Elang), brushed Japan Typhoon Amy (1967) (27W), remained over the open ocean Typhoon Amy (1971) (5W, Etang), traversed the Caroline Islands as a Category 5-equivalent super typhoon Tropical Storm Amy (1974) Tropical Storm Amy (1977) (9W, Ibiang), hit Taiwan Typhoon Amy (1991) (7W, Gening), Category 4 typhoon that brushed southern Taiwan and then made landfall in southern China Tropical Storm Amy (1994) (15W), made landfall in Vietnam | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Aho–Corasick algorithm**
Aho–Corasick algorithm:
In computer science, the Aho–Corasick algorithm is a string-searching algorithm invented by Alfred V. Aho and Margaret J. Corasick in 1975. It is a kind of dictionary-matching algorithm that locates elements of a finite set of strings (the "dictionary") within an input text. It matches all strings simultaneously. The complexity of the algorithm is linear in the length of the strings plus the length of the searched text plus the number of output matches. Note that because all matches are found, there can be a quadratic number of matches if every substring matches (e.g. dictionary = a, aa, aaa, aaaa and input string is aaaa).
Aho–Corasick algorithm:
Informally, the algorithm constructs a finite-state machine that resembles a trie with additional links between the various internal nodes. These extra internal links allow fast transitions between failed string matches (e.g. a search for cat in a trie that does not contain cat, but contains cart, and thus would fail at the node prefixed by ca), to other branches of the trie that share a common prefix (e.g., in the previous case, a branch for attribute might be the best lateral transition). This allows the automaton to transition between string matches without the need for backtracking. When the string dictionary is known in advance (e.g. a computer virus database), the construction of the automaton can be performed once off-line and the compiled automaton stored for later use. In this case, its run time is linear in the length of the input plus the number of matched entries.
Aho–Corasick algorithm:
The Aho–Corasick string-matching algorithm formed the basis of the original Unix command fgrep.
Example:
In this example, we will consider a dictionary consisting of the following words: {a, ab, bab, bc, bca, c, caa}.
The graph below is the Aho–Corasick data structure constructed from the specified dictionary, with each row in the table representing a node in the trie, with the column path indicating the (unique) sequence of characters from the root to the node.
The data structure has one node for every prefix of every string in the dictionary. So if (bca) is in the dictionary, then there will be nodes for (bca), (bc), (b), and (). If a node is in the dictionary then it is a blue node. Otherwise it is a grey node.
There is a black directed "child" arc from each node to a node whose name is found by appending one character. So there is a black arc from (bc) to (bca).
Example:
There is a blue directed "suffix" arc from each node to the node that is the longest possible strict suffix of it in the graph. For example, for node (caa), its strict suffixes are (aa) and (a) and (). The longest of these that exists in the graph is (a). So there is a blue arc from (caa) to (a). The blue arcs can be computed in linear time by performing a breadth-first search [potential suffix node will always be at lower level] starting from the root. The target for the blue arc of a visited node can be found by following its parent's blue arc to its longest suffix node and searching for a child of the suffix node whose character matches that of the visited node. If the character does not exist as a child, we can find the next longest suffix (following the blue arc again) and then search for the character. We can do this until we either find the character (as child of a node) or we reach the root (which will always be a suffix of every string).
Example:
There is a green "dictionary suffix" arc from each node to the next node in the dictionary that can be reached by following blue arcs. For example, there is a green arc from (bca) to (a) because (a) is the first node in the dictionary (i.e. a blue node) that is reached when following the blue arcs to (ca) and then on to (a). The green arcs can be computed in linear time by repeatedly traversing blue arcs until a blue node is found, and memoizing this information.
Example:
At each step, the current node is extended by finding its child, and if that doesn't exist, finding its suffix's child, and if that doesn't work, finding its suffix's suffix's child, and so on, finally ending in the root node if nothing's seen before.
When the algorithm reaches a node, it outputs all the dictionary entries that end at the current character position in the input text. This is done by printing every node reached by following the dictionary suffix links, starting from that node, and continuing until it reaches a node with no dictionary suffix link.
In addition, the node itself is printed, if it is a dictionary entry.
Execution on input string abccab yields the following steps:
Dynamic search list:
The original Aho-Corasick algorithm assumes that the set of search strings is fixed. It does not directly apply to applications in which new search strings are added during application of the algorithm. An example is an interactive indexing program, in which the user goes through the text and highlights new words or phrases to index as they see them. Bertrand Meyer introduced an incremental version of the algorithm in which the search string set can be incrementally extended during the search, retaining the algorithmic complexity of the original. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Slice of life**
Slice of life:
Slice of life is a depiction of mundane experiences in art and entertainment. In theater, slice of life refers to naturalism, while in literary parlance it is a narrative technique in which a seemingly arbitrary sequence of events in a character's life is presented, often lacking plot development, conflict and exposition, as well as often having an open ending.
