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**Gluteal tuberosity**
Gluteal tuberosity:
The gluteal tuberosity is the lateral one of the three upward prolongations of the linea aspera of the femur, extending to the base of the greater trochanter. It serves as the principal insertion site for the gluteus maximus muscle.
Structure:
The gluteal tuberosity is the lateral prolongation of three prolongations of the linea aspera that extending superior-ward from the superior extremity of the linea aspera on the posterior surface of the femur.The gluteal tuberosity takes the form of either an elongated depression or a rough ridge. It extends from the linea aspera nearly vertically superior-ward to the base of the greater trochanter. Its superior part is often elongated to form a roughened crest, upon which a more or less prominent rounded tubercle - the third trochanter - is occasionally developed.
Structure:
Attachments The gluteal tuberosity is the principal site of insertion of the gluteus maximus muscle, accepting the muscle's tendon (the gluteus maximus muscle additionally also inserts onto the iliotibial tract).
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**Computers & Geosciences**
Computers & Geosciences:
Computers & Geosciences is a scientific journal published monthly by Elsevier on behalf of the International Association for Mathematical Geosciences. It contains research and review papers in computing applied to geosciences. Its impact factor is 3.372.
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**Wilting**
Wilting:
Wilting is the loss of rigidity of non-woody parts of plants. This occurs when the turgor pressure in non-lignified plant cells falls towards zero, as a result of diminished water in the cells. Wilting also serves to reduce water loss, as it makes the leaves expose less surface area. The rate of loss of water from the plant is greater than the absorption of water in the plant. The process of wilting modifies the leaf angle distribution of the plant (or canopy) towards more erectophile conditions.
Wilting:
Lower water availability may result from: drought conditions, where the soil moisture drops below conditions most favorable for plant functioning; the temperature falls to the point where the plant's vascular system cannot function; high salinity, which causes water to diffuse from the plant cells and induce shrinkage; saturated soil conditions, where roots are unable to obtain sufficient oxygen for cellular respiration, and so are unable to transport water into the plant; or bacteria or fungi that clog the plant's vascular system.Wilting diminishes the plant's ability to transpire and grow. Permanent wilting leads to plant death. Symptoms of wilting and blights resemble one another.
Wilting:
The plants may recover during the night when evaporation is reduced as the stomata closes.In woody plants, reduced water availability leads to cavitation of the xylem.
Wilting occurs in plants such as balsam and holy basil. Wilting is an effect of the plant growth-inhibiting hormone, abscisic acid.
With cucurbits, wilting can be caused by the squash vine borer.
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**COVID-19 pandemic in Venezuela**
COVID-19 pandemic in Venezuela:
The COVID-19 pandemic in Venezuela was a part of the worldwide pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). The first two cases in Venezuela were confirmed on 13 March 2020; the first death was reported on 26 March. However, the first record of a patient claiming to have symptoms of coronavirus disease dates back to 29 February 2020, with government officials suspecting that the first person carrying the virus could have entered the country as early as 25 February.Venezuela is particularly vulnerable to the wider effects of the pandemic because of its ongoing socioeconomic and political crisis causing massive shortages of food staples and basic necessities, including medical supplies. The mass emigration of Venezuelan doctors has also caused chronic staff shortages in hospitals.To prevent the spread of the disease into Venezuela, the governments of Brazil and Colombia temporarily closed their borders with Venezuela. The Colombian government had placed 1 October as a tentative date for reopening the border.In February 2021, Venezuela started vaccinations with the Russian Sputnik V COVID-19 vaccine and a vaccine produced by the Chinese company Sinopharm. It aimed to vaccinate 70 percent of the population by the end of 2021. An academic survey found that by the 1 September 2021, 10% of the Venezuelan population was fully vaccinated. By the end of 2021, Venezuela had administered 30,049,714 doses of vaccine, about 52.7% of the country's population.
Background:
In January, Venezuela's Ministry of Popular Power for Health announced that the Rafael Rangel National Institute of Hygiene (Spanish: Instituto Nacional de Higiene Rafael Rangel) in Caracas would act as the observatory for non-influenza respiratory viruses, including coronaviruses in humans. It is the only health institution in the country with the ability to diagnose respiratory viruses and to operate logistically across the 23 states, the Capital District and the Federal Dependencies of Venezuela.In February, the Venezuelan government announced that the country had imposed epidemiological surveillance, restrictions and a plan to detect individuals with COVID-19 at the Simón Bolívar International Airport in Maiquetía, Venezuela's main international airport. They said Venezuela would receive diagnostic kits for the virus strain from the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO).
Timeline:
Timeline of 2020 March Venezuela reported its first official cases of coronavirus disease on 13 March 2020. However, several days earlier a suspected case became controversial due to the state treatment of a whistleblower. On 7 March, Fe y Alegría reported that a suspicious medical case was registered in Zulia: a 31-year-old who was not from Venezuela was examined at the Pedro Iturbe Hospital and later transferred to the University Hospital of Maracaibo. The patient had apparent symptoms and was discharged days later. The state governor, Omar Prieto, asked the Public Ministry to investigate a University of Zulia professor, Freddy Pachano, for bringing attention to the suspected case in the state, and the NGO Espacio Público condemned Prieto for ordering such an investigation. Nicolás Maduro declared a ban on protests on 12 March before cases were confirmed in Venezuela to prevent the spread of the outbreak, as well as a ban on flights from Europe and Colombia.The first cases, two on 13 March, were registered in the state of Miranda. Colombian president Iván Duque closed the border with Venezuela effective from the next day. On 14 March, the official number of cases rose by eight (to ten), and had spread across four states (Miranda, Apure, Aragua and Cojedes). Communication Minister Jorge Rodríguez announced that flights from Panama and the Dominican Republic to the country would be suspended for 30 days, beginning on 15 March.Stay-at-home orders were announced on 15 March, when the country registered another seven cases, and introduced the next day across six states and the Caracas area. The orders were dubbed "collective quarantine"; there are exceptions for transportation, health, and delivery of food. It was on the first day of the quarantine across six states, 16 March, that Argentina's ambassador in Venezuela, Eduardo Porretti, tested positive for the virus, and Nicolás Maduro announced that sixteen new cases were confirmed, bringing the total to 33. Based on this, Maduro extended the quarantine to the entire country.When Venezuela went into lockdown on 17 March, authorities in Brazil partially closed their border with Venezuela. Brazilian Health Minister Luiz Henrique Mandetta had urged closure of the border due to Venezuela's collapsing health system. Venezuelan Vice President Delcy Rodríguez announced three more cases the same day. In the afternoon, a patient that would later test positive for coronavirus fled from a hospital in Propatria, in west Caracas.On 18 March, Delcy Rodríguez reported that the numbers of cases had not changed since the previous day. By 21 March, the government reported 70 confirmed cases in the country.Economic measures to deal with the consequences of the pandemic were announced on 22 March, along with seven more cases. Rent and credit payments were suspended for six months, accompanied by compensation in local currency for property owners and medium-sized businesses. The measures also extended a 2015 policy that prevents companies from firing employees through December 2020. The government said that no household would have their utilities cut off. The government also took over payment of wages for workers in non-essential companies that were not operating during the national emergency and gave workers in the informal sector a one-off social security payment.The first confirmed death from the disease was announced on 26 March. Another death was reported the next day. Also on 27 March, Delcy Rodríguez met with Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago Keith Rowley, with the meeting focused on the strategy being deployed in both countries to combat the pandemic. There was also controversy on this day when NGO PROVEA revealed that around ninety people coming from Cúcuta, Colombia, were forcefully isolated on 25 March by the National Guard in Barqusimeto, Lara, without food or proper sanitary conditions.
Timeline:
April Information Minister Jorge Rodríguez first reported that there were more recoveries than new infections in Venezuela on 11 April. Delcy Rodríguez and Nicolás Maduro announced an extension of the national quarantine and state of alarm for 30 days.After a sudden rise of the number of cases in Margarita Island, Nicolás Maduro announced a curfew the entire state of Nueva Esparta on 19 April. 41 of the cases at the time, were related to Roberto Vahlis Baseball Academy. Some of its member had just arrived from Dominican Republic by plane.A 29-year-old man was killed by two gunshots to the head during riots in Upata, Bolívar state, caused by food and fuel shortages that were exacerbated by the lockdown since mid-March. The message "Murió por hambre" (He died of hunger) was written in chalk besides the pool of blood that he left. Colectivos participated in the police operation to repress the riots, who used their motorcycles despite the fuel shortages. At least two people were injured and thirty others were arrested.
Timeline:
May Delcy Rodríguez reported the first cases of COVID-19 in Amazonas and Carabobo on 10 May. That left Delta Amacuro as the only unaffected state at that moment.Nicolás Maduro, on 12 May, extended the lockdown for 30 more days. The restrictions to national flights were also extended 30 days by the national aeronautics institute INAC (Spanish: Instituto Nacional de Aeronáutica Civi).The first patient with COVID-19 in Delta Amacuro was reported on 13 May. As of that date, all states of Venezuela have reported at least a case of COVID-19.Mid May, Maracaibo reports a major outbreak of cases related to Las Pulgas, a popular market. The market was closed.After 34 days without a death report, a new deceased by COVID-19 was reported on 26 May.
Timeline:
June The easing of the lockdown started on 1 June, with gyms and shopping centers opening. Schools, courts and bars remain closed.As of 9 June the Venezuelan government had reduced re-emigrations to 400 per day, three days a week, a reduction of 80% from previous levels.The state of alarm was extended a third time for an additional month on 12 June.Opposition and health care workers in Maracaibo announced on the fourth week of June that hospitals in the city were filled and dozens of doctors and nursed were infected. William Barrientos, a surgeon and opposition legislator, said that 40 health workers were infected with the virus. A nurse died in the Maracaibo Military Hospital. The authorities enabled 20 small and midsized hotels in Maracaibo to treat patients. Measures were increased in Zulia, Caracas and eight other states.
Timeline:
July Diosdado Cabello, vice-president of the United Socialist Party of Venezuela and president of the pro-government Constituent National Assembly announced he tested positive for COVID-19 on 9 July.Tareck El Aissami, the Minister of Petroleum and Omar Prieto, the Governor of Zulia also tested positive on 10 July.A member of the National Constituent Assembly and the Governor of the Capital District, Darío Vivas tested positive for COVID-19 on 19 July.
Timeline:
August Venezuela Minister of Communication and Information Jorge Rodríguez tested positive for COVID-19 on 13 August. On the same day, Darío Vivas died of COVID-19 at the age of 70.
Timeline of 2021 February In February 2021, Venezuela started vaccinating health care workers with the Russian Sputnik V COVID-19 vaccine and started using a vaccine produced by the Chinese company Sinopharm. It aimed to vaccinate 70 percent of the population by the end of 2021.
March In March 2021, Juan Guaidó and the opposition National Assembly approved 30 million dollars to import Oxford–AstraZeneca vaccines. Delcy Rodríguez announced that permits for its use would not be conceded. Venezuela decided not to approve use of the Oxford–AstraZeneca vaccine when several European countries suspended their vaccination programmes due to concerns over possible side-effects.
October School children and university students started going back to their classes in October 2021. The government claimed that 56% of the population had been vaccinated but Johns Hopkins University reported that less than 22% of the population had been fully vaccinated. Venezuelans could get vaccinated from the age of 11.
Measures:
Executive response On 12 March, Nicolás Maduro declared a public health emergency in the country and suspended all inbound flights from Europe and Colombia for 30 days. He also announced that public gatherings were to be suspended and that the government would be evaluating whether or not to suspend flights from other regions in the coming weeks. According to Maduro, there had been 30 suspected cases in Venezuela, but these had all tested negative.After the first cases in the country were confirmed, Vice-president Delcy Rodríguez instructed all passengers of the 5 March and 8 March flights of Iberia 6673 to immediately enter into a mandatory preventive quarantine because two passengers tested positive.Rodríguez announced that all classes would be suspended at public and private schools from Monday 16 March until further notice, while Néstor Reverol announced that the government would provide border control authorities with face masks, gloves and thermometers, without mentioning supplies for citizens and hospitals. Reverol also announced that the operational control of all the police forces would be transferred to the Armed Forces in order to coordinate the action and contingency plan.On 14 March, authorities arrested two people for spreading false information about the virus, recording a video about fake cases in Los Teques. SUDEBAN, the government's department related to banks and financial institutions, announced the suspension of banking activities, effective from 16 March.Defense Minister Vladimir Padrino López announced that, effective from 16 March, the Armed Forces would control access to the six states and the Capital District declared by Nicolás Maduro to be in quarantine.On 16 March, Maduro reversed the country's official position against the International Monetary Fund (IMF), asking the institution for US$5 billion to combat the pandemic, a first during Maduro's presidency; he has been a critic of the institution. The IMF also has had conflicts with the Venezuelan government in the past, as Maduro's predecessor Hugo Chávez had pledged to cut ties with the fund in 2007, and the IMF suspended US$400 million in special drawing rights during the Venezuelan presidential crisis in 2019. The IMF rejected the deal as it was not clear, among its member states, on who it recognizes as Venezuela's president, Nicolás Maduro or Juan Guaidó. According to a report by Bloomberg, the Maduro administration also tried to request aid of $1 billion from the IMF after the first request was denied.On 19 March, Rodríguez announced that 4,000 diagnosis kits were delivered from China to test for coronavirus disease. The government said that the Chinese diagnosis kits would benefit 300,000 Venezuelans and thanked the Chinese government and President Xi Jinping for their generosity. In a separate measure, Venezuela's INEA maritime authority has prohibited crews aboard ships docking in the country's ports from disembarking. The same day, Maduro announced that he had received a letter from the United Nations (UN) Resident Coordinator and United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) Resident Representative Peter Grohmann, confirming that the organization "is ready to support the Venezuelan government in its fight against COVID-19." Maduro stressed that the UN has taken concrete actions, particularly in the areas of health and water, sanitation and hygiene, and "will support the Ministry of Health in the care and containment of the coronavirus." Likewise, they will offer support in the disclosure of reliable and updated information. China provided a further one million rapid antigen test kits in March 2020.On 20 March, Maduro said that Russia was considering "a significant donation of special humanitarian aid" to the country, such as medical equipment and kits for the diagnosis of COVID-19, which were expected to arrive by the following week. On 23 March, Foreign Minister Jorge Arreaza and Russian ambassador Sergei Melik-Bagdasarov announced that 10,000 diagnosis kits had been delivered from Russia, with more to be supplied in future shipments. In a tweet, Maduro thanked the Russian government and President Vladimir Putin for their generosity and for standing in solidarity with the Venezuelan people.Maduro announced several economic measures on 23 March to deal with unemployment, the assumption of wage payment by the state, the suspension of rent and credit interests payments, the assignment of new bonds, the flexibility of new loans and credit, the prohibition of the cutting of telecommunication services and the guarantee of CLAP (Local Committees for Supply and Production) supplies.
