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**Inclusive Skating**
Inclusive Skating:
Inclusive Skating is a charity that provides opportunities for skaters with additional needs. They cater to skaters of all levels, ranging from first-timers to recreational skaters, to elite competitive level athletes and hold events on a global scale which utilise their own judging framework developed for judging skaters who have additional challenges.
Background:
Founded in 2011 as Impaired Skating, the charity renamed itself to Inclusive Skating following feedback from its members.Inclusive Skating's main objective is the advancement of public participation in sport and the promotion of equality and diversity and the development and implementation of programming which fosters the inclusion of skaters with any form of impairment or disability. They offer events, competitions, seminars, workshops, and E-Learning resources for its skaters, coaches, parents, and volunteers.The club structure has been officially recognised by the Scottish Parliament, where they are an active member of the Cross-Party Group on Sport.Inclusive skating advocates for the inclusion of skating in the Paralympic Games.
Activities:
Since 2021 their courses have been endorsed by CIMSPA and they are also an approved activity provider (AAP) for The Duke of Edinburgh's Award for physical, skills, and volunteering. In 2023 IS became an SQA approved centre with successful candidates eligible to earn UCAS points.
Judging Framework:
This Inclusive Skating judging framework is the first in the world for judging sports which takes into account all types of impairments. Currently, the framework facilitates the inclusion of skaters with conditions including physical disability, visual impairment, sensory challenges, autism, cerebral palsy, cystic fibrosis, genetic disorders and mental and behavioural impairments, among others. They also offers the option for skaters to compete via pre-recorded video, to accommodate for conditions which might impede upon an athlete's ability to compete live, such as anxiety.
Events:
Inclusive Skating holds educational events, workshops, seminars, and competitions. Competition events are held for all skating disciplines including: singles free-skating, pairs, ice dancing, solo ice dancing, figures, Synchronized skating, speed skating, inline skating, and off-ice competitive events. These competitions utilise the IS judging system which allows for fair competition between skaters with different disabilities using a compensation system based on the empirically researched Dr. Rondinelli Guides to the Evaluation of Permanent Impairment from the American Medical Association.Prince Edward, president of the Sport and Recreation Alliance, was also a guest of honour at the Scottish Championship event in 2019.Inclusive Skating's event format has been adopted by the International Skating Union. In 2022 Inclusive Skating became an institutional partner with the ISU for World Ice Skating Day holding the 2022 Virtual World Championships as part of the global celebration.
Membership:
Inclusive Skating is a member of the following organisations: Scottish Sports Association Welsh Sports Association Northern Ireland Sports Forum Sport and Recreation Alliance Scottish Council for Voluntary Organisations Health and Social Care Alliance Scotland
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**ISO 9**
ISO 9:
ISO 9 is an international standard establishing a system for the transliteration into Latin characters of Cyrillic characters constituting the alphabets of many Slavic and non-Slavic languages.Published on February 23, 1995 by the International Organization for Standardization, the major advantage ISO 9 has over other competing systems is its univocal system of one character for one character equivalents (by the use of diacritics), which faithfully represents the original spelling and allows for reverse transliteration, even if the language is unknown.
ISO 9:
Earlier versions of the standard, ISO/R 9:1954, ISO/R 9:1968 and ISO 9:1986, were more closely based on the international scholarly system for linguistics (scientific transliteration), but have diverged in favour of unambiguous transliteration over phonemic representation.
The edition of 1995 supersedes the edition of 1986.
ISO 9:1995:
The standard features three mapping tables: the first covers contemporary Slavic languages, the second older Slavic orthographies (excluding letters from the first), and the third non-Slavic languages (including most letters from the first). Several Cyrillic characters included in ISO 9 are not available as pre-composed characters in Unicode, nor are some of the transliterations; combining diacritical marks have to be used in these cases. Unicode, on the other hand, includes some historic characters that are not dealt with in ISO 9.
ISO 9:1995:
Transliteration table The following combined table shows characters for various Slavic, Iranian, Romance, Turkic, Uralic, Mongolic, Caucasian, Tungusic, Paleosiberian and other languages of the former USSR which are written in Cyrillic.
National adoptions Sample text The following text is a fragment of the Preamble of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Bulgarian:
ISO/R 9:
ISO Recommendation No. 9, published 1954 and revised 1968, is an older version of the standard, with different transliteration for different Slavic languages, reflecting their phonemic differences. It is closer to the original international system of Slavist scientific transliteration.
A German adaptation of this standard was published by the Deutsches Institut für Normung as DIN 1460 (1982) for Slavic languages and supplemented by DIN 1460-2 (2010) for non-Slavic languages.
The languages covered are Bulgarian, Russian, Belarusian, Ukrainian, Serbo-Croatian and Macedonian. For comparison, ISO 9:1995 is shown in the table below.
Alternative schemes: ISO/R 9:1968 permits some deviations from the main standard. In the table below, they are listed in the columns alternative 1 and alternative 2.
The first sub-standard defines some language-dependent transliterations for Belarusian (BE), Bulgarian (BG), Russian (RU), and Ukrainian (UK).
The second sub-standard permits, in countries where tradition favours it, a set of alternative transliterations, but only as a group. It is identical to the British Standard 2979:1958 for Cyrillic romanization.
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**Schur product theorem**
Schur product theorem:
In mathematics, particularly in linear algebra, the Schur product theorem states that the Hadamard product of two positive definite matrices is also a positive definite matrix.
Schur product theorem:
The result is named after Issai Schur (Schur 1911, p. 14, Theorem VII) (note that Schur signed as J. Schur in Journal für die reine und angewandte Mathematik.) We remark that the converse of the theorem holds in the following sense. If M is a symmetric matrix and the Hadamard product M∘N is positive definite for all positive definite matrices N , then M itself is positive definite.
Proof:
Proof using the trace formula For any matrices M and N , the Hadamard product M∘N considered as a bilinear form acts on vectors a,b as tr diag diag (b)) where tr is the matrix trace and diag (a) is the diagonal matrix having as diagonal entries the elements of a Suppose M and N are positive definite, and so Hermitian. We can consider their square-roots M12 and N12 , which are also Hermitian, and write tr diag diag tr diag diag tr diag diag (b)M¯12) Then, for a=b , this is written as tr (A∗A) for diag (a)M¯12 and thus is strictly positive for A≠0 , which occurs if and only if a≠0 . This shows that (M∘N) is a positive definite matrix.
Proof:
Proof using Gaussian integration Case of M = N Let X be an n -dimensional centered Gaussian random variable with covariance ⟨XiXj⟩=Mij . Then the covariance matrix of Xi2 and Xj2 is Cov (Xi2,Xj2)=⟨Xi2Xj2⟩−⟨Xi2⟩⟨Xj2⟩ Using Wick's theorem to develop ⟨Xi2Xj2⟩=2⟨XiXj⟩2+⟨Xi2⟩⟨Xj2⟩ we have Cov (Xi2,Xj2)=2⟨XiXj⟩2=2Mij2 Since a covariance matrix is positive definite, this proves that the matrix with elements Mij2 is a positive definite matrix.
Proof:
General case Let X and Y be n -dimensional centered Gaussian random variables with covariances ⟨XiXj⟩=Mij , ⟨YiYj⟩=Nij and independent from each other so that we have ⟨XiYj⟩=0 for any i,j Then the covariance matrix of XiYi and XjYj is Cov (XiYi,XjYj)=⟨XiYiXjYj⟩−⟨XiYi⟩⟨XjYj⟩ Using Wick's theorem to develop ⟨XiYiXjYj⟩=⟨XiXj⟩⟨YiYj⟩+⟨XiYi⟩⟨XjYj⟩+⟨XiYj⟩⟨XjYi⟩ and also using the independence of X and Y , we have Cov (XiYi,XjYj)=⟨XiXj⟩⟨YiYj⟩=MijNij Since a covariance matrix is positive definite, this proves that the matrix with elements MijNij is a positive definite matrix.
Proof:
Proof using eigendecomposition Proof of positive semidefiniteness Let M=∑μimimiT and N=∑νininiT . Then M∘N=∑ijμiνj(mimiT)∘(njnjT)=∑ijμiνj(mi∘nj)(mi∘nj)T Each (mi∘nj)(mi∘nj)T is positive semidefinite (but, except in the 1-dimensional case, not positive definite, since they are rank 1 matrices). Also, μiνj>0 thus the sum M∘N is also positive semidefinite.
Proof:
Proof of definiteness To show that the result is positive definite requires even further proof. We shall show that for any vector a≠0 , we have aT(M∘N)a>0 . Continuing as above, each aT(mi∘nj)(mi∘nj)Ta≥0 , so it remains to show that there exist i and j for which corresponding term above is nonzero. For this we observe that aT(mi∘nj)(mi∘nj)Ta=(∑kmi,knj,kak)2 Since N is positive definite, there is a j for which nj∘a≠0 (since otherwise njTa=∑k(nj∘a)k=0 for all j ), and likewise since M is positive definite there exists an i for which 0.
Proof:
However, this last sum is just ∑kmi,knj,kak . Thus its square is positive. This completes the proof.
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**Polymer engineering**
Polymer engineering:
Polymer engineering is generally an engineering field that designs, analyses, and modifies polymer materials. Polymer engineering covers aspects of the petrochemical industry, polymerization, structure and characterization of polymers, properties of polymers, compounding and processing of polymers and description of major polymers, structure property relations and applications.
History:
The word “polymer” was introduced by the Swedish chemist J. J. Berzelius. He considered, for example, benzene (C6H6) to be a polymer of ethyne (C2H2). Later, this definition underwent a subtle modification.The history of human use of polymers has been long since the mid-19th century, when it entered the chemical modification of natural polymers. In 1839, Charles Goodyear found a critical advance in the research of rubber vulcanization, which has turned natural rubber into a practical engineering material. In 1870, J. W. Hyatt uses camphor to plasticize nitrocellulose to make nitrocellulose plastics industrial. 1907 L. Baekeland reported the synthesis of the first thermosetting phenolic resin, which was industrialized in the 1920s, the first synthetic plastic product. In 1920, H. Standinger proposed that polymers are long-chain molecules that are connected by structural units through common covalent bonds. This conclusion laid the foundation for the establishment of modern polymer science. Subsequently, Carothers divided the synthetic polymers into two broad categories, namely a polycondensate obtained by a polycondensation reaction and an addition polymer obtained by a polyaddition reaction. In the 1950s, K. Ziegler and G. Natta discovered a coordination polymerization catalyst and pioneered the era of synthesis of stereoregular polymers. In the decades after the establishment of the concept of macromolecules, the synthesis of high polymers has achieved rapid development, and many important polymers have been industrialized one after another.
Classification:
The basic division of polymers into thermoplastics, elastomers and thermosets helps define their areas of application.
Classification:
Thermoplastics Thermoplastic refers to a plastic that has heat softening and cooling hardening properties. Most of the plastics we use in our daily lives fall into this category. It becomes soft and even flows when heated, and the cooling becomes hard. This process is reversible and can be repeated. Thermoplastics have relatively low tensile moduli, but also have lower densities and properties such as transparency which make them ideal for consumer products and medical products. They include polyethylene, polypropylene, nylon, acetal resin, polycarbonate and PET, all of which are widely used materials.
Classification:
Elastomers An elastomer generally refers to a material that can be restored to its original state after removal of an external force, whereas a material having elasticity is not necessarily an elastomer. The elastomer is only deformed under weak stress, and the stress can be quickly restored to a polymer material close to the original state and size. Elastomers are polymers which have very low moduli and show reversible extension when strained, a valuable property for vibration absorption and damping. They may either be thermoplastic (in which case they are known as Thermoplastic elastomers) or crosslinked, as in most conventional rubber products such as tyres. Typical rubbers used conventionally include natural rubber, nitrile rubber, polychloroprene, polybutadiene, styrene-butadiene and fluorinated rubbers.
Classification:
Thermosets A thermosetting resin is used as a main component, and a plastic which forms a product is formed by a cross-linking curing process in combination with various necessary additives. It is liquid in the early stage of the manufacturing or molding process, and it is insoluble and infusible after curing, and it cannot be melted or softened again. Common thermosetting plastics are phenolic plastics, epoxy plastics, aminoplasts, unsaturated polyesters, alkyd plastics, and the like. Thermoset plastics and thermoplastics together constitute the two major components of synthetic plastics. Thermosetting plastics are divided into two types: formaldehyde cross-linking type and other cross-linking type.
Classification:
Thermosets includes phenolic resins, polyesters and epoxy resins, all of which are used widely in composite materials when reinforced with stiff fibers such as fiberglass and aramids. Since crosslinking stabilises the thermoset polymer matrix of these materials, they have physical properties more similar to traditional engineering materials like steel. However, their very much lower densities compared with metals makes them ideal for lightweight structures. In addition, they suffer less from fatigue, so are ideal for safety-critical parts which are stressed regularly in service.
Materials:
Plastic Plastic is a polymer compound which is polymerized by polyaddition polymerization and polycondensation. It is free to change the composition and shape. It is made up of synthetic resins and fillers, plasticizers, stabilizers, lubricants, colorants and other additives. The main component of plastic is resin. Resin means that the polymer compound has not been added with various additives. The term resin was originally named for the secretion of oil from plants and animals, such as rosin and shellac. Resin accounts for approximately 40% - 100% of the total weight of the plastic. The basic properties of plastics are mainly determined by the nature of the resin, but additives also play an important role. Some plastics are basically made of synthetic resins, with or without additives such as plexiglass, polystyrene, etc.
Materials:
Fiber Fiber refers to a continuous or discontinuous filament of one substance. Animals and plant fibers play an important role in maintaining tissue. Fibers are widely used and can be woven into good threads, thread ends and hemp ropes. They can also be woven into fibrous layers when making paper or feel. They are also commonly used to make other materials together with other materials to form composites. Therefore, whether it is natural or synthetic fiber filamentous material. In modern life, the application of fiber is ubiquitous, and there are many high-tech products.
Materials:
Rubber Rubber refers to highly elastic polymer materials and reversible shapes. It is elastic at room temperature and can be deformed with a small external force. After removing the external force, it can return to the original state. Rubber is a completely amorphous polymer with a low glass transition temperature and a large molecular weight, often greater than several hundred thousand. Highly elastic polymer compounds can be classified into natural rubber and synthetic rubber. Natural rubber processing extracts gum rubber and grass rubber from plants; synthetic rubber is polymerized by various monomers. Rubber can be used as elastic, insulating, water-impermeable air-resistant materials.
Applications:
Polyethylene Commonly used polyethylenes can be classified into low density polyethylene (LDPE), high density polyethylene (HDPE), and linear low density polyethylene (LLDPE). Among them, HDPE has better thermal, electrical and mechanical properties, while LDPE and LLDPE have better flexibility, impact properties and film forming properties. LDPE and LLDPE are mainly used for plastic bags, plastic wraps, bottles, pipes and containers; HDPE is widely used in various fields such as film, pipelines and daily necessities because its resistance to many different solvents.
Applications:
Polypropylene Polypropylene is widely used in various applications due to its good chemical resistance and weldability. It has lowest density among commodity plastics. It is commonly used in packaging applications, consumer goods, automatic applications and medical applications. Polypropylene sheets are widely used in industrial sector to produce acid and chemical tanks, sheets, pipes, Returnable Transport Packaging (RTP), etc. because of its properties like high tensile strength, resistance to high temperatures and corrosion resistance.
Applications:
Composites Typical uses of composites are monocoque structures for aerospace and automobiles, as well as more mundane products like fishing rods and bicycles. The stealth bomber was the first all-composite aircraft, but many passenger aircraft like the Airbus and the Boeing 787 use an increasing proportion of composites in their fuselages, such as hydrophobic melamine foam. The quite different physical properties of composites gives designers much greater freedom in shaping parts, which is why composite products often look different from conventional products. On the other hand, some products such as drive shafts, helicopter rotor blades, and propellers look identical to metal precursors owing to the basic functional needs of such components.
Applications:
Biomedical applications Biodegradable polymers are widely used materials for many biomedical and pharmaceutical applications. These polymers are considered very promising for controlled drug delivery devices. Biodegradable polymers also offer great potential for wound management, orthopaedic devices, dental applications and tissue engineering. Not like non biodegradable polymers, they won't require a second step of a removal from body. Biodegradable polymers will break down and are absorbed by the body after they served their purpose. Since 1960, polymers prepared from glycolic acid and lactic acid have found a multitude of uses in the medical industry. Polylactates (PLAs) are popular for drug delivery system due to their fast and adjustable degradation rate.
Applications:
Membrane technologies Membrane techniques are successfully used in the separation in the liquid and gas systems for years, and the polymeric membranes are used most commonly because they have lower cost to produce and are easy to modify their surface, which make them suitable in different separation processes. Polymers helps in many fields including the application for separation of biological active compounds, proton exchange membranes for fuel cells and membrane contractors for carbon dioxide capture process.
Related Major:
Petroleum / Chemical / Mineral / Geology Raw materials and processing New energy Automobiles and spare parts Other industries Electronic Technology / Semiconductor / Integrated Circuit Machinery / Equipment / Heavy Industry Medical equipment / instruments
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**Natural Language and Linguistic Theory**
Natural Language and Linguistic Theory:
Natural Language & Linguistic Theory is a quarterly peer-reviewed academic journal covering theoretical and generative linguistics. It was established in 1983 and originally published by Kluwer Academic Publishers. Since 2004 the journal is published by Springer Science+Business Media. The editor-in-chief is Julie Anne Legate (University of Pennsylvania).
The journal carries a "Topic-Comment" column (initiated by Geoffrey K. Pullum), in which a contributor presents a personal, sometimes controversial, opinion on some aspect of the field.
Abstracting and indexing:
The journal is abstracted and indexed in: According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2015 impact factor of 0.845.
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**Stook**
Stook:
A stook /stʊk/, also referred to as a shock or stack, is an arrangement of sheaves of cut grain-stalks placed so as to keep the grain-heads off the ground while still in the field and before collection for threshing. Stooked grain sheaves are typically wheat, barley and oats. In the era before combine harvesters and powered grain driers, stooking was necessary to dry the grain for a period of days to weeks before threshing, to achieve a moisture level low enough for storage. In the 21st century, most grain is produced with the mechanized and powered methods, and is therefore not stooked at all. However, stooking remains useful to smallholders who grow their own grain, or at least some of it, as opposed to buying it.
Overview:
The purpose of a stook [or 'stooking'] is to dry the unthreshed grain while protecting it from vermin until it is brought into long-term storage. The unthreshed grain also cures while in a stook. In England, sheaves were commonly stacked in stooks of twelve and may therefore refer to twelve sheaves.
Overview:
Stook may also have a general meaning of 'bundle' or 'heap' and applicable to items other than sheaves or bales. For example, in the era when traditional hay-making was common, raked-up piles of hay were also called stooks, shocks, or ricks. Today baling has largely replaced the stook method of drying hay, or hay is chopped and ensilaged either in silos or on the ground inside polymer wrappers to make haylage.
Overview:
In North America, a stook may also refer to a field stack of six, ten or fifteen small (70–90 lb (30–40 kg)), rectangular bales of hay or straw. These bales may be stacked and deposited by a "stooking machine" or "stooker" that is dragged, sled-like, behind the baler. The stooking sled has four, five, or six fingers that hold the bales until the stook is complete. When the stook is complete the "stacker" steps on a lever to release the stook. The fingers drop to the ground and the finished stook slides off the fingers. The sled resets itself and is ready to be filled again. The bales are stacked on the diagonal to shed the rain and to minimise acquiring moisture from the ground before being picked up. An automatic bale stooker was eventually designed to eliminate the need for a person to manually stack and trip the stook-release. The automatic stooker is positioned behind the baler and collects released bales and sends them up an inclined shute. The bale falls through a series of bars into the "3-2-1" configuration. Once all six bales are in position the platform trips, drops the stook in the field, and automatically returns to the loading position. Allied produced a model of stooker in the 1980s that can still be found across the countryside in Canada today.
Shocking or stooking:
Before mechanical harvesting became the norm, a common agricultural practice was to manually cut sheaves of grain, tie them in bundles, and stack them against one another vertically to form a "shock" so that they could air dry. In the era before combine harvesters and powered grain driers, stooking was necessary to dry the grain for a period of days to weeks before threshing, to achieve a moisture level low enough for storage. In the 21st century, most grain is produced with the mechanized and powered methods, and is therefore not stocked at all. However, stooking remains useful to smallholders who grow their own grain, or at least some of it, as opposed to buying it.
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**Maxwell Montes**
Maxwell Montes:
Maxwell Montes is a mountain massif on the planet Venus, of which Skadi Mons is the highest point on the planet's surface.
General description:
Located on Ishtar Terra, the more northern of the planet's two major highlands, Maxwell Montes is 11 kilometres (36,000 ft) high. It rises about 6.4 kilometers above and to the east (21,000 ft above, and 4 miles (6.44 km) to the east) of Lakshmi Planum, and is about 853 kilometres (530 mi) long by 700 kilometres (435 mi) wide. The western slopes are very steep, whereas the eastern slopes descend gradually into Fortuna Tessera. Due to its elevation, it is the coolest (about 380 °C or 716 °F) and least pressurised (about 45 bar or 44 atm) location on the surface of Venus.
Origins and geology:
The origin of the Lakshmi Planum and the mountain belts such as Maxwell Montes is controversial. One theory suggests they formed over a hot plume of material rising from Venus's interior, while another says the region is being compressed (pushed together) from all sides, resulting in material descending into the planet's interior. Broad ridges and valleys making up Maxwell Montes and Fortuna Tessera suggest that the topography resulted from compression. The parallel ridges and valleys were cut by later extensional faults. The extreme height of Maxwell Montes with other compressional mountain ranges around Lakshmi Planum suggests that its origin is more complex.Most of Maxwell Montes has a bright radar return which is common on Venus at high altitudes. This phenomenon is thought to result from the presence of a mineral, possibly a metallic snow. Early suggestions included pyrite and tellurium; more recently, lead sulfide and bismuth sulfide.
Radar mapping and naming:
By using radar to probe through the permanent and thick clouds in the Venusian atmosphere and make observations of the surface, scientists at the American Arecibo Radio Telescope in Puerto Rico discovered the extensive highland on Venus that came to be called Maxwell Montes in 1967. In 1978, the space probe Pioneer Venus 1 went into orbit around Venus for the purpose of making radar observations of the Venusian surface. These observations made possible the creation of the first topographic map of the surface of Venus, and confirmed that a point within Maxwell Montes is the highest point above the average level of the planet's surface.Maxwell Montes is named for James Clerk Maxwell whose work in mathematical physics predicted the existence of radio waves, which made radar, and thus the surface observations of Venus, possible. Maxwell Montes, Alpha Regio, and Beta Regio are the three exceptions to the rule that the surface features of Venus are to be named for females. The name, originally given by Ray Jurgens in 1970 on the urging of Tommy Gold, was approved by the International Astronomical Union's Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature (IAU/WGPSN) between 1976 and 1979.
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**Fexaramine**
Fexaramine:
Fexaramine is an investigational compound which acts as an agonist of the farnesoid X receptor (FXR), which is a bile acid-activated nuclear receptor that controls bile-acid synthesis, conjugation and transport, as well as lipid metabolism through actions in the liver and intestine.The first publication about fexaramine in 2003 showed it has 100-fold greater affinity for FXR than natural compounds and described the genomic targets and binding site on FXR.When administered orally to mice, fexaramine produced selective actions through FXR receptors in the intestines. Consistent with the effects of other FXR agonist drugs, in a study in mice, oral fexaramine stimulated intestinal fibroblast growth factor 15 (FGF15) production and resulted in metabolic improvements. Intestinal tissue-specific actions of fexaramine were suggested to be a possible new approach for the treatment of obesity and metabolic syndrome. However it cannot be determined from these preliminary results in mice whether FXR agonism with fexaramine will produce weight loss in humans. There are no clinical trials of fexaramine planned in humans and therapy with such FXR agonists for obesity is only a theoretical approach.
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**Medical classification**
Medical classification:
A medical classification is used to transform descriptions of medical diagnoses or procedures into standardized statistical code in a process known as clinical coding. Diagnosis classifications list diagnosis codes, which are used to track diseases and other health conditions, inclusive of chronic diseases such as diabetes mellitus and heart disease, and infectious diseases such as norovirus, the flu, and athlete's foot. Procedure classifications list procedure code, which are used to capture interventional data. These diagnosis and procedure codes are used by health care providers, government health programs, private health insurance companies, workers' compensation carriers, software developers, and others for a variety of applications in medicine, public health and medical informatics, including: statistical analysis of diseases and therapeutic actions reimbursement (e.g., to process claims in medical billing based on diagnosis-related groups) knowledge-based and decision support systems direct surveillance of epidemic or pandemic outbreaksThere are country specific standards and international classification systems.
Classification types:
Many different medical classifications exist, though they occur into two main groupings: Statistical classifications and Nomenclatures.
Classification types:
A statistical classification brings together similar clinical concepts and groups them into categories. The number of categories is limited so that the classification does not become too big. An example of this is used by the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (known as ICD). ICD-10 groups diseases of the circulatory system into one "chapter," known as Chapter IX, covering codes I00–I99. One of the codes in this chapter (I47.1) has the code title (rubric) Supraventricular tachycardia. However, there are several other clinical concepts that are also classified here. Among them are paroxysmal atrial tachycardia, paroxysmal junctional tachycardia, auricular tachycardia and nodal tachycardia.
Classification types:
Another feature of statistical classifications is the provision of residual categories for "other" and "unspecified" conditions that do not have a specific category in the particular classification.
In a nomenclature there is a separate listing and code for every clinical concept. So, in the previous example, each of the tachycardia listed would have its own code. This makes nomenclatures unwieldy for compiling health statistics.
Types of coding systems specific to health care include: Diagnostic codes Are used to determine diseases, disorders, and symptoms Can be used to measure morbidity and mortality Examples: ICD-9-CM, ICD-10, ICD-11 Procedural codes They are numbers or alphanumeric codes used to identify specific health interventions taken by medical professionals.
Examples: CPT, HCPCS, ICPM, ICHI Pharmaceutical codes Are used to identify medications Examples: ATC, NDC, ICD-11 Topographical codes Are codes that indicate a specific location in the body Examples :ICD-O, SNOMED, ICD-11
WHO Family of International Classifications:
The World Health Organization (WHO) maintains several internationally endorsed classifications designed to facilitate the comparison of health related data within and across populations and over time as well as the compilation of nationally consistent data. This "Family of International Classifications" (FIC) include three main (or reference) classifications on basic parameters of health prepared by the organization and approved by the World Health Assembly for international use, as well as a number of derived and related classifications providing additional details. Some of these international standards have been revised and adapted by various countries for national use.
WHO Family of International Classifications:
Reference classifications International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD)ICD-10 (10th revision, in use by WHO since 1994) ICD-11 (11th revision) International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) International Classification of Health Interventions (ICHI) Derived classifications Derived classifications are based on the WHO reference classifications (i.e. ICD and ICF). They include the following: International Classification of Diseases for Oncology, Third Edition (ICD-O-3) The ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behavioural Disorders – This publication deals exclusively with Chapter V of ICD-10, and is available as two variants; Clinical descriptions and diagnostic guidelines, also known as the blue book.
WHO Family of International Classifications:
Diagnostic criteria for research, also known as the green book.
Application of the International Classification of Diseases to Dentistry and Stomatology, 3rd Edition (ICD-DA) Application of the International Classification of Diseases to Neurology (ICD-10-NA) EUROCAT is an extension of the ICD-10 Chapter XVII, which covers congenital disorders.
WHO Family of International Classifications:
National versions Several countries have developed their own version of WHO-FIC publications, which go beyond a local language translation. Many of these are based on the ICD: ICD-9-CM was the US' adaptation of ICD-9 and was maintained for use until September 2015. Starting on October 1, 2015, the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMMS) granted physicians a one-year grace period to begin using ICD-10-CM, or they would be denied Medicare Part B claims.
WHO Family of International Classifications:
ICD-10-CM was developed by the US' Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) and the National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS), and has been in use in the US since October 2015 – replacing ICD-9-CM.
ICD-10-AM was published by Australia's National Centre for Classification in Health in 1998 and has since been adopted by a number of other countries.
WHO Family of International Classifications:
Related classifications Related classifications in the WHO-FIC are those that partially refer to the reference classifications, e.g. only at specific levels. They include: International Classification of Primary Care (ICPC)ICPC-2 PLUS Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System with Defined Daily Doses (ATC/DDD) Assistive products — Classification and terminology (ISO 9999:2022). WHO adopted ISO 9999 as a related classification in 2003, however, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) remains responsible for maintaining ISO 9999.
WHO Family of International Classifications:
International Classification for Nursing Practice (ICNP) Historic FIC classifications ICD versions before ICD-9 are not in use anywhere. ICD-9 was published in 1977, and superseded by ICD-10 in 1994. The last version of ICD-10 was published in 2019, and it was replaced by ICD-11 on 1 January 2022. As of February 2022, 35 of the 194 member states have made the transition to the latest version of the ICD.The International Classification of Procedures in Medicine (ICPM) is a procedural classification that has not updated since 1989, and will be replaced by ICHI. National adaptions of the ICPM includes OPS-301, which is the official German procedural classification.International Classification of External Causes of Injury (ICECI) was last updated in 2003 and, with the development ICD-11, is no longer maintained. The concepts of ICECI are represented within ICD-11 as extension codes.
Other medical classifications:
Diagnosis The categories in a diagnosis classification classify diseases, disorders, symptoms and medical signs. In addition to the ICD and its national variants, they include: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) DSM-IV Codes DSM-5 International Classification of Headache Disorders 2nd Edition (ICHD-II) International Classification of Sleep Disorders (ICSD) Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man, database of genetic codes Orchard Sports Injury and Illness Classification System (OSIICS) Read codes SNOMED CT Procedure The categories in a procedure classification classify specific health interventions undertaken by health professionals. In addition to the ICHI and ICPC, they include: Australian Classification of Health Interventions (ACHI) Canadian Classification of Health Interventions (CCI) Current Procedural Terminology (CPT) Health Care Procedure Coding System (HCPCS) ICD-10 Procedure Coding System (ICD-10-PCS) OPCS Classification of Interventions and Procedures (OPCS-4) Drugs Drugs are often grouped into drug classes. Such classifications include: RxNorm Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System Medical Reference Terminology National Pharmaceutical Product Index National Drug File-Reference Terminology (NDF-RT) National Drug File-Reference Terminology was a terminology maintained by the Veterans Health Administration (VHA). It groups drug concepts into classes. It was part of RxNorm until March 2018.
Other medical classifications:
Medication Reference Terminology (MED-RT) Medication Reference Terminology (MED-RT) is a terminology created and maintained by Veterans Health Administration in the United States. In 2018, it replaced NDF-RT that was used during 2005–2017. Med-RT is not included in RxNorm but is included in National Library of Medicine's UMLS Metathesaurus. Prior 2017, NDF-RT was included in RxNorm. The first release of MED-RT was in the spring of 2018.The United States Food and Drug Administration requires in its Manual of Policies and Procedures (MaPP) 7400.13 dated July 18, 2013 and updated on July 25, 2018, that MED-RT be used for selecting an established pharmacologic class (EPC) for the Highlights of Prescribing Information in drug labeling. Each EPC text phrase is associated with a term known as an EPC concept. EPC concepts use a standardized format derived from the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, Veterans Health Administration (VHA) Medication Reference Terminology (MED-RT). Each EPC concept also has a unique standardized alphanumeric identifier code, used as the machine-readable tag for the concept. These codes enable SPL indexing. The exact EPC text phrase used in INDICATIONS AND USAGE in Highlights might not be identical to the wording used to describe the EPC concept, because the standardized language used for the EPC concept might not be considered sufficiently clear to the readers of the labeling. Each active moiety also may be assigned MOA, PE, and CS standardized indexing concepts, which are also linked to unique standardized alphanumeric identifier codes. MOA, PE, and CS standardized indexing concepts may or may not be related to the therapeutic effect of the active moiety for a particular indication, but they should still be scientifically valid and clinically meaningful. Even if the MOA, PE, and CS standardized indexing concepts are not known with certainty to be related to the therapeutic effect, they may still be useful for identifying drug interactions and permitting other safety assessments for a moiety based upon appropriate and relevant considerations, such as enzyme inhibition and enzyme induction. MOA, PE, and CS concepts are maintained in a standardized format as part of the MED-RT hierarchy. https://www.fda.gov/media/86437/download The United States Food and Drug Administration Study Data Technical Conformance Guide dated July 2020 states, "6.5 Pharmacologic Class 6.5.1 Medication Reference Terminology 6.5.1.1 General Considerations The Veterans Administration's Medication Reference Terminology (MED-RT) should be used to identify the pharmacologic class(es) of all active investigational substances that are used in a study (either clinical or nonclinical). This information should be provided in the SDTM TS domain when a full TS is indicated. The information should be provided as one or more records in TS, where TSPARMCD= PCLAS. Pharmacologic class is a complex concept that is made up of one or more component concepts: mechanism of action (MOA), physiologic effect (PE), and chemical structure (CS).51 The established pharmacologic class is generally the MOA, PE, or CS term that is considered the most scientifically valid and clinically meaningful. Sponsors should include in TS (the full TS) the established pharmacologic class of all active moieties of investigational products used in a study. FDA maintains a list of established pharmacologic classes of approved moieties.52 If the established pharmacologic class is not available for an active moiety, then the sponsor should discuss the appropriate MOA, PE, and CS terms with the review division. For unapproved investigational active moieties where the pharmacologic class is unknown, the PCLAS record may not be available." https://www.fda.gov/media/136460/download The United States Food and Drug Administration publishes a Data Standards Catalog that lists the data standards and terminologies that FDA supports for use in regulatory submissions to better enable the evaluation of safety, effectiveness, and quality of FDA-regulated products. In addition, the FDA has the statutory and regulatory authority to require certain standards and terminologies and these are identified in the Catalog with the date the requirement begins and, as needed, the date the requirement ends, and information sources. The submission of data using standards or terminologies not listed in the Catalog should be discussed with the Agency in advance. Where the Catalog expresses support for more than one standard or terminology for a specific use, the sponsor or applicant may select one to use or can discuss, as appropriate, with their review division. Version 7.0 of the FDA Data Standards Catalog dated 03-15-2021, specifies that MED-RT was a required terminology by the White House Consolidated Health Informatics Initiative in various Federal Register Notices beginning as early as May 6, 2004, for NDAs, ANDAs, and certain BLAs beginning on December 17, 2016, and for certain IND's beginning on December 17, 2017. https://www.fda.gov/media/85137/download Medical Devices Global Medical Device Nomenclature (GMDN), the standard international naming system for medical devices.
Other medical classifications:
Other Classification of Pharmaco-Therapeutic Referrals (CPR) Logical Observation Identifiers Names and Codes (LOINC), standard for identifying medical laboratory observations MEDCIN, point-of-care terminology, intended for use in Electronic Health Record (EHR) systems Medical Dictionary for Regulatory Activities (MedDRA) Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) List of MeSH codes Nursing Interventions Classification (NIC) Nursing Outcomes Classification (NOC) TIME-ITEM, ontology of topics in medical education TNM Classification of Malignant Tumors Unified Medical Language System (UMLS) Victoria Ambulatory Coding System (VACS) / Queensland Ambulatory Coding System (QACS), Australia Library classification that have medical components Dewey Decimal Classification and Universal Decimal Classification (section 610–620) National Library of Medicine classification
ICD, SNOMED and Electronic Health Record (EHR):
SNOMED The Systematized Nomenclature of Medicine (SNOMED) is the most widely recognised nomenclature in healthcare. Its current version, SNOMED Clinical Terms (SNOMED CT), is intended to provide a set of concepts and relationships that offers a common reference point for comparison and aggregation of data about the health care process. SNOMED CT is often described as a reference terminology. SNOMED CT contains more than 311,000 active concepts with unique meanings and formal logic-based definitions organised into hierarchies. SNOMED CT can be used by anyone with an Affiliate License, 40 low income countries defined by the World Bank or qualifying research, humanitarian and charitable projects. SNOMED CT is designed to be managed by computer, and it is a complex relationship concepts.
ICD, SNOMED and Electronic Health Record (EHR):
ICD The International Classification of Disease (ICD) is the most widely recognized medical classification. Maintained by the World Health Organization (WHO), its primary purpose is to categorise diseases for morbidity and mortality reporting. However the coded data is often used for other purposes too; including reimbursement practices such as medical billing. ICD has a hierarchical structure, and coding in this context, is the term applied when representations are assigned to the words they represent. Coding diagnoses and procedures is the assignment of codes from a code set that follows the rules of the underlying classification or other coding guidelines. The current version of the ICD, ICD-10, was endorsed by WHO in 1990. WHO Member states began using the ICD-10 classification system from 1994 for both morbidity and mortality reporting. The exception was the US, who only began using it for reporting mortality in 1999 whilst continuing to use ICD-9-CM for morbidity reporting. The US only adopted its version of ICD-10 in October 2015. The delay meant it was unable to compare US morbidity data with the rest of the world during this period. The next major version of the ICD, ICD-11, was ratified by the 72nd World Health Assembly on 25 May 2019, and member countries have been able to report data using ICD-11 codes since 1 January 2022.ICD-11 is a fully digital product with integration of clinical terminology and classification. It allows documentation at any level of detail. It includes extension codes, a terminology system, with medicaments, chemicals, infections agents, histopathology, anatomy and mechanisms, objects and animals, and other elements that serve to describe sources of injury or harm.
ICD, SNOMED and Electronic Health Record (EHR):
Comparison SNOMED CT and ICD were originally designed for different purposes and each should be used for the purposes for which they were designed. As a core terminology for the EHR, SNOMED CT and ICD-11 provide a common language that enables a consistent way of capturing, and sharing health data across specialities and sites of care. SNOMED is a highly detailed terminology designed for input not reporting, without a specific use case. ICD-11 and SNOMED, are clinically based, and document whatever is needed for patient care. In contrast to SNOMED, ICD-11 allows full clinical documentation while permitting internationally agreed statistical aggregation for specific use cases. The foundation of ICD-11 together with the WHO Classification of Health Interventions (ICHI) and the WHO Classification for Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF), comprising also the WHO lists of anatomy, substances and more, are a complete ecosystem for lossless documentation in digital records and at the same time they address specific usecases for data aggregation in a multilingual, freely usable way. SNOMED CT and ICD are used directly by healthcare providers during the process of care, in addition, ICD can be also used for coding after the episode of care, in lower technology environments. SNOMED CT has multiple hierarchy, whereas there is single primary hierarchy for ICD-11 with alternative multiple hierarchies. SNOMED CT concepts are defined logically by their attributes, as is the case in ICD-11, that in addition has textual rules and definitions.
ICD, SNOMED and Electronic Health Record (EHR):
Data Mapping SNOMED and ICD can be coordinated. The National Library of Medicine (NLM) maps ICD-9-CM, ICD-10-CM, ICD-10-PCS, and other classification systems to SNOMED. Data Mapping is the process of identifying relationships between two distinct data models.
Veterinary medical coding:
Veterinary medical codes include the VeNom Coding Group, the U.S. Animal Hospital Codes, and the Veterinary Extension to SNOMED CT (VetSCT).
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**Holiline Reminder**
Holiline Reminder:
Holiline Reminder is a free software calendar program for Windows.
Holiline Reminder:
Holiline Reminder is characterized by very small space and memory requirements, stability, and an easily customizable user-interface. Holiline Reminder places birthday countdowns, special holidays, and upcoming weddings in a creeping line banner that will stay at the top or bottom of a desktop. It has common functions such as a to-do list and a calendar and unique functions such as a creeping line and adjusting colors to a desktop.
Holiline Reminder:
Different event types have a different set of displayed field and a different text of a notification. Each event type can be supplemented with a photo which is displayed in a tooltip. Calendars can also be imported using widespread iCal files.
Holiline Reminder is available as of 2012 in 16 languages.
Alternatives to Holiline Reminder include Google Calendar, Rainlendar and DeskTask.
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**Ne (text editor)**
Ne (text editor):
ne (for "nice editor") is a console text editor for POSIX computer operating systems such as Linux or Mac OS X. It uses the terminfo library, but it can also be compiled using a bundled copy of the GNU termcap implementation. There is also a Cygwin version. It was developed by Sebastiano Vigna of the University of Milan.
Ne (text editor):
ne is intended to provide an alternative to vi that will be more familiar to beginners [1] and modern users and still be portable across all POSIX-compliant operating systems, and remain usable on slow remote connections. It uses GUI-derived keyboard shortcuts such as Ctrl+Q to quit and Ctrl+O to open a file instead of the multi-mode command structure of vi. It supports many features common in advanced text editors, such as syntax highlighting, regular expressions, configurable menus and keybindings and autocomplete. ne can pipe a marked block of text through any command line filter using the Through command bound to Meta+T by default.[2] ne has some support for UTF-8 encoding[3] and is 8-bit clean.
Ne (text editor):
ne was originally developed on an Amiga 3000T[4] using the curses library and was inspired by that platform's TurboText editor, which was written by Martin Taillefer. Development then moved to Linux in order to take advantage of the terminfo library. Todd Lewis joined the development team, donating code he wrote to add features required at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, which implemented ne as part of their migration of their research computers from MVS to UNIX.[5]. Daniele Filaretti helped with syntax highlighting using code derived from the Joe editor.[6] Version 2.6 adds narrowing for the file open screen, adds status indicators in the open documents list and improves syntax highlighting. Version 3.1.0 is fully 64-bit: file size and line length are limited only by the core memory and disk space available, as large files are memory mapped transparently.
Ne (text editor):
Linux Voice has rated ne as the third best editor for Linux.
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**Meadery**
Meadery:
A meadery is a winery or brewery that produces honey wines or meads, and which sells them commercially. There are craft "meaderies" emerging all over North America, Canada, Australia and New Zealand where each meadery produces various styles of meads, such as fruit meads, traditional meads, session meads, and braggots (mead-beer hybrids).Meaderies are becoming more commonplace around the world as people start to discover their offerings. Meaderies that produce honey wines or meads are becoming more abundant in the US. According to a study by the American Mead Maker Association, the community of mead producers has exploded 130% since 2011, making it the fastest growing alcoholic beverage category in the US.In the United Kingdom, particularly in Cornwall, a meadery can also refer to a type of restaurant that serves mead and food with a medieval ambience. An ancient meadery is thought to be in the style of a banquet hall, having wooden flooring, heavy wooden tables, and lit by candlelight with white-painted granite walls.
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**Landau (automobile)**
Landau (automobile):
Landau is a carriage design with a folding fabric top consisting of two sections supported by external elliptical springs. When used in referencing an automobile, landau generally means a simulated convertible.The Nash Rambler Landau introduced in 1950 is a cabrio coach with a power-operated fabric top.A landau bar is an ornamental feature located on a car's rear quarter panel, mostly used on hearses.
Origins:
Carriages that had a fabric top that could be lowered and raised were named "Landau" carriages after the city of Landau in Germany where convertible carriages were first produced.Thus the name "landau", like many other automobile terms, originates from coachbuilding (since coachbuilders began making motor car bodies instead, and because customers were familiar with coachbuilding terms).The "landau" described a carriage that featured a manually folding fabric roof that was supported by elliptical springs. The top was designed with separate folding front and rear sections that raised or lowered independently or locked together in the middle to cover the carriage. To differentiate the landau models, the coachbuilders typically included large sidebars.The automotive equivalent to the horse-drawn landau carriage was not popular, since a forward view was generally insisted upon by passengers. Instead, the more popular body style for automobiles was the landaulet (half-landau), with its covered front seats and open rear seats.
Origins:
The 1935 handbook of the Society of Automotive Engineers defines the landau as "a closed-type body with provision for opening or folding the rear quarter, by the use of landau joints" and this usually makes it impossible to include quarter glass.
Simulated convertible:
In the 1920s and 1930s, especially in the United States, "landau" became associated with cars where the fixed (eg metal) roof and rear quarter panels were covered with fabric or leather and fitted with S-shaped side landau bars, to make it appear like a convertible roof.Following the 1920s and 1930s, when custom-built bodies were available with a split front and rear roof design, the use of landau changed from a functional feature on limited production cars to that of a decorative feature in some higher market segment production cars.The term landau fell into disuse from the mid-1940s until the late-1950s. It was used to describe fixed-roof cars styled to simulate a two-piece roof or to resemble convertibles, sometimes time using vinyl roofs. An example of a two-piece roof is the 1957 Imperial four-door hardtop with simulated "landau-type" roof design. Some models were called "landaus" by their manufacturers, and many were fitted with landau bars on the rear quarters (faux cabriolet).
Landau bar:
A landau bar is an ornamental S-shaped metallic bar installed on the rear quarter panel of a car. Mostly used on hearses, the landau bar represents the folding roof structure on a Landau carriage.Since the mid-1940s, hearses in the United States commonly feature chrome bow-shaped landau bars on the simulated leather covered rear roof sides.
Nash Rambler Landau:
In 1950, Nash Motors introduced the Rambler, "the first true compact car of the post-World War II era" in a two-door cabrio coach body style called the "Nash Rambler Landau."This model was described as a "convertible landau" and the roof section from the top of the windscreen could be retracted into the trunk/boot. A "bridge beam" steel structure remained in place at the top of the doors and windows. No other convertible featured anything like the Nash Rambler Landau with the fabric top that slid back to open along the fixed side rails. The fabric top was power-operated with a cover that could be snapped on when the top was open. The Rambler's strong body structure eliminated the internal bracing that was normally needed on other open roof cars.
Ford Thunderbird Landau:
Ford marketed versions of the Ford Thunderbird using Landau as a model name. The 1962 Landau was a hardtop that included a padded vinyl roof in white or black with simulated S-bars with a raised wing Thunderbird emblem on the C-pillars. This model was popular and contributed to increased sales.The "Town Landau" model was a model of the 1966 Thunderbird line. It featured a wide rear C-pillar with no rear quarter windows with painted roof or available with a vinyl-covered roof that came in black, white, parchment, or sage gold and included color-coordinated S-bars.The Thunderbird was redesigned for 1967 and included a four-door sedan body design with rear-hinged (suicide) doors. All four-door models included a vinyl roof and landau bars giving them the official name of "Landau Sedan". The C-pillar was visually extended into the rear door window area and covered to match the vinyl top, with the landau bars helping camouflage the cut line. The simulated landau design with overwrought trim on the four-door model has been described as "a one-car funeral procession". The Town Landau two-door version was reintroduced as a mid-1977 model with standard luxury features, and it was continued for several more years.
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**Rover Environmental Monitoring Station**
Rover Environmental Monitoring Station:
Rover Environmental Monitoring Station (REMS) is a weather station on Mars for Curiosity rover contributed by Spain and Finland. REMS measures humidity, pressure, temperature, wind speeds, and ultraviolet radiation on Mars. This Spanish project is led by the Spanish Astrobiology Center and includes the Finnish Meteorological Institute as a partner, contributing pressure and humidity sensors.
Overview:
All sensors are located around three elements: two booms attached to the rover Remote Sensing Mast (RSM), the Ultraviolet Sensor (UVS) assembly located on the rover top deck, and the Instrument Control Unit (ICU) inside the rover. Goals include understanding Martian general circulation, microscale weather systems, local hydrological cycle, destructive potential of UV radiation, and subsurface habitability based on ground-atmosphere interaction.By August 18, 2012, REMS was turned on and its data was being returned to Earth. The temperature at that time: 37 degrees Fahrenheit (2.8 degrees Celsius). On August 21, 2012, one of two anemometers returned data with errors. After testing it was concluded that it was broken, probably hit by a rock on descent. Martian winds can still be detected with the other sensor.Reports are posted on the Center for Astrobiology website and Twitter daily.Parts of REMS Instrument Control Unit Ultraviolet Sensor Boom 1 with: Air Temperature Sensor Wind Sensor Ground Temperature Sensor Boom 2 with: Air Temperature Sensor Wind Sensor Humidity SensorThe pressure sensor can detect pressures from 1 to 1150 Pa (Pascal) (0.000145038 PSI to 0.1667934 PSI). For comparison, 1 atmosphere is 101,325 Pascals or 14.7 PSI.The air temperature, wind speed and direction sensor for InSight Mars lander (planned for 2018 launch) is based on REMS, also contributed by Spain.
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**Quisqualic acid**
Quisqualic acid:
Quisqualic acid is an agonist of the AMPA, kainate, and group I metabotropic glutamate receptors. It is one of the most potent AMPA receptor agonists known. It causes excitotoxicity and is used in neuroscience to selectively destroy neurons in the brain or spinal cord. Quisqualic acid occurs naturally in the seeds of Quisqualis species.
Research conducted by the USDA Agricultural Research Service, has demonstrated quisqualic acid is also present within the flower petals of zonal geranium (Pelargonium x hortorum) and is responsible for causing rigid paralysis of the Japanese beetle. Quisqualic acid is thought to mimic L-glutamic acid, which is a neurotransmitter in the insect neuromuscular junction and mammalian central nervous system.
History:
Combretum indicum (Quisqualis indica var. villosa) is native to tropical Asia but is still doubt whether is indigenous from Africa or was introduced there. Since the amino acid that can be isolated from its fruits can nowadays be made in the lab, the plant is mostly cultivated as an ornamental plant. Its fruits are known for having anthelmintic effect, therefore they are used to treat ascariasis. The dried seeds are used to reduce vomiting and to stop diarrhoea, but an oil extracted from the seeds can have purgative properties. The roots are taken as a vermifuge and leaf juice, softened in oil, are applied to treat ulcers, parasitic skin infections or fever. The plant is used for pain relief, and in the Indian Ocean islands, a decoction of the leaves is used to bath children with eczema. In the Philippines, people chew the fruits to get rid of the cough and the crushed fruits and seeds are applied to ameliorate nephritis. In Vietnam, they use the root of the plant to treat rheumatism. In Papua New Guinea the plants are taken as a contraceptive medicine. However the plant does not have just medicinal use. In west Africa, the long and elastic stems are used for fish weir, fish traps and basketry. The flowers are edible, and they are added in salads to add color. The seed oil contains palmitic, oleic, stearic, linoleic, myristic and arachidonic acid. The flowers are rich in the flavonoid glycosides pelargonidin – 3 – glucoside and rutin. The leaves and stem bark are rich in tannins, while from the leafy stem several diphenylpropanoids were isolated. The active compound (quisqualic acid) resembles the action of the anthelmintic α-santonin, so in some countries the seeds of the plants are used to substitute for the drug. However, the acid has shown excitatory effects on cultured neurons, as well as in a variety of animal models, as it causes several types of limbic seizures and neuronal necrosis.The quisqualic acid can be now commercially synthesized, and it functions as an antagonist for its receptor, found in the mammalian central nervous system.
Chemistry:
Structure It is an organic compound, associated with the class of L – alpha – amino acids. These compounds have the L configuration of the alpha carbon atom. Quisqualic acid contains, in its structure a five membered, planar, conjugated, aromatic heterocyclic system, consisting of one oxygen atom and two nitrogen atoms at position 2 and 4 of the oxadiazole ring. The 1,2,4–oxadiazole ring structure is present in many natural products of pharmacological importance. Quisqualic acid, which is extracted from the seeds of Quisqualis indica is a strong antagonist of the α–amino–3–hydroxy–5–methyl–4–isoxazolepropionic acid receptors.
Chemistry:
Reactivity and synthesis Biosynthesis L – quisqualic acid is a glutamate receptor agonist, acting at AMPA receptors and metabotropic glutamate receptors positively linked to phosphoinositide hydrolysis. It sensitizes neurons in hippocampus to depolarization by L-AP6.Being a 3, 5 disubstituted oxadiazole, quisqualic acid is a stable compound.One way of synthesizing quisqualic acid is by enzymatic synthesis. Therefore, cysteine synthase is purified from the leaves of Quisqualis indica var. villosa, showing two forms of this enzyme. Both isolated isoenzymes catalyse the formation of cysteine from O-acetyl-L-serine and hydrogen sulphide, but only one of them catalyses the formation of L – quisqualic acid.
Chemistry:
Industrial synthesis Another way of synthesizing the product is by having L-serine as starting material. Initial step in synthesis is the conversion of L-serine to its N-t-butoxycarbonyl derivative. Amine group of serine has to be protected, so di-tert-butyldicarbonate in isopropanol and aqueous sodium hydroxide was added, at room temperature. The result of the reaction is the N-t-Boc protected acid. Acylation of this acid with O-benzylhydroxylamine hydrochloride followed. T-Boc protected serine was treated with one equivalent of isobutyl chloroformate and N-methylmorpholine in dry THF, resulting in mixed anhydride. This than reacts with O – benzylhydroxylamine to give the hydroxamate. The hydroxamate proceeds to be converted into β – lactam, which was hydrolyzed to the hydroxylamino acid (77) by treatment with one equivalent of sodium hydroxide. After acidification with saturated aqueous solution of citric acid, the final product, L-quisqualic acid, was isolated.
Functions:
Molecular mechanisms of action Quisqualic acid is functionally similar to glutamate, which is an endogenous agonist of glutamate’s receptors. It functions as a neurotransmitter in insect neuromuscular junction and CNS. It passes the blood brain barrier and binds to cell surface receptors AMPA and Kainate receptors in the brain. AMPA receptor is a type of ionotropic glutamate receptor coupled to ion channels and when bound to a ligand, it modulates the excitability by gating the flow of calcium and sodium ions into the intracellular domain. On the other hand, kainate receptors are less understood than AMPA receptors. Although, the function is somewhat similar: the ion channel permeates the flow of sodium and potassium ions, and to a lower extent the Calcium ions.As mentioned, binding of quisqualic acid to these receptors leads to an influx of calcium and sodium ions into the neurons, which triggers downstream signaling cascades. Calcium signaling involves protein effectors such as kinases (CaMK, MAPK/ERKs), CREB-transcription factor and various phosphatases. It regulates gene expression and may modify the properties of the receptors. Sodium and calcium ions together generate an excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) that triggers action potentials. It's worthwhile to mention that overactivation of glutamate receptors and kainate receptors lead to excitotoxicity and neurological damage.A greater dose of quisqualic acid over activates these receptors that can induce seizures, due to prolonged action potentials firing the neurons. Quisqualic acid is also associated with various neurological disorders such as epilepsy and stroke.Metabotropic glutamate receptors, also known as mGluRs are a type of glutamate receptor which are members of the G-protein coupled receptors. These receptors are important in neural communication, memory formation, learning and regulation. Like Glutamate, quisqualic acid binds to this receptor and shows even a higher potency, mainly for mGlu1 and mGlu5 and exert its effects through a complex second messenger system. Activation of these receptors leads to an increase in inositol triphosphate (IP3) and diacylglycerol (DAG) by the activation of phospholipase C (PLC). Eventually, IP3 diffuses to bind to IP3 receptors on the ER, which are calcium channels that eventually increase the Calcium concentration in the cell.
Functions:
Modulation of NMDA receptor The effects of quisqualic acid depend on the location and context. These 2 receptors are known to potentiate the activity of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors (NMDARs), a certain type of ion channel that is a neurotoxic. Excessive amounts of NMDA have been found to cause harm to the neurons in the presence of mGlu1 and mGlu5 receptors.
Effects on plasticity Activation of group 1 mGluRs are implicated in synaptic plasticity and contribute to both neurotoxicity and neuroprotection such as protection of the retina against NMDA toxicity, mentioned above. It causes a reduction in ZENK expression, which leads to myopia in chicken.
Role in disease Studies on mice have suggested that mGlu1 may be involved in the development of certain cancers. Knowing that these types of receptors are mostly localized in the thalamus, hypothalamus and caudate nucleus regions of the brain, the overactivation of these receptors by quisqualic acid can suggest a potential role in movement disorders.
Functions:
Use/purpose, availability, efficacy, side effects/ adverse effects Quisqualic acid is an excitatory amino acid (EAA) and a potent agonist of metabotropic glutamate receptors, where evidence shows that activation of these receptors may cause a long lasting sensitization of neurons to depolarization, a phenomenon called the “Quis effect ”.The first uses of quisqualic acid in research date back to 1975, where the first description of the acid noted that it had strong excitatory effects in the spinal cords of frogs and rats as well as on the neuromuscular junction in crayfish. Since then, its main use in research has been as template for excitotoxic models of spinal cord injury (SCI) studies. When injected into the spinal cord, quisqualic acid can cause excessive activation of glutamate receptors, leading to neuronal damage and loss. This excitotoxic model has been used to study the mechanisms of SCI and to develop potential treatments for related conditions. Several studies have demonstrated experimentally the similarity between the pathology and symptoms of SCI induced by quisqualic acid injections and those observed in clinical spinal cord injuries.After administration of quis-injection, spinal neurons located close to areas of neuronal degeneration and cavitation exhibit a decrease in mechanical threshold, meaning they become more sensitive to mechanical stimuli. This heightened sensitivity is accompanied by prolonged after discharge responses. These results suggest that excitatory amino acid agonists can induce morphological changes in the spinal cord, which can lead to physiological changes in adjacent neurons, ultimately resulting in altered mechanosensitivity.There is evidence to suggest that excitatory amino acids like quisqualic acid play a significant role in the induction of cell death following stroke, hypoxia-ischemia, and traumatic brain injury .Studies involving the binding of quisqualic acid have indicated that the amino acid does not show selectivity for a singular specific receptor subtype, which was initially identified as the quisqualate receptor. Instead, it demonstrates high affinity for other types of excitatory amino acid receptors, including kainate, AMPA, and metabotropic receptors, as well as some transport sites, such as the chloride-dependent L-AP4-sensitive sites. In addition, it also exhibits affinity for certain enzymes responsible for cleaving dipeptides, including the enzyme responsible for cleaving N-acetyl-aspartylglutamate (NAALADase) .Regarding bioavailability, no database information is present, as there is limited research on its pharmacokinetics. However, even though the bioavailability is not well established, studies in rats suggest that age may play a role in the presence of administered quisqualic acid effects. An experiment which was done on rats within two age groups (20-days-old and 60-days-old) showed that, when given quisqualic acid microinjections, 60-day-old rats had more seizures compared to the younger rats. Additionally, the rats were given the same amount of quisqualic acid, however the immature animals received a higher dosage per body weight, implying that the harm inflicted by the excitatory amino acid may have been comparatively lower in the younger animals.Quisqualic acid has not been used in clinical trials and currently has no medicinal use, therefore no information about adverse or side effects has been reported. There has been a significant decrease in research done on quisqualic acid after the early 2000’s, possibly attributed to a lack of specificity and/or lack of other clinical uses apart from SCI investigations, which have progressed with other methods of research.
Metabolism/Biotransformation:
Quisqualic acid enters the body through different routes, such as ingestion, inhalation, or injection. The ADME (absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion) process has been studied by means of various animal models in the laboratory. Absorption: quisqualic acid is a small and lipophilic molecule , thus is expected to be rapid. It is predicted to be absorbed in the human intestine and from then it circulates to the blood brain barrier. Analysis of amino acid transport systems is complex by the presence of multiple transporters with overlapping specificity. Since glutamate and quisqualic acid are similar, it is predicted that sodium/potassium transport in the gastrointestinal tract is the absorption site of the acid. Distribution: knowing the receptors it binds to, it can be readily predicted where the acid is present such as: hippocampus, basal ganglia, olfactory regions. Metabolism: quisqualic acid is thought to be metabolized in the liver by oxidative metabolism carried out by cytochrome P450 enzymes, Glutathione S-transferase (detoxifying agents). A study showed that the exposure to quisqualic acid revealed that P450, GST were involved. It is also confirmed by using admetSAR tool to evaluate chemical ADMET properties. Its metabolites are thought to be NMDA and quinolinic acid. Excretion: Mostly, as a rule of thumb, amino acids undergo transamination/deamination in the liver. Thus amino acids are converted into ammonia and keto acids, which are eventually excreted via the kidneys. It is worth mentioning that the pharmacokinetics of quisqualic acid has not been extensively studied and there is sparse information available on its ADME process. Therefore, more research is needed to fully understand the metabolism of the acid in the body.
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**Paradiastole**
Paradiastole:
Paradiastole (from Greek παραδιαστολή from παρά para "next to, alongside", and διαστολή diastole "separation, distinction") is the reframing of a vice as a virtue, often with the use of euphemism, for example, "Yes, I know it does not work all the time, but that is what makes it interesting." It is often used ironically. Paradiastole has been described as "the rhetorical technique of evaluative redescription -- more popularly known as euphemism and dysphemism -- designed to enlarge or reduce the moral significance of something". Another example is referring to manual labour as a "workout". Perhaps the most familiar usage today comes from the software world: "It's not a bug; it's a feature!" (This is used both euphemistically and literally, as many features in software originated as bugs).