Film and theater:
In theatrical parlance, the term slice of life refers to a naturalistic representation of real life, sometimes used as an adjective, as in "a play with 'slice of life' dialogues". The term originated between 1890 and 1895 as a calque from the French phrase tranche de vie, credited to the French playwright Jean Jullien (1854–1919).Jullien introduced the term not long after a staging of his play The Serenade, as noted by Wayne S. Turney in his essay "Notes on Naturalism in the Theatre": The Serenade was introduced by the Théâtre Libre in 1887. It is a prime example of rosserie, that is, plays dealing with corrupt, morally bankrupt characters who seem to be respectable, "smiling, smiling, damned villains..." Jullien gave us the famous apothegm defining naturalism in his The Living Theatre (1892): "A play is a slice of life put onstage with art." He goes on to say that "...our purpose is not to create laughter, but thought." He felt that the story of a play does not end with the curtain, which is "only an arbitrary interruption of the action which leaves the spectator free to speculate about what goes on beyond your expectation..." During the 1950s, the phrase was commonly used in critical reviews of live television dramas, notably teleplays by JP Miller, Paddy Chayefsky and Reginald Rose. At that time, it was sometimes used synonymously with the term "kitchen sink realism", adopted from British films and theatre.
Film and theater:
In 2017, screenwriter and scholar Eric R. Williams identified slice-of-life films as one of eleven super-genres in his screenwriters' taxonomy, claiming that all feature-length narrative films can be classified by these super-genres. The other ten super-genres are: action, crime, fantasy, horror, romance, science fiction, sports, thriller, war and western. Williams identifies the following films as some examples of films in the slice-of-life super-genre: The Station Agent, Boyhood, Captain Fantastic, Fences, Moonlight and Waitress. According to his taxonomy, drama and comedy are identified as film "types", not super-genres.
Literature:
In literary parlance, the term "slice of life" refers to a storytelling technique that presents a seemingly arbitrary sample of a character's life, which often lacks a coherent plot, conflict, or ending. The story may have little plot progress and often has no exposition, conflict, or dénouement, but rather has an open ending. A work that focuses on a minute and faithful reproduction of some bit of reality, without selection, organization, or judgment, and where every small detail is presented with scientific fidelity, is an example of the "slice of life" novel. This is demonstrated in the case of Guy de Maupassant's novel A Woman's Life, which told the story of a woman who transformed an unrequited love for her husband into a pathological affection towards her son.In the United States, slice of life stories were given particular emphasis by the Chicago school at the end of the 19th century, a period when the novel and social sciences became different systems of discourse. These produced literary texts by researcher-authors that were written to represent the subject's stories and sentiment-free social realism using the language of ordinary people. It formed part of the late 19th- and early 20th-century naturalism movement in literature, which was inspired by the adaptation of principles and methods of social sciences such as the Darwinian view of nature. The movement was an extension of realism, presenting the faithful representation of reality without moral judgment. Some authors, particularly playwrights, used it by focusing on the "underbelly of life" to expose social ills and repressive social codes with the aim of shocking the audience and motivating them towards social reform.
Anime and manga:
Slice of life anime and manga are narratives "without fantastical aspects, which [take] place in a recognisable, everyday setting, such as a suburban high school, and which [focus] on human relationships that are often romantic in nature." The genre favors "the creation of emotional ties with the characters." The popularity of slice of life anime started to increase in the mid-1980s. Masayuki Nishida writes that slice of life anime and manga can still involve elements of fantasy or a fantastical world: "Fantasy is sometimes used as a means to express the “reality” of human beings under certain possible conditions." Robin E. Brenner's 2007 book Understanding Manga and Anime holds that in anime and manga, "slice of life" is a genre that is more akin to melodrama than drama, bordering on absurd due to the large numbers of dramatic and comedic events in very short spans. The author compares it to teen dramas such as Dawson's Creek or The O.C. This genre claims a large section of the Japanese manga market and usually focuses on school and interpersonal relationships.One subgenre of slice of life in anime and manga is kūki-kei (空気系, "air type"), also called nichijō-kei (日常系, "everyday type"). In this genre, "descriptions of deep personal relationships or fully fledged romantic relationships are deliberately eliminated from the story in order to tell a light, non-serious story that focuses on the everyday lives and conversations of the bishōjo characters." This relies on a "specificity of place," as well as a "peaceful, heartwarming sense of daily life." The nichijō-kei genre developed from yonkoma manga, and includes works like Azumanga Daioh, K-On!, and Hidamari Sketch. Takayoshi Yamamura argues that the rise in popularity of this subgenre in the mid-2000s enabled the increasing popularity of media tourism to locations featured in anime.Stevie Suan writes that slice of life anime such as Azumanga Daioh often involve exaggerated versions of the "conventionalized expressions" of the medium, such as "white circles for eyes in times of trouble, shining, vibrant big eyes to depict overflowing emotion, sweat drops, animal teeth, and simplistic human rendering." | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Daz (detergent)**
Daz (detergent):
Daz is the name of a laundry detergent on the market in the United Kingdom and Ireland. It was introduced in February 1953. It is manufactured by Procter & Gamble and is lower priced than P&G's main brand, Ariel.