Measures:
Russian Sputnik V vaccine In September 2020, Maduro suggested administering the Russian Sputnik V COVID-19 vaccine to the candidates in the upcoming legislative elections so that they could campaign safely. In October 2020, the Venezuelan government received a shipment of the Sputnik V vaccine. Venezuela was the first country in Latin America to participate in the Sputnik V trial, which involved around 2000 Venezuelan participants. In December 2020, the Venezuelan government signed a contract to acquire enough doses of the Sputnik V vaccine for 10 million people.
Measures:
Doctors without Borders The international aid group Doctors without Borders (MSF) stopped operations in Caracas in November 2020 due to government restrictions. About 150 doctors, that worked in Petare, a poor neighborhood, risk to lose their jobs. Maribelsi Mancera, head nurse for MSF, stated that they do not understand the government decision. Miguel Pizarro, Venezuela's representative in the United Nations, regretted the decision and criticized the government behavior against non governmental organizations trying to help with the crisis.
Measures:
National Assembly response In March 2020, Juan Guaidó said that the country is experiencing one of the most serious health crises in its history, caused by the inaction of the Maduro government, and announced a series of measures in order to take "responsible measures against the pandemic." These include the postponement of opposition protests and the creation of the Special Health Commission. Guaidó also called for the entry of humanitarian aid from the United Nations, and said that health services are not impacted by international sanctions.The Committee of Electoral Candidacies, in charge of appointing a new National Electoral Council (CNE), announced that it would suspend its meetings because of the pandemic.Julio Castro, head of the Special Health Commission appointed by Juan Guaidó, said on 16 March that face masks are a prevention measure useful only for one day, and that once used the mask loses its effectiveness and can become a source of infection; he also said that Venezuelans have to take additional measures to deal with the pandemic.In March 2020, National Assembly deputy Jesús Yánez announced that the government of Taiwan donated 1,000 surgical masks as a measure to prevent the coronavirus pandemic. The masks were distributed in five stations of the Caracas Metro (Plaza Sucre, Pérez Bonalde, Plaza Venezuela, Chacao and Petare). Yánez highlighted that the metro is a means of transportation used by a large part of the population and is a breeding ground for the pandemic due to the crowding of people in closed spaces, should any one of them be carrying the virus.In March 2020, Guaidó's Special Health Commission collected 3,500 protection kits for caregivers at five hospitals on 16 March.On 21 March, Guaidó announced that he delivered medical kits to protect the health sector from the coronavirus pandemic. On his official Twitter account, he shared a video expressing that "We are protecting a sector that today is giving everything: the health sector, our doctors and nurses. To support them is to support us all. We must bring this help to hundreds who need it", and concluded "We can contain this emergency. Venezuela is in our hands." Guaidó also announced the creation of the Human Rights Observatory as a response to the increase of human rights violations in the country during the social isolation orders.Guaidó called for the creation of a "national emergency government", not led by Maduro, on 28 March. According to Guaidó, a loan of US$1.2 billion was ready to be given in support of a power-sharing coalition between pro-Maduro officials, the military and the opposition in order to fight the pandemic in Venezuela. If accepted, the money would go to assist families affected by the disease and its economic consequences.Juan Guaidó announced a financial help to health workers during the pandemic supported by Venezuelan funds frozen in the Federal Reserve Bank of New York. In August 2020, opposition parties announced that the request had been granted by the United States Department of the Treasury. In the statement, an amount of 300 USD would be granted to 62,000 health workers, with US$100 a month starting 23 August 2020 for those registered. The resources were planned to be distributed through AirTM, a digital payment platform, but after the announcement the access to the platform was blocked in Venezuela. A manual to circumvent the internet block using a virtual private network (VPN) was published afterwards. An amount of US$4.5 million to support Venezuelans at risk of death, was also announced.The "Health heroes" program of Guaidó is the first time that frozen funds in United States, as part of sanctions on Venezuela, were directly transferred to Venezuelan health workers. By November 2020, the second wave of payments were granted.
Measures:
Joint response In June 2020, Carlos Alvarado, Maduro's health minister and Julio Castro, representing Juan Guaidó and the National Assembly, signed an unprecedent joint agreement with the World Health Organization and the Pan American Health Organization. The accord seeks cooperation between Maduro's government and the opposition deputies of the National Assembly to handle the pandemic and seek funds.According to opposition lawmakers, Maduro administration violated the agreement in January 2021, as resources and equipment to handle the pandemic were transferred to facilities controlled by Maduro administration.
Measures:
Other responses Baltazar Porras, Apostolic Administrator of Caracas, announced the suspension of ecclesiastic activities on 15 March, while assuring that temples would remain open, asking Venezuelans to avoid crowded places and to remain calm.The Health Ministry certified the microbiology laboratory of the University of the Andes, in Mérida state, to start carrying out tests to detect the presence of SARS-CoV-2, the coronavirus responsible for the COVID-19 disease, on 18 March. Once the necessary supplies are received, the laboratory will be able to perform up to 20 tests per day and would be the second laboratory in the country to perform detection tests after the National Hygiene Institute in Caracas; it would be expected to carry out tests for the states of Mérida, Táchira, Trujillo and Barinas, and possibly other states in the west, as it is closer than the Hygiene Institute in Caracas.Three men that were playing dominoes outdoors during the quarantine were murdered on 21 March in the 23 de Enero parish, in Caracas, and two more were injured. According to neighbors and relatives, a dozen members of the colectivo Tres Raíces arrived while they were playing and were responsible for their deaths; the witnesses accused the colectivo members of being linked with Iris Varela, Minister of Popular Power for the Prison Service, being linked to a CICPC officer, and of wearing FAES and National Police uniforms, announcing that they would protest as a response to the killings, in defiance of the quarantine. The colectivo denied the accusations of being related to the government or police, saying that the murders were instead motivated by revenge.On late March 2020, the colectivos Tres Raíces and La Piedrita started imposing a paramilitary-enforced curfew in the 23 de Enero parish, increasing repression and imposing closure times to businesses.
Reactions:
Government reactions Maduro asked people to not politicize the pandemic, while also expressing concern as to how the country could control the pandemic with the United States-imposed sanctions. Maduro called on US President Donald Trump to lift the sanctions so the country could acquire necessary medical supplies.Juan Guaidó said that since the start of the pandemic, human rights violations by Maduro's administration had increased, citing the murders in the 23 de Enero parish, the arrest of Darvinson Rojas, and human rights abuses against political prisoners, who are held in prisons with a high infection risk. Guaidó announced the creation of a Human Rights Observatory as a response.
Reactions:
Other reactions The Venezuelan Medical Federation expressed condemnation at how a medic in Zulia was forced to leave for Colombia after denouncing the inability of Venezuela to cope if the disease arrived; it also asked for the release of the political prisoners in the country, who are vulnerable to the virus, specifically Roberto Marrero, Juan Requesens, and other lawmakers.In the Anzoátegui state, nurses denounced the lack of face masks, gloves and disposable gowns.Transparencia Venezuela asked for transparency and access to public information regarding the handling of the emergency.Media outlets, such as El Nacional, denounced the price increase of face masks. Outlets have also reported on the violation of the quarantine for reasons such as buying food, medicines, and both cleaning and hygiene products, as well as the public services crisis, including the lack of drinking water, electric power, cooking gas, telephone signal and waste collection.
Reactions:
International sanctions The Virtual United States Embassy in Venezuela rejected claims from Nicolás Maduro and Jorge Arreaza that sanctions are preventing the government from purchasing medical supplies, saying that "medicines, medical supplies, spare parts and components for medical devices in Venezuela, or to people from third countries who buy specifically for resale from Venezuela are excluded from the sanctions." Days later, Foreign Minister Jorge Arreaza called the statements "the height of impudence and falsehood." He declared that Venezuelan government assets worth more than US$5 billion were blocked overseas, in addition to "Venezuela's ban on access to the international banking system."Former Attorney General Luisa Ortega Díaz declared that Maduro "lied" when saying that there were no medicines in the country because of the sanctions, saying that the reasons were incompetence and corruption. The US Acting Assistant Secretary for Western Hemisphere Affairs Michael Kozak also accused Maduro of lying, saying that U.S. sanctions never block food or medicine purchases. He emphasized that shortages in Venezuela resulted from "the regime's theft of the nation's wealth."On 24 March, UN High Commissioner for Human Rights Michelle Bachelet called for any sanctions imposed on Venezuela and other countries facing the pandemic such as Cuba, Iran, and Zimbabwe to be "urgently reevaluated" in order to avoid pushing strained medical systems into collapse. In a statement, Bachelet said: "At this crucial time, both for global public health reasons, and to support the rights and lives of millions of people in these countries, sectoral sanctions should be eased or suspended." Bachelet also accentuated the need to protect health workers in these countries as authorities should not punish professionals that point out the deficiencies in the state response to the crisis.On 10 June 2021, Venezuelan officials announced they have been unable to complete payments for available vaccines from the COVAX program. Initially the transaction of $120 million was to be paid per agreement with Juan Guaidó using funds frozen in the United States via Washington's sanctions against Maduro, but later Venezuelan officials said they would use their own funds. Subsequently, Swiss bank UBS confirmed that four operations, totaling $4.6 million, "were blocked and under investigation." Vice President Delcy Rodríguez remarked the remaining payment of $10 million could not be completed. UBS would not specify further due to legal and regulatory reasons. The Maduro government said for months that it was unable to pay for the COVAX program because of U.S. sanctions. Venezuela expressed interest in the Janssen and Novavax vaccines after the requested shipment of AstraZeneca/Oxford vaccines was never approved by national authorities. In August 2021, those payments were reportedly unblocked, and Venezuela will receive 6.2 million doses of the Sinopharm BIBP vaccine and CoronaVac through the program.
Reactions:
International concern International concern was raised before the first cases were reported, as Venezuela's health care system has completely collapsed due to the ongoing crisis, meaning its already suffering population is especially vulnerable to the spread of a pandemic.Per the Global Health Security Index, Venezuela's health system is ranked among the worst in the world in its ability to detect, quickly respond, and mitigate a pandemic. Hospitals are plagued by chronic shortages of supplies, including eye protectors, gloves, masks, and soap. Due to ongoing shortages of resources, hospitals must also constantly deal with chronic lack of staff, thus making the response to treating a large number of infected patients significantly more challenging. Patients are also often turned away at hospitals due to overcrowding, or asked to bring in their own gauze, IV solution, or syringes, while there are often no hygiene facilities like toilets, and power outages are a regular occurrence.The Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) said that it would be prioritizing Venezuela alongside Haiti and other Central and South American countries because of "challenges to their health systems."Associated Press reported that experts are worried that the Venezuelan refugee crisis could worsen the spread of the virus.
Reactions:
Prison system Reuters reported that Venezuela's notoriously overcrowded and unsanitary prisons could spread the coronavirus "like a fast-moving fire." Venezuelan prisons frequently lack bathrooms, people sleep on floors, and many inmates spend their days without shirts or shoes on, in part to combat the infernal heat of windowless facilities. This has caused US Secretary of State Mike Pompeo to demand the Maduro government release six Citgo executives, held in prison since 2017, on humanitarian grounds. Pompeo said that all six men have weakened immune systems and "face a grave health risk if they become infected" with the coronavirus pandemic.On 18 March, 84 out of 518 inmates escaped from a prison in San Carlos, Zulia, after restrictions against the pandemic were announced, including jail visits. Mayor Bladimir Labrador declared that ten prisoners were killed during the prison break and that two policemen were detained for complicity. According to Carlos Nieto Palma from the NGO Ventana a la Libertad, the suspension of visits directly affects the prisoner's nutrition, given that there was no state-sponsored program to feed them. The NGO PROVEA denounced "grave human rights violations" after a military spokesperson announced the "neutralization" of 35 escapees. State authorities later declared that there were eight deaths.
Reactions:
Hearing over the Esequibo The International Court of Justice (ICJ) planned to discuss Guyana and Venezuela border dispute over Guayana Esequiba in March 2020. The hearing was postponed due to the pandemic. In April, Guyana reported cases of COVID-19 in the disputed territory.The first hearing was finally carried out on 30 June 2020, but Venezuela did not participate saying that the ICJ lacked jurisdiction. The hearing was held by video conference due to the pandemic.
Economic impact:
As a result of the pandemic's economic impact, some businesses have sought to supplement lost business with deliveries, though exact figures remain obscure and the services are prohibitively costly for average Venezuelans. Some have started to make deliveries to support their families using bicycles instead of motorcycles due to gasoline shortages.
Misinformation by authorities:
In a national broadcast on 27 February 2020, Nicolás Maduro warned that COVID-19 may have been a US-made biological weapon aimed against China, without providing any evidence.Maduro has supported in social media the use of infusions as a cure to COVID-19. Twitter deleted a tweet of Maduro in March that cited the works of Sergio Quintero, a Venezuelan doctor that claims to have found an herbal antidote against COVID-19. Quintero also claims that the virus was created by the United States as a biological weapon. The works were also posted in Facebook and government webpages and shared by thousands of users. The Venezuelan Institute for Scientific Research refuted Quintero's claims. Agence France Presse has fact checked this information and has cataloged Quintero's works as misleading and false, no natural cure has either been approved by other specialists nor by the World Health Organization.Maduro's administration has authorized and supported the use of chloroquine and interferon alfa-2b at large scale as treatments for COVID-19. Interferon alfa-2b is an antiviral that has been used in China and has been promoted by Cuba, sometimes as a "vaccine". Both chloroquine and interferon have not been proven to be effective against the disease. Chloroquine is an antimalarial drug that can cause cardiac problems if abused.Throughout March and July 2020, Maduro and his administration have accused Colombia of promoting the "intentional infection" of Venezuelan migrants that returned to their country, saying they were "biological weapon" and threatening them with quarantine. Local authorities have repeated the accusations since. Maduro administration has given the hypothesis of a "Colombian virus", that would be a more aggressive strain of the virus, to explain the increase in numbers in neighboring Zulia state, but no medical evidence has been provided.Maduro notified the Pan American Health Organization in October 2020, that a molecule that nullifies the replication capacity of the new coronavirus had been discovered, yet no proof was ever disclosed.In early 2021, Nicolás Maduro started promoting Carvativir, a thyme-based oral medication that he said was tested on patients in Caracas and neutralizes COVID-19 with no side effect. He described the drug as "tears of José Gregorio Hernández", a 19th-century Venezuelan doctor beatified in 2020. Francisco Marty, an infectious diseases expert at Brigham and Women's Hospital said that the claims about the efficiency of drug effects were unsubstantiated. David Boulware, professor of medicine and an infectious diseases physician at the University of Minnesota Medical School, noted the lack of scientific data. Venezuela's National Academy of Medicine stated that Carvativir had therapeutic potential against coronavirus but warned that, according to international protocols, more data was needed to consider it an anti-COVID-19 medication.In March 2021, Nicolás Maduro Facebook page was frozen for violating policies against spreading misinformation about the coronavirus of the website.