Usage to describe a list:
In studies on classical antiquity, it has come to mean the repetition of disjunctive words in a list.
In biblical studies, paradiastole is a type of anaphora (the repetition of one word at the beginning of successive sentences). Paradiastole uses certain words—either, or, neither, not, and nor—as disjunctions. A disjunction differs from a conjunction in that it separates things, whereas a conjunction joins them.
Usage to describe a list:
An example of this technique can be found in the Gospel of John, clarifying the meaning of τέκνα θεοῦ (God's children): οἳ [πιστεύοντες] οὐκ ἐξ αἱμάτων οὐδὲ ἐκ θελήματος σαρκὸς οὐδὲ ἐκ θελήματος ἀνδρὸς ἀλλ' ἐκ θεοῦ ἐγεννήθησαν. (John 1.13).They [the believers], not of blood, nor of the flesh's desire, nor of a man's desire, but of God were born.In this passage, οὐκ and οὐδὲ (here translated not and nor) function as the disjunctions. The paradiastole emphasizes that those who believed (οἳ πιστεύοντες) and became "God's children" were not physically ("of blood", etc.) born again, but divinely.
Usage to describe a list:
The French Enlightenment writer Voltaire remarked sardonically: "This agglomeration which was called and which still calls itself the Holy Roman Empire was neither holy, nor Roman, nor an empire."
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**Singular they**
Singular they:
Singular they, along with its inflected or derivative forms, them, their, theirs and themselves (also themself, and theirself), is a gender-neutral third-person pronoun. It typically occurs with an indeterminate antecedent, in sentences such as: "Somebody left their umbrella in the office. Could you please let them know where they can get it?" "My personal rule is to never trust anyone who says that they had a good time in high school." "The patient should be told at the outset how much they will be required to pay." "But a journalist should not be forced to reveal their sources."This use of singular they had emerged by the 14th century, about a century after the plural they. It has been commonly employed in everyday English ever since and has gained currency in official contexts. Singular they has been criticised since the mid-18th century by prescriptive commentators who consider it an error. Its continued use in modern standard English has become more common and formally accepted with the move toward gender-neutral language. Some early-21st-century style guides described it as colloquial and less appropriate in formal writing. However, by 2020, most style guides accepted the singular they as a personal pronoun.In the early 21st century, use of singular they with known individuals emerged for people who do not identify as male or female, as in, for example, "This is my friend, Jay. I met them at work." They in this context was named Word of the Year for 2015 by the American Dialect Society, and for 2019 by Merriam-Webster. In 2020, the American Dialect Society also selected it as Word of the Decade for the 2010s.
Inflected forms and derivative pronouns:
Like the "singular you", "singular they" permits a singular antecedent, but is used with the same verb forms as plural they, and has the same inflected forms as plural they (i.e. them, their, and theirs), except that in the reflexive form, themself is sometimes used instead of themselves.
Inflected forms and derivative pronouns:
Themself is attested from the 14th to 16th centuries. Its use has been increasing since the 1970s or 1980s, though it is sometimes still classified as "a minority form". In 2002, Payne and Huddleston, in The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language, called its use in standard dialect "rare and acceptable only to a minority of speakers" but "likely to increase with the growing acceptance of they as a singular pronoun". It is useful when referring to a single person of indeterminate gender, where the plural form themselves might seem incongruous, as in: "It is not an actor pretending to be Reagan or Thatcher, it is, in grotesque form, the person themself." — Ian Hislop (1984); quoted in Fowler's Regional preferences The Canadian government recommends themselves as the reflexive form of singular they for use in Canadian federal legislative texts and advises against using themself.
Usage:
They with a singular antecedent goes back to the Middle English of the 14th century (slightly younger than they with a plural antecedent, which was borrowed from Old Norse in the 13th century), and has remained in use for centuries in spite of its proscription by traditional grammarians beginning in the mid 18th century.Informal spoken English exhibits universal use of the singular they. An examination by Jürgen Gerner of the British National Corpus published in 1998 found that British speakers, regardless of social status, age, sex, or region, used the singular they more often than the gender-neutral he or other options.
Usage:
Prescription of generic he Alongside they, it has historically been acceptable to use the pronoun he to refer to an indefinite person of any gender, as in the following: "If any one did not know it, it was his own fault." — George Washington Cable, Old Creole Days (1879); quoted by Baskervill & Sewell.
Usage:
"Every person who turns this page has his own little diary." — W. M. Thackeray, On Lett's Diary (1869); quoted in Baskervill & Sewell, An English Grammar.The earliest known explicit recommendation by a grammarian to use the generic he rather than they in formal English is Ann Fisher's mid-18th century A New Grammar assertion that "The Masculine Person answers to the general Name, which comprehends both Male and Female; as, any Person who knows what he says." (Ann Fisher as quoted by Ostade) Nineteenth-century grammarians insisted on he as a gender-neutral pronoun on the grounds of number agreement, while rejecting "he or she" as clumsy, and this was widely adopted: e.g. in 1850, the British Parliament passed an act which provided that, when used in acts of Parliament "words importing the masculine gender shall be deemed and taken to include females". Baskervill and Sewell mention the common use of the singular they in their An English Grammar for the Use of High School, Academy and College Class of 1895, but prefer the generic he on the basis of number agreement.
Usage:
Baskervill gives a number of examples of recognized authors using the singular they, including: "Every one must judge according to their own feelings." — Lord Byron, Werner (1823), quoted as "Every one must judge of [sic] their own feelings." "Had the Doctor been contented to take my dining tables as any body in their senses would have done ..." — Jane Austen, Mansfield Park (1814);It has been argued that the real motivation for promoting the "generic" he was an androcentric world view, with the default sex of humans being male – and the default gender therefore being masculine. There is some evidence for this: Wilson wrote in 1560: "... let us keepe a naturall order, and set the man before the woman for manners sake". — Wilson, The arte of Rhetorique (1560); "... the worthier is preferred and set before. As a man is set before a woman ..." — Wilson, The arte of Rhetorique (1560);And Poole wrote in 1646: "The Masculine gender is more worthy than the Feminine." — Poole, The English Accidence (1646); cited by BodineIn spite of continuous attempts on the part of educationalists to proscribe singular they in favour of he, this advice was ignored; even writers of the period continued to use they (though the proscription may have been observed more by American writers). Use of the purportedly gender-neutral he remained acceptable until at least the 1960s, though some uses of he were later criticized as being awkward or silly, for instance when referring to: Indeterminate persons of both sexes:"The ideal that every boy and girl should be so equipped that he shall not be handicapped in his struggle for social progress ..." — C. C. Fries, American English Grammar, (1940).Known persons of both sexes:"She and Louis had a game – who could find the ugliest photograph of himself." — Joseph P. Lash, Eleanor and Franklin (1971) Contemporary use of he to refer to a generic or indefinite antecedent He is still sometimes found in contemporary writing when referring to a generic or indeterminate antecedent. In some cases it is clear from the situation that the persons potentially referred to are likely to be male, as in: "The patient should be informed of his therapeutic options." — a text about prostate cancer (2004)In some cases the antecedent may refer to persons who are only probably male or to occupations traditionally thought of as male: "It wouldn't be as if the lone astronaut would be completely by himself." (2008) "Kitchen table issues ... are ones the next president can actually do something about if he actually cares about it. More likely if she cares about it!" — Hillary Rodham Clinton (2008)In other situations, the antecedent may refer to an indeterminate person of either sex: "Now, a writer is entitled to have a Roget on his desk." — Barzun (1985); quoted in Merriam-Webster's Concise Dictionary of English Usage "A Member of Parliament should always live in his constituency."In 2010, Choy and Clark still recommend the use of generic he "in formal speech or writing": "... when indefinite pronouns are used as antecedents, they require singular subject, object, and possessive pronouns ...""Everyone did as he pleased"In informal spoken English, plural pronouns are often used with indefinite pronoun antecedents. However, this construction is generally not considered appropriate in formal speech or writing.
Usage:
Informal: Somebody should let you borrow their book.Formal: Somebody should let you borrow his book."— Choy, Basic Grammar and UsageIn 2015, Fowler's Dictionary of Modern English Usage calls this "the now outmoded use of he to mean 'anyone'", stating: From the earliest times until about the 1960s it was unquestionably acceptable to use the pronoun he (and him, himself, his) with indefinite reference to denote a person of either sex, especially after indefinite pronouns and determiners such as anybody, ... every, etc., after gender-neutral nouns such as person ... [but] alternative devices are now usually resorted to. When a gender-neutral pronoun or determiner ... is needed, the options usually adopted are the plural forms they, their, themselves, etc., or he or she (his or her, etc.) In 2016, Garner's Modern English calls the generic use of masculine pronouns "the traditional view, now widely assailed as sexist".
Usage:
The rise of gender-neutral language The earliest known attempt to create gender-neutral pronouns dates back to 1792, when Scottish economist James Anderson advocated for an indeterminate pronoun "ou".In 1808, poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge suggested "it" and "which" as neutral pronouns for the word "Person":In the second half of the 20th century, people expressed more widespread concern at the use of male-oriented language. This included criticism of the use of man as a generic term to include men and women and of the use of he to refer to any human, regardless of sex (social gender).It was argued that he could not sensibly be used as a generic pronoun understood to include men and women. William Safire in his On Language column in The New York Times approved of the use of generic he, mentioning the mnemonic phrase "the male embraces the female". C. Badendyck from Brooklyn wrote to the New York Times in a reply: The average American needs the small routines of getting ready for work. As he shaves or blow-dries his hair or pulls on his panty-hose, he is easing himself by small stages into the demands of the day.
Usage:
By 1980, the movement toward gender-neutral language had gained wide support, and many organizations, including most publishers, had issued guidelines on the use of gender-neutral language, but stopped short of recommending they to be third-person singular with a non-indeterminate, singular antecedent.
Contemporary usage The use of masculine generic nouns and pronouns in written and spoken language has decreased since the 1970s.
Usage:
In a corpus of spontaneous speech collected in Australia in the 1990s, singular they had become the most frequently used generic pronoun (rather than generic he or he or she). Similarly, a study from 2002 looking at a corpus of American and British newspapers showed a preference for they to be used as a singular epicene pronoun.The increased use of singular they may owe in part to an increasing desire for gender-neutral language. A solution in formal writing has often been to write "he or she", or something similar, but this is often considered awkward or overly politically correct, particularly when used excessively. In 2016, the journal American Speech published a study by Darren K. LaScotte investigating the pronouns used by native English speakers in informal written responses to questions concerning a subject of unspecified gender, finding that 68% of study participants chose singular they to refer to such an antecedent. Some participants noted that they found constructions such as "he or she" inadequate as they do not include people who identify as neither male nor female.They in this context was named Word of the Year for 2019 by Merriam-Webster and for 2015 by the American Dialect Society. On January 4, 2020, the American Dialect Society announced they had crowned they, again in this context, Word of the Decade for the 2010s.
Usage:
Use with a pronoun antecedent The singular antecedent can be a pronoun such as someone, anybody, or everybody, or an interrogative pronoun such as who: With somebody or someone:"I feel that if someone is not doing their job it should be called to their attention." — an American newspaper (1984); quoted by Fowler.With anybody or anyone:"If anyone tells you that America's best days are behind her, then they're looking the wrong way." President George Bush, 1991 State of the Union Address; quoted by Garner "Anyone can set themselves up as an acupuncturist." — Sarah Lonsdale "Sharp Practice Pricks Reputation of Acupuncture". Observer 15 December 1991, as cited by Garner "If anybody calls, take their name and ask them to call again later." Example given by Swan "It will be illegal for anyone to donate an organ to their wife, husband, adopted child, adopted parent or close friend." With nobody or no one:"No one put their hand up." Example given by Huddleston et al.
Usage:
"No one felt they had been misled." Example given by Huddleston et al.With an interrogative pronoun as antecedent:"Who thinks they can solve the problem?". Example given by Huddleston et al.; The Cambridge Grammar of the English language.With everybody, everyone, etc.:"Everyone promised to behave themselves." Example given by Huddleston et al.
Usage:
Notional plurality or pairwise relationships Although the pronouns everybody, everyone, nobody, and no one are singular in form and are used with a singular verb, these pronouns have an "implied plurality" that is somewhat similar to the implied plurality of collective or group nouns such as crowd or team, and in some sentences where the antecedent is one of these "implied plural" pronouns, the word they cannot be replaced by generic he, suggesting a "notional plural" rather than a "bound variable" interpretation (see § Grammatical and logical analysis, below). This is in contrast to sentences that involve multiple pairwise relationships and singular they, such as: "Everyone loves their mother." "'I never did get into that football thing', she said after everyone returned to their seat." "Everyone doubts themselves/themself at one time or another."There are examples where the antecedent pronoun (such as everyone) may refer to a collective, with no necessary implication of pairwise relationships. These are examples of plural they: "At first everyone in the room was singing; then they began to laugh." Example given by Kolln.
Usage:
"Everybody was crouched behind the furniture to surprise me, and they tried to. But I already knew they were there." Example given by Garner.
"Nobody was late, were they?" Example given by Swan.Which are apparent because they do not work with a generic he or he or she: "At first everyone in the room was singing; then he or she began to laugh." Example given by Kolln.
Usage:
"Everybody was crouched behind the furniture to surprise me, and he tried to. But I already knew he was there." "Nobody was late, was he?"In addition, for these "notional plural" cases, it would not be appropriate to use themself instead of themselves as in: "Everybody was crouched behind the furniture to surprise me, but they instead surprised themself." Use with a generic noun as antecedent The singular antecedent can also be a noun such as person, patient, or student: With a noun (e.g. person, student, patient) used generically (e.g. in the sense of any member of that class or a specific member unknown to the speaker or writer)"cognitive dissonance: "a concept in psychology [that] describes the condition in which a person's attitudes conflict with their behaviour". — Macmillan Dictionary of Business and Management (1988), as cited by Garner.
Usage:
"A starting point would be to give more support to the company secretary. They are, or should be, privy to the confidential deliberations and secrets of the board and the company. — Ronald Severn. "Protecting the Secretary Bird". Financial Times, 6 January 1992; quoted by Garner.With representatives of a class previously referred to in the singular"I had to decide: Is this person being irrational or is he right? Of course, they were often right." — Robert Burchfield in U.S. News & World Report 11 August 1986, as cited in Merriam-Webster's Concise Dictionary of English UsageEven when referring to a class of persons of known sex, they is sometimes used: "I swear more when I'm talking to a boy, because I'm not afraid of shocking them". From an interview.
Usage:
"No mother should be forced to testify against their child".They may also be used with antecedents of mixed genders: "Let me know if your father or your mother changes their mind." Example given by Huddleston et al.
"Either the husband or the wife has perjured themself." Here themself might be acceptable to some, themselves seems less acceptable, and himself is unacceptable. Example given by Huddleston et al.Even for a definite known person of known sex, they may be used in order to ignore or conceal the sex.
Usage:
"I had a friend in Paris, and they had to go to hospital for a month." (definite person, not identified)The word themself is also sometimes used when the antecedent is known or believed to be a single person: "Someone has apparently locked themself in the office."[acceptability questionable] Use for specific, known people, including non-binary people Known individuals may be referred to as they if the individual's gender is unknown to the speaker.A known individual may also be referred to as they if the individual is non-binary or genderqueer and considers they and derivatives as appropriate pronouns. Several social media applications permit account holders to choose to identify their gender using one of a variety of non-binary or genderqueer options, such as genderfluid, agender, or bigender, and to designate pronouns, including they/them, which they wish to be used when referring to them. Explicitly designating one's pronouns as they/them increases the chance that people will interpret "they" as singular. Though "singular they" has long been used with antecedents such as everybody or generic persons of unknown gender, this use, which may be chosen by an individual, is recent. The earliest recorded usage of this sense documented by the Oxford English Dictionary is in a tweet from 2009; the journal American Speech documents an example from 2008 in an article in the journal Women's Studies Quarterly. As of 2020, singular they is the most popular pronoun set used by non-binary people. Approximately 80% consider it appropriate for themselves.The singular they in the meaning "gender-neutral singular pronoun for a known person, as a non-binary identifier" was chosen by the American Dialect Society as their "Word of the Year" for 2015. In 2016, the American Dialect Society wrote: "While editors have increasingly moved to accepting singular they when used in a generic fashion, voters in the Word of the Year proceedings singled out its newer usage as an identifier for someone who may identify as non-binary in gender terms." The vote followed the previous year's approval of this use by The Washington Post style guide, when Bill Walsh, the Post's copy editor, said that the singular they is "the only sensible solution to English's lack of a gender-neutral third-person singular personal pronoun".In 2019, the non-binary they was added to Merriam-Webster's dictionary.The first non-binary main character on North American television appeared on the Showtime drama series Billions in 2017, with Asia Kate Dillon playing Taylor Mason. Both actor and character use singular they.
Acceptability and prescriptive guidance:
Though both generic he and generic they have long histories of use, and both are still used, both are also systematically avoided by particular groups.Style guides that avoid expressing a preference for either approach sometimes recommend recasting a problem sentence, for instance replacing generic expressions with plurals to avoid the criticisms of either party.
Sources differ about whether singular they is more accepted in British or American English, with Garner's Modern English Usage stating British English and A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language stating American English.
Usage guidance in American style guides Garner's Modern American Usage Garner's Modern American Usage (4th ed., 2016) recommends cautious use of singular they, and avoidance where possible because its use is stigmatized.
Acceptability and prescriptive guidance:
"Where noun–pronoun disagreement can be avoided, avoid it. Where it can't be avoided, resort to it cautiously because some people may doubt your literacy".Garner suggests that use of singular they is more acceptable in British English: "Speakers of AmE resist this development more than speakers of BrE, in which the indeterminate they is already more or less standard."and apparently regrets the resistance by the American language community: "That it sets many literate Americans' teeth on edge is an unfortunate obstacle to what promises to be the ultimate solution to the problem."He regards the trend toward using singular they with antecedents like everybody, anyone and somebody as inevitable: "Disturbing though these developments may be to purists, they're irreversible. And nothing that a grammarian says will change them."Garner also notes that "resistance to the singular they is fast receding" in all national varieties of English.
Acceptability and prescriptive guidance:
The Chicago Manual of Style In the 14th edition (1993) of The Chicago Manual of Style, the University of Chicago Press explicitly recommended using singular they and their, noting a "revival" of this usage and citing "its venerable use by such writers as Addison, Austen, Chesterfield, Fielding, Ruskin, Scott, and Shakespeare." From the 15th edition (2003), this was changed. In Chapter 5 of the 17th edition (2017), now written by Bryan A. Garner, the recommendations are: Normally, a singular antecedent requires a singular pronoun. But because he is no longer universally accepted as a generic pronoun referring to a person of unspecified gender, people commonly (in speech and in informal writing) substitute the third-person-plural pronouns they, them, their, and themselves (or the nonstandard singular themself). While this usage is accepted in those spheres, it is only lately showing signs of gaining acceptance in formal writing, where Chicago recommends avoiding its use. When referring specifically to a person who does not identify with a gender-specific pronoun, however, they and its forms are often preferred.
Acceptability and prescriptive guidance:
Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association The 7th edition of the American Psychological Association's Publication Manual, released in October 2019, advises using singular "they" when gender is unknown or irrelevant, and gives the following example: For instance, rather than writing "I don't know who wrote this note, but he or she has good handwriting," you might write something like "I don't know who wrote this note, but they have good handwriting." APA style also endorses using they/them if it is someone's (for example, a non-binary person's) preferred pronoun set.
Acceptability and prescriptive guidance:
Strunk & White's The Elements of Style William Strunk Jr. & E. B. White, the original authors of The Elements of Style, found use of they with a singular antecedent unacceptable and advised use of the singular pronoun (he). In the 3rd edition (1979), the recommendation was still: They. Not to be used when the antecedent is a distributive expression, such as each, each one. everybody, every one, many a man. Use the singular pronoun. ... A similar fault is the use of the plural pronoun with the antecedent anybody, anyone, somebody, someone ....
Acceptability and prescriptive guidance:
The assessment, in 1979, was: The use of he as pronoun for nouns embracing both genders is a simple, practical convention rooted in the beginnings of the English language. He has lost all suggestion of maleness in these circumstances. ... It has no pejorative connotation; it is never incorrect.
In the 4th edition (2000), use of singular they was still proscribed against, but use of generic he was no longer recommended.
Acceptability and prescriptive guidance:
Joseph M. Williams's The Basics of Clarity and Grace (2009) Joseph M. Williams, who wrote a number of books on writing with "clarity and grace", discusses the advantages and disadvantages of various solutions when faced with the problem of referring to an antecedent such as someone, everyone, no one or a noun that does not indicate gender and suggests that this will continue to be a problem for some time. He "suspect[s] that eventually we will accept the plural they as a correct singular" but states that currently "formal usage requires a singular pronoun".
Acceptability and prescriptive guidance:
Purdue Online Writing Lab The Purdue Online Writing Lab (OWL) states that "grammar shifts and changes over time", that the use of singular they is acceptable, and that singular "they" as a replacement for "he" or "she" is more inclusive: When individuals whose gender is neither male nor female (e.g. nonbinary, agender, genderfluid, etc.) use the singular they to refer to themselves, they are using the language to express their identities. Adopting this language is one way writers can be inclusive of a range of people and identities.
Acceptability and prescriptive guidance:
The Washington Post The Washington Post's stylebook, as of 2015, recommends trying to "write around the problem, perhaps by changing singulars to plurals, before using the singular they as a last resort" and specifically permits use of they for a "gender-nonconforming person".
Acceptability and prescriptive guidance:
Associated Press Stylebook The Associated Press Stylebook, as of 2017, recommends: "They/them/their is acceptable in limited cases as a singular and-or gender-neutral pronoun, when alternative wording is overly awkward or clumsy. However, rewording usually is possible and always is preferable." The Handbook of Nonsexist Writing In The Handbook of Nonsexist Writing, Casey Miller and Kate Swift accept or recommend singular uses of they in cases where there is an element of semantic plurality expressed by a word such as "everyone" or where an indeterminate person is referred to, citing examples of such usage in formal speech. They also suggest rewriting sentences to use a plural they, eliminating pronouns, or recasting sentences to use "one" or (for babies) "it".
Acceptability and prescriptive guidance:
Usage guidance in British style guides In the first edition of A Dictionary of Modern English Usage (published in 1926) use of the generic he is recommended. It is stated that singular they is disapproved of by grammarians. Numerous examples of its use by eminent writers in the past are given, but it is stated that "few good modern writers would flout [grammarians] so conspicuously as Fielding and Thackeray", whose sentences are described as having an "old-fashioned sound".The second edition, Fowler's Modern English Usage (edited by Sir Ernest Gowers and published in 1965) continues to recommend use of the generic he; use of the singular they is called "the popular solution", which "sets the literary man's teeth on edge". It is stated that singular they is still disapproved of by grammarians but common in colloquial speech.According to the third edition, The New Fowler's Modern English Usage (edited by Robert Burchfield and published in 1996) singular they has not only been widely used by good writers for centuries, but is now generally accepted, except by some conservative grammarians, including the Fowler of 1926, who, it is argued, ignored the evidence: Over the centuries, writers of standing have used they, their, and them with anaphoric reference to a singular noun or pronoun, and the practice has continued in the 20C. to the point that, traditional grammarians aside, such constructions are hardly noticed any more or are not widely felt to lie in a prohibited zone. Fowler (1926) disliked the practice ... and gave a number of unattributed "faulty' examples ... The evidence presented in the OED points in another direction altogether.
Acceptability and prescriptive guidance:
The Complete Plain Words was originally written in 1948 by Ernest Gowers, a civil servant, in an attempt by the British civil service to improve "official English". A second edition, edited by Sir Bruce Fraser, was published in 1973. It refers to they or them as the "equivalent of a singular pronoun of common sex" as "common in speech and not unknown in serious writing " but "stigmatized by grammarians as usage grammatically indefensible. The book's advice for "official writers" (civil servants) is to avoid its use and not to be tempted by its "greater convenience", though "necessity may eventually force it into the category of accepted idiom".A new edition of Plain Words, revised and updated by Gowers's great-granddaughter, Rebecca Gowers, was published in 2014.
Acceptability and prescriptive guidance:
It notes that singular they and them have become much more widespread since Gowers' original comments, but still finds it "safer" to treat a sentence like 'The reader may toss their book aside' as incorrect "in formal English", while rejecting even more strongly sentences like "There must be opportunity for the individual boy or girl to go as far as his keenness and ability will take him."The Times Style and Usage Guide (first published in 2003 by The Times of London) recommends avoiding sentences like "If someone loves animals, they should protect them."by using a plural construction: "If people love animals, they should protect them."The Cambridge Guide to English Usage (2004, Cambridge University Press) finds singular they "unremarkable": For those listening or reading, it has become unremarkable – an element of common usage.
Acceptability and prescriptive guidance:
"Generic/universal their provides a gender-free pronoun, avoiding the exclusive his and the clumsy his/her. It avoids gratuitous sexism and gives the statement broadest reference ... They, them, their are now freely used in agreement with singular indefinite pronouns and determiners, those with universal implications such as any(one), every(one), no(one), as well as each and some(one), whose reference is often more individual ..."The Economist Style Guide refers to the use of they in sentences like "We can't afford to squander anyone's talents, whatever colour their skin is."as "scrambled syntax that people adopt because they cannot bring themselves to use a singular pronoun".New Hart's Rules (Oxford University Press, 2012) is aimed at those engaged in copy editing, and the emphasis is on the formal elements of presentation including punctuation and typeface, rather than on linguistic style, although – like The Chicago Manual of Style – it makes occasional forays into matters of usage. It advises against use of the purportedly gender-neutral he, and suggests cautious use of they where he or she presents problems.
Acceptability and prescriptive guidance:
... it is now regarded ... as old-fashioned or sexist to use he in reference to a person of unspecified sex, as in every child needs to know that he is loved. The alternative he or she is often preferred, and in formal contexts probably the best solution, but can become tiresome or long-winded when used frequently. Use of they in this sense (everyone needs to feel that they matter) is becoming generally accepted both in speech and in writing, especially where it occurs after an indefinite pronoun such as everyone or someone, but should not be imposed by an editor if an author has used he or she consistently.
Acceptability and prescriptive guidance:
The 2011 edition of the New International Version Bible uses singular they instead of the traditional he when translating pronouns that apply to both genders in the original Greek or Hebrew. This decision was based on research by a commission that studied modern English usage and determined that singular they (them/their) was by far the most common way that English-language speakers and writers today refer back to singular antecedents such as whoever, anyone, somebody, a person, no one, and the like."The British edition of The Handbook of Nonsexist Writing, modified in some respects from the original US edition to conform to differences in culture and vocabulary, preserved the same recommendations, allowing singular they with semantically plural terms like "everyone" and indeterminate ones like "person", but recommending a rewrite to avoid.
Acceptability and prescriptive guidance:
Australian usage guidance The Australian Federation Press Style Guide for Use in Preparation of Book Manuscripts recommends "gender-neutral language should be used", stating that use of they and their as singular pronouns is acceptable.
Acceptability and prescriptive guidance:
Usage guidance in English grammars The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language discusses the prescriptivist argument that they is a plural pronoun and that the use of they with a singular "antecedent" therefore violates the rule of agreement between antecedent and pronoun, but takes the view that they, though primarily plural, can also be singular in a secondary extended sense, comparable to the purportedly extended sense of he to include female gender.Use of singular they is stated to be "particularly common", even "stylistically neutral" with antecedents such as everyone, someone, and no one, but more restricted when referring to common nouns as antecedents, as in "The patient should be told at the outset how much they will be required to pay." "A friend of mine has asked me to go over and help them ..."Use of the pronoun themself is described as being "rare" and "acceptable only to a minority of speakers", while use of the morphologically plural themselves is considered problematic when referring to someone rather than everyone (since only the latter implies a plural set).There are also issues of grammatical acceptability when reflexive pronouns refer to singular noun phrases joined by or, the following all being problematic: "Either the husband or the wife has perjured himself." [ungrammatical] "Either the husband or the wife has perjured themselves." [of questionable grammaticality] "Either the husband or the wife has perjured themself." [typically used by only some speakers of Standard English].On the motivation for using singular they, A Student's Introduction to English Grammar states: this avoidance of he can't be dismissed just as a matter of political correctness. The real problem with using he is that it unquestionably colours the interpretation, sometimes inappropriately ... he doesn't have a genuinely sex-neutral sense.
Acceptability and prescriptive guidance:
The alternative he or she can be "far too cumbersome", as in: "Everyone agreed that he or she would bring his or her lunch with him or her.or even "flatly ungrammatical", as in "Everyone's here, isn't he or she?"Among younger speakers", use of singular they even with definite noun-phrase antecedents finds increasing acceptance, "sidestepping any presumption about the sex of the person referred to", as in: "You should ask your partner what they think." "The person I was with said they hated the film." Example given by Huddleston et al.
Acceptability and prescriptive guidance:
Older style guides (not newly published after 2000) According to A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language (1985): The pronoun they is commonly used as a 3rd person singular pronoun that is neutral between masculine and feminine ... At one time restricted to informal usage. it is now increasingly accepted in formal usage, especially in [American English].
Acceptability and prescriptive guidance:
The Little, Brown Handbook (1992) According to The Little, Brown Handbook, most experts – and some teachers and employers – find use of singular they unacceptable: Although some experts accept they, them, and their with singular indefinite words, most do not, and many teachers and employers regard the plural as incorrect. To be safe, work for agreement between singular indefinite words and the pronouns that refer to them ....
Acceptability and prescriptive guidance:
It recommends using he or she or avoiding the problem by rewriting the sentence to use a plural or omit the pronoun.
Acceptability and prescriptive guidance:
The American Heritage Book of English Usage (1996) According to The American Heritage Book of English Usage and its usage panel of selected writers, journalism professors, linguists, and other experts, many Americans avoid use of they to refer to a singular antecedent out of respect for a "traditional" grammatical rule, despite use of singular they by modern writers of note and mainstream publications: Most of the Usage Panel rejects the use of they with singular antecedents as ungrammatical, even in informal speech. Eighty-two percent find the sentence The typical student in the program takes about six years to complete their course work unacceptable ... panel members seem to make a distinction between singular nouns, such as the typical student and a person, and pronouns that are grammatically singular but semantically plural, such as anyone, everyone and no one. Sixty-four percent of panel members accept the sentence No one is willing to work for those wages anymore, are they?
Grammatical and logical analysis:
Notional agreement Notional agreement is the idea that some uses of they might refer to a grammatically singular antecedent seen as semantically plural: "'Tis meet that some more audience than a mother, since nature makes them partial, should o'erhear the speech." — Shakespeare, Hamlet (1599); quoted in Merriam-Webster's Concise Dictionary of English Usage.
Grammatical and logical analysis:
"No man goes to battle to be killed." ... "But they do get killed." — George Bernard Shaw, quoted in Merriam-Webster's Concise Dictionary of English UsageAccording to notional agreement, in the Shakespeare quotation a mother is syntactically singular, but stands for all mothers; and in the Shaw quotation no man is syntactically singular (taking the singular form goes), but is semantically plural (all go [to kill] not to be killed), hence idiomatically requiring they. Such use, which goes back a long way, includes examples where the sex is known, as in the above examples.
Grammatical and logical analysis:
Distribution Distributive constructions apply a single idea to multiple members of a group.
Grammatical and logical analysis:
They are typically marked in English by words like each, every and any. The simplest examples are applied to groups of two, and use words like either and or – "Would you like tea or coffee?". Since distributive constructions apply an idea relevant to each individual in the group, rather than to the group as a whole, they are most often conceived of as singular, and a singular pronoun is used: "England expects that every man will do his duty." — Nelson (1805, referring to a fleet crewed by male sailors) "Every dog hath his day." — John Ray, A Collection of English Proverbs (1670), originally from Plutarch, Moralia, c. 95 AD, regarding the death of Euripides.However, many languages, including English, show ambivalence in this regard. Because distribution also requires a group with more than one member, plural forms are sometimes used.
Grammatical and logical analysis:
Referential and non-referential anaphors The singular they, which uses the same verb form that plurals do, is typically used to refer to an indeterminate antecedent, for example: "The person you mentioned, are they coming?"In some sentences, typically those including words like every or any, the morphologically singular antecedent does not refer to a single entity but is "anaphorically linked" to the associated pronoun to indicate a set of pairwise relationships, as in the sentence: "Everyone returned to their seats." (where each person is associated with one seat)Linguists like Steven Pinker and Rodney Huddleston explain sentences like this (and others) in terms of bound variables, a term borrowed from logic. Pinker prefers the terms quantifier and bound variable to antecedent and pronoun. He suggests that pronouns used as "variables" in this way are more appropriately regarded as homonyms of the equivalent referential pronouns.The following shows different types of anaphoric reference, using various pronouns, including they: Coreferential, with a definite antecedent (the antecedent and the anaphoric pronoun both refer to the same real-world entity):"Your wife phoned but she didn't leave a message."Coreferential with an indefinite antecedent:"One of your girlfriends phoned, but she didn't leave a message." "One of your boyfriends phoned, but he didn't leave a message." "One of your friends phoned, but they didn't leave a message."Reference to a hypothetical, indefinite entity"If you had an unemployed daughter, what would you think if she wanted to accept work as a mercenary?" "If you had an unemployed child, what would you think if they wanted to accept work as a mercenary?"A bound variable pronoun is anaphorically linked to a quantifier (no single real-world or hypothetical entity is referenced; examples and explanations from Huddleston and Pullum, The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language):"No one put their hand up." [approximately: "There is no person x such that x put x's hand up."] "Every car had its windscreen broken." [approximately: "For every car x, x had x's windscreen broken."]
Cognitive efficiency:
A study of whether "singular they" is more "difficult" to understand than gendered pronouns found that "singular they is a cognitively efficient substitute for generic he or she, particularly when the antecedent is nonreferential" (e.g. anybody, a nurse, or a truck driver) rather than referring to a specific person (e.g. a runner I knew or my nurse). Clauses with singular they were read "just as quickly as clauses containing a gendered pronoun that matched the stereotype of the antecedent" (e.g. she for a nurse and he for a truck driver) and "much more quickly than clauses containing a gendered pronoun that went against the gender stereotype of the antecedent".On the other hand, when the pronoun they was used to refer to known individuals ("referential antecedents, for which the gender was presumably known", e.g. my nurse, that truck driver, a runner I knew), reading was slowed when compared with use of a gendered pronoun consistent with the "stereotypic gender" (e.g. he for a specific truck driver).The study concluded that "the increased use of singular they is not problematic for the majority of readers".
Comparison with other pronouns:
The singular and plural use of they can be compared with the pronoun you, which had been both a plural and polite singular, but by the 18th century replaced thou for singular referents. For "you", the singular reflexive pronoun ("yourself") is different from its plural reflexive pronoun ("yourselves"); with "they" one can hear either "themself" or "themselves" for the singular reflexive pronoun.
Comparison with other pronouns:
Singular "they" has also been compared to nosism (such as the "royal we"), when a single person uses first-person plural in place of first-person singular pronouns. Similar to singular "you", its singular reflexive pronoun ("ourself") is different from the plural reflexive pronoun ("ourselves").
Comparison with other pronouns:
While the pronoun set derived from it is primarily used for inanimate objects, it is frequently used in an impersonal context when someone's identity is unknown or established on a provisional basis, e.g. "Who is it?" or "With this new haircut, no one knows it is me." It is also used for infants of unspecified gender but may be considered dehumanizing and is therefore more likely in a clinical context. Otherwise, in more personal contexts, the use of it to refer to a person might indicate antipathy or other negative emotions.It can also be used for non-human animals of unspecified sex, though they is common for pets and other domesticated animals of unspecified sex, especially when referred to by a proper name (e.g. Rags, Snuggles). Normally, birds and mammals with a known sex are referred to by their respective male or female pronoun (he and she; him and her).
In other languages:
In German, some nonbinary people use they/them pronouns as an anglicism, for want of an established German gender-neutral pronoun. they in German comes with verbs in singular ("they ist", i.e. "they is"), since there is no plural they in German. In French some prefer to use iel instead of il or elle
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Permanganate**
Permanganate:
A permanganate () is a chemical compound with the manganate(VII) ion, MnO−4, the conjugate base of permanganic acid. Because the manganese atom has a +7 oxidation state, the permanganate(VII) ion is a strong oxidising agent. The ion is a transition metal ion with a tetrahedral structure. Permanganate solutions are purple in colour and are stable in neutral or slightly alkaline media. The exact chemical reaction depends on the carbon-containing reactants present and the oxidant used. For example, trichloroethane (C2H3Cl3) is oxidised by permanganate ions to form carbon dioxide (CO2), manganese dioxide (MnO2), hydrogen ions (H+), and chloride ions (Cl−).
Permanganate:
8MnO−4 + 3C2H3Cl3 → 6CO2 + 8MnO2 + H+ + 4H2O + 9Cl−In an acidic solution, permanganate(VII) is reduced to the pale pink manganese(II) (Mn2+) with an oxidation state of +2.
8 H+ + MnO−4 + 5 e− → Mn2+ + 4 H2OIn a strongly basic or alkaline solution, permanganate(VII) is reduced to the green manganate ion, MnO2−4 with an oxidation state of +6.
MnO−4 + e− → MnO2−4In a neutral solution, however, it gets reduced to the brown manganese dioxide MnO2 with an oxidation state of +4.
2 H2O + MnO−4 + 3 e− → MnO2 + 4 OH−
Production:
Permanganates can be produced by oxidation of manganese compounds such as manganese chloride or manganese sulfate by strong oxidizing agents, for instance, sodium hypochlorite or lead dioxide: 2 MnCl2 + 5 NaClO + 6 NaOH → 2 NaMnO4 + 9 NaCl + 3 H2O 2 MnSO4 + 5 PbO2 + 3 H2SO4 → 2 HMnO4 + 5 PbSO4 + 2 H2OIt may also be produced by the disproportionation of manganates, with manganese dioxide as a side-product: 3 Na2MnO4 + 2 H2O → 2 NaMnO4 + MnO2 + 4 NaOHThey are produced commercially by electrolysis or air oxidation of alkaline solutions of manganate salts (MnO2−4).
Usage:
This is a common and strong disinfectant, used regularly to sanitize baths, toilets, and wash basins, or anything general like that. It is a cheap and extremely effective compound for the task.
Properties:
Permanganates(VII) are salts of permanganic acid. They have a deep purple colour, due to a charge transfer transition from oxo ligand p orbitals to empty orbitals derived from manganese(VII) d orbitals. Permanganate(VII) is a strong oxidizer, and similar to perchlorate. It is therefore in common use in qualitative analysis that involves redox reactions (permanganometry). According to theory, permanganate is strong enough to oxidize water, but this does not actually happen to any extent. Besides this, it is stable.
Properties:
It is a useful reagent, but it is not very selective with organic compounds. Potassium permanganate is used as a disinfectant and water treatment additive in aquaculture.Manganates(VII) are not very stable thermally. For instance, potassium permanganate decomposes at 230 °C to potassium manganate and manganese dioxide, releasing oxygen gas: 2 KMnO4 → K2MnO4 + MnO2 + O2A permanganate can oxidize an amine to a nitro compound, an alcohol to a ketone, an aldehyde to a carboxylic acid, a terminal alkene to a carboxylic acid, oxalic acid to carbon dioxide, and an alkene to a diol. This list is not exhaustive.
Properties:
In alkene oxidations one intermediate is a cyclic Mn(V) species:
Compounds:
Ammonium permanganate, NH4MnO4 Barium permanganate, Ba(MnO4)2 Calcium permanganate, Ca(MnO4)2 Potassium permanganate, KMnO4 Sodium permanganate, NaMnO4 Silver permanganate, AgMnO4
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**AnyKode Marilou**
AnyKode Marilou:
anyKode Marilou is a modeling and simulation environment for mobile robots, humanoids, articulated arms and parallel robots operating in real-world conditions that respect the laws of physics. This robotics suite is used in research centers and industry for various projects like humanoid architectures, wheeled and multi legged vehicles, and multi-robot systems (Multi-agents).
It also has a real-time engine that uses the ODE (Open Dynamics Engine) for collisions detecting and dynamics management. Various 'real world' variables like forces, torques, masses, damping, friction and others can be adjusted directly to the objects surfaces.
Scenes modeling:
The entities' editor can design the robot's collision model by using any of the static or dynamic objects in the given simulated world. CAD-style editing tools are entirely graphical.
Scenes, dynamics, and robots properties can be changed from a view/document/properties IHM style. Also, the editor takes in charge re-usable physicals entities as well as pure 3D models.
Marilou uses a hierarchical system to present entire objects at the highest level (the current world). This approach makes it possible to reuse members of a complex object as sub-parts of another object.
Key features:
Graphical handling of robots and environments models (physics parts and 3D models) Modeling helpers, Refactoring tools, several documents and viewpoints Rigid bodies, n-axis constraints and springs Mechanical constraints Surface properties (reflection, shock, friction, incidence, rebound, behavior with infra-red or ultrasound …) Hierarchy and complex assemblies Real-time or accelerated simulations (RT-Multiplier) Multi-robots, multiple embedded applications, centralized or distributed Acquisition/measurement cycles as low as 1 ms Interactions with running simulation 3D rendering using pixel and vertex shaders Spot, Point, Ambient and Directional lights Dynamic shadowing Physics Editor for Windows, Exec (the simulator) for Windows, Ubuntu, and Mint (BETA)
Devices:
Marilou includes a complete set of user-modifiable virtual devices. The behavior of these devices may be overridden by the properties of real devices available in robotics. This feature allows the programmer to use a known device's parameters directly.
Devices:
This is a list of supported devices types: Embedded robotic components Absolute Compass Actuating cylinders / jack Accelerometers/Gyro-meters/Gyroscope Air pressure forces Bumpers Distance sensors (Ultrasonic, Infra Red and Laser) Motors and servo motors Emitters and receivers Force and Torque sensors GPS Laser range finders LED LCD display Light Sources Lidar (3D-Scanner) Odometers Standard and panoramic spherical Cameras (Panoramic camera) Touch area
Robots programming:
MODA (Marilou Open Devices Access) is the Marilou generic SDK for handling simulated robots and their embedded devices, such as sensors and actuators. Depending on chosen language, MODA provides libraries (.lib /.a) or .Net assembly (.dll) for accessing simulation over the network. Synchronized to a simulated clock, algorithms can run on any computer in the network. Individual robots may run several programs. In addition, one MODA program can control numerous robots, whether they be in the same world. MODA TCP server can be embedded in real robot.
Robots programming:
Languages: C / C++, C++ CLI, C#, J#, VB# Compilers: Microsoft Visual Studio suites, DevC++, Borland C++ RAD Studio, G++ for Linux, CodeBlocks MODA is open-source and compatible with Linux (Mac coming soon)
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Anomalous oxygen**
Anomalous oxygen:
Anomalous oxygen is hot atomic and singly ionized oxygen believed to be present in Earth's exosphere above 500 km near the poles during their respective summers. This additional component augmenting mainly the hydrogen and helium exosphere is able to explain the unexpectedly high drag forces on satellites passing near the poles in their summers. Anomalous oxygen densities are included in the NRLMSISE-00 models of Earth's atmosphere.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Sandalore**
Sandalore:
Sandalore is a synthetic sandalwood odorant with odor in some ways similar to sandalwood and consequently used in perfumes, emollients, and skin cleaning agents. Sandalore, and the similar brahmanol, have been identified as agonists of the cutaneous olfactory receptor OR2AT4, and found to induce strong Ca2+ signals in cultured human keratinocytes. The long-term stimulation of keratinocytes with Sandalore positively affected cell proliferation and migration, and regeneration of keratinocyte monolayers in an in vitro wound scratch assay (i.e., sandalore stimulation also enhanced epidermal "wound healing" in human skin organ cultures). Natural sandalwood oil and other synthetic sandalwood odorants did not have the same effect.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis**
Anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis:
Anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis is a type of brain inflammation caused by antibodies. Early symptoms may include fever, headache, and feeling tired. This is then typically followed by psychosis which presents with false beliefs (delusions) and seeing or hearing things that others do not see or hear (hallucinations). People are also often agitated or confused. Over time, seizures, decreased breathing, and blood pressure and heart rate variability typically occur. In some cases, patients may develop catatonia.About half of cases are associated with tumors, most commonly teratomas of the ovaries. Another established trigger is herpesviral encephalitis, while the cause in others cases is unclear. The underlying mechanism is autoimmune, with the primary target being the GluN1 subunit of the N-methyl D-aspartate receptors (NMDAR) in the brain. Diagnosis is typically based on finding specific antibodies in the cerebral spinal fluid. MRI of the brain is often normal. Misdiagnosis is common.Treatment is typically with immunosuppresive medication and, if a tumor is present, surgery to remove it. With treatment, about 80% of cases have a good outcome. Outcomes are better if treatment is begun earlier. Long-term mental or behavioral problems may remain. About 4% of those affected die from the condition. Recurrence occurs in about 10% of people.The estimated number of cases of the disease is one in 1.5 million people per year. The condition is relatively common compared to other paraneoplastic disorders. About 80% of those affected are female. It typically occurs in adults younger than 45 years old, but it can occur at any age. The disease was first described by Josep Dalmau in 2007.
Signs and symptoms:
Prior to the development of a symptom complex that is specific to anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis, people may experience prodromal symptoms, including headaches, flu-like illness, or symptoms similar to an upper respiratory infection. These symptoms may be present for weeks or months prior to disease onset. Beyond the prodromal symptoms, the disease progresses at varying rates, and patients may present with a variety of neurological symptoms. During the initial stage of the disease, symptoms vary slightly between children and adults. However, behavior changes are a common first symptom within both groups. These changes often include agitation, paranoia, psychosis, and violent behaviors. Other common manifestations include seizures and bizarre movements, mostly of the lips and mouth, but also including pedaling motions with the legs or hand movements resembling playing a piano. Some other symptoms typical during the disease onset include impaired cognition, memory deficits, and speech problems (including aphasia, perseveration or mutism).The symptoms usually appear psychiatric in nature, which may confound the differential diagnosis. In many cases, this leads to the illness going undiagnosed. As the disease progresses, the symptoms become medically urgent and often include autonomic dysfunction, hypoventilation, cerebellar ataxia, loss of feeling on one side of the body, loss of consciousness, or catatonia. During this acute phase, most patients require treatment in an intensive care unit to stabilize breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure. One distinguishing characteristic of anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis is the concurrent presence of many of the above listed symptoms. The majority of patients experience at least four symptoms, with many experiencing six or seven over the course of the disease.
Pathophysiology:
The condition is mediated by autoantibodies that target NMDA receptors in the brain. These can be produced by cross reactivity with NMDA receptors in teratomas, which contain many cell types, including brain cells, and thus present a window in which a breakdown in immunological tolerance can occur. Other autoimmune mechanisms are suspected for patients who do not have tumors. Whilst the exact pathophysiology of the disease is still debated, empirical evaluation of the origin of anti-NMDA receptor antibodies in serum and cerebrospinal fluid leads to the consideration of two possible mechanisms.These mechanisms may be informed by some simple observations. Serum NMDA receptor antibodies are consistently found at higher concentrations than cerebrospinal fluid antibodies, on average ten times higher. This strongly suggests the antibody production is systemic rather than in the brain or cerebrospinal fluid. When concentrations are normalized for total IgG, intrathecal synthesis is detected. This implies that there are more NMDA receptor antibodies in the cerebrospinal fluid than would be predicted given the expected quantities of total IgG.
Pathophysiology:
Passive access involves the diffusion of antibodies from the blood across a pathologically disrupted blood-brain barrier (BBB). This cellular filter, separating the central nervous system from the circulatory system, normally prevents larger molecules from entering the brain. A variety of reasons for such a collapse in integrity have been suggested, with the most likely answer being the effects of acute inflammation of the nervous system. Likewise, the involvement of corticotropin releasing hormone on mast cells in acute stress has been shown to facilitate BBB penetration. However, it is also possible that the autonomic dysfunction manifested in many patients during the later phases of the condition aids antibody entry. For example, an increase in blood pressure would force larger proteins, such as antibodies, to extravasate into the cerebrospinal fluid.
Pathophysiology:
Intrathecal production (production of antibodies in the intrathecal space) is also a possible mechanism. Dalmau et al. demonstrated that 53 out of 58 patients with the condition had at least partially preserved BBBs, whilst having a high concentration of antibodies in the cerebrospinal fluid. Furthermore, cyclophosphamide and rituximab, drugs used to eliminate dysfunctional immune cells, have been shown to be successful second-line treatments in patients where first-line immunotherapy has failed. These destroy excess antibody-producing cells in the thecal sac, thus alleviating the symptoms.A more sophisticated analysis of the processes involved in antibody presence in the cerebrospinal fluid hints at a combination of these two mechanisms in tandem.
Pathophysiology:
Antibodies Once the antibodies have entered the CSF, they bind to the NR1 subunit of the NMDA receptor. There are three possible methods in which neuronal damage occurs.
A reduction in the density of NMDA receptors on the post synaptic knob, due to receptor internalization once the antibody has bound. This is dependent on antibodies cross linking.
The direct antagonism of the NMDA receptor by the antibody, similar to the action of the classic dissociative anesthetics phencyclidine and ketamine.
Pathophysiology:
The recruitment of the complement cascade via the classical pathway (antibody-antigen interaction). Membrane attack complex (MAC) is one of the end products of this cascade and can insert into neurons as a molecular barrel, allowing water to enter. The cell subsequently lyses. Notably, this mechanism is unlikely as it causes the cell to die, which is inconsistent with current evidence.
Diagnosis:
First and foremost is a high level of clinical suspicion, especially in young adults showing abnormal behavior as well as autonomic instability. Clinical examination may further reveal delusions and hallucinations, which can aid diagnostic efforts.The initial investigation usually consists of clinical examination, MRI of the brain, an EEG, and a lumbar puncture for CSF analysis. MRI of the brain may show abnormalities in the temporal and frontal lobes, but do so in less than half of cases. A FDG-PET scan of the brain may show abnormalities in cases when the MRI scan is normal. EEG is abnormal in almost 90% of cases and typically shows general or focal slow wave activity. CSF analysis often shows inflammatory changes with increased levels of white blood cells, total protein and the presence of oligoclonal bands. NMDA receptor antibodies can be detected in serum and/or CSF. Whole body FDG-PET is usually performed as a part of tumor screening. Gynecological ultrasound or a pelvic MRI might be performed to search for an ovarian teratoma in women.
Diagnosis:
Diagnostic criteria for probable and definite anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis have been proposed to facilitate diagnosis at an early stage of the disease and help initiate early treatment.
Management:
If a person is found to have a tumor, the long-term prognosis is generally better and the chance of relapse is much lower. This is because the tumor can be removed surgically, thus eradicating the source of autoantibodies. In general, early diagnosis and aggressive treatment is believed to improve patient outcomes, but this remains impossible to know without data from randomized controlled trials. Given that the majority of patients are initially seen by psychiatrists, it is critical that all physicians (especially psychiatrists) consider anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis as a possible cause of acute psychosis in young patients with no past neuropsychiatric history.
Management:
If a tumor is detected, its removal should occur in conjunction with first-line immunotherapy. This involves steroids to suppress the immune system, intravenous immunoglobulin, and plasmapheresis to physically remove autoantibodies. A study of 577 patients showed that over four weeks, about half the patients improved after receiving first-line immunotherapy.
Second-line immunotherapy includes rituximab, a monoclonal antibody that targets the CD20 receptor on the surface of B cells, thus destroying the self-reactive B cells. Cyclophosphamide, an alkylating agent that cross-links DNA and is used to treat both cancer and autoimmune diseases, has sometimes proven useful when other therapies have failed.
Other medications, such as alemtuzumab, remain experimental.
Prognosis:
The recovery process from anti-NMDAR encephalitis can take many months. The symptoms may reappear in reverse order: The patient may begin to experience psychosis again, leading many people to falsely believe the patient is not recovering. As the recovery process continues on, the psychosis fades. Lastly, the person's social behavior and executive functions begin to improve.
Epidemiology:
The estimated number of cases of the disease is 1.5 per million people per year. According to the California Encephalitis Project, the disease has a higher incidence than its individual viral counterparts in patients younger than 30. The largest case series as of 2013 characterized 577 people with anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis. The data were limited, but provides the best approximation of disease distribution. It found that women make up 81% of cases. Disease onset is skewed toward children, with a median age of diagnosis of 21 years. Over a third of cases were children, while only 5% of cases were patients over the age of 45. This same review found that 394 out of 501 patients (79%) had a good outcome by 24 months. 30 people (6%) died, and the rest were left with mild to severe deficits. The study mentioned that of the 38% presenting with tumors, 94% of those presented with ovarian teratomas. Within that subset, African & Asian women were more likely to have a tumor, but this was not relevant to the prevalence of the disease within those racial groups.
Society and culture:
Anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis is suspected of being an underlying cause of historical accounts of demonic possession.New York Post reporter Susannah Cahalan wrote a book titled Brain on Fire: My Month of Madness about her experience with the disease. This has subsequently been turned into a film of the same name.Dallas Cowboys defensive lineman Amobi Okoye spent 17 months battling anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis. In addition to three months in a medically-induced coma, he experienced a 145-day memory gap and lost 78 pounds. He returned to practice on October 23, 2014.In the Japanese movie called The 8-Year Engagement, a young Japanese woman ends up being in a coma due to anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis.
Society and culture:
Knut, a polar bear at the Berlin Zoological Garden that died on 19 March 2011, was diagnosed with anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis in August 2015. This was the first case discovered in a non-human animal.In Hannibal, Will Graham was affected by NMDA receptor or antibody encephalitis, also known as anti-NMDAR encephalitis.The TV series Something's Killing Me featured an episode called "Into Madness" that featured two cases of the disease.
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**Carnitine-acylcarnitine translocase**
Carnitine-acylcarnitine translocase:
Carnitine-acylcarnitine translocase (CACT) is responsible for passive transport of carnitine and carnitine-fatty acid complexes and across the inner mitochondrial membrane as part of the carnitine shuttle system.
Function:
Fatty acyl–carnitine can diffuse from the cytosol across the porous outer mitochondrial membrane to the intermembrane space, but must utilize CACT to cross the nonporous inner mitochondrial membrane and reach the mitochondrial matrix. CACT is a cotransporter, returning one molecule of carnitine from the matrix to the intermembrane space as one molecule of fatty acyl–carnitine moves into the matrix.
Clinical significance:
A disorder is associated with carnitine-acylcarnitine translocase deficiency. This disorder disrupts the carnitine shuttle system from moving fatty acids across the mitochondrial membrane, leading to a decrease in fatty acid catabolism. The result is an accumulation of fatty acid within muscles and liver, decreased tolerance to long term exercise, inability to fast for more than a few hours, muscle weakness and wasting, and a strong acidic smell on the breath (due to protein catabolism).
Model organisms:
Model organisms have been used in the study of SLC25A20 function. A conditional knockout mouse line called Slc25a20tm1a(EUCOMM)Wtsi was generated at the Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute. Male and female animals underwent a standardized phenotypic screen to determine the effects of deletion. Additional screens performed: - In-depth immunological phenotyping
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**Antaryamin**
Antaryamin:
The Antaryamin, in terms of Hindu philosophy, is related to the "inner-self", the "inner-controller" or the "inner-guidance" that exists in a person and itself manifests on an intuitive way to the one manifesting it. It recalls a teacher or a guru that resides within and once it is manifested - for a higher context of knowledge guidance - usually after one summons or prays for it, the Antaryamin comes to help. In some cases, the Antaryamin is asked to be manifested in order to resolve non-intellectual issues, also performing miracles to the one asking.
Hindu contextualization:
On the Hindu scriptures, we find the concept of the Antaryamin as the Inner Controller after the building of the elementary concepts regarding a deity or an ego - on a unity way - of which is controlling, somehow to a compared intelligence, the universe and all that is. This intelligence may also refer to what is called consciousness or awareness that is far superior, hence capable of doing superior things.
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**Vital signs**
Vital signs:
Vital signs (also known as vitals) are a group of the four to six most crucial medical signs that indicate the status of the body's vital (life-sustaining) functions. These measurements are taken to help assess the general physical health of a person, give clues to possible diseases, and show progress toward recovery. The normal ranges for a person's vital signs vary with age, weight, sex, and overall health.There are four primary vital signs: body temperature, blood pressure, pulse (heart rate), and breathing rate (respiratory rate), often notated as BT, BP, HR, and RR. However, depending on the clinical setting, the vital signs may include other measurements called the "fifth vital sign" or "sixth vital sign". Vital signs are recorded using the LOINC internationally accepted standard coding system.Early warning scores have been proposed that combine the individual values of vital signs into a single score. This was done in recognition that deteriorating vital signs often precede cardiac arrest and/or admission to the intensive care unit. Used appropriately, a rapid response team can assess and treat a deteriorating patient and prevent adverse outcomes.
Primary vital signs:
There are four primary vital signs which are standard in most medical settings: Body temperature Heart rate or Pulse Respiratory rate Blood pressureThe equipment needed is a thermometer, a sphygmomanometer, and a watch. Although a pulse can be taken by hand, a stethoscope may be required for a patient with a very weak pulse.
Temperature Temperature recording gives an indication of core body temperature which is normally tightly controlled (thermoregulation) as it affects the rate of chemical reactions. Body temperature is maintained through a balance of the heat produced by the body and the heat lost from the body.
Temperature can be recorded in order to establish a baseline for the individual's normal body temperature for the site and measuring conditions.
Primary vital signs:
Temperature can be measured from the mouth, rectum, axilla (armpit), ear, or skin. Oral, rectal, and axillary temperature can be measured with either a glass or electronic thermometer. Note that rectal temperature measures approximately 0.5 °C higher than oral temperature, and axillary temperature approximately 0.5 °C less than oral temperature. Aural and skin temperature measurements require special devices designed to measure temperature from these locations.While 37 °C (98.6 °F) is considered "normal" body temperature, there is some variance between individuals. Most have a normal body temperature set point that falls within the range of 36.0 °C to 37.5 °C (96.5–99.5 °F).The main reason for checking body temperature is to solicit any signs of systemic infection or inflammation in the presence of a fever. Fever is considered temperature of 37.8 °C or above. Other causes of elevated temperature include hyperthermia, which results from unregulated heat generation or abnormalities in the body's heat exchange mechanisms.Temperature depression (hypothermia) also needs to be evaluated. Hypothermia is classified as temperature below 35 °C (95 °F).It is also recommended to review the trend of the patient's temperature over time. A fever of 38 °C does not necessarily indicate an ominous sign if the patient's previous temperature has been higher.
Primary vital signs:
Pulse The pulse is the rate at which the heart beats while pumping blood through the arteries, recorded as beats per minute (bpm). It may also be called "heart rate". In addition to providing the heart rate, the pulse should also be evaluated for strength and obvious rhythm abnormalities. The pulse is commonly taken at the wrist (radial artery). Alternative sites include the elbow (brachial artery), the neck (carotid artery), behind the knee (popliteal artery), or in the foot (dorsalis pedis or posterior tibial arteries). The pulse is taken with the index finger and middle finger by pushing with firm yet gentle pressure at the locations described above, and counting the beats felt per 60 seconds (or per 30 seconds and multiplying by two). The pulse rate can also be measured by listening directly to the heartbeat using a stethoscope. The pulse may vary due to exercise, fitness level, disease, emotions, and medications. The pulse also varies with age. A newborn can have a heart rate of 100–160 bpm, an infant (0–5 months old) a heart rate of 90–150 bpm, and a toddler (6–12 months old) a heart rate of 80–140 bpm. A child aged 1–3 years old can have a heart rate of 80–130 bpm, a child aged 3–5 years old a heart rate of 80–120 bpm, an older child (age of 6–10) a heart rate of 70–110 bpm, and an adolescent (age 11–14) a heart rate of 60–105 bpm. An adult (age 15+) can have a heart rate of 60–100 bpm.