Daz (detergent):
Aggressively marketed, it is associated in popular culture with the "Daz Doorstep Challenge" series of commercials, which saw various 'hosts' including Danny Baker, Shane Richie and Michael Barrymore surprising house occupiers by asking them to put Daz to the test against a rival detergent. The advert was spoofed by Dom Joly in the British sketch series Trigger Happy TV and in a John Smith's advertising campaign featuring Peter Kay. From 1999 to 2002 Julian Clary was the face of Daz laundry detergent, one of the first of his advert campaigns being a "Wash Your Dirty Linen in Public" roadshow with Daz Tablets.
Daz (detergent):
Daz is available in powder (handwash and automatic), liquid, professional liquid and all-in-one multi-compartment pods, in common with most other P&G laundry detergent brands. In some packs of 3-in-1 Pods, the individual pods are printed with Daz/Vizir/Tide, as the same product was sold in multiple European markets under different local brands. However, despite the Tide name appearing, they are not the same formulation as Tide Pods in the USA.
Cleaner Close advertising campaign:
From 2002 to 2019, Daz began a series of soap opera style adverts called Cleaner Close. Some of these featured where a new packet Daz or prize give-away as part of the plot, such as a character who either hid money in Daz packets or donated money to Daz in their will.
Cleaner Close advertising campaign:
Other episodes have a character who do not use Daz which causes them problems, which are solved by a character who uses Daz. Cleaner Close is a parody of Coronation Street, Brookside or EastEnders. Most of the adverts feature ex-soap stars, sometimes portrayed as a similar character to the one they played in their original soap, and are narrated by Tony Hirst; who would later star in both Hollyoaks and Coronation Street. Soap stars or ex-soap stars to have appeared in Cleaner Close include: Michelle Collins (Cindy Beale in EastEnders, Stella Price in Coronation Street), Alison King (Carla Connor in Coronation Street), Chris O'Dowd (Brendan Davenport in The Clinic), Jennifer Ellison (Emily Shadwick in Brookside) and Julie Goodyear (Bet Lynch in Coronation Street). | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Friendly political wager**
Friendly political wager:
A friendly political wager is a largely symbolic form of sports betting made between politicians representing two cities or areas on the outcome of an important sports contest between teams representing those same two cities or areas. These wagers are most commonly made in the United States and Canada on the results of playoffs in the National Hockey League, National Football League and Major League Baseball as well as, on occasion, the Olympic Games. Although they are technically a form of gambling, friendly political wagers are generally tolerated by the sports leagues and regulatory authorities as harmless publicity stunts and gestures of regional pride.
Differences from typical sports betting:
Friendly political wagers The wagers are highly publicised, usually with official press releases.
The participants are generally high-ranking politicians; most commonly mayors, but also frequently including governors, and Senators and (much more rarely) even national leaders. For additional effect, the two wagering parties may be (but are not always) members of opposite political parties.
The bets are made directly with each other, with no bookmakers involved.
The participants must bet in favor of the team that they represent; for instance, the mayor of Green Bay would only make a friendly wager of this sort on the outcome of a Green Bay Packers game by betting in favor of the Packers.
Usually occur during high-profile playoff games.
Are for symbolic wagers, usually prestige or local food or drink.
They do not involve money.
In the rare event money is wagered, the bet is an even bet (no point spread or money line is used) and the wager is donated to a local charity in the winner's metropolitan area.
They do not involve influencing the way the officials vote on legislation.
They do not involve wagering the office (a rival officeholder cannot demand his opponent's resignation).
Examples:
The most common types of wager are those for symbolic value only, and those for a token food prize.
Examples:
For example, in the 2009–10 NFL playoffs, two bets were made: Senators Mary Landrieu of Louisiana and Amy Klobuchar of Minnesota made a friendly wager on the outcome of the 2010 National Football Conference Championship Game between the New Orleans Saints and the Minnesota Vikings: "If the Saints win, Klobuchar will cook gumbo and deliver it to Landrieu's office while wearing a Drew Brees jersey for Louisiana constituents to enjoy. If the Vikings win, Landrieu will cook a Minnesota wild rice casserole and deliver it to Klobuchar's office while wearing a Brett Favre jersey for Minnesota constituents to enjoy." The Saints won.