Concerns with government estimates:
The official reports have not always been consistent, presenting errors such as missing states, numbers that do not match and inconsistencies with the published estimates. The government keeps a centralized system and does not authorize private clinics and universities to access the tests processing.The government receives many tests kits from China. Early May, the Maduro administration reported to have performed over 400,000 tests, the largest number of tests in South America at the time. Many of these tests are unreliable rapid tests, raising the possibility of a large number of false positives and negatives.As of 17 April, only the laboratory of the National Institute of Hygiene (INH) was certified to analyze COVID-19 tests. It is estimated that the INH only has the capacity to analyze 100 samples per day. The current virology team consists of three technicians, working on aging equipment. In comparison, Colombia has 38 certified labs. The government does not allow universities or private clinics to test, even if they have the capacity to do so. Due to lack of transparency, even some top health officials do not know how fast the epidemic is spreading. According to health workers that disclosed information to Reuters, the government is prioritizing sectors that are allied with the United Socialist Party of Venezuela.The Maduro administration was reporting an average of less than a dozen cases daily until the last weeks of May, a very low number compared to other countries in South America. Human Rights Watch and Johns Hopkins University published that Venezuela's hospitals were "grossly unprepared" and most hospitals lack running water. The American director from Human Rights Watch indicated that "Maduro's statistics are absolutely absurd," in a country "where doctors do not even have water to wash their hands." Kathleen Page from the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine involved in the report said that some of the health official interviewed stated "that even when they see confirmed cases of Covid-19 they are not being reported in the epidemiological reports".Many Venezuelans are skeptical of the government statistics due to the Maduro administration's history of hiding numbers.Juan Guaidó has questioned the veracity of the official number of cases, stating that there are inconsistencies in the estimates given. In an interview with El Nuevo Herald on 22 March, Guaidó declared that the number of confirmed cases in Venezuela could be more than two hundred, according to opposition estimates, contrary to the 70 cases that Maduro's administration recognized at the moment. El Nuevo Herald reported that internal sources extraofficially confirmed that estimate, that according to said sources there were 181 confirmed cases on the morning of 21 March and a total of 298 in observation.The United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights Michelle Bachelet, when discussing Cuba, North Korea, Venezuela and Zimbabwe, called for the easing of sanctions to enable their medical systems to combat COVID-19. These countries should provide transparent information and accept offers of humanitarian help when needed, according to Bachelet. She also said that Venezuela suffers from many kind of supply and technical shortages, that pre-date the sanctions. She also called Venezuelan government to protect health workers saying that they "should never be punished by the authorities for pointing out deficiencies in the response to the crisis." Non-government estimates Four cases were extraofficially reported in El Helicoide on 18 March 2020, three women and a male officer of the motorized brigade of the National Police.A person self-identified as a member of the Tupamaro colectivo in the 23 de Enero parish of Caracas declared to his community with a megaphone that a case was confirmed on 19 March 2020, specifically in Block 39, asking his neighbors to stay home and to prevent other blocks from being infected.Venezuelan newspaper El Nacional, reported a total of 65 cases for 20 March, according to undisclosed sources from the Health Ministry. On that day the ministry did not report any official numbers, the toll was officially updated the next day going from 42 to 70. Similarly, before the official report on 23 March, El Nacional reported 84 cases according undisclosed source from the Health Ministry.The Academy of Physical, Mathematical and Natural Science (Spanish: Academia de Ciencias Físicas, Matemáticas y Naturales) warned that on 2 April the epidemiological curves of Venezuela were unusual, saying that there was just a linear increase of accumulated confirmed cases, a pattern that is atypical for the initial phase of COVID-19 outbreaks.Physician and opposition deputy, Jose Manuel Olivares, said Maduro's administration has concealed at least four COVID-19 deaths from the 10 it has made public up to 27 May 2020. Two of these extra cases had received PCR tests that resulted positive after their death, but were not counted in the official reports.
Authorities' actions on reporting:
On 13 March, Delta Amacuro indigenous leader and journalist Melquiades Ávila, who has criticized health infrastructure in the country, questioned publicly through Facebook "will our hospital be ready for coronavirus?" and ridiculed Maduro's claim that 46 hospitals were prepared for COVID-19. The Governor of Delta Amacuro Lizeta Hernández and member of the United Socialist Party of Venezuela, sent the state army to detain Ávila. When asked why by Reuters on the matter, she said that it was to "orient" Ávila and ensure he was being "serious and responsible".An opposition lawmaker, Tony Geara, was arrested on 14 March in a roadblock after declaring that there was no running water in one of the hospitals listed as prepared by the Bolivarian government. A court charged Geara with illegal possession of explosives and weapons. Geara denies the charges.According to twelve medical workers interviewed by Reuters, security forces use roadblocks and checkpoints to shakedown medical staff.Julio Molinos, a medical union leader and retired technician, published a video asking the government to be transparent about hospital conditions on 15 March. Special Action Forces (FAES) arrested Molinos, who was sentenced to house arrest on charges of conspiracy and inciting hatred.The National Assembly released a webpage to provide information and health recommendations on COVID-19 but the access to the website was restricted by CANTV, the state internet provider. The censorship was denounced by Guaidó.Iván Virgüez, a 65-year-old human rights lawyer was arrested in April for criticizing the conditions of quarantine centers for migrants returning to Venezuela. He reports to the Human Rights Watch to have been handcuffed for two hours under the sun to a metal tube 2 feet off the ground and was denied a bathroom for 26 hours. Virgüez was later held under house arrest, charged with public disturbance, contempt, defamation of authorities and instigation of rebellion.According to a Human Rights Watch report, healthcare worker Andrea Sayago was coerced to resign after the photos she shared of their first coronavirus cases through WhatsApp, a private messaging service, were leaked through social media in April. Her photos were described as "terrorism" and she was charged with misuse of privileged information.
Authorities' actions on reporting:
Arrest of Darvinson Rojas On the night of 21 March 2020, journalist Darvinson Rojas was arrested at his home in Caracas by officials of the Bolivarian National Police (PNB) and around fifteen armed personnel from the Special Actions Force (FAES). According to the National Union of Press Workers (SNTP), the arrest was related to the coverage of Rojas with his recent publications on the COVID-19 situation in Venezuela.The Committee to Protect Journalists (CPJ) called for the immediate release of Rojas. Nathalie Southwick, CPJ coordinator, stated that "Violently detaining a journalist and interrogating him about his sources on a vital public health issue like the COVID-19 outbreak has an undeniable chilling effect that will only discourage other journalists from reporting on the pandemic." Amnesty International demanded Rojas immediate and unconditional release.The SNTP, on 24 March, denounced that Darvinson was presented in the tribunals "illegally" and "clandestinely".After 12 days incarcerated, Darvinson Rojas was set free on 3 April 2020 under precautionary measures.
Authorities' actions on reporting:
Backlash on Venezuelan scientific report Venezuela's Academy of Physical, Mathematical and Natural Science published an estimate of the future cases in Venezuela in May 2020. The report predicts that the number of infected in Venezuela could reach 4000 cases sometime in June. The report also states that the number of deaths reported so far were inconsistent with the epidemic. The academy called for an increase in the number of PCR tests and raised concerns of the difficulty of flattening the curve under the current conditions.Diosdado Cabello, vice-president of the United Socialist Party of Venezuela and president of pro-government Constituent National Assembly, criticized the academy for provoking "terror" in the population, discredited the academy report and demanded security forces to investigate its researchers. The academy answered by saying "it worries us as scientists, that we are harassed and marked for a technical report intended to improve management of the pandemic." The National Assembly defended the academy and answered that "Providing scientific facts in an unbiased way for the well-being of our people who are suffering the worst crisis in our history, is a heroic act that deserves to be recognized by all Venezuelans." Human Rights Watch report In an August 2020 report, Human Rights Watch described how the Venezuelan government had used the pandemic to control and crackdown on journalists, healthcare workers, human rights lawyers and political opponents that are critical to the government response. The report listed 162 alleged cases of physical abuse and torture committed by the authorities between March and June, corroborated through interviews with the victims, media reports and human rights advocate groups.
Statistics:
Cumulative number of cases and recoveries Notes: There was no official report on 20 March 2020, Worldometer and the Center for Systems Science and Engineering (CSSE) of the Johns Hopkins University reported 65 cases, numbers coming from an article of El Nacional from undisclosed sources from the Venezuelan Ministry of Health.
The recoveries from 21 March to 25 March indicate people without symptoms for at least 5 days, considered as recovered in the official reports.
Statistics:
Daily new cases Cumulative number of deaths Daily deaths Regional distribution Cases per federal entity touched by the pandemic, as of 29 September 2021: Various Venezuelan newspapers have pointed out that there have been some inconsistencies with the government reports by federal states. For example, 24 March report differs from 23 report, as Táchira and Portuguesa that reported cases before, were no longer included. On 26 March, while the official report indicated 107 total cases, the number of cases per dependency amounted to 108.In April, the Ministry of Public Health of Guyana confirmed patients with coronavirus in Barima-Waini, located in Guayana Esequiba and a territory disputed with Venezuela. These cases are not included in the statistics provided by the Bolivarian Government of Venezuela.
Statistics:
Per origin As of 16 March, there were 33 confirmed cases in Venezuela. According to official estimates, among these, 28 came from Europe and 5 from Cúcuta, Colombia. Two of the cases consisted of foreign citizens, one of a diplomatic official, while the rest consisted of Venezuelan residents.By 22 March, Maduro announced out of all the 77 cases were imported. According to him, 43 had traveled recently, the distribution was as follows: On 24 March, Maduro first mentioned the existence of cases transmitted locally in the country.Jorge Rodríguez announced on 15 May that between 70 and 80% of the cases reported in May were from foreign origin.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**2CB-Ind**
2CB-Ind:
2CB-Ind is a conformationally-restricted derivative of the phenethylamine hallucinogen 2C-B, discovered in 1974 by Alexander Shulgin. It acts as a moderately potent and selective agonist for the 5-HT2A and 5-HT2C receptors, but unlike the corresponding benzocyclobutene derivative TCB-2 which is considerably more potent than the parent compound 2C-B, 2CB-Ind is several times weaker, with racemic 2CB-Ind having a Ki of 47nM at the human 5-HT2A receptor, only slightly more potent than the mescaline analogue (R)-jimscaline.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Glycoside hydrolase family 66**
Glycoside hydrolase family 66:
In molecular biology, glycoside hydrolase family 66 is a family of glycoside hydrolases.
Glycoside hydrolase family 66:
Glycoside hydrolases EC 3.2.1. are a widespread group of enzymes that hydrolyse the glycosidic bond between two or more carbohydrates, or between a carbohydrate and a non-carbohydrate moiety. A classification system for glycoside hydrolases, based on sequence similarity, has led to the definition of >100 different families. This classification is available on the CAZy web site, and also discussed at CAZypedia, an online encyclopedia of carbohydrate active enzymes.Glycoside hydrolase family 66 CAZY GH_66 includes enzymes with cycloisomaltooligosaccharide glucanotransferase EC 2.4.1.248 and dextranase EC 3.2.1.11 activities.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Periodontal abscess**
Periodontal abscess:
A periodontal abscess (also termed lateral abscess, or parietal abscess), is a localized collection of pus (i.e. an abscess) within the tissues of the periodontium. It is a type of dental abscess. A periodontal abscess occurs alongside a tooth, and is different from the more common periapical abscess, which represents the spread of infection from a dead tooth (i.e. which has undergone pulpal necrosis). To reflect this, sometimes the term "lateral (periodontal) abscess" is used. In contrast to a periapical abscess, periodontal abscesses are usually associated with a vital (living) tooth. Abscesses of the periodontium are acute bacterial infections classified primarily by location.
Signs and symptoms:
The main symptom is pain, which often suddenly appears, and is made worse by biting on the involved tooth, which may feel raised and prominent in the bite. The tooth may be mobile, and the lesion may contribute to destruction of the periodontal ligament and alveolar bone. The pain is deep and throbbing. The oral mucosa covering an early periodontal abscess appears erythematous (red), swollen and painful to touch. The surface may be shiny due to stretching of the mucosa over the abscess. Before pus has formed, the lesion will not be fluctuant, and there will be no purulent discharge. There may be regional lymphadenitis.
Signs and symptoms:
When pus forms, the pressure increases, with increasing pain, until it spontaneously drains and relieves the pain. When pus drains into the mouth, a bad taste and smell are perceived. Usually drainage occurs via the periodontal pocket, or else the infection may spread as a cellulitis or a purulent odontogenic infection. Local anatomic factors determine the direction of spread (see fascial spaces of the head and neck). There may be systemic upset, with an onset of pain and fever.
Causes:
A periodontal abscess most commonly occurs as a complication of advanced periodontal disease (which is normally painless). A periodontal pocket contains dental plaque, bacteria and subgingival calculus. Periodontal pathogens continually find their way into the soft tissues, but normally they are held in check by the immune system. A periodontal abscess represents a change in this balance, related to decreased local or systemic resistance of the host. An inflammatory response occurs when bacteria invade and multiply within the soft tissue of the gingival crevice/periodontal pocket. A pus-filled abscess forms when the immune system responds and attempts to isolate the infection from spreading.
Causes:
Communication with the oral environment is maintained via the opening of the periodontal pocket. However, if the opening of a periodontal pocket becomes obstructed, as may occur if the pocket has become very deep (e.g. with furcation involvement), then plaque and calculus are trapped inside. Food packing may also obstruct a periodontal pocket. Food packing is usually caused by failure to accurately reproduce the contact points when dental restorations are placed on the interproximal surfaces of teeth. Another potential cause occurs when a periodontal pocket is scaled incompletely. Following this procedure, the gingival cuff tightens around the tooth, which may be enough to trap the bacteria left in the pocket. A gingival retraction cord which is accidentally left in situ is an occasional cause of a periodontal abscess.
Causes:
Penetrating injury to the gingiva--for example, with a toothbrush bristle, fishbone, toothpick or periodontal instrument--may inoculate bacteria into the tissues. Trauma to the tissues, such as serious impact on a tooth or excessive pressure exerted on teeth during orthodontic treatment, can be a possible cause as well. Occlusal overload may also be involved in the development of a periodontal abscess, but this is rare and usually occurs in combination with other factors. Bruxism is a common cause of excessive occlusal forces.