Primary vital signs:
Respiratory rate Average respiratory rates vary between ages, but the normal reference range for people age 18 to 65 is 16–20 breaths per minute. The value of respiratory rate as an indicator of potential respiratory dysfunction has been investigated but findings suggest it is of limited value. Respiratory rate is a clear indicator of acidotic states, as the main function of respiration is removal of CO2 leaving bicarbonate base in circulation.
Primary vital signs:
Blood pressure Blood pressure is recorded as two readings: a higher systolic pressure, which occurs during the maximal contraction of the heart, and the lower diastolic or resting pressure. In adults, a normal blood pressure is 120/80, with 120 being the systolic and 80 being the diastolic reading. Usually, the blood pressure is read from the left arm unless there is some damage to the arm. The difference between the systolic and diastolic pressure is called the pulse pressure. The measurement of these pressures is now usually done with an aneroid or electronic sphygmomanometer. The classic measurement device is a mercury sphygmomanometer, using a column of mercury measured off in millimeters. In the United States and UK, the common form is millimeters of mercury, while elsewhere SI units of pressure are used. There is no natural 'normal' value for blood pressure, but rather a range of values that on increasing are associated with increased risks. The guideline acceptable reading also takes into account other co-factors for disease. Therefore, elevated blood pressure (hypertension) is variously defined when the systolic number is persistently over 140–160 mmHg. Low blood pressure is hypotension. Blood pressures are also taken at other portions of the extremities. These pressures are called segmental blood pressures and are used to evaluate blockage or arterial occlusion in a limb (see Ankle brachial pressure index).
Other signs:
In the U.S., in addition to the above four, many providers are required or encouraged by government technology-in-medicine laws to record the patient's height, weight, and body mass index. In contrast to the traditional vital signs, these measurements are not useful for assessing acute changes in state because of the rate at which they change; however, they are useful for assessing the impact of prolonged illness or chronic health problems.
Other signs:
The definition of vital signs may also vary with the setting of the assessment. Emergency medical technicians (EMTs), in particular, are taught to measure the vital signs of respiration, pulse, skin, pupils, and blood pressure as "the 5 vital signs" in a non-hospital setting.
Fifth vital signs The "fifth vital sign" may refer to a few different parameters.
Pain is considered a standard fifth vital sign in some organizations, such as the U.S. Veterans Affairs. Pain is measured on a 0–10 pain scale based on subjective patient reporting and may be unreliable. Some studies show that recording pain routinely may not change management.
Menstrual cycle Oxygen saturation (as measured by pulse oximetry) Blood glucose level Sixth vital signs There is no standard "sixth vital sign"; its use is more informal and discipline-dependent.
End-tidal CO2 Functional status Shortness of breath Gait speed Delirium
Variations by age:
Children and infants have respiratory and heart rates that are faster than those of adults as shown in the following table :
Monitoring:
Monitoring of vital parameters most commonly includes at least blood pressure and heart rate, and preferably also pulse oximetry and respiratory rate. Multimodal monitors that simultaneously measure and display the relevant vital parameters are commonly integrated into the bedside monitors in intensive care units, and the anesthetic machines in operating rooms. These allow for continuous monitoring of a patient, with medical staff being continuously informed of the changes in the general condition of a patient.
Monitoring:
While monitoring has traditionally been done by nurses and doctors, a number of companies are developing devices that can be used by consumers themselves. These include Cherish Health, Scanadu and Azoi.
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**Electromagnetic pulse**
Electromagnetic pulse:
An electromagnetic pulse (EMP), also referred to as a transient electromagnetic disturbance (TED), is a brief burst of electromagnetic energy. The origin of an EMP can be natural or artificial, and can occur as an electromagnetic field, as an electric field, as a magnetic field, or as a conducted electric current. The electromagnetic interference caused by an EMP can disrupt communications and damage electronic equipment. An EMP such as a lightning strike can physically damage objects such as buildings and aircraft. The management of EMP effects is a branch of electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) engineering.
Electromagnetic pulse:
The first recorded damage from an electromagnetic pulse came with the solar storm of August 1859, or the Carrington Event.In modern warfare, weapons delivering a high energy EMP pulse are designed to disrupt communications equipment, the computers needed to operate modern warplanes, or even put the entire electrical network of a target country out of commission.
General characteristics:
An electromagnetic pulse is a short surge of electromagnetic energy. Its short duration means that it will be spread over a range of frequencies. Pulses are typically characterized by: The mode of energy transfer (radiated, electric, magnetic or conducted).
The range or spectrum of frequencies present.
Pulse waveform: shape, duration and amplitude.The frequency spectrum and the pulse waveform are interrelated via the Fourier transform which describes how component waveforms may sum to the observed frequency spectrum.
Types of energy EMP energy may be transferred in any of four forms: Electric field Magnetic field Electromagnetic radiation Electrical conductionAccording to Maxwell's equations, a pulse of electric energy will always be accompanied by a pulse of magnetic energy. In a typical pulse, either the electric or the magnetic form will dominate.
In general, radiation only acts over long distances, with the magnetic and electric fields acting over short distances. There are a few exceptions, such as a solar magnetic flare.
Frequency ranges A pulse of electromagnetic energy typically comprises many frequencies from very low to some upper limit depending on the source. The range defined as EMP, sometimes referred to as "DC to daylight", excludes the highest frequencies comprising the optical (infrared, visible, ultraviolet) and ionizing (X and gamma rays) ranges.
Some types of EMP events can leave an optical trail, such as lightning and sparks, but these are side effects of the current flow through the air and are not part of the EMP itself.
Pulse waveforms The waveform of a pulse describes how its instantaneous amplitude (field strength or current) changes over time. Real pulses tend to be quite complicated, so simplified models are often used. Such a model is typically described either in a diagram or as a mathematical equation.
Most electromagnetic pulses have a very sharp leading edge, building up quickly to their maximum level. The classic model is a double-exponential curve which climbs steeply, quickly reaches a peak and then decays more slowly. However, pulses from a controlled switching circuit often approximate the form of a rectangular or "square" pulse.
General characteristics:
EMP events usually induce a corresponding signal in the surrounding environment or material. Coupling usually occurs most strongly over a relatively narrow frequency band, leading to a characteristic damped sine wave. Visually it is shown as a high frequency sine wave growing and decaying within the longer-lived envelope of the double-exponential curve. A damped sinewave typically has much lower energy and a narrower frequency spread than the original pulse, due to the transfer characteristic of the coupling mode. In practice, EMP test equipment often injects these damped sinewaves directly rather than attempting to recreate the high-energy threat pulses.
General characteristics:
In a pulse train, such as from a digital clock circuit, the waveform is repeated at regular intervals. A single complete pulse cycle is sufficient to characterise such a regular, repetitive train.
Types:
An EMP arises where the source emits a short-duration pulse of energy. The energy is usually broadband by nature, although it often excites a relatively narrow-band damped sine wave response in the surrounding environment. Some types are generated as repetitive and regular pulse trains.
Different types of EMP arise from natural, man-made, and weapons effects.
Types of natural EMP events include: Lightning electromagnetic pulse (LEMP). The discharge is typically an initial current flow of perhaps millions of amps, followed by a train of pulses of decreasing energy.
Electrostatic discharge (ESD), as a result of two charged objects coming into proximity or even contact.
Meteoric EMP. The discharge of electromagnetic energy resulting from either the impact of a meteoroid with a spacecraft or the explosive breakup of a meteoroid passing through the Earth's atmosphere.
Coronal mass ejection (CME), sometimes referred to as a solar EMP. A burst of plasma and accompanying magnetic field, ejected from the solar corona and released into the solar wind.Types of (civil) man-made EMP events include: Switching action of electrical circuitry, whether isolated or repetitive (as a pulse train).
Electric motors can create a train of pulses as the internal electrical contacts make and break connections as the armature rotates.
Gasoline engine ignition systems can create a train of pulses as the spark plugs are energized or fired.
Continual switching actions of digital electronic circuitry.
Types:
Power line surges. These can be up to several kilovolts, enough to damage electronic equipment that is insufficiently protected.Types of military EMP include: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse (NEMP), as a result of a nuclear explosion. A variant of this is the high altitude nuclear EMP (HEMP), which produces a secondary pulse due to particle interactions with the Earth's atmosphere and magnetic field.
Types:
Non-nuclear electromagnetic pulse (NNEMP) weapons.
Lightning Lightning is unusual in that it typically has a preliminary "leader" discharge of low energy building up to the main pulse, which in turn may be followed at intervals by several smaller bursts.
Electrostatic discharge (ESD) ESD events are characterized by high voltages of many kV, but small currents sometimes cause visible sparks. ESD is treated as a small, localized phenomenon, although technically a lightning flash is a very large ESD event. ESD can also be man-made, as in the shock received from a Van de Graaff generator.
Types:
An ESD event can damage electronic circuitry by injecting a high-voltage pulse, besides giving people an unpleasant shock. Such an ESD event can also create sparks, which may in turn ignite fires or fuel-vapour explosions. For this reason, before refueling an aircraft or exposing any fuel vapor to the air, the fuel nozzle is first connected to the aircraft to safely discharge any static.
Types:
Switching pulses The switching action of an electrical circuit creates a sharp change in the flow of electricity. This sharp change is a form of EMP.
Types:
Simple electrical sources include inductive loads such as relays, solenoids, and brush contacts in electric motors. These typically send a pulse down any electrical connections present, as well as radiating a pulse of energy. The amplitude is usually small and the signal may be treated as "noise" or "interference". The switching off or "opening" of a circuit causes an abrupt change in the current flowing. This can in turn cause a large pulse in the electric field across the open contacts, causing arcing and damage. It is often necessary to incorporate design features to limit such effects.
Types:
Electronic devices such as vacuum tubes or valves, transistors, and diodes can also switch on and off very quickly, causing similar issues. One-off pulses may be caused by solid-state switches and other devices used only occasionally. However, the many millions of transistors in a modern computer may switch repeatedly at frequencies above 1 GHz, causing interference that appears to be continuous.
Types:
Nuclear electromagnetic pulse (NEMP) A nuclear electromagnetic pulse is the abrupt pulse of electromagnetic radiation resulting from a nuclear explosion. The resulting rapidly changing electric fields and magnetic fields may couple with electrical/electronic systems to produce damaging current and voltage surges.The intense gamma radiation emitted can also ionize the surrounding air, creating a secondary EMP as the atoms of air first lose their electrons and then regain them.
Types:
NEMP weapons are designed to maximize such EMP effects as the primary damage mechanism, and some are capable of destroying susceptible electronic equipment over a wide area.
Types:
A high-altitude electromagnetic pulse (HEMP) weapon is a NEMP warhead designed to be detonated far above the Earth's surface. The explosion releases a blast of gamma rays into the mid-stratosphere, which ionizes as a secondary effect and the resultant energetic free electrons interact with the Earth's magnetic field to produce a much stronger EMP than is normally produced in the denser air at lower altitudes.
Types:
Non-nuclear electromagnetic pulse (NNEMP) Non-nuclear electromagnetic pulse (NNEMP) is a weapon-generated electromagnetic pulse without use of nuclear technology. Devices that can achieve this objective include a large low-inductance capacitor bank discharged into a single-loop antenna, a microwave generator, and an explosively pumped flux compression generator. To achieve the frequency characteristics of the pulse needed for optimal coupling into the target, wave-shaping circuits or microwave generators are added between the pulse source and the antenna. Vircators are vacuum tubes that are particularly suitable for microwave conversion of high-energy pulses.NNEMP generators can be carried as a payload of bombs, cruise missiles (such as the CHAMP missile) and drones, with diminished mechanical, thermal and ionizing radiation effects, but without the consequences of deploying nuclear weapons.
Types:
The range of NNEMP weapons is much less than nuclear EMP. Nearly all NNEMP devices used as weapons require chemical explosives as their initial energy source, producing only one millionth the energy of nuclear explosives of similar weight. The electromagnetic pulse from NNEMP weapons must come from within the weapon, while nuclear weapons generate EMP as a secondary effect. These facts limit the range of NNEMP weapons, but allow finer target discrimination. The effect of small e-bombs has proven to be sufficient for certain terrorist or military operations. Examples of such operations include the destruction of electronic control systems critical to the operation of many ground vehicles and aircraft.The concept of the explosively pumped flux compression generator for generating a non-nuclear electromagnetic pulse was conceived as early as 1951 by Andrei Sakharov in the Soviet Union, but nations kept work on non-nuclear EMP classified until similar ideas emerged in other nations.
Effects:
Minor EMP events, and especially pulse trains, cause low levels of electrical noise or interference which can affect the operation of susceptible devices. For example, a common problem in the mid-twentieth century was interference emitted by the ignition systems of gasoline engines, which caused radio sets to crackle and TV sets to show stripes on the screen. Laws were introduced to make vehicle manufacturers fit interference suppressors.At a high voltage level an EMP can induce a spark, for example from an electrostatic discharge when fuelling a gasoline-engined vehicle. Such sparks have been known to cause fuel-air explosions and precautions must be taken to prevent them.A large and energetic EMP can induce high currents and voltages in the victim unit, temporarily disrupting its function or even permanently damaging it.A powerful EMP can also directly affect magnetic materials and corrupt the data stored on media such as magnetic tape and computer hard drives. Hard drives are usually shielded by heavy metal casings. Some IT asset disposal service providers and computer recyclers use a controlled EMP to wipe such magnetic media.A very large EMP event such as a lightning strike or a air bursted nuclear weapon, is also capable of damaging objects such as trees, buildings and aircraft directly, either through heating effects or the disruptive effects of the very large magnetic field generated by the current. An indirect effect can be electrical fires caused by heating. Most engineered structures and systems require some form of protection against lightning to be designed in. A good means of protection is a Faraday shield designed to protect certain items from being destroyed.
Control:
Like any electromagnetic interference, the threat from EMP is subject to control measures. This is true whether the threat is natural or man-made.
Therefore, most control measures focus on the susceptibility of equipment to EMP effects, and hardening or protecting it from harm. Man-made sources, other than weapons, are also subject to control measures in order to limit the amount of pulse energy emitted.
The discipline of ensuring correct equipment operation in the presence of EMP and other RF threats is known as electromagnetic compatibility (EMC).
Test simulation To test the effects of EMP on engineered systems and equipment, an EMP simulator may be used.
Control:
Induced pulse simulation Induced pulses are of much lower energy than threat pulses and so are more practicable to create, but they are less predictable. A common test technique is to use a current clamp in reverse, to inject a range of damped sine wave signals into a cable connected to the equipment under test. The damped sine wave generator is able to reproduce the range of induced signals likely to occur.
Control:
Threat pulse simulation Sometimes the threat pulse itself is simulated in a repeatable way. The pulse may be reproduced at low energy in order to characterise the subject's response prior to damped sinewave injection, or at high energy to recreate the actual threat conditions. A small-scale ESD simulator may be hand-held. Bench- or room-sized simulators come in a range of designs, depending on the type and level of threat to be generated.
Control:
At the top end of the scale, large outdoor test facilities incorporating high-energy EMP simulators have been built by several countries. The largest facilities are able to test whole vehicles including ships and aircraft for their susceptibility to EMP. Nearly all of these large EMP simulators used a specialized version of a Marx generator. Examples include the huge wooden-structured ATLAS-I simulator (also known as TRESTLE) at Sandia National Labs, New Mexico, which was at one time the world's largest EMP simulator. Papers on this and other large EMP simulators used by the United States during the latter part of the Cold War, along with more general information about electromagnetic pulses, are now in the care of the SUMMA Foundation, which is hosted at the University of New Mexico. The US Navy also has a large facility called the Electro Magnetic Pulse Radiation Environmental Simulator for Ships I (EMPRESS I).
Safety:
High-level EMP signals can pose a threat to human safety. In such circumstances, direct contact with a live electrical conductor should be avoided. Where this occurs, such as when touching a Van de Graaff generator or other highly charged object, care must be taken to release the object and then discharge the body through a high resistance, in order to avoid the risk of a harmful shock pulse when stepping away.
Safety:
Very high electric field strengths can cause breakdown of the air and a potentially lethal arc current similar to lightning to flow, but electric field strengths of up to 200 kV/m are regarded as safe.According to research from Edd Gent, a 2019 report by the Electric Power Research Institute, which is funded by utility companies, found that a large EMP attack would probably cause regional blackouts but not a nationwide grid failure and that recovery times would be similar to those of other large-scale outages. It is not known how long these electrical blackouts would last, or what extent of damage would occur across the country. It is possible that neighboring countries of the U.S. could also be affected by such an attack, depending on the targeted area and people.According to an article from Naureen Malik, with North Korea's increasingly successful missile and warhead tests in mind, Congress moved to renew funding for the Commission to Assess the Threat to the U.S. from Electromagnetic Pulse Attack as part of the National Defense Authorization Act. At the moment, the United States lacks preparation against an EMP attack.According to research from Yoshida Reiji, in a 2016 article for the Tokyo-based nonprofit organization Center for Information and Security Trade Control, Onizuka warned that a high-altitude EMP attack would damage or destroy Japan's power, communications and transport systems as well as disable banks, hospitals and nuclear power plants.
In popular culture:
By 1981, a number of articles on electromagnetic pulse in the popular press spread knowledge of the EMP phenomenon into the popular culture. EMP has been subsequently used in a wide variety of fiction and other aspects of popular culture. Popular media often depict EMP effects incorrectly, causing misunderstandings among the public and even professionals. Official efforts have been made in the U.S. to remedy these misconceptions.
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**Carbocisteine**
Carbocisteine:
Carbocisteine, also called carbocysteine, is a mucolytic that reduces the viscosity of sputum and so can be used to help relieve the symptoms of chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder (COPD) and bronchiectasis by allowing the sufferer to bring up sputum more easily. Carbocisteine should not be used with antitussives (cough suppressants) or medicines that dry up bronchial secretions.
It was first described in 1951 and came into medical use in 1960. Carbocisteine is produced by alkylation of cysteine with chloroacetic acid.
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**Olive oil extraction**
Olive oil extraction:
Olive oil extraction is the process of extracting the olive oil present in olive drupes. Olive oil is produced in the mesocarp cells, and stored in a particular type of vacuole called a lipo vacuole, i.e., every cell contains a tiny olive oil droplet. Olive oil extraction is the process of separating the oil from the other fruit contents (vegetative extract liquid and solid material). It is possible to attain this separation by physical means alone, i.e., oil and water do not mix, so they are relatively easy to separate. This contrasts with other oils that are extracted with chemical solvents, generally hexane. The first operation when extracting olive oil is washing the olives, to reduce the presence of contaminants, especially soil which can create a particular flavor effect called "soil taste".
Olive presses:
People have used olive presses since Greeks first began pressing olives over 5,000 years ago. Roman olive presses survive to the present time, with a notable collection present at Volubilis in Morocco. An olive press works by applying pressure to olive paste to separate the liquid oil and vegetation water from the solid material. The oil and vegetation water are then separated by standard decantation.
Olive presses:
Olive presses were traditionally built within walled structures. Traditional olive-presses consisted of a large, cylindrical millstone mounted by an upper milling-stone used to grind the olives and their pits into a pulp. Formerly, the upper milling-stone was turned by a beast of burden pulling a wooden beam attached to the stone. After which, the pulp was collected and kneaded. It was then placed within frails (being no more than flexible, woven baskets made of thick fibrous material, usually of rushes, palm fronds, hemp or willow splints), stacked one on top of the other, to which was applied a stone weight to release the oil from the pulp. The extracted liquid which is obtained consists of oil and vegetable water (amurca) mixed together, and runs off into a pit. After settling, the oil rises to the surface and is removed by way of decantation. Filtering the oil produces a clearer batch of oil. The olive residue that remained was used for lighting fires.
Olive presses:
This basic method is still widely used today, and it is still a valid way of producing high quality olive oil if adequate precautions are taken.
Olive presses:
First the olives are ground into an olive paste using large millstones at a corporate oil mill. The olive paste generally stays under the stones for 30–40 minutes. This has three objectives: Ensure that olives are well ground Allow enough time for the olive drops to join to form the largest droplets of oil Allow the fruit enzymes to produce some of the oil aromas and tasteOlive oil mills very rarely use a modern crushing method with a traditional press.In modern-day mills, after grinding, the olive paste is spread on fibre discs, which are stacked on top of each other, then placed into the mechanical press. In modern times, these discs are made of synthetic fibres which are easier to clean and maintain.
Olive presses:
These discs are then put on a hydraulic piston, forming a pile. Pressure is applied on the disks, thus compacting the solid phase of the olive paste and percolating the liquid phases (oil and vegetation water). The applied hydraulic pressure can go to 400 atm. To facilitate separation of the liquid phases, water is run down the sides of the discs to increase the speed of percolation. The liquids are then separated either by a standard process of decantation or by means of a faster vertical centrifuge.
Olive presses:
The traditional method is a valid form of producing high-quality olive oil, if after each extraction the discs are properly cleaned from the remains of paste; if not the leftover paste will begin to ferment, thereby producing inconsistencies of flavors (called defects) that will contaminate the subsequently produced olive oil. A similar problem can affect the grindstones that, in order to assure perfect quality, also require cleaning after each usage.
Olive presses:
Grades of olive oil In ancient Palestine and the Levant, three methods were used to produce different grades of olive oil. The finest oil was produced from fully developed and ripe olives harvested solely from the apex of the tree, and lightly pressed, "for what flows from light pressure is very sweet and very thin." The remaining olives are pressed with a heavier weight, and vary in ripeness. Inferior oil is produced from unripe olives that are stored for extended periods of time until they grow soft or begin to shrivel to become more fit for grinding. Others are left for extended periods in pits in the ground to induce sweating and decay before they are ground. According to the Geoponica, salt and a little nitre are added when oil is stored. Traditionally, freshly collected olives were laid up within a large tub (Hebrew: מעטן) and sprinkled with salt before they were to be crushed in the mill, and which function served to heat-up the olives and to induce sweating, thereby bringing them to an advanced stage of ripeness, and make it easier to extract the oil once the olives are brought to the mill.
Olive presses:
Advantages and disadvantages Proper cleaning produces higher-quality oil. Grindstones, while ancient in design, are a suitable way to grind olives, because this method breaks up the drupe's pulp while only slightly touching the nut and the skin. This reduces the release of the oil oxidation enzymes present in these organs. In addition, in this extraction method, the introduction of water is minimal when compared to the modern one, thus reducing the washing-off of the polyphenols. The exhausted paste, called pomace, has a low content of water, making it an easier residue to manage.
Olive presses:
Advantages Better grinding of the olives, reducing the release of oil oxidation enzymes Reduced added water, minimizing the washing of polyphenols Pomace with a low content of water easier to manageDisadvantages Difficult to clean Non-continuous process with waiting periods thus exposes the olive paste to oxygen and light Requires more manual labor Longer production time from harvest to pressing
Decanter centrifugation:
The modern method of olive oil extraction uses an industrial decanter to separate all the phases by centrifugation. In this method the olives are crushed to a fine paste. This can be done by a hammer crusher, disc crusher, depitting machine or knife crusher. This paste is then malaxed for 30 to 60 minutes in order to allow the small olive droplets to agglomerate. The aromas are created in these two steps through the action of fruit enzymes.
Decanter centrifugation:
Afterwards the paste is pumped into an industrial decanter where the phases will be separated. Water is added to facilitate the extraction process with the paste.
The decanter is a large capacity horizontal centrifuge rotating approximately 3,000 rpm, the high centrifugal force created allows the phases to be readily separated according to their different densities (solids > vegetation water > oil). Inside the decanter's rotating conical drum there is a coil that rotates more slowly, pushing the solid materials out of the system.
The separated oil and vegetation water are then rerun through a vertical centrifuge, working around 6,000 rpm that will separate the small quantity of vegetation water still contained in oil and vice versa.
Three, two, and two and a half phases decanters With the three phases oil decanter, a portion of the oil polyphenols is washed out due to the higher quantity of added water (when compared to the traditional method), producing a larger quantity of vegetation water that needs to be processed.
Decanter centrifugation:
The two phases oil decanter was created as an attempt to solve these problems. Sacrificing part of its extraction capability, it uses less added water thus reducing the phenol washing. The olive paste is separated into two phases: oil and wet pomace. This type of decanter, instead of having three exits (oil, water, and solids), has only two. The water is expelled by the decanter coil together with the pomace, resulting in a wetter pomace that is much harder to process industrially. Many pomace oil extraction facilities refuse to work with these materials because the energy costs of drying the pomace for the hexane oil extraction often make the extraction process sub-economical. In practice, then, the two phases decanter solves the phenol washing problem but increases the residue management problem. This residue management problem has been reduced by the collection of this wetter pomace and being transported to specialized facilities called extractors which heat the pomace between 45 °C and 50 °C and can extract up to a further 2 litres per 100 kilos of pomace using adapted two-phase decanters.
Decanter centrifugation:
The two-and-a-half-phase oil decanter is a compromise between the two previous types of decanters. It separates the olive paste into the standard three phases, but has a smaller need for added water and also a smaller vegetation water output. Therefore, the water content of the obtained pomace comes very close to that of the standard three-phase decanter, and the vegetation water output is relatively small, minimizing the residue management issues.
Decanter centrifugation:
Depending on the olives and processing, the Decanter or Tricanter can extract between 85 and 90% of the olive oil in the 1st extraction. The yield from olive oil manufacture can be increased even further with a 2nd extraction. The olive oil yield increases to as much as 96% by combining the 1st and 2nd extractions.
Decanter centrifugation:
Advantages and disadvantages Advantages Compact machinery: only one decanter required Continuous and automated Limited labor required Highest percent of oil extraction Vegetable water disposal less of a problem Olive oil from two-phase centrifugation systems contains more phenols, tocopherols, trans‑2‑hexenal, and total aroma compounds and is more resistant to oxidation than oil from three-phase ones and from hydraulic pressesDisadvantages Expensive More technical labor required High energy consumption Pomace may end up moist Greater amount of vegetable water to be disposed of Reduced antioxidants due to added water Subject to wear from rocks, grit
Sinolea method:
The Sinolea method to extract oil from the olives was introduced in 1972; in this process, rows of metal discs or plates are dipped into the paste; the oil preferentially wets and sticks to the metal and is removed with scrapers in a continuous process. It is based on the different surface tension of the vegetation water and the oil, these different physical behaviors allow the olive oil to adhere to a steel plaque while the other two phases remain behind.
Sinolea method:
Sinolea works by continuously introducing several hundreds of steel plaques into the paste thus extracting the olive oil. This process is not completely efficient leaving a large quantity of oil still in the paste, so the remaining paste has to be processed by the standard modern method (industrial decanter).
Sinolea method:
Advantages and disadvantages Advantages Higher polyphenol content of oil Low temperature method Automated Low labor Oil/water separation step is not needed Low energy requirementDisadvantages Often must be combined with one of the above methods in order to maximize oil extraction which requires more space and labor Large surface areas can lead to rapid oxidation of the olive product Sale of future machines currently outlawed in the European Union due to difficulty in cleaning large surface areas
First cold pressed – cold extraction:
Many oils are marketed as first cold pressed or cold extraction. "Cold" means no heat is added during extraction. "Pressed" means that the olives are crushed in a mill to extract the oil.In the EU, these designations are regulated by Article 5 of Commission Regulation (EC) No 1019/2002 of 13 June 2002 on marketing standards for olive oil. This article states that in order to use these designations the olive oil bottler must prove that the temperature of malaxation and extraction was under 27 °C (80 °F).
First cold pressed – cold extraction:
For olive oil bottled outside EU countries, this regulation does not apply, and thus the consumer has no assurance that these statements are true.
First cold pressed – cold extraction:
The temperature of malaxation and extraction is crucial due to its effect on olive oil quality. When high temperatures are applied, the more volatile aromas are lost and the rate of oil oxidation is increased, producing therefore lower quality oils. In addition, the chemical content of the polyphenols, antioxidants, and vitamins present in the oil is reduced by higher temperatures. The temperature is adjusted basically by controlling the temperature of the water added during these two steps. High temperatures are used to increase the yield of olive oil obtained from the paste.
Alternative configurations:
Some producers, in order to maximise product quality, choose to combine the traditional grinding method, the stone mill, with a modern decanter. This technique produces more selective grinding of the olives, reduces the malaxation time olive paste, and avoids the complicated cleaning of the olive press fibre disks. Because the use of the stone mill requires a loading and unloading phase, this extraction method is discontinuous, i.e., there are times when all the machinery is stopped, therefore it is generally not used on a large commercial scale, being applied only by small scale olive mills producing high quality olive oil.
Consumer point of view:
High quality olive oil can be obtained by all the methods if proper measures are taken. Olive oil quality is equally dependent on the quality of the olives themselves and on the time they have to wait from harvesting to extraction, in addition to the extraction method itself.
Consumer point of view:
The two main agents that cause the degradation of olive oil are oxygen and light. Once an olive is harvested, it should be pressed within 24 hours. Oxidation begins immediately upon harvesting. In the period between harvest and grinding, the fruits' enzymes are very active and increasingly degrade the endogenous oil, and therefore oil obtained after a longer wait is of lower quality, presenting higher acidity (free fatty acids percentage).
Consumer point of view:
In addition, if additional oxygen is allowed to interact with the olive paste during the extraction process, the acidity level will increase further. Sealed extraction methods are best to prevent the continued introduction of oxygen, as well as light to the oil.
After extraction is complete, in most cases unfiltered olive oil appears somewhat cloudy, mainly due to the presence of minute amounts of water and suspended solids of olive pulp and seed. This type of oil is therefore sometimes called cloudy or veiled olive oil.
It is common practice that unfiltered olive oils are then "racked" for a time, i.e. stored in cool stainless steel silos with a conical bottom that are pumped free of oxygen to enable the precipitation and separation of the two phases and facilitate later filtration; it will also contribute in the integrity and stability of the oil.
Future prospects:
The future of olive extraction points to reducing the negative aspects of the present methods, decreasing the degradation oil produced by the extraction process in itself.
Future prospects:
Reducing the oxidation by performing part of the process of malaxation and the extraction under a controlled nitrogen atmosphere Extracting the nut of the olive before grinding, this will reduce the release of oxidative enzymes present in this organ, and yield a pomace that is free from wood residues, making it possible to be used in animal feeding Reducing the addition of water to minimize the washing of polyphenols Improving the Sinolea method, through an increase in the efficiency of the adsorption of the oil to the plates, thus reducing the need for the use of standard methods of extraction
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Pixilation**
Pixilation:
Pixilation is a stop motion technique in which live actors are used as a frame-by-frame subject in an animated film, by repeatedly posing while one or more frame is taken and changing pose slightly before the next frame or frames. The actor becomes a kind of living stop-motion puppet. This technique is often used as a way to blend live actors with animated ones in a movie, such as in The Secret Adventures of Tom Thumb by the Bolex Brothers.
Pixilation:
Early examples of this technique are Hôtel électrique from 1908 and Émile Cohl's 1911 movie Jobard ne peut pas voir les femmes travailler (Jobard cannot see the women working).
The term is widely credited to Grant Munro (although some say it was Norman McLaren) and he made an experimental movie named "Pixillation", available in his DVD collection "Cut Up – The Films of Grant Munro."
Films:
Norman McLaren's Oscar-winner Neighbours, A Chairy Tale (1957) and Two Bagatelles Chuck Menville and Len Janson's trilogy of pixilated short films Stop Look and Listen – 1967, Blaze Glory (1968) and Sergeant Swell of the Mounties (1972), along with their sequence in Daffy Duck and Porky Pig Meet the Groovie Goolies (1972) Mike Jittlov's short The Wizard of Speed and Time (1979). Jittlov made a feature film with many pixilation sequences, also titled The Wizard of Speed and Time (1989), based on the making of the original short.
Films:
Monsieur Pointu (1975) Jan Kounen's Gisele Kerozene (1989) Tetsuo: The Iron Man (1989) Numerous Jan Švankmajer movies, but most notably Food (1992) and large sections of Conspirators of Pleasure (1996).
Bolex Brothers' The Secret Adventures of Tom Thumb (1993) Michael Langan's Doxology (2007) Paul Cummings' and Tony Fiandaca's Tony vs. Paul (2007) Luminaris a short film by Juan Pablo Zaramella (2011) Western Spaghetti and the Academy Award-nominated Fresh Guacamole (2012) by PES utilize pixilation.
Joe & Giles's Two Gentlemen of Honour (2012) Jared Goldberg's Mister G Meets the Biker Babes (2012) Michael Bartolomeo's short fantasy-horror film Washed (2019) prominently features pixilation in several of its scenes.
Television shows:
Angry Kid Sesame Street (Milo Counting, Ordering a Pizza, George the Farmer) The Goodies Rex the Runt The Flash (1990 TV series)
Music videos:
"All The Way To Heaven" by Doug E. Fresh and The Get Fresh Crew "And She Was" by Talking Heads "Baby C'mon" by Stephen Malkmus "Be Near Me" by ABC "Big Time" by Peter Gabriel "The Box" by Orbital "Bridge to Your Heart" by Wax "Cold" by Tears for Fears "Consolation Prizes" by Phoenix "End Love" by OK Go "The End of the World" by The Cure "Every Teardrop Is A Waterfall" by Coldplay "Fix" by Jean-Paul De Roover "The Hardest Button to Button" by The White Stripes "Heard 'Em Say" by Kanye West "Hello Again" by The Cars "Her Morning Elegance" by Oren Lavie "I Stay Away" by Alice in Chains "In Your Arms" by Kina Grannis "Is That It" by Katrina & The Waves "Lame Claim to Fame" by "Weird Al" Yankovic "Last Dance" by George Clinton "Les tartines" by Sttellla "Long Gone" by Fat City Reprise "Ma Che Discorsi" by Daniele Silvestri "Now You See Her" by Crash Test Dummies "Paralyzed" by The Used "Point of No Return" by Nu Shooz "Rhythm of Love" by Yes "Road to Nowhere" by Talking Heads "Sex Machine" by The Fat Boys "Shopping Trolley" by Beth Orton "Sledgehammer" by Peter Gabriel "Strawberry Swing" by Coldplay "There There" by Radiohead "Time Won't Let Me Go" by The Bravery "Vermilion" by SlipknotQuebec band Les Colocs and Michel Gondry used pixilation in many of their music videos.
Music videos:
Of note, "Leave Me Alone" by Michael Jackson utilises a variation on this technique by slowing down the frame rate of video and overlaying objects to achieve the distinctive pixilation look to great effect.
Others:
The pixilation technique was also used for the opening of Claymation, Will Vinton's 1978, 17-minute documentary about his animation studio's production techniques, the first time the famous trademarked Claymation term was used, now a term synonymous with all clay animation.The Czech animator Jan Švankmajer uses pixilation in most of his work; most notably Food.
Jan Kounen's Gisele Kerozene (1989), a short film that shows witches riding around a city on broomsticks, is another influential example of this technique.
Pixilation is also used in Andrew Huang's short video Fluxis.
An effect similar to pixilation can be achieved by dropping occasional frames from a conventionally recorded movie. While obviously easier than the stop-frame technique, this does not achieve the same quality.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Oblivious data structure**
Oblivious data structure:
In computer science, an oblivious data structure is a data structure that gives no information about the sequence or pattern of the operations that have been applied except for the final result of the operations.In most conditions, even if the data is encrypted, the access pattern can be achieved, and this pattern can leak some important information such as encryption keys. And in the outsourcing of cloud data, this leakage of access pattern is still very serious. An access pattern is a specification of an access mode for every attribute of a relation schema. For example, the sequences of user read or write the data in the cloud are access patterns.
Oblivious data structure:
We say a machine is oblivious if the sequence in which it accesses is equivalent for any two inputs with the same running time. So the data access pattern is independent from the input.
Applications: Cloud data outsourcing: When writing or reading data from a cloud server, oblivious data structures are useful. And modern databases rely on data structures heavily, so oblivious data structures come in handy.
Oblivious data structure:
Secure processor: Tamper-resilient secure processors are used for defense against physical attacks or the malicious intruders access the users’ computer platforms. The existing secure processors designed in academia and industry include AEGIS and Intel SGX. But the memory addresses are still transferred in the clear on the memory bus. So the research finds that this memory buses can give out the information about encryption keys. With the Oblivious data structure comes in practical, the secure processor can obfuscate memory access pattern in a provably secure manner.
Oblivious data structure:
Secure computation: Traditionally people used circuit-model to do the secure computation, but the model is not enough for the security when the amount of data is getting big. RAM-model secure computation was proposed as an alternative to the traditional circuit model, and oblivious data structure is used to prevent information access behavioral being stolen.
Oblivious data structures:
Oblivious RAM Goldreich and Ostrovsky proposed this term on software protection.
Oblivious data structures:
The memory access of oblivious RAM is probabilistic and the probabilistic distribution is independent of the input. In the paper composed by Goldreich and Ostrovsky have theorem to oblivious RAM: Let RAM(m) denote a RAM with m memory locations and access to a random oracle machine. Then t steps of an arbitrary RAM(m) program can be simulated by less than log O(t(\log _{2}t)^{3}) steps of an oblivious log \mathrm {RAM} (m(\log _{2}m)^{2}) . Every oblivious simulation of RAM(m) must make at least max log \max\{m,(t-1)\log _{2}m\} accesses in order to simulate t steps.
Oblivious data structures:
Now we have the square-root algorithm to simulate the oblivious ram working.
For each {\sqrt {m}} accesses, randomly permute first m+{\sqrt {m}} memory.
Check the shelter words first if we want to access a word.
If the word is there, access one of the dummy words. And if the word is not there, find the permuted location.To access original RAM in t steps we need to simulate it with t+{\sqrt {m}} steps for the oblivious RAM. For each access, the cost would be O( log {\sqrt {m}}\cdot \log m ).
Another way to simulate is hierarchical algorithm. The basic idea is to consider the shelter memory as a buffer, and extend it to the multiple levels of buffers. For level I, there are 4^{i} buckets and for each bucket has log t items. For each level there is a random selected hash function.
Oblivious data structures:
The operation is like the following: At first load program to the last level, which can be say has 4^{t} buckets. For reading, check the bucket h_{i}(V) from each level, If (V,X) is already found, pick a bucket randomly to access, and if it is not found, check the bucket h_{i}(V) , there is only one real match and remaining are dummy entries . For writing, put (V,X) to the first level, and if the first I levels are full, move all I levels to I+1 levels and empty the first I levels.
Oblivious data structures:
The time cost for each level cost O(log t); cost for every access is log O((\log t)^{2}) ; The cost of Hashing is log O(t(\log t)^{3}) Oblivious tree An Oblivious Tree is a rooted tree with the following property: All the leaves are in the same level.
All the internal nodes have degree at most 3.
Oblivious data structures:
Only the nodes along the rightmost path in the tree may have degree of one.The oblivious tree is a data structure similar to 2–3 tree, but with the additional property of being oblivious. The rightmost path may have degree one and this can help to describe the update algorithms. Oblivious tree requires randomization to achieve a log O(\log(n)) running time for the update operations. And for two sequences of operations M and N acting to the tree, the output of the tree has the same output probability distributions. For the tree, there are three operations: CREATE (L) build a new tree storing the sequence of values L at its leaves.
Oblivious data structures:
INSERT (b, i,T) insert a new leaf node storing the value b as the ith leaf of the tree T.
DELETE (i, T) remove the ith leaf from T.Step of Create: The list of nodes at the ithlevel is obtained traversing the list of nodes at level i+1 from left to right and repeatedly doing the following: Choose d {2, 3} uniformly at random.
If there are less than d nodes left at level i+1, set d equal to the number of nodes left.
Oblivious data structures:
Create a new node n at level I with the next d nodes at level i+1 as children and compute the size of n as the sum of the sizes of its children.For example, if the coin tosses of d {2, 3} has an outcome of: 2, 3, 2, 2, 2, 2, 3 stores the string “OBLIVION” as follow oblivious tree.
Oblivious data structures:
Both the INSERT (b, I, T) and DELETE(I, T) have the O(log n) expected running time. And for INSERT and DELETE we have: INSERT (b, I, CREATE (L)) = CREATE (L [1] + …….., L[ i], b, L[i+1]………..) DELETE (I, CREATE (L)) = CREATE (L[1]+ ………L[I - 1], L[i+1], ………..) For example, if the CREATE (ABCDEFG) or INSERT (C, 2, CREATE (ABDEFG)) is run, it yields the same probabilities of out come between these two operations.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Dual-mode mobile**
Dual-mode mobile:
Dual-mode mobiles refer to mobile phones that are compatible with more than one form of data transmission or network.
Dual-Mode Phone:
A dual-mode phone is a telephone which uses more than one technique for sending and receiving voice and data. This could be for wireless mobile phones or for wired phones.
There are three types of dual-mode phones.
Network Compatibility Mobile phones containing two types of cellular radios for voice and data. These phones include combination of GSM and CDMA technology. They can be used as a GSM or CDMA phone according to the user's preference. These handsets are also called global phones. An example of this is the Samsung SCH-A790.
These dual-mode handsets are compatible with both GSM and CDMA networks and are essentially two phones in one device.
Such phones make sense in those countries that have both GSM & CDMA networks or international CDMA roamers who want to keep a single handset with two numbers on it.
Most dual-mode handsets require two identifying cards (one SIM and one RUIM), though some dual-mode phones (for example, the iPhone 4S) only require one SIM and one ESN. Not all dual SIM handsets are dual mode (for example dual SIM GSM phones).
Dual-Mode Phone:
Cellular and Non-cellular Radios Mobile phones contain both cellular and non-cellular radios used for voice and data communication. There are also two types of dual-mode phones which use cellular radio which will contain GSM/CDMA/W-CDMA as well as other technology like IEEE 802.11 (Wi-Fi) radio or DECT (Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications) radio. These phones can be used as cellular phones when connected to a wide area cellular network. When within range of a suitable WiFi or DECT network, the phone can be used as a WiFi/DECT phone for all communications purposes. This method of operation can reduce cost (for both the network operator and the subscriber), improve indoor coverage and increase data access speeds.
Dual-Mode Phone:
Wired Phones Wired phones with VoIP and POTS technology. These phones can be used for making VoIP calls and also used for phones on the circuit switch network. These phones require compatible routers and modem to make VoIP calls.
List:
Google Pixel & Pixel XL Google Pixel 2 & Pixel 2 XL iPhone 6s Motorola Moto X4 and Android One Moto X4 Nexus 5 Nexus 5X Nexus 6P
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Market overhang**
Market overhang:
Market overhang is a term derived from the physical world meaning things that stick out or hang over another thing. Often from the viewpoint of standing beneath an 'overhang' there is shade provided by a protrusion from the adjacent vertical domain, such as a tree or building.
Market overhang:
In marketing, overhanging the market relates to the business practice of announcing a new product or a new business strategy by a company in an adjacent space to the target. To be an overhang in this context, the following conditions must exist: the announcer is a market leader in the adjacent space; the new product is not ready for release at the time of the announcement; the market is new and standards are not yet clearly defined; and, the goal is to forestall competitor growth by encouraging customers to wait for the new product.
Recent examples of overhang:
In June 1999 - Nortel declared a voice over IP strategy, while Cisco and its newly acquired Selcius Systems IP PBX were starting to gain traction. Nortel was a leader in enterprise PBXs and made this announcement to retain the loyalty of their enormous installed base and to slow down the adoption of the IP PBX product category. Nortel overhung the IP PBX market, announcing products 12 months or more before their availability.
Recent examples of overhang:
In June 2006 - Microsoft entered the IP Telephony market with PowerPoint. Here the collection of products and related applications in adjacent markets combined with announcements of as-yet-not-available products, attempt to overhang the IP PBX market, slowing down the growth of the market, forcing the players to consider the implications and adjust, encouraging customers to think about what Microsoft can bring to the market, giving Microsoft engineering the time to catch up with product.
Effectiveness of Market Overhang:
The empirical evidence suggests this technique is effective since it continues to be used as a marketing tactic by major players that are slower to respond to the high growth of adjacent markets that are rapidly emerging. As the high technology industry continues to consolidate, market overhang is likely to continue as a mechanism for marketers to 'shape' emerging segments.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Myelin basic protein**
Myelin basic protein:
Myelin basic protein (MBP) is a protein believed to be important in the process of myelination of nerves in the nervous system. The myelin sheath is a multi-layered membrane, unique to the nervous system, that functions as an insulator to greatly increase the velocity of axonal impulse conduction. MBP maintains the correct structure of myelin, interacting with the lipids in the myelin membrane.MBP was initially sequenced in 1971 after isolation from bovine myelin membranes. MBP knockout mice called shiverer mice were subsequently developed and characterized in the early 1980s. Shiverer mice exhibit decreased amounts of CNS myelination and a progressive disorder characterized by tremors, seizures, and early death. The human gene for MBP is on chromosome 18; the protein localizes to the CNS and to various cells of the hematopoietic lineage.
Myelin basic protein:
The pool of MBP in the central nervous system is very diverse, with several splice variants being expressed and a large number of post-translational modifications on the protein, which include phosphorylation, methylation, deamidation, and citrullination. These forms differ by the presence or the absence of short (10 to 20 residues) peptides in various internal locations in the sequence. In general, the major form of MBP is a protein of about 18.5 Kd (170 residues).
Myelin basic protein:
In melanocytic cell types, MBP gene expression may be regulated by MITF.
Gene expression:
The protein encoded by the classic MBP gene is a major constituent of the myelin sheath of oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells in the nervous system. However, MBP-related transcripts are also present in the bone marrow and the immune system. These mRNAs arise from the long MBP gene (otherwise called "Golli-MBP") that contains 3 additional exons located upstream of the classic MBP exons. Alternative splicing from the Golli and the MBP transcription start sites gives rise to 2 sets of MBP-related transcripts and gene products. The Golli mRNAs contain 3 exons unique to Golli-MBP, spliced in-frame to 1 or more MBP exons. They encode hybrid proteins that have N-terminal Golli aa sequence linked to MBP aa sequence. The second family of transcripts contain only MBP exons and produce the well-characterized myelin basic proteins. This complex gene structure is conserved among species, suggesting that the MBP transcription unit is an integral part of the Golli transcription unit and that this arrangement is important for the function and/or regulation of these genes. At protein level, the concentration of MBP in the CNS is tenfold higher in sections of white matter compared with cerebral cortex.
Structure:
Myelin basic protein has been classified as an intrinsically disordered protein that has no stable secondary structure in solution. Like most IDPs, it has a high net charge and a low mean hydrophobicity, minimizing the hydrophobic effect that drives traditional protein folding. It does contain some exceptions to normal IDP amino acid content. For example, MBP has more arginine and less glutamic acid than most IDPs. However, this is likely because those changes are necessary for MBP to be sufficiently basic and positively charged to correctly interact with the membrane. Notably, MBP has been shown to adopt a more stable secondary structure on interaction with lipids. NMR and Cys-specific spin labeling experiments have predicted this structure to contain beta sheet and regions of amphipathic helix.As implied by its name, myelin basic protein is significantly basic, with an isoelectric point of 10. It is thought to associate with the cell membrane through electrostatic interactions between its positive charges and negatively charged phospholipid heads of the plasma membrane. It can undergo a large variety of post-translational modifications, creating various charge isomers known as C1-C6 or C8. These modifications include phosphorylation, methylation, deamidation, citrullination, ADP-ribosylation, and N-terminal acylation . C1 is the least modified, while C8 is the most distinct, containing 6-11 additional citrullinations. Since each of these decreases its positive charge, C8 has the smallest net positive charge of the isomers. Alternations in these post-translational modifications have been associated with demyelinating diseases. Notably, MBP isolated from individuals with multiple sclerosis have had a higher degree of citrullination and a smaller positive charge. In a rare, severe form of MS known as Marburg's syndrome, the citrullination was even more extensive.
Role in disease:
Interest in MBP has centered on its role in demyelinating diseases, in particular, multiple sclerosis (MS). The target antigen of the autoimmune response in MS has not yet been identified. However, several studies have shown a role for antibodies against MBP in the pathogenesis of MS. Some studies have linked a genetic predisposition to MS to the MBP gene, though a majority have not.
Role in disease:
A "molecular mimicry" hypothesis of multiple sclerosis has been suggested, in which T cells are, in essence, confusing MBP with human herpesvirus-6. Researchers in the United States created a synthetic peptide with a sequence identical to that of an HHV-6 peptide. Elevated levels of MBP have been found in the cerebrospinal fluid of patients with HIV infections and signs of encephalopathy, and although MBP does not seem to be a sensitive diagnostic marker of HIV encephalopathy, it has been suggested that it may serve a role as a prognostic indicator of disease progression. It is able to show that T cells were activated by this peptide. These activated T cells also recognized and initiated an immune response against a synthetically created peptide sequence that is identical to part of human MBP. During their research, they found that the levels of these cross-reactive T cells are significantly elevated in multiple sclerosis patients.
Role in disease:
Some research has shown that inoculating an animal with MBP to generate an MBP-specific immune response against it increases blood–brain barrier permeability. Permeability is enhanced when the animal is inoculated against non-specific proteins.A targeted immune response to MBP has been implicated in lethal rabies infection. The inoculation of MBP generates increases the permeability of the blood–brain barrier (BBB), allowing immune cells to enter the brain, the primary site of rabies virus replication. In a study of mice infected with Silver-haired bat rabies virus (SHBRV), the mortality rate of mice treated with MBP improved 20%-30% over the untreated control group. It is significant to note that healthy uninfected mice treated with MBP showed an increase in mortality rate between 0% and 40%.
Interactions:
Myelin basic protein has been shown to interact in vivo with proteolipid protein 1, and in vitro with calmodulin, actin, tropomyosin, tubulin, clathrin, 2',3'-cyclic-nucleotide 3'-phosphodiesterase and multiple molecules of the immune system.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Web Application Description Language**
Web Application Description Language:
The Web Application Description Language (WADL) is a machine-readable XML description of HTTP-based web services. WADL models the resources provided by a service and the relationships between them. WADL is intended to simplify the reuse of web services that are based on the existing HTTP architecture of the Web. It is platform and language independent and aims to promote reuse of applications beyond the basic use in a web browser.
Web Application Description Language:
WADL was submitted to the World Wide Web Consortium by Sun Microsystems on 31 August 2009, but the consortium has no current plans to standardize it. WADL is the REST equivalent of SOAP's Web Services Description Language (WSDL), which can also be used to describe REST web services.
Format:
The service is described using a set of resource elements. Each resource contains param elements to describe the inputs, and method elements which describe the request and response of a resource. The request element specifies how to represent the input, what types are required and any specific HTTP headers that are required. The response describes the representation of the service's response, as well as any fault information, to deal with errors.
Example:
The following listing shows an example of a WADL description for the Yahoo News Search application.
Generate WADL or generate code from WADL:
Java There are multiple tools to generate java code from an existing WADL: Apache CXF Java API for RESTful Web Services, and its reference implementation, Jersey Example WADL Generated by CXF
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Wall stud**
Wall stud:
A wall stud is a vertical repetitive framing member in a building's wall of smaller cross section than a post. It is a fundamental element in frame building.
Etymology:
Stud is an ancient word related to similar words in Old English, Old Norse, Middle High German, and Old Teutonic generally meaning prop or support. Other historical words with similar meaning are quarter and scantling (one sense meaning a smaller timber, not necessarily the same use). Stick is a colloquial term for both framing lumber (timber) and a "timber tree" (a tree trunk good for using as lumber (timber)); thus, the names "stick and platform", "stick and frame", "stick and box", or simply stick framing. The stud height usually determines the ceiling height, thus sayings like: "...These rooms were usually high in stud..."
Purpose:
Studs form walls and may carry vertical structural loads or be non load-bearing, such as in partition walls, which only separate spaces. They hold in place the windows, doors, interior finish, exterior sheathing or siding, insulation and utilities and help give shape to a building. Studs run from sill plate to wall plate. In modern construction, studs are anchored to the plates in a way, such as using fasteners, to prevent the building from being lifted off the foundation by severe wind or earthquake.
Properties:
Studs are usually slender, so more studs are needed than in post and beam framing. Sometimes studs are long, as in balloon framing, where the studs extend two stories and carry a ledger which carries joists. Balloon framing has been made illegal in new construction in many jurisdictions for fire safety reasons because the open wall cavities allow fire to quickly spread such as from a basement to an attic; the plates and platforms in platform framing provide a passive fire stop inside the walls, and so are deemed much safer by fire safety officials. Being thinner and lighter, stick construction techniques are easier to cut and carry and is speedier than the timber framing.
Properties:
In the United States and Canada, studs are traditionally made of wood, usually 2×4 or 2×6 by name; however, these historical dimensions have been reduced but still carry the name of "two by four" and "two by six". Typical dimensions of today's "two by four" is 1.5 by 3.5 inches (38 mm × 89 mm) dimensional lumber prior to sanding and are typically placed 16 inches (406 mm) from each other's center, but sometimes also at 12 inches (305 mm) or 24 inches (610 mm). The wood needs to be dry when used, or problems may occur as the studs shrink and twist as they dry out. Steel studs are gaining popularity as a non-combustible alternative, especially for non load-bearing walls, and are required in some firewalls.
Properties:
In New Zealand, the required lumber size and spacing of wall studs are determined using NZS 3604 Timber-framed buildings table 8.2 for loadbearing walls and table 8.4 for non-loadbearing walls.
Other terms:
Studs are the vertical members of a timber- or metal-framed wall. The studs are spaced equally to suit the dimensions of the covering sheet materials, usually 600 mm (24 inches) between the centers.
Studs are used to frame around window and door openings are given different names, including: king stud − stud to left or right of a window or door that is continuous from the bottom plate to the top plate queen stud - stud used as a repetitive member that is angled so as to be neither vertical nor horizontal.
Other terms:
trimmer or jack − stud to the left or right of a window or door that runs from the bottom plate to the underside of a lintel or header cripple stud – a stud located either above or below a framed opening, that does not run the full height of the wall post or column − a doubled or other integral multiple of a group of studs nailed side by side. Posts in walls are used at point loads such as long spans near a wide window or sliding door, etc.
Other terms:
sleeper or nailer - a stud laid flat to other framing members to provide a point of attachment.
sill - a stud sized member forming the base of a window assembly or the base of wall.
mudsill - a stud sized member that forms the base of a wall and has been treated against insects and decay.
Other terms:
top plate or double top plate - a stud sized member that forms the top of the wall. In cases where other members must bear or brace on the top of the wall a double top plate is used with the member using offset laps so the top plate provides a continuous bearing surface.A building technique mostly associated with Lincolnshire, England, and parts of Scotland gets part of its name from the studs: mud and stud (stud and mud). This building method uses studs in a framework which is then totally covered with mud which resembles the building material cob. Another traditional building method is called stud and plaster where the plaster walls are held by lath on the studs. Studs are also the namesake of a type of timber framing called close studding.
Grades:
Based on the American West Coast Lumber Inspection Bureau (WCLIB) grading rules, there is only one grade of stud: STUD. A stud is graded for vertical application and its stress requirements and allowable visual defects reflect that application. A stud is most similar to a #2 grade, which is held to a higher standard during grading. The biggest difference between the two is the frequency, placement and size of knots and overall allowable wane.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Olympus SP-500 Ultra Zoom**
Olympus SP-500 Ultra Zoom:
The Olympus SP 500 Ultra Zoom is a 6.0-megapixel compact ultra-zoom digital camera introduced by Olympus Corporation in 2005.
It features a 2.5" LCD display, a 10x zoom lens, and 5x digital zoom in a compact lightweight body. It is designed to satisfy the needs of both hobbyist photographers who desire full control over exposure settings and those that need only point and shoot simplicity.
Lens:
The lens is an Olympus aspherical glass zoom lens 6.3 – 63mm. The 10x zoom is equivalent to 38-380mm in 35mm photography.
Flash:
The camera has a built-in manual pop-up flash.
Movies:
Movies with sound can be recorded, the recording time is dependent on the xD card capacity. They are in QuickTime ( .mov) format.
Power Source:
The camera uses 4 AA batteries, which can be rechargeable.
The camera also supports an AC adapter (Olympus adapter only).
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Gene Pool (software)**
Gene Pool (software):
Gene Pool is an artificial life simulation created by Jeffrey Ventrella in 1997. It features physics-based 2D proto-swimming creatures (swimbots) that compete for mates and food.
Functionality:
"Swimming" is not explicitly defined: the ability of locomotion to pursue mates and food emerges through natural selection. Starting from an initial population with randomized genes, a lucky subset of swimbots are able to reach their goals as a function of their morphology and motor control, which are determined by their genes. Those that cannot reach food bits die of hunger and those that cannot reach a mate have no offspring. Within a few generations, localized clusters of swimbots with similar genes emerge and begin spreading throughout the pool. There is no predefined fitness function. The fitness of a swimbot is equated with the number of offspring it has produced in its lifetime.
History:
The origins of Gene Pool are based in Ventrella's research using genetic algorithms in real-time computer animation while at the MIT Media Lab in 1994. At Rocket Science Games, Ventrella created the simulation/game Darwin Pond. He acquired the rights to Darwin Pond and published it for free on his website in 1998. GenePool inherited the basic components of Darwin Pond, and introduced some new features, including a sexual selection component (mate preferences for certain colors, shapes and kinds of motion). It was found that mate preference had an effect on evolution of body plans and movement, which was not necessarily beneficial to swimming ability. Research behind these new features was published in artificial life and virtual world conference proceedings.The software was originally written as a Windows application in C language. Later versions were written in C++, including a version for Mac. A version was later developed for the iPad, but is no longer available for download. In 2020, Gene Pool was published as a web page at swimbots.com. The source code, written in pure vanilla JavaScript/HTML/CSS using the HTML5 canvas, was made available in 2021 for developers to extend its functionality, under the MIT License with the Commons Clause.
History:
GenePool is described in the book, "Artificial Life Models in Software". It is featured in the book "The Story of Life in 10 1/2 Species" by Marianne Taylor, in the final chapter on artificial life. It is also mentioned in "Metacreation - Art and Artificial Life" by Mitchell Whitelaw.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Downdraft table**
Downdraft table:
Downdraft tables or downdraught benches are workbenches with built-in ventilation to capture dust, smoke, and fumes and draw them away from the operator and the material being worked on. They typically consist of a perforated surface whose underside is connected to a ventilation or dust collection system, to draw material through the holes and away from the work.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**HP 9000**
HP 9000:
HP 9000 is a line of workstation and server computer systems produced by the Hewlett-Packard (HP) Company. The native operating system for almost all HP 9000 systems is HP-UX, which is based on UNIX System V.
HP 9000:
The HP 9000 brand was introduced in 1984 to encompass several extant technical workstation models launched formerly in the early 1980s. Most of these were based on the Motorola 68000 series, but there were also entries based on HP's own FOCUS designs. From the mid-1980s, the line was transitioned to HP's new PA-RISC architecture. Finally, in the 2000s, systems using the IA-64 were added.
HP 9000:
The HP 9000 line was discontinued in 2008, being superseded by Itanium-based HPE Integrity Servers running HP-UX.
History:
The first HP 9000 models comprised the HP 9000 Series 200 and Series 500 ranges. These were rebadged existing models, the Series 200 including various Motorola 68000 (68k) based workstations such as the HP 9826 and HP 9836, and the Series 500 using HP's FOCUS microprocessor architecture introduced in the HP 9020 workstation. These were followed by the HP 9000 Series 300 and Series 400 workstations which also used 68k-series microprocessors. From the mid-1980s onward, HP began changing to its own microprocessors based on its proprietary PA-RISC instruction set architecture (ISA), for the Series 600, 700, 800, and later lines. More recent models use either the PA-RISC or its successor, the HP–Intel IA-64 ISA.
History:
All of the HP 9000 line run various versions of the HP-UX operating system, except earlier Series 200 models, which ran standalone applications or the Basic Workstation / Pascal 3.1 Workstation operating systems. HP released the Series 400, also known as the Apollo 400, after acquiring Apollo Computer in 1989. These models had the ability to run either HP-UX or Apollo's Domain/OS.
History:
From the early 1990s onward, HP replaced the HP 9000 Series numbers with an alphabetical Class nomenclature. In 2001, HP again changed the naming scheme for their HP 9000 servers. The A-class systems were renamed as the rp2400s, the L-class became the rp5400s, and the N-class the rp7400s. The rp prefix signified a PA-RISC architecture, while rx was used for IA-64-based systems, later rebranded HPE Integrity Servers.