Examples:
Maryland Governor Martin O'Malley and Massachusetts Governor Deval Patrick bet over the outcome of the game between the Baltimore Ravens and the New England Patriots. O'Malley promised Maryland crab cakes to Patrick if the Ravens lost, while Patrick pledged lobsters if the Patriots lost. The Ravens prevailed, and O'Malley, in a YouTube video, said "Hey Deval, send down the lob-stah" in a mock Boston accent."During the 2010 Winter Olympic Games, US President Barack Obama and Canada Prime Minister Stephen Harper wagered a case of beer on the outcome of the gold medal game in the men's ice hockey tournament. President Obama sent Prime Minister Harper a case of Molson Canadian and a case of Yuengling lager (Obama's favorite beer, brewed in Pennsylvania) to settle the bet.
Examples:
A similar sort of betting occurs elsewhere, although the subject is as likely not to be sport. German Green politician and gastronome Joschka Fischer was noted for betting cases of wine and fine spirits on the outcomes of German elections with politicians of other parties.
Examples:
In October 2011, Australian Prime Minister Julia Gillard and New Zealand Prime Minister John Key made two bets: the first on the NRL grand final between the Manly Sea Eagles and the New Zealand Warriors, wagering having to hold a press conference in front of the other country's flag; and the second on the 2011 Rugby World Cup semi-final between New Zealand and Australia, wagering having to eat an apple from the other country and speak profusely on how good it was (reflecting Australia recently lifting a ban on the import of New Zealand apples). Key subsequently lost the NRL bet, and Gillard subsequently lost the Rugby World Cup bet. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Transitus (education)**
Transitus (education):
Transitus is the name given to a year in a number of independent schools in Scotland. As the name would suggest, this year is offered as a bridge between 'primary' and 'secondary' education.
Transitus replaces the final year of primary education used in state schools, often referred to as Primary 7 (P7). In preparatory schools, it may also share the 'P7' designation, although in this case it is instead the abbreviation of 'Prep'. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Martin Greven**
Martin Greven:
Martin Greven is a Distinguished McKnight University Professor at the University of Minnesota, specializing in experimental condensed matter physics. He is the Director of the University of Minnesota Center for Quantum Materials. His research group investigates quantum many-body phenomena in correlated-electron materials with spectroscopic, transport and other experimental methods.
Martin Greven:
Greven was born in Germany and started his physics education at the University of Heidelberg, where he obtained his Vordiplom in physics and mathematics in 1988. After a year as an exchange student at the University of Massachusetts, Amherst, he went on to obtain his Ph.D. degree at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1995. He spent two additional years at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology as a postdoctoral research associate before joining the faculty of Applied Physics and Photon Science at Stanford University. In 2009, he moved to the University of Minnesota, where he was appointed Full Professor in 2011. In 2018, he was named Distinguished McKnight University Professor.
Awards and honors:
Distinguished McKnight University Professorship, University of Minnesota, 2018 [1] Fellow, Neutron Scattering Society of America, 2018 [2] Fellow, American Association for the Advancement of Science, 2015 [3] Fellow, American Physical Society, 2007 [4] Hellman Family Faculty Fund Award, 2003 [5] NSF CAREER Award, 2000-2004 [6] Alfred P. Sloan Fellow, 1999-2001 [7] | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Pad abort test**
Pad abort test:
A pad abort test is a test of a launch escape system to determine how well the system could get the crew of a spacecraft to safety in an emergency on the launch pad.
Project Mercury:
Section sources.The Mercury program included several pad abort tests for the launch escape system with a boilerplate crew module. 1959 July 22 – First successful pad abort flight test with a functional escape tower attached to a Mercury boilerplate 1959 July 28 – A Mercury boilerplate with instruments to measure sound pressure levels and vibrations from the Little Joe test rocket and Grand Central abort rocket/escape tower
Project Apollo:
The Apollo program included several pad abort tests for the launch escape system with a boilerplate crew module.
Pad Abort Test-1 was conducted on November 7, 1963, and Pad Abort Test-2 was conducted on June 29, 1965.Both tests were conducted at the White Sands Missile Range.
Orion:
The Orion pad abort test was conducted on May 6, 2010 at the White Sands Missile Range in New Mexico. The Launch Abort System lifted the Orion Boilerplate to a height of approximately 6000 feet above the ground and landed 6,900 feet downrange about 150 seconds later. The Abort test resulted in no damage to the test article and the mission was considered a complete success.