Causes:
Systemic immune factors such as diabetes can predispose a person to the formation of periodontal abscesses.
Perforation of a root canal during endodontic therapy can also lead to a periodontal abscess which if left untreated could become "prolonged" ultimately rupture then enter the blood stream and could lead to serious situations such as endocarditis.
Diagnosis:
Periodontal abscesses may be difficult to distinguish from periapical abscesses. Since the management of a periodontal abscess is different from a periapical abscess, this differentiation is important to make (see Dental abscess#Diagnostic approach) For example, root canal therapy is unnecessary and has no impact on pain in a periodontal abscess.
Classification There are four types of abscesses that can involve the periodontal tissues: Gingival abscess—a localized, purulent infection involves only the soft gum tissue near the marginal gingiva or the interdental papilla.
Periodontal abscess—a localized, purulent infection involving a greater dimension of the gum tissue, extending apically and adjacent to a periodontal pocket.
Pericoronal abscess—a localized, purulent infection within the gum tissue surrounding the crown of a partially or fully erupted tooth. Usually associated with an acute episode of pericoronitis around a partially erupted and impacted mandibular third molar (lower wisdom tooth).
combined periodontal/endodontic abscess
Treatment:
An important factor is whether the involved tooth is to be extracted or retained. Although the pulp is usually still vital, a history of recurrent periodontal abscesses and significantly compromised periodontal support indicate that the prognosis for the tooth is poor and it should be removed.
Treatment:
The initial management of a periodontal abscess involves pain relief and control of the infection. The pus needs to be drained, which helps both of these aims. If the tooth is to be removed, drainage will occur via the socket. Otherwise, if pus is already discharging from the periodontal pocket, this can be encouraged by gentle irrigation and scaling of the pocket whilst massaging the soft tissues. If this does not work, incision and drainage is required, as described in Dental abscess#Treatment.
Treatment:
Antibiotics are of secondary importance to drainage, which if satisfactory renders antibiotics unnecessary. Antibiotics are generally reserved for severe infections, in which there is facial swelling, systemic upset and elevated temperature. Since periodontal abscesses frequently involve anaerobic bacteria, oral antibiotics such as amoxicillin, clindamycin (in penicillin allergy or pregnancy) and/or metronidazole are given (although metronidazole should be used in conjunction with a penicillin given its lack of aerobic gram positive coverage).. Ideally, the choice of antibiotic is dictated by the results of microbiological culture and sensitivity testing of a sample of the pus aspirated at the start of any treatment, but this rarely occurs outside the hospital setting.
Treatment:
Other measures that are taken during management of the acute phase might include reducing the height of the tooth with a dental drill, so it no longer contacts the opposing tooth when biting down; and regular use of hot salt water mouth washes (antiseptic) that encourages further drainage of the infection.
The management following the acute phase involves removing any residual infection, and correcting the factors that lead to the formation of the periodontal abscess. Usually, this will be therapy for periodontal disease, such as oral hygiene instruction and periodontal scaling.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Single-machine scheduling**
Single-machine scheduling:
Single-machine scheduling or single-resource scheduling is an optimization problem in computer science and operations research. We are given n jobs J1, J2, ..., Jn of varying processing times, which need to be scheduled on a single machine, in a way that optimizes a certain objective, such as the throughput.
Single-machine scheduling:
Single-machine scheduling is a special case of identical-machines scheduling, which is itself a special case of optimal job scheduling. Many problems, which are NP-hard in general, can be solved in polynomial time in the single-machine case.: 10–20 In the standard three-field notation for optimal job scheduling problems, the single-machine variant is denoted by 1 in the first field. For example, " 1|| ∑Cj " is an single-machine scheduling problem with no constraints, where the goal is to minimize the sum of completion times.
Single-machine scheduling:
The makespan-minimization problem 1|| max , which is a common objective with multiple machines, is trivial with a single machine, since the makespan is always identical. Therefore, other objectives have been studied.
Minimizing the sum of completion times:
The problem 1|| ∑Cj aims to minimize the sum of completion times. It can be solved optimally by the Shortest Processing Time First rule (SPT): the jobs are scheduled by ascending order of their processing time pj The problem 1|| ∑wjCj aims to minimize the weighted sum of completion times. It can be solved optimally by the Weighted Shortest Processing Time First rule (WSPT): the jobs are scheduled by ascending order of the ratio pj/wj .: lecture 1, part 2 The problem 1|chains| ∑wjCj is a generalization of the above problem for jobs with dependencies in the form of chains. It can also be solved optimally by a suitable generalization of WSPT.: lecture 1, part 3
Minimizing the cost of lateness:
The problem 1|| max aims to minimize the maximum lateness. For each job j, there is a due date dj . If it is completed after its due date, it suffers lateness defined as := Cj−dj . 1|| max can be solved optimally by the Earliest Due Date First rule (EDD): the jobs are scheduled by ascending order of their deadline dj .: lecture 2, part 2 The problem 1|prec| max generalizes the 1|| max in two ways: first, it allows arbitrary precedence constraints on the jobs; second, it allows each job to have an arbitrary cost function hj, which is a function of its completion time (lateness is a special case of a cost function). The maximum cost can be minimized by a greedy algorithm known as Lawler's algorithm.: lecture 2, part 1 The problem 1| rj max generalizes 1|| max by allowing each job to have a different release time by which it becomes available for processing. The presence of release times means that, in some cases, it may be optimal to leave the machine idle, in order to wait for an important job that is not released yet. Minimizing maximum lateness in this setting is NP-hard. But in practice, it can be solved using a branch-and-bound algorithm.: lecture 2, part 3
Maximizing the profit of earliness:
In settings with deadlines, it is possible that, if the job is completed by the deadline, there is a profit pj. Otherwise, there is no profit. The goal is to maximize the profit. Single-machine scheduling with deadlines is NP-hard; Sahni presents both exact exponential-time algorithms and a polynomial-time approximation algorithm.
Maximizing the throughput:
The problem 1|| ∑Uj aims to minimize the number of late jobs, regardless of the amount of lateness. It can be solved optimally by the Hodgson-Moore algorithm.: lecture 3, part 1 It can also be interpreted as maximizing the number of jobs that complete on time; this number is called the throughput.
Maximizing the throughput:
The problem 1|| ∑wjUj aims to minimize the weight of late jobs. It is NP-hard, since the special case in which all jobs have the same deadline (denoted by 1| dj=d |∑wjUj ) is equivalent to the Knapsack problem.: lecture 3, part 2 The problem 1| rj |∑Uj generalizes 1|| ∑Uj by allowing different jobs to have different release times. The problem is NP-hard. However, when all job lengths are equal, the problem can be solved in polynomial time. It has several variants: The weighted optimization variant, 1| rj,pj=p |∑wjUj , can be solved in time O(n7) The unweighted optimization variant, maximizing the number of jobs that finish on time,denoted 1| rj,pj=p |∑Uj , can be solved in time O(n5) using dynamic programming, when all release times and deadlines are integers.
Maximizing the throughput:
The decision variant - deciding whether it is possible that all given jobs complete on time - can be solved by several algorithms, the fastest of them runs in time log n) .Jobs can have execution intervals. For each job j, there is a processing time tj and a start-time sj, so it must be executed in the interval [sj, sj+tj]. Since some of the intervals overlap, not all jobs can be completed. The goal is to maximize the number of completed jobs, that is, the throughput. More generally, each job may have several possible intervals, and each interval may be associated with a different profit. The goal is to choose at most one interval for each job, such that the total profit is maximized. For more details, see the page on interval scheduling.
Maximizing the throughput:
More generally, jobs can have time-windows, with both start-times and deadlines, which may be larger than the job length. Each job can be scheduled anywhere within its time-window. Bar-Noy, Bar-Yehuda, Freund, Naor and Schieber present a (1-ε)/2 approximation.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Cloroqualone**
Cloroqualone:
Cloroqualone is a quinazolinone-class GABAergic and is an analogue of methaqualone developed in the 1980s and marketed mainly in France and some other European countries. It has sedative and antitussive properties resulting from its agonist activity at the β subtype of the GABAa receptor and sigma-1 receptor, and was sold either alone or in combination with other ingredients as a cough medicine. Cloroqualone has weaker sedative properties than methaqualone and was sold for its useful cough-suppressing effects, but was withdrawn from the French market in 1994 because of concerns about its potential for abuse and overdose.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Pedagogical relation**
Pedagogical relation:
The pedagogical relation refers to special kind of personal relationship between adult and child or adult or student for the sake of the child or student. The pedagogical relation is described by Hermann Nohl, Klaus Mollenhauer, and others in the Northern European human science pedagogical tradition. It has been discussed more recently in English by Max van Manen, Norm Friesen, Tone Saevi and others..
Pedagogical relation:
In the pedagogical relation, adult and child encounter each other in ways that are different from other relationships (e.g., friendship) In the pedagogical relation the adult is directed toward the child. The relation is asymmetrical.. The adult is "there" for the child in a way that the child is not "there" for the adult.
Pedagogical relation:
In the pedagogical relation the adult wants or intends both what is good for the child in the present and in the future. This relationship is oriented to what the child or young person may become (without trying to predetermine it), but without ignoring what is important for the child in the present. These two, present needs and the likely requirements of the future, exist in constant tension this relation.
Pedagogical relation:
The pedagogical relation comes to an end. The child grows up and the asymmetry of the relation dissolves. As Klaus Mollenhauer explains, "upbringing comes to an end when the child no longer needs to be "called" to self-activity, but instead has the wherewithal to educate himself." In the pedagogical relation the adult is tactful. It is not about following rules and guidelines, but rather, about acting and also not acting according to what is appropriate for both the present and the future of a specific child in question.
Pedagogical relation:
In the pedagogical relation, the adult mediates the relationship of the child with the world. This can happen by protecting the child from certain aspects of the world; it often happens by simplifying certain aspects of the world for the child, by directing the child's attention through gestures of pointing and guiding.In a text from 1933, educationist Herman Nohl describes the pedagogical relation as a relationship between a particular stance of the educator in relationship to the one being educated (educand): This basic stance … is decisively characterized by the fact that its perspective is unconditionally that of the educand. This means that its task is not to draw the child towards … specific, predetermined, objective goals that it might see … [in] the state, the church, the law, the economy, and also not of a [political] party or worldview. Instead, it sees its goal in the subject and his/her physical and personal realization or unfolding (körperlich-geistige Entfaltung). That this child here comes to his life’s purpose (Lebensziel), that is [its] … autonomous and inalienable task. (p. 152) The pedagogical relation, finally, has as its interest not necessarily the "success" of the student, but rather their "subjectivation"--their becoming a subject, a person, something that is to be pursued as an end in itself.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Ro20-8552**
Ro20-8552:
Ro20-8552 is a benzodiazepine derivative with sedative and anxiolytic effects, which has been sold as a designer drug.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Polar amplification**
Polar amplification:
Polar amplification is the phenomenon that any change in the net radiation balance (for example greenhouse intensification) tends to produce a larger change in temperature near the poles than in the planetary average. This is commonly referred to as the ratio of polar warming to tropical warming. On a planet with an atmosphere that can restrict emission of longwave radiation to space (a greenhouse effect), surface temperatures will be warmer than a simple planetary equilibrium temperature calculation would predict. Where the atmosphere or an extensive ocean is able to transport heat polewards, the poles will be warmer and equatorial regions cooler than their local net radiation balances would predict. The poles will experience the most cooling when the global-mean temperature is lower relative to a reference climate; alternatively, the poles will experience the greatest warming when the global-mean temperature is higher.In the extreme, the planet Venus is thought to have experienced a very large increase in greenhouse effect over its lifetime, so much so that its poles have warmed sufficiently to render its surface temperature effectively isothermal (no difference between poles and equator). On Earth, water vapor and trace gasses provide a lesser greenhouse effect, and the atmosphere and extensive oceans provide efficient poleward heat transport. Both palaeoclimate changes and recent global warming changes have exhibited strong polar amplification, as described below.
Polar amplification:
Arctic amplification is polar amplification of the Earth's North Pole only; Antarctic amplification is that of the South Pole.
History:
An observation-based study related to Arctic amplification was published in 1969 by Mikhail Budyko, and the study conclusion has been summarized as "Sea ice loss affects Arctic temperatures through the surface albedo feedback." The same year, a similar model was published by William D. Sellers. Both studies attracted significant attention since they hinted at the possibility for a runaway positive feedback within the global climate system. In 1975, Manabe and Wetherald published the first somewhat plausible general circulation model that looked at the effects of an increase of greenhouse gas. Although confined to less than one-third of the globe, with a "swamp" ocean and only land surface at high latitudes, it showed an Arctic warming faster than the tropics (as have all subsequent models).
Amplification:
Amplifying mechanisms Feedbacks associated with sea ice and snow cover are widely cited as one of the principal causes of terrestrial polar amplification. These feedbacks are particularly noted in local polar amplification, although recent work has shown that the lapse rate feedback is likely equally important to the ice-albedo feedback for Arctic amplification. Supporting this idea, large-scale amplification is also observed in model worlds with no ice or snow. It appears to arise both from a (possibly transient) intensification of poleward heat transport and more directly from changes in the local net radiation balance. Local radiation balance is crucial because an overall decrease in outgoing longwave radiation will produce a larger relative increase in net radiation near the poles than near the equator. Thus, between the lapse rate feedback and changes in the local radiation balance, much of polar amplification can be attributed to changes in outgoing longwave radiation. This is especially true for the Arctic, whereas the elevated terrain in Antarctica limits the influence of the lapse rate feedback.Some examples of climate system feedbacks thought to contribute to recent polar amplification include the reduction of snow cover and sea ice, changes in atmospheric and ocean circulation, the presence of anthropogenic soot in the Arctic environment, and increases in cloud cover and water vapor. CO2 forcing has also been attributed to polar amplification. Most studies connect sea ice changes to polar amplification. Both ice extent and thickness impact polar amplification. Climate models with smaller baseline sea ice extent and thinner sea ice coverage exhibit stronger polar amplification. Some models of modern climate exhibit Arctic amplification without changes in snow and ice cover.The individual processes contributing to polar warming are critical to understanding climate sensitivity. Polar warming also affects many ecosystems, including marine and terrestrial ecosystems, climate systems, and human populations. Polar amplification is largely driven by local polar processes with hardly any remote forcing, whereas polar warming is regulated by tropical and midlatitude forcing. These impacts of polar amplification have led to continuous research in the face of global warming.