History:
On 30 April 2008, HP announced end of sales for the HP 9000. The last order date for HP 9000 systems was 31 December 2008 and the last ship date was 1 April 2009. The last order date for new HP 9000 options was December 31, 2009, with a last ship date of 1 April 2010. HP intends to support these systems through to 2013, with possible extensions.The end of life for HP 9000 also marks the end of an era, as it essentially marks HP's withdrawal from the Unix workstation market (the HP 9000 workstations are end of life, and there are no HP Integrity workstations, so there is no longer a solution which targets HP/UX at the desktop). When the move from PA-RISC (9000) to Itanium (Integrity) was announced, Integrity workstations running either HP/UX or Windows were initially announced and offered, but were moved to end of sales life relatively quickly, with no replacement (arguably because x86-64 made IA-64 uncompetitive on the desktop, and HP/UX does not support x86-64, with HP offering desktop Linux as an alternative, not fully compatible, solution).
Workstation models:
Prior to January 1985 (see also HP 9800 series): Series 200 – 16 (HP 9816), 20 (HP 9920), 26 (HP 9826), 36 (HP 9836) Series 500 – 20 (HP 9020), 30 (HP 9030), 40 (HP 9040)After 1985: Series 200 – 216 (HP 9816), 217 (HP 9817), 220 (HP 9920), 226 (HP 9826), 236 (HP 9836), 237 (HP 9837) Series 300 – 310, 318, 319, 320, 322, 330, 332, 340, 345, 350, 360, 362, 370, 375, 380, 382, 385 Series 400 (HP Apollo 9000 Series 400) – 400dl, 400s, 400t, 425dl, 425e, 425s, 425t, 433dl, 433s, 433t Series 500 – 520 (HP 9020), 530 (HP 9030), 540 (HP 9040), 550, 560 Series 600 – 635SV, 645SV Series 700 – 705, 710, 712, 715, 720, 725, 730, 735, 742, 743, 744, 745, 747, 748, 750, 755 B-class – B132L, B160L, B132L+, B180L, B1000, B2000, B2600 C-class – C100, C110, C132L, C160, C160L, C180, C180L, C180XP, C200, C240, C360, C3000, C3600, C3650, C3700, C3750, C8000 J-class – J200, J210, J210XC, J280, J282, J2240, J5000, J5600, J6000, J6700, J6750, J7000 Series 200 The Series 200 workstations originated before there were any "Series" at HP. The first model was the HP 9826A, followed by the HP 9836A. Later, a color version of the 9836 (9836C) was introduced. There was also a rack-mount version, the HP 9920A. These were all based on the Motorola 68000 chip. There were 'S' versions of the models that included memory bundled in. When HP-UX was included as an OS, there was a 'U' version of the 9836s and 9920 that used the 68012 processor. The model numbers included the letter 'U' (9836U, 9836CU, and 9920U). Later versions of the Series 200's included the 9816, 9817, and 9837. These systems were soon renamed as the HP Series 200 line, before being renamed again as part HP 9000 family, the HP 9000 Series 200.
Workstation models:
There was also a "portable" version of the Series 200 called the Integral. The official model was the HP9807. This machine was about the size of a portable sewing machine, contained a MC68000 processor, ROM based HP-UX, 3½ inch floppy disk drive, inkjet printer, a keyboard, mouse, and an electroluminescent display similar to the early GRiD Compass computers. It was not battery powered, and unlike the other Series 200's that were manufactured in Fort Collins, Colorado, it was made in Corvallis, Oregon.
Workstation models:
Series 300/400 The Series 300 workstations were based around Motorola 68000-series processors, ranging from the 68010 (Model 310, introduced 1985) to the Motorola 68040 (Model 38x, introduced 1991). The Series 400 (introduced 1990) were intended to supersede the Apollo/Domain workstations and were also based on the 68030/040. They were branded "HP Apollo" and added Apollo Domain/OS compatibility. The suffix 's' and 't' used on the Series 400 represented "Side" (as in Desk side) and "Top" (as in Desk top) model. The last two digits of the Series 400 originally was the clock frequency of the processor in MHz (e.g. 433 was 33 MHz). At introduction, the Series 400 had a socket for the MC68040, but since they were not available at the time, an emulator card with an MC68030 and additional circuitry was installed. Customers who purchased systems were given a guaranteed upgrade price of $5,000USD to the MC68040, when they became available. The Series 300 and 400 shared the same I/O interface as the Series 200. The 32-bit DIO-II bus is rated at 6 MB/s.
Workstation models:
Series 500 The Series 500s were based on the HP FOCUS microprocessor. They began as the HP 9020, HP 9030, and HP 9040, were renamed the HP Series 500 Model 20, 30, and 40 shortly after introduction, and later renamed again as the HP 9000 Model 520, 530 and 540. The 520 was a complete workstation with built-in keyboard, display, 5.25-inch floppy disk, and optional thermal printer and 5 MB hard disk. The 520 could run BASIC or HP-UX and there were three different models based on the displays attached (two color and one monochrome). The 530 was a rackmount version of the Series 500, could only run HP-UX, and used a serial interface console. The 540 was a 530 mounted inside a cabinet, similar to the disk drives offered then and included a serial multiplexer (MUX). Later models of the Series 500s were the 550 and 560, which had a completely different chassis and could be connected to graphics processors. The processors in the original Series 500s ran at 20 MHz, and could reach a benchmark speed of 1 million instructions per second (MIPS), equivalent to a VAX-11/780, then a common benchmark standard. They could be networked together and with 200 and 300 series using the Shared Resource Manager (SRM).
Workstation models:
Because of their performance, the US government placed the 500 series on its export restricted list. The computers were only permitted to be sold in Western Europe, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, with any other country needing written approval.
Workstation models:
Series 700 The first workstations in the series, the Model 720, Model 730 and Model 750 systems were introduced on 26 March 1991 and were code-named "Snakes". The models used the PA-7000 microprocessor, with the Model 720 using a 50 MHz version and the Model 730 and Model 750 using a 66 MHz version. The PA-7000 is provided with 128 KB of instruction cache on the Model 720 and 730 and 256 KB on the Model 750. All models are provided with 256 KB of data cache. The Model 720 and Model 730 supported 16 to 64 MB of memory, while the Model 750 supported up to 192 MB. Onboard SCSI was provided by an NCR 53C700 SCSI controller. These systems could use both 2D and 3D graphics options, with 2D options being the greyscale GRX and the color CRX. 3D options were the Personal VRX and the Turbo GRX.In early January 1992, HP introduced the Model 705, code-named "Bushmaster Snake", and the Model 710, code-named "Bushmaster Junior". Both systems are low-end diskless workstations, with the Model 705 using a 32 MHz PA-7000 and the Model 710 using a 50 MHz version. At introduction, the Model 705 was priced at under US$5,000, and the Model 710 under US$10,000.The first Series 700 workstations were superseded by the Model 715/33, 715/50, 725/50 low-end workstations and the Model 735/99, 735/125, 755/99 and 755/125 high-end workstations on 10 November 1992. The existing Model 715 and Model 725 were later updated with the introduction of the Model 715/75 and 725/75 in September 1993. The new models used a 75 MHz PA-7100.Increasing integration led to the introduction of the Model 712/60 and Model 712/80i workstations on 18 January 1994. Code-named "Gecko", these models were intended to compete with entry-level workstations from Sun Microsystems and high-end personal computers. They used the PA-7100LC microprocessor operating at 60 and 80 MHz, respectively. The Model 712/80i was an integer only model, with the floating point-unit disabled. Both supported 16 to 128 MB of memory.The Model 715/64, 715/80, 715/100 and 725/100 were introduced in May 1994, targeted at the 2D and 3D graphics market. These workstations use the PA-7100LC microprocessor and supported 32 to 128 MB of memory, except for the Model 725/100, which supported up to 512 MB.The Model 712/100 (King Gecko), an entry-level workstation, and Model 715/100 XC, a mid-range workstation, were introduced in June 1995. The Model 712/100 is a Model 712 with a 100 MHz PA-7100LC and 256 KB of cache while the Model 715/100 XC is a Model 715/100 with 1 MB of cache.The Model 712 and 715 workstations feature the Lasi ASIC, connected by the GSC bus. The Lasi ASIC provided an integrated NCR 53C710 SCSI controller, an Intel Apricot 10 Mbit Ethernet interface, CD-quality sound, PS/2 keyboard and mouse, a serial and a parallel port. All models, except for the 712 series machines also use the Wax ASIC to provide an EISA adapter, a second serial port and support for the HIL bus.
Workstation models:
The SGC bus (System Graphics Connect), which is used in the earlier series 700 workstations, has similar specifications as PCI with 32-bit/33 MHz [1] and a typical bandwidth of about 100 MB/s [2].
VME Industrial Workstations Models 742i, 743i, 744, 745/745i, 747i, 748i.
B, C, J class The C100, C110, J200, J210 and J210XC use the PA-7200 processor, connected to the UTurn IOMMU via the Runway bus. The C100 and C110 are single processor systems, and the J200 and J210 are dual processor systems. The Uturn IOMMU has two GSC buses. These machines continue to use the Lasi and Wax ASICs.
Workstation models:
The B132L (introduced 1996), B160L, B132L+, B180L, C132L, C160L and C180L workstations are based on the PA-7300LC processor, a development of the PA-7100LC with integrated cache and GSC bus controller. Standard graphics is the Visualize EG. These machines use the Dino GSC to PCI adapter which also provides the second serial port in place of Wax; they optionally have the Wax EISA adapter.
Workstation models:
The C160, C180, C180-XP, J280 and J282 use the PA-8000 processor and are the first 64-bit HP workstations. They are based on the same Runway/GSC architecture as the earlier C and J class workstations.
The C200, C240 and J2240 offer increased speed with the PA-8200 processor and the C360 uses the PA-8500 processor.
The B1000, B2000, C3000, J5000 and J7000 were also based on the PA-8500 processor, but had a very different architecture. The U2/Uturn IOMMU and the GSC bus is gone, replaced with the Astro IOMMU, connected via Ropes to several Elroy PCI host adapters.
The B2600, C3600 and J5600 upgrade these machines with the PA-8600 processor. The J6000 is a rack-mountable workstation which can also be stood on its side in a tower configuration.
The C3650, C3700, C3750, J6700 and J6750 are PA-8700-based.
The C8000 uses the dual-core PA-8800 or PA-8900 processors, which uses the same bus as the McKinley and Madison Itanium processors and shares the same zx1 chipset. The Elroy PCI adapters have been replaced with Mercury PCI-X adapters and one Quicksilver AGP 8x adapter.
Server models:
800 Series – 807, 817, 822, 825, 827, 832, 835, 837, 840, 842, 845, 847, 850,855, 857, 867, 877, 887, 897 1200 FT Series – 1210, 1245, 1245 PLUS A-class – A180, A180C (Staccato), A400, A500 D-class – D200, D210, D220, D230, D250, D260, D270, D280, D300, D310, D320, D330, D350, D360, D370, D380, D390 E-class – E25, E35, E45, E55 F-class – F10, F20, F30 (Nova) G-class – G30, G40, G50, G60, G70 (Nova / Nova64) H-class – H20, H30, H40, H50, H60, H70 I-class – I30, I40, I50, I60, I70 K-class – K100, K200, K210, K220, K250, K260, K360, K370, K380, K400, K410, K420, K450, K460, K570, K580 L-class – L1000, L1500, L2000, L3000 N-class – N4000 N-class – N4004 N-class – N4005 N-class – N4006 R-class – R380, R390 S-class – rebadged Convex Exemplar SPP2000 (single-node) T-class – T500, T520, T600 V-class – V2200, V2250, V2500, V2600 X-class – rebadged Convex Exemplar SPP2000 (multi-node) rp2400 – rp2400 (A400), rp2405 (A400), rp2430 (A400), rp2450 (A500), rp2470 (A500) (former A-class) rp3400 – rp3410-2, rp3440-4 (1-2 PA-8800/8900 processors) rp4400 – rp4410-4, rp4440-8 rp5400 – rp5400, rp5405, rp5430, rp5450, rp5470 (former L-class) rp7400 – rp7400 (former N-class) rp7405 – rp7405, rp7410, rp7420-16, rp7440-16 rp8400 – rp8400, rp8410, rp8420-32, rp8440-32 HP 9000 Superdome – SD-32, SD-64, SD-128 (PA-8900 processors) D-class (Codename: Ultralight) The D-class are entry-level and mid-range servers that succeeded the entry-level E-class servers and the mid-range G-, H-, I-class servers. The first models were introduced in late January 1996, consisting of the Model D200, D210, D250, D310 and D350. The Model D200 is a uniprocessor with a 75 MHz PA-7100LC microprocessor, support for up to 512 MB of memory and five EISA/HP-HSC slots. The Model D210 is similar, but it used a 100 MHz PA-7100LC. The Model D250 is dual-processor model and it used the 100 MHz PA-7100LC. It supported up to 768 MB of memory and had five EISA/HP-HSC slots. The Model D310 is a uniprocessor with a 100 MHz PA-7100LC, up to 512 MB of memory and eight EISA/HP-HSC slots. The Model D350 is a high-end D-class system, a dual-processor, it had two 100 MHz PA-7100LCs, up to 768 MB of memory and eight EISA/HP-HSC slots.
Server models:
In mid-September 1996, two new D-class servers were introduced to utilize the new 64-bit PA-8000 microprocessor, the Model D270 uniprocessor and the Model D370 dual-processor. Both were positioned as entry-level servers. They used the 160 MHz PA-8000 and supported 128 MB to 1.5 GB of memory.In January 1997, the low-end Model D220, D230, D320 and D330 were introduced, using 132 and 160 MHz versions of the PA-7300LC microprocessor.The D-class are tower servers with up to two microprocessors and are architecturally similar to the K-class. They sometimes masquerade as larger machines as HP shipped them mounted vertically inside a large cabinet containing a power supply and multiple disks with plenty of room for air to circulate.
Server models:
R-class The R-class is simply a D-class machine packaged in a rack-mount chassis. Unlike the D-class systems, it does not support hot-pluggable disks.
Server models:
N-class The N-class is a 10U rackmount server with up to eight CPUs and 12 PCI slots. It uses two Merced buses, one for every four processor slots. It is not a NUMA machine, having equal access to all memory slots. The I/O is unequal though; having one Ike IOMMU per bus means that one set of CPUs are closer to one set of I/O slots than the other.
Server models:
The N-class servers were marketed as "Itanium-ready", although when the Itanium shipped, no Itanium upgrade was made available for the N class. The N class did benefit from using the Merced bus, bridging the PA-8x00 microprocessors to it via a special adapter called DEW.
The N4000 was upgraded with newer processors throughout its life, with models called N4000-36, N4000-44 and N4000-55 indicating microprocessor clock frequencies of 360, 440, and 550 MHz, respectively. It was renamed to the rp7400 series in 2001.
L-class The L-class servers are 7U rackmount machines with up to 4 CPUs (depending on model). They have 12 PCI slots, but only 7 slots are enabled in the entry-level L1000 system. Two of the PCI slots are occupied by factory integrated cards and cannot be utilized for I/O expansion by the end-user.
The L1000 and L2000 are similar to the A400 and A500, being based on an Astro/Elroy combination. They initially shipped with 360 MHz and 440 MHz PA-8500 and were upgraded with 540 MHz PA-8600.
The L3000 is similar to the N4000, being based on a DEW/Ike/Elroy combination. It shipped only with 550 MHz PA-8600 CPUs.
The L-class family was renamed to the rp5400 series in 2001.
A-class The A180 and A180C were 32-bit, single-processor, 2U servers based on the PA-7300LC processor with the Lasi and Dino ASICs.
Server models:
The A400 and A500 servers were 64-bit, single and dual-processor 2U servers based on the PA-8500 and later processors, using the Astro IOMMU and Elroy PCI adapters. The A400-36 and A500-36 machines used the PA-8500 processor running at 360 MHz; the A400-44 and A500-44 are clocked at 440 MHz. The A500-55 uses a PA-8600 processor running at 550 MHz and the A500-75 uses a PA-8700 processor running at 750 MHz.
Server models:
The A-class was renamed to the rp2400 series in 2001.
S/X-class The S- and X-class were Convex Exemplar SPP2000 supercomputers rebadged after HP's acquisition of Convex Computer in 1995. The S-class was a single-node SPP2000 with up to 16 processors, while the X-class name was used for multi-node configurations with up to 512 processors. These machines ran Convex's SPP-UX operating system.
Server models:
V-class The V-class servers were based on the multiprocessor technology from the S-class and X-class. The V2200 and V2250 support a maximum of 16 processors, and the V2500 and V2600 support a maximum of 32 processors. The V-class systems are physically large systems that need extensive cooling and three-phase electric power to operate. They provided a transitional platform between the T-class and the introduction of the Superdome.
Operating systems:
Apart from HP-UX and Domain/OS (on the 400), many HP 9000s can also run the Linux operating system. Some PA-RISC-based models are able to run NeXTSTEP.
Berkeley Software Distribution (BSD) Unix was ported to the HP 9000 as HPBSD; the resulting support code was later added to 4.4BSD. Its modern variants NetBSD and OpenBSD also support various HP 9000 models, both Motorola 68k and PA-RISC based.
In the early 1990s, several Unix R&D systems were ported to the PA-RISC platform, including several attempts of OSF/1, various Mach ports and systems that combined parts of Mach with other systems (MkLinux, Mach 4/Lites). The origin of these ports were mostly either internal HP Labs projects or HP products, or academic research, mostly at the University of Utah.
Operating systems:
One project conducted at HP Laboratories involved replacing core HP-UX functionality, specifically the virtual memory and process management subsystems, with Mach functionality from Mach 2.0 and 2.5. This effectively provided a vehicle to port Mach to the PA-RISC architecture, as opposed to starting with the Berkeley Software Distribution configured to use the Mach kernel infrastructure and porting this to PA-RISC, and thereby delivered a version of HP-UX 2.0 based on Mach, albeit with certain features missing from both Mach and HP-UX. The motivation for the project was to investigate performance issues with Mach related to the cache architecture of PA-RISC along with potential remedies for these issues.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Alloimmunity**
Alloimmunity:
Alloimmunity (sometimes called isoimmunity) is an immune response to nonself antigens from members of the same species, which are called alloantigens or isoantigens. Two major types of alloantigens are blood group antigens and histocompatibility antigens. In alloimmunity, the body creates antibodies (called alloantibodies) against the alloantigens, attacking transfused blood, allotransplanted tissue, and even the fetus in some cases. Alloimmune (isoimmune) response results in graft rejection, which is manifested as deterioration or complete loss of graft function. In contrast, autoimmunity is an immune response to the self's own antigens. (The allo- prefix means "other", whereas the auto- prefix means "self".) Alloimmunization (isoimmunization) is the process of becoming alloimmune, that is, developing the relevant antibodies for the first time.
Alloimmunity:
Alloimmunity is caused by the difference between products of highly polymorphic genes, primarily genes of the major histocompatibility complex, of the donor and graft recipient. These products are recognized by T-lymphocytes and other mononuclear leukocytes which infiltrate the graft and damage it.
Types of the rejection:
Transfusion reaction Blood transfusion can result in alloantibodies reacting towards the transfused cells, resulting in a transfusion reaction. Even with standard blood compatibility testing, there is a risk of reaction against human blood group systems other than ABO and Rh.
Types of the rejection:
Hemolytic disease of the fetus and newborn Hemolytic disease of the fetus and newborn is similar to a transfusion reaction in that the mother's antibodies cannot tolerate the fetus's antigens, which happens when the immune tolerance of pregnancy is impaired. In many instances the maternal immune system attacks the fetal blood cells, resulting in fetal anemia. HDN ranges from mild to severe. Severe cases require intrauterine transfusions or early delivery to survive, while mild cases may only require phototherapy at birth.
Types of the rejection:
Transplant rejection Acute rejection Acute rejection is caused by antigen-specific Th1 and cytotoxic T-lymphocytes. They recognize transplanted tissue because of expression of alloantigens. A transplant is rejected during first several days or weeks after transplantation.
Types of the rejection:
Hyperacute and accelerated rejection Hyperacute and accelerated rejection is antibody-mediated immune response to the allograft. Recipient's blood already contains circulating antibodies before the transplantation – either IgM or antibodies incurred by previous immunization (e.g. by repeated blood transfusion). In case of hyperacute rejection, antibodies activate complement; moreover, the reaction can be enhanced by neutrophils. This type of rejection is very fast, the graft is rejected in a few minutes or hours after the transplantation. Accelerated rejection leads to phagocyte and NK cell activation (not of the complement) through their Fc receptors that bind Fc parts of antibodies. Graft rejection occurs within 3 to 5 days. This type of rejection is a typical response to xenotransplants.
Types of the rejection:
Chronic rejection Chronic rejection is not yet fully understood, but it is known that it is associated with alloantibody and cytokine production. Endothelium of the blood vessels is being damaged, therefore the graft is not sufficiently supplied with blood and is replaced with fibrous tissue (fibrosis). It takes two months at least to reject the graft in this way.
Mechanisms of rejection:
CD4+ and CD8+ T-lymphocytes along with other mononuclear leukocytes (their exact function regarding the topic is not known) participate in the rejection. B-lymphocytes, NK cells and cytokines also play a role in it.
Mechanisms of rejection:
Cellular rejection – CD4+ and CD8+ T-lymphocytes, NK cells Humoral rejection – B-lymphocytes Cytokines B-lymphocytes Humoral (antibody-mediated) type of rejection is caused by recipient's B-lymphocytes which produce alloantibodies against donor MHC class I and II molecules. These alloantibodies can activate the complement – this leads to target cell lysis. Alternatively, donor cells are coated with alloantibodies that initiate phagocytosis through Fc receptors of mononuclear leukocytes. Mechanism of humoral rejection is relevant for hyperacute, accelerated and chronic rejection.
Mechanisms of rejection:
Alloimmunity can be also regulated by neonatal B cells.
Cytokines Cytokine microenvironment where CD4+ T-lymphocytes recognize alloantigens significantly influences polarization of the immune response.
CD4+ T-lymphocytes differentiate into Th1 helper cells in the presence of IL-12 (which is usually secreted by mature dendritic cells). Th1 cells produce proinflammatory cytokine IFN-γ and destroy the allograft tissue.
If there is IL-4, CD4+ T-lymphocytes become Th2 cells secreting IL-4 and IL-5. Then allograft tolerance is mostly observed.
TGF-β induces expression of Foxp3 gene in the absence of proinflammatory cytokines and thus differentiation of CD4+ T-lymphocytes into regulatory T cells (Treg). Regulatory T cells produce anti-inflammatory cytokines IL-10 and TGF-β which ensures the allograft tolerance.
However, in the presence of IL-6 or IL-21 along with TGF-β, CD4+ T-lymphocytes acquire tissue-destructive Th17 phenotype and secrete IL-17.
Mechanisms of rejection:
NK cells NK cells can also directly target the transplanted tissue. It depends on the balance of activating and inhibitory NK cell receptors and on their ligands expressed by the graft. Receptors of KIR (Killer-cell immunoglobulin-like receptor) family bind concrete MHC class I molecules. If the graft has these ligands on its surface, NK cell cannot be activated (KIR receptors provide inhibitory signal). So if these ligands are missing, there is no inhibitory signal and NK cell becomes activated. It recognizes target cells by "missing-self strategy" and induces their apoptosis by enzymes perforin and granzymes released from its cytotoxic granules. Alloreactive NK cells also secrete proinflammatory cytokines IFN-γ and TNF-α to increase expression of MHC molecules and costimulatory receptors on the surface of APCs (antigen-presenting cells). This promotes APC maturation which leads to amplification of T-cell alloreactivity by means of direct and also indirect pathway of alloantigen recognition (as described below). NK cells are able to kill Foxp3+ regulatory T-lymphocytes as well and shift the immune response from graft tolerance toward its rejection. Besides the ability of NK cells to influence APC maturation and T cell development, they can probably reduce or even prevent alloimmune response to transplanted tissue – either by killing the Donor APCs or by anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 and TGF-β secretion. However it is important to note that NK cell sub-populations differ in alloreactivity rate and in their immunomodulatory potential.
Mechanisms of rejection:
Concerning immunosuppressive drugs, the effects on NK cells are milder in comparison to T cells.
Mechanisms of rejection:
T-lymphocytes Alloantigen recognition Alloantigen on APC surface can be recognized by recipient's T-lymphocytes through two different pathways: Direct allorecognition – occurs when donor's APCs are presenting graft antigens. Recipient's T-lymphocytes can identify either MHC molecules alone or complex MHC molecule-foreign peptide as alloantigens. Specific T-cell receptors (TCR) of CD8+ T-lymphocytes recognize these peptides when form the complex with MHC class I molecules and TCR of CD4+ T-lymphocytes recognize a complex with MHC class II molecules.
Mechanisms of rejection:
Indirect allorecognition – recipient's APCs infiltrate transplanted tissue, then they process and present, as any other foreign peptides, donor's MHC glycoproteins by MHC class II molecules. Mechanism of indirect allorecognition and therefore the involvement of CD4+ T-lymphocytes is the main cause of graft rejection. That is why the compatibility between donor and recipient MHC class II molecules is the most important factor concerning transplantation.Activation of T-lymphocytes T-lymphocytes are fully activated under two conditions: T-lymphocytes must recognize complex MHC-alloantigen presented by APC through direct or indirect allorecognition pathway.
Mechanisms of rejection:
T-lymphocytes must receive costimulatory signal. There are costimulatory molecules on T-cell surface and APCs express their ligands (e.g. molecule CD28, which is on the surface of all naïve CD4+ and CD8+ T-lymphocytes, can bind ligands CD80 and CD86). Receptor-ligand engagement triggers T-cell signaling resulting in IL-2 production, clonal expansion and therefore development of effector and memory T-lymphocytes. In contrast, there are also such receptors on T-lymphocytes that cause inhibition of T-cell activation (for instance CD152/CTLA-4 receptor which binds CD80 and CD86 as well). If T-lymphocyte does not receive costimulatory signal, its activation fails and it becomes anergic.Alloimmune response can be enhanced by proinflammatory cytokines and by CD4+ T-lymphocytes that are responsible for APC maturation and IL-2 production. IL-2 is crucial for memory CD8+ T cell development. These cells may represent a serious problem after the transplantation. As the effect of being exposed to various infections in the past, antigen-specific T-lymphocytes have developed in patient's body. Part of them is kept in organism as memory cells and these cells could be a reason for "cross-reactivity" – immune response against unrelated but similar graft alloantigens. This immune response is called secondary and is faster, more efficient and more robust.
Graft tolerance:
Transplanted tissue is accepted by immunocompetent recipient if it is functional in the absence of immunosuppressive drugs and without histologic signs of rejection. Host can accept another graft from the same donor but reject graft from different donor. Graft acceptance depends on the balance of proinflammatory Th1, Th17 lymphocytes and anti-inflammatory regulatory T cells. This is influenced by cytokine microenvironment, as mentioned before, where CD4+ T-lymphocytes are activated and also by inflammation level (because pathogens invading organism activate the immune system to various degrees and causing proinflammatory cytokine secretion, therefore they support the rejection). Immunosuppressive drugs are used to suppress the immune response, but the effect is not specific. Therefore, organism can be affected by the infection much more easily. The goal of the future therapies is to suppress the alloimmune response specifically to prevent these risks.
Graft tolerance:
The tolerance could be achieved by elimination of most or all alloreactive T cells and by influencing alloreactive effector-regulatory T-lymphocytes ratio in favor of regulatory cells which could inhibit alloreactive effector cells. Another method would be based on costimulatory signal blockade during alloreactive T-lymphocytes activation.
Literature:
Cellular and Molecular Immunology, 7th edition by Abul K. Abbas, Andrew H. Lichtman, Shiv Pillai, Saunders Copyright
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Vans challenge**
Vans challenge:
The Vans challenge is a viral internet challenge that began in March 2019 where people show their Vans shoes landing right-side up after tossing them in the air. The viral sensation reportedly started after a Twitter user shared a video of the occurrence, which was captioned: “Did you know it doesn’t matter how you throw your Vans they will land facing up.” Since then, multiple people on social media posted similar videos of them throwing their Vans in the air and landing right-side up, along with Crocs, UGG boots, and other popular shoes. This theory proved false, as these shoes have not always landed facing up after tossing them.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Nut (climbing)**
Nut (climbing):
In rock climbing, a nut (or chock or chockstone) is a metal wedge threaded on a wire that climbers use for protection by wedging it into a crack in the rock. Quickdraws are clipped to the nut wire by the ascending climber and the rope threads through the quickdraw. Nuts come in a variety of sizes and styles, and several different brands are made by competing manufacturers. Most nuts are made of aluminum. Larger nuts may be threaded on Dyneema cord instead of wire, but this has become unusual.The very smallest nuts are known as micronuts and may be made of brass or other metal, and typically have their wires soldered into them, instead of looped through drilled holes. They are mostly used in aid climbing, and their value as protection, arresting a climber's fall, is marginal because of both their low breaking strength and their tiny surface area (the HB 0 measures about 4 x 7 x 2.5 mm) in contact with the rock, though this can be offset if several are placed at a time. Other names used include RPs (the brand name of the first commercially available micronuts) and brassies. They are available from several manufacturers in a variety of styles. British climbers in the 1950s and 1960s were the first to use nuts as climbing protection. In addition to using pitons, they picked up machine nuts from the side of railway tracks, climbed with them in their pockets, and used them as artificial chocks. This developed to the point where they drilled the thread from the middle, threaded them with slings, and used them in cracks.
Nut (climbing):
Nuts or chockstones are named after natural stones occasionally found wedged into cracks. Climbers eventually realized they could insert their own found pebble into a suitable crack. In an article called "Artificial Aids in Mountaineering" dated Oct-Dec 1956, G Sutton wrote about jammed knots for direct aid. He also compared the use of slings, chocks (rocks) and jammed knots to artificial climbing (aid climbing) and that "there should be no illusion that the use of a chockstone is in any way more admirable than that of a piton." By 1967 Royal Robbins saw the need for clean climbing and put up Nutcracker, an all nut protected 6 pitch climb, on the Manure Pile(Ranger Rock),Yosemite. In 1972, when clean climbing became an issue in the US, Yvon Chouinard began manufacturing chocks made specifically for rock climbing, with the familiar wedge shape still in use today. With Tom Frost, Chouinard invented a larger, six-sided nut called a Hexentric or hex. Prominent climbers like Henry Barber and John Stannard helped popularize the use of nuts, especially after it was discovered that a nut was lighter and easier to place and remove while climbing, as well as being at least as secure as a well-placed piton, and less damaging to the rock.
Nut (climbing):
Nuts are available in different shapes to help the climber find the best fit for a given crack. Curved nuts have a concave face on one side and a convex face on the other. Larger nuts can be placed in either of two aspects (hexes in three aspects) to suit different-width cracks, with either the main faces or the sides in contact with the rock.
Nut (climbing):
Nuts may be generically referred to as wires or stoppers, though "Stopper" is a brand name of a nut made by Black Diamond Equipment.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Dental papilla**
Dental papilla:
In embryology and prenatal development, the dental papilla is a condensation of ectomesenchymal cells called odontoblasts, seen in histologic sections of a developing tooth. It lies below a cellular aggregation known as the enamel organ. The dental papilla appears after 8–10 weeks intra uteral life. The dental papilla gives rise to the dentin and pulp of a tooth.
The enamel organ, dental papilla, and dental follicle together forms one unit, called the tooth germ. This is of importance because all the tissues of a tooth and its supporting structures form from these distinct cellular aggregations. Similar to dental follicle, the dental papilla has a very rich blood supply and provides nutrition to the enamel organ.
Embryology:
Formation of dental papilla occurs in the Cap stage of Odontogenesis.
Embryology:
The cap stage The cap stage is the second stage of tooth development and occurs during the ninth or tenth week of prenatal development. Unequal proliferation of the tooth bud forms a three-dimensional cap shape. Overlying this cap structure is the ectomesenchyme, which is attached to the mesodermal tissue known as the dental papilla superiorly, and lies within the epithelial concavity.Various types of differentiation occur at this stage; such as cytodifferentiation, histodifferentiation and morphodifferentation. Histodifferentiation is the differentiation of different tissue types during the development of an embryo/ undifferentiated group of cells. Furthermore, morphogenesis is a predominant physiological process during the cap stage. This is due to formation of primordium of the tooth. The primordium contains each of the primordial tissue types, essential for the development of successive teeth. These primordial tissues together form the enamel organ, dental papilla and dental sac.
Embryology:
Also during the cap stage is the formation of a depression within the deepest part of each tooth bud of the dental lamina. The dental lamina is a band of epithelial tissue which connects the developing tooth bud to the oral epithelium. The dental lamina eventually disintegrates into small clusters of epithelium and is reabsorbed. The dental lamina is first evidence of tooth development and begins at the sixth week in utero.This is responsible for the cap like structure of the enamel organ. It is important to note that enamel is an ectodermal product as it is originally derived from ectoderm which is the outermost of the three germ layers of the forming embryo. The other two are: the mesoderm and the endoderm. It gives rise to the nervous system, sense organs, outer layer of the skin, teeth and the membrane lining the oral cavity (mouth).A section of the ectomesenchyme (a group of tissue made up of neurocrest cells which are present in the initial development of an embryo. This forms the hard and soft tissues of the neck and skull), condenses into a mass within the concavity of the cap of the enamel organ. This mass is now considered the dental papilla. Note that dental papilla is originally derived from ectomesenchyme. Ectomesenchyme (type of mesenchyme) is derived from neural crest cells (NCCs). A basement membrane exists between the enamel organ and dental papilla which will be the site of the future dentinoenamel junction. The dentinoenamel junction is the surface at which the enamel and the dentin of the crown of a tooth are joined.The existing ectomesenchyme around the outside of the cap of the enamel organ then condenses into the dental sac. A basement membrane separate the enamel organ and the dental sac. The dental sac produces the periodontium in future development. The periodontium is the tissue that surrounds and supports the teeth. It includes the connective tissue and overlying keratinised membrane lining the oral cavity that surrounds the teeth, the periodontal ligament, cementum which provides a protective covering for the root surface and supporting alveolar bone The Bell Stage This is the fourth stage of tooth development which occurs between the eleventh and twelfth week of prenatal development. During this stage of Odontogenesis, the epithelial tooth germ forms a bell - shaped structure in the labio - lingual section and is characterised by the formation of the dental sac. The peripheral cells of the dental papilla undergo differentiation, growing larger in size and taking a columnar (uni-layered) form and are now referred to as Odontoblasts (the outer part of the dental pulp). This differentiation begins at the apex of the dental papilla, gradually extending downwards. This differentiation occurs to supplement the development of the dental sac which is responsible for cementum, periodontal ligament and the alveolar process.
Embryology:
Epithelium Layers - Inner is separated from the peripheral cells of the dental papilla by a basement membrane and a cell free zone rich in RNA but do not contain alkaline phosphatase-Outer involved in the maintenance of the shape of the enamel and the environment contain very big nuclei and have small quantities of the intra-cellular organelles involved in protein synthesis. The cells contact each other through desmosomes and gap junctions-Stratum Is concerned with: the synthesis of proteins the transport of materials to and from the enamel- forming cells in the internal enamel epithelium the concentration of materials The Apposition Stage and the Maturation Stage During the apposition stage the enamel, dentin and cementum are secreted in successive layers. The mesenchymal tissue of dental papilla and dental sac and the ectodermal tissue of enamel undergo induction. The outer cells of dental papilla are induced by preameloblasts (cells within the enamel from which a cell that takes part in forming dental enamel develops) to differentiate into odontoblasts (dentin-secreting cells). The odontoblasts undergo differentiation and repolarization and result in formation of the dentin matrix/pre-dentin (the innermost section of the dentin, which is not mineralized and located adjacent to pulp tissues in the crown area and root area). The central cells of dental papilla form the primordium of the pulp during root development. These cells then become surrounded by newly formed dentin..
Differentiation:
Ectomesenchymal cells will multiply continuously in a localized area such that when the bell stage of development is reached, both the epithelial component and the ectomesenchymal component will seem to have been surrounded by something that presents as a fibrous sac. Therefore, among a complicated mass of highly differentiated cells, it would appear to have three major components, which are: 1) The Dental Follicle → The ectomesenchymal cells which are part of the fibrous sac that have been formed 2) The Dental Papilla → The ectomesenchymal cells which are lying deep to the enamel organ 3) The Enamel Organ → purely the epithelial component The tissues which have been derived from each of the three components are: 1) The Dental Follicle → will develop to become the periodontal ligament, the cementum and the alveolar bone 2) The Dental Papilla → will develop to become the dental pulp and the dentine 3) The Enamel Organ → will develop to create the enamel solely It is important to note that till this point, no dental tissues have been created yet.
Differentiation:
When all of the individual components of the tooth germ have become developed, the entire cell mass would have appeared to have migrated deeper into the underlying connective tissues. This phenomenon, which will continue throughout the whole life of the teeth, is most possibly due to the cell mass moving towards a rich blood supply that can be found in the deeper parts of the mandible (lower jaw) and the maxilla (upper jaw) The probable need for a rich blood supply would seem to show that the cell mass will soon be highly productive in the formation of dental tissues. Therefore, when the late bell stage of the tooth germ development has been reached, most of the cells would have been differentiated to an apparent endpoint where the cells will now begin their formative role when the first three stages of the tissue development are almost completed, and the tissues can now start to begin secreting.
Nerve and Vascular Supply during Early Development:
Vascular Supply Clusters of blood vessels are found branching out around the tooth germ in the dental follicle and going into the dental papilla during the cap stage. In the dental papilla the number of blood vessels increase and the matrix deposition will begin once the maximum is reached during the bell stage. Blood vessels going into the dental papilla are formed into groups that coincides with the positions of where the roots will develop in future. As time passes, the viability of the tissue is affected as the blood supply becomes steadily reduced in stages and the volume of pulpal tissue starts decreasing too.
Nerve and Vascular Supply during Early Development:
Nerve Supply During the bud to cap stage of tooth development, the pioneer nerve fibers head towards the developing tooth. The nerve fibers will branch out and create a rich plexus around the tooth germ in that structure as the dental follicle is the clear target of these dental nerve fibers. The dental follicle is a fibrous sac that surrounds the odontogenic organ and developing tooth. The plexus is a system of connections of blood vessels, nerves, or lymphatic vessels. The plexus of Raschkow is a network of nerves immediately beneath the odonblast layer of the dentine, first described by J. Raschkow in 1835. However, the nerve fibers will only begin entering the dental papilla (pulp) when Dentinogenesis starts. The timing is not similar to the establishment of the neural supply and the papillary vascular supply even though a feasible relationship has been assumed between the developing nerve and blood supplies. Furthermore, histo-chemistry studies have shown that in the makeup of pioneer nerve fibers heading towards the tooth germ, automatic nerve fibers are not present. Therefore, the starting innervation of the developing teeth is involved with the sensory innovation of the future periodontal ligament and pulp. Nerve fibers never enters the enamel organ.
Nerve and Vascular Supply during Early Development:
Nerve-related signaling molecules, such as Glial cell line-derived growth factor, Neurotrophin and semaphoring are among the few which have been studied during the tooth development process. Of which, the verve-related signaling molecules seems to show a trend that suggest an early implication of innervation of tooth development. Similar to how many molecules are able to stimulate axonal growth or migration, various molecules are also within the bounds of possibility of being involved in the initial innervation of the tooth germ.
Odontoblast Differentiation:
It is paramount to understand how odontoblast differentiate from ectomesenchymal cells to allow comprehension and explanation of normal development and to be able to affect their recruitment when needed to start repairing the dentin.
Odontoblast Differentiation:
Growth factors in the cells of the inner enamel epithelium and expressions of signaling molecules bring about the differentiation of odontoblast through normal development of the dental papilla. Exhibiting a central nucleus and few organelles, the dental papilla cells are small and undifferentiated. At this stage, the cells are separated by an acellular zone, that consist of some fine collagen fibrils, from the inner enamel epithelium. Changes will also start occurring in the adjacent dental papilla, very quickly after reversed polarity of the cells of the inner enamel epithelium. To contain increasing amounts of protein-synthesizing organelles, odontoblasts as their cytoplasm ( the liquid inside a cell but outside the nucleus) increases in volume after the ectomesenchymal cells beside the acellular zone rapidly enlarge and elongate to become preodontoblasts. When the odontoblasts differentiate and increase in size to occupy the acellular zone between the dental papilla and the inner enamel epithelium, the zone slowly is removed. With their nuclei positioned away from the inner enamel epithelium, these newly differentiated cells are distinguished by being highly polarized.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Behavioral momentum**
Behavioral momentum:
Behavioral momentum is a theory in quantitative analysis of behavior and is a behavioral metaphor based on physical momentum. It describes the general relation between resistance to change (persistence of behavior) and the rate of reinforcement obtained in a given situation.
Behavioral momentum:
B. F. Skinner (1938) proposed that all behavior is based on a fundamental unit of behavior called the discriminated operant. The discriminated operant, also known as the three-term contingency, has three components: an antecedent discriminative stimulus, a response, and a reinforcing or punishing consequence. The organism responds in the presence of the stimulus because past responses in the presence of that stimulus have produced reinforcement.
Resistance to change:
According to behavioral momentum theory, there are two separable factors that independently govern the rate with which a discriminated operant occurs and the persistence of that response in the face of disruptions such as punishment, extinction, or the differential reinforcement of alternative behaviors. (see Nevin & Grace, 2000, for a review). First, the positive contingency between the response and a reinforcing consequence controls response rates (i.e., a response–reinforcer relation) by shaping a particular pattern of responding. This is governed by the relative law of effect (i.e., the matching law; Herrnstein, 1970). Secondly, the Pavlovian relation between surrounding, or context, stimuli and the rate or magnitude (but not both) of reinforcement obtained in the context (i.e., a stimulus–reinforcer relation) governs the resistance of the behavior to operations such as extinction. Resistance to change is assessed by measuring responding during operations such as extinction or satiation that tend to disrupt the behavior and comparing these measurements to stable, pre-disruption response rates.
Resistance to change:
Resistance to disruption has been considered a better measure of response strength than a simple measure of response rate.(Nevin, 1974). This is because variations in reinforcement contingencies such as differential-reinforcement-of-high- or low-response-rate schedules can yield highly variable response rates even though overall reinforcement rates are equal. Thus it is questionable whether these differences in response rates indicate differences in the underlying strength of a response (see Morse, 1966, for a discussion).
Resistance to change:
According to behavioral momentum theory, the relation between response rate and resistance to change is analogous to the relation between velocity and mass of a moving object, according to Newton's second law of motion (Nevin, Mandell & Atak, 1983). Newton's second law states that the change in velocity of an object when a force is applied is directly related to that force and inversely related to the object's mass. Similarly, behavioral momentum theory states that the change in response rate under conditions of disruption (Bx) relative to baseline response rate (Bo) is directly related to the force or magnitude of disruption (f) and inversely related to the rate of reinforcement in a stimulus context (r): log (BxBo)=−(frb) (1)The free parameter b indicates the sensitivity of resistance to change to the rate of reinforcement in the stimulus context (i.e., the stimulus–reinforcer relation). Resistance to disruption typically is assessed when two distinctive discriminative stimulus contexts alternate and signal different schedules of reinforcement (i.e., a multiple schedule). Equation 1 can be rewritten to account for resistance to change across two stimulus contexts (Nevin, 1992; Nevin, Grace, & McLean, 2001) when a disrupter is uniformly applied across contexts (i.e., f1 = f2): log log (Bx2/Bo2)=(r2r1)a (2)The subscripts indicate the different stimulus contexts. Thus, Equation 2 states that relative resistance to change is a power function of the relative rate of reinforcement across stimulus contexts, with the a parameter indicating sensitivity to relative reinforcement rate. Consistent with behavioral momentum theory, resistance to disruption often has been found to be greater in stimulus contexts that signal higher rates or magnitudes of reinforcement (see Nevin, 1992, for a review). Studies that add response-independent (i.e., free) reinforcement to one stimulus context strongly support the theory that changes in response strength are determined by stimulus–reinforcer relations and are independent of response–reinforcer relations. For instance, Nevin, Tota, Torquato, and Shull (1990) had pigeons pecking lighted disks on separate variable-interval 60-s schedules of intermittent food reinforcement across two components of a multiple schedule. Additional free reinforcers were presented every 15 or 30 s on average when the disk was red, but not when the disk was green. Thus, the response–reinforcer relation was degraded when the disk was red because each reinforcer was not immediately preceded by a response. Consistent with the matching law, response rates were lower in the red context than in the green context. However, the stimulus–reinforcer relation was enhanced in the red context because the overall rate of food presentation was greater. Consistent with behavioral momentum theory, resistance to presession feeding (satiation) and discontinuing reinforcement in both contexts (extinction) was greater in the red context. Similar results have been found when reinforcers are added to a context by reinforcing an alternative response.
Resistance to change:
The findings of Nevin et al. (1990) have been extended across a number of procedures and species including goldfish (Igaki & Sakagami, 2004), rats (Harper, 1999a, 1999b; Shull, Gaynor & Grimes, 2001), pigeons (Podlesnik & Shahan, 2008), and humans (Ahearn, Clark, Gardenier, Chung & Dube, 2003; Cohen, 1996; Mace et al., 1990). The behavioral momentum framework also has been used to account for the partial-reinforcement extinction effect (Nevin & Grace, 1999), to assess the persistence of drug-maintained behavior (Jimenez-Gomez & Shahan, 2007; Shahan & Burke, 2004), to increase task compliance (e.g., Belfiore, Lee, Scheeler & Klein, 2002), and to understand the effects of social policies on global problems (Nevin, 2005).
Resistance to change:
Although behavioral momentum theory is a powerful framework for understanding how a context of reinforcement can affect the persistence of discriminated operant behavior, there are a number of findings that are inconsistent with the theory (see Nevin & Grace, 2000, and accompanying commentary). For instance, with equal reinforcement rates across stimulus contexts, resistance to change has been shown to be affected by manipulations to response–reinforcer relations, including schedules that produce different baseline response rates (e.g., Lattal, 1989; Nevin, Grace, Holland & McLean), delays to reinforcement (e.g., Bell, 1999; Grace, Schwendimann & Nevin, 1998; Podlesnik, Jimenez-Gomez, Ward & Shahan, 2006; Podlesnik & Shahan, 2008), and by providing brief stimuli that accompany reinforcement (Reed & Doughty, 2005). Also, it is unclear what factors affect relative resistance to change of responding maintained by conditioned reinforcement (Shahan & Podlesnik, 2005) or two concurrently available responses when different rates of reinforcement are arranged within the same context for those responses (e.g., Bell & Williams, 2002).
Preference and resistance to change:
As resistance to disruption across stimulus contexts is analogous to the inertial mass of a moving object, behavioral momentum theory also suggests that preference in concurrent-chains procedures for one stimulus context over another is analogous to the gravitational attraction of two bodies (see Nevin & Grace, 2000). In concurrent-chains procedures, responding on the concurrently available initial links provides access to one of two mutually exclusive stimulus contexts called terminal links. As with multiple schedules, independent schedules of reinforcement can function in each terminal-link context. The relative allocation of responding across the two initial links indicates the extent to which an organism prefers one terminal-link context over the other. Moreover, behavioral momentum theory posits that preference provides a measure of the relative conditioned-reinforcing value of the two terminal-link contexts, as described by the contextual-choice model (Grace, 1994).
Preference and resistance to change:
Grace and Nevin (1997) assessed both relative resistance to change in a multiple schedule and preference in a concurrent-chains procedure with pigeons pecking lighted disks for food reinforcement. When the relative rate of reinforcement was manipulated identically and simultaneously across stimulus contexts in the multiple schedule and concurrent-chains procedure, both relative resistance to change and preference was greater with richer contexts of reinforcement. When all the extant resistance to change and preference data were summarized by Grace, Bedell, and Nevin (2002), they found that those measures were related by a structural relation slope of 0.29. Therefore, relative resistance to change and preference both have been conceptualized as expressions of an underlying construct termed response strength, conditioned reinforcement value, or more generally, behavioral mass of discriminated operant behavior (see Nevin & Grace, 2000).
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**Tropical Storm Greg**
Tropical Storm Greg:
The name Greg has been used for eleven tropical cyclones worldwide: eight in the Eastern Pacific Ocean, two in the Australian region, and one in the Western Pacific.
Tropical Storm Greg:
In the Eastern Pacific: Hurricane Greg (1981) – churned in the open ocean Hurricane Greg (1987) – paralleled the Mexican coast while remaining far offshore Hurricane Greg (1993) – formed from the remnants of Atlantic Tropical Storm Bret Hurricane Greg (1999) – made landfall in Baja California Sur Tropical Storm Greg (2005) – short-lived storm that remained well offshore Hurricane Greg (2011) – stayed out to sea Tropical Storm Greg (2017) – churned in the open ocean Tropical Storm Greg (2023) – formed before crossing into the Central PacificIn the Australian region: Cyclone Greg (1990) – developed in the Gulf of Carpentaria Cyclone Greg (2017) (30U) – developed north-east of the Cocos IslandsIn the Western Pacific: Tropical Depression Greg (1996) (43W) – made landfall on northern Borneo in the Malaysian state of Sabah, causing over $280 million in damage (1996 USD) and 238 deaths
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**PDE8B**
PDE8B:
High affinity cAMP-specific and IBMX-insensitive 3',5'-cyclic phosphodiesterase 8B is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the PDE8B gene.
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**Solvent Yellow 124**
Solvent Yellow 124:
Solvent Yellow 124 is a yellow azo dye used in European Union as a fuel dye. It is a marker used since August 2002 to distinguish diesel fuel intended for heating from a higher-taxed motor diesel fuel. It is added to fuels not intended for motor vehicles in amounts of 6 mg/L or 7 mg/kg under the name Euromarker.
Euromarker:
Solvent Yellow 124 is a dye with structure similar to Solvent Yellow 56. This dye can be easily hydrolyzed with acids, splitting off the acetal group responsible for its solubility in nonpolar solvents, and yielding a water-soluble form which is easy to extract to water. Like a similar methyl orange dye, it changes color to red in acidic pH. It can be easily detected in the fuel at levels as low as 0.3 ppm by extraction to a diluted hydrochloric acid, allowing detection of the red diesel added into motor diesel in amounts as low as 2-3%.
Euromarker:
Solvent Yellow 124 is intended to be difficult to remove from the fuel in an economical way. The Customs, familiar with various tricks including dual fuel systems with hidden fuel tanks, will take samples from the fuel lines to the engine itself if such equipment is suspected in the car.
As the amount of Solvent Yellow 124 added to the fuel is known, by measuring its content in the fuel it is possible to calculate how much of the low-taxed fuel was added to the legal one.
Concerns:
The UK government expressed concerns about the possibility of "laundering" the dye out of "illicit" fuel, hampering the detection. Denmark expressed concerns about the dye's toxicity.
Euromarker is intended to be replaced later by newer technology markers, such as biological markers or fuel markers with non-destructive analytical methods. These are all special chemicals tailored for the individual products, and perhaps even for individual refineries, allowing the identification of the source of the material by its content of the molecular markers.
In 2014, a new fuel marker more resistant to removal was announced for the United Kingdom.
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**Swfdec**
Swfdec:
Swfdec is an outdated free and open-source replacement for Adobe Flash Player. It runs on Linux and FreeBSD and is distributed under the terms of the GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL). Its last release was 0.8.4, on December 21, 2008 (2008-12-21) and latest in stable 0.9.2 of 2008-11-11.
Development of Swfdec has stopped. As of March 2016, the most recent commit to its Git repository was in December 2009.
Technical:
Swfdec is a library that can be used to play Flash files. There is a standalone player and a Mozilla plugin that uses the library. Swfdec supports Flash through version 4, and most features of Flash through version 9. The player was routinely updated to support the latest features demanded by video players, resulting in most (including YouTube, Google Video, Lulu.tv, AOL video, and CNN video) working at any given time.
Linux support:
Swfdec was chosen in 2007 as the Flash player for Fedora, and it has been ported to DirectFB for embedded use alongside its X11 and GTK+ bindings. It uses the Cairo graphics library for rendering, GStreamer for decoding audio and video, and PulseAudio, OSS, or ALSA for audio playback.
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**Pullback (category theory)**
Pullback (category theory):
In category theory, a branch of mathematics, a pullback (also called a fiber product, fibre product, fibered product or Cartesian square) is the limit of a diagram consisting of two morphisms f : X → Z and g : Y → Z with a common codomain. The pullback is written P = X ×f, Z, g Y.Usually the morphisms f and g are omitted from the notation, and then the pullback is written P = X ×Z Y.The pullback comes equipped with two natural morphisms P → X and P → Y. The pullback of two morphisms f and g need not exist, but if it does, it is essentially uniquely defined by the two morphisms. In many situations, X ×Z Y may intuitively be thought of as consisting of pairs of elements (x, y) with x in X, y in Y, and f(x) = g(y). For the general definition, a universal property is used, which essentially expresses the fact that the pullback is the "most general" way to complete the two given morphisms to a commutative square.
Pullback (category theory):
The dual concept of the pullback is the pushout.
Universal property:
Explicitly, a pullback of the morphisms f and g consists of an object P and two morphisms p1 : P → X and p2 : P → Y for which the diagram commutes. Moreover, the pullback (P, p1, p2) must be universal with respect to this diagram. That is, for any other such triple (Q, q1, q2) where q1 : Q → X and q2 : Q → Y are morphisms with f q1 = g q2, there must exist a unique u : Q → P such that p1∘u=q1,p2∘u=q2.
Universal property:
This situation is illustrated in the following commutative diagram.
As with all universal constructions, a pullback, if it exists, is unique up to isomorphism. In fact, given two pullbacks (A, a1, a2) and (B, b1, b2) of the same cospan X → Z ← Y, there is a unique isomorphism between A and B respecting the pullback structure.
Pullback and product:
The pullback is similar to the product, but not the same. One may obtain the product by "forgetting" that the morphisms f and g exist, and forgetting that the object Z exists. One is then left with a discrete category containing only the two objects X and Y, and no arrows between them. This discrete category may be used as the index set to construct the ordinary binary product. Thus, the pullback can be thought of as the ordinary (Cartesian) product, but with additional structure. Instead of "forgetting" Z, f, and g, one can also "trivialize" them by specializing Z to be the terminal object (assuming it exists). f and g are then uniquely determined and thus carry no information, and the pullback of this cospan can be seen to be the product of X and Y.
Examples:
Commutative rings In the category of commutative rings (with identity), the pullback is called the fibered product. Let A, B, and C be commutative rings (with identity) and α : A → C and β : B → C (identity preserving) ring homomorphisms. Then the pullback of this diagram exists and given by the subring of the product ring A × B defined by A×CB={(a,b)∈A×B|α(a)=β(b)} along with the morphisms β′:A×CB→A,α′:A×CB→B given by β′(a,b)=a and α′(a,b)=b for all (a,b)∈A×CB . We then have α∘β′=β∘α′.
Examples:
Groups and modules In complete analogy to the example of commutative rings above, one can show that all pullbacks exist in the category of groups and in the category of modules over some fixed ring.
Sets In the category of sets, the pullback of functions f : X → Z and g : Y → Z always exists and is given by the set X×ZY={(x,y)∈X×Y|f(x)=g(y)}=⋃z∈f(X)∩g(Y)f−1[{z}]×g−1[{z}], together with the restrictions of the projection maps π1 and π2 to X ×Z Y.
Alternatively one may view the pullback in Set asymmetrically: X×ZY≅∐x∈Xg−1[{f(x)}]≅∐y∈Yf−1[{g(y)}] where ∐ is the disjoint union of sets (the involved sets are not disjoint on their own unless f resp. g is injective). In the first case, the projection π1 extracts the x index while π2 forgets the index, leaving elements of Y.
Examples:
This example motivates another way of characterizing the pullback: as the equalizer of the morphisms f ∘ p1, g ∘ p2 : X × Y → Z where X × Y is the binary product of X and Y and p1 and p2 are the natural projections. This shows that pullbacks exist in any category with binary products and equalizers. In fact, by the existence theorem for limits, all finite limits exist in a category with binary products and equalizers; equivalently, all finite limits exist in a category with terminal object and pullbacks (by the fact that binary product = pullback on the terminal object, and that an equalizer is a pullback involving binary product).
Examples:
Graphs of functions A specific example of a pullback is given by the graph of a function. Suppose that f:X→Y is a function. The graph of f is the set The graph can be reformulated as the pullback of f and the identity function on Y. By definition, this pullback is and this equals Γf Fiber bundles Another example of a pullback comes from the theory of fiber bundles: given a bundle map π : E → B and a continuous map f : X → B, the pullback (formed in the category of topological spaces with continuous maps) X ×B E is a fiber bundle over X called the pullback bundle. The associated commutative diagram is a morphism of fiber bundles. This is also the case in the category of differentiable manifolds. A special case is the pullback of two fiber bundles E1, E2 → B. In this case E1 × E2 is a fiber bundle over B × B, and pulling back along the diagonal map B → B × B gives a space homeomorphic (diffeomorphic) to E1 ×B E2, which is a fiber bundle over B. The pullback of two smooth transverse maps into the same differentiable manifold is also a differentiable manifold, and the tangent space of the pullback is the pullback of the tangent spaces along the differential maps.
Examples:
Preimages and intersections Preimages of sets under functions can be described as pullbacks as follows: Suppose f : A → B, B0 ⊆ B. Let g be the inclusion map B0 ↪ B. Then a pullback of f and g (in Set) is given by the preimage f−1[B0] together with the inclusion of the preimage in A f−1[B0] ↪ Aand the restriction of f to f−1[B0] f−1[B0] → B0.Because of this example, in a general category the pullback of a morphism f and a monomorphism g can be thought of as the "preimage" under f of the subobject specified by g. Similarly, pullbacks of two monomorphisms can be thought of as the "intersection" of the two subobjects.
Examples:
Least common multiple Consider the multiplicative monoid of positive integers Z+ as a category with one object. In this category, the pullback of two positive integers m and n is just the pair (LCM(m, n)/m, LCM(m, n)/n), where the numerators are both the least common multiple of m and n. The same pair is also the pushout.
Properties:
In any category with a terminal object T, the pullback X ×T Y is just the ordinary product X × Y.
Monomorphisms are stable under pullback: if the arrow f in the diagram is monic, then so is the arrow p2. Similarly, if g is monic, then so is p1.
Isomorphisms are also stable, and hence, for example, X ×X Y ≅ Y for any map Y → X (where the implied map X → X is the identity).
Properties:
In an abelian category all pullbacks exist, and they preserve kernels, in the following sense: if is a pullback diagram, then the induced morphism ker(p2) → ker(f) is an isomorphism, and so is the induced morphism ker(p1) → ker(g). Every pullback diagram thus gives rise to a commutative diagram of the following form, where all rows and columns are exact: Furthermore, in an abelian category, if X → Z is an epimorphism, then so is its pullback P → Y, and symmetrically: if Y → Z is an epimorphism, then so is its pullback P → X. In these situations, the pullback square is also a pushout square.There is a natural isomorphism (A×CB)×B D ≅ A×CD. Explicitly, this means: if maps f : A → C, g : B → C and h : D → B are given and the pullback of f and g is given by r : P → A and s : P → B, and the pullback of s and h is given by t : Q → P and u : Q → D , then the pullback of f and gh is given by rt : Q → A and u : Q → D.Graphically this means that two pullback squares, placed side by side and sharing one morphism, form a larger pullback square when ignoring the inner shared morphism.
Properties:
Any category with pullbacks and products has equalizers.
Weak pullbacks:
A weak pullback of a cospan X → Z ← Y is a cone over the cospan that is only weakly universal, that is, the mediating morphism u : Q → P above is not required to be unique.
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**Vaginal artery**
Vaginal artery:
The vaginal artery is an artery in females that supplies blood to the vagina and the base of the bladder.
Structure:
The vaginal artery is usually a branch of the internal iliac artery. Some sources say that the vaginal artery can arise from the uterine artery, but the phrase vaginal branches of uterine artery is the term for blood supply to the vagina coming from the uterine artery.The vaginal artery is frequently represented by two or three branches. These descend to the vagina, supplying its mucous membrane. They anastomose with branches from the uterine artery. It can send branches to the bulb of the vestibule, the fundus of the bladder, and the contiguous part of the rectum.
Function:
The vaginal artery supplies oxygenated blood to the muscular wall of the vagina, along with the uterine artery and the internal pudendal artery. It also supplies the cervix, along with the uterine artery.
Other animals:
In horses, the vaginal artery may haemorrhage after birth, which can cause death.