Commercial Crew:
Dragon 2 The SpaceX Dragon 2 Pad Abort Test was conducted on May 6, 2015 at approximately 0900 Eastern Daylight Time (EDT). (A video clip released by SpaceX shows the timestamp of the moment of launch as 13:00:00). The vehicle splashed down safely in the ocean to the east of the launchpad 99 seconds later. A fuel mixture ratio issue was detected after the flight in one of the eight SuperDraco engines, but did not materially affect the flight. More detailed test results were to be subsequently analyzed by both SpaceX and NASA engineers.
Commercial Crew:
Starliner The pad abort test of Boeing's Starliner craft was conducted at 14:15 UTC on November 4, 2019 at the White Sands Missile Range. The capsule was lifted to 1,350 m (4,430 ft) and landed with airbags approximately 90 seconds after liftoff. Though the test was deemed a success, one of three main parachutes failed to deploy properly.
ISRO pad abort test:
On 5 July 2018, Indian Space Research Organisation successfully conducted a pad abort test at Satish Dhawan Space Centre, Sriharikota. A first in a series of tests to qualify a crew escape system.After a smooth countdown of five hours, the crew escape system, along with the simulated crew module with a mass of 12.6 tonnes, lifted off at 07.00 AM (IST) at the opening of the launch window from its pad at Satish Dhawan Space Centre, Sriharikota. The test was over in 259 seconds, during which the crew escape system along with crew module soared skyward, then arced over the Bay of Bengal and floated back to Earth under its parachutes about 2.9 km from Sriharikota. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Drive (charity)**
Drive (charity):
In charitable organizations, a drive is a collection of items for people who need them, such as clothing, used items, books, canned food, cars, etc. Some drives are that people go through their inventory, bag the items up, and put them in a giveaway bin, or charitable organizations such as Big Brothers Big Sisters, The Salvation Army come to the house and pick them up. They then put the items in their thrift stores or, if they don't have any, sell them to thrift stores to raise money for their organization.
Used clothing drives:
A used clothing drive is philanthropic activity that requests clothing donations from community members or a network of individuals for the benefit of a non profit group or group of vulnerable people. There are many benefits to organizing a used clothing drive. Used clothing drives divert waste from landfills by giving people an alternative disposal method for unwanted, ripped or stained items. Only 15% of textiles are recycled. Nearly 95% of textiles worn or torn can be recycled.
Used clothing drives:
A used clothing drive can be a fundraising effort for organizations or groups that lack funding such as, Schools, Religious organizations, clubs, Sports Teams and Associations, neighborhoods and, communities.
Donated Items can be given for free to the needy.
The most popular ways to organize a used clothing drive are: 1. To collect clothing for donation directly to people in need of the specific items.
Used clothing drives:
2. To collect clothing for sale to non profit organization who will use the resale profits to benefit established community charity initiatives for people who are struggling with addiction, in need of food or shelter, education programs and work experience programs. This method can also be used as a group fundraising effort.There are many resources on the internet to help groups and clubs organize used clothing drives. These resources provide tips tools and ideas for generating interest and engagement to ensure successful outcomes. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Ejaculatory duct obstruction**
Ejaculatory duct obstruction:
Ejaculatory duct obstruction (EDO) is a pathological condition which is characterized by the obstruction of one or both ejaculatory ducts. Thus, the efflux of (most constituents of) semen is not possible. It can be congenital or acquired. It is a cause of male infertility and/or pelvic pain. Ejaculatory duct obstruction must not be confused with an obstruction of the vas deferens.
Cause:
If both ejaculatory ducts are completely obstructed, affected men will demonstrate male infertility due to aspermia/azoospermia. They will suffer from a very low volume of semen which lacks the gel-like fluid of the seminal vesicles or from no semen at all while they are able to have the sensation of an orgasm during which they will have involuntary contractions of the pelvic musculature. This is contrary to some other forms of anejaculation.
Cause:
In addition, it is reported to be a cause for pelvic pain, especially shortly after ejaculation. In case of proven fertility but unresolved pelvic pain, even one or both partially obstructed ejaculatory ducts may be the origin of pelvic pain and oligospermia.Ejaculatory duct obstruction may result in a complete lack of semen (aspermia) or a very low-volume semen (oligospermia) which may contain only the secretion of accessory prostate glands downstream to the orifice of the ejaculatory ducts.
Cause:
In addition to the congenital form which is often caused by cysts of the müllerian duct the obstruction can be acquired due to an inflammation caused by chlamydia, prostatitis, tuberculosis of the prostate and other pathogens. In addition, calculus was reported to mechanically block the ejaculatory duct, leading to infertility. However, in many patients, there is no history of an inflammation and the underlying cause simply remains unknown.