Amplification:
Ocean circulation It has been estimated that 70% of global wind energy is transferred to the ocean and takes place within the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC). Eventually, upwelling due to wind-stress transports cold Antarctic waters through the Atlantic surface current, while warming them over the equator, and into the Arctic environment. This is especially noticed in high latitudes. Thus, warming in the Arctic depends on the efficiency of the global ocean transport and plays a role in the polar see-saw effect.Decreased oxygen and low-pH during La Niña are processes that correlate with decreased primary production and a more pronounced poleward flow of ocean currents. It has been proposed that the mechanism of increased Arctic surface air temperature anomalies during La Niña periods of ENSO may be attributed to the Tropically Excited Arctic Warming Mechanism (TEAM), when Rossby waves propagate more poleward, leading to wave dynamics and an increase in downward infrared radiation.
Amplification:
Amplification factor Polar amplification is quantified in terms of a polar amplification factor, generally defined as the ratio of some change in a polar temperature to a corresponding change in a broader average temperature: PAF=ΔTpΔT¯ ,where ΔTp is a change in polar temperature and ΔT¯ is, for example, a corresponding change in a global mean temperature.
Common implementations define the temperature changes directly as the anomalies in surface air temperature relative to a recent reference interval (typically 30 years). Others have used the ratio of the variances of surface air temperature over an extended interval.
Amplification phase It is observed that Arctic and Antarctic warming commonly proceed out of phase because of orbital forcing, resulting in the so-called polar see-saw effect.
Paleoclimate polar amplification:
The glacial / interglacial cycles of the Pleistocene provide extensive palaeoclimate evidence of polar amplification, both from the Arctic and the Antarctic. In particular, the temperature rise since the last glacial maximum 20,000 years ago provides a clear picture. Proxy temperature records from the Arctic (Greenland) and from the Antarctic indicate polar amplification factors on the order of 2.0.
Recent Arctic amplification:
Suggested mechanisms leading to the observed Arctic amplification include Arctic sea ice decline (open water reflects less sunlight than sea ice), atmospheric heat transport from the equator to the Arctic, and the lapse rate feedback.The Arctic was historically described as warming twice as fast as the global average, but this estimate was based on older observations which missed the more recent acceleration. By 2021, enough data was available to show that the Arctic had warmed three times faster than the globe - 3.1 °C between 1971 and 2019, as opposed to the global warming of 1 °C over the same period. Moreover, this estimate defines the Arctic as everything above 60th parallel north, or a full third of the Northern Hemisphere: in 2021–2022, it was found that since 1979, the warming within the Arctic Circle itself (above the 66th parallel) has been nearly four times faster than the global average. Within the Arctic Circle itself, even greater Arctic amplification occurs in the Barents Sea area, with hotspots around West Spitsbergen Current: weather stations located on its path record decadal warming up to seven times faster than the global average. This has fuelled concerns that unlike the rest of the Arctic sea ice, ice cover in the Barents Sea may permanently disappear even around 1.5 degrees of global warming.The acceleration of Arctic amplification has not been linear: a 2022 analysis found that it occurred in two sharp steps, with the former around 1986, and the latter after 2000. The first acceleration is attributed to the increase in anthropogenic radiative forcing in the region, which is in turn likely connected to the reductions in stratospheric sulfur aerosols pollution in Europe in the 1980s in order to combat acid rain. Since sulphate aerosols have a cooling effect, their absence is likely to have increased Arctic temperatures by up to 0.5 degrees Celsius. The second acceleration has no known cause, which is why it did not show up in any climate models. It is likely to an example of multi-decadal natural variability, like the suggested link between Arctic temperatures and Atlantic Multi-decadal Oscillation (AMO), in which case it can be expected to reverse in the future. However, even the first increase in Arctic amplification was only accurately simulated by a fraction of the current CMIP6 models.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Chi distribution**
Chi distribution:
In probability theory and statistics, the chi distribution is a continuous probability distribution over the non-negative real line. It is the distribution of the positive square root of a sum of squared independent Gaussian random variables. Equivalently, it is the distribution of the Euclidean distance between a multivariate Gaussian random variable and the origin. It is thus related to the chi-squared distribution by describing the distribution of the positive square roots of a variable obeying a chi-squared distribution.
Chi distribution:
If Z1,…,Zk are k independent, normally distributed random variables with mean 0 and standard deviation 1, then the statistic Y=∑i=1kZi2 is distributed according to the chi distribution. The chi distribution has one positive integer parameter k , which specifies the degrees of freedom (i.e. the number of random variables Zi ).
The most familiar examples are the Rayleigh distribution (chi distribution with two degrees of freedom) and the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution of the molecular speeds in an ideal gas (chi distribution with three degrees of freedom).
Definitions:
Probability density function The probability density function (pdf) of the chi-distribution is otherwise .
where Γ(z) is the gamma function.
Cumulative distribution function The cumulative distribution function is given by: F(x;k)=P(k/2,x2/2) where P(k,x) is the regularized gamma function.
Generating functions The moment-generating function is given by: M(t)=M(k2,12,t22)+t2Γ((k+1)/2)Γ(k/2)M(k+12,32,t22), where M(a,b,z) is Kummer's confluent hypergeometric function. The characteristic function is given by: φ(t;k)=M(k2,12,−t22)+it2Γ((k+1)/2)Γ(k/2)M(k+12,32,−t22).
Properties:
Moments The raw moments are then given by: μj=∫0∞f(x;k)xjdx=2j/2Γ(12(k+j))Γ(12k) where Γ(z) is the gamma function. Thus the first few raw moments are: μ1=2Γ(12(k+1))Γ(12k) μ2=k, μ3=22Γ(12(k+3))Γ(12k)=(k+1)μ1, μ4=(k)(k+2), μ5=42Γ(12(k+5))Γ(12k)=(k+1)(k+3)μ1, μ6=(k)(k+2)(k+4), where the rightmost expressions are derived using the recurrence relationship for the gamma function: Γ(x+1)=xΓ(x).
From these expressions we may derive the following relationships: Mean: μ=2Γ(12(k+1))Γ(12k), which is close to k−12 for large k.
Variance: V=k−μ2, which approaches 12 as k increases.
Skewness: γ1=μσ3(1−2σ2).
Kurtosis excess: γ2=2σ2(1−μσγ1−σ2).
Entropy The entropy is given by: ln ln (2)−(k−1)ψ0(k/2)) where ψ0(z) is the polygamma function.
Large n approximation We find the large n=k+1 approximation of the mean and variance of chi distribution. This has application e.g. in finding the distribution of standard deviation of a sample of normally distributed population, where n is the sample size.
The mean is then: μ=2Γ(n/2)Γ((n−1)/2) We use the Legendre duplication formula to write: 2n−2Γ((n−1)/2)⋅Γ(n/2)=πΓ(n−1) ,so that: μ=2/π2n−2(Γ(n/2))2Γ(n−1) Using Stirling's approximation for Gamma function, we get the following expression for the mean: 12 12 (n−2)+O(1n2)] =(n−2)1/2⋅[1+14n+O(1n2)]=n−1(1−1n−1)1/2⋅[1+14n+O(1n2)] =n−1⋅[1−12n+O(1n2)]⋅[1+14n+O(1n2)] =n−1⋅[1−14n+O(1n2)] And thus the variance is: V=(n−1)−μ2=(n−1)⋅12n⋅[1+O(1n)]
Related distributions:
If X∼χk then X2∼χk2 (chi-squared distribution) lim k→∞χk−μkσk→dN(0,1) (Normal distribution) If X∼N(0,1) then |X|∼χ1 If X∼χ1 then σX∼HN(σ) (half-normal distribution) for any σ>0 χ2∼Rayleigh(1) (Rayleigh distribution) χ3∼Maxwell(1) (Maxwell distribution) ‖Ni=1,…,k(0,1)‖2∼χk , the Euclidean norm of a standard normal random vector of with k dimensions, is distributed according to a chi distribution with k degrees of freedom chi distribution is a special case of the generalized gamma distribution or the Nakagami distribution or the noncentral chi distribution The mean of the chi distribution (scaled by the square root of n−1 ) yields the correction factor in the unbiased estimation of the standard deviation of the normal distribution.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Lattice model (finance)**
Lattice model (finance):
In finance, a lattice model is a technique applied to the valuation of derivatives, where a discrete time model is required. For equity options, a typical example would be pricing an American option, where a decision as to option exercise is required at "all" times (any time) before and including maturity. A continuous model, on the other hand, such as Black–Scholes, would only allow for the valuation of European options, where exercise is on the option's maturity date. For interest rate derivatives lattices are additionally useful in that they address many of the issues encountered with continuous models, such as pull to par. The method is also used for valuing certain exotic options, where because of path dependence in the payoff, Monte Carlo methods for option pricing fail to account for optimal decisions to terminate the derivative by early exercise, though methods now exist for solving this problem.
Equity and commodity derivatives:
In general the approach is to divide time between now and the option's expiration into N discrete periods. At the specific time n, the model has a finite number of outcomes at time n + 1 such that every possible change in the state of the world between n and n + 1 is captured in a branch. This process is iterated until every possible path between n = 0 and n = N is mapped. Probabilities are then estimated for every n to n + 1 path. The outcomes and probabilities flow backwards through the tree until a fair value of the option today is calculated. For equity and commodities the application is as follows. The first step is to trace the evolution of the option's key underlying variable(s), starting with today's spot price, such that this process is consistent with its volatility; log-normal Brownian motion with constant volatility is usually assumed. The next step is to value the option recursively: stepping backwards from the final time-step, where we have exercise value at each node; and applying risk neutral valuation at each earlier node, where option value is the probability-weighted present value of the up- and down-nodes in the later time-step. See Binomial options pricing model § Method for more detail, as well as Rational pricing § Risk neutral valuation for logic and formulae derivation.
Equity and commodity derivatives:
As stated above, the lattice approach is particularly useful in valuing American options, where the choice whether to exercise the option early, or to hold the option, may be modeled at each discrete time/price combination; this is also true for Bermudan options. For similar reasons, real options and employee stock options are often modeled using a lattice framework, though with modified assumptions. In each of these cases, a third step is to determine whether the option is to be exercised or held, and to then apply this value at the node in question. Some exotic options, such as barrier options, are also easily modeled here; for other Path-Dependent Options, simulation would be preferred. (Although, tree-based methods have been developed.
Equity and commodity derivatives:
) The simplest lattice model is the binomial options pricing model; the standard ("canonical") method is that proposed by Cox, Ross and Rubinstein (CRR) in 1979; see diagram for formulae. Over 20 other methods have been developed, with each "derived under a variety of assumptions" as regards the development of the underlying's price. In the limit, as the number of time-steps increases, these converge to the Log-normal distribution, and hence produce the "same" option price as Black-Scholes: to achieve this, these will variously seek to agree with the underlying's central moments, raw moments and / or log-moments at each time-step, as measured discretely. Further enhancements are designed to achieve stability relative to Black-Scholes as the number of time-steps changes. More recent models, in fact, are designed around direct convergence to Black-Scholes.A variant on the Binomial, is the Trinomial tree, developed by Phelim Boyle in 1986. Here, the share price may remain unchanged over the time-step, and option valuation is then based on the value of the share at the up-, down- and middle-nodes in the later time-step.
Equity and commodity derivatives:
As for the binomial, a similar (although smaller) range of methods exist. The trinomial model is considered to produce more accurate results than the binomial model when fewer time steps are modelled, and is therefore used when computational speed or resources may be an issue. For vanilla options, as the number of steps increases, the results rapidly converge, and the binomial model is then preferred due to its simpler implementation. For exotic options the trinomial model (or adaptations) is sometimes more stable and accurate, regardless of step-size.
Equity and commodity derivatives:
Various of the Greeks can be estimated directly on the lattice, where the sensitivities are calculated using finite differences. Delta and gamma, being sensitivities of option value w.r.t. price, are approximated given differences between option prices - with their related spot - in the same time step. Theta, sensitivity to time, is likewise estimated given the option price at the first node in the tree and the option price for the same spot in a later time step. (Second time step for trinomial, third for binomial. Depending on method, if the "down factor" is not the inverse of the "up factor", this method will not be precise.) For rho, sensitivity to interest rates, and vega, sensitivity to input volatility, the measurement is indirect, as the value must be calculated a second time on a new lattice built with these inputs slightly altered - and the sensitivity here is likewise returned via finite difference. See also Fugit, the estimated time to exercise, which is typically calculated using a lattice.
Equity and commodity derivatives:
When it is important to incorporate the volatility smile, or surface, implied trees can be constructed. Here, the tree is solved such that it successfully reproduces selected (all) market prices, across various strikes and expirations. These trees thus "ensure that all European standard options (with strikes and maturities coinciding with the tree nodes) will have theoretical values which match their market prices". Using the calibrated lattice one can then price options with strike / maturity combinations not quoted in the market, such that these prices are consistent with observed volatility patterns. There exist both implied binomial trees, often Rubinstein IBTs (R-IBT), and implied trinomial trees, often Derman-Kani-Chriss (DKC; superseding the DK-IBT). The former is easier built, but is consistent with one maturity only; the latter will be consistent with, but at the same time requires, known (or interpolated) prices at all time-steps and nodes. (DKC is effectively a discretized local volatility model.) As regards the construction, for an R-IBT the first step is to recover the "Implied Ending Risk-Neutral Probabilities" of spot prices. Then by the assumption that all paths which lead to the same ending node have the same risk-neutral probability, a "path probability" is attached to each ending node. Thereafter "it's as simple as One-Two-Three", and a three step backwards recursion allows for the node probabilities to be recovered for each time step. Option valuation then proceeds as standard, with these substituted for p. For DKC, the first step is to recover the state prices corresponding to each node in the tree, such that these are consistent with observed option prices (i.e. with the volatility surface). Thereafter the up-, down- and middle-probabilities are found for each node such that: these sum to 1; spot prices adjacent time-step-wise evolve risk neutrally, incorporating dividend yield; state prices similarly "grow" at the risk free rate. (The solution here is iterative per time step as opposed to simultaneous.) As for R-IBTs, option valuation is then by standard backward recursion.
Equity and commodity derivatives:
As an alternative, Edgeworth binomial trees allow for an analyst-specified skew and kurtosis in spot price returns; see Edgeworth series. This approach is useful when the underlying's behavior departs (markedly) from normality. A related use is to calibrate the tree to the volatility smile (or surface), by a "judicious choice" of parameter values—priced here, options with differing strikes will return differing implied volatilities. For pricing American options, an Edgeworth-generated ending distribution may be combined with an R-IBT. This approach is limited as to the set of skewness and kurtosis pairs for which valid distributions are available. The more recent Johnson binomial trees use the Johnson "family" of distributions, as this is capable of accommodating all possible pairs.