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**External intercostal muscles**
External intercostal muscles:
The external intercostal muscles, or external intercostals (Intercostales externi) are eleven in number on both sides.
Structure:
The muscles extend from the tubercles of the ribs behind, to the cartilages of the ribs in front, where they end in thin membranes, the external intercostal membranes, which are continued forward to the sternum.
These muscles work in unison when inhalation occurs. The internal intercostal muscles relax while the external muscles contract causing the expansion of the chest cavity and an influx of air into the lungs.
Each arises from the lower border of a rib, and is inserted into the upper border of the rib below. In the two lower spaces they extend to the ends of the cartilages, and in the upper two or three spaces they do not quite reach the ends of the ribs.
They are thicker than the internal intercostals, and their fibers are directed obliquely downward and laterally on the back of the thorax, and downward, forward, and medially on the front.
Variations:
Continuation with the external oblique or serratus anterior: A supracostalis muscle, from the anterior end of the first rib down to the second, third or fourth ribs occasionally occurs.
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**EMBnet**
EMBnet:
The European Molecular Biology network (EMBnet) is an international scientific network and interest group that aims to enhance bioinformatics services by bringing together bioinformatics expertises and capacities. On 2011 EMBnet has 37 nodes spread over 32 countries. The nodes include bioinformatics related university departments, research institutes and national service providers.
Operations:
The main task of most EMBnet nodes is to provide their national scientific community with access to bioinformatics databanks, specialised software and sufficient computing resources and expertise. EMBnet is also working in the fields of bioinformatics training and software development. Examples of software created by EMBnet members are: EMBOSS, wEMBOSS, UTOPIA.
EMBnet represents a wide user group and works closely together with the database producers such as EMBL's European Bioinformatics Institute (EBI), the Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics (Swiss-Prot), the Munich Information Center for Protein Sequences (MIPS), in order to provide a uniform coverage of services throughout Europe. EMBnet is registered in the Netherlands as a public foundation (Stichting).
Operations:
Since its creation in 1988, EMBnet has evolved from an informal network of individuals in charge of maintaining biological databases into the only worldwide organization bringing bioinformatics professionals to work together to serve the expanding fields of genetics and molecular biology. Although composed predominantly of academic nodes, EMBnet gains an important added dimension from its industrial members. The success of EMBnet is attracting increasing numbers of organizations outside Europe to join.
Operations:
EMBnet has a tried-and-tested infrastructure to organise training courses, give technical help and help its members effectively interact and respond to the rapidly changing needs of biological research in a way no single institute is able to do.
In 2005 the organization created additional types of node to allow more than one member per country. The new category denomination is "associated node".
Coordination and organization:
EMBnet is governed by the Annual General Meetings (AGM), and is coordinated by an executive board (EB) that oversees the activities of three project committees: Education and Training committee (E&T). Educational support includes a series of courses organised in the member countries and languages, the committee works as well on the continued development of on-line accessible education materials.
Publicity and Public Relations committee (P&PR). This committee is responsible for promoting any type of EMBnet activities, for the advertisement of products and services provided by the EMBnet community, as well as for proposing and developing new strategies aiming to enhance EMBnet's visibility, and to take care of public relationships with EMBnet communities and related networks/societies.
Technical Manager committee (TM). The TM PC provides assistance and practical help to the participating nodes and their users.
Achievements:
EMBnet had the first gopher and World Wide Web servers in biology (CSC BioBox) EMBnet was the first to come up with solutions for daily database updates using Internet (NDT), distributed computing (HASSLE) and efficient database browsing and linking (Sequence Retrieval System, SRS).
The Ping project was created as a means to obtain continuous information about network efficiency across the whole of Europe.
EMBnet is committed to bringing the latest software algorithms to the user free of charge (Extended GCG or EGCG) and continues to develop state of the art public software (EMBOSS).
EMBER: a European Multimedia Bioinformatics Educational Resource. EMBER was a European Union (EU) funded project aiming to develop a suite of multimedia bioinformatics educational tools . EMBER comprises a self-contained, interactive Web tutorial in bioinformatics, & the equivalent stand-alone course on CD-ROM.
The EMBnet community was involved in the creation of the peer reviewed journal Briefings in Bioinformatics (BiB). BiB was also supported by an educational grant from EMBnet.
The Global Organisation for Bioinformatics Learning, Education and Training (GOBLET) was formed as a nonprofit foundation at the 2012 EMBnet annual meeting.
Journal:
Starting from 1994 and up to 2009 EMBnet published EMBnet.news. Its primary goal was to bring information and report on the latest news and developments from the network to the user community.
Journal:
Established in 2010 as the successor of the EMBnet.news (with volume numbering continuing uninterrupted), EMBnet.journal is a peer-reviewed open access scientific journal publishing original research and technical papers in bioinformatics. The journal contains two main sections, one for research articles, reviews, and technical notes, and one for non-peer-reviewed commentary, reportage, user-guides, training information, and news. EMBnet.journal publishes also conference proceedings and meeting abstracts as supplements.
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**Phenomenology (architecture)**
Phenomenology (architecture):
Architectural phenomenology is the discursive and realist attempt to understand and embody the philosophical insights of phenomenology within the discipline of architecture. The phenomenology of architecture is the philosophical study of architecture employing the methods of phenomenology.
Phenomenology (architecture):
Architectural phenomenology emphasizes human experience, background, intention and historical reflection, interpretation, and poetic and ethical considerations in contrast to the anti-historicism of postwar modernism and the pastiche of postmodernism. Much like phenomenology itself, architectural phenomenology is better understood as an orientation toward thinking and making rather than a specific aesthetic or movement. Interest in phenomenology within architectural circles began in the 1950s, reached a wide audience in the late 1970s and 1980s, and continues today.
Historical development:
Origins Edmund Husserl is credited with founding Phenomenology, as a philosophical approach to understanding experience, in the early 20th Century. The emergence of Phenomenology occurred during a period of extensive transformation referred to as Modernism. During this time, Western society was experiencing rapid technological advances and social change. Concurrently, as the theory and practice of architecture adapted to these changes, Modern architecture emerged. Consistent within the broad context of Modernism which was characterized by the rejection of tradition, systemization, and standardization; both phenomenology and modern architecture were focused on how humans experience their environments. While Phenomenology was focused on how humans can know things and spaces, modern architecture was concerned with how to create the places of human experience aligned to the modernist ethos of the time.
Historical development:
Early Architectural Studies (1950's-1960's) Architects first started seriously studying phenomenology at Princeton University in the 1950s under the influence of Jean Labatut. In the 1950's, architect Charles W. Moore conducted some of the first phenomenological studies of architecture during his doctoral studies under Labatut, drawing heavily on the philosopher Gaston Bachelard, which were published in 1958 as Water and Architecture. In Europe, Milanese architect Ernesto Nathan Rogers advanced architectural phenomenology during the 1950's and early 1960's through his influential editorship of the Italian design magazine Casabella Continuità. He collaborated with philosopher Enzo Paci and influenced a generation of young architects including Vittorio Gregotti and Aldo Rossi.
Historical development:
The Essex School (1970's-1980's) In the 1970's, the School of Comparative Studies at the University of Essex, under the direction of Dalibor Vesely and Joseph Rykwert, was a breeding ground for a generation of architectural phenomenologists, including David Leatherbarrow, Alberto Pérez-Gómez, and Daniel Libeskind. In the 1980s, Vesely and his colleague Peter Carl continued to develop architectural phenomenology in their research and teaching at the Department of Architecture at the University of Cambridge. As architectural phenomenology became established in academia, professors expanded its considerations through theory seminars beyond Gaston Bachelard and Martin Heidegger, to include Edmund Husserl, Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Hans-Georg Gadamer, Hannah Arendt and theorists whose modes of thinking bordered on phenomenology, including Gilles Deleuze, Henri Bergson, Paul Virilio, Charles Taylor, Hubert Dreyfus and Edward S. Casey. George Baird called the Essex School "the most significant recent mode of phenomenology in current architectural theory" and credits Vesely for architectural phenomenology's historical reliance on Heidegger instead of Merleau-Ponty, who was championed by Rykwert, Moore, and Labatut. During the 1980's, Kenneth Frampton became an influence in architectural phenomenology.In 1979, Norwegian architect, theorist and historian Christian Norberg-Schulz's book Genius Loci: Towards a Phenomenology of Architecture became an important reference for those interested in the topic in the 1980's for its readily accessible explanations for how a such an approach could be translated into design. The book was markedly influenced by Martin Heidegger's hermeneutic ontology. Norberg-Schulz spawned a wide following, including his successor at the Oslo School of Architecture, Thomas Thiis-Evensen.
Historical development:
Contemporary Architectural Phenomenology (2010-present) Recent scholarly activity in architectural phenomenology draws on contemporary phenomenology and philosophy of mind authors Gallagher and Zahavi. Some examples include a 2018 issue of Log with the theme "Disorienting phenomenology" as well as Jorge Otero-Pailos' Architecture's Historical Turn, Sara Ahmed's Queer Phenomenology, Dylan Trigg's The Thing, Alexander Weheliye's Habeas Viscus, and Joseph Bedford's dissertation Creativity's Shadow: Dabilor Vesely, Phenomenology and Architectural Education (1968 - 1989). With the expansion of virtual reality as architectural experiences there is new attention to Phenomenology. Heather Renee Barker's Designing Post-Virtual Architectures, Wicked Tactics and World Building addresses the phenomenological method and the life-world within this context. Contemporary scholarship has become more skeptical of Heidegger's influence.
Themes:
Dwelling As a phenomenological perspective on being in society and dwelling within a social world took focus, expanded interest in the urban and social experience became central to the thinking of social philosophers like Alfred Schutz. The phenomenon of dwelling, as explicated in Heidegger's essay "Building Dwelling Thinking" (originally published in 1954 as "Bauen Wohnen Denken"), became an important theme in architectural phenomenology. Heidegger links dwelling to the "gathering of the fourfold," namely the regions of being entailed by the phenomena of "the saving of earth, the reception of sky (heavens), the initiation of mortals into their death, and the awaiting/remembering of divinities." The essence of dwelling is not architectural, per se, in the same manner that the essence of technology for him is not technological per se.
Influence in practice:
According to Juhani Pallasmaa, contemporary practitioners of the phenomenology of architecture include architects Daniel Libeskind, Steven Holl, and Peter Zumthor.
Notable architects:
Notable architects and scholars of architecture associated with architectural phenomenology include:
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**Histotrophy**
Histotrophy:
Histotrophy is a form of matrotrophy exhibited by some live-bearing sharks and rays, in which the developing embryo receives additional nutrition from its mother in the form of uterine secretions, known as histotroph (or "uterine milk"). It is one of the three major modes of elasmobranch reproduction encompassed by "aplacental viviparity", and can be contrasted with yolk-sac viviparity (in which the embryo is solely sustained by yolk) and oophagy (in which the embryo feeds on ova).
Histotrophy:
There are two categories of histotrophy: In mucoid or limited histotrophy, the developing embryo ingests uterine mucus or histotroph as a supplement to the energy supplies provided by its yolk sac. This form of histotrophy is known to occur in the dogfish sharks (Squaliformes) and the electric rays (Torpediniformes), and may be more widespread.
Histotrophy:
In lipid histotrophy, the developing embryo is supplied with protein and lipid-enriched histotroph through specialized finger-like structures known as trophonemata. The additional nutrition provided by the enriched histotroph allows the embryo to increase in mass from the egg by several orders of magnitude by the time it is born, much greater than is possible in mucoid histotrophy. This form of histotrophy is found in stingrays and their relatives (Myliobatiformes).
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**Gbcast**
Gbcast:
Gbcast (also known as group broadcast) is a reliable multicast protocol that provides ordered, fault-tolerant (all-or-none) message delivery in a group of receivers within a network of machines that experience crash failure. The protocol is capable of solving Consensus in a network of unreliable processors, and can be used to implement state machine replication. Gbcast can be used in a standalone manner, or can support the virtual synchrony execution model, in which case Gbcast is normally used for group membership management while other, faster, protocols are often favored for routine communication tasks.
History:
Introduced in 1985, Gbcast was the first widely deployed reliable multicast protocol to implement state machine replication with dynamically reconfigurable membership. Although this problem had been treated theoretically under various models in prior work, Gbcast innovated by showing that the same multicasts used to update replicated data within the state machine can also be used to dynamically reconfigure the group membership, which can then evolve to permit members to join and leave at will, in addition to being removed upon failure. This functionality, together with a state transfer mechanism used to initialize joining members, represents the basis of the virtual synchrony process group execution model.
History:
The term state machine replication was first suggested by Leslie Lamport and was widely adopted after publication of a survey paper written by Fred B. Schneider. The model covers any system in which some deterministic object (a state machine) is replicated in such a way that a series of commands can be applied to the replicas fault-tolerantly. A reconfigurable state machine is one that can vary its membership, adding new members or removing old ones. Some state machine protocols can also ride out the temporary unavailability of a subset of the current members without requiring reconfiguration when such situations arise, including Gbcast and also Paxos, Lamport's widely cited protocol for state machine replication.
History:
State machine replication is closely related to the distributed Consensus problem, in which a collection of processes must agree upon some decision outcome, such as the winner of an election. In particular, it can be shown that any solution to the state machine replication problem would also be capable of solving distributed consensus. As a consequence, impossibility results for distributed consensus apply to solutions to the state machine replication problem. Implications of this finding are discussed under liveness.
History:
Gbcast is somewhat unusual in that most solutions to the state machine replication problem are closely integrated with the application being replicated. Gbcast, in contrast, is designed as a multicast API and implemented by a library that delivers messages to group members. Lamport, Malkhi and Zhou note that few reliable multicast protocols have the durability properties required to correctly implement the state machine model. Gbcast does exhibit the necessary properties.The Gbcast protocol was first described in a 1985 publication that discussed infrastructure supporting the virtual synchrony model in the Isis Toolkit. Additional details were provided in a later 1987 journal article, and an open-source version of the protocol was released by the Cornell developers in November of that year. Isis used the protocol primarily for maintaining the membership of process groups but also offered an API that could be called directly by end-users. The technology became widely used starting in 1988, when the Isis system was commercialized and support became available. Commercial support for the system ended in 1998 when Stratus Computer, then the parent of Isis Distributed Systems, refocused purely on hardware solutions for the telecommunications industry.
History:
Examples of systems that used Isis in production settings include the New York Stock Exchange, where it was employed for approximately a decade to manage a configurable, fault-tolerant and self-healing reporting infrastructure for the trading floor, to relay quotes and trade reports from the "back office" systems used by the exchange to overhead display. The French Air Traffic Control System continues to use Isis; since 1996 the system has been employed to create fault-tolerant workstation clusters for use by air traffic controllers and to reliably relay routing updates between air traffic control centers; over time the French technology has also been adopted by other European ATC systems. The US Navy AEGIS has used Isis since 1993 to support a reliable and self-healing communication infrastructure. Isis also had several hundred other production users in the financial, telecommunications, process control, SCADA and other critical infrastructure domains. More details can be found in.
Problem statement:
The fundamental problem solved by Gbcast is this: we are given an initial set of group members and wish to support a multicast abstraction, permitting members of the group to send messages that encode various commands or requests. The protocol must agree on the messages to deliver, and on their ordering, so that if any member of the group sends a message, every member of the group that doesn't fail will receive that message and in the same order with respect to other delivered messages.
Problem statement:
The set of group members changes each time a member fails or joins, and Gbcast is also used to maintain group membership by means of special multicasts that are delivered to the application as "new view" events, but that also adjust the group membership list maintained by the Gbcast protocol library. The application thus sees a series of membership views that start with an "initial view" when a particular group member joins, and then evolve over time, and that are ordered with respect to other view-changing events and multicast messages. These multicasts are delivered to all the non-failed members listed in the view during which delivery is scheduled, a property referred to as virtual synchrony.
Problem statement:
Network partitions can split a group into two or more disjoint subgroups, creating the risk of split brain behavior, in which some group members take a decision (perhaps, to launch the rocket) without knowing that some other partition of the group has taken a different, conflicting decision. Gbcast offers protection against this threat: the protocol ensures that progress occurs only in a single primary partition of the group. Thus, should a network partition arise, at most one subgroup of members will continue operations, while the other is certain to stall and shut down.
Problem statement:
Should a failed member recover (or if a partitioning failure caused some member to be incorrectly sensed as faulty and hence dropped from the view), after communication is restored, that member can rejoin. An incarnation number is used to avoid ambiguity: a counter that will be incremented each time a process joins the group, and is treated as part of the process identifier. Any given (processor-id, process-id, incarnation-number) tuple joins the group at most once, then remains in the group until it fails, or is forced to leave because a time out occurred.
Problem statement:
Any dynamically reconfigurable system, including both Gbcast and Paxos, can enter states from which no further progress is possible. For example, this could happen if operational processes are wrongly removed from the configuration, and then too many real crashes occur within the remaining members of the view. In such situations, the data center management infrastructure is responsible for restarting the entire application. This is in contrast to the behavior of non-reconfigurable (vanilla) Paxos, which can tolerate disruptions of unlimited duration and then will resume once enough group members are accessible, without intervention of the management infrastructure. The following terms are used in the detailed protocol description.
Problem statement:
Processes Processes run on processors that operate at arbitrary speed.
Processes may experience crash (halting) failures.
A process is uniquely identified by a three-tuple: (processor-id, process-id, incarnation-number).
Processes with stable storage may re-join the protocol after failures (following a crash-recovery failure model), after incrementing the incarnation number.
Processes do not collude, lie, or otherwise attempt to subvert the protocol. (That is, Byzantine failures don't occur.) Network All processes in the system can send messages to all other processes in the system.
Messages are sent asynchronously: there is no time bound on message delivery.
Messages may be lost, reordered, or duplicated.
Problem statement:
Messages are delivered without corruption.These are weak assumptions: a network that never delivers any messages would satisfy them (we would say that such a network is experiencing a complete and permanent partitioning failure). The network conditions required for Gbcast to guarantee progress are discussed below. In practice Gbcast is normally used within data centers; these have networks that can experience transient failures, but in which partitioning failures are rare, and generally impact just small subsets of the nodes. Thus for purposes of analysis we assume a harsher networking environment than would arise in actual deployments.
Problem statement:
To simplify the presentation, we assume that a TCP-like acknowledgement / retransmission scheme is employed, creating the illusion of a reliable, sequenced, non-repeating message channel between each pair of processes. A timeout occurs if this channel abstraction retries repeatedly and is unable to obtain an acknowledgement for some message. Using the same TCP-like channels, we can also support a 1-to-all capability, whereby a single process sends some message over its channels to all the other members of some view of some group. This is done by mapping the 1-to-all request into multiple 1-to-1 messages. Notice that these 1-to-all channels lack any atomicity guarantee: if the sender fails while a message is being sent, it might reach just some of the destinations.
Problem statement:
Process Groups and Views Gbcast is defined with respect to a "process group:" a set of processes. In a deployed system such a group might have a name (like a file name), a way to initially contact the group, and other attributes such as flow-control parameters. However, those kinds of details are omitted here for brevity.The term membership view is a list of members, rank-ordered by age (determined by the view in which each member most recently joined the group) and with ties broken by a lexicographic ordering rule.The initial membership of the group is specified by an external agent and defines the first membership view of the group.Subsequent membership views arise by applying add and remove commands and are identified by sequence number.New views are reported to the processes belonging to the view by means of "new view" events. The application is notified via an upcall (a call from the library into a handler defined by the application program).
Problem statement:
Multicast Messages Members of a view can request that multicast messages be sent to a process group without knowledge of the membership that will apply at the time of delivery.The Gbcast protocol carries out these operations with a series of guarantees, discussed below.Delivery is by upcall to the application, which can perform whatever action the message requests.
Roles Gbcast is best understood in terms of a set of roles.
Problem statement:
Application An application corresponds to a program which can be launched on one or more processors. Each application process then joins one or more process groups.An application process belonging to a group initiates new multicasts by invoking Gbcast. The protocol is considered to have terminated when all members of the target group have either acknowledged delivery of the message, or have been detected as faulty, via a mechanism explained below.Incoming Gbcast messages are delivered via upcalls, as are view change notifications.As noted earlier, the members of a group observe the same sequence of upcalls starting when they initially join: an initial view and then a sequence of new views and multicast messages. All members of a group receive any particular multicast in the same view, and the multicast is delivered to all non-failed members of that view.
Problem statement:
Leader The leader of a group is defined with respect to some view of the group, and is the member with lowest rank in the view. As noted, the rank is age-ordered (with older members having lower rank), and ties are broken using a lexicographic sort.
Problem statement:
Failure detection All components of the system are permitted to participate in the role of "detecting" failures. Detection is distinct from the reporting of the failure (which occurs through a new view and is ordered with respect to message deliveries).The channel abstraction supported by the network layer senses failures by timeouts. (Notice that under the network model, a process that attempts to send a message to a crashed target process will always experience a timeout, but it is also possible that the channel abstraction could misreport an operational process as faulty if messages are delayed because of a transient partitioning failure).Any process that experiences a timeout can declare that the endpoint of the associated channel has failed.If a process learns of a failure for some (processor-id, process-id, incarnation-number) tuple, it includes that information on the next outgoing message on all channels.A process that considers some other process to have failed will reject messages from the failed incarnation, responding "you have failed". (That is, processes gossip about failures, and shun failed group members).An incoming message from a new incarnation of a failed process is treated as a message from a "new" process.
Problem statement:
Failed process Any member of the current view that has been detected as failed is considered to be a failed process.
An operational process that learns that it is considered to have failed (by attempting to communicate with some other process that rejects the message, thereby "shunning" it) might exit from the system, or can increase its incarnation number and rejoin.
New Leader If every lower-ranked process in the current view is a failed process, then the next highest-ranked non-failed process is designated as the new leader.
The new leader must run a protocol, discussed below, to become the leader.
Problem statement:
Quorums Quorums are used to guarantee the safety properties of Gbcast by ensuring that there is a single globally agreed-upon sequence of group views and multicast messages and by preventing progress in more than one partition if a group becomes fragmented into two or more partitions (disjoint subsets of members that can communicate with other members of their subsets, but not with members of other subsets). Quorums are defined for a specific view.
Problem statement:
Given view i with n members {A,B,C….}, a quorum of the view is any majority subset of the members of that view. Notice that this is in contrast to the way the term is defined in systems that have a static underlying membership: for Gbcast, the quorum size will change over time as the membership of a group changes and new views become defined.
Safety and liveness properties:
In order to guarantee safety, Gbcast defines three safety properties and ensures they hold, regardless of the pattern of failures: Non-triviality Only multicasts actually sent by some group member are delivered. If a process receives a message from a group member that it considers to have failed, it will reject those messages.
Consistency If any member of a view delivers a multicast (or reports a new view) in some order relative to other multicasts, then all other members of the same view that deliver the same message (or report the same view) will do so in the same order.
Safety and liveness properties:
Conditional liveness If multicast M is sent in some view and the sender remains operational, then eventually all members of that view (with the exception of any that crash) will deliver M. Liveness cannot be guaranteed under all conditions, hence we impose a further condition: we require this property only while sufficiently many processes remain non-faulty (we'll discuss this further below).
Basic Gbcast:
This protocol is the one used under normal conditions.
Basic Gbcast:
Recall that in Gbcast, each operational process has a current view, and each view defines a leader. Only a process that believes itself to be the leader in the current view can initiate a new multicast; other members must relay multicasts by sending them to the leader, over 1-to-1 connections, and then waiting for the leader to run the protocol.
Basic Gbcast:
Should the leader fail while some member that is not the leader is attempting to relay a multicast, the sender must determine the status of its pending request. This is accomplished as follows: Notice that members observe the delivery of their own multicasts. Accordingly, if a new view becomes defined in which the old leader has failed, either the multicast has been delivered (in which case the sender knows this because it was one of the receivers), or the delivery of the new view allows it to conclude that the leader failed to relay the pending message, and that it should be resent by asking the new leader to relay it (non-triviality).
Basic Gbcast:
Prepare step The leader proposes some sequence of one or more multicast messages by using the 1-to-all reliable network layer to send the message(s) to the members of the most current view, identifying each by means of an integer sequence number. The sequence numbers reset to 1 as each new view is defined (via a special kind of multicast, as explained below). A leader "talks to itself", participating in the protocol just as do other members. During recovery (discussed below), a new leader might re-propose some previously proposed view or message, as the new leader attempts to complete protocols that the old leader might have started but failed to complete. When this occurs, the new leader will respect the original sequencing and will re-propose the identical view or message.
Basic Gbcast:
Promise step Each recipient retains a copy of the message(s) and responds with a promise to deliver them (such a promise will be fulfilled so long as the recipient itself remains a member of the group view, but if the recipient fails, the promise might not be carried out). During recovery, a recipient might receive a duplicated prepare request for the same message. If some message is re-proposed with the same sequence number, a recipient simply repeats its promise.
Basic Gbcast:
Commit step The leader collects promise messages until, for each member of the group, it either has a promise message or a timeout has occurred causing the leader to suspect the corresponding member as faulty (recall that in this latter case, the leader will shun the suspected member, and because the message-sending subsystem piggybacks this information on the next messages it sends, any process receiving a subsequent message from the leader will also begin to shun these newly suspected members).If the leader receives promises from a quorum of members, as defined with respect to the view in which it is running the protocol, it sends a commit request. If the leader lacks a quorum, and hence suspects more than a majority of group members, it will never again be able to make progress, and the leader therefore terminates (the application program may rejoin the group using a new process name, but further progress by this process in the old view, under the old process name, is impossible).Notice that the leader may also have learned of failures during the prepare phase or the propose phase.In the prepare phase, some view members may have failed to acknowledge the propose request, in which case the leader's channel to those members will have experienced timeouts. The leader will have marked them as failed members.Additionally, it may be the case that by receiving the promise messages in the promise phase, the leader has learned of failed members that were detected by other group members. Thus, at the start of the commit phase, the leader has a quorum of promises together with a possibly empty list of failed view members.The leader therefore sends the "Commit" message to the non-failed members of the view, together with a proposal for a view change event that will remove the failed member(s) from the view, thereby combining a commit step and a propose step into a single actions. Recall that the after any failure detection occurs, the first message to each member in the group will piggyback that failure detection information, and that members shun failed members. Thus members that learn of a failure instantly begin to shun failed members, and the leader takes the further step of starting a view change protocol (which will then take some time to complete).If a proposal changed the view by adding members, the leader sends the new view to the joining members; it becomes their initial view, and they can then participate in any subsequent runs of the protocol.During recovery, a participant might receive a duplicated commit for a previously committed message. If so, it enters the delivery phase but does not redeliver the message or view to the application.
Delivery step:
If a member receives a Commit message, it delivers the associated message(s) or new view(s) to the application, in the order that they were proposed by the leader. The leader learns that this step has succeeded when the acknowledgements used by the reliable 1-to-1 channel are received.
Message flow: Basic Gbcast, simplest case:
(Quorum size = 2, view1={A,B,C}) Member Leader Members Application Layer A A B C A B C | | | | | | | | X-------->| | | | | | | Request that the leader send a multicast M | X--------->|->|->| | | | Propose(1.1: M) (View 1, sequence 1, message M) | |<---------X--X--X | | | Promise(1.1) | X--------->|->|->| | | | Commit(1.1) | |<---------X--X--X------>M->M->M Committed(1.1); Delivers M | | | | | | | |
Error cases in basic Gbcast:
The simplest error cases are those in which one or more members fail, but a quorum remains active. In the example below, the group consists of {A,B,C} with A playing the leader role. C fails during the promise phase and a timeout occurs within the reliable channel from the leader to process C. The leader therefore commits the delivery of M, but simultaneously initiates a protocol to remove C from the group, which commits, creating the new view {A,B}. If C has not actually failed, it can now rejoin the group but with a new incarnation number: in effect, C must rejoin as C'. Any messages from C to A or B will be rejected from the instant that each learns of the apparent failure: C will be shunned by A and B.
Message flow: Basic Gbcast, failure of member other than the Leader:
(Quorum size = 2, view1={A,B,C}) Member Leader Members Application Layer A A B C A B C | | | | | | | | X-------->| | | | | | | Request(M) | X--------->|->|->| | | | Propose(1.1: M) | | | | * | | * !! C FAILS !! | |<---------X--X | | Promise(1.1) | X--------->|->| | | Commit(1.1); Propose(1.2: "remove C") | |<---------X--X--------->M->M Committed(M); Delivers M; Promise(1.2) | X--------->|->|->| | | Commit(1.2); | |<---------X--X--X------>V->V Committed(1.2); Delivers view2={A,B} | | | | | | Notice that the Commit and the new Proposal (and the piggybacked failure notification) are combined into a single message. This ensures that any process that commits an action after a new failure has been sensed simultaneously learns of that failure and will shun the associated process, and that the process will quickly be removed from the view. If C hasn't crashed, it can rejoin by incrementing its incarnation number (so it is now named C') and then requesting that it be added back into the group by the leader. It will be appended to the membership list with its new name, and will have the highest rank (because it is the youngest member) among members of the view.
Message flow: Basic Gbcast, add members {D,E,F}, failure of member other than the Leader:
In the example shown below, a group that initially contains members {A,B,C} is asked to add {D,E,F}, but member C fails during the protocol. Membership change requests are treated as a special kind of multicast and the sequence of events is the same. The example is thus nearly identical to the prior one, but now a series of new view events are delivered to the application.
Message flow: Basic Gbcast, add members {D,E,F}, failure of member other than the Leader:
(Quorum size = 2, view1={A,B,C}) Member Leader Members Application Layer A A B C D E F A B C D E F | | | | | | | | | | | X-------->| | | | | | | | | | Request("add D,E,F") | X--------->|->|->| | | | | | | Propose(1.1: "add D,E,F") | | | | * | | * | | | !! C FAILS !! | |<---------X--X | | | | | Promise(1.1) | X--------->|->| | | | | | Commit(1.1); Propose(2.1: "remove C") | |<---------X--X-----X--X--X------>V->V---->V->V->V Committed(1.1); Deliver view2={A,B,C,D,E,F}; Promise(2.1) | X--------->|->|---->|->|->| | | | | | Commit(2.1) | |<---------X--X-----X--X--X------>V->V---->V->V->V Committed(2.1); Deliver view3={A,B,D,E,F} | | | | | | | | | | | | At the end of the protocol, the new active view is view3={A,B,D,E,F} and the new quorum size is 3. But notice that there was an "intermediate" view, view2={A,B,C,D,E,F} with quorum size of 4. Had the leader not received 4 promises to the proposal phase that removed C, it would not have been able to run the commit phase for view3. This illustrates a basic policy: the quorum required to commit a new view is always based on the size of the prior view.
Takeover protocol, used when the leader fails:
The next failure case is when a leader fails, resulting in a new leader. To take over as the leader, the new leader first runs a takeover protocol, and then the new leader can run basic Gbcast as above. The takeover protocol is as follows: Inquiry Step The new leader sends a 1-to-n message interrogating non-failed members to learn of any messages they have promised to deliver.
Takeover protocol, used when the leader fails:
Promise-List Step Each recipient sends the current list of promised messages to the leader. If a recipient lacks its initial view, it sends a request for an initial view to the leader.The new leader waits until it has either received a promise-list from each of the members it contacted, or has timed out. If a timeout occurs, the new leader suspects the member in question, and will shun it, as will any other members that it contacts. It will eventually propose a view that excludes these shunned members, as explained further below.
Takeover protocol, used when the leader fails:
Repeat If Necessary The new leader examines the promise-list, looking for membership-change messages that add new members. If any are present, it iterates the inquiry phase and promise-list collection phase, sending inquiries to the new members. This in turn could lead to the discovery of additional proposals that add still further members. The process terminates when every member (current or proposed to be added) has responded with a promise-list or been suspected by the new leader.
Takeover protocol, used when the leader fails:
Check for Quorums At the end of the inquiry phase, the leader has received promise-list responses from some of the processes it contacted; any unresponsive members will now be suspected. The new leader constructs a list of proposed views. To advance to the next step of the take-over proposal, the new leader must have received a quorum of responses from each of the committed or proposed views on this list. If it has failed to receive a quorum of responses for any committed or proposed view on the list, the new leader has failed to take over as leader and will never succeed. It terminates the protocol and must rejoin the system as a new member, using a new process incarnation number.
Takeover protocol, used when the leader fails:
Start as New Leader Having successfully checked for quorums, the new leader becomes the leader. It can now run the basic protocol. It re-proposes any promised messages or view-changes, in the order it learned them from the promise-lists, following them with a new view-change command that removes the old leader and any other members that failed to respond during the inquiry phase. If any member responded, during the promise-list phase, that it lacks its initial view, the new leader sends the appropriate initial view to that member.
Takeover protocol, used when the leader fails:
Dueling Leaders It is possible that the promise-lists include two or more distinct proposals for the same slot. This happens (only) if a first leader A became partitioned from the system, but nonetheless made a proposal X that was seen only by a small (non quorum) set of members. A new leader B then took over successfully, but didn't learn of A's proposal (which cannot have become committed). B now proposes Y, again at a small minority of members. Now B is believed to have failed and C takes over. It is possible for C to learn of proposals X and Y, for the same slot. C should ignore the proposal associated with the older leader, A, but retain the proposal associated with the newer leader, B: in this situation, proposal X cannot have achieved a quorum and hence cannot have become committed, whereas proposal Y, made by the more recent leader, could have become committed (otherwise, which is to say if X might have been reached a quorum, B would have learned of and hence repeated proposal X; thus because B didn't learn of X, X must not have received a quorum).Note that C's take-over protocol uses a deterministic ordering among leaders A and B to determine that proposal X is doomed, because leader B must have shunned A in order to become leader. Conversely, C must assume that proposal Y may become committed, even if A suspected that B has failed, because proposal Y intersected with C's take-over step. The rule is implemented: by numbering the leaders sequentially and including the leader-number in the proposal. During the inquire step, a new leader can then use the proposal from the leader with the larger number, if it receives conflicting proposals for the same slot.
Takeover protocol, used when the leader fails:
Failure Suspicions Piggyback on Outgoing Messages Notice that the new leader believes the old leader to have failed, and may also believe that other members have failed. Thus, the inquiry phase, and or the new propose phase, may also carry piggybacked failure messages for one or more members. This is a central requirement for the protocol, because it ensures that those members will subsequently be shunned: if further communication is received from a shunned member, the receiver will reject those messages. It follows that if any member executes the promise-list phase for an old leader L, no further propose or commit messages from L will be processed by that member. From this we can see that the promise-list collected by the new leader will be complete, containing all promised messages that could possibly have achieved a quorum in the current view. It may also contain some additional promised messages that have not yet achieved a quorum.
Message flow: Basic Gbcast, failure of Leader, TakeOver, Basic Gbcast by the new leader:
(Quorum size = 2, view 1={A,B,C}) Member Leader Members Application Layer A B A B C A B C | | | | | | | | X----->| | | | | | | Request(M) | X------------>|->| | | | | Propose(1.1: M) !! Leader fails during send, Propose doesn't reach C !! | *<------------X—-X | | | | Promise(1.1) | | * | | * | | !! A (THE LEADER) HAS FAILED !! | | | | | | !! NEW LEADER: B !! | ?------------>|->| | | Inquire("B is taking over because A has failed") | |<------------X--X | | PromiseLists(1.1: M) | X------------>|->| | | Propose(1.1: M); Propose(1.2: "remove A") | |<------------X--X--------->| | Promise(1.1); Promise(1.2) | X------------>|->|--------->| | Commit(1.1); Commit(1.2); | |<------------X--X-------->M;V->M;V Committed(1.1); Committed(1.2); Delivers(M). Delivers view2={B,C}
Message flow: Basic Gbcast, Add members {D,E,F}, failure of the Leader:
As an example of a more complex case, here the leader fails in the middle of a commit that increases the size of the view (Quorum size = 2, view 1={A,B,C}) Member Leader Members Application Layer A B A B C D E F A B C D E F | | | | | | | | | | | | | | X----->| | | | | | | | | | | | | Request("add D, E, F") | X------------>|->| | | | | | | | | | | Propose(1.1) !! Leader fails during send, Propose doesn't reach C !! | *<------------X—-X | | | | | | | | | | Promise(1.1) | | * | | | | | * | | | | | !! A (THE LEADER) HAS FAILED !! | | | | | | | | | | | | !! NEW LEADER: B !! | ?------------>|->| | | | | | | | | Inquire("B is taking over because A has failed") | |<------------X--X | | | | | | | | PromiseLists(1.1: "add D, E, F"); | ?-------------|--|->|->|->| | | | | | Iterated Inquire("B is taking over because A has failed") | |<------------|--|--X--X--X | | | | | PromiseLists(1.1: "add D, E, F"); | X------------>|->|->|->|->| | | | | | Propose(1.1: "add D, E, F"); Propose(2.1: "remove A") | |<------------X--X--X--X--X | | | | | Promise(1.1); Promise(2.1); | X------------>|->|->|->|->| | | | | | Commit(1.1); Commit(2.1); | |<------------X--X->X->X->X -------->V->V->V->V->V Committed(1.1); Committed(2.1); Delivers view2={A,B,C,D,E,F}. Delivers view3={B,C,D,E,F} In this example we see the inquiry iteration "in action": B learns of the protocol that adds {D,E,F} in a first phase of the inquiry, hence it repeats the inquiry, this time contacting D, E and F. There is no need to repeat the inquiry at C since this would simply return the same information previously obtained.
Message flow: Basic Gbcast, Add members {D,E,F}, failure of the Leader:
In this example, the final commit actually causes two views to be delivered in succession at members B and C. Even though the two proposals were sent concurrently, the commit for view2 requires a promise from a quorum of view1, whereas the commit for view3 requires a quorum response from the members of view2. Although the sending of initial views isn't explicitly shown in the diagram, the joining members don't participate in the 1.1 protocol because they don't join the group until view2. Notice that at members B and C a pipelining effect arises: events associated with view2 are already being proposed even as events in view1 are still being committed.
Correctness:
To show that Gbcast satisfies non-triviality we start by tracing backwards from an arbitrary delivery action to the point at which a client requested the corresponding event; clearly, only messages that were legitimately sent will be delivered. However, nontriviality for this protocol goes further: we must also show that messages from a given member are delivered only while that member is still a live participant in some view. Accordingly, we look at the case in which the leader initiates some multicast but then fails before it is delivered. Here, the new leader either discovers the pending proposal, and will order it before the view-change event, or the new leader fails to discover the pending proposal, in which case all members of the new view will shun any late-arriving incoming message from the old leader. Thus either a multicast message is delivered while the view in which it was sent is still pending, or it will not be delivered at all.
Correctness:
To establish consistency we begin by analysis of the case in which there is just a single leader that never fails or loses connectivity with a quorum. Since the leader sequences the events and includes each member starting with the first view that contains that member, all members deliver the identical messages starting from the view in which they were added to the system.
Correctness:
When a new leader takes over, the inquiry is required to reach a quorum of members for the most recent committed view. This quorum necessarily will include at least one process that received any proposal that the old leader could have committed. Thus the new leader will learn of any potentially committed proposal and include it as a preflix to its own new proposals. It follows that if any process delivers any event, then if the system makes progress, every surviving member will eventually deliver that same event and in the same order.
Correctness:
We can show that a joining member will receive its initial view by analysis of the two relevant cases. If the leader doesn't fail, it sends the initial view on an eventually reliable channel. If the leader does fail and some member lacks its initial view, the new leader sends that view after receipt of the "promise-list" response to its inquiry-phase message.
Correctness:
A logical partitioning of the group is impossible because of the shunning rule. In order to commit any new view, the old leader must obtain promises from a quorum of the current view. A new leader, taking over, will learn of any view that could have become committed. To commit its own proposed next view, it will thus be required to interact with a quorum of that intermediary view, if any. In a scenario that could lead to partitioning, the leader, A, might have timed out on B and gone on to create a sequence of new views and events that excluded B. But in this case a majority of the old or of the intermediary view members will have learned that A believes B to have failed, and will shun B when it inquires. In either case, B is prevented from obtaining a quorum and hence cannot make progress. A symmetric argument shows that if B succeeds in defining a new view that excludes A, A would be unable to obtain a quorum for any other new view that it might attempt to propose.
Liveness:
The Gbcast protocol will make progress provided that at all times in the execution, if view v holds at time t, then less than a quorum of members of v fail (or are suspected as failing) within some subset of the members of the view. To maximize progress, it is important that excluded but still live members rejoin the group, so that erroneous failure detections don't cause the view to shrink in a persistent manner. However, the protocol will not recover and make progress if at any time, every process suspects more than a quorum of members of the current view of having failed.
Liveness:
This property is similar to but "stronger" than <>W, the "weakest failure detector" for achieving consensus, as defined by Chandra and Toueg. To see this, consider a run in which a mutually suspecting quorum arises "too quickly" for processes that have been wrongly excluded from the view to rejoin it. Gbcast will not make progress and, indeed, the group will need to shut down and restart.
Liveness:
Arguably, such runs would be unlikely in the kinds of data centers where Gbcast is typically used, but clearly they can be constructed in an adversarial manner.
Discussion: Failure sensing:
The Gbcast protocol presumes that the probability of incorrect failure suspicions will be low; the scheme breaks down if failure suspicions occur frequently and operational processes are often suspected as faulty. By analogy, consider the TCP protocol, in which the failure to receive an acknowledgement will eventually cause a connection to break. TCP is used nearly universally, a tremendous disruption to the Web would result if TCP connections frequently were to break when neither endpoint has failed. Thus timeouts are set conservatively. A similar assumption is required for systems that use Gbcast.
Discussion: Failure sensing:
In contrast, there are other failure detection schemes, such as the one explored by Chandra and Toueg, that can yield high rates of incorrect failure suspicions. Some protocols, including Paxos, are able to tolerate incorrect failure suspicions without any costly consequence. Whether one approach is inherently better than the other is beyond the scope of this discussion. We simply underscore that the approaches differ, and that Gbcast would be ineffective if timeouts are set overly aggressively.
Discussion: Failure sensing:
One extreme scenario is worthy of further mention: network partitioning events. Modern data centers and networks often experience events in which a single machine and all the processes on it becomes transiently partitioned from a larger pool of machines that remain connected to one another. Such cases are treated as failures in Gbcast, but if the surviving, connected members include a sufficiently large number of processes, the majority portion of the system will simply reconfigure itself to exclude the disconnected member. It can reconnect and rejoin the group later when the partition heals.
Discussion: Failure sensing:
A more extreme kind of partitioning is sometimes seen in data centers: in this situation, a network switch might fail, causing a collection of machines (perhaps, a whole rack or even an entire container) to become disconnected from the Internet and from the remainder of the data center. In such cases one could imagine a group in which all members begin to suspect all other members; Gbcast will not progress in this case and the management infrastructure would need to relaunch the entire application. On the other hand, in most large data centers, the operating systems of the machines experiencing such a failure would also shut down, restarting only when connectivity is restored. Thus in practice, the restart of the system is unavoidable. This said, there are protocols, such as Paxos, that could ride out such an outage if the machines themselves were to remain operational and later regained adequate connectivity.
Discussion: Failure sensing:
The Transis system explored extensions to the Gbcast protocol that permit multiple partitions to form, to make independent progress, and then to remerge. This topic, however, is beyond the scope of the present discussion.
Discussion: Dueling leaders:
In the Paxos protocol, a situation can arise in which two or more leaders "duel" by proposing different commands for the same slot. This can also occur in Gbcast.
In the normal sequence of events, one leader takes over because the prior leader has failed, learns of any proposals the prior leader made during the inquiry phase, and then repeats those same proposals, extended with new ones. Thus no duel over the content of slots arises because the same proposals are repeated in the same slots.
Discussion: Dueling leaders:
The closest situation to a duel is seen if the old leader has become partitioned from the majority and the new leader, taking over, is unable to contact some set of members (but does obtain the required quorum during the INQUIRE phase). Here the new leader may be unaware of some proposals that the old leader made, or might still issue, if those reach only the members the new leader didn't contact.
Discussion: Dueling leaders:
The shunning mechanism resolves such duels. When the new leader obtained a quorum during the INQUIRE phase, it also blocked the old leader from ever again achieving a quorum for any new PROPOSE it might initiate: a majority of members are now shunning the old leader. Thus if any proposal is missed by the new leader it necessarily is a proposal that didn't reach a quorum of members, and won't reach a quorum in the future. Moreover, members aware of such a proposal will be shunned by the new leader, since (when it gave up waiting for them to respond to its INQUIRE) it considers them to have failed. Any member learning of new proposals from the new leader will shun them as well.
Discussion: Dueling leaders:
Shunning of leaders in Gbcast occurs in the pre-determined order of leader ranks: a higher-ranking leader only shuns a lower-ranking leader when it tries to take-over its place. The Paxos ballots mechanism serves precisely the same purpose, but differs in allowing participants to attempt to take-over repeatedly, eaach time assuming a new ballot ("rank"). The result is that, one the one hand, Paxos leader demotion is reversible, and on the other, dueling leaders could theoretically continue forever.
Bi-simulation equivalence to Paxos:
Although superficially quite different, upon close study Gbcast is seen to be surprisingly similar to Paxos. Indeed, Paxos can be "transformed" into Gbcast with the following (reversible) sequence of steps. For brevity we describe these steps informally and omit a detailed proof.
Bi-simulation equivalence to Paxos:
Note that this transformation does not address durability. Gbcast treats durable state as a property of the application, not the protocol, whereas Paxos logs events to a set of durable command logs, and hence can still recover its state even after the whole service is shut down and restarted. The equivalent behavior with Gbcast involves having the application log all received messages, but that case will not be considered here.
Bi-simulation equivalence to Paxos:
Start with the basic Paxos protocol. Add a process incarnation number to distinguish a rejoining process from one that has been continuously a member of the view. Impose an age-based ordering on the members of the group, designate the oldest member (breaking ties lexicographic) as the leader. Non-leaders issue requests through the leader.
Both protocols permit batching of requests: Basic Paxos has a concurrency parameter, alpha: a leader can concurrently run a maximum of alpha instances of the protocol. Gbcast permits the leader to propose multiple events in a single protocol instance, which could be message deliveries or view events.
Paxos does not normally require reliable, ordered communication. Modify the protocol to run over the reliable one-to-one channel abstraction (a one-to-many message would be sent by Paxos over a set of one-to-one channels). We can now assume that any message sent will either be received and delivered in order, or that a timeout will occur at the sender side.
The Paxos slot number will become the Gbcast sequence number. The Paxos ballot number is, in effect, transformed into the proposing leader-number used to discriminate between conflicting proposals during the inquire step.
Bi-simulation equivalence to Paxos:
Define a category of view-modifying commands that operate by adding or removing processes from the group membership. Introduce a failure detection mechanism as used in Gbcast, asking the leader to remove any timed-out members. A member removed from the group that reestablishes connectivity to the group should rejoin with a new incarnation number. Report views by upcalls to the application.
Bi-simulation equivalence to Paxos:
Basic Paxos can propose a multicast to just a quorum of group members, hence a typical member may have gaps in its command list. This is why, in Paxos, a learner must read a quorum of members and merge their command lists. In our modified protocol, any multicast is proposed to all non-failed members, while failed members are dropped from the view. Thus unlike Paxos, our modified protocol has the property that any single live member has the full committed event list. In effect, the protocol has a write quorum equal to the current membership view size, and a read quorum of 1. This can be convenient when building applications that maintain the actual state of a database or object and for which it is inconvenient to represent state as a series of updates in command lists that must be merged to learn the actual sequence of events.The same quorum mechanisms that define Paxos, including the inquiry used when a new Paxos leader takes over, are now seen to correspond precisely to the steps of Gbcast. The ballot mechanism, generally viewed as the hallmark of Paxos protocols, reduces to a counter that tracks the order of succession of leaders. This simplification is fundamentally due to the guarantee that once a leader is suspected, it will be removed from the view and would need to rejoin before participating in the protocol.
Bi-simulation equivalence to Paxos:
It follows that Gbcast and Paxos can be transformed, each to the other, without changing assumptions and with the identical correctness properties. Obviously, the protocols don't look very similar, but they have a deep connection. Indeed, one can make a stronger claim: any sequence of delivery events exhibited by Gbcast can also arise in some run of Paxos, and vice versa: any sequence of learned events from Paxos can also arise in some run of Gbcast.
Bi-simulation equivalence to Paxos:
The type of proof outlined above is formally called a bi-simulation: one shows that any (input-sequence, output-behavior) pair that one protocol can exhibit is also possible with the other protocol. Notice that in carrying out a bisimulation, features that one protocol supports but the other lacks can be ignored if they are not considered to be part of the "behavior" being studied. For example, the Gbcast reporting of new views (events that Paxos lacks) are not treated as output events here.
Summary of differences between Paxos and Gbcast:
Gbcast has no durable state: the protocol does not maintain a log of events on disk, and durability is treated as an application-specific property. In contrast, Paxos guarantees durability: after recovering from a complete shutdown of the system, a Paxos application will still be able to learn the full log of received messages.
Summary of differences between Paxos and Gbcast:
In the propose phase, Gbcast must wait for responses from all participants (or for the maximal timeout and then suspect the remaining ones), instead of making progress with the fastest quorum. In Gbcast, the cost of a failure suspicion is high and the protocol may cease to make progress if too many failures are suspected, forcing a management layer to restart the entire application group. Thus, in practice, Gbcast requires conservative timeout settings relative to Paxos.
Summary of differences between Paxos and Gbcast:
With Gbcast, if an error does occur (e.g. an operational process is suspected and shunned), that process must drop out (it can rejoin under a different name). With Paxos, if f>0, should a process be unable to participate in a protocol instance, it can continue to participate in subsequent protocol instances without error.
Operational members of a view will never have gaps in their command lists with Gbcast (every member has a complete state). Operational members can have gaps in their command lists when using Paxos (learners merge a quorum of lists in Paxos to "fill" these gaps).
Summary of differences between Paxos and Gbcast:
With Paxos, to propose multiple commands we use alpha>1, but in this case commands can be committed in a different order from the order in which they were initiated (one case in which this problematic scenario is seen involves dueling leaders; leader A proposes commands a1 and a2, and leader B proposes commands b1 and b2; both then fail and leader C, taking over, ends up committing b2, and then a1: an outcome that might not be desired by the applications that initiated the requests ). With Gbcast, the leader can initiate multiple commands by issuing a single propose that describes a series of actions. The group will be committed all at once, hence the order of initiation will be respected.
Summary of differences between Paxos and Gbcast:
With Gbcast, a command is delivered in the view in which it was initiated. Reconfigurable Paxos can commit a command in a slot associated with a membership view prior to the active membership view at the time when the commit occurs. Thus, in Paxos, if an application is in some way view sensitive, commands must carry a view identifier, so that recipients can determine whether or not the command is still executable.
Summary of differences between Paxos and Gbcast:
Gbcast does not require that the protocol be halted when changing configurations: the rate of new proposals can be constant even across membership changes. For many implementations of reconfigurable Paxos, this would not be the case.
Summary of differences between Paxos and Gbcast:
With both Gbcast and Paxos, reconfiguration is only possible if a quorum of the prior view is accessible and can acknowledge the new view. However, in Paxos, the requirement also extends to learning the outcomes of commands proposed for slots associated with the old view. In practice, this can cause the Paxos reconfiguration computation to extend over a longer period than for Gbcast, in which any state is stored within the application, not a long-lived command list: Paxos cannot discard the state associated with an old view until the new view is active and any replicas have learned the old state.
Summary of differences between Paxos and Gbcast:
Gbcast does not require a garbage collection protocol because, as each message or view is committed and reported to the application it can be discarded. Paxos maintains state using a quorum scheme in the command logs at its acceptors, and requires a garbage collection protocol to free these command slots once the outcome is committed and all learners (replicas) have learned the outcome.
Liveness comparison:
Both Paxos and Gbcast are subject to the FLP impossibility result. Thus neither protocol can be guaranteed live under all possible conditions. At best we can talk about the conditions under which liveness is guaranteed, expressed as predicates on the failure detection mechanism: if the condition for liveness holds, then the protocol will be live. The liveness conditions of Basic Paxos and Gbcast are similar but not identical.
Liveness comparison:
In Gbcast, progress will never resume if a circle of mutual suspicions arises, as noted above: once a quorum of mutually shunning processes arises, the shunning mechanism makes it impossible for any leader to obtain a quorum of promises.
Liveness comparison:
With an (unmodified) Paxos protocol, this problem will not arise: once the excessive level of mutual suspicions ends, progress resumes. Thus Paxos makes progress with any failure-detection mechanism satisfying the <>W condition, even if periods arise during which more than a quorum of mutual suspicions occur. For example, if we start with a group containing {A.B,C} and cause an extended network partition, Paxos would resume when the network partition resolves but Gbcast will shut down permanently and some form of management infrastructure may need to restart the system. If it is necessary to preserve group state across the failure, such an infrastructure would identify the last member to fail and restart the group using some form of checkpoint stored by that last member.
Liveness comparison:
In Paxos deployments, it is common to require human operator intervention to reconfigure Paxos. In such settings, Gbcast may be able to make progress during period when Paxos cannot. Suppose that a group has membership that slowly drops to less than a quorum of the original group size. Gbcast can continue to operate with even a single member. Paxos would cease to make progress during periods when less than a quorum of its view are active.
Need for state transfer:
Systems such as Isis that implement Gbcast typically provide a state transfer mechanism: at the instant the new view showing some joining member is delivered, some existing member makes a checkpoint of its copy of the group state. This is then copied to the new member, which loads the checkpoint as the initial group state as of the instant it joined. (Various out-of-band copying schemes can be used to pre-load some state prior to the join for cases where the state is too large to transfer at the last moment this way). State transfer is needed because in Gbcast, once a member is dropped from a group, it will no longer receive updates. Gbcast is typically used by applications that maintain their state in memory and apply updates one by one as received, hence once a gap arises, a replica is no longer useful.
Need for state transfer:
Notice that this is in contrast to Paxos. In that protocol, gaps can arise as a consequence of the basic quorum update scheme, which doesn't guarantee that every member will see every update and can run over unreliable message passing layers that might never deliver some messages. The Paxos learner algorithm reads multiple histories and combines them to fill such gaps. Thus Paxos will normally ride out transient failures, continuing to operate without actually dropping the failed member from the group. The failed member misses updates, yet state transfer is not needed unless a group is being reconfigured.
Which dynamically reconfigurable state machine replication protocol came first?:
The Gbcast protocol was published early in a period when several state machine protocols capable of managing their own membership were introduced: Gbcast, View-Stamped Replication (Oki and Liskov ), Basic Paxos (Lamport ), the partial synchrony protocol of Dwork, Lynch and Stockmeyer, etc. Among these, Gbcast was the first to be published, in papers that appeared in 1985 and 1987; the others were published starting in 1988. One could thus argue that Gbcast was really the first Paxos protocol. Such a statement, however, treats "Paxos" as a fairly broad term covering a family of protocols that all implement state machine replication, all support dynamic reconfiguration of their membership, and have identical correctness properties but vary in their liveness conditions. Under this definition, Gbcast is a Paxos protocol.
Which dynamically reconfigurable state machine replication protocol came first?:
If equivalence is formalized using bisimulation, in which any run that one protocol can exhibit is also exhibited by the other, and in which the assumptions made and the conditions for progress are identical, the comparison becomes more complex. Under this definition, Gbcast is not a Paxos protocol: although each can exhibit the same runs as the other (viewed purely in terms of requests from the application and notifications to the application), they have similar, but not identical, liveness conditions. However, this sort of stringent definition poses a different problem: if one adopts it, some versions of Paxos are not Paxos protocols. For example, "Cheap Paxos" and "Vertical Paxos" are not bisimulation-equivalent to Basic Paxos.Thus the question has no answer unless one makes it more specific, and has a different answer depending upon the definition of equivalence one uses.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**S-Ethylisothiouronium diethylphosphate**
S-Ethylisothiouronium diethylphosphate:
S-Ethylisothiouronium diethylphosphate (brand name Difetur) is an S-alkylisothiouronium derivative used as an antihypotensive drug. The S-alkylisothiouronium compounds are used in processes of treating acute hypotension, which may result, for example, from shock or hemorrhage, and in processes for treating hyperoxic conditions, for example, oxygen poisoning.
Indications:
It is used for increasing arterial blood pressure in cases of acute arterial hypotension due to surgical interference, trauma, poisoning, shock condition, hemorrhages; in conjunction with epidural anesthesia; in overdose of ganglion blockers, alpha-adrenergic blockers, neuroleptics, anesthetics; and in other conditions when adrenomimetics are contra-indicated or ineffective. Difetur was also found to possess oxygen protective activity and, thus, can be used as a medicament for protecting against oxygen poisoning conditions caused by hyperoxia.S-Ethylisothiouronium diethylphosphate is also used for the treatment of headaches, in particular, migraines, as well as for the prevention or treatment of nausea and vomiting, effective in preventing or alleviating emesis associated with migraines or other medical conditions such as chemotherapy or radiotherapy, as well as other symptoms of migraines including phonophobia and photophobia.
Mechanism of action:
S-Ethylisothiouronium diethylphosphate is a specific inhibitor of inducible NO synthase on hepatic NO production level. S-Ethylisothiouronium diethylphosphate affects systemic hemodynamic indices in the following way: the peripheral vascular resistance increases, the stroke volume and central blood volume increase, and the work of the left ventricle improves. Other effects are: analgesic, uterotonic, decongestive and anti-inflammatory.In difetur’s antihypotensive effect unlike sympathomimetics there is no stimulation of the sympathetic system, thus does not cause tachycardia, nor alter the acid-base balance and electrolyte and does not cause hypotension secondary. These drugs have also sedative action, reduce body temperature and oxygen consumption.
Forms:
Injectable solution 10%-1 ml in ampules N 10.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Maximal compact subgroup**
Maximal compact subgroup:
In mathematics, a maximal compact subgroup K of a topological group G is a subgroup K that is a compact space, in the subspace topology, and maximal amongst such subgroups.
Maximal compact subgroups play an important role in the classification of Lie groups and especially semi-simple Lie groups. Maximal compact subgroups of Lie groups are not in general unique, but are unique up to conjugation – they are essentially unique.
Example:
An example would be the subgroup O(2), the orthogonal group, inside the general linear group GL(2, R). A related example is the circle group SO(2) inside SL(2, R). Evidently SO(2) inside GL(2, R) is compact and not maximal. The non-uniqueness of these examples can be seen as any inner product has an associated orthogonal group, and the essential uniqueness corresponds to the essential uniqueness of the inner product.
Definition:
A maximal compact subgroup is a maximal subgroup amongst compact subgroups – a maximal (compact subgroup) – rather than being (alternate possible reading) a maximal subgroup that happens to be compact; which would probably be called a compact (maximal subgroup), but in any case is not the intended meaning (and in fact maximal proper subgroups are not in general compact).
Existence and uniqueness:
The Cartan-Iwasawa-Malcev theorem asserts that every connected Lie group (and indeed every connected locally compact group) admits maximal compact subgroups and that they are all conjugate to one another. For a semisimple Lie group uniqueness is a consequence of the Cartan fixed point theorem, which asserts that if a compact group acts by isometries on a complete simply connected negatively curved Riemannian manifold then it has a fixed point.
Existence and uniqueness:
Maximal compact subgroups of connected Lie groups are usually not unique, but they are unique up to conjugation, meaning that given two maximal compact subgroups K and L, there is an element g ∈ G such that gKg−1 = L. Hence a maximal compact subgroup is essentially unique, and people often speak of "the" maximal compact subgroup.
For the example of the general linear group GL(n, R), this corresponds to the fact that any inner product on Rn defines a (compact) orthogonal group (its isometry group) – and that it admits an orthonormal basis: the change of basis defines the conjugating element conjugating the isometry group to the classical orthogonal group O(n, R).
Proofs For a real semisimple Lie group, Cartan's proof of the existence and uniqueness of a maximal compact subgroup can be found in Borel (1950) and Helgason (1978). Cartier (1955) and Hochschild (1965) discuss the extension to connected Lie groups and connected locally compact groups.