Diagnosis:
Low-volume, runny/fluid semen (oligospermia) or no semen at all (dry ejaculation/aspermia) are a logical consequence of an obstruction downstream of the seminal vesicles which contribute most to the volume of the semen. Usually, men will be able to observe a runny/fluid, low-volume semen by themselves during masturbation. Since the seminal vesicles contain a viscous, alkaline fluid rich in fructose, a chemical analysis of the semen of affected men will result in a low concentration of fructose and a low pH. A microscopic semen analysis will reveal aspermia/azoospermia.
Diagnosis:
In contrast, if both vasa deferentia are obstructed (which may be the result of intended sterilization), a semen analysis will also reveal aspermia/azoospermia, but an almost normal volume of the semen, since the efflux of the seminal vesicles is not hindered. This is because approx. 80% of the volume of the semen is the gel-like fluid originating from the seminal vesicles whereas the fraction from the testicles / epididymis, which contains the spermatozoa accounts for only 5–10% of the volume of the semen. In addition, if an obstruction of the vasa deferentia is the cause for the azoospermia, the concentration of fructose in the semen will also be normal, since the fructose comes primarily from the fluid stored in the seminal vesicles. If the seminal-vesicles contain spermatozoa, but the semen does not, the obstruction must be downstream of the seminal vesicles and the ejaculatory ducts are very likely to be obstructed, provided that other causes for a dry ejaculation/aspermia such as a retrograde ejaculation are ruled out.
Diagnosis:
Attempts are sometimes made to diagnose an ejaculatory duct obstruction by means of medical imaging, e.g. transrectal ultrasound or MRI, or by transrectal needle-aspiration of the seminal vesicles. However transrectal ultrasound has a relatively low sensitivity of approx. 50% and thus is only a tool to rule-out cysts in the region of the orifices but is not sufficient to rule out an obstruction of the ejaculatory ducts due to other causes. In approx. 50% of cases of unexplained low-volume azoospermia MRI and TRUS do not reveal any pathological findings, because it is difficult to see alterations in a narrowed, scarred duct with these methods. Due to the blockage of ejaculatory ducts, enlarged seminal vesicles are frequently seen in patients with ejaculatory duct obstructions. However, this is again neither a proof of an obstruction nor do normal-sized seminal vesicles rule-out an obstruction of the ejaculatory ducts.
Treatment:
A method to treat ejaculatory duct obstruction is transurethral resection of the ejaculatory ducts (TURED). This operative procedure is relatively invasive, has some severe complications, and has led to natural pregnancies of their partners in approximately 20% of affected men. A disadvantage is the destruction of the valves at the openings of the ejaculatory ducts into the urethra such that urine may flow backwards into the seminal vesicles. Another, experimental approach is the recanalization of the ejaculatory ducts by transrectal or transurethral inserted balloon catheter. Though much less invasive and preserving the anatomy of the ejaculatory ducts, this procedure is probably not completely free of complications either and success rates are unknown. There is a clinical study currently ongoing to examine the success rate of recanalization of the ejaculatory ducts by means of balloon dilation.Usually, affected men have a normal production of spermatozoa in their testicles, so that after spermatozoa were harvested directly from the testes e.g. by TESE, or the seminal vesicles (by needle aspiration) they and their partners are potentially candidates for some treatment options of assisted reproduction e.g. in-vitro fertilisation. Note that in this case, most of the treatment (e.g. ovarian stimulation and transvaginal oocyte retrieval) is transferred to the female partner.
Prevalence:
Ejaculatory duct obstruction is the underlying cause for 1–5% of male infertility. Since ejaculatory duct obstruction is a relatively rare cause of infertility, this possibility may be unfamiliar to some physicians, even some urologists. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Currency Symbols (Unicode block)**
Currency Symbols (Unicode block):
Currency Symbols is a Unicode block containing characters for representing unique monetary signs. Many currency signs can be found in other Unicode blocks, especially when the currency symbol is unique to a country that uses a script not generally used outside that country.
Currency Symbols (Unicode block):
The display of Unicode currency symbols among various typefaces is inconsistent, more so than other characters in the repertoire. The French franc sign (U+20A3) is typically displayed as a struck-through F, but various versions of Garamond display it as an Fr ligature. The peseta sign (U+20A7), inherited from code page 437, is usually displayed as a Pts ligature, but Roboto displays it as a Pt ligature and Arial Unicode MS displays it as a partially struck-through P. The rupee sign (U+20A8) is usually displayed as an Rs digraph, but Microsoft Sans Serif uses the quantity-neutral "Rp" digraph instead.