Equity and commodity derivatives:
For multiple underlyers, multinomial lattices can be built, although the number of nodes increases exponentially with the number of underlyers. As an alternative, Basket options, for example, can be priced using an "approximating distribution" via an Edgeworth (or Johnson) tree.
Interest rate derivatives:
Lattices are commonly used in valuing bond options, Swaptions, and other interest rate derivatives In these cases the valuation is largely as above, but requires an additional, zeroeth, step of constructing an interest rate tree, on which the price of the underlying is then based. The next step also differs: the underlying price here is built via "backward induction" i.e. flows backwards from maturity, accumulating the present value of scheduled cash flows at each node, as opposed to flowing forwards from valuation date as above. The final step, option valuation, then proceeds as standard. See top for graphic, and aside for description.
Interest rate derivatives:
The initial lattice is built by discretizing either a short-rate model, such as Hull–White or Black Derman Toy, or a forward rate-based model, such as the LIBOR market model or HJM. As for equity, trinomial trees may also be employed for these models; this is usually the case for Hull-White trees.
Interest rate derivatives:
Under HJM, the condition of no arbitrage implies that there exists a martingale probability measure, as well as a corresponding restriction on the "drift coefficients" of the forward rates. These, in turn, are functions of the volatility(s) of the forward rates. A "simple" discretized expression for the drift then allows for forward rates to be expressed in a binomial lattice. For these forward rate-based models, dependent on volatility assumptions, the lattice might not recombine. (This means that an "up-move" followed by a "down-move" will not give the same result as a "down-move" followed by an "up-move".) In this case, the Lattice is sometimes referred to as a "bush", and the number of nodes grows exponentially as a function of number of time-steps. A recombining binomial tree methodology is also available for the Libor Market Model.As regards the short-rate models, these are, in turn, further categorized: these will be either equilibrium-based (Vasicek and CIR) or arbitrage-free (Ho–Lee and subsequent). This distinction: for equilibrium-based models the yield curve is an output from the model, while for arbitrage-free models the yield curve is an input to the model. In the former case, the approach is to "calibrate" the model parameters, such that bond prices produced by the model, in its continuous form, best fit observed market prices. The tree is then built as a function of these parameters.
Interest rate derivatives:
In the latter case, the calibration is directly on the lattice: the fit is to both the current term structure of interest rates (i.e. the yield curve), and the corresponding volatility structure.
Here, calibration means that the interest-rate-tree reproduces the prices of the zero-coupon bonds—and any other interest-rate sensitive securities—used in constructing the yield curve; note the parallel to the implied trees for equity above, and compare Bootstrapping (finance).
For models assuming a normal distribution (such as Ho-Lee), calibration may be performed analytically, while for log-normal models the calibration is via a root-finding algorithm; see for example, the boxed-description under Black–Derman–Toy model.
Interest rate derivatives:
The volatility structure—i.e. vertical node-spacing—here reflects the volatility of rates during the quarter, or other period, corresponding to the lattice time-step. (Some analysts use "realized volatility", i.e. of the rates applicable historically for the time-step; to be market-consistent, analysts generally prefer to use current interest rate cap prices, and the implied volatility for the Black-76-prices of each component caplet; see Interest rate cap § Implied Volatilities.) Given this functional link to volatility, note now the resultant difference in the construction relative to equity implied trees: for interest rates, the volatility is known for each time-step, and the node-values (i.e. interest rates) must be solved for specified risk neutral probabilities; for equity, on the other hand, a single volatility cannot be specified per time-step, i.e. we have a "smile", and the tree is built by solving for the probabilities corresponding to specified values of the underlying at each node.
Interest rate derivatives:
Once calibrated, the interest rate lattice is then used in the valuation of various of the fixed income instruments and derivatives. The approach for bond options is described aside—note that this approach addresses the problem of pull to par experienced under closed form approaches; see Black–Scholes model § Valuing bond options. For swaptions the logic is almost identical, substituting swaps for bonds in step 1, and swaptions for bond options in step 2.
Interest rate derivatives:
For caps (and floors) step 1 and 2 are combined: at each node the value is based on the relevant nodes at the later step, plus, for any caplet (floorlet) maturing in the time-step, the difference between its reference-rate and the short-rate at the node (and reflecting the corresponding day count fraction and notional-value exchanged). For callable- and putable bonds a third step would be required: at each node in the time-step incorporate the effect of the embedded option on the bond price and / or the option price there before stepping-backwards one time-step. (And noting that these options are not mutually exclusive, and so a bond may have several options embedded; hybrid securities are treated below.) For other, more exotic interest rate derivatives, similar adjustments are made to steps 1 and onward. For the "Greeks", largely as for equity, see under next section.
Interest rate derivatives:
An alternative approach to modeling (American) bond options, particularly those struck on yield to maturity (YTM), employs modified equity-lattice methods. Here the analyst builds a CRR tree of YTM, applying a constant volatility assumption, and then calculates the bond price as a function of this yield at each node; prices here are thus pulling-to-par. The second step is to then incorporate any term structure of volatility by building a corresponding DKC tree (based on every second time-step in the CRR tree: as DKC is trinomial whereas CRR is binomial) and then using this for option valuation.
Interest rate derivatives:
Since the 2007–2012 global financial crisis, swap pricing is (generally) under a "multi-curve framework", whereas previously it was off a single, "self discounting", curve; see Interest rate swap § Valuation and pricing. Here, payoffs are set as a function of LIBOR specific to the tenor in question, while discounting is at the OIS rate. To accommodate this in the lattice framework, the OIS rate and the relevant LIBOR rate are jointly modeled in a three-dimensional tree, constructed such that LIBOR swap rates are matched. With the zeroeth step thus accomplished, the valuation will proceed largely as previously, using steps 1 and onwards, but here with cashflows based on the LIBOR "dimension", and discounting using the corresponding nodes from the OIS "dimension".
Hybrid securities:
Hybrid securities, incorporating both equity- and bond-like features are also valued using trees. For convertible bonds (CBs) the approach of Tsiveriotis and Fernandes (1998) is to divide the value of the bond at each node into an "equity" component, arising from situations where the CB will be converted, and a "debt" component, arising from situations where CB is redeemed. Correspondingly, twin trees are constructed where discounting is at the risk free and credit risk adjusted rate respectively, with the sum being the value of the CB. There are other methods, which similarly combine an equity-type tree with a short-rate tree. An alternate approach, originally published by Goldman Sachs (1994), does not decouple the components, rather, discounting is at a conversion-probability-weighted risk-free and risky interest rate within a single tree. See Convertible bond § Valuation, Contingent convertible bond.
Hybrid securities:
More generally, equity can be viewed as a call option on the firm: where the value of the firm is less than the value of the outstanding debt shareholders would choose not to repay the firm's debt; they would choose to repay—and not to liquidate (i.e. exercise their option)—otherwise. Lattice models have been developed for equity analysis here, particularly as relates to distressed firms. Relatedly, as regards corporate debt pricing, the relationship between equity holders' limited liability and potential Chapter 11 proceedings has also been modelled via lattice.The calculation of "Greeks" for interest rate derivatives proceeds as for equity. There is however an additional requirement, particularly for hybrid securities: that is, to estimate sensitivities related to overall changes in interest rates. For a bond with an embedded option, the standard yield to maturity based calculations of duration and convexity do not consider how changes in interest rates will alter the cash flows due to option exercise. To address this, effective duration and -convexity are introduced. Here, similar to rho and vega above, the interest rate tree is rebuilt for an upward and then downward parallel shift in the yield curve and these measures are calculated numerically given the corresponding changes in bond value.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Barker's notation**
Barker's notation:
Barker's notation refers to the ERD notation developed by Richard Barker, Ian Palmer, Harry Ellis et al. whilst working at the British consulting firm CACI around 1981. The notation was adopted by Barker when he joined Oracle and is effectively defined in his book Entity Relationship Modelling as part of the CASE Method series of books. This notation was and still is used by the Oracle CASE modelling tools. It is a variation of the "crows foot" style of data modelling that was favoured by many over the original Chen style of ERD modelling because of its readability and efficient use of drawing space.
Barker's notation:
The notation has features that represent the properties of relationships including cardinality and optionality (the crows foot and dashing of lines), exclusion (the exclusion arc), recursion (looping structures) and use of abstraction (nested boxes).
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Memory refresh**
Memory refresh:
Memory refresh is the process of periodically reading information from an area of computer memory and immediately rewriting the read information to the same area without modification, for the purpose of preserving the information. Memory refresh is a background maintenance process required during the operation of semiconductor dynamic random-access memory (DRAM), the most widely used type of computer memory, and in fact is the defining characteristic of this class of memory.In a DRAM chip, each bit of memory data is stored as the presence or absence of an electric charge on a small capacitor on the chip. As time passes, the charges in the memory cells leak away, so without being refreshed the stored data would eventually be lost. To prevent this, external circuitry periodically reads each cell and rewrites it, restoring the charge on the capacitor to its original level. Each memory refresh cycle refreshes a succeeding area of memory cells, thus repeatedly refreshing all the cells in a consecutive cycle. This process is conducted automatically in the background by the memory circuitry and is transparent to the user. While a refresh cycle is occurring the memory is not available for normal read and write operations, but in modern memory this "overhead" time is not large enough to significantly slow down memory operation.
Memory refresh:
Electronic memory that does not require refreshing is available, called static random-access memory (SRAM). SRAM circuits require more area on a chip, because an SRAM memory cell requires four to six transistors, compared to a single transistor and a capacitor for DRAM. As a result, data density is much lower in SRAM chips than in DRAM, and SRAM has higher price per bit. Therefore, DRAM is used for the main memory in computers, video game consoles, graphics cards and applications requiring large capacities and low cost. The need for memory refresh makes DRAM timing and circuits significantly more complicated than SRAM circuits, but the density and cost advantages of DRAM justify this complexity.
How DRAM refresh works:
While the memory is operating, each memory cell must be refreshed repetitively, within the maximum interval between refreshes specified by the manufacturer, which is usually in the millisecond region. Refreshing does not employ the normal memory operations (read and write cycles) used to access data, but specialized cycles called refresh cycles which are generated by separate counter circuits in the memory circuitry and interspersed between normal memory accesses.The storage cells on a memory chip are laid out in a rectangular array of rows and columns. The read process in DRAM is destructive and removes the charge on the memory cells in an entire row, so there is a row of specialized latches on the chip called sense amplifiers, one for each column of memory cells, to temporarily hold the data. During a normal read operation, the sense amplifiers after reading and latching the data, rewrite the data in the accessed row before sending the bit from a single column to output. This means the normal read electronics on the chip can refresh an entire row of memory in parallel, significantly speeding up the refresh process. A normal read or write cycle refreshes a row of memory, but normal memory accesses cannot be relied on to hit all the rows within the necessary time, necessitating a separate refresh process. Rather than use the normal read cycle in the refresh process, to save time an abbreviated cycle called a refresh cycle is used. The refresh cycle is similar to the read cycle, but executes faster for two reasons: For a refresh, only the row address is needed, so a column address doesn't have to be applied to the chip address circuits.
How DRAM refresh works:
Data read from the cells does not need to be fed into the output buffers or the data bus to send to the CPU.The refresh circuitry must perform a refresh cycle on each of the rows on the chip within the refresh time interval, to make sure that each cell gets refreshed.
How DRAM refresh works:
Types of refresh circuits Although in some early systems the microprocessor controlled refresh, with a timer triggering a periodic interrupt that ran a subroutine that performed the refresh, this meant the microprocessor could not be paused, single-stepped, or put into energy-saving hibernation without stopping the refresh process and losing the data in memory. So in modern systems refresh is handled by circuits in the memory controller, which may be embedded in the chip itself. Some DRAM chips, such as pseudostatic RAM (PSRAM), have all the refresh circuitry on the chip, and function like static RAM as far as the rest of the computer is concerned.Usually the refresh circuitry consists of a refresh counter which contains the address of the row to be refreshed which is applied to the chip's row address lines, and a timer that increments the counter to step through the rows. This counter may be part of the memory controller circuitry, or on the memory chip itself. Two scheduling strategies have been used: Burst refresh - a series of refresh cycles are performed one after another until all the rows have been refreshed, after which normal memory accesses occur until the next refresh is required Distributed refresh - refresh cycles are performed at regular intervals, interspersed with memory accesses.Burst refresh results in long periods when the memory is unavailable, so distributed refresh has been used in most modern systems, particularly in real time systems. In distributed refresh, the interval between refresh cycles is refresh cycle interval refresh time number of rows For example, DDR SDRAM has a refresh time of 64 ms and 8,192 rows, so the refresh cycle interval is 7.8 μs.Recent generations of DRAM chips contain an integral refresh counter, and the memory control circuitry can either use this counter or provide a row address from an external counter. These chips have three standard ways to provide refresh, selected by different patterns of signals on the "column select" (CAS) and "row select" (RAS) lines: "RAS only refresh" - In this mode the address of the row to refresh is provided by the address bus lines, so it is used with external counters in the memory controller.
How DRAM refresh works:
"CAS before RAS refresh" (CBR) - In this mode the on-chip counter keeps track of the row to be refreshed and the external circuit merely initiates the refresh cycles. This mode uses less power because the memory address bus buffers don't have to be powered up. It is used in most modern computers.
How DRAM refresh works:
"Hidden refresh" - This is an alternate version of the CBR refresh cycle which can be combined with a preceding read or write cycle. The refresh is done in parallel during the data transfer, saving time.Since the 2012 generation of DRAM chips, the "RAS only" mode has been eliminated, and the internal counter is used to generate refresh. The chip has an additional sleep mode, for use when the computer is in sleep mode, in which an on-chip oscillator generates internal refresh cycles so that the external clock can be shut down.
How DRAM refresh works:
Refresh overhead The fraction of time the memory spends on refresh, the refresh overhead, can be calculated from the system timing: refresh overhead time required for refresh, ms refresh interval, ms For example, an SDRAM chip has 213 = 8,192 rows, a refresh interval of 64 ms, the memory bus runs at 133 MHz, and the refresh cycle takes 4 clock cycles. The time for a refresh cycle is length of refresh cycle 1.33 10 Hz 30 ns time required for refresh length of refresh cycle rows 30 ns 8192 0.246 ms refresh overhead 0.246 ms 64 ms .0038 So less than 0.4% of the memory chip's time will be taken by refresh cycles. In SDRAM chips, the memory in each chip is divided into banks which are refreshed in parallel, saving further time. So the number of refresh cycles needed is the number of rows in a single bank, given in the specifications, which in the 2012 generation of chips has been frozen at 8,192.