Existence and uniqueness:
For semisimple groups, existence is a consequence of the existence of a compact real form of the noncompact semisimple Lie group and the corresponding Cartan decomposition. The proof of uniqueness relies on the fact that the corresponding Riemannian symmetric space G/K has negative curvature and Cartan's fixed point theorem. Mostow (1955) showed that the derivative of the exponential map at any point of G/K satisfies |d exp X| ≥ |X|. This implies that G/K is a Hadamard space, i.e. a complete metric space satisfying a weakened form of the parallelogram rule in a Euclidean space. Uniqueness can then be deduced from the Bruhat-Tits fixed point theorem. Indeed, any bounded closed set in a Hadamard space is contained in a unique smallest closed ball, the center of which is called its circumcenter. In particular a compact group acting by isometries must fix the circumcenter of each of its orbits.
Existence and uniqueness:
Proof of uniqueness for semisimple groups Mostow (1955) also related the general problem for semisimple groups to the case of GL(n, R). The corresponding symmetric space is the space of positive symmetric matrices. A direct proof of uniqueness relying on elementary properties of this space is given in Hilgert & Neeb (2012).
Let g be a real semisimple Lie algebra with Cartan involution σ. Thus the fixed point subgroup of σ is the maximal compact subgroup K and there is an eigenspace decomposition g=k⊕p, where k , the Lie algebra of K, is the +1 eigenspace. The Cartan decomposition gives exp p=K⋅P=P⋅K.
If B is the Killing form on g given by B(X,Y) = Tr (ad X)(ad Y), then (X,Y)σ=−B(X,σ(Y)) is a real inner product on g . Under the adjoint representation, K is the subgroup of G that preserves this inner product.
Existence and uniqueness:
If H is another compact subgroup of G, then averaging the inner product over H with respect to the Haar measure gives an inner product invariant under H. The operators Ad p with p in P are positive symmetric operators. This new inner produst can be written as (S⋅X,Y)σ, where S is a positive symmetric operator on g such that Ad(h)tS Ad h = S for h in H (with the transposes computed with respect to the inner product). Moreover, for x in G, Adσ(x)=(Ad(x)−1)t.
Existence and uniqueness:
So for h in H, S∘Ad(σ(h))=Ad(h)∘S.
For X in p define f(eX)=TrAd(eX)S.
Existence and uniqueness:
If ei is an orthonormal basis of eigenvectors for S with Sei = λi ei, then min λi)⋅TreadX, so that f is strictly positive and tends to ∞ as |X| tends to ∞. In fact this norm is equivalent to the operator norm on the symmetric operators ad X and each non-zero eigenvalue occurs with its negative, since i ad X is a skew-adjoint operator on the compact real form k⊕ip So f has a global minimum at Y say. This minimum is unique, because if Z were another then eZ=eY/2eXeY/2, where X in p is defined by the Cartan decomposition eZ/2e−Y/2=k⋅eX/2.
Existence and uniqueness:
If fi is an orthonormal basis of eigenvectors of ad X with corresponding real eigenvalues μi, then g(t)=f(eY/2etXeY/2)=∑eμit‖Ad(eY/2)fi‖σ2.
Existence and uniqueness:
Since the right hand side is a positive combination of exponentials, the real-valued function g is strictly convex if X ≠ 0, so has a unique minimum. On the other hand, it has local minima at t = 0 and t = 1, hence X = 0 and p = exp Y is the unique global minimum. By construction f(x) = f(σ(h)xh−1) for h in H, so that p = σ(h)ph−1 for h in H. Hence σ(h)= php−1. Consequently, if g = exp Y/2, gHg−1 is fixed by σ and therefore lies in K.
Applications:
Representation theory Maximal compact subgroups play a basic role in the representation theory when G is not compact. In that case a maximal compact subgroup K is a compact Lie group (since a closed subgroup of a Lie group is a Lie group), for which the theory is easier.
The operations relating the representation theories of G and K are restricting representations from G to K, and inducing representations from K to G, and these are quite well understood; their theory includes that of spherical functions.
Applications:
Topology The algebraic topology of the Lie groups is also largely carried by a maximal compact subgroup K. To be precise, a connected Lie group is a topological product (though not a group theoretic product) of a maximal compact K and a Euclidean space – G = K × Rd – thus in particular K is a deformation retract of G, and is homotopy equivalent, and thus they have the same homotopy groups. Indeed, the inclusion K↪G and the deformation retraction G↠K are homotopy equivalences.
Applications:
For the general linear group, this decomposition is the QR decomposition, and the deformation retraction is the Gram-Schmidt process. For a general semisimple Lie group, the decomposition is the Iwasawa decomposition of G as G = KAN in which K occurs in a product with a contractible subgroup AN.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**RDH11**
RDH11:
Retinol dehydrogenase 11 is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the RDH11 gene.RHD11, a member of the short-chain dehydrogenase/reductase (SDR) superfamily of oxidoreductases, is expressed at high levels in prostate epithelium, and its expression is regulated by androgens.[supplied by OMIM]
Clinical significance:
Mutations in RDH11 are associated to retinitis pigmentosa.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (coenzyme-F420)**
Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (coenzyme-F420):
Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (coenzyme-F420) (EC 1.1.98.2, coenzyme F420-dependent glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase, F420-dependent glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase, FGD1, Rv0407, F420-dependent glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase 1) is an enzyme with systematic name D-glucose-6-phosphate:F420 1-oxidoreductase. This enzyme catalyses the following chemical reaction D-glucose 6-phosphate + oxidized coenzyme F420 ⇌ 6-phospho-D-glucono-1,5-lactone + reduced coenzyme F420Thus enzyme is specific for D-glucose 6-phosphate.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Dismasting**
Dismasting:
Dismasting, also spelled demasting, occurs to a sailing ship when one or more of the masts responsible for hoisting the sails that propel the vessel breaks. Dismasting usually occurs as the result of high winds during a storm acting upon masts, sails, rigging, and spars. Over compression of the mast owing to tightening the rigger too much and g-forces as a consequence of wave action and the boat swinging back and forth can also result in a dismasting. Dismasting does not necessarily impair the vessel's ability to stay afloat, but rather its ability to move under sail power. Frequently, the hull of the vessel remains intact, upright and seaworthy.
Dismasting:
Modern masts are usually made of aluminum, carbon fibre, or other high-strength materials. These masts are subject to huge forces and tensions during high wind, large seas, or racing situations, and it is not uncommon even today for modern masts to be lost.
Dismasting:
The dismasting of a vessel can be immediately life-threatening as a consequence of a mast falling atop crew or passengers. For example, two deaths and several injuries occurred in Hawaii owing to two different dismastings. These incidents resulted in more stringent enforcement of safety standards for commercially operating sailboats. A dismasting can also endanger lives after the mast has fallen. The reason is the broken tangle of mast, rigging, and sails usually remains attached to the vessel owing to the rigging. If waves bash a large broken mast section against a relatively thin modern hull, the entire vessel can be lost. Therefore, it is frequently imperative for crew members to go out of the relative safety of the interior and into the same stormy conditions that caused the dismasting. There they must cut away the mess without becoming entangled in the lines, and without getting blown or knocked off the deck into the sea. To assist in this effort, many sailboats will carry a large pair of bolt cutters, extra hack-saws, or hydraulic cutters for just such an emergency. Crew also have to go onto deck to confirm there are no ropes or lines being dragged in the water that could wrap around a propeller before starting any internal combustion engine as a secondary means of propulsion.
Dismasting:
Dismastings are rarely life-threatening after the initial event and the broken mast is cut away. However, dismastings appear to have contributed to the loss of life at sea as a consequence of crews abandoning an otherwise perfectly seaworthy vessel in favor of a life raft. This has led to a sailing adage to always “Step up into the life raft.” In other words, to never abandon the sailboat unless it is confirmed that it is really sinking.
Dismasting:
After a dismasting, the crew might jury rig, or fashion, a makeshift mast(s) and sails from salvaged and spare materials carried aboard. This would allow limited propulsion and navigational control. If the ship managed to make landfall near forests with suitable wood, new masts could be constructed from the locally available material. The masts of a sailing ship should be regularly inspected and replaced if necessary due to storm damage and normal wear. Most ocean-going ships would carry a large supply of rope, sailcloth, and even spars for ordinary and extraordinary repairs. It is often possible to use part of the broken mast to create a jury rig. Spinnaker poles and mizzen booms may even be used. A man-of-war would expect to carry out additional repairs due to battle damage.
Factors contributing to dismastings:
Dismastings occur for many reasons. They tend to occur more prevalently for certain types of sailors, in particular areas, and particular types of sailing vessel. Having too much sail out for the weather conditions is perhaps the number one cause of dismastings. Novice and racing sailors in particular are more likely be flying more sail cloth area than more experienced, and non-racing sailors. Areas where sudden weather changes and wind shifts are frequent are more risky than areas where winds tend to be more consistent. For this reason sailing vessels in areas with consistently high winds may suffer fewer dismastings than vessels where winds are normally light but can suddenly change to very intense when a squall occurs.
Factors contributing to dismastings:
Dismastings owing to rigging failures tend to occur either very soon after a vessel is launched or soon after the rigging has been modified from the original design. This is particularly true for custom designed vessels. Production vessels on the other hand benefit from all the experience of similar vessels that have the same mast and rigging. One particular problem identified has been changes in rigging cables from a smaller to a larger size. Larger diameter cables produce far more compression forces on the mast when they appear to be taunt. This in turn causes the mast to collapse in column owing to over compression. Older rigging is also the source of problems since the older the rigging is the more likely corrosion has damaged the integrity of metals. Stainless steel rigging in particular has been cited as being problematic since out strands of a wire rope might appear to be fine while at the same time inner strands are compromised. For this reason many insurance companies insist that rigging holding the mast upright, termed the standing rigging, must be replaced every 10 years.Heeling characteristics of the sailing vessel are also a contributing factor. Some vessels are more apt to lean away from the wind and "spill" a sudden wind gust harmlessly. The more likely a vessel tends to heel, the more a sudden strong wind gust is said to spill out of the sails because the vessel leans out of the way. A vessel that heels easily is termed as being tender whereas a vessel with a larger counter weight down low in the water, called the ballast, is termed as being stiffer. Racing vessels tend to be stiffer and spill the wind less and hence are at a greater risk of dismastings. However, it is also not good if a vessel is too tender. A very tender vessel can be easily rolled by a wave and flip completely upside down. Dismastings have occurred after a sailboat has been rolled. The extreme resistance of the water causes the failure to occur.
Factors contributing to dismastings:
Multi-hull sailboats, namely catamarans and trimarans, are particularly prone to dismastings. These types of vessels don't readily spill a sudden wind gust for a different reason. It is their wide beam that causes their sails to remain closer to vertical in the face of strong wind. The wider the vessel's beam the more likely the extreme loads. Therefore, since trimarans tend to be wider than catamarans they also tend to be more prone to dismastings owing to extreme loads. It is not as if designers fail to recognize these facts. A multi-hull vessel will typically have a much stronger mast and stronger rigging than a mono-hull of the same size.
Factors contributing to dismastings:
G-force loads is one of the less common reasons for a dismasting, however, it is still a real risk for both types of sailing vessels. Very stiff mono-hulls with a strong righting force tend to return to a near upright position much faster after being heeled by a strong gust of wind. This causes the motion to much more jerky. The mast will come to a sudden stop when the vessel returns to near upright when the wind fills the sails again. The problem is the mass of the mast still has momentum. Multi-hulls don't suffer g-forces caused by the wind to the same degree. Instead they are far more susceptible to g-force load owing to wave action. Waves coming abeam, i.e. striking the vessel sideways pick up and drop each hull of the vessels. If the amplitude of the wave and frequency of the waves corresponds to a factor similar to the distance between the hulls even relatively short waves can cause a dismasting. Trimarans in particular are prone to this type of dismasting since this type of vessel can rock back and forth between being supported on the center hull and one of the two ama at one second, and the center hull and the other ama the next. This violent rocking in turn translates to extreme g-force shocks on the rigging caused by the weight of the mast swinging back and force. Hence a trimaran can be dismasted even if no sails are up at all and waves are not extreme.
Factors contributing to dismastings:
A particular travel direction of a sailing vessel is also more likely to lead to a dismasting. When a sailing vessel is traveling downwind, there is a chance the vessel may jibe. An accidental jibe in particular occurs when a sailing vessel is traveling downwind and the boom of the main sail suddenly swings from being on one side of the vessel to the other. The boom will come to a sudden halt when the rope controlling the boom's position becomes taunt again. At roughly the same moment the wind will fill the mainsail and a shock load will transfer into the mast and rigging and a dismasting might occur. To help prevent accidental jibes, sailors will frequently tie a line to the end of the boom to secure the boom to one side of the vessel. This line is typically called the jibe preventer.
Dismastings in literature and films:
In Herman Melville's seminal novel, "Moby Dick," Captain Ahab is said to have been, "...dismasted off Japan," alluding to Ahab's leg having been taken off by the white whale and replaced with a polished whale-bone peg-leg. "but like his dismasted craft, he shipped another mast without coming home for it. He has a quiver of 'em."
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**RealPC**
RealPC:
RealPC was a Macintosh program that emulates an x86 PC, allowing the use of MS-DOS, Windows NT, Windows 95, and Windows 98. RealPC was compatible with PowerPC Macs running system software 7.1.2 through 9.2. Requirements were: Any Power Macintosh or Mac OS compatible, System 7.1.2 or later, Minimum 16 Mbytes of Ram, hard drive space for 50 Mbytes (MS-DOS), 60 Mbytes (Windows 3.x), 130 Mbytes (Windows 95), and any Macintosh compatible CD-ROM drive. RealPC emulated a Pentium-based PC with MMX technology, supported Sound Blaster and MMX, and allowed you to use a Macintosh joystick, allowing you to run PC programs, including MS-DOS, and Windows, games and applications, alongside your existing Macintosh applications. RealPC was provided with MS-DOS 6.22 already installed, so you could immediately run MS-DOS games and applications on your Macintosh. Linux was not supported and due to shared RAM between Mac OS and RealPC Windows 98 was the reasonable limit. RealPC was able to convert Virtual-PC hard disk files to use and run the installed OS.
RealPC:
Its box and CD featured the image of silent film star Harold Lloyd.
RealPC was discontinued in 2003.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Isovalent hybridization**
Isovalent hybridization:
In chemistry, isovalent or second order hybridization is an extension of orbital hybridization, the mixing of atomic orbitals into hybrid orbitals which can form chemical bonds, to include fractional numbers of atomic orbitals of each type (s, p, d). It allows for a quantitative depiction of bond formation when the molecular geometry deviates from ideal bond angles.
Isovalent hybridization:
Only bonding with 4 equivalent substituents results in exactly sp3 hybridization. For molecules with different substituents, we can use isovalent hybridization to rationalize the differences in bond angles between different atoms. In the molecule methyl fluoride for example, the HCF bond angle (108.73°) is less than the HCH bond angle (110.2°). This difference can be attributed to more p character in the C−F bonding and more s character in the C−H bonding orbitals. The hybridisation of bond orbitals is determined by Bent's rule: "Atomic s character concentrates in orbitals directed toward electropositive substituents".
Isovalent hybridization:
The bond length between similar atoms also shortens with increasing s character. For example, the C−H bond length is 110.2 pm in ethane, 108.5 pm in ethylene and 106.1 pm in acetylene, with carbon hybridizations sp3 (25% s), sp2 (33% s) and sp (50% s) respectively.
Isovalent hybridization:
To determine the degree of hybridization of each bond one can utilize a hybridization parameter (λ). For hybrids of s and p orbitals, this is the coefficient (λ) multiplying the p orbital when the hybrid orbital is written in the form (s+λp) . The square of the hybridization parameter equals the hybridization index (n) of an spn orbital. n=λ2 The fractional s character of orbital i is 11+λi2 , and the s character of all the hybrid orbitals must sum to one, so that ∑i11+λi2=1 The fractional p character of orbital i is λi21+λi2 , and the p character of all the hybrid orbitals sums to the number of p orbitals involved in the formation of hybrids: ∑iλi21+λi2=1,2,or3 These hybridization parameters can then be related to physical properties like bond angles. Using the two bonding atomic orbitals i and j we are able to find the magnitude of the interorbital angle. The orthogonality condition implies the relation known as Coulson's theorem: cos θij=0 For two identical ligands the following equation can be utilized: cos θii=0 The hybridization index cannot be measured directly in any way. However, one can find it indirectly by measuring specific physical properties. Because nuclear spins are coupled through bonding electrons, and the electron penetration to the nucleus is dependent on s character of the hybrid orbital used in bonding, J-coupling constants determined through NMR spectroscopy is a convenient experimental parameter that can be used to estimate the hybridization index of orbitals on carbon. The relationships for one-bond 13C-1H and 13C-13C coupling are 13 500 500 Hz)χs(i) and 13 13 550 550 Hz)χs(i)χs(j) ,where 1JX-Y is the one-bond NMR spin-spin coupling constant between nuclei X and Y and χS(α) is the s character of orbital α on carbon, expressed as a fraction of unity.
Isovalent hybridization:
As an application, the 13C-1H coupling constants show that for the cycloalkanes, the amount of s character in the carbon hybrid orbital employed in the C-H bond decreases as the ring size increases. The value of 1J13C-1H for cyclopropane, cyclobutane and cyclopentane are 161, 134, and 128 Hz, respectively. This is a consequence of the fact that the C-C bonds in small, strained rings (cyclopropane and cyclobutane) employ excess p character to accommodate their molecular geometries (these bonds are famously known as 'banana bonds'). In order to conserve the total number of s and p orbitals used in hybridization for each carbon, the hybrid orbital used to form the C-H bonds must in turn compensate by taking on more s character. Experimentally, this is also demonstrated by the significantly higher acidity of cyclopropane (pKa ~ 46) compared to, for instance, cyclohexane (pKa ~ 52).
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Capsid**
Capsid:
A capsid is the protein shell of a virus, enclosing its genetic material. It consists of several oligomeric (repeating) structural subunits made of protein called protomers. The observable 3-dimensional morphological subunits, which may or may not correspond to individual proteins, are called capsomeres. The proteins making up the capsid are called capsid proteins or viral coat proteins (VCP). The capsid and inner genome is called the nucleocapsid.
Capsid:
Capsids are broadly classified according to their structure. The majority of the viruses have capsids with either helical or icosahedral structure. Some viruses, such as bacteriophages, have developed more complicated structures due to constraints of elasticity and electrostatics. The icosahedral shape, which has 20 equilateral triangular faces, approximates a sphere, while the helical shape resembles the shape of a spring, taking the space of a cylinder but not being a cylinder itself. The capsid faces may consist of one or more proteins. For example, the foot-and-mouth disease virus capsid has faces consisting of three proteins named VP1–3.Some viruses are enveloped, meaning that the capsid is coated with a lipid membrane known as the viral envelope. The envelope is acquired by the capsid from an intracellular membrane in the virus' host; examples include the inner nuclear membrane, the Golgi membrane, and the cell's outer membrane.Once the virus has infected a cell and begins replicating itself, new capsid subunits are synthesized using the protein biosynthesis mechanism of the cell. In some viruses, including those with helical capsids and especially those with RNA genomes, the capsid proteins co-assemble with their genomes. In other viruses, especially more complex viruses with double-stranded DNA genomes, the capsid proteins assemble into empty precursor procapsids that include a specialized portal structure at one vertex. Through this portal, viral DNA is translocated into the capsid.Structural analyses of major capsid protein (MCP) architectures have been used to categorise viruses into lineages. For example, the bacteriophage PRD1, the algal virus Paramecium bursaria Chlorella virus-1 (PBCV-1), mimivirus and the mammalian adenovirus have been placed in the same lineage, whereas tailed, double-stranded DNA bacteriophages (Caudovirales) and herpesvirus belong to a second lineage.
Specific shapes:
Icosahedral The icosahedral structure is extremely common among viruses. The icosahedron consists of 20 triangular faces delimited by 12 fivefold vertexes and consists of 60 asymmetric units. Thus, an icosahedral virus is made of 60N protein subunits. The number and arrangement of capsomeres in an icosahedral capsid can be classified using the "quasi-equivalence principle" proposed by Donald Caspar and Aaron Klug. Like the Goldberg polyhedra, an icosahedral structure can be regarded as being constructed from pentamers and hexamers. The structures can be indexed by two integers h and k, with h≥1 and k≥0 ; the structure can be thought of as taking h steps from the edge of a pentamer, turning 60 degrees counterclockwise, then taking k steps to get to the next pentamer. The triangulation number T for the capsid is defined as: T=h2+h⋅k+k2 In this scheme, icosahedral capsids contain 12 pentamers plus 10(T − 1) hexamers. The T-number is representative of the size and complexity of the capsids. Geometric examples for many values of h, k, and T can be found at List of geodesic polyhedra and Goldberg polyhedra.
Specific shapes:
Many exceptions to this rule exist: For example, the polyomaviruses and papillomaviruses have pentamers instead of hexamers in hexavalent positions on a quasi T = 7 lattice. Members of the double-stranded RNA virus lineage, including reovirus, rotavirus and bacteriophage φ6 have capsids built of 120 copies of capsid protein, corresponding to a T = 2 capsid, or arguably a T = 1 capsid with a dimer in the asymmetric unit. Similarly, many small viruses have a pseudo T = 3 (or P = 3) capsid, which is organized according to a T = 3 lattice, but with distinct polypeptides occupying the three quasi-equivalent positions T-numbers can be represented in different ways, for example T = 1 can only be represented as an icosahedron or a dodecahedron and, depending on the type of quasi-symmetry, T = 3 can be presented as a truncated dodecahedron, an icosidodecahedron, or a truncated icosahedron and their respective duals a triakis icosahedron, a rhombic triacontahedron, or a pentakis dodecahedron.
Specific shapes:
Prolate An elongated icosahedron is a common shape for the heads of bacteriophages. Such a structure is composed of a cylinder with a cap at either end. The cylinder is composed of 10 elongated triangular faces. The Q number (or Tmid), which can be any positive integer, specifies the number of triangles, composed of asymmetric subunits, that make up the 10 triangles of the cylinder. The caps are classified by the T (or Tend) number.
Specific shapes:
The bacterium E. coli is the host for bacteriophage T4 that has a prolate head structure. The bacteriophage encoded gp31 protein appears to be functionally homologous to E. coli chaperone protein GroES and able to substitute for it in the assembly of bacteriophage T4 virions during infection. Like GroES, gp31 forms a stable complex with GroEL chaperonin that is absolutely necessary for the folding and assembly in vivo of the bacteriophage T4 major capsid protein gp23.
Specific shapes:
Helical Many rod-shaped and filamentous plant viruses have capsids with helical symmetry. The helical structure can be described as a set of n 1-D molecular helices related by an n-fold axial symmetry. The helical transformation are classified into two categories: one-dimensional and two-dimensional helical systems. Creating an entire helical structure relies on a set of translational and rotational matrices which are coded in the protein data bank. Helical symmetry is given by the formula P = μ x ρ, where μ is the number of structural units per turn of the helix, ρ is the axial rise per unit and P is the pitch of the helix. The structure is said to be open due to the characteristic that any volume can be enclosed by varying the length of the helix. The most understood helical virus is the tobacco mosaic virus. The virus is a single molecule of (+) strand RNA. Each coat protein on the interior of the helix bind three nucleotides of the RNA genome. Influenza A viruses differ by comprising multiple ribonucleoproteins, the viral NP protein organizes the RNA into a helical structure. The size is also different; the tobacco mosaic virus has a 16.33 protein subunits per helical turn, while the influenza A virus has a 28 amino acid tail loop.
Functions:
The functions of the capsid are to: protect the genome, deliver the genome, and interact with the host.The virus must assemble a stable, protective protein shell to protect the genome from lethal chemical and physical agents. These include extremes of pH or temperature and proteolytic and nucleolytic enzymes. For non-enveloped viruses, the capsid itself may be involved in interaction with receptors on the host cell, leading to penetration of the host cell membrane and internalization of the capsid. Delivery of the genome occurs by subsequent uncoating or disassembly of the capsid and release of the genome into the cytoplasm, or by ejection of the genome through a specialized portal structure directly into the host cell nucleus.
Origin and evolution:
It has been suggested that many viral capsid proteins have evolved on multiple occasions from functionally diverse cellular proteins. The recruitment of cellular proteins appears to have occurred at different stages of evolution so that some cellular proteins were captured and refunctionalized prior to the divergence of cellular organisms into the three contemporary domains of life, whereas others were hijacked relatively recently. As a result, some capsid proteins are widespread in viruses infecting distantly related organisms (e.g., capsid proteins with the jelly-roll fold), whereas others are restricted to a particular group of viruses (e.g., capsid proteins of alphaviruses).A computational model (2015) has shown that capsids may have originated before viruses and that they served as a means of horizontal transfer between replicator communities since these communities could not survive if the number of gene parasites increased, with certain genes being responsible for the formation of these structures and those that favored the survival of self-replicating communities. The displacement of these ancestral genes between cellular organisms could favor the appearance of new viruses during evolution.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**IRows**
IRows:
iRows was a web-based spreadsheet in beta with a GUI similar to the traditional desktop-based spreadsheet applications, such as Microsoft Excel and OpenOffice.org. It was shut down on December 31, 2006, after it was announced that its two founders had been hired by Google.iRows used Ajax and XML. It was described as an example of a Web 2.0 system.
iRows supported conventional spreadsheet features functions, value formatting and charts and added web oriented spreadsheet capabilities like collaboration (multiple people using a shared spreadsheet, sending a spreadsheet as a link instead of an attachment and ability to publish spreadsheets on other web pages (e.g. blogs).
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**R-factor (crystallography)**
R-factor (crystallography):
In crystallography, the R-factor (sometimes called residual factor or reliability factor or the R-value or RWork) is a measure of the agreement between the crystallographic model and the experimental X-ray diffraction data. In other words, it is a measure of how well the refined structure predicts the observed data. The value is also sometimes called the discrepancy index, as it mathematically describes the difference between the experimental observations and the ideal calculated values. It is defined by the following equation: obs calc obs |, where F is the so-called structure factor and the sum extends over all the reflections of X-rays measured and their calculated counterparts respectively. The structure factor is closely related to the intensity of the reflection it describes: Ihkl∝|F(hkl)|2 .The minimum possible value is zero, indicating perfect agreement between experimental observations and the structure factors predicted from the model. There is no theoretical maximum, but in practice, values are considerably less than one even for poor models, provided the model includes a suitable scale factor. Random experimental errors in the data contribute to R even for a perfect model, and these have more leverage when the data are weak or few, such as for a low-resolution data set. Model inadequacies such as incorrect or missing parts and unmodeled disorder are the other main contributors to R , making it useful to assess the progress and final result of a crystallographic model refinement. For large molecules, the R-factor usually ranges between 0.6 (when computed for a random model and against an experimental data set) and 0.2 (for example for a well refined macro-molecular model at a resolution of 2.5 Ångström). Small molecules (up to ca. 1000 atoms) usually form better-ordered crystals than large molecules, and thus it is possible to attain lower R-factors. In the Cambridge Structural Database of small-molecule structures, more than 95% of the 500,000+ crystals have an R-factor lower than 0.15, and 9.5% have an R-factor lower than 0.03.
R-factor (crystallography):
Crystallographers also use the Free R-Factor ( RFree ) to assess possible overmodeling of the data. RFree is computed according to the same formula given above, but on a small, random sample of data that are set aside for the purpose and never included in the refinement. RFree will always be greater than R because the model is not fitted to the reflections that contribute to RFree , but the two statistics should be similar because a correct model should predict all the data with uniform accuracy. If the two statistics differ significantly then that indicates the model has been over-parameterized, so that to some extent it predicts not the ideal error-free data for the correct model, but rather the error-afflicted data actually observed.
R-factor (crystallography):
The quantities sym and merge are similarly used to describe the internal agreement of measurements in a crystallographic data set.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Selenite (mineral)**
Selenite (mineral):
Selenite, satin spar, desert rose, gypsum flower are crystal habit varieties of the mineral gypsum.
All varieties of gypsum, including selenite and alabaster, are composed of calcium sulfate dihydrate (meaning that it has two molecules of water), with the chemical formula CaSO4·2H2O. Selenite contains no significant selenium – The similar names both derive from Greek selḗnē (σελήνη 'Moon').
Some of the largest crystals ever found are of selenite, the largest specimen found in the Naica Mine's Cave of the Crystals being 12 metres long and weighing 55 tons.
History and etymology:
"Selenite" is mostly synonymous with gypsum, but from the 15th century, it has named the transparent variety that occurs in crystals or crystalline masses. The name derives through Middle English selenite from Latin selenites, ultimately from Greek selēnítēs líthos (σεληνίτης λίθος, lit. 'moon stone'). It got this name because people historically believed the mineral waxed and waned with the cycles of the Moon.
Distinguishing characteristics:
The main distinguishing characteristics of crystalline gypsum are its softness (hardness 2 on Mohs scale, soft enough to scratch with a fingernail) and its three unequal cleavages. Other distinguishing characteristics include its crystal habits, pearly lustre, easy fusibility with loss of water, and solubility in hot dilute hydrochloric acid.
Varieties:
Though sometimes grouped together as "selenite", the four crystalline varieties have differences. General identifying descriptions of the related crystalline varieties are: Selenite Most often transparent and colorless If selenite crystals show opacity or color, it is caused by the presence of other minerals, sometimes in druse Satin spar Most often silky and fibrous; chatoyant; can exhibit some coloration The satin spar name has also been applied to fibrous calcite (a related calcium mineral), which can be distinguished from gypsum by its greater hardness (Mohs 3), rhombohedral cleavage, and reaction with dilute hydrochloric acid.
Varieties:
Desert rose Rosette-shaped gypsum with outer druse of sand or with sand throughout – most often sand colored (in all the colors that sand can exhibit) The desert rose name can also be applied to barite desert roses (another related sulfate mineral) – barite is a harder mineral with higher density Gypsum flower Gypsum flowers are curved rosettes of fibrous gypsum crystals found in solution caves.
Use and history:
Satin spar is sometimes cut into cabochons to best display its chatoyance.
Crystal habit and properties:
Crystal habit refers to the shapes that crystals exhibit. Selenite crystals show a variety of habits, but the most common are tabular, prismatic, or acicular (columnar) crystals, often with no imperfections or inclusions. Twinned crystals are common, and often take the form of "swallow tail" twins.Selenite crystals sometimes form in thin tabular or mica-like sheets and have been used as window panes as at Santa Sabina in Rome.Selenite crystals sometimes will also exhibit bladed rosette habit (usually transparent and like desert roses) often with accompanying transparent, columnar crystals. Selenite crystals can be found both attached to a matrix or base rock, but can commonly be found as entire free-floating crystals, often in clay beds (and as can desert roses).Satin spar is almost always prismatic and fibrous in a parallel crystal habit. Satin spar often occurs in seams, some of them quite long, and is often attached to a matrix or base rock.Desert roses are most often bladed, exhibiting the familiar shape of a rose, and almost always have an exterior druse. Desert roses form in wet sand, unattached to a matrix or base rock.Gypsum flowers are most often acicular, scaly, stellate, and lenticular. Gypsum flowers most often exhibit simple twinning (known as contact twins); where parallel, long, needle-like crystals, sometimes having severe curves and bends, will frequently form “ram’s horns”, "fishtail", "arrow/spear-head", and "swallowtail" twins. Selenite crystals can also exhibit “arrow/spear-head” as well as “duck-bill” twins. Both selenite crystals and gypsum flowers sometimes form quite densely in acicular mats or nets; and can be quite brittle and fragile. Gypsum flowers are usually attached to a matrix (can be gypsum) or base rock.
Crystal habit and properties:
Color Gypsum crystals are colorless (most often selenite), white (or pearly – most often satin spar), or gray, but may be tinted brown, yellow, red, or blue by the presence of impurities, such as iron oxides or clay minerals.
Transparency Gypsum crystals can be transparent (most often selenite), translucent (most often satin spar but also selenite and gypsum flowers), and opaque (most often the rosettes and flowers). Opacity can be caused by impurities, inclusions, druse, and crust, and can occur in all four crystalline varieties.
Luster Selenite typically shows vitreous luster, but may show pearly luster on cleavage surfaces. Satin spar shows characteristic silky luster. Luster is not often exhibited in the rosettes, due to their exterior druse; nevertheless, the rosettes often show glassy to pearly luster on edges. Gypsum flowers usually exhibit more luster than desert roses.
Crystal habit and properties:
Other optical properties Fibrous satin spar exhibits chatoyancy (cat's eye effect).When cut across the fibers and polished on the ends, satin spar exhibits an optical illusion when placed on a printed or pictured surface: print and pictures appear to be on the surface of the sample. It is often called and sold as the “television stone” (as is ulexite).Some selenite and satin spar specimens exhibit fluorescence or phosphorescence.
Crystal habit and properties:
Tenacity All four crystalline varieties are slightly flexible, though will break if bent significantly. They are not elastic, meaning they can be bent, but will not bend back on their own.All four crystalline varieties are sectile in that they can be easily cut, will peel (particularly selenite crystals that exhibit mica-like properties), and like all gypsum varieties, can be scratched by a fingernail (hardness: 2 on Mohs Scale). The rosettes are not quite as soft due to their exterior druse; nevertheless, they too can be scratched.Selenite crystals that exhibit in either reticular or acicular habits, satin spar, in general (as fibrous crystals are thin and narrow), desert roses that are thinly bladed, and gypsum flowers, particularly acicular gypsum flowers, can be quite brittle and easily broken.
Crystal habit and properties:
Size All four crystalline varieties can range in size from minute to giant selenite crystals measuring 11 meters long such as those found in the caves of the Naica Mine of Chihuahua, Mexico. The crystals thrived in the cave's extremely rare and stable natural environment. Temperatures stayed at 58 °C, and the cave was filled with mineral-rich water that drove the crystals' growth. The largest of those crystals weighs 55 tons, is 11 meters (36 ft) long, and is over 500,000 years old.
Occurrence:
Gypsum occurs on every continent and is the most common of all the sulfate minerals.
Occurrence:
Gypsum is formed as an evaporative mineral, frequently found in alkaline lake muds, clay beds, evaporated seas, salt flats, salt springs, and caves. It is frequently found in conjunction with other minerals such as, copper ores, sulfur and sulfides, silver, iron ores, coal, calcite, dolomite, limestone, and opal. Gypsum has been dated to almost every geologic age since the Silurian Period 443.7 ± 1.5 Ma.In dry, desert conditions and arid areas, sand may become trapped both on the inside and the outside of gypsum crystals as they form. Interior inclusion of sand can take on shapes such as an interior hourglass shape common to selenite crystals of the ancient Great Salt Plains Lake bed, Oklahoma, US. Exterior inclusion (druse) occurs as embedded sand grains on the surface such as, commonly seen in the familiar desert rose.
Occurrence:
When gypsum dehydrates severely, anhydrite is formed. If water is reintroduced, gypsum can and will reform – including as the four crystalline varieties. An example of gypsum crystals reforming in modern times is found at Philips Copper Mine (closed and abandoned), Putnam County, New York, US where selenite micro crystal coatings are commonly found on numerous surfaces (rock and otherwise) in the cave and in the dump.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Comparison of mobile operating systems**
Comparison of mobile operating systems:
This is a comparison on mobile operating systems. Only the latest versions are shown in the table below, even though older versions may still be marketed.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Quine–McCluskey algorithm**
Quine–McCluskey algorithm:
The Quine–McCluskey algorithm (QMC), also known as the method of prime implicants, is a method used for minimization of Boolean functions that was developed by Willard V. Quine in 1952 and extended by Edward J. McCluskey in 1956. As a general principle this approach had already been demonstrated by the logician Hugh McColl in 1878, was proved by Archie Blake in 1937, and was rediscovered by Edward W. Samson and Burton E. Mills in 1954 and by Raymond J. Nelson in 1955. Also in 1955, Paul W. Abrahams and John G. Nordahl as well as Albert A. Mullin and Wayne G. Kellner proposed a decimal variant of the method.The Quine–McCluskey algorithm is functionally identical to Karnaugh mapping, but the tabular form makes it more efficient for use in computer algorithms, and it also gives a deterministic way to check that the minimal form of a Boolean function has been reached. It is sometimes referred to as the tabulation method.
Quine–McCluskey algorithm:
The method involves two steps: Finding all prime implicants of the function.
Use those prime implicants in a prime implicant chart to find the essential prime implicants of the function, as well as other prime implicants that are necessary to cover the function.
Complexity:
Although more practical than Karnaugh mapping when dealing with more than four variables, the Quine–McCluskey algorithm also has a limited range of use since the problem it solves is NP-complete. The running time of the Quine–McCluskey algorithm grows exponentially with the number of variables. For a function of n variables the number of prime implicants can be as large as 3n/n , e.g. for 32 variables there may be over 534 × 1012 prime implicants. Functions with a large number of variables have to be minimized with potentially non-optimal heuristic methods, of which the Espresso heuristic logic minimizer was the de facto standard in 1995.Step two of the algorithm amounts to solving the set cover problem; NP-hard instances of this problem may occur in this algorithm step.
Example:
Input In this example, the input is a Boolean function in four variables, f:{0,1}4→{0,1} which evaluates to 1 on the values 10 11 12 and 15 , evaluates to an unknown value on 9 and 14 , and to 0 everywhere else (where these integers are interpreted in their binary form for input to f for succinctness of notation). The inputs that evaluate to 1 are called 'minterms'. We encode all of this information by writing 10 11 12 15 14 ).
Example:
This expression says that the output function f will be 1 for the minterms 10 11 12 and 15 (denoted by the 'm' term) and that we don't care about the output for 9 and 14 combinations (denoted by the 'd' term). The summation symbol ∑ denotes the logical sum (logical OR, or disjunction) of all the terms being summed over.
Example:
Step 1: finding prime implicants First, we write the function as a table (where 'x' stands for don't care): One can easily form the canonical sum of products expression from this table, simply by summing the minterms (leaving out don't-care terms) where the function evaluates to one: fA,B,C,D = A'BC'D' + AB'C'D' + AB'CD' + AB'CD + ABC'D' + ABCD.which is not minimal. So to optimize, all minterms that evaluate to one are first placed in a minterm table. Don't-care terms are also added into this table (names in parentheses), so they can be combined with minterms: At this point, one can start combining minterms with other minterms. If two terms differ by only a single digit, that digit can be replaced with a dash indicating that the digit doesn't matter. Terms that can't be combined any more are marked with an asterisk (*). For instance 1000 and 1001 can be combined to give 100-, indicating that both minterms imply the first digit is 1 and the next two are 0.
Example:
When going from Size 2 to Size 4, treat - as a third bit value. Match up the -'s first. The terms represent products and to combine two product terms they must have the same variables. One of the variables should be complemented in one term and uncomplemented in the other. The remaining variables present should agree. So to match two terms the -'s must align and all but one of the other digits must be the same. For instance, -110 and -100 can be combined to give -1-0, as can -110 and -010 to give --10, but -110 and 011- cannot since the -'s do not align. -110 corresponds to BCD' while 011- corresponds to A'BC, and BCD' + A'BC is not equivalent to a product term.
Example:
Note: In this example, none of the terms in the size 4 implicants table can be combined any further. In general this process should be continued (sizes 8, 16 etc.) until no more terms can be combined.
Example:
Step 2: prime implicant chart None of the terms can be combined any further than this, so at this point we construct an essential prime implicant table. Along the side goes the prime implicants that have just been generated (these are the ones that have been marked with a "*" in the previous step), and along the top go the minterms specified earlier. The don't care terms are not placed on top—they are omitted from this section because they are not necessary inputs.
Example:
To find the essential prime implicants, we look for columns with only one "✓". If a column has only one "✓", this means that the minterm can only be covered by one prime implicant. This prime implicant is essential.
For example: in the first column, with minterm 4, there is only one "✓". This means that m(4,12) is essential. Minterm 15 also has only one "✓", so m(10,11,14,15) is also essential. Now all columns with one "✓" are covered.
Example:
The second prime implicant can be 'covered' by the third and fourth, and the third prime implicant can be 'covered' by the second and first, and neither is thus essential. If a prime implicant is essential then, as would be expected, it is necessary to include it in the minimized boolean equation. In some cases, the essential prime implicants do not cover all minterms, in which case additional procedures for chart reduction can be employed. The simplest "additional procedure" is trial and error, but a more systematic way is Petrick's method. In the current example, the essential prime implicants do not handle all of the minterms, so, in this case, the essential implicants can be combined with one of the two non-essential ones to yield one equation: fA,B,C,D = BC'D' + AB' + ACor fA,B,C,D = BC'D' + AD' + ACBoth of those final equations are functionally equivalent to the original, verbose equation: fA,B,C,D = A'BC'D' + AB'C'D' + AB'C'D + AB'CD' + AB'CD + ABC'D' + ABCD' + ABCD.
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**RAML (software)**
RAML (software):
RESTful API Modeling Language (RAML) is a YAML-based language for describing static APIs (but not REST APIs). It provides all the information necessary to describe APIs on the level 2 of the Richardson Maturity Model. Although designed with RESTful APIs in mind, RAML is not capable of describing APIs that obey all constraints of REST (it cannot describe an API obeying HATEOAS, in particular). It encourages reuse, enables discovery and pattern-sharing and aims for merit-based emergence of best practices.
History:
RAML was first proposed in 2013. The initial RAML specification was authored by Uri Sarid, Emiliano Lesende, Santiago Vacas and Damian Martinez, and garnered support from technology leaders like MuleSoft, AngularJS, Intuit, Box, PayPal, Programmable Web and API Web Science, Kin Lane, SOA Software, and Cisco. Development is managed by the RAML Workgroup. The current workgroup signatories include technology leaders from MuleSoft (Uri Sarid, CTO), AngularJS (Misko Hevery, Project Founder), Intuit (Ivan Lazarov, Chief Enterprise Architect), Airware (Peter Rexer, Director of Product - Developer Platform), Programmable Web and API Science (John Musser, Founder), SOA Software (Tony Gullotta, Director of Development), Cisco (Jaideep Subedar, Senior Manager, Product Management - Application Integration Solutions Group), VMware (Kevin Duffey, Senior MTS Engineer), Akamai Technologies (Rob Daigneau, Director of Architecture for Akamai's OPEN API Platform) and Restlet (Jerome Louvel, CTO and Founder). RAML is a trademark of MuleSoft.Very few existing APIs meet the precise criteria to be classified as RESTful APIs. Consequently, like most API initiatives in the 2010s, RAML has initially focussed on the basics of APIs including resources, methods, parameters, and response bodies that need not be hypermedia. There are plans to move towards more strictly RESTful APIs as the evolution of technology and the market permits.There are a number of reasons why RAML has broken out from being a proprietary vendor language and has proven interesting to the broader API community: RAML has been open-sourced along with tools and parsers for common languages. The development of RAML will be overseen by a steering committee of API and UX practitioners, and there is an emerging ecosystem of third-party tools being developed around RAML MuleSoft originally started using Swagger (now OpenAPI Specification), but decided it was best suited to documenting an existing API, not for designing an API from scratch. RAML evolved out of the need to support up-front API design in a succinct, human-centric language API descriptions are often verbose and repetitive, which can make them difficult to understand and use, and slow adoption of the APIs. RAML has introduced language features that support structured files and inheritance that address cross-cutting concernsA new organization, under the sponsorship of the Linux Foundation, called the Open API Initiative was set up in 2015 to standardize the description of HTTP APIs. A number of companies including SmartBear, Google, IBM and Microsoft were founding members. SmartBear donated the Swagger specification to the new group. RAML and API Blueprint are also under consideration by the group.
Example:
This is an example RAML file. As with YAML, indentation shows nesting.
Some highlights: line 7, 12: defines traits, invoked in multiple places line 12: an Include file line 13, 14: define a "resource" data type "/songs"; uses previously defined traits line 15, 19, 37: defines HTTP methods line 25, 36: MIME types.
API gateways supporting RAML:
Apigee MuleSoft AWS API Gateway by AWS (through AWS API Gateway Importer) Akana RestletFurthermore, you can convert your RAML specification to either OpenAPI or API Blueprint using APIMATIC, thus enabling you to use further API gateways.
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**Body marbling**
Body marbling:
Body marbling is a painting process similar to paper marbling, in which paint is floated on water and transferred to a person's skin. Unlike the traditional oil-based technique for paper, neon or ultraviolet reactive colours are typically used, and the paint is water-based and non-toxic. The term "body marbling" was coined in 2011 by Brad Lawrence of Black Light Visuals. Body marbling has become popular at festivals.
Painting process:
The skin is bathed in a salt water solution which allows the paint to adhere. The desired pattern is created by adding drops of paint to the water surface, and transferred to the skin by dipping. The water for painting is mixed with a thickening agent such as guar gum. The skin is then dipped in a rinse bath and allowed to dry. The painting is temporary and can be removed by washing.
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**Kepler-33b**
Kepler-33b:
Kepler-33b is an extrasolar planet orbiting Kepler-33 in the constellation Cygnus. It is one of five planets orbiting Kepler-33.
Discovery:
Kepler-33b was, along with twenty-six other planets in eleven different planetary systems, confirmed to be a planet on January 26, 2012.
The Kepler-33 system:
Kepler-33b orbits its host star with 4 other planets. All five planets orbit its star closer than Mercury does to the Sun. Of those five, Kepler-33b is closest. All Kepler-33 planets are too close to be in the habitable zone.
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**Deck tennis**
Deck tennis:
Deck tennis is a sport that is played by mariners on the decks of both cargo and passenger vessels. The sport is a hybrid between tennis and quoits, and is played with either the rubber disk or ring, or a similarly-sized rope ring. The sport has been standardized and formalized in several countries under names such as "tennikoit" or "ring tennis".
Deck tennis:
American sources from the 1930s and 1940s attribute the origin, or at least formal establishment of the game, to Cleve F. Shaffer. In 1981, Mariano Herrera and Alejandro Nougues from Argentina won the first and only Deck Tennis World Championship celebrated on the beach in Punta del Este, Uruguay.
Rules:
Most games of deck tennis, unlike the official tennikoit form, are informal and without set rules or a governing body, so rules tend to vary. Usually it is played on a court roughly 40 to 50 feet (11 to 14 m) long and 15 to 20 feet (5 to 7 m) wide and may be played as either as singles or doubles. The midcourt net is usually the height, or higher than that of a tennis net. The goal of the game is to serve (throw) the ring into the opponent's court, and the opponent tries to catch it before it falls and immediately throw it back from the same position where it was caught, with a point being scored when the server managed to land a quoit on the opponent's side of the court.
Rules:
The scoring system is commonly the same as regular tennis: Love, 15, 30, 40, Deuce, Advantage, Game. This is in contrast with tennikoit, where sets are played to 21 individual points, similar to badminton.
In popular culture:
In the 1936 film Piccadilly Jim, Robert Montgomery as "Piccadilly Jim" is depicted playing the game with his romantic rival in the film Ralph Forbes as "Lord Frederick Priory" on the deck of an ocean liner.Boy - Roald Dahl, plays a vigerous game in the voyage out
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**Reports on Progress in Physics**
Reports on Progress in Physics:
Reports on Progress in Physics is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by IOP Publishing. The editor-in-chief as of 2022 is Subir Sachdev (Harvard University).
Scope:
The focus of this journal is invited review articles covering all branches of physics. Each review will typically survey and critique a particular topic, or developments in a field. Introductions of articles are intended for a broad readership, beyond the specialist or expert. In addition to the traditional review article two other formats are available: Reports on Progress (about 20 pages) and Key Issues Reviews (about 10 pages).
Abstracting and indexing:
Reports on Progress in Physics is abstracted and indexed in the following databases:
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**Alpha,N-DMT**
Alpha,N-DMT:
Alpha,N-DMT, or α,N-dimethyltryptamine, is a lesser-known psychedelic drug. It is the α,N-dimethyl analog of DMT. α,N-DMT was first synthesized by Alexander Shulgin. In his book TiHKAL (Tryptamines I Have Known and Loved), Shulgin lists the dosage as 50-100 mg, and the duration as 6–8 hours. α,N-DMT causes an unpleasant body load. Very little data exists about the pharmacological properties, metabolism, and toxicity of α,N-DMT. α,N-DMT is known to be a potent monoamine oxidase inhibitor
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**Lunate**
Lunate:
Lunate is a crescent or moon-shaped microlith. In the specialized terminology of lithic reduction, a lunate flake is a small, crescent-shaped flake removed from a stone tool during the process of pressure flaking.
In the Natufian period, a lunate was a small crescent-shaped stone tool that was sometimes used to harvest grasses.
In archaeology a lunate is a small stone artifact, that has a sharpened straight edge and a blunt crescent shaped back. The word originates from the Latin word lunatus which means to bend like a crescent, and from luna meaning moon in Latin. A lunate object can be typically used as a decorative piece or as a stone tool.
Israeli lunate:
In the earlier findings of Epipaleolithic lunate in the Natufian, Harifian, and Negev Kebaran periods in Israel they were roughly 10–40 mm long and were formed on small blades or bladelets. While the later findings Natufian and Harifian range of lengths varied then between 9 mm and 17 mm. In the later period the lunate resulted in three specific types: Helwan Backing (Bifacial) Plain Abrupt Backing Bipolar Backing (anvil)The differences among these three types are also associated with the length of the lunate objects, with Helwan lunate normally being the longest and bipolar being the shortest. For unknown reasons, the epipaleolithic lunate tool type disappeared and did not reappear until around the end of the 4th millennium B.C. These Lunate tools were most likely used as barbs in arrow shafts, or as transverse arrowheads coated with poison. The Lunate are also a very rare artifact from the Early Bronze Age because there was not as much emphasis on hunting during that period. The reappearance of Lunate after several millennia could shed some light on the hunting emphasis in the society. Lunate have been found as far north as the Azor tombs in Israel and was far south as south Sinai in this particular region.
Other cultural examples:
Lunate artefacts have been discovered among early Māori stone carving in New Zealand. The original lunate pendant found in New Zealand appears to be of clear transparent pounamu (greenstone), from Ruapuke Island, in Foveaux Strait. Its characteristics include a notched edge and the stone itself is thought to originate from Tangiwai, New Zealand. There was a second rare lunate-shaped object discovered in the New Zealand ethnological region as well.
Other cultural examples:
A handful of ancient societies shaped their tools in the form of lunate such as the Puebloan peoples who originated around San Juan County, Utah. There have also been findings of lunate used by Puebloan peoples dating back to the 3rd/4th millennium B.C.
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**MreB**
MreB:
MreB is a protein found in bacteria that has been identified as a homologue of actin, as indicated by similarities in tertiary structure and conservation of active site peptide sequence. The conservation of protein structure suggests the common ancestry of the cytoskeletal elements formed by actin, found in eukaryotes, and MreB, found in prokaryotes. Indeed, recent studies have found that MreB proteins polymerize to form filaments that are similar to actin microfilaments. It has been shown to form multilayer sheets comprising diagonally interwoven filaments in the presence of ATP or GTP.MreB along with MreC and MreD are named after the mre operon (murein formation gene cluster E) to which they all belong.
Function:
MreB controls the width of rod-shaped bacteria, such as Escherichia coli. A mutant E. coli that creates defective MreB proteins will be spherical instead of rod-like. Also, most bacteria that are naturally spherical do not have the gene encoding MreB. Members of the Chlamydiota are a notable exception, as these bacteria utilize the protein for localized septal peptidoglycan synthesis. Prokaryotes carrying the mreB gene can also be helical in shape. MreB has long been thought to form a helical filament underneath the cytoplasmic membrane, however, this model has been brought into question by three recent publications showing that filaments cannot be seen by electron cryotomography and that GFP-MreB can be seen as patches moving around the cell circumference. It has been shown to interact with several proteins that are proven to be involved in length growth (for instance PBP2). Therefore, it probably directs the synthesis and insertion of new peptidoglycan building units into the existing peptidoglycan layer to allow length growth of the bacteria.
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**Hydranencephaly**
Hydranencephaly:
Hydranencephaly is a condition in which the brain's cerebral hemispheres are absent to a great degree and the remaining cranial cavity is filled with cerebrospinal fluid. "Cephalic" is the scientific term for "head" or "head end of body".
Hydranencephaly:
Hydranencephaly is a type of cephalic disorder. These disorders are congenital conditions that derive from damage to, or abnormal development of, the fetal nervous system in the earliest stages of development in utero. These conditions do not have any definitive identifiable cause factor. Instead, they are generally attributed to a variety of hereditary or genetic conditions, but also by environmental factors such as maternal infection, pharmaceutical intake, or even exposure to high levels of radiation.Hydranencephaly should not be confused with hydrocephalus, which is an accumulation of excess cerebrospinal fluid in the ventricles of the brain.
Hydranencephaly:
In hemihydranencephaly, only half of the cranial cavity is affected.
Signs and symptoms:
An infant with hydranencephaly may appear normal at birth or may have some distortion of the skull and upper facial features due to fluid pressure inside the skull. The infant's head size and spontaneous reflexes such as sucking, swallowing, crying, and moving the arms and legs may all seem normal, depending on the severity of the condition. However, after a few weeks the infant sometimes becomes irritable and has increased muscle tone (hypertonia). After several months of life, seizures and hydrocephalus may develop, if they did not exist at birth. Other symptoms may include visual impairment, lack of growth, deafness, blindness, spastic quadriparesis (paralysis), and intellectual deficits.Some infants may have additional abnormalities at birth including seizures, myoclonus (involuntary sudden, rapid jerks), limited thermoregulation abilities, and respiratory problems. Still other infants display no obvious symptoms at birth, going many months without a confirmed diagnosis of hydranencephaly. In some cases severe hydrocephalus, or another cephalic condition, is misdiagnosed.
Causes:
Hydranencephaly is an extreme form of porencephaly, which is characterized by a cyst or cavity in the cerebral hemispheres.Although the exact cause of hydranencephaly remains undetermined in most cases, the most likely general cause is by vascular insult, such as stroke, injury, intrauterine infections, or traumatic disorders after the first trimester of pregnancy. In a number of cases where intrauterine infection was determined to be the causing factor, most involved toxoplasmosis and viral infections such as enterovirus, adenovirus, parvovirus, cytomegalovirus, herpes simplex, Epstein-Barr, and syncytial viruses. Another cause factor is monochorionic twin pregnancies, involving the death of one twin in the second trimester, which in turn causes vascular exchange to the living twin through placental circulation through twin-to-twin transfusion, causing hydranencephaly in the surviving fetus. One medical journal reports hydranencephaly as an autosomal inherited disorder with an unknown mode of transmission, causing a blockage of the carotid artery where it enters the cranium; this causes obstruction and damage to the cerebral cortex.
Causes:
Genetic Hydranencephaly is a recessive genetic condition, so both parents must carry the asymptomatic gene and pass it along to their child. There is a 25% chance that both parents will pass the gene to their child, resulting in hydranencephaly. Genetic hydranencephaly afflicts both males and females in equal numbers.
Post-natal brain injury Though hydranencephaly is typically a congenital disorder, it can occur as a postnatal diagnosis in the aftermath of meningitis, intracerebral infarction, ischemia, or a traumatic brain injury.
Diagnosis:
An accurate, confirmed diagnosis is generally impossible until after birth, though prenatal diagnosis using fetal ultrasonography (ultrasound) can identify characteristic physical abnormalities. After birth, diagnosis may be delayed for several months because the infant's early behavior appears to be relatively normal. The most accurate diagnostic techniques are thorough clinical evaluation (considering physical findings and a detailed patient history); advanced imaging techniques, such as angiography, computerized tomography (CT scan), and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI); and (more rarely) transillumination. However, diagnostic literature fails to provide a clear distinction between severe obstructive hydrocephalus and hydranencephaly, leaving some children with an unsettled diagnosis.Preliminary diagnosis may be made in utero via standard ultrasound, and can be confirmed with a standard anatomy ultrasound. Hydranencephaly is sometimes misdiagnosed as bilaterally symmetric schizencephaly (a less destructive developmental process on the brain), severe hydrocephalus (cerebrospinal fluid excess within the skull), or alobar holoprosencephaly (a neurological developmental anomaly). Once destruction of the brain is complete, the cerebellum, midbrain, thalami, basal ganglia, choroid plexus, and portions of the occipital lobes typically remain preserved to varying degrees. The cerebral cortex is absent; however, in most cases, the fetal head remains enlarged due to increased intracranial pressure, which results from inadequate reabsorption of the cerebrospinal fluid produced in the choroid plexus.
Prognosis:
There is no standard treatment for hydranencephaly. Treatment is symptomatic and supportive. An accompanying diagnosis of hydrocephalus may be treated with surgical insertion of a shunt; this often improves prognosis and quality of life.The prognosis for children with hydranencephaly is generally quite poor. Death often occurs within the first year of life, though many children live several years, or even into adulthood; in one reported case, a woman with hydranencephaly was assessed at age 32.
Occurrence:
This condition affects under 1 in 10,000 births worldwide. Hydranencephaly is a rare disorder in the United States, which is defined as affecting fewer than 1 in 250,000.
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**Jumping translocation breakpoint**
Jumping translocation breakpoint:
The jumping translocation breakpoint protein (JTB), also known as prostate androgen-regulated protein (PAR), is a protein that in humans is encoded by the JTB gene. It is an orphan receptor with unknown function.The JTB family of proteins contains several jumping translocation breakpoint proteins or JTBs. Jumping translocation (JT) is an unbalanced translocation that comprises amplified chromosomal segments jumping to various telomeres. JTB has been found to fuse with the telomeric repeats of acceptor telomeres in a case of JT. Homo sapiens JTB (hJTB) encodes a transmembrane protein that is highly conserved among divergent eukaryotic species. JT results in a hJTB truncation, which potentially produces an hJTB product devoid of the transmembrane domain. hJTB is located in a gene-rich region at 1q21, called epidermal differentiation complex (EDC). JTB has also been implicated in prostatic carcinomas.
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**NAD+ Five-prime cap**
NAD+ Five-prime cap:
In molecular biology, the NAD+ five-prime cap (NAD+ 5’ cap) refers to a molecule of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+), a nucleoside-containing metabolite, covalently bonded the 5’ end of cellular mRNA. While the more common methylated guanosine (m7G) cap is added to RNA by a capping complex that associates with RNA polymerase II (RNAP II), the NAD cap is added during transcriptional initiation by the RNA polymerase itself, acting as a non-canonical initiating nucleotide (NCIN). As such, while m7G capping can only occur in organisms possessing specialized capping complexes, because NAD capping is performed by RNAP itself, it is hypothesized to occur in most, if not all, organisms.The NAD+ 5’ cap has been observed in bacteria, contrary to the long-held belief that prokaryotes lacked 5’-capped RNA, as well as on the 5’ cap of eukaryotic mRNA, in place of the m7G cap. This modification also potentially allows for selective degradation of RNA]within prokaryotes as different pathways are involved in the degradation of NAD+-capped and uncapped 5′-triphosphate-RNAs.
NAD+ Five-prime cap:
In eukaryotic cells, while the more commonly observed m7G cap promotes the stability of the mRNA and supports translation, the NAD+ cap targets the RNA transcript for decay, facilitated by the non-canonical decapping enzyme, DXO. Considering the centrality of NAD in redox chemistry and post-translational protein modification, its attachment to RNA represents potentially undiscovered pathways in RNA metabolism and regulation.
Function in prokaryotes:
In prokaryotes, the 5’ NAD+ modification is established by bacterial RNAP during transcription initiation and has been shown to display functions analogous to those of the eukaryotic 5’ cap. In-vitro transcribed NAD-modified RNA was shown to be more resistant to RNase E, the main enzyme in the decay pathway of E. coli. NAD-modification further was shown to decelerate RNA processing by RNA pyrophosphohydrolase (RppH), which is known to trigger RNase-E-mediated decay through the conversion of 5′-triphosphate-RNA to 5′-monophosphate-RNA. Nudc, a nudix phosphohydrolase, can decap NAD-RNA through hydrolyzing NAD(H) into NMN(H) and AMP, causing RNase-E-mediated decay, but is inactive against 5′-triphosphate-RNA. This 5’ modification allows for the selective initiation of degradation for a subset of RNAs as the NAD-capped RNAs are stabilized in the presence of RppH, but are decapped by Nudc, while the 5′-triphosphate-RNAs are susceptible to RppH but not Nudc.Next generation sequencing (NGS) of the NAD-RNA conjugates in E. coli revealed an abundance of a specific group of small regulatory RNAs (sRNAs) which are known to be involved in stress response systems, as well as enzymes involved in cellular metabolism. The small number of RNA transcripts with a NAD cap might allow the cell to selectively degrade these RNAs separate from other pathways. Considering that the stress responses are known to affect NAD+ concentration, this finding further supports the possibility of undiscovered pathways linking the energetic state of a cell to mRNA turnover.