History:
The following Unicode-related documents record the purpose and process of defining specific characters in the Currency Symbols block: | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Hydrogenated polydec-1-ene**
Hydrogenated polydec-1-ene:
Hydrogenated poly-1-decene is a colourless glazing agent. It is "a mixture of isoparaffinic molecules of known structure, prepared by hydrogenation of mixtures of tri-, tetra- penta- and hexa-1-decenes". It was reviewed in 2001 by the Scientific Committee on Food of the DG Health. It was "proposed as a substitute for white mineral oil. The food additive applications include those of glazing agent for confectionery and dried fruit, and processing aid uses as a lubricant and release agent, especially in bread baking using tins. It has been permitted for use in Finland, and a “Case of Need” has been accepted in the United Kingdom." The substance is a mix of inert saturated hydrocarbons, which are not easily metabolised. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Hypertensive kidney disease**
Hypertensive kidney disease:
Hypertensive kidney disease is a medical condition referring to damage to the kidney due to chronic high blood pressure. It manifests as hypertensive nephrosclerosis (sclerosis referring to the stiffening of renal components). It should be distinguished from renovascular hypertension, which is a form of secondary hypertension, and thus has opposite direction of causation.
Signs and symptoms:
Signs and symptoms of chronic kidney disease, including loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, itching, sleepiness or confusion, weight loss, and an unpleasant taste in the mouth, may develop.
Causes:
"Hypertensive" refers to high blood pressure and "nephropathy" means damage to the kidney; hence this condition is where chronic high blood pressure causes damages to kidney tissue; this includes the small blood vessels, glomeruli, kidney tubules and interstitial tissues. The tissue hardens and thickens which is known as nephrosclerosis. The narrowing of the blood vessels means less blood is going to the tissue and so less oxygen is reaching the tissue resulting in tissue death (ischemia).Risk factors for HN include poorly controlled, moderate-to-severe hypertension, older age, other kidney disorders, and Afro-Caribbean background, whose exact cause is unclear, as it may be due to either genetic susceptibility or poor health management among people of Afro-Caribbean descent.
Mechanism:
In the kidneys, as a result of benign arterial hypertension, hyaline (pink, amorphous, homogeneous material) accumulates in the walls of small arteries and arterioles, producing the thickening of their walls and the narrowing of the arterial openings, a process known as arteriolosclerosis. The resulting inadequate blood flow produces tubular atrophy, interstitial fibrosis, and glomerular alterations (smaller glomeruli with different degrees of hyalinization – from mild to sclerosis of glomeruli) and scarring around the glomeruli (periglomerular fibrosis). In advanced stages, kidney failure will occur. Functional nephrons have dilated tubules, often with hyaline casts in the opening of the tubules. Additional complications often associated with hypertensive nephropathy include glomerular damage resulting in protein and blood in the urine.Hypertensive nephropathy refers to kidney failure that can be attributed to a history of hypertension It is a chronic condition and it is a serious risk factor for the development of end-stage kidney disease (ESKD). However, despite the well-known association between hypertension and chronic kidney disease, the underlying mechanism remains unclear. The two proposed mechanisms of HN's pathophysiology both centre around how the glomerulus, a network of dense capillaries that carries out the kidney filtration process, is affected; with one theory identifying glomerular ischemia as the main contributor to HN and the other identifying glomerular hypertension and glomerular hyperfiltration at the centre of HN's pathogenesis.
Mechanism:
Glomerular ischemia High blood pressure in the long term can damage the endothelium, commonly known as the blood vessel lining. This leads to a build-up of plaques and they can be deposited in the renal arteries causing stenosis and ischemic kidney disease. In this situation, the kidney supplied blood by the narrowed renal artery suffers from inadequate blood flow, which in turn causes the size of the kidneys to decrease. Other consequences include arterial stiffening, which involves a gradual breakdown of elastic fibers and intima (the innermost layer of a blood vessel) thickening.
Mechanism:
Glomerular hypertension and glomerular hyperfiltration An alternative mechanism of hypertensive nephropathy is prolonged glomerular hypertension and hence glomerular hyperfiltration. These can occur simultaneously but not necessarily. The idea is that hypertension results in sclerosis of the glomeruli which ultimately means reduced kidney function. As a compensatory mechanism, the unaffected nephrons (specifically, the preglomerular arterioles) vasodilate to increase blood flow to the kidney perfusion and increase glomerular filtration across undamaged glomeruli.