Refresh interval:
The maximum time interval between refresh operations is standardized by JEDEC for each DRAM technology, and is specified in the manufacturer's chip specifications. It is usually in the range of milliseconds for DRAM and microseconds for eDRAM. For DDR2 SDRAM chips it is 64 ms.: 20 It depends on the ratio of charge stored in the memory cell capacitors to leakage currents. Despite the fact that the geometry of the capacitors has been shrinking with each new generation of memory chips, so later generation capacitors store less charge, refresh times for DRAM have been improving; from 8 ms for 1M chips, 32 ms for 16M chips, to 64 ms for 256M chips. This improvement is achieved mainly by developing transistors that cause significantly less leakage. Longer refresh time means a smaller fraction of the device's time is occupied with refresh, leaving more time for memory accesses. Although refresh overhead occupied up to 10% of chip time in earlier DRAMs, in modern chips this fraction is less than 1%.Because the leakage currents in semiconductors increase with temperature, refresh times must be decreased at high temperature. DDR2 SDRAM chips have a temperature-compensated refresh structure; refresh cycle time must be halved when chip case temperature exceeds 85 °C (185 °F).: 49 The actual persistence of readable charge values and thus data in most DRAM memory cells is much longer than the refresh time, up to 1–10 seconds. However transistor leakage currents vary widely between different memory cells on the same chip due to process variation. In order to make sure that all the memory cells are refreshed before a single bit is lost, manufacturers must set their refresh times conservatively short.This frequent DRAM refresh consumes a third of the total power drawn by low-power electronics devices in standby mode.
Refresh interval:
Researchers have proposed several approaches for extending battery run-time between charges by reducing the refresh rate, including temperature-compensated refresh (TCR) and retention-aware placement in DRAM (RAPID).
Experiments show that in a typical off-the-shelf DRAM chip, only a few weak cells really require the worst-case 64 ms refresh interval, and even then only at the high end of its specified temperature range.
Refresh interval:
At room temperature (e.g. 24 °C (75 °F)), those same weak cells need to be refreshed once every 500 ms for correct operation. If the system can avoid using the weakest 1% of pages, a typical DRAM only needs to be refreshed once a second, even at 70 °C (158 °F), for correct operation of the remaining 99% of the pages.
Refresh interval:
Some experiments combine these two complementary techniques, giving correct operation at room temperature at refresh intervals of 10 seconds.For error-tolerant applications (e.g. graphics applications), refreshing non-critical data stored in DRAM or eDRAM at a rate lower than their retention period saves energy with minor quality loss, which is an example of approximate computing.
SRAM and DRAM memory technologies:
SRAM In static random-access memory (SRAM), another type of semiconductor memory, the data is not stored as charge on a capacitor, but in a pair of a cross-coupled inverters, so SRAM does not need to be refreshed. The two basic types of memory have advantages and disadvantages. Static memory can be considered permanent while powered on, i.e. once written the memory stays until specifically changed and thus, its use tends to be simple in terms of system design. However, the internal construction of each SRAM cell requires six transistors, compared to the single transistor required for a DRAM cell, so the density of SRAM is much lower and price-per-bit much higher than DRAM.
SRAM and DRAM memory technologies:
CPU-based refresh Some early microprocessors (e.g. the Zilog Z80) provided special internal registers that could provide the Row-Address Strobe (RAS) to refresh dynamic memory cells, the register being incremented on each refresh cycle. This could also be accomplished by other integrated circuits already being used in the system, if these already generated cycling accesses across RAM (e.g. the Motorola 6845). In CPUs such as the Z80, the availability of a RAS refresh was a big selling-point due to its simplifying hardware design. Here, RAS refresh is signalled by a unique combination of address and control wires during operationally redundant clock cycles (T-States), i.e. during instruction decode/execution when the buses may not be required. Instead of the bus being inactive during such T-states, the refresh register would be presented on the address bus along with a combination of control wires to indicate to the refresh circuitry.
SRAM and DRAM memory technologies:
In early versions of the Z80, the ubiquity of 16 kB RAM chips (i.e. having 128 rows) and something of a lack of foresight resulted in the R register only incrementing over a 7 bit-wide range (0–127, i.e. 128 rows); the 8th bit could be set by the user, but would be left unchanged by the internal cycling. With the rapid advent of 64 kbit+ DRAM chips (with an 8 bit RAS), extra circuitry or logic had to be built around the refresh signal to synthesize the missing 8th bit and prevent blocks of memory being lost after a few milliseconds. In some contexts, it was possible to utilise interrupts to flip the 8th bit at the appropriate time and thus cover the entire range of the R register (256 rows). Another method, perhaps more universal but also more complex in terms of hardware, was to use an 8-bit counter chip, whose output would provide the refresh RAS address instead of the R register: the refresh signal from the CPU was used as the clock for this counter, resulting in the memory row to be refreshed being incremented with each refresh cycle. Later versions and licensed "work-alikes" of the Z80 core remedied the non-inclusion of the 8th bit in automatic cycling, and modern CPUs have greatly expanded on such basic provisioning to provide rich all-in-one solutions for DRAM refresh.
SRAM and DRAM memory technologies:
Pseudostatic DRAM Pseudostatic RAM (PSRAM or PSDRAM) is dynamic RAM with built-in refresh and address-control circuitry to make it behave similarly to static RAM (SRAM). It combines the high density of DRAM with the ease of use of true SRAM. PSRAM (made by Numonyx) is used in the Apple iPhone and other embedded systems.Some DRAM components have a "self-refresh mode", which involves much of the same logic that is needed for pseudo-static operation, but this mode is often equivalent to a standby mode. It is provided primarily to allow a system to suspend operation of its DRAM controller to save power without losing data stored in DRAM, rather not to allow operation without a separate DRAM controller as is the case with PSRAM. An embedded variant of PSRAM is sold by MoSys under the name 1T-SRAM. It is technically DRAM, but behaves much like SRAM, and is used in the GameCube and Wii consoles.
Other memory technologies using refresh:
Several early computer memory technologies also required periodical processes similar in purpose to the memory refreshing. The Williams tube has the closest similarity, since, as with DRAM, it is essentially a capacitive memory in which the values stored for each bit would gradually decay unless refreshed.
In magnetic-core memory, each memory cell can retain data indefinitely even with the power turned off, but reading the data from any memory cell erases its contents. As a consequence, the memory controller typically added a refresh cycle after each read cycle in order to create the illusion of a non-destructive read operation.
Delay-line memory requires constant refreshing because the data is actually stored as a signal in a transmission line. In this case, the refresh rate is comparable to the memory access time.
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**The International MS Journal**
The International MS Journal:
The International MS Journal is a medical journal published by Cambridge Medical Publications carrying reviews on multiple sclerosis. The journal, edited by Douglas Goodin, is also the host of MSForum.net
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**Homicidal chauffeur problem**
Homicidal chauffeur problem:
In game theory, the homicidal chauffeur problem is a mathematical pursuit problem which pits a hypothetical runner, who can only move slowly, but is highly maneuverable, against the driver of a motor vehicle, which is much faster but far less maneuverable, who is attempting to run him down. Both runner and driver are assumed to never tire. The question to be solved is: under what circumstances, and with what strategy, can the driver of the car guarantee that he can always catch the pedestrian, or the pedestrian guarantee that he can indefinitely elude the car? The problem is often used as an unclassified proxy for missile defense and other military targeting, allowing scientists to publish on it without security implications.The problem was proposed by Rufus Isaacs in a 1951 report for the RAND Corporation, and in the book Differential Games.The homicidal chauffeur problem is a classic example of a differential game played in continuous time in a continuous state space. The calculus of variations and level set methods can be used as a mathematical framework for investigating solutions of the problem. Although the problem is phrased as a recreational problem, it is an important model problem for mathematics used in a number of real-world applications.
Homicidal chauffeur problem:
A discrete version of the problem was described by Martin Gardner (in his book Mathematical Carnival, chapter 16), where a squad car of speed 2 chases a crook of speed 1 on a rectangular grid, where the squad car but not the crook is constrained not to make left-hand turns or U-turns.
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**Queue area**
Queue area:
Queue areas are places in which people queue (first-come, first-served) for goods or services. Such a group of people is known as a queue (British usage) or line (American usage), and the people are said to be waiting or standing in a queue or in line, respectively. (In the New York City area, the phrase on line is often used in place of in line.) Occasionally, both the British and American terms are combined to form the term "queue line".Examples include checking out groceries or other goods that have been collected in a self service shop, in a shop without self-service, at an ATM, at a ticket desk, a city bus, or in a taxi stand.
Queue area:
Queueing is a phenomenon in a number of fields, and has been extensively analysed in the study of queueing theory. In economics, queueing is seen as one way to ration scarce goods and services.
Types:
Physical History The first written description of people standing in line is found in an 1837 book, The French Revolution: A History by Thomas Carlyle. Carlyle described what he thought was a strange sight: people standing in an orderly line to buy bread from bakers around Paris.
Typical applications Queues can be found in railway stations to book tickets, at bus stops for boarding and at temples.Queues are generally found at transportation terminals where security screenings are conducted.
Types:
Large stores and supermarkets may have dozens of separate queues, but this can cause frustration, as different lines tend to be handled at different speeds; some people are served quickly, while others may wait for longer periods of time. Sometimes two people who are together split up and each waits in a different line; once it is determined which line is faster, the one in the slower line joins the other. Another arrangement is for everyone to wait in a single line; a person leaves the line each time a service point opens up. This is a common setup in banks and post offices.
Types:
Organized queue areas are commonly found at amusement parks. The rides have a fixed number of guests that can be served at any given time (which is referred to as the rides operational capacity), so there has to be some control over additional guests who are waiting. This led to the development of formalized queue areas—areas in which the lines of people waiting to board the rides are organized by railings, and may be given shelter from the elements with a roof over their heads, inside a climate-controlled building or with fans and misting devices. In some amusement parks – Disney theme parks being a prime example – queue areas can be elaborately decorated, with holding areas fostering anticipation, thus shortening the perceived wait for people in the queue by giving them something interesting to look at as they wait, or the perception that they have arrived at the threshold of the attraction.
Types:
Design When designing queues, planners attempt to make the wait as pleasant and as simple as possible. They employ several strategies to achieve this, including: Expanding the capacity of the queue, thus allowing more patrons to have a place. This can be achieved by: Increasing the length of the queue by making the queue longer Increasing the size of the lanes within the queue Increasing the length of the queue by designing the line in a "zig-zag" shape that holds a large number of guests in a smaller area. This is used often at amusement parks. Notable rides have a large area of this kind of line to hold as many people as possible in line. Portions of the line can be sectioned off and bypassed by guests if the queue is not crowded.
Types:
"In-line" entertainment can be added. This is popular at amusement parks like Walt Disney World, which uses TV screens and other visuals to keep people in the queue area occupied.
Secondary queue areas for patrons with special tickets, like the FastPass system used at Disney parks, or the Q-bot as used in Legoland Windsor.
Types:
Psychology People experience "occupied" time as shorter than "unoccupied" time, and generally overestimate the amount of time waited by around 36%.The technique of giving people an activity to distract them from a wait has been used to reduce complaints of delays at: Baggage claim in the Houston, Texas airport, by moving the arrival gates further away so passengers spend more time walking than standing around waiting Elevators, by adding mirrors so people can groom themselves or watch other people Retail checkout, by placing small items for purchase so customers can continue shopping while waitingOther techniques to reduce queueing anxiety include: Hiding the length of a line by wrapping it around a corner.
Types:
Having only one line, so there is no anxiety about which line to choose and a greater sense of fairness. Even though the average wait over time is the same, customers tend to notice lines that are moving faster than they are compared to other lines moving more slowly.
Putting up signs that deliberately overestimate the wait time, to always exceed customer expectations.Cutting in line, also known as queue-jumping, can generate a strong negative response, depending on the local cultural norms.
Types:
Virtual Physical queueing is sometimes replaced by virtual queueing. In a waiting room there may be a system whereby the queuer asks and remembers where their place is in the queue, or reports to a desk and signs in, or takes a ticket with a number from a machine. These queues typically are found at doctors' offices, hospitals, town halls, social security offices, labor exchanges, the Department of Motor Vehicles, the immigration departments, free internet access in the state or council libraries, banks or post offices and call centres. Especially in the United Kingdom, tickets are taken to form a virtual queue at delicatessens and children's shoe shops. In some countries such as Sweden, virtual queues are also common in shops and railway stations. A display sometimes shows the number that was last called for service.
Types:
Restaurants have come to employ virtual queueing techniques with the availability of application-specific pagers, which alert those waiting that they should report to the host to be seated. Another option used at restaurants is to assign customers a confirmed return time, basically a reservation issued on arrival.
Virtual queueing apps are available that allow the customers to view the virtual queue status of a business and they can take virtual queue numbers remotely. The app can be used to get updates of the virtual queue status that the customer is in.
Types:
Alternate activities A substitute or alternative activity may be provided for people to participate in while waiting to be called, which reduces the perceived waiting time and the probability that the customer will abort their visit. For example, a busy restaurant might seat waiting customers a bar. An outdoor attraction with long virtual queues might have a side marquee selling merchandise or food. The alternate activity may provide the organisation with an opportunity to generate additional revenue from the waiting customers.
Types:
Mobile All of the above methods, however, suffer from the same drawback: the person arrives at the location only to find out that they need to wait. Recently, queues at DMVs, colleges, restaurants, healthcare institutions, government offices and elsewhere have begun to be replaced by mobile queues or queue-ahead, whereby the person queuing uses their phone, the internet, a kiosk or another method to enter a virtual queue, optionally prior to arrival, is free to roam during the wait, and then gets paged at their mobile phone when their turn approaches. This has the advantage of allowing users to find out the wait forecast and get in the queue before arriving, roaming freely and then timing their arrival to the availability of service. This has been shown to extend the patience of those in the queue and reduce no-shows.
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**Livestock dehorning**
Livestock dehorning:
Dehorning is the process of removing the horns of livestock. Cattle, sheep, and goats are sometimes dehorned for economic and safety reasons. Disbudding is a different process with similar results; it cauterizes and thus destroys horn buds before they have grown into horns. Disbudding is commonly performed early in an animal's life, as are other procedures such as docking and castration. In some cases, it can be unnecessary.