Function in prokaryotes:
NAD capping has also been suggested to recruit specific proteins to the 5’ end of the RNA as NAD is one of the most common protein ligands. NAD-binding pockets are well characterized in many proteins and could help the localization of the RNA to an enzyme or receptor. Many NAD-utilizing metabolic enzymes can also bind to RNA, presenting the possibility of unknown ribonucleoprotein complexes.
Function in eukaryotes:
NAD+ 5’ capped RNA have been found in yeast, humans, and Arabidopsis thaliana. In eukaryotes, the NAD+ cap is removed by non-canonical decapping enzymes from the DXO family. DeNADing by DXO results in a 5’ end monophosphate RNA distinct from NudC which results in NMN plus 5′ monophosphate RNA. Importantly, DXO is ~6 fold more efficient at decapping NAD+ compared to m7G, suggesting that it selectively degrades NAD-capped RNA rather than the more common m7G cap, similar to NudC.
Function in eukaryotes:
The m7G cap has been shown to promote translation through recruitment of the initiation complex onto the mRNA. However, the NAD+-cap does not provide a similar function as NAD+-capped and polyadenylated mRNA displayed similar levels of translation in vitro to uncapped mRNA. Additionally, the 5’ NAD+ cap further promotes decay of the RNA it is attached to, NAD+-capped and polyadenylated mRNA were demonstrated in vitro to be less stable than mRNAs lacking a 5’ cap, suggesting that the NAD+ modification is actively facilitating DXO-mediated RNA decay.While the relationship between RNA-binding proteins, such as glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH), and NAD+ concentration is established, the NAD+ cap has been hypothesized to represent a direct link between RNA expression levels and cellular metabolism. It is known that energy stresses such as glucose deprivation and caloric restriction influence NAD+ concentrations and can possibly impact NAD+ capping. Additionally, as low-nutrient conditions can affect mRNA stability, and seeing as NAD+ caps promote mRNA decay, it is possible that the energetic state of a cell could affect NAD+-capping and thus mRNA turnover. Certain findings, such as the higher abundance of NAD+-capped transcripts in stationary-phase bacteria as well as yeast grown on synthetic media, point toward this possibility.
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**Pablo Sinues**
Pablo Sinues:
Pablo Sinues (also published as Pablo Martinez-Lozano Sinues) is an associate professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at the University of Basel (Basel, Switzerland) and lecturer at the Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences at ETH Zürich. He received his Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from the Charles III University of Madrid (Spain) and Habilitation in Analytical Chemistry at ETH Zürich. Sinues heads the Translational Breath Research group located at the University Children’s Hospital Basel
Academic activity:
Sinues has pioneered Secondary electrospray ionization with a focus in Breath gas analysis applications. He co-authored over 50 peer-reviewed articles covering fields ranging from engineering to medicine. He is President of the Society of Spanish Researchers in Switzerland (ACECH) and Vice-president of the Swiss Metabolomics Society (SMS). He also serves as an expert for InnoSuisse, the Swiss Innovation Agency Sinues is principal investigator of the Research Network Zurich Exhalomics, which is an initiative by scientists from the Zurich area with the goal to provide technical solutions for the rapid and sensitive on-line analysis of breath. He is co-inventor of five patents and winner of the 2020 SGMS award. He co-founded the start-up company 'Deep Breath Initiative (DBI)' to uncover the full potential of Molecular Breath Analysis to advance precision medicine and make it available for general health care.
Outreach Activities:
Martínez-Lozano et al., J Am Soc Mass Spectrom 2009, 20, 1060-63 Martinez-Lozano Sinues et al., PLoS ONE 2013, 8 BBC News ETH news (30/1/2016) Swiss national television (2/2/2016; in Italian)
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**Pickup truck racing**
Pickup truck racing:
Pickup truck racing is a form of auto racing which involves modified versions of pickup trucks on racing circuits, mostly oval tracks. Race pickup trucks are mechanically similar to coupé-shaped stock cars, with the main difference being the more boxy shape of the cab, which does not have as good aerodynamics as stock cars.
NASCAR Truck Series vehicles have been rapidly evolving since the inception of the series in 1995, in terms of speed, aerodynamics, and engine equipment. The NASCAR series was also the first to use this type of vehicle, unveiled in 1994.
History:
The concept of pickup truck racing started in 1983 when former NASCAR driver Buck Baker established the National Pickup Truck Racing Association to help Buck Baker Driving School graduates start their careers. The series, which did not plan to have a points system, had a ten-race schedule planned with intentions to sell the series to NASCAR. The trucks were built with a 1981 NASCAR Winston Cup Series car base; the four-barrel Cup Series carburetors were reduced to two to decrease speeds. The series began to increase in popularity, and the schedule was increased to eleven races. After the season ended, Baker's attempted sale of the series to NASCAR was denied, and was sold to Dick Moroso, with the series being rebranded the Moroso Performance All-Pro Pickup Truck Series.In 1991, SCORE International racers Dick Landfield, Jimmy Smith, Jim Venable and Frank "Scoop" Vessels unveiled plans to create a pickup truck series for NASCAR. Three years later, the trucks were unveiled at the 1994 Daytona 500, and officially created as the SuperTruck Series. After hosting seven exhibition races, the series held its first season in 1995. The series, now known as the NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series, is one of three national series sanctioned by NASCAR (besides the Cup Series and Xfinity Series).
Truck racing series:
North AmericaUnited States NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series (1995–present) National Pickup Truck Racing Association (1983) SCCA RaceTruck Challenge (1987–1991) Moroso Performance All-Pro Pickup Truck Series (1984) ARCA Lincoln Welders Truck Series (1996–2016) FASCAR Pro Truck and Sportsman Series (2005–2008) Mexico MasterCard Truck Series (2002–2003) Pick Up Racing Mexico (2006–2012) Mikel's Trucks Series (2017–present)South AmericaArgentina TC Pick Up (2018–present) Brazil Pick-Up Racing (2001–2009) Copa Chevrolet Montana (2010–2012)EuropeBritish Pickup Truck RacingOceaniaAustralia V8 Utes (2001–2017) SuperUtes Series (2018–present) New Zealand SsangYong Racing SeriesAsiaThailand Thailand Super Series (2013–present)
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Bottom simulating reflector**
Bottom simulating reflector:
Bottom simulating reflectors (BSRs) are, on seismic reflection profiles, shallow seismic reflection events, characterized by their reflection geometry similar to seafloor bathymetry.
. They have, however, the opposite reflection polarity to the seabed reflection, and frequently intersect the primary reflections.
Cause of Reflection:
Seismic reflection is a sound wave bounced back from subsurface at the interface between media with different acoustic properties (density and wave velocity). In geology, the reflections normally occur at the contacts between different rocks, for example, between layers of sedimentary rocks (stratification). The acoustic properties of sedimentary rocks are influenced by their rock materials, pore space and fluid content. Reflections are generally parallel to sedimentary layering or bedding surfaces. Fluid content in pore space, however, sometimes becomes the dominant influence factor for the acoustic properties, therefore, reflections in such case, may not be parallel to bedding surfaces. BSRs are such a case of crossing bedding surfaces.Drilling results show BSRs approximately marking the base of gas hydrated sediments below the seafloor and the reflection is primarily caused by the free gas contained in sediments below the gas hydrated section. Gas presence in sediments is well known for its drastically lowering the sediment acoustic impedance and hence, generates high amplitude reflection at the interface of gas bearing formation. Formation of gas hydrate in deep sea sediments depends on its ambient pressure and temperature, both which are largely influenced by the depth below seafloor. This is the primary reason for BSRs grossly parallel to the seafloor reflection on seismic profiles.
Formation and Occurrence:
Gas hydrates are made of molecules of natural gas, mostly biogenic or thermogenic methane, contained in solid water molecule lattice. They are formed by combining methane with water under elevated pressures and at relatively low temperatures. Hence BSRs are widespread in arctic permafrost regions and in shallow sedimentary columns below seabed in deepwater continental margins
Application:
Geologcial hazard studies Identification of natural gas hydrate in deep sea sediments is crucial for offshore petroleum exploration. Without adequate equipment installed prior to drilling, blowout may occur if penetrating the gas hydrate sediments. Furthermore, presence of gas hydrates in marine sediments may alter sea floor stability, and induce submarine slumping.
Application:
Alternative energy resource Although current production technology has not been proven to be commercially viable, gas hydrates’ global occurrence in deep sea sediments, have still been considered as a potential alternative energy resource. It should be pointed out that areal distribution of BSRs alone is not adequate to properly estimate the potential reserve, since other techniques are needed to address the thickness of sedimentary columns which contain the hydrates. In addition, seismic acquisition parameters and acoustic properties of sediments with free gas in pores may all influence acoustic impedance contrast, which inevitably affects the reflection amplitude. This would cause the uncertainty of the relationship between BSRs and the presence of gas hydrate.
Application:
Climatic impact Because gas hydrates are only stable in a range of low temperatures and moderate pressures, atmospheric and ocean warming may trigger the hydrates instability and release significant amounts of methane from both permafrost and marine sediments. This could aggravate the greenhouse effect on the earth climate.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Apple Icon Image format**
Apple Icon Image format:
The Apple Icon Image format is an icon format used in Apple Inc.'s macOS. It supports icons of 16 × 16, 32 × 32, 48 × 48, 128 × 128, 256 × 256, 512 × 512 points at 1x and 2x scale, with both 1- and 8-bit alpha channels and multiple image states (example: open and closed folders). The fixed-size icons can be scaled by the operating system and displayed at any intermediate size.
Apple Icon Image format:
As of macOS 11, asset catalogs are the preferred file format for macOS custom icons instead.
File structure:
The file format consists of an 8 byte header, followed by any number of icons.
Header Icon data Icon types 1. The value inside the parenthesis is the uncompressed length for ARGB and 24-bit RGB icons.
2. it32 data always starts with a header of four zero-bytes (tested all icns files in macOS 10.15.7 and macOS 11). Usage unknown, the four zero-bytes can be any value and are quietly ignored.
†. These formats are supported in standalone icns files but do not display properly if used as application icon inside a .app package.
Image data format Mono icons with alpha mask can display three colors: white, black, and transparent.
The 4-bit an 8-bit icons use a fixed color palette with 16 colors and 256 colors respectively.
The 24-bit RGB format consists of the three compressed channels tightly packed (see Compression). The it32 icon must start with a four-byte header, see footnote above.
The ARGB format consists of the ascii values for 'ARGB' and the four compressed channels tightly packed (see Compression).
Compatibility the ARGB fields also accept files in PNG format – but not vice versa, you can not put ARGB images in any of the PNG-only fields (tested on macOS 11).
ARGB images are only supported in macOS 11 and newer – macOS 10.15.7 does not display ARGB images. Yet, even the ARGB keys can be displayed on macOS 10.15 if you set a JPEG 2000 or PNG image (see footnote on usage in app packages above).
The 24-bit RGB icons (is32, il32, ih32, it32) also allow images in JPEG 2000 and PNG format (tested on macOS 10.15.7 and macOS 11).
The support for newer image types seems to be introduced later than the key field (see previous two points). Therefore, the supported OS version may not be accurate or adjusted based on file format.
Other types The table of contents is a list of all contained types (4 byte type-name + 4 byte length).
The data for all nested icns files does not contain the icns file-header. So, if you want to save the data to a file you have to prepend the icns header.
Non-PNG / JPEG2000 Element Types:
Element types that deal with ARGB (32-bit) or RGB (24-bit) image formats require different types of headers before the binary data. It is important to note that this header is part of the image data and is not the 4-byte big endian icon element type value (e.g. ic04 or ic05). ARGB Elements ARGB images must have their binary portion of the image data preceded by the four byte 'ARGB' header. After that, instead of each pixel with each of its four channels stored together (e.g. ARGBARGBARGB), an image with three pixels would be stored in individual channels of pixel data (e.g. AAARRRGGGBBB). In addition, each channel of pixel data needs to be encoded as mentioned below.
Non-PNG / JPEG2000 Element Types:
RGB Elements RGB images have their binary portion of the image data preceded by four zero byte characters only when the element type is 'it32'. In all other cases, no header is needed. Channel data is separated as with the ARGB binary data (e.g. RRRGGGBBB instead of RGBRGBRGB). Each channel must also be encoded as mentioned below.
Mask Elements Mask elements are not encoded like ARGB and RGB image color channel data. The data is the same as that of an ARGB image except only the alpha channel data is provided. So for an image that has two pixels, ARGBARGB, the mask data is AA.
Compression:
Over time the format has been improved and there is support for compression of some parts of the pixel data. The 24-bit RGB (is32, il32, ih32, it32, icp4, icp5) and ARGB (ic04, ic05, icsb) pixel data are compressed (per channel) with a format similar to PackBits.
Some sources mention that the OS supports both compressed or uncompressed data chunks. However, manually crafting icns files with uncompressed 24-bit RGB or ARGB images will not display properly – at least on newer macOS releases (tested on macOS 11).
Compression:
Here is a GitHub repo with some swift code that appears to pass the test for both encoding and decoding as described here: ByteRunLengthCoder The following pseudocode decompresses the data: Example: 02 01 02 02 80 03 81 04 82 05 should decompress to 01 02 02 03 03 03 04 04 04 04 05 05 05 05 05 The following pseudocode compresses the data: Example: 01 02 02 03 03 03 04 04 04 04 05 05 05 05 05 should compress to 02 01 02 02 80 03 81 04 82 05
Known issues:
As of macOS 11, there are certain issues / bugs with the file format: Setting is32+ics8 or ih32+ich8 will display a proper icon. But setting il32+icl8 ignores the transparency mask and displays an icon without transparency.
Known issues:
Compressed ARGB data is not interpreted correctly. The last value of the blue channel (aka. the very last value) is ignored and treated as if it were all zero-bytes. Usually this is no issue since most icons will have transparency at the bottom right corner anyway. However, it can become an issue if the last value is a repeating byte (see Compression). Potentially, up to 130 pixels can lack the blue channel value. A workaround is to append an additional byte at the end which is interpreted as a control character without following data. You can compare the difference with these two examples: 69636E73 00000024 69633034 0000001C 41524742 FFFFFBFF FF00FB00 FF00FB00 FFFFFBFF 69636E73 00000025 69633034 0000001D 41524742 FFFFFBFF FF00FB00 FF00FB00 FFFFFBFF 00 macOS 10.15.7 (likely earlier) and later versions have an issue displaying PNG and JPEG 2000 icons for the keys icp4 (16x16), icp5 (32x32), and icp6 (64x64). The keys work fine in a standalone icns file but if used in an application, the icons are displayed completely scrambled. Either use the new ARGB format ic04 and ic05 (macOS 11+) or the old 24-bit RGB + alpha mask format. Use the latter with the old keys is32+s8mk and il32+l8mk, or with the newer keys icp4+s8mk and icp5+l8mk (writing RGB data into PNG fields). If using ARGB image data, make sure to provide alternative formats for macOS 10.15 and earlier. This issue is especially tricky to detect if you provide both, 16x16 and 16x16@2x icons, because if you connect your Mac to a non-retina monitor, the non-retina 16x16 icon will be used and thus the icon will be displayed scrambled. The icp6 field does not seem to be used in application icons and can safely be ignored. Additionally, if you don't provide the smaller icon sizes at all the bug will also manifest when the OS scales down your larger PNG/JPEG 2000 icons, so make sure to render smaller sizes and include them.
Support:
Various image viewers can load *.icns files, and free and open source converters from or to PNG also exist. GTK+ can load *.icns resources since 2007. Other tools supporting the format include the Apple Icon Composer and icns Browser, The Iconfactory, and IconBuilder.
MacOS offers the built-in iconutil command line tool to pack and unpack *.icns files.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**DOT pictograms**
DOT pictograms:
The DOT pictograms are a set of fifty pictograms used to convey information useful to travelers without using words. Such images are often used in airports, train stations, hotels, and other public places for foreign tourists, as well as being easier to identify than strings of text. Among these pictograms are graphics representing toilets and telephones. As a result of their near-universal acceptance, some describe them as the "Helvetica" of pictograms, and the character portrayed within them as Helvetica Man.As works of the United States government, the images are in the public domain and thus can be used by anyone for any purpose, without licensing issues.
History:
In the 1970s, the United States Department of Transportation recognized the shortcomings of pictograms drawn on an ad hoc basis at transportation-related facilities across the United States and commissioned the American Institute of Graphic Arts to produce a comprehensive set of pictograms. In collaboration with Roger Cook and Don Shanosky of Cook and Shanosky Associates, the designers conducted an exhaustive survey of pictograms already in use around the world, which drew from sources as diverse as Tokyo International Airport and the 1972 Olympic Games in Munich. The designers rated these pictograms based on criteria such as their legibility, their international recognizability and their resistance to vandalism. After determining which features were the most successful and appropriate, the designers drew a set of pictograms to represent 34 meanings requested by the DOT. The results of this research, as well as guidelines on how to best implement the symbols was presented in a report titled Symbol Signs – The development of Passenger/Pedestrian Oriented Symbols for Use in Transportation-Related Facilities in November 1974.In 1979, 16 symbols were added, bringing the total count to 50.
Development of symbols:
Initial groundwork Symbols were collected from a variety of sources, including railways, Olympic events, airports and government agencies to form a catalog of each type of symbol to be created for close examination. A key goal was to avoid starting from scratch when possible, and instead build off previous development of robust symbol designs in existing systems.
Development of symbols:
Evaluation The first overall step was to identify the symbols that were to be developed for the project, these were referred to as 'message areas'. The Department of Transportation's Office of Facilitation and AIGA committee devised the initial list of 34 messages. These messages were broken into four broad categories: 'Public Services', facility services and modes of transport (Telephones, toilets, first aid); 'Concessions', commercial activities (Car rental, coffee shop, shops); 'Processing Activities', passenger related processes (Ticket purchase, customs); 'Regulations', (No smoking, No entry).Symbols that conveyed the messages sought by the committee from the 24 sources were broken into 'concept groups', a simple grouping of symbols that used similar general designs to convey the message. For example, 'Telephone' symbols were divided into 4 concept groups: 'Telephone handset', 'Telephone dial', 'Front view of dial telephone' and 'Handset and dial'.
Development of symbols:
Scoring Symbols were assessed on three characteristics: Semantic, syntactic, pragmatic.
The semantic dimension refers to the relationship of a visual image to a meaning.
Development of symbols:
How well does this symbol represent the message? Do people fail to understand the message that the symbol denotes? Do people from various cultures misunderstand this symbol? Do people of various ages fail to understand this symbol? Is it difficult to learn this symbol? Has this symbol already been widely accepted? Does this symbol contain elements that are unrelated to the message? The syntactic dimension refers to the relationship of one visual image to another.
Development of symbols:
How does this symbol look? How well do the parts of this symbol relate to each other? How well does this symbol relate to other symbols? Is the construction of this symbol consistent in its use of figure/ground, solid/outline, overlapping, transparency, orientation, format, scale, color and texture? Does this symbol use a hierarchy of recognition? Are the most Important elements recognized first? Does this symbol seriously contradict existing standards or conventions? Is this symbol, and its elements, capable of systematic application for a variety of interrelated concepts? The pragmatic dimension refers to the relationship of a visual image to a user.
Development of symbols:
Can a person see the sign? Is this symbol seriously affected by poor lighting conditions, oblique viewing angles, and other visual 'noise'? Does this symbol' remain visible throughout the range of typical viewing distances? Is this symbol especially vulnerable to vandalism? Is this symbol difficult to reproduce? Can this symbol be enlarged and reduced successfully? Scores for these three categories were awarded by each committee member on a scale of 1 (weak) to 5 (strong). In addition to the individual score of each symbol, 'concept groups' were given an overall score based on how well the concept met the three categories.
Development of symbols:
Recommendations Finally they made recommendations and observations based on their scores and discussions about the symbols they reviewed. For the 'Telephone' symbol, the handset icon was common but an odd shape that could be confusable for other items, like wrenches; while symbols with dials were easy to understand but already obsolete with the increased use of the push-button telephone.The recommendations were summarized to suggest the final course of action to be taken with designing a symbol for the concept. For "Telephone", the decision was made to "Modify Group 1 concept; experiment with front view of modern telephone."
Implementation:
Symbol Signs provides some general guidelines as to implement the symbols in a facility. The guidelines present guidance to a design team, rather than a strict set of requirements for typeface, sizes, colors, illumination, etc, that must be adhered to. This decision is intended to strike a balance between creating a perfect system while allowing symbols to appropriately integrate into the environment they're being used in.
Implementation:
...the guidelines that follow were developed to achieve the following goals:To ensure legibility.
To aid in the process of learning to 'read' the symbols.
To provide adequate flexibility to allow appropriate response to specific design problems.
Implementation:
A typeface is not recommended, to allow flexibility for architectural and cultural needs of the facility. Emphasis is instead placed on examining the legibility and suitability for a particular typeface in the specific environment. In examples provided in Symbol Signs and when designing the symbols, Helvetica Medium, in a initial caps/start case was used by designers. This was particularly true of the design of the directional arrow. Letter size should be decided on a situational basis, using testing, however a general rule is that 1 inch (25 mm) in height for ever 50 feet (15 m) of viewing distance.
Implementation:
The 1974 edition of Symbol Signs was strict in its presentation of symbols: Symbols must appear in a 'symbol field', consisting of a square with rounded corners. The 'figure' must be black on a white symbol field, and never the reverse, white symbols on a black field.Symbols were determined to be typically legible from approximately 30 feet (9.1 m) with a 3 inches (76 mm) symbol to 155 feet (47 m) with a 12 inches (300 mm) symbol. Attention should also be given to the mounting height of signs, as signs mounted so they fall outside of 10 degrees of the natural line of vision will no longer be in a normal line of vision, and require the viewer to actively look up in order to see and read the sign.
Symbols:
Original Set (1974) The original set of symbols developed consisted of 34 symbols, primarily intended for transportation facilities. First Aid, No Smoking, No Parking and No Entry used "Ostwald number 6 1/2 pa" for the color red.
Public Services Concessions Processing Activities Regulations 1979 Additions In 1979, the Department of Transportation requested 16 additional symbols, to fill in gaps observed in the original set. First Aid, No Smoking, No Parking, No Dogs, and No Entry used Pantone Red 032 C and Exit used Pantone Green 340 C.
Symbols:
Public Services Concessions Processing Activities Regulations 2000s An unofficial change has been forced to the original symbols following increased efforts by the American Red Cross to discourage and eliminate usage of the 'red cross' symbol as a generic symbol of first aid or medical services. For example, in 1999 the Red Cross informed Ultimate Symbol that their 1996 publication Official Signs & Icons, featuring various symbol collections, that the Red Cross in the AIGA pictogram collection was a violation of the Geneva Convention and United States trademark laws, and asked for its removal from future editions. In 2005, the second edition of Official Signs & Icons, the red Greek cross was replaced with an identical Greek cross colored 'Safety Green' from ANSI Z535.1–2002. The adoption of a green Greek cross or white Greek cross on a green background is a common replacement, due to the visual similarity and wide usage, as the white cross on green background is used in ISO 7010 to represent first aid.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Dental trauma**
Dental trauma:
Dental trauma refers to trauma (injury) to the teeth and/or periodontium (gums, periodontal ligament, alveolar bone), and nearby soft tissues such as the lips, tongue, etc. The study of dental trauma is called dental traumatology.
Types:
Dental injuries Dental injuries include: Enamel infraction Enamel fracture Enamel-dentine fracture Enamel-dentine fracture involving pulp exposure Root fracture of tooth Periodontal injuries Concussion (bruising) Subluxation of the tooth (tooth knocked loose) Luxation of the tooth (displaced) Extrusive Intrusive Lateral Avulsion of the tooth (tooth knocked out) Injuries to supporting bone This injury involves the alveolar bone and may extend beyond the alveolus. There are five different types of alveolar fractures: Communicated fracture of the socket wall Fracture of the socket wall Dentoalveolar fracture (segmental) Fracture of the maxilla : Le Fort fracture, zygomatic fracture, orbital blowout Fracture of the mandibleTrauma injuries involving the alveolus can be complicated as it does not happen in isolation, very often presents along with other types of tooth tissue injuries.
Types:
Signs of dentoalveolar fracture: Change to occlusion Multiple teeth moving together as a segment and are normally displaced Bruising of attached gingivae Gingivae across the fracture line often laceratedInvestigation: Require more than one radiographic view to identify the fracture line.
Treatment: Reposition displaced teeth under local anaesthetic and stabilise the mobile segment with a splint for 4 weeks, suture any soft tissue lacerations.
Types:
Soft tissue laceration Soft tissues injuries are presented commonly in association with dental trauma. Areas normally affected are lips, buccal mucosa, gingivae, frenum and tongue. The most common injuries are lips and gingivae. For lips, important to rule out presence of foreign objects in wounds and lacerations through careful examination. A radiograph can be taken to identify any potential foreign objects.Gingivae lacerations that are small normally heals spontaneously and do not require any intervention. However, this can be one of the clinical presentation of an alveolar fracture. Gingivae bleeding especially around the margins may suggest injury to the periodontal ligament of the tooth.
Types:
The facial nerve and parotid duct should be examined for any potential damage when the buccal mucosa is involved.
Deep tissue wounds should be repaired in layers with sutures that are resorbable.
Types:
Primary teeth Trauma to primary teeth occurs most commonly at the age of two to three years, during the development of motor coordination. When primary teeth are injured, the resulting treatment prioritises the safety of the adult tooth, and should avoid any risk of damaging the permanent successors. This is because the root apex of an injured primary tooth lies near the tooth germ of the adult tooth.Therefore, a displaced primary tooth will be removed if it is found to have encroached upon the developing adult tooth germ. If this happens, parents should be advised of possible complications such as enamel hypoplasia, hypocalcification, crown/root dilaceration, or disruptions in tooth eruption sequence.Potential sequelae can involve pulpal necrosis, pulp obliteration and root resorption. Necrosis is the most common complication and an assessment is generally made based on the colour supplemented with radiograph monitoring. A change in colour may mean that the tooth is still vital but if this persists it is likely to be non-vital.
Types:
Permanent teeth Dental Injuries Periodontal Injuries
Risk factors:
Age, especially young childrenPrimary dentition stage (2–3 years old, when children's motor function is developing and start learning how to walk/ run) Mixed dentition stage (8–10 years old) Permanent dentition stage (13–15 years old) Male > Female Season (Many trauma incidents occur more in summer compared to winter) Sports, especially contact sports such as football, hockey, rugby, basketball and skating Piercing in tongue and lips Military training Acute changes in the barometric pressure, i.e. dental barotrauma, which can affect scuba divers and aviators Class II malocclusion with increased overjet and Class II skeletal relationship and incompetent lips are the significant risk factors
Prevention:
Prevention in general is relatively difficult as it is nearly impossible to stop accidents from happening, especially in children who are quite active. Regular use of a gum shield during sports and other high-risk activities (such as military training) is the most effective prevention for dental trauma. They are mainly being fitted on the upper teeth as it has higher risk of dental trauma compared to the lower teeth. Gum shields ideally have to be comfortable for users, retentive, odourless, tasteless and the materials should not be causing any harm to the body. However, studies in various high-risk populations for dental injuries have repeatedly reported low compliance of individuals for the regular using of mouthguard during activities. Moreover, even with regular use, effectiveness of prevention of dental injuries is not complete, and injuries can still occur even when mouthguards are used as users are not always aware of the best makes or size, which inevitably result in a poor fit.Types of gum shield Stock ready-moulded Not recommended as it does not conform the teeth at all Poor retention Poor fit Higher risk of dislodging during contact sports and airway occlusion which may lead to respiratory distress Self-moulded/ Boil and bite Limited range of sizes, which may result in poor fitting Can be easily remoulded if distorted Cheap Custom-made Made with ethylene vinyl acetate The most ideal type of gum shield Good retention Able to build in multiple layers/laminations ExpensiveOne of the most important measures is to impart knowledge and awareness about dental injury to those who are involved in sports environments like boxing and in school children in which they are at high risk of suffering dental trauma through an extensive educational campaign including lectures, leaflets, posters which should be presented in an easy understandable way.
Management:
The management depends on the type of injury involved and whether it is a baby or an adult tooth. If teeth are completely knocked out baby front teeth should not be replaced. The area should be cleaned gently and the child brought to see a dentist. Adult front teeth (which usually erupt at around six years of age) can be replaced immediately if clean. See below and the Dental Trauma Guide website for more details. If a tooth is avulsed, make sure it is a permanent tooth (primary teeth should not be replanted, and instead the injury site should be cleaned to allow the adult tooth to begin to erupt).
Management:
Reassure the patient and keep them calm.
If the tooth can be found, pick it up by the crown (the white part). Avoid touching the root part.
If the tooth is dirty, wash it briefly (ten seconds) under cold running water but do not scrub the tooth.
Place the tooth back in the socket where it was lost from, taking care to place it the correct way (matching the other tooth) Encourage the patient to bite on a handkerchief to hold the tooth in position.
Management:
If it is not possible to replace the tooth immediately, ideally, the tooth should be placed in Hank's balanced salt solution, if not available, in a glass of milk or a container with the patient's saliva or in the patient's cheek (keeping it between the teeth and the inside of the cheek – note this is not suitable for young children who may swallow the tooth). Transporting the tooth in water is not recommended, as this will damage the delicate cells that make up the tooth's interior.
Management:
Seek emergency dental treatment immediately.When the injured teeth are painful while functioning due to damage to the periodontal ligaments (e.g., dental subluxation), a temporary splinting of the injured teeth may relieve the pain and enhance eating ability. Splinting should only be used in certain situations. Splinting in lateral and extrusive luxation had a poorer prognosis than in root fractures. An avulsed permanent tooth should be gently rinsed under tap water and immediately re-planted in its original socket within the alveolar bone and later temporarily splinted by a dentist. Failure to re-plant the avulsed tooth within the first 40 minutes after the injury may result in very poor prognosis for the tooth. Management of injured primary teeth differs from management of permanent teeth; an avulsed primary tooth should not be re-planted (to avoid damage to the permanent dental crypt). This is due to the close proximity of the apex of a primary tooth to the permanent tooth underneath. The permanent dentition can suffer from tooth malformation, impacted teeth and eruption disturbances due to trauma to primary teeth. The priority should always be reducing potential damage to the underlying permanent dentition.For other injuries, it is important to keep the area clean by using a soft toothbrush and antiseptic mouthwash such as chlorhexidine gluconate. Soft foods and avoidance of contact sports is also recommended in the short term. Dental care should be sought as quickly as possible.
Management:
Splinting A tooth that has experienced trauma may become loose due to the periodontal ligament becoming damaged or fracture to the root of the tooth. Splinting ensures that the tooth is held in the correct position within the socket, ensuring that no further trauma occurs to enable healing. A splint can either be flexible or rigid. Flexible splints do not completely immobilise the traumatised tooth and still allow for functional movement. Contrastingly, rigid splints completely immobilise the traumatised tooth. The International Association of Dental Traumatology (IADT) guidelines recommend the use of flexible, non-rigid splints for a short duration by stating that both periodontal and pulpal healing is encouraged if the traumatised tooth is allowed slight movement and if the splinting time is not too long.
Complications:
Not all sequelae of trauma are immediate and many of them can occur months or years after the initial incident thus required prolonged follow-up. Common complications are pulpal necrosis, pulpal obliteration, root resorption and damage to the successors teeth in primary teeth dental trauma. The most common complication was pulp necrosis (34.2%). 50% of the tooth that have trauma related to avulsion experienced ankylotic root resorption after a median TIC (time elapsed between the traumatic event and the diagnosis of complications) of 1.18 years. Teeth that have multiple traumatic events also showed to have higher chance of pulp necrosis (61.9%) compared to teeth that experienced a single traumatic injury (25.3%) in the studies (1) Pulpal necrosis Pulp necrosis usually occurs either as ischaemic necrosis (infarction) caused by disruption to the blood supply at the apical foramen or as an infection-related liquefactive necrosis following dental trauma (2). Signs of pulpal necrosis include Persistent grey colour to tooth that does not fade Radiographic signs of periapical inflammation Clinical signs of infection: tenderness, sinus, suppuration, swellingTreatment options will be extraction for the primary tooth. For the permanent tooth, endodontic treatment can be considered.
Complications:
Root resorption Root resorption following traumatic dental injuries, whether located along the root surface or within the root canal appears to be a sequel to wound healing events, where a significant amount of the PDL or pulp has been lost due to the effect of acute trauma.
Complications:
Pulpal obliteration 4-24% of traumatized teeth will have some degrees of pulpal obliteration that is characterized by the loss of pulpal space radiographically and yellow discolouration of the clinical crown. No treatment is needed if it is asymptomatic. Treatment options will be extraction for symptomatic primary tooth. For symptomatic permanent tooth, root canal treatment is often challenging due to pulp chamber is filled with calcified material and the ‘drop off’ sensation of entering a pulp chamber will not occur.
Complications:
Damage to the successor teeth Dental trauma to the primary teeth might cause damage to the permanent teeth. Damage to the permanent teeth especially during development stage might have following consequences: Crown dilaceration Odontoma-like malformation Sequestration of permanent tooth germs Root dilaceration Arrest of root formation
Epidemiology:
Dental trauma is most common in younger people, accounting for 17% of injuries to the body in those aged 0–6 years compared to an average of 5% across all ages. It is more frequently observed in males compared to females. Traumatic dental injuries are more common in permanent teeth compared to deciduous teeth and usually involve the front teeth of the upper jaw."The oral region comprises 1% of the total body area, yet it accounts for 5% of all bodily injuries. In preschool children, oral injuries make up as much as 17% of all bodily injuries. The incidence of traumatic dental injuries is 1%–3%, and the prevalence is steady at 20%–30%.”Almost 30% of the children in pre-school have mostly experienced trauma to primary teeth. Dental injuries involving the permanent teeth happen to almost 25% of children in school and 30% of adults. The incident varies in different countries as well as within the country itself. Dental traumatic accidents depends on one's activity status and also the surrounding environment factor but these are the main predisposing risk factor compared to a person's age and gender.Trauma is the most common cause of loss of permanent incisors in childhood. Dental trauma often lead to the main complication such as pulpal necrosis, and it's nearly impossible to predict the long-term prognosis of the injured tooth and often results in long term restorative problems.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**MacTalk Australia**
MacTalk Australia:
MacTalk Australia was an online forum dedicated to news, support & discussion amongst Apple enthusiasts or potential users, with an Australian bias.
After its inception in 2004, the forum quickly became a top 10 tech site receiving hundreds of thousands of visits per month. In 2011 the site was sold to Niche Media, owner of Macworld Australia Magazine, and by 2015 a message by the sites' volunteer moderators declared the site dead.
History:
Origins AppleTalk Australia was founded on 1 January 2004 by Matt "Disko" Kelsh and Anthony "decryption" Agius, after meeting on another tech forum - Overclockers Australia - and banding together to create an online forum for Australian Apple users. The name was borrowed from Apple's own networking product, AppleTalk. The site was initially run through voluntary labour and donations, before turning to a commercial venture, with advertising assisting in the running costs of the site.
History:
Name Change In 2006 AppleTalk was rebranded MacTalk Australia. Whilst the site had initially flown under Apple's radar (for using its trademarked name "AppleTalk"), a disgruntled forum member reportedly alerted Apple to the forum's existence, leading to Apple's renowned legal team contacting Agius with a demand to change the forum's name. As the forum was already moving towards becoming a commercial venture, it was rebadged as MacTalk Australia.
History:
Controversy In 2008 Agius published claims that Apple had briefed resellers on the Australian iPhone release and later posted pictures of a box that had been sent to a local reseller, labelled "Do Not Open Until 10 June".
Awards From July 2004 to June 2005 AppleTalk Australia was ranked #19 in the Hitwise Australia 'News and Media — IT Media' industry based on number of visits, improving to #8 between October and December 2005.
History:
Domain and Name The site was originally registered at appletalk.ma.cx but was switched to appletalkaustralia.com on 8 January 2004. In late 2006, to avoid any further trademark issues the site was renamed "MacTalk Australia" on the domain mactalk.com.au MacTalk Members Unite In late August 2008 site founder Anthony "decryption" Agius put out the call to raise $8,500 for a new server. In just four days, MacTalk members raised $5,800. A thank you thread was made shortly after by Anthony, thanking all for their help.
History:
Founder's Exit In February 2011, Agius put the site up for sale on auction website Flippa.com for "offers of more than $125,000". In June the same year Agius found a buyer in Niche Media, publishers of Macworld Australia magazine. In an interview, Agius said that "after such a significant financial and personal investment I'm walking away with a significant redundancy package". The transition was temporarily held up when co-founder Matt "Disko" Kelsh, who had left before the site became commercial, threatened legal action over the sale. The sale eventually went ahead for a reported $150,000.MacTalk's current publisher is stated as being Liana Pappas.
Forum:
MacTalk's forums run on VBulletin and VBAdvanced.
Forum:
Forum Software The forum originally ran on Invision Power Board 1.3 with a highly customised skin, created by "the_argon". Due to the heavy customisation, an upgrade of the software was fraught with great difficulty and indefinitely put off, but in April 2006 was rebuilt around Invision Power Board version 2.1.4 after the site was hacked. However, due to changes in IPB updates breaking the customised skin, the board was not updated and as a result was hacked once again in October 2006. Rather than rebuild around IPB again, the admins decided to rebuild the skin around vBulletin, this time not using a wrapper, but entirely using the theme engine built in. The adapted skin was built by "iSlayer" over a week-long period while the forums were down. The old database was migrated and the site brought up again. As of October 2010, the front page, generated using Wordpress, was designed by a third party.
Forum:
Media Mentions 26 April 2005 - Discussion of the iTunes Music Store in Australia mentioned.
7 March 2007 - A user discovers that the latest version of iTunes mentions TV ratings for Australia, suggesting Apple may be planning to release TV shows through the Australian iTunes Store. The discovery is reported in The Age newspaper.
Most popular articles An up-to-date list of the most popular articles can be found on the site.
Do you need to defrag your Mac HD? The answer revealed! published March 2009, with approx. 209,000 views.
How to get a US iTunes account - free! published October 2009, with approx. 173,900 views.
How-To: The ultimate iTunes Media Server published August 2008, with approx. 126,000 views.
Australian iPhone Release Info Given to Resellers by Apple Australia published May 2008, with approx. 116,000 views.
How to install Greasemonkey scripts on Safari. published January 2009, with approx. 82,000 views.
Podcasts:
On 8 September 2007, Anthony "decryption" Agius released the first MacTalk podcast, "I Only Bought it Because It's New" consisting of himself, Jedda "jedda" Wignall, Peter "fulltimecasual" Wells and Marc "marc" Edwards of Bjango fame. The concept of the podcasts has been a group of guys sitting around drinking beer and talking about current Mac topics. As of June 2013, there are over 255, each approximately an hour long, available for free through the iTunes Store. 13 November 2009 marked the recording of the 100th episode of MacTalk, "Live from the Birmingham Hotel", and on 20 March 2012, the 200th episode was recorded. The podcast's 215th Episode references the second sentence of this Wikipedia entry.
Hosting:
MacTalk is currently hosted in Melbourne, Australia, by Intervolve.
MacTalk Magazine:
A single issue of MacTalk Magazine was produced, available for free in print and as a PDF.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**DPP7**
DPP7:
Dipeptidyl-peptidase 2 is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the DPP7 gene.The protein encoded by this gene is a post-proline cleaving aminopeptidase expressed in quiescent lymphocytes. The resting lymphocytes are maintained through suppression of apoptosis, a state which is disrupted by inhibition of this novel serine protease. The enzyme has strong sequence homology with prolyl carboxypeptidase and is active at both acidic and neutral pH.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Radeon HD 5000 series**
Radeon HD 5000 series:
The Evergreen series is a family of GPUs developed by Advanced Micro Devices for its Radeon line under the ATI brand name. It was employed in Radeon HD 5000 graphics card series and competed directly with Nvidia's GeForce 400 Series.
Release:
The existence was spotted on a presentation slide from AMD Technology Analyst Day July 2007 as "R8xx". AMD held a press event in the USS Hornet Museum on September 10, 2009 and announced ATI Eyefinity multi-display technology and specifications of the Radeon HD 5800 series' variants. The first variants of the Radeon HD 5800 series were launched September 23, 2009, with the HD 5700 series launching October 12 and HD 5970 launching on November 18 The HD 5670, was launched on January 14, 2010, and the HD 5500 and 5400 series were launched in February 2010, completing what has appeared to be most of AMD's Evergreen GPU lineup.
Release:
Demand so greatly outweighed supply that more than two months after launch, many online retailers were still having trouble keeping the 5800 and 5900 series in stock.
Architecture:
This article is about all products under the Radeon HD 5000 Series brand. TeraScale 2 was introduced with this.
Radeon HD 5830 and above products，have the capability to calculate double-precision floating-point format.
Radeon HD 5770 and below products，have the capability to calculate only single-precision floating-point format.
OpenGL 4.x compliance requires supporting FP64 shaders. These are implemented by emulation on some TeraScale (microarchitecture) GPUs.
Multi-monitor support The on-die display controllers with the new brand name ATI Eyefinity were introduced with the Radeon HD 5000 Series. The entire HD 5000 series products have Eyefinity capabilities supporting three outputs. The Radeon HD 5870 Eyefinity Edition, however, supports six mini DisplayPort outputs, all of which can be simultaneously active.
Architecture:
Display pipeline supports xvYCC gamut and 12-bit per component output via HDMI. HDMI 1.3a output. The previous generation Radeon R700 GPUs in the Radeon HD 4000 Series only support up to LPCM 7.1 audio and no bitstream output support for Dolby TrueHD and DTS-HD Master Audio audio formats to external decoders. This feature is now supported on Evergreen family GPUs. On Evergreen family GPUs, DisplayPort outputs on board are capable of 10-bit per component output, and HDMI output is capable of 12-bit per component output.
Architecture:
Video acceleration Unified Video Decoder (UVD2.2) is present on the dies of all products and supported by AMD Catalyst 9.11 and later through DXVA 2.0 on Microsoft Windows and VDPAU on Linux and FreeBSD. The free and open-source graphics device driver#ATI/AMD also support UVD.
OpenCL (API) OpenCL accelerates many scientific software packages up to a factor 10 or 100 and more, compared to contemporary CPUs.
OpenCL 1.0 to 1.2 are supported for all TeraScale 2 and 3 chips.
Radeon Feature Table:
The following table shows features of AMD/ATI's GPUs (see also: List of AMD graphics processing units).
Desktop products:
Radeon HD 5900 Codenamed Hemlock, the Radeon HD 5900 series was announced on October 12, 2009, starting with the HD 5970. The Radeon HD 5900 series utilizes two Cypress graphics processors and a third-party PCI-E bridge. Similar to Radeon HD 4800 X2 series graphics cards; however, AMD has abandoned the use of X2 moniker for dual-GPU variants starting with Radeon HD 5900 series, making it the only series within the Evergreen GPU family to have two GPUs on one PCB.
Desktop products:
Radeon HD 5800 Codenamed Cypress, the Radeon HD 5800 series was announced on September 23, 2009. Products included Radeon HD 5850 and Radeon HD 5870. The launching model of Radeon HD 5870 can support three display outputs at most, and one of these has to support DisplayPort. In terms of overall performance, the 5870 comes in between the GTX 470 and GTX 480 from rival company Nvidia, being closer to the GTX 480 than the GTX 470. An Eyefinity 6 edition of Radeon HD 5870 was released, with 2 GiB GDDR5 memory, supporting six simultaneous displays, all to be connected to one of the mini DisplayPort outputs and all supporting this connection natively to not require additional hardware. The Radeon HD 5870 has 1600 usable shader processors, while the Radeon HD 5850 has 1,440 usable stream cores, as 160 out of the 1,600 total cores are disabled during product binning which detects potentially defective areas of the chip. A Radeon HD 5830 was released on February 25, 2010. The Radeon HD 5830 has 1,120 usable stream cores and a standard core clock of 800 MHz.
Desktop products:
Radeon HD 5700 The codename for the 5700 GPU was Juniper and it was exactly half of Cypress. Half the shader engines, half the memory controllers, half the ROPs, half the TMUs, half everything. The 5750 had one shader engine disabled (of 10), so had 720 stream processors, while the 5770 had all ten enabled. Additionally, the 5750 ran at 700 MHz and a lower voltage, while the 5770 used more power, but ran at 850 MHz. Both cards were normally found with 1 GB of GDDR5 memory, but 512 MB variants did exist, performance suffering somewhat.
Desktop products:
Radeon HD 5600 Codenamed Redwood XT, the 5600 series has all five of Redwood's shader engines enabled. As each of them has 80 VLIW-5 units, this gave it 400 stream processors. Reference clocks were 775 MHz for all 5600s, while memory clocks varied between OEMs, as did the use of DDR3 and GDDR5 memory, the latter being twice as fast.
Desktop products:
Radeon HD 5500 The Radeon HD 5570 was released on February 9, 2010, using the Redwood XT GPU as seen in the 5600 series. At first release was limited to DDR3 memory, but later, ATI added support for GDDR5 memory. One more variant, with only 320 stream cores, is available and Radeon HD 5550 was suggested as the product name. 5570s and 5550s were available with GDDR5, GDDR3 and DDR2 memory. The 5550 variant disabled one shader engine, so had only 320 stream processors (4 engines, 80 VLIW-5 units each).
Desktop products:
All reference board designs of the Radeon HD 5500 series are half-height, making them suitable for a low profile form factor chassis.
Radeon HD 5400 Codenamed Cedar, the Radeon HD 5400 series was announced on February 4, 2010, starting with the HD 5450. The Radeon HD 5450 has 80 stream cores, a core clock of 650 MHz, and 800 MHz DDR2 or DDR3 memory. The 5400 series is designed to assume a low-profile card size.
Graphics device drivers:
AMD's proprietary graphics device driver "Catalyst" AMD Catalyst is being developed for Microsoft Windows and Linux. As of July 2014, other operating systems are not officially supported. This may be different for the AMD FirePro brand, which is based on identical hardware but features OpenGL-certified graphics device drivers.
AMD Catalyst supports of course all features advertised for the Radeon brand.
Free and open-source graphics device driver "Radeon" The free and open-source drivers are primarily developed on Linux and for Linux, but have been ported to other operating systems as well. On HD5000, the driver using following six parts: Linux kernel component DRM Linux kernel component KMS driver: basically the device driver for the display controller in kernel, called "radeon".
user-space component libDRM: basically one of 3d drivers. The HD5000 series are using the "r600g" driver.
Graphics device drivers:
user-space component in Mesa 3D; a special and distinct 2D graphics device driver for X.Org Server; with this card, EXA is used instead of GlamorThe free and open-source "Radeon" graphics driver supports most of the features implemented into the Radeon line of GPUs.The free and open-source "Radeon" graphics device drivers are not reverse engineered, but based on documentation released by AMD.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Map seed**
Map seed:
In video games using procedural world generation, the map seed is a (relatively) short number or text string which is used to procedurally create the game world ("map"). This means that while the seed-unique generated map may be many megabytes in size (often generated incrementally and virtually unlimited in potential size), it is possible to reset to the unmodified map, or the unmodified map can be exchanged between players, just by specifying the map seed. An example of a map seed in Minecraft is "-2242547518357798464". Map seeds are a type of random seeds.
Map seed:
Games which use procedural generation and include support for setting the map seed include Ark: Survival Evolved, Minecraft, Factorio, SCP – Containment Breach, and the desktop version of Terraria. For Minecraft especially, there are websites and articles, dedicated to sharing seeds which have been found to generate interesting maps.
Map seed:
The map seed only has meaning in the context of the algorithm used to generate the map (that algorithm is often, based on Perlin noise). So if the map generation algorithm changes, the map generated by a given seed will also change. Such changes are particularly obvious in Minecraft, where they are handled (or rather, not handled) by simply generating any newly explored chunks of an existing map using the new algorithm, leading to obvious and jarring discontinuities after upgrading.
Map seed:
Favorable seeds can be used when speedrunning video games by specifying the map seed manually.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Jewish mystical exegesis**
Jewish mystical exegesis:
Jewish mystical exegesis is a method of interpreting the Bible based on the assumption that the Torah contains secret knowledge regarding creation and the manifestations of God. The only way to find these secrets is to know how to decode the text and reveal them. The method most likely dates back to the 3rd century.
Jewish mystical exegesis:
Focusing on the holiness of the text, Jewish mystics consider every nuance of the text to be a clue in discovering divine secrets, from the entire text to the accents on each letter. Once one can find such knowledge, one can use the text in mystical rituals to affect both the upper worlds (heavens) and the lower world (our world). The name of God is considered one of the greatest sources of power and is assumed to be hidden in various forms throughout the text. Much activity involves rearranging the breaks between words to seek out different names for God as well as other aspects of hidden knowledge.
Jewish mystical exegesis:
There are two foundational texts within the realm of Jewish mysticism: the Sefer Yezirah and the kabbalistic Zohar.
Sefer Yetzirah:
Sefer Yetzirah (Hebrew, Sēpher Yəṣîrâh "Book of Formation," or "Book of Creation," ספר יצירה) is the title of the earliest extant book on Jewish esotericism. "Yetzirah" is more literally translated as "Formation"; the word "Briah" is used for "Creation".
Zohar:
The Zohar was originally considered to be a revelation from God through R. Simeon ben Yohai, though it was most likely written by Moses de Leon of Spain in the 13th century. The text uses large amounts of gematria to interpret the Torah text. The method of gematria involves numeric values assigned to Hebrew letters, giving every word a value, allowing one to look for patterns in the text based on those numerical values. According to the Zohar, gematria is the highest category of interpretation, called "Sod" which refers to mystical interpretation. There is also the literal, allusion-based and anagogical meanings of the text which are referred to as "Peshat", "Remez" and "Derash" respectively. When the 4th category is added, the acrostic forms the four-fold exegetical method called PaRDeS ("Paradise") which can be achieved once one understands the Torah in all four modes of interpretation.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Short Message Peer-to-Peer**
Short Message Peer-to-Peer:
Short Message Peer-to-Peer (SMPP) in the telecommunications industry is an open, industry standard protocol designed to provide a flexible data communication interface for the transfer of short message data between External Short Messaging Entities (ESMEs), Routing Entities (REs) and SMSC.SMPP is often used to allow third parties (e.g. value-added service providers like news organizations) to submit messages, often in bulk, but it may be used for SMS peering as well. SMPP is able to carry short messages including EMS, voicemail notifications, Cell Broadcasts, WAP messages including WAP Push messages (used to deliver MMS notifications), USSD messages and others. Because of its versatility and support for non-GSM SMS protocols, like UMTS, IS-95 (CDMA), CDMA2000, ANSI-136 (TDMA) and iDEN, SMPP is the most commonly used protocol for short message exchange outside SS7 networks.
History:
SMPP (Short Message Peer-to-Peer) was originally designed by Aldiscon, a small Irish company that was later acquired by Logica (since 2016, after a number of changes Mavenir). The protocol was originally created by a developer, Ian J Chambers, to test the functionality of the SMSC without using SS7 test equipment to submit messages. In 1999, Logica formally handed over SMPP to the SMPP Developers Forum, later renamed as The SMS Forum and now disbanded. As part of the original handover terms, SMPP ownership has now returned to Mavenir due to the disbanding of the SMS Forum.
History:
To date, SMPP development is suspended and SMS Forum is disbanded. From the SMS Forum website: July 31, 2007 - The SMS Forum, a non-profit organization with a mission to develop, foster and promote SMS (short message service) to the benefit of the global wireless industry will disband by July 27, 2007.
A press release, attached to the news, used to warn that site will be suspended soon. In spite of this, the site was mostly functioning and specifications could be downloaded (as of 31 January 2012). As of 12 April 2021, the website owner has changed and the specifications can be download from mirror sites only.
In 1995 the ETSI has included the SMPP protocol into the technical report TR 03.39.
Operation:
Contrary to its name, the SMPP uses the client–server model of operation. The Short Message Service Center (SMSC) usually acts as a server, awaiting connections from ESMEs. When SMPP is used for SMS peering, the sending MC usually acts as a client.
The protocol is based on pairs of request/response PDUs (protocol data units, or packets) exchanged over OSI layer 4 (TCP session or X.25 SVC3) connections. The well-known port assigned by the IANA for SMPP when operating over TCP is 2775, but multiple arbitrary port numbers are often used in messaging environments.
Operation:
Before exchanging any messages, a bind command must be sent and acknowledged. The bind command determines in which direction will be possible to send messages; bind_transmitter only allows client to submit messages to the server, bind_receiver means that the client will only receive the messages, and bind_transceiver (introduced in SMPP 3.4) allows message transfer in both directions. In the bind command the ESME identifies itself using system_id, system_type and password; the address_range field designed to contain ESME address is usually left empty. The bind command contains interface_version parameter to specify which version of SMPP protocol will be used.
Operation:
Message exchange may be synchronous, where each peer waits for a response for each PDU being sent, or asynchronous, where multiple requests can be issued without waiting and acknowledged in a skew order by the other peer; the number of unacknowledged requests is called a window; for the best performance both communicating sides must be configured with the same window size.
Operation:
Versions The SMPP standard has evolved during the time. The most commonly used versions of SMPP are: SMPP 3.3 the oldest used version (despite its limitations, it is still widely used); supports GSM only. Generates an immediate response for each message sent.
SMPP 3.4 adds optional tag–length–value (TLV) parameters, support of non-GSM SMS technologies and the transceiver support (single connections that can send and receive messages). The exchange of SMPP request and response PDUs between an ESME Transmitter and SMSC may occur synchronously or asynchronously.
SMPP 5.0 is the latest version of SMPP; adds support for cell broadcasting, smart flow control. As of 2023, it is not widely used.The applicable version is passed in the interface_version parameter of a bind command.
PDU format (after version 3.4):
The SMPP PDUs are binary encoded for efficiency. They start with a header which may be followed by a body: PDU header Each PDU starts with a header. The header consists of 4 fields, each of length of 4 octets: command_length Is the overall length of the PDU in octets (including command_length field itself); must be ≥ 16 as each PDU must contain the 16 octet header command_id Identifies the SMPP operation (or command). If the most significant bit is cleared, this is a request operation. Otherwise it is a response.
PDU format (after version 3.4):
command_status Always has a value of 0 in requests; in responses it carries information about the result of the operation sequence_number Is used to correlate requests and responses within an SMPP session; allows asynchronous communication (using a sliding window method)All numeric fields in SMPP use the big endian order, which means that the first octet is the Most Significant Byte (MSB).
Example:
This is an example of the binary encoding of a 60-octet submit_sm PDU. The data is shown in Hex octet values as a single dump and followed by a header and body break-down of that PDU.
This is best compared with the definition of the submit_sm PDU from the SMPP specification in order to understand how the encoding matches the field by field definition.
The value break-downs are shown with decimal in parentheses and Hex values after that. Where you see one or several hex octets appended, this is because the given field size uses 1 or more octets encoding.
Again, reading the definition of the submit_sm PDU from the spec will make all this clearer.
Example:
PDU header 'command_length', (60) ... 00 00 00 3C 'command_id', (4) ... 00 00 00 04 'command_status', (0) ... 00 00 00 00 'sequence_number', (5) ... 00 00 00 05 PDU body 'service_type', () ... 00 'source_addr_ton', (2) ... 02 'source_addr_npi', (8) ... 08 'source_addr', (555) ... 35 35 35 00 'dest_addr_ton', (1) ... 01 'dest_addr_npi', (1) ... 01 'dest_addr', (555555555) ... 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 00 'esm_class', (0) ... 00 'protocol_id', (0) ... 00 'priority_flag', (0) ... 00 'schedule_delivery_time', (0) ... 00 'validity_period', (0) ... 00 'registered_delivery', (0) ... 00 'replace_if_present_flag', (0) ... 00 'data_coding', (3) ... 03 'sm_default_msg_id', (0) ... 00 'sm_length', (15) ... 0F 'short_message', (Hello Wikipedia) ... 48 65 6C 6C 6F 20 57 69 6B 69 70 65 64 69 61 Note that the text in the short_message field must match the data_coding. When the data_coding is 8 (UCS2), the text must be in UCS-2BE (or its extension, UTF-16BE). When the data_coding indicates a 7-bit encoding, each septet is stored in a separate octet in the short_message field (with the most significant bit set to 0). SMPP 3.3 data_coding exactly copied TP-DCS values of GSM 03.38, which make it suitable only for GSM 7-bit default alphabet, UCS2 or binary messages; SMPP 3.4 introduced a new list of data_coding values: The meaning of the data_coding=4 or 8 is the same as in SMPP 3.3. Other values in the range 1-15 are reserved in SMPP 3.3. Unfortunately, unlike SMPP 3.3, where data_coding=0 was unambiguously GSM 7-bit default alphabet, for SMPP 3.4 and higher the GSM 7-bit default alphabet is missing in this list, and data_coding=0 may differ for various Short message service centers—it may be ISO-8859-1, ASCII, GSM 7-bit default alphabet, UTF-8 or even configurable per ESME. When using data_coding=0, both sides (ESME and SMSC) must be sure they consider it the same encoding. Otherwise it is better not to use data_coding=0. It may be tricky to use the GSM 7-bit default alphabet, some Short message service centers requires data_coding=0, others e.g. data_coding=241.
Quirks:
Despite its wide acceptance, the SMPP has a number of problematic features: No data_coding for GSM 7-bit default alphabet Not standardized meaning of data_coding=0 Unclear support for Shift-JIS encoding Incompatibility of submit_sm_resp between SMPP versions Using of SMPP 3.3 SMSC Delivery Receipts, especially the Message Id format in them No data_coding for GSM 7-bit default alphabet Although data_coding value in SMPP 3.3 are based on the GSM 03.38, since SMPP 3.4 there is no data_coding value for GSM 7-bit alphabet (GSM 03.38). However, it is common for DCS=0 to indicate the GSM 7-bit alphabet, particularly for SMPP connections to SMSCs on GSM mobile networks. It is further ambiguous whether the 7-bit alphabet is packed, as in GSM, allowing sending 160 characters in 140 octets, or whether the each 7-bit character takes up an entire octet (with the high bit set to zero, as with ASCII).
Quirks:
Not standardized meaning of data_coding=0 According to SMPP 3.4 and 5.0 the data_coding=0 means ″SMSC Default Alphabet″. Which encoding it really is, depends on the type of the SMSC and its configuration.
Quirks:
Unclear support for Shift-JIS encoding One of the encodings in CDMA standard C.R1001 is Shift-JIS used for Japanese. SMPP 3.4 and 5.0 specifies three encodings for Japanese (JIS, ISO-2022-JP and Extended Kanji JIS), but none of them is identical with CDMA MSG_ENCODING 00101. It seems that the Pictogram encoding (data_coding=9) is used to carry the messages in Shift-JIS in SMPP.
Quirks:
Incompatibility of submit_sm_resp between SMPP versions When a submit_sm fails, the SMSC returns a submit_sm_resp with non-zero value of command_status and ″empty″ message_id.
SMPP 3.3 explicitly states about the message_id field ″If absent this field must contain a single NULL byte″. The length of the PDU is at least 17 octets.
SMPP 3.4 contains an unfortunate note in the SUBMIT_SM_RESP section ″The submit_sm_resp PDU Body is not returned if the command_status field contains a non-zero value.″ Then the length of the PDU is 16 octets.
Quirks:
SMPP 5.0 just specifies that message_id is a mandatory parameter of the type C-Octet string of the submit_sm_resp message. According to the section 3.1.1 NULL Settings, ″A NULL string ″″ is encoded as 0x00″. The length of the PDU is at least 17 octets.For the best compatibility, any SMPP implementation should accept both variants of negative submit_sm_resp regardless of the version of SMPP standard used for the communication.