Diagnosis:
Diagnosis of HN is made from clinical history and biochemical investigations. Chronic hypertension with progressive kidney disease progresses over a long period of time. Damage to the glomeruli allows proteins that are usually too large to pass into the nephron to be filtered. This leads to an elevated concentration of albumin in the urine (albuminuria). This albuminuria usually does not cause symptoms but can be indicative of many kidney disorders. Protein in the urine (proteinuria) is best identified from a 24-hour urine collection.Bilateral renal artery stenosis should always be considered as a differential diagnosis for the presentation of HN. Kidney disease with this etiology can potentially be reversed following vascular intervention.
Diagnosis:
Histology In benign nephrosclerosis, the changes occurring are gradual and progressive, however, there can be sufficient kidney reserve capacity to maintain adequate kidney function for many years. The large renal arteries exhibit intimal thickening, medial hypertrophy, duplication of the elastic layer. The changes in small arterioles include hyaline arteriolosclerosis (deposition of hyaline, collagenous material), which causes glomerular collapse (wrinkling and thickening of capillary basement membranes and collapse of capillary lumen) and solidification (glomeruli exhibit sclerosis and increase in mesangial matrix). The degree of scarring correlates with the degree of glomerular filtration deficit.
Diagnosis:
Malignant nephrosclerosis is where hypertensive nephrosclerosis occurs in presence of malignant hypertension (when DBP > 130mmHg). Vessels feature intimal thickening, fibrinoid necrosis, red blood cell fragmentation, extravasation, thrombosis. These changes create an exaggerated layered appearance (onion skinning).
Diagnosis:
Urine test Microalbuminuria (moderate increase in the levels of urinary albumin) is a non-specific finding in patients with vascular disease that is associated with increased risk of cardiovascular events. The majority of patients with benign nephrosclerosis have proteinuria in the range from 0.5 to 1 g/ 24hr. In the case of glomerular damage occurring in HN, hematuria can occur as well.
Diagnosis:
Definitive diagnosis The definitive diagnosis of HN requires morphological examination. Common histological features can be identified in the renal and glomerular vasculature. Glomerulosclerosis is often present, either focally or globally, which is characterized by hardening of the vessel walls. Also, luminal narrowing of the arteries and arterioles of the kidney system. However, this type of procedure is likely to be preceded by a provisional diagnosis based on laboratory investigations.
Diagnosis:
Future diagnostic approaches Increasing access to, and use of, genome profiling may provide opportunity for diagnosis based on presentation and genetic risk factors, by identifying ApoL1 gene variants on chromosome 22.
Management:
The aim of the medical treatment is to slow the progression of chronic kidney disease by reducing blood pressure and albumin levels. The current published guidelines define ideal BP of <130/80 mmHg for patients with hypertensive nephropathy; studies show that anything higher or lower than this can increase cardiovascular risk. According to the African American Study of Kidney Disease (AASK) trial, after an additional 5 years follow-up upon completion of the 10-year trial, up to 65% of the cohort had progressive nephropathy despite having controlled the mean systolic BP level <135 mmHg.ACE inhibitors, angiotensin receptor blockers, direct renin inhibitors and aldosterone antagonists, are pharmacological treatments that can be used to lower BP to target levels; hence reducing neuropathy and proteinuria progression. The management plan should be individualized based on the condition of the patients including comorbidities and previous medical history.
Management:
In addition, there are lifestyle changes that can be made. Weight reduction, exercise, reducing salt intake can be done to manage hypertensive nephropathy.
Prognosis:
According to the United States Renal Data System (USRDS), hypertensive nephropathy accounts for more than one-third of patients on hemodialysis and the annual mortality rate for patients on hemodialysis is 23.3%.
Haemodialysis is recommended for patients who progress to end-stage kidney disease (ESKD) and hypertensive nephropathy is the second most common cause of ESKD after diabetes.
Patient prognosis is dependent on numerous factors including age, ethnicity, blood pressure and glomerular filtration rate. Changes in lifestyle factors, such as reduced salt intake and increased physical activity have been shown to improve outcomes but are insufficient without pharmacological treatment.
Epidemiology:
The incidence of hypertensive nephropathy varies around the world. For instance, it accounts for as many as 25% and 17% of patients starting dialysis for end-stage kidney disease in Italy and France respectively. Contrastingly, Japan and China report only 6 and 7% respectively. Since the year 2000, nephropathy caused by hypertension has increased in incidence by 8.7% In reality, these figures may be even higher, as hypertension is not always reported as the specific cause of kidney disease.It has been recognized that the incidence of hypertensive nephropathy varies with ethnicity. Compared to Caucasians, African Americans in the USA are much more likely to develop hypertensive nephropathy. Of those who do, the proportion who then go on to develop end-stage kidney failure is 3.5 times higher than in the Caucasian population. In addition to this, African Americans tend to develop hypertensive nephropathy at a younger age than Caucasians (45 to 65, compared to >65). | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
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