Quirks:
The original intention of error scenarios was that no body would be returned in the PDU response. This was the standard behavior exhibited on all Aldiscon/Logica SMSC and also in most of the other vendors. When SMPP 3.4 was being taken on by the WAP forum, several clarifications were requested on whether a body should be included with NACKed response and measures were taken to clarify this in several places in the specification including the submit_sm section and also in the bind_transceiver section. What should have been done was to add the clarification that we eventually added in V5.0.. that bodies are not supposed to be included in error responses. Some vendors have been very silly in their implementations including bodies on rejected bind_transmitter responses but not on bind_transceiver responses etc. The recommendation I would make to vendors.. as suggested above.. accept both variants. But its also wise to allow yourself issue NACKed submit_sm_resp and deliver_sm_resp PDUs with and without an empty body. In the case of these two PDUs, that empty body will look like a single NULL octet at the end of the stream. The reason you may need this ability to include what I call dummy bodies with NACKed requests is that the other side of the equation may be unable or unwilling to change their implementation to tolerate the missing body. (I worked on three versions of SMPP specification in Aldiscon/Logica and designed the ESME solution for Openmind Networks) Message ID in SMPP 3.3 SMSC Delivery Receipts The only way to pass delivery receipts in SMPP 3.3 is to put information in a text form to the short_message field; however, the format of the text is described in Appendix B of SMPP 3.4, although SMPP 3.4 may (and should) use receipted_message_id and message_state TLVs for the purpose. While SMPP 3.3 states that Message ID is a C-Octet String (Hex) of up to 8 characters (plus terminating '\0'), the SMPP 3.4 specification states that the id field in the Delivery Receipt Format is a C-Octet String (Decimal) of up to 10 characters. This splits SMPP implementations to 2 groups: Implementations using the decimal representation of an integer Message Id in the id field of the Delivery Receipt body and the hexadecimal representation of an integer Message Id in message_id and receipted_message_id fields Implementations using the same hexadecimal number (or even the same arbitrary string) both in message_id parameter and in the id field of the Delivery Receipt bodyThe SMPP 3.4 specification does however state that the delivery receipt format is SMSC vendor specific, and therefore the format included in the specification is merely one possibility. As noted above, when using SMPP 3.4 receipted_message_id and message_state TLVs should be used to convey the outcome of a message.
Extensibility, compatibility and interoperability:
Since introduction of TLV parameters in version 3.4, the SMPP may be regarded an extensible protocol. In order to achieve the highest possible degree of compatibility and interoperability any implementation should apply the Internet robustness principle: ″Be conservative in what you send, be liberal in what you accept″. It should use a minimal set of features which are necessary to accomplish a task. And if the goal is communication and not quibbling, each implementation should overcome minor nonconformities with standard: Respond with a generic_nack with command_status=3 to any unrecognised SMPP command, but do not stop the communication.
Extensibility, compatibility and interoperability:
Ignore any unrecognised, unexpected or unsupported TLV parameters.
Extensibility, compatibility and interoperability:
The borders of PDUs are always given by the PDUs' command_length field. Any message field must not exceed the end of PDU. If a field is not properly finished, it should be treated as truncated at the end of PDU, and it should not affect further PDUs.Information applicable to one version of SMPP can often be found in another version of SMPP, for example with the case of SMPP 3.4 describing the only mechanism of delivery receipts in SMPP 3.3 described above.
Security:
The SMPP protocol is designed on a clear-text binary protocol which needs to be considered if using for potentially sensitive information such as one-time passwords via SMS. There are, however, implementations of SMPP over secure SSL/TLS if required.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**EA-2012**
EA-2012:
EA-2012 is an extremely toxic organophosphate nerve agent. It's an extremely potent acetylcholinesterase inhibitor that is resistant to atropine and oxime treatment.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Pixia**
Pixia:
Pixia is a freeware raster graphics editor program for Windows, created by Isao Maruoka. It was originally designed for the anime/manga community but has also been used in other branches of art. Besides the primary Japanese interface, it is also available in English, French, Italian, Spanish, Hungarian, Chinese Simplified, Chinese Traditional, Polish, Korean and German. The program supports multiple layers, transparency effects, standard file formats and a number of RGB file formats including .PSD. The main file extension used by this program is .PXA. The program also has a native support for Wacom tablets, for example the 4.2a version added support for Wacom Bamboo tablets. An advanced version of this software called Phierha with better UI and more functions is also available.
Reception:
A CNET Editors' Review in January 2011 called Pixia "one of the most capable and professional Photoshop alternatives we've tried."
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**AppleColor High-Resolution RGB Monitor**
AppleColor High-Resolution RGB Monitor:
Apple Inc. sold a variety of LCD and CRT computer displays in the past. Apple paused production of their own standalone displays in 2016 and partnered with LG to design displays for Macs. In June 2019, the Pro Display XDR was introduced, however it was expensive and targeted for professionals. Nearly three years later, in March 2022, the Studio Display was launched as a consumer-targeted counterpart to the professional monitor. These two are currently the only Apple-branded displays available.
CRT displays:
In the beginning (throughout the 1970s), Apple did not manufacture or sell displays of any kind, instead recommending users plug-into their television sets or (then) expensive third party monochrome monitors. However, in order to offer complete systems through its dealers, Apple began to offer various third party manufactured 12″ monochrome displays, re-badged as the Monitor II.
CRT displays:
First generation Apple's manufacture history of CRT displays began in 1980, starting with the Monitor /// that was introduced alongside and matched the Apple III business computer. It was a 12″ monochrome (green) screen that could display 80×24 text characters and any type of graphics, however it suffered from a very slow phosphor refresh that resulted in a "ghosting" video effect. So it could be shared with Apple II computers, a plastic stand was made available to accommodate the larger footprint of the display.
CRT displays:
Three years later came the introduction of the Apple manufactured Monitor //, which as the name implies, was more suited in look and style for the Apple II line and at the same time added improvements in features and visual quality. In 1984 a miniature 9″ screen, called the Monitor IIc, was introduced for the Apple IIc computer to help complement its compact size. This display was also the first to use the brand new design language for Apple's products called Snow White, as well as being the first display not in a beige color, but rather a bright, creamy off-white. By early 1985 came the first color CRTs, starting with the Monitor 100, a digital RGB display for the Apple III and Apple IIe (with appropriate card), followed shortly by the 14″ ColorMonitor IIe (later renamed to AppleColor Composite Monitor IIe) and ColorMonitor IIc (later renamed to AppleColor Composite Monitor IIc), composite video displays for those respective models. All of these Apple displays support the maximum Apple II Double Hi-Res standard of 560×192.
CRT displays:
In 1986 came the introduction of the AppleColor RGB Monitor, a 12″ analog RGB display designed specifically for the Apple IIGS computer. It supported a resolution of 640×400 interlaced (640×200 non-interlaced) and could be used by the Macintosh II, in a limited fashion, with the Apple High Resolution Display Video Card. Also introduced that year was the Apple Monochrome Monitor, which cosmetically was identical to the former model but was a black and white composite display suitable in external appearance for the Apple IIGS, Apple IIc or Apple IIc Plus.
CRT displays:
Second generation The second generation of displays were built into the Lisa and Macintosh computers. The Macintosh had a 9-inch monochrome display that could display 512×342 pixels which would be used in all monochrome Compact Macintosh computers.
CRT displays:
A new external AppleColor High-Resolution RGB Monitor was introduced in 1987 for the Macintosh II. It had a 13″ Trinitron CRT (the first Apple display to use an aperture grille CRT) with a fixed resolution of 640×480 pixels. The Macintosh II was a modular system with no internal display and was able to drive up to six displays simultaneously using multiple graphics cards. The desktop spanned multiple displays, and windows could be moved between displays or straddle them. In 1989, Apple introduced a series of monochrome displays for the Macintosh, the 20″ Macintosh Two Page Monochrome Display which could display two pages side by side, the 15″ Macintosh Portrait Display with a vertical orientation to display one page, and the 12″ High-Resolution Monochrome Monitor. In 1990, two 12″ displays were introduced for the low end, a 640×480 monochrome model and a 512×384 color model (560×384 for compatibility with Apple IIe Card), meant for the Macintosh LC. These were succeeded by the Macintosh Color Display series in 1992, which came in 14", 16" and 20" models, with resolutions of 640×480, 832×624, and 1152×870 respectively. There was also the Apple Performa Plus Display (a low-end Goldstar-built 14″ display with 640×480 resolution) for the Macintosh Performa series and the Apple Color Plus 14″ Display.
CRT displays:
Third generation The third generation of displays marked the end of the monochrome display era and the beginning of the multimedia era. The first display to include built-in speakers was introduced in 1993 as the Apple AudioVision 14 Display. The "Multiple Scan" series of displays began with the Multiple Scan 17 and 20 with Trinitron CRTs and the Multiple Scan 14 with shadow mask CRT, and would ultimately become Apple's value line of shadow mask displays. The AppleVision series of displays then became the high-end display line, using 17″ and 20″ Trinitron CRTs and with AV versions containing integrated speakers. The AppleVision line was later renamed to "ColorSync" display line when Steve Jobs returned to Apple.
CRT displays:
The Macintosh Color Classic introduced a 10″ color Trinitron display to the Classic compact Macintosh, with a slightly enhanced resolution of 512×384 (560×384 to accommodate the Apple IIe Card) like the standalone 12″ color display. Apple continued the all-in-one series with the larger 14″ Macintosh LC 500 series, featuring a 14″, 640×480 Trinitron CRT until the LC 580 in 1995, which heralded the switch to shadow mask CRTs for the remainder of Apple's all-in-one computers until the switch to LCDs in 2002. The last Macintosh to include an integrated CRT was the eMac, which boosted the display area to 17″ with support up to 1280×960 resolution. It used a 4th generation flat-screen CRT and was discontinued in 2006.
CRT displays:
Fourth generation The fourth generation of displays were introduced simultaneously with the Blue & White Power Macintosh G3 in 1999, which included the translucent plastics of the iMac (initially white and blue "blueberry", then white and grey "graphite" upon the introduction of the Power Mac G4). The displays were also designed with same translucent look. The "Apple Studio Display" series of CRT displays were available in a 17″ Diamondtron and a 21″ Trinitron CRT, both driven by an LG-Manufactured chassis. The 17″ displays were notorious for faulty flybacks and failing in a manner that could destroy the monitor and catch fire. It's also reported that these monitors can destroy GPUs, and sometimes the entire computer. The last Apple external CRT display was introduced in 2000 along with the Power Mac G4 Cube. Both it and the new "LCD Studio Displays" featured clear plastics to match the Cube, and the new Apple Display Connector, which provided power, USB, and video signals to the display through a single cable. It was available only in a 17″ flat screen Diamondtron CRT. It was discontinued the following year.
Flat panel displays:
The history of Apple LCDs started in 1984 when the Apple Flat Panel Display was introduced for the Apple IIc computer, principally to enhance the IIc's portability (see Apple IIc Portability enhancements). This monochrome display was capable of 80 columns by 24 lines, as well as double hi-res graphics, but had an odd aspect ratio (making images look vertically squished) and required a very strong external light source, such as a desk lamp or direct sunlight to be used. Even then it had a very poor contrast overall and was quite expensive (US$600), contributing to its poor sales and consequently it dropping from the market not long after its introduction. An estimated 10,000 IIc LCD displays were produced.
Flat panel displays:
Portable displays The next attempt at a flat panel was with the Macintosh Portable. More of a "luggable" than a laptop, it contained a high-resolution, active-matrix, 1-bit black & white, 9.8″ LCD with 640×400 resolution. Like the IIc Flat Panel, it was not backlit and required a bright light source to be used. A second generation model employed a backlit LCD. The PowerBook and MacBook series would continue to use LCD displays, following an industry-wide evolution from black-and-white to grayscale to color and ranging from 9″ to 17″. Two primary technologies were used, active matrix (higher quality and more expensive) and passive matrix displays (lower quality and cheaper). By 1998 all laptops would use active-matrix color LCDs, though the Newton products and eMate portables would continue to use black and white LCDs. Apple's current MacBook portable displays include LED backlighting and support either 2560×1600 or 2880×1800 pixel resolutions depending on screen size. The iPod series used black-and-white or color LCDs, the iPhone line uses LCD and OLED displays, and the Apple Watch uses OLED.
Flat panel displays:
All-In-Ones In 1997, Apple released the Twentieth Anniversary Macintosh (TAM), its first all-in-one desktop with an LCD display. Drawing heavily from PowerBook technology, the TAM featured a 12.1″ active matrix LCD capable of displaying up to 16 bit color at 800×600. While Apple chose to retain traditional and cheaper CRTs for its all-in-one desktop line for the next 4 years, the TAM is undoubtedly the predecessor for the successful LCD-based iMac line of all-in-one desktops starting with the iMac G4 released in 2002. A substantial upgrade over the TAM, it contained a 15″ LCD supporting up to 1024×768 resolution. It was followed by a 17″ and 20″ models boasting resolution of up to 1680 × 1050. In 2005, the iMac G5 dropped the 15″ configuration and in 2007, the new iMac dropped the 17″ and added a 24″ to the line-up, further boosting resolution to 1920 x 1200. In October 2009, new iMac models moved to 16:9 aspect ratio screens at 21.5 and 27 inches.
Flat panel displays:
External displays The first desktop color flat-panel was introduced on March 17, 1998, with the 15″ Apple Studio Display (15-inch flat panel) which had a resolution of 1024×768. After the eMate, it was one of the first Apple products to feature translucent plastics, two months before the unveiling of the iMac. Apple called its dark blue color "azul". It had a DA-15 input as well as S-video, composite video, ADB and audio connectors, though no onboard speakers. In January 1999 the coloring was changed to match the blue and white of the new Power Macintosh G3s, and the connector changed to DE-15 VGA.
Flat panel displays:
The 22″ widescreen Apple Cinema Display was introduced in August 1999, simultaneously with the Power Mac G4 and in the beginning was sold only as an option to the Power Mac G4, selling for US$3,999. It had a native resolution of 1600×1024 and used a DVI connector. The display had a striped look on the bezel, similar to previous Studio Displays and iMacs. In December, the colors of the 15″ display were changed to "graphite" to match the new Power Mac G4s, and the input was changed from VGA to DVI, the audio and video features dropped, and the ADB functionality replaced by a two-port USB hub.
Flat panel displays:
In 2000 the 22″ Cinema Displays switched to the ADC interface, and the 15″ Studio Display was remodeled to match the Cinema Display's easel-like form factor and also featured the Apple Display Connector. In 2001 an LCD-based 17″ Studio Display was introduced, with a resolution of 1280×1024. In 2002 Apple introduced the Cinema Display HD which had a 23″ widescreen display with a resolution of 1920×1200. In 2003 Apple introduced the 20″ Cinema Display with a resolution of 1680×1050 to replace the discontinued 22″ display.
Flat panel displays:
In 2004 a new line was introduced, utilizing the same 20″ and 23″ panels alongside a new 30″ model, for $3,299. The displays had a sleek aluminum enclosure with a much narrower bezel than their predecessors. The 20″ model featured a 1680×1050 resolution, the 23″ 1920×1200, and the 30″ 2560×1600. The 30″ version requires a dual-link interface, because a single-link DVI connection (the most common type) doesn't have enough bandwidth to provide a picture to a display of this resolution. Initially, the only graphics cards that could power the new 30″ display were the Nvidia GeForce 6800 DDL series, available in both GT and Ultra forms. The DDL suffix signified the dual-link DVI capability. The less expensive of the two cards retailed for US$499, raising the net cost of owning and using the display to nearly $3,800. Later graphics options included the NVIDIA Quadro FX 4500; the card included two dual-link DVI connectors which allowed a Power Mac G5 to run two 30″ Cinema Displays simultaneously with the total number of pixels working out to 8.2 million.
Flat panel displays:
In 2006 along with the introduction of the Mac Pro, Apple lowered the price of the 30″ Cinema Display to US$1999. The Mac Pro featured an NVIDIA GeForce 7300GT as the graphics card in its base configuration which is capable of running a 30″ Cinema Display and another 23″ display simultaneously. The Mac Pro is also available with both the ATI Radeon X1900XT card and the NVIDIA Quadro FX 4500 as build-to-order options. Each of these cards is capable of driving two 30″ Cinema Displays.
Flat panel displays:
LED Cinema Display With the introduction of the Unibody MacBook family, Apple introduced the 24-inch LED Cinema Display, its first desktop display to use the new Mini DisplayPort connector, and also the first with an LED-backlit LCD. It had built-in speakers, a powered 3-port USB hub on the rear, an iSight camera and microphone, and a MagSafe power adapter for laptops. It also connected by USB for peripherals. It has a resolution of 1920×1200 and retailed for US$899.00. In 2010 it was replaced with a new 27-inch version with a resolution of 2560×1440.
Flat panel displays:
Thunderbolt Display In 2011 Apple released the Apple Thunderbolt Display, replacing the Mini DisplayPort and USB connector with a Thunderbolt plug for display and data. A Gigabit Ethernet port, a FireWire 800 port and a Thunderbolt 2 port were added as well, and the iSight camera was upgraded with a 720p FaceTime camera. On June 23, 2016, Apple announced it had discontinued the Thunderbolt Display, ending Apple's production of standalone displays.
Flat panel displays:
LG UltraFine After Apple discontinued production of standalone displays in 2016, they partnered with LG to design the UltraFine line, with a 21.5-inch 4K display (22MD4KA-B) and 27-inch 5K display (27MD5KA-B), released in November 2016 alongside the Thunderbolt 3-enabled MacBook Pro. Both displays use a USB-C connector, with the 27-inch version integrating Thunderbolt 3 connectivity. On the rear of the displays is a three port USB-C hub. The 21.5-inch version provides up to 60W charging power, while the 27-inch provides up to 85W. The 21.5-inch is compatible with all Macs with a USB-C port, while the 27-inch version can only be used natively at full resolution with Macs with Thunderbolt 3, which includes all Macs with USB-C except the Retina MacBook. The 27-inch model is compatible with older Thunderbolt 2-equipped Macs using an adapter, but is limited to displaying their maximum output resolution. Both models include integrated stereo speakers, while the 27-inch model also includes a FaceTime camera. Like previous Apple displays, there are no physical buttons on the display, and brightness and speaker volume are controlled by a connected computer.In May 2019 the 21.5-inch model was discontinued and replaced with a 23.7-inch model (24MD4KL-B) which added Thunderbolt 3 connectivity and increased the power output to 85W. In July 2019, the 27-inch model (27MD5KL-B) was updated with USB-C video input, adding compatibility with the 3rd generation iPad Pro at 4K resolution, and increased power output to 94W. Apple stopped selling the 27-inch model in March 2022 following the release of the Apple Studio Display, but the display is still in production according to LG.
Flat panel displays:
Pro Display XDR Apple announced the Pro Display XDR at the 2019 WWDC, the first Apple-branded display since the Apple Thunderbolt Display was discontinued in 2016. The display contains a 6016×3384 6K color-calibrated Extreme Dynamic Range (XDR) panel.
Studio Display Apple announced the Apple Studio Display at the March 2022 Apple Special Event. It features a 27-inch, 5K Retina monitor, with 5120-by-2880 resolution at 218 pixels per inch, 600 nits brightness, wide color (P3), and True Tone technology.
Connectors:
Apple has employed a large number of display connector designs over the years: Original DA-15 (commonly but incorrectly known as a DB-15) used on all modular desktop Macs until the 1999 Blue and White Power Macintosh G3.
A 13W3 connector (as on Sun Microsystems machines) used on the Macintosh Portrait Display A non-standard "mini-15" connector used on early PowerBooks which allowed an Apple display to be attached via a short adaptor cable.
The HDI-45 used on some "AV" model Centris, Quadra and the first-generation (NuBus) Power Macintosh machines.
Standard 15-pin high-density DE-15 VGA connector, first included on some Power Macintosh 9600 models and most PowerPC PowerBooks, and available on all current Macintoshes via a short adaptor cable.
The Apple Display Connector (ADC), which carries DVI, VGA, USB and power in one connector, was used on the PowerMac G4 and early models of the PowerMac G5.
A DVI connector was used on the 2001-2002 titanium PowerBook G4; all aluminum PowerBook G4 15″ and 17″; all aluminum MacBook Pro 15″ and 17″ models; Mac Mini G4, Power Mac G4, G5; Intel Mac Mini, and Mac Pro 2006–2012. PowerBook G4 12″, iMac G5 and Intel white iMacs mini-DVI ports.
A mini-VGA connector, which can provide VGA via a short adaptor cable. It appears on the white iBook, eMac, iMac G4 and G5, and first generation 12-inch PowerBook G4. Later models also support a composite and S-video adapter attached to this port.
A mini-DVI connector used on the 12″ PowerBook G4 (except first generation,) Intel-based iMacs, MacBooks, and Mac Minis.
A micro-DVI connector was used in the first generation MacBook Air to accommodate its small form factor.
A mini DisplayPort connector was used on some MacBook Air, MacBook Pro, iMac, Mac Mini and Mac Pro models.
Currently all Macs feature Thunderbolt connectors.
Connectors:
The Retina MacBook introduced USB-C connectivity for displays. The 2016 MacBook Pro uses a combination Thunderbolt 3 USB-C connector. They are backwards compatible with HDMI and DisplayPort.Additionally, various Apple computers have been able to output: S-video via standard 4-pin mini-DIN connector Composite video, via: S-video port and use of short adaptor cable (PowerBooks) Standard phono connector (AV Macs) Phono connector video out on the Apple II, II+, IIe, IIc, IIc+, IIGS, III, and III+. While not technically NTSC or PAL compatible, a suitable image would display on NTSC/PAL television monitors A non-standard 3.5 mm jack that functions as either a headphone jack, or stereo audio and composite video out via an adaptor cable (FireWire Special Edition Clamshell iBooks and early "Dual USB" iBooks with external reset button) S-video, Composite video, or VGA, via: Mini-VGA when using an Apple Video Output Adapter (S-video & Composite or VGA) The Apple Video Adapter was specially designed to allow users to connect to S-video or composite video devices. The video adapter cable plugs into the video output port (Mini-VGA) built into the back of certain Macintosh computers. The video output port supports VGA, S-Video and Composite video out. The Apple Video Adapter is for S-Video or Composite video output only, use a separate Apple VGA Adapter for VGA video output options. With the Apple Video Adapter you can connect to your TV, VCR, or overhead projector via S-Video or Composite cables.Compatible with: iBook without an external reset button, 12-inch PowerBook G4, Mac Mini, eMac, iMac G5, or 17-inch iMac (1 GHz) with Mini-VGA port.The Apple VGA Display Adapter was specially designed to allow users to connect certain Macintosh computers to an extra VGA display or external projector (equipped with VGA) for 24-bit video-mirroring. The VGA cable from your external display or projector cable plugs into the Mini-VGA video port built into your Macintosh via the Apple VGA Display Adapter.Compatible with: eMac, iMac G5, iMac G4 flat-panel, 12-inch PowerBook G4, or iBooks having a Mini-VGA port. Most Macintosh computers with the Mini-VGA port can also use the Apple Video Adapter for S-video & Composite output options.12-inch PowerBook G4 (first generation) models supported video-mirroring and extended video desktop modes through a mini-VGA port. All 15 and 17 inch PowerBook G4 models have a DVI port as well as an S-Video out port. The mini-VGA port on the 12-inch PowerBook was replaced by a mini-DVI port starting with the second revision of the machine.
Connectors:
The Retina MacBook Pro supports HDMI output from a built-in connector in addition to its two Thunderbolt connectors.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Benesi–Hildebrand method**
Benesi–Hildebrand method:
The Benesi–Hildebrand method is a mathematical approach used in physical chemistry for the determination of the equilibrium constant K and stoichiometry of non-bonding interactions. This method has been typically applied to reaction equilibria that form one-to-one complexes, such as charge-transfer complexes and host–guest molecular complexation.
Benesi–Hildebrand method:
HG The theoretical foundation of this method is the assumption that when either one of the reactants is present in excess amounts over the other reactant, the characteristic electronic absorption spectra of the other reactant are transparent in the collective absorption/emission range of the reaction system. Therefore, by measuring the absorption spectra of the reaction before and after the formation of the product and its equilibrium, the association constant of the reaction can be determined.
History:
This method was first developed by Benesi and Hildebrand in 1949, as a means to explain a phenomenon where iodine changes color in various aromatic solvents. This was attributed to the formation of an iodine-solvent complex through acid-base interactions, leading to the observed shifts in the absorption spectrum. Following this development, the Benesi–Hildebrand method has become one of the most common strategies for determining association constants based on absorbance spectra.
Derivation:
To observe one-to-one binding between a single host (H) and guest (G) using UV/Vis absorbance, the Benesi–Hildebrand method can be employed. The basis behind this method is that the acquired absorbance should be a mixture of the host, guest, and the host–guest complex.
HG +AG+AH With the assumption that the initial concentration of the guest (G0) is much larger than the initial concentration of the host (H0), then the absorbance from H0 should be negligible.
HG +AG The absorbance can be collected before and following the formation of the HG complex. This change in absorbance (ΔA) is what is experimentally acquired, with A0 being the initial absorbance before the interaction of HG and A being the absorbance taken at any point of the reaction.
ΔA=A−A0 Using the Beer–Lambert law, the equation can be rewritten with the absorption coefficients and concentrations of each component.
HG HG ]b+εG[G]b−εG[G]0b Due to the previous assumption that [G]0≫[H]0 , one can expect that [G] = [G]0. Δε represents the change in value between εHG and εG.
Derivation:
HG ]b A binding isotherm can be described as "the theoretical change in the concentration of one component as a function of the concentration of another component at constant temperature." This can be described by the following equation: HG ]=[H]0Ka[G]1+Ka[G] By substituting the binding isotherm equation into the previous equation, the equilibrium constant Ka can now be correlated to the change in absorbance due to the formation of the HG complex.
Derivation:
ΔA=bΔε[H]0Ka[G]01+Ka[G]0 Further modifications results in an equation where a double reciprocal plot can be made with 1/ΔA as a function of 1/[G]0. Δε can be derived from the intercept while Ka can be calculated from the slope.
1ΔA=1bΔε[G]0[H]0Ka+1bΔε[H]0
Limitations and alternatives:
In many cases, the Benesi–Hildebrand method provides excellent linear plots, and reasonable values for K and ε. However, various problems arising from experimental data have been noted from time to time. Some of these issues include: different values of ε with different concentration scales, lack of consistency between the Benesi–Hildebrand values and those obtained from other methods (e.g. equilibrium constants from partition measurements), and zero and negative intercepts. Concerns have also surfaced over the accuracy of the Benesi–Hildebrand method as certain conditions cause these calculations to become invalid. For instance, the reactant concentrations must always obey the assumption that the initial concentration of the guest ([G]0) is much larger than the initial concentration of the host ([H]0). In the case when this breaks down, the Benesi–Hildebrand plot deviates from its linear nature and exhibits scatter plot characteristics. Also, in the case of determining the equilibrium constants for weakly bound complexes, it is common for the formation of 2:1 complexes to occur in solution. It has been observed that the existence of these 2:1 complexes generate inappropriate parameters that significantly interfere with the accurate determination of association constants. Due to this fact, one of the criticisms of this method is the inflexibility of only being able to study reactions with 1:1 product complexes.
Limitations and alternatives:
These limitations can be overcome by using a computational method which is more generally applicable, a non-linear least-squares minimization method. The two parameters, K or ε are determined by using the Solver module a spreadsheet, by minimizing a sum of squared differences between observed and calculated quantities with respect to the equilibrium constant and molar absorbance or chemical shift values of the individual chemical species involved. The use of this and more sophisticated methods have the additional advantage that they are not limited to systems where a single complex is formed.
Modifications:
Although initially used in conjunction with UV/Vis spectroscopy, many modifications have been made that allow the B–H method to be applied to other spectroscopic techniques involving fluorescence, infrared, and NMR.Modifications have also been done to further improve the accuracy in the determination of K and ε based on the Benesi–Hildebrand equations. One such modification was done by Rose and Drago. The equation that they developed is as follows: HG HG Their method relied on a set of chosen values of ε and the collection of absorbance data and initial concentrations of the host and guest. This would thus allow the calculation of K−1. By plotting a graph of εHG versus K−1, the result would be a linear relationship. When the procedure is repeated for a series of concentrations and plotted on the same graph, the lines intersect at a point giving the optimum value of εHG and K−1. However, some problems have surfaced with this modified method as some examples displayed an imprecise point of intersection or no intersection at all.More recently, another graphical procedure has been developed in order to evaluate K and ε independently of each other. This approach relies on a more complex mathematical rearrangement of the Benesi–Hildebrand method but has proven to be quite accurate when compared to standard values.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Birefringence**
Birefringence:
Birefringence is the optical property of a material having a refractive index that depends on the polarization and propagation direction of light. These optically anisotropic materials are said to be birefringent (or birefractive). The birefringence is often quantified as the maximum difference between refractive indices exhibited by the material. Crystals with non-cubic crystal structures are often birefringent, as are plastics under mechanical stress. Birefringence is responsible for the phenomenon of double refraction whereby a ray of light, when incident upon a birefringent material, is split by polarization into two rays taking slightly different paths. This effect was first described by Danish scientist Rasmus Bartholin in 1669, who observed it in calcite crystals which have one of the strongest birefringences. In the 19th century Augustin-Jean Fresnel described the phenomenon in terms of polarization, understanding light as a wave with field components in transverse polarization (perpendicular to the direction of the wave vector). Birefringence plays an important role in achieving phase-matching for a number of nonlinear optical processes.
Explanation:
A mathematical description of wave propagation in a birefringent medium is presented below. Following is a qualitative explanation of the phenomenon.
Explanation:
Uniaxial materials The simplest type of birefringence is described as uniaxial, meaning that there is a single direction governing the optical anisotropy whereas all directions perpendicular to it (or at a given angle to it) are optically equivalent. Thus rotating the material around this axis does not change its optical behaviour. This special direction is known as the optic axis of the material. Light propagating parallel to the optic axis (whose polarization is always perpendicular to the optic axis) is governed by a refractive index no (for "ordinary") regardless of its specific polarization. For rays with any other propagation direction, there is one linear polarization that would be perpendicular to the optic axis, and a ray with that polarization is called an ordinary ray and is governed by the same refractive index value no. For a ray propagating in the same direction but with a polarization perpendicular to that of the ordinary ray, the polarization direction will be partly in the direction of the optic axis, and this extraordinary ray will be governed by a different, direction-dependent refractive index. Because the index of refraction depends on the polarization when unpolarized light enters a uniaxial birefringent material, it is split into two beams travelling in different directions, one having the polarization of the ordinary ray and the other the polarization of the extraordinary ray.
Explanation:
The ordinary ray will always experience a refractive index of no, whereas the refractive index of the extraordinary ray will be in between no and ne, depending on the ray direction as described by the index ellipsoid. The magnitude of the difference is quantified by the birefringence: Δn=ne−no.
Explanation:
The propagation (as well as reflection coefficient) of the ordinary ray is simply described by no as if there were no birefringence involved. The extraordinary ray, as its name suggests, propagates unlike any wave in an isotropic optical material. Its refraction (and reflection) at a surface can be understood using the effective refractive index (a value in between no and ne). Its power flow (given by the Poynting vector) is not exactly in the direction of the wave vector. This causes an additional shift in that beam, even when launched at normal incidence, as is popularly observed using a crystal of calcite as photographed above. Rotating the calcite crystal will cause one of the two images, that of the extraordinary ray, to rotate slightly around that of the ordinary ray, which remains fixed.When the light propagates either along or orthogonal to the optic axis, such a lateral shift does not occur. In the first case, both polarizations are perpendicular to the optic axis and see the same effective refractive index, so there is no extraordinary ray. In the second case the extraordinary ray propagates at a different phase velocity (corresponding to ne) but still has the power flow in the direction of the wave vector. A crystal with its optic axis in this orientation, parallel to the optical surface, may be used to create a waveplate, in which there is no distortion of the image but an intentional modification of the state of polarization of the incident wave. For instance, a quarter-wave plate is commonly used to create circular polarization from a linearly polarized source.
Explanation:
Biaxial materials The case of so-called biaxial crystals is substantially more complex. These are characterized by three refractive indices corresponding to three principal axes of the crystal. For most ray directions, both polarizations would be classified as extraordinary rays but with different effective refractive indices. Being extraordinary waves, the direction of power flow is not identical to the direction of the wave vector in either case.
Explanation:
The two refractive indices can be determined using the index ellipsoids for given directions of the polarization. Note that for biaxial crystals the index ellipsoid will not be an ellipsoid of revolution ("spheroid") but is described by three unequal principle refractive indices nα, nβ and nγ. Thus there is no axis around which a rotation leaves the optical properties invariant (as there is with uniaxial crystals whose index ellipsoid is a spheroid).
Explanation:
Although there is no axis of symmetry, there are two optical axes or binormals which are defined as directions along which light may propagate without birefringence, i.e., directions along which the wavelength is independent of polarization. For this reason, birefringent materials with three distinct refractive indices are called biaxial. Additionally, there are two distinct axes known as optical ray axes or biradials along which the group velocity of the light is independent of polarization.
Explanation:
Double refraction When an arbitrary beam of light strikes the surface of a birefringent material at non-normal incidence, the polarization component normal to the optic axis (ordinary ray) and the other linear polarization (extraordinary ray) will be refracted toward somewhat different paths. Natural light, so-called unpolarized light, consists of equal amounts of energy in any two orthogonal polarizations. Even linearly polarized light has some energy in both polarizations, unless aligned along one of the two axes of birefringence. According to Snell's law of refraction, the two angles of refraction are governed by the effective refractive index of each of these two polarizations. This is clearly seen, for instance, in the Wollaston prism which separates incoming light into two linear polarizations using prisms composed of a birefringent material such as calcite.
Explanation:
The different angles of refraction for the two polarization components are shown in the figure at the top of this page, with the optic axis along the surface (and perpendicular to the plane of incidence), so that the angle of refraction is different for the p polarization (the "ordinary ray" in this case, having its electric vector perpendicular to the optic axis) and the s polarization (the "extraordinary ray" in this case, whose electric field polarization includes a component in the direction of the optic axis). In addition, a distinct form of double refraction occurs, even with normal incidence, in cases where the optic axis is not along the refracting surface (nor exactly normal to it); in this case, the dielectric polarization of the birefringent material is not exactly in the direction of the wave's electric field for the extraordinary ray. The direction of power flow (given by the Poynting vector) for this inhomogenous wave is at a finite angle from the direction of the wave vector resulting in an additional separation between these beams. So even in the case of normal incidence, where one would compute the angle of refraction as zero (according to Snell's law, regardless of the effective index of refraction), the energy of the extraordinary ray is propagated at an angle. If exiting the crystal through a face parallel to the incoming face, the direction of both rays will be restored, but leaving a shift between the two beams. This is commonly observed using a piece of calcite cut along its natural cleavage, placed above a paper with writing, as in the above photographs. On the contrary, waveplates specifically have their optic axis along the surface of the plate, so that with (approximately) normal incidence there will be no shift in the image from light of either polarization, simply a relative phase shift between the two light waves.
Terminology:
Much of the work involving polarization preceded the understanding of light as a transverse electromagnetic wave, and this has affected some terminology in use. Isotropic materials have symmetry in all directions and the refractive index is the same for any polarization direction. An anisotropic material is called "birefringent" because it will generally refract a single incoming ray in two directions, which we now understand correspond to the two different polarizations. This is true of either a uniaxial or biaxial material.
Terminology:
In a uniaxial material, one ray behaves according to the normal law of refraction (corresponding to the ordinary refractive index), so an incoming ray at normal incidence remains normal to the refracting surface. As explained above, the other polarization can deviate from normal incidence, which cannot be described using the law of refraction. This thus became known as the extraordinary ray. The terms "ordinary" and "extraordinary" are still applied to the polarization components perpendicular to and not perpendicular to the optic axis respectively, even in cases where no double refraction is involved.
Terminology:
A material is termed uniaxial when it has a single direction of symmetry in its optical behavior, which we term the optic axis. It also happens to be the axis of symmetry of the index ellipsoid (a spheroid in this case). The index ellipsoid could still be described according to the refractive indices, nα, nβ and nγ, along three coordinate axes; in this case two are equal. So if nα = nβ corresponding to the x and y axes, then the extraordinary index is nγ corresponding to the z axis, which is also called the optic axis in this case.
Terminology:
Materials in which all three refractive indices are different are termed biaxial and the origin of this term is more complicated and frequently misunderstood. In a uniaxial crystal, different polarization components of a beam will travel at different phase velocities, except for rays in the direction of what we call the optic axis. Thus the optic axis has the particular property that rays in that direction do not exhibit birefringence, with all polarizations in such a beam experiencing the same index of refraction. It is very different when the three principal refractive indices are all different; then an incoming ray in any of those principal directions will still encounter two different refractive indices. But it turns out that there are two special directions (at an angle to all of the 3 axes) where the refractive indices for different polarizations are again equal. For this reason, these crystals were designated as biaxial, with the two "axes" in this case referring to ray directions in which propagation does not experience birefringence.
Terminology:
Fast and slow rays In a birefringent material, a wave consists of two polarization components which generally are governed by different effective refractive indices. The so-called slow ray is the component for which the material has the higher effective refractive index (slower phase velocity), while the fast ray is the one with a lower effective refractive index. When a beam is incident on such a material from air (or any material with a lower refractive index), the slow ray is thus refracted more towards the normal than the fast ray. In the example figure at top of this page, it can be seen that refracted ray with s polarization (with its electric vibration along the direction of the optic axis, thus called the extraordinary ray) is the slow ray in given scenario.
Terminology:
Using a thin slab of that material at normal incidence, one would implement a waveplate. In this case, there is essentially no spatial separation between the polarizations, the phase of the wave in the parallel polarization (the slow ray) will be retarded with respect to the perpendicular polarization. These directions are thus known as the slow axis and fast axis of the waveplate.
Terminology:
Positive or negative Uniaxial birefringence is classified as positive when the extraordinary index of refraction ne is greater than the ordinary index no. Negative birefringence means that Δn = ne − no is less than zero. In other words, the polarization of the fast (or slow) wave is perpendicular to the optic axis when the birefringence of the crystal is positive (or negative, respectively). In the case of biaxial crystals, all three of the principal axes have different refractive indices, so this designation does not apply. But for any defined ray direction one can just as well designate the fast and slow ray polarizations.
Sources of optical birefringence:
While the best known source of birefringence is the entrance of light into an anisotropic crystal, it can result in otherwise optically isotropic materials in a few ways: Stress birefringence results when a normally isotropic solid is stressed and deformed (i.e., stretched or bent) causing a loss of physical isotropy and consequently a loss of isotropy in the material's permittivity tensor; Form birefringence, whereby structure elements such as rods, having one refractive index, are suspended in a medium with a different refractive index. When the lattice spacing is much smaller than a wavelength, such a structure is described as a metamaterial; By the Pockels or Kerr effect, whereby an applied electric field induces birefringence due to nonlinear optics; By the self or forced alignment into thin films of amphiphilic molecules such as lipids, some surfactants or liquid crystals; Circular birefringence takes place generally not in materials which are anisotropic but rather ones which are chiral. This can include liquids where there is an enantiomeric excess of a chiral molecule, that is, one that has stereo isomers; By the Faraday effect, where a longitudinal magnetic field causes some materials to become circularly birefringent (having slightly different indices of refraction for left- and right-handed circular polarizations), similar to optical activity while the field is applied.
Common birefringent materials:
The best characterized birefringent materials are crystals. Due to their specific crystal structures their refractive indices are well defined. Depending on the symmetry of a crystal structure (as determined by one of the 32 possible crystallographic point groups), crystals in that group may be forced to be isotropic (not birefringent), to have uniaxial symmetry, or neither in which case it is a biaxial crystal. The crystal structures permitting uniaxial and biaxial birefringence are noted in the two tables, below, listing the two or three principal refractive indices (at wavelength 590 nm) of some better-known crystals.In addition to induced birefringence while under stress, many plastics obtain permanent birefringence during manufacture due to stresses which are "frozen in" due to mechanical forces present when the plastic is molded or extruded. For example, ordinary cellophane is birefringent. Polarizers are routinely used to detect stress, either applied or frozen-in, in plastics such as polystyrene and polycarbonate.
Common birefringent materials:
Cotton fiber is birefringent because of high levels of cellulosic material in the fibre's secondary cell wall which is directionally aligned with the cotton fibers.
Common birefringent materials:
Polarized light microscopy is commonly used in biological tissue, as many biological materials are linearly or circularly birefringent. Collagen, found in cartilage, tendon, bone, corneas, and several other areas in the body, is birefringent and commonly studied with polarized light microscopy. Some proteins are also birefringent, exhibiting form birefringence.Inevitable manufacturing imperfections in optical fiber leads to birefringence, which is one cause of pulse broadening in fiber-optic communications. Such imperfections can be geometrical (lack of circular symmetry), or due to unequal lateral stress applied to the optical fibre. Birefringence is intentionally introduced (for instance, by making the cross-section elliptical) in order to produce polarization-maintaining optical fibers. Birefringence can be induced (or corrected!) in optical fibers through bending them which causes anisotropy in form and stress given the axis around which it is bent and radius of curvature.
Common birefringent materials:
In addition to anisotropy in the electric polarizability that we have been discussing, anisotropy in the magnetic permeability could be a source of birefringence. At optical frequencies, there is no measurable magnetic polarizability (μ=μ0) of natural materials, so this is not an actual source of birefringence.
Measurement:
Birefringence and other polarization-based optical effects (such as optical rotation and linear or circular dichroism) can be observed by measuring any change in the polarization of light passing through the material. These measurements are known as polarimetry. Polarized light microscopes, which contain two polarizers that are at 90° to each other on either side of the sample, are used to visualize birefringence, since light that has not been affected by birefringence remains in a polarization that is totally rejected by the second polarizer ("analyzer"). The addition of quarter-wave plates permits examination using circularly polarized light. Determination of the change in polarization state using such an apparatus is the basis of ellipsometry, by which the optical properties of specular surfaces can be gauged through reflection.
Measurement:
Birefringence measurements have been made with phase-modulated systems for examining the transient flow behaviour of fluids. Birefringence of lipid bilayers can be measured using dual-polarization interferometry. This provides a measure of the degree of order within these fluid layers and how this order is disrupted when the layer interacts with other biomolecules.
For the 3D measurement of birefringence, a technique based on holographic tomography [1] can be used.
Applications:
Birefringence is used in many optical devices. Liquid-crystal displays, the most common sort of flat-panel display, cause their pixels to become lighter or darker through rotation of the polarization (circular birefringence) of linearly polarized light as viewed through a sheet polarizer at the screen's surface. Similarly, light modulators modulate the intensity of light through electrically induced birefringence of polarized light followed by a polarizer. The Lyot filter is a specialized narrowband spectral filter employing the wavelength dependence of birefringence. Waveplates are thin birefringent sheets widely used in certain optical equipment for modifying the polarization state of light passing through it.
Applications:
Birefringence also plays an important role in second-harmonic generation and other nonlinear optical components, as the crystals used for this purpose are almost always birefringent. By adjusting the angle of incidence, the effective refractive index of the extraordinary ray can be tuned in order to achieve phase matching, which is required for the efficient operation of these devices.
Applications:
Medicine Birefringence is utilized in medical diagnostics. One powerful accessory used with optical microscopes is a pair of crossed polarizing filters. Light from the source is polarized in the x direction after passing through the first polarizer, but above the specimen is a polarizer (a so-called analyzer) oriented in the y direction. Therefore, no light from the source will be accepted by the analyzer, and the field will appear dark. Areas of the sample possessing birefringence will generally couple some of the x-polarized light into the y polarization; these areas will then appear bright against the dark background. Modifications to this basic principle can differentiate between positive and negative birefringence.
Applications:
For instance, needle aspiration of fluid from a gouty joint will reveal negatively birefringent monosodium urate crystals. Calcium pyrophosphate crystals, in contrast, show weak positive birefringence. Urate crystals appear yellow, and calcium pyrophosphate crystals appear blue when their long axes are aligned parallel to that of a red compensator filter, or a crystal of known birefringence is added to the sample for comparison.
Applications:
The birefringence of tissue inside a living human thigh was measured using polarization-sensitive optical coherence tomography at 1310 nm and a single mode fiber in a needle. Skeletal muscle birefringence was Δn = 1.79 × 10−3± 0.18×10−3, adipose Δn = 0.07 × 10−3 ± 0.50 × 10−3, superficial aponeurosis Δn = 5.08 × 10−3 ± 0.73 × 10−3 and interstitial tissue Δn = 0.65 ×10−3 ±0.39 ×10−3. These measurements may be important for the development of a less invasive method to diagnose Duchenne muscular dystrophy.
Applications:
Birefringence can be observed in amyloid plaques such as are found in the brains of Alzheimer's patients when stained with a dye such as Congo Red. Modified proteins such as immunoglobulin light chains abnormally accumulate between cells, forming fibrils. Multiple folds of these fibers line up and take on a beta-pleated sheet conformation. Congo red dye intercalates between the folds and, when observed under polarized light, causes birefringence.
Applications:
In ophthalmology, binocular retinal birefringence screening of the Henle fibers (photoreceptor axons that go radially outward from the fovea) provides a reliable detection of strabismus and possibly also of anisometropic amblyopia. In healthy subjects, the maximum retardation induced by the Henle fiber layer is approximately 22 degrees at 840 nm. Furthermore, scanning laser polarimetry uses the birefringence of the optic nerve fibre layer to indirectly quantify its thickness, which is of use in the assessment and monitoring of glaucoma. Polarization-sensitive optical coherence tomography measurements obtained from healthy human subjects have demonstrated a change in birefringence of the retinal nerve fiber layer as a function of location around the optic nerve head. The same technology was recently applied in the living human retina to quantify the polarization properties of vessel walls near the optic nerve.Birefringence characteristics in sperm heads allow the selection of spermatozoa for intracytoplasmic sperm injection. Likewise, zona imaging uses birefringence on oocytes to select the ones with highest chances of successful pregnancy. Birefringence of particles biopsied from pulmonary nodules indicates silicosis.
Applications:
Dermatologists use dermatoscopes to view skin lesions. Dermoscopes use polarized light, allowing the user to view crystalline structures corresponding to dermal collagen in the skin. These structures may appear as shiny white lines or rosette shapes and are only visible under polarized dermoscopy.
Applications:
Stress-induced birefringence Isotropic solids do not exhibit birefringence. When they are under mechanical stress, birefringence results. The stress can be applied externally or is "frozen in" after a birefringent plastic ware is cooled after it is manufactured using injection molding. When such a sample is placed between two crossed polarizers, colour patterns can be observed, because polarization of a light ray is rotated after passing through a birefringent material and the amount of rotation is dependent on wavelength. The experimental method called photoelasticity used for analyzing stress distribution in solids is based on the same principle. There has been recent research on using stress induced birefringence in a glass plate to generate an Optical vortex and full Poincare beams (optical beams that have every possible polarization state across a cross-section).
Applications:
Other cases of birefringence Birefringence is observed in anisotropic elastic materials. In these materials, the two polarizations split according to their effective refractive indices, which are also sensitive to stress.
The study of birefringence in shear waves traveling through the solid Earth (the Earth's liquid core does not support shear waves) is widely used in seismology.Birefringence is widely used in mineralogy to identify rocks, minerals, and gemstones.
Theory:
In an isotropic medium (including free space) the so-called electric displacement (D) is just proportional to the electric field (E) according to D = ɛE where the material's permittivity ε is just a scalar (and equal to n2ε0 where n is the index of refraction). In an anisotropic material exhibiting birefringence, the relationship between D and E must now be described using a tensor equation: where ε is now a 3 × 3 permittivity tensor. We assume linearity and no magnetic permeability in the medium: μ = μ0. The electric field of a plane wave of angular frequency ω can be written in the general form: where r is the position vector, t is time, and E0 is a vector describing the electric field at r = 0, t = 0. Then we shall find the possible wave vectors k. By combining Maxwell's equations for ∇ × E and ∇ × H, we can eliminate H = 1/μ0B to obtain: With no free charges, Maxwell's equation for the divergence of D vanishes: We can apply the vector identity ∇ × (∇ × A) = ∇(∇ ⋅ A) − ∇2A to the left hand side of eq. 3a, and use the spatial dependence in which each differentiation in x (for instance) results in multiplication by ikx to find: The right hand side of eq. 3a can be expressed in terms of E through application of the permittivity tensor ε and noting that differentiation in time results in multiplication by −iω, eq. 3a then becomes: Applying the differentiation rule to eq. 3b we find: Eq. 4b indicates that D is orthogonal to the direction of the wavevector k, even though that is no longer generally true for E as would be the case in an isotropic medium. Eq. 4b will not be needed for the further steps in the following derivation.
Theory:
Finding the allowed values of k for a given ω is easiest done by using Cartesian coordinates with the x, y and z axes chosen in the directions of the symmetry axes of the crystal (or simply choosing z in the direction of the optic axis of a uniaxial crystal), resulting in a diagonal matrix for the permittivity tensor ε: where the diagonal values are squares of the refractive indices for polarizations along the three principal axes x, y and z. With ε in this form, and substituting in the speed of light c using c2 = 1/μ0ε0, the x component of the vector equation eq. 4a becomes where Ex, Ey, Ez are the components of E (at any given position in space and time) and kx, ky, kz are the components of k. Rearranging, we can write (and similarly for the y and z components of eq. 4a) This is a set of linear equations in Ex, Ey, Ez, so it can have a nontrivial solution (that is, one other than E = 0) as long as the following determinant is zero: Evaluating the determinant of eq. 6, and rearranging the terms according to the powers of ω2c2 , the constant terms cancel. After eliminating the common factor ω2c2 from the remaining terms, we obtain In the case of a uniaxial material, choosing the optic axis to be in the z direction so that nx = ny = no and nz = ne, this expression can be factored into Setting either of the factors in eq. 8 to zero will define an ellipsoidal surface in the space of wavevectors k that are allowed for a given ω. The first factor being zero defines a sphere; this is the solution for so-called ordinary rays, in which the effective refractive index is exactly no regardless of the direction of k. The second defines a spheroid symmetric about the z axis. This solution corresponds to the so-called extraordinary rays in which the effective refractive index is in between no and ne, depending on the direction of k. Therefore, for any arbitrary direction of propagation (other than in the direction of the optic axis), two distinct wavevectors k are allowed corresponding to the polarizations of the ordinary and extraordinary rays.
Theory:
For a biaxial material a similar but more complicated condition on the two waves can be described; the locus of allowed k vectors (the wavevector surface) is a 4th-degree two-sheeted surface, so that in a given direction there are generally two permitted k vectors (and their opposites). By inspection one can see that eq. 6 is generally satisfied for two positive values of ω. Or, for a specified optical frequency ω and direction normal to the wavefronts k/|k|, it is satisfied for two wavenumbers (or propagation constants) |k| (and thus effective refractive indices) corresponding to the propagation of two linear polarizations in that direction.
Theory:
When those two propagation constants are equal then the effective refractive index is independent of polarization, and there is consequently no birefringence encountered by a wave traveling in that particular direction. For a uniaxial crystal, this is the optic axis, the ±z direction according to the above construction. But when all three refractive indices (or permittivities), nx, ny and nz are distinct, it can be shown that there are exactly two such directions, where the two sheets of the wave-vector surface touch; these directions are not at all obvious and do not lie along any of the three principal axes (x, y, z according to the above convention). Historically that accounts for the use of the term "biaxial" for such crystals, as the existence of exactly two such special directions (considered "axes") was discovered well before polarization and birefringence were understood physically. These two special directions are generally not of particular interest; biaxial crystals are rather specified by their three refractive indices corresponding to the three axes of symmetry.
Theory:
A general state of polarization launched into the medium can always be decomposed into two waves, one in each of those two polarizations, which will then propagate with different wavenumbers |k|. Applying the different phase of propagation to those two waves over a specified propagation distance will result in a generally different net polarization state at that point; this is the principle of the waveplate for instance. With a waveplate, there is no spatial displacement between the two rays as their k vectors are still in the same direction. That is true when each of the two polarizations is either normal to the optic axis (the ordinary ray) or parallel to it (the extraordinary ray).
Theory:
In the more general case, there is a difference not only in the magnitude but the direction of the two rays. For instance, the photograph through a calcite crystal (top of page) shows a shifted image in the two polarizations; this is due to the optic axis being neither parallel nor normal to the crystal surface. And even when the optic axis is parallel to the surface, this will occur for waves launched at non-normal incidence (as depicted in the explanatory figure). In these cases the two k vectors can be found by solving eq. 6 constrained by the boundary condition which requires that the components of the two transmitted waves' k vectors, and the k vector of the incident wave, as projected onto the surface of the interface, must all be identical. For a uniaxial crystal it will be found that there is not a spatial shift for the ordinary ray (hence its name) which will refract as if the material were non-birefringent with an index the same as the two axes which are not the optic axis. For a biaxial crystal neither ray is deemed "ordinary" nor would generally be refracted according to a refractive index equal to one of the principal axes.
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**Vacuum blasting**
Vacuum blasting:
Vacuum blasting is an abrasive blasting method, also referred to as dustless blasting or closed loop abrasive blasting. The method is characterized by a blast tool that does abrasive blasting and collects both used blast media, and loosened particles from the surface to be treated, simultaneously.
Procedure:
The blast tool is equipped with a blast hose and a suction hose, that both run from the blast tool to a control unit. The control unit supplies the blast tool with pressurized air mixed with blast media, and sucks back dust, loosened particles and used blast media. The control unit continuously separates dust and loosened particles from the used blast media, and sends used blast media back into the pressurized air flow. The dust and loosened particles are collected in a waste container.
Applications:
The method is typically used in areas where dust and spill from regular abrasive blasting is not wanted, for example due to HSE-considerations. The blast process itself is slower than regular abrasive blasting, but requires less sheeting and scaffolding
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Myogel**
Myogel:
Myogel is a trade name for a human-based extracellular matrix used in cancer research to provide a 3D cell culture environment for cancer cells. Unlike other synthesized matrices such as matrigel which originated from mice sarcoma, myogel is extracted from a human benign tumor tissue called leiomyoma. Myogel was developed in Tuula Salo's lab at the University of Oulu. The idea started in 2009 by culturing cancer cells on myoma discs. Later in 2015, these myoma tissues were processed following matrigel receipt, to extract a gel form called Myogel. Myogel was compared with matrigel and found to be superior in term of enhancing cancer cells proliferation, migration and invasion.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Irene Tracey**
Irene Tracey:
Irene Mary Carmel Tracey (born 30 October 1966) is Vice-Chancellor of the University of Oxford and former Warden of Merton College, Oxford. She is also Professor of Anaesthetic Neuroscience in the Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences and formerly Pro-Vice-Chancellor (without portfolio) at the University of Oxford. She is a co-founder of the Oxford Centre for Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the Brain (FMRIB), now the Wellcome Centre for Integrative Neuroimaging. Her team’s research is focused on the neuroscience of pain, specifically pain perception and analgesia as well as how anaesthetics produce altered states of consciousness. Her team uses multidisciplinary approaches including neuroimaging.
Early life and education:
Tracey was born at the Radcliffe Infirmary in Oxford and educated at St. Thomas More R.C. Primary School and Gosford Hill School in Kidlington. She completed her undergraduate and graduate studies at Merton College, Oxford in Biochemistry under the supervision of Eric Newsholme and George Radda. She graduated with joint-top first class degree winning the Gibb’s Prize as an undergraduate and was a Wellcome Trust prize student and senior scholar at Merton College for her graduate work. Her graduate research was supervised by Jeffrey F. Dunn and investigated the use of magnetic resonance imaging methods to study disease in humans.
Career:
As an early career researcher, Tracey held a postdoctoral position at Harvard Medical School, working at the MGH-NMR imaging centre (now Martinos) applying magnetic spectroscopy techniques to understand AIDS Dementia Complex. During this period she became interested in pain, the research field she would eventually focus on. Tracey returned to Oxford in 1997, where she helped to found the Oxford Centre for Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the Brain (FMRIB), later renamed the Wellcome Centre for Integrative Neuroimaging; she served as its Director from 2005 until 2015. She was appointed university lecturer in 2001 at the Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics; during this time, she was also a tutor in medicine and Fellow of Christ Church. Between 2007 and 2019, Tracey was Nuffield Chair in Anaesthetic Sciences and a Fellow of Pembroke College, where she is now an Honorary Fellow. In October 2016, she became Head of the Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences.In October 2017, Tracey was announced as the next Warden of Merton College, in succession to Sir Martin Taylor. She was installed as Warden on 5 October 2019, becoming the college’s 51st warden.On 9 May 2022, it was announced that Tracey would be the next Vice-Chancellor of the University of Oxford, with effect from 2023, in succession to Louise Richardson. She said of her nomination: ‘I am deeply committed to growing Oxford's impact through supporting its ground-breaking discovery research, its excellence in teaching and its drive to create a global innovation powerhouse.’Tracey has served on various scientific committees, including the International Association for the Study of Pain (IASP), British Neuroscience Association, and Lundbeck Brain Prize Committee. She is a member of the Council of the Medical Research Council (MRC) and President of the Federation of European Neuroscience Societies (FENS). She is a passionate advocate for women in science and, as Warden of Merton College, championed greater inclusion and diversity.
Career:
Research Tracey's research centers on investigating what she calls "the cerebral signature for pain perception" − how key regions of the human brain give rise to pain − and on developing objective, reliable, scientific ways of measuring what has always been considered a highly subjective experience. In particular, Tracey and her colleagues have used fMRI brain scanning techniques to discover the various neural sites and mechanisms that underlie pain, to distinguish between the experience of pain and the anticipation of that experience, and to explore differences in how people experience the same pain in different ways at different times. Her team has also investigated how pain-relief treatments can produce altered states of consciousness and how religious beliefs can affect and alleviate pain. One key finding is that pain is complex and cognitive, and, in Tracey’s words, "sensitive to various mental processes such as the feelings and beliefs that someone has", so it doesn't arise exclusively from a single painful input, such as a pinprick or burn. Her objective is to improve the understanding of chronic pain, its diagnosis, and treatment, partly through the development of more effective drugs.
Career:
Awards and honours In 2008, Tracey was awarded the triennial Patrick Wall Medal from the Royal College of Anaesthetists and in 2009 was made a Fellow of the Royal College of Anaesthetists (FRCA) for her contributions to the discipline. She won the Suffrage Science award in 2014. In 2015 she was elected a Fellow of the Academy of Medical Sciences (FMedSci) and in 2017 won the Feldberg Foundation prize, followed in 2018 by the British Neuroscience Association’s Outstanding Contribution to Neuroscience award. In 2020, Tracey was elected a member of the Academia Europaea (MAE), and in 2022 she has been elected an honorary fellow of The Physiological Society. In the 2022 New Year Honours List, Tracey was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) by Queen Elizabeth II for services to medical research. She received her CBE from Charles III at Windsor Castle on 16 November 2022 during the first Investiture held by His Majesty following his Accession. In 2023 she was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society.
Career:
Publications Tracey has published over 200 original papers; Semantic Scholar lists her as a contributor to over 400 publications including the following publications: Pain 2012 Refresher Courses: 14th World Congress on Pain Pain: A Ladybird Expert Book Wall & Melzack's Textbook of Pain: Expert Consult Dissociating Pain from Its Anticipation in the Human Brain Exacerbation of Pain by Anxiety Is Associated with Activity in a Hippocampal Network Imaging how attention modulates pain in humans using functional MRI The Cerebral Signature for Pain Perception and Its Modulation A common neurobiology for pain and pleasure Neurocognitive aspects of pain perception Multidisciplinary research priorities for the COVID-19 pandemic: a call for action for mental health science Public engagement As part of her passion for public understanding of science, Tracey has made numerous media appearances, including on BBC Radio 4's All in the Mind.She has created and presented two radio programmes about pain: From Agony to Analgesia, a two-episode BBC programme in 2017, and The Anatomy of Pain, a four-part, BBC Discovery series in 2018.Tracey's work on pain has also featured in two BBC Horizon TV documentaries; a Science Museum exhibition in London; public lectures at DANA, the Oxford Museum of Natural History, and the Cheltenham Science Festival; and articles in New Scientist, BBC Science Focus, and Good Housekeeping.The Lancet and The New Yorker have both run profiles of her. She was interviewed by Jim Al-Khalili in April 2019 for BBC Radio 4’s The Life Scientific. She was also listed in The Times’ Life Sciences Global Power List in 2020.
Personal life:
Tracey married the climate physicist Myles Allen in 1994 and has three children.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**GNAT2**
GNAT2:
Guanine nucleotide-binding protein G(t) subunit alpha-2 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the GNAT2 gene.
Function:
Transducin is a 3-subunit guanine nucleotide-binding protein (G protein) which stimulates the coupling of rhodopsin and cGMP-phosphodiesterase during visual impulses. The transducin alpha subunits in rods and cones are encoded by separate genes. This gene encodes the alpha subunit in cones.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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