Livestock dehorning:
Many breeds of cattle and sheep are naturally hornless. The polled gene can occur naturally in particular breeds or easily manipulated during breeding to lack horns, therefore do not need to be dehorned or disbudded. Although polling is common among cattle and sheep, a variety of livestock species cannot easily be bred to lack horns naturally. In one case, the poll gene in goats was linked to hermaphrodism in a single study several decades ago, although fertile polled goats have been bred.Horns are removed because they can pose a risk to humans, other animals and to the bearers of the horns themselves (horns are sometimes caught in fences or prevent feeding). Dehorning is only recommended with local anesthesia and sedation by a veterinarian or a trained professional, although a 2011 study showed that only 10% of dairy farmers follow guidelines. Removal of larger horns is usually performed during spring and autumn to avoid fly season. In very large horns, "tipping" (removal of the tip of the horn) may be recommended to minimize bleeding. Dehorning is not routinely performed, since it is a difficult and painful process for the animal. Instead, most breeders disbud their animals while young, when the process is quick and easy. Dehorning is controversial because of the pain it causes.
Rationale:
Removal Reasons invoked in support of dehorning animals include the following: Horns may cause injuries to handlers or other animals.
Horned animals take up more space, causing issues at the feed bunk and during transportation.
Horned animals may require specialized equipment, such as feeders and angulate crushes.
In some breeds and in some individuals, horns may grow towards the head, eventually causing injury.
Horns may become broken, causing blood loss and potential for infection.
Horned animals may become trapped in fences or vegetation, causing self-injury.
Horned animals may become more aggressive than those without horns, especially around feed.
Rationale:
Remaining horned Arguments against dehorning include the following: Dehorning (removing fully grown horns) without the use of anesthesia is extremely painful to the animal. A 2011 study that surveyed 639 farmers found that 52 percent of farmers reported that disbudding caused pain lasting more than six hours, that only 10 percent of the farmers used local anesthesia before cauterization, 5 percent provided calves with postoperative analgesia, and that farmers "indicated limited willingness to pay the cost of analgesia or to call a veterinarian to perform the procedure." Horned livestock are better able to defend themselves and their young from predators such as wolves and dogs.
Rationale:
Horns provide a secure point for roping or holding the animal's head.
Horns are traditional in some breeds, and breed standards may require their presence (for example, Texas Longhorn, Highland and White Park cattle).
In some areas horns are of cultural significance, often being decorated or even trained into strange shapes.
Some types of yokes used by draught oxen require the presence of horns.
In very hot climates, horns are useful for thermoregulation and cooling due to the presence of blood vessels at the tip of the horn
Procedure:
Dehorning can be performed on older animals and is normally performed with local anesthesia (cornual nerve block) by a veterinarian or a trained professional. Removal of larger horns is usually performed during spring and autumn to avoid fly season. Sedation may be recommended, especially for larger animals that require increased restraint. Use of longer-term pain medicine, like nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, is being researched in the US to ensure food safety.
Procedure:
For mature cattle that were not dehorned when they were young, another common practice is to cut off only the pointed end of the horn. This practice is called horn tipping; it is less stressful on the animal because there is no blood loss and the horn is cut off where there are no longer any nerve endings. This practice does not eliminate the bruising damage done by the horns when cows fight, but it does eliminate the risk of puncture wounds and eye loss from pointed horns.
Procedure:
Disbudding minimizes discomfort and risk, and is performed when horns are small "buds" by one of several methods: Cauterization is the process of killing the growth ring of the horn using heat. This process is done when cattle are very young, no more than three or four weeks old—that way the horns are not very big. The earlier in the calf's life cauterization is done, the less pain and stress is inflicted on the calf. Cauterization is usually done with a dehorning hot iron after the area is numbed with local anesthesia.
Procedure:
A curved knife can be used to cut the horn off when the calf is younger than a couple of months old. It is a simple procedure where the horn and the growth ring is cut off to remove the horn.
Procedure:
For under eight months of age, but after the horns are starting to grow attached to the skull, a cup dehorner or Gigli saw (a type of surgical cutting wire) is used. There are several different types of cup dehorners, but they all serve the same function of removing the horn and growth ring. Since the horn is tougher it takes more force to remove it so tools that provide some leverage are need. Gigli saw wire is used on horns of older calf's horns that have grown too large for the cup dehorners.
Procedure:
The most recent development in dehorning technology is use of a caustic dehorning paste. The paste is used on calves at less than two days old. The hair around the horn is trimmed back and then the paste is spread all over the horn bud and around the base of the horn on the growth cells. The paste kills the growth ring of the horn and then the horn falls off like a scab when it is healed. However, this method bears a risk of the paste causing injury to the animal's eyes or other tissues if used during periods of rain.
Procedure:
Restraint methods The animal to be dehorned is usually restrained, often with a dehorning table, or sedated. This ensures that the dehorning procedure can be done safely and properly. Young calves are run through a head gate (similar to a cattle crush) or haltered. Calves more than a few months old are held in a head gate and their head restrained with a dehorning table or chin bar. Smaller animals like sheep and goats may be restrained by hand or with use of halters.
Procedure:
Pain control In 2007, the U.S. Department of Agriculture's (USDA) National Animal Health Monitoring System (NAHMS) survey suggested that most cattle in the U.S. were disbudded or dehorned without the use of anesthesia at that time. The survey showed that more than nine out of ten dairy farms practiced dehorning, but fewer than 20 percent of cattle dairy operations used analgesics or anesthesia during the process. While animal rights groups, like the Humane Society of the United States, condemn the practice of dehorning, ending it would mean increased horn-related injuries to cattle and humans. Polled genetics, long a staple in beef cattle breeding are becoming more popular among dairy farmers, with more polled calves being born to dairy cattle every year. Genetic testing can now determine if cattle carry genes for growing horns.
Public debate:
In 2018 a referendum was held in Switzerland on providing additional subsidies to farmers that did not dehorn their livestock (75–90% of livestock in Switzerland had their horns removed). The referendum was a result of farmer Armin Capaul collecting over 100,000 signatures for a vote on the issue. However, the proposal was opposed by the government and rejected by voters.
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**Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Turkey**
Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Turkey:
This article documents the timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Turkey.
January 2020:
10 January The Ministry of Health set up the Coronavirus Scientific Advisory Board. It consists of 26 members specialized in Chest Diseases, Infectious Diseases and Clinical Microbiology. The number of board members increased later to 31 with the joining of expert academics in Virology, Internal medicine and Intensive care medicine. The board works out guidelines for the treatment by medicals and measures to be followed by the public, and updates them in context of the disease's course in the country.
January 2020:
24 January On 24 January 2020, Turkey's health ministry installed thermal cameras at the airports.
The ministry also decided to subject any passengers arriving from China to additional screenings and quarantine anyone showing the symptoms of the coronavirus infection.The screenings were later expanded to include countries that reported a high number of confirmed cases.
Other precautionary measures on the airports included infrared guns, disinfection at all customs gates and the handing out of free surgical masks and instruction leaflets.
31 January On 31 January, the Turkish government sent a plane to airlift 34 Turkish citizens and several others from Wuhan. The others include seven Azeris, seven Georgians and one Albanian.
China ordered 200 million masks from Turkey in addition to Turkey's yearly production of 150 million masks.
February 2020:
3 February On 3 February, Turkey announced a stop of all the flights from China.
The border with Iran was closed after the Iranian authorities didn't adhere to the advice of Turkey to quarantine the Iranian city of Qom.
On the same day, Turkey announced its decision to stop all flights to and from Iran.
29 February On 29 February, Turkey announced the termination of all flights to and from Italy, South Korea and Iraq.
Soon after, the border with Iraq was also closed. The ministry also established field hospitals near the Iraq and Iran borders.
March 2020:
8 March Turkish cities carried out massive disinfection work in public places and mass transit vehicles. In Istanbul, the municipality decided to install hand sanitizers at stations of metrobuses.
The Ministry of National Education also announced that they were using special disinfectants to keep schools clean against the virus threat. Minister Ziya Selçuk said that every surface open to contact at the schools is being sanitised, noting that vocational schools producing 100 tons of disinfectants daily supply the disinfectants for schools.
11 March In the early hours of 11 March 2020 (UTC+03:00), Health Minister Fahrettin Koca announced that a Turkish man who had contracted the virus while travelling in Europe was the country's first coronavirus case.The patient had been placed in isolation at an undisclosed hospital, and family members of the patient were put under observation.
March 2020:
12 March Minister Ziya Selçuk organized a press conference on 12 March and announced that disinfection would be carried out in all schools after the closure. He said that the weekly curriculum would be structured and the necessary training and education support would be provided by EBA on the Internet and TRT on television, and they had taken whatever measures that were necessary to prevent interruptions and delays in educational programs.
March 2020:
On 12 March, after a meeting between President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan and the rest of the Turkish government, Press Secretary İbrahim Kalın announced that primary schools, middle schools, and high schools in Turkey will be closed starting from 16 March 2020 for a week. Universities will also be closed for three weeks. Sports matches will be played behind closed doors in stadiums until the end of April. The president also postponed all his overseas visits.
March 2020:
13 March On 13 March, Health Minister Fahrettin Koca made an announcement via his official Twitter account, confirming that a relative of the first person infected with coronavirus had fallen ill with the disease and was taken under observation and necessary measures were taken.
In the evening, it was announced that three other people in the same family had tested positive for coronavirus, and thus the number of confirmed cases in Turkey rose to five.
The Grand National Assembly of Turkey announced that no visitors would be accepted to parliament between 13 and 31 March.
On 13 March, Turkey announced its decision to stop all flights to and from Germany, France, Spain, Norway, Denmark, Belgium, Sweden, Austria and the Netherlands starting from Saturday at 08.00 am until 17 April.
On the same day, Minister of Justice Abdulhamit Gül announced that meetings in all open and closed prisons, the use of family meeting rooms and transfers between prisons were delayed for two weeks.
14 March On 14 March, following a meeting between President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan and Azerbaijani President Ilham Aliyev, the two countries temporarily stopped land and air transportation.
On the same day, Turkey and Georgia announced their mutual decision to close the Sarp Border Gate.
Later in the evening, Koca announced that the number of confirmed cases rose to six, with a pilgrim who recently returned from Umrah testing positive.
15 March On 15 March, the Ministry of Culture and Tourism announced that between 16 and 30 March all libraries in Turkey will be closed.
According to the statement made by the Ministry of Youth and Sports, 5,392 out of 10,300 citizens who returned from Umrah were quarantined in state dormitories in Ankara and 4,938 were quarantined in Konya.
The Ministry of the Interior announced that pavilions, discotheques, bars and night clubs will be closed temporarily starting from 10:00 on 16 March.
On the same day, Fahrettin Koca announced that the number of confirmed cases increased to 18, with 7 of the new cases originating from Europe and 3 cases originating from the United States.
16 March On 16 March, the Turkish Directorate of Religious Affairs announced a nationwide ban on prayer gatherings in mosques, including Friday prayers, due to the pandemic.
Later that day, the Ministry of the Interior also sent a notice on coronavirus precautions to the 81 provinces of Turkey, temporarily closing all public gathering places such as cafes, gyms, Internet cafés and movie theaters, except shops and restaurants not offering music, starting 24:00 that evening.
Fahrettin Koca announced that Egypt, England, Ireland, Switzerland, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates were added to the list of countries for which the flight ban was imposed.
Koca also announced that the number of confirmed cases rose to 47, with new cases originating from Middle East, Europe and the United States.
The Directorate of Communications announced that President Erdoğan will head a comprehensive coordination meeting on Wednesday to discuss plans for combating the new type of coronavirus and inform the public about the results afterwards.
March 2020:
17 March On 17 March, Minister Selçuk visited TRT studios where content related to the new distance education format was prepared, and stated that the new process was being reviewed to the finest detail, and that the planning and infrastructure preparations would be completed by the week of 23 March. Selçuk stated that the first lesson using this training technique would be given by him.
March 2020:
Later that day, Minister Koca reported the first death from the coronavirus, an 89-year-old patient, while the number of confirmed cases rose to 98.
18 March On 18 March, President Erdoğan urged the public to stay at home and not to visit hospitals outside emergency cases. Erdoğan further stated that public banks will deliver pensions to retirees above the age of 76 to their homes, with the minimum amount of payment for retired people being ₺1,500.
March 2020:
A ₺100 million economic measures package was also announced by the government to address financial issues of companies and low-income households. With this package the government promised to raise the Credit Guarantee Fund (KGF) limit, postpone tax liabilities, SGK premium payments and credit debts of employers in sectors most affected by the crisis, and make a resource transfer of ₺2 billion to families in need, among other measures.
March 2020:
Later that day, Minister Koca announced the second death from coronavirus, a 61-year-old male patient. Koca further stated that the number of confirmed cases rose to 191 with 93 new cases.
March 2020:
The Turkish Medical Association, TTB Specialist Associations, Public Health Experts Association, Turkish Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases Association, Turkish Thoracic Society, and Turkish Intensive Care Association had a meeting on 17 March to evaluate the developments regarding the COVID-19 outbreak. In their paper, released on 18 March, they concluded that the pandemic poses significant dangers for healthcare workers and patients, adding that deficiencies in information and precautions have caused confusion, and insufficient information on drug use, lack of access to tests, and various other issues have made it difficult to combat the pandemic.
March 2020:
19 March On 19 March, it was reported that former commander in chief of the Turkish Army Aytaç Yalman died of coronavirus disease on 15 March 2020, aged 79.
Later that day, one person had tested positive for coronavirus, and 45 co-workers and their family members were quarantined in Çeşme district of İzmir Province.
Youth and Sports Minister Mehmet Kasapoğlu announced that football, volleyball, basketball and handball leagues were postponed.
The Measuring, Selection and Placement Center postponed 9 exams, including TUS and MSÜ, which were planned to be held soon.
The Directorate of Religious Affairs issued a circular to be sent to the provincial muftis, and stating that mosques would be kept closed on Friday.
In a statement published on his Twitter account, Minister of Health Fahrettin Koca announced that an 85-year-old woman had lost her life, adding that there were 168 new confirmed cases.
March 2020:
The announced economic measures package, set to be provided by the government, was criticized by institutions and individuals, including economists and politicians. The lack of a detailed action plan was the center of criticism. Additionally, at a time when people were encouraged to stay at home, the government was criticized for allowing airline passenger transport and tax reductions that support tourism. Critics asked for lowering the down payment of housing loans and emphasized on the need to provide employment support to different sectors.
March 2020:
20 March On 20 March, Ministry of Health issued an order to declare all hospitals with at least two specialists in infections, pulmonology, internal medicine and clinical microbiology, including private and foundation hospitals, as coronavirus pandemic hospitals.
Minister Koca reported that total number of confirmed cases and deaths rose to 670 and 9, respectively.
Through a presidential statement, it was announced that all kinds of scientific, cultural, and artistic meetings or activities were postponed until the end of April.
March 2020:
The Human Rights Association, Human Rights Foundation of Turkey, Association of Lawyers for Liberty, Contemporary Lawyers Association, and Health and Social Service Workers Union of Civil Society in the Penal System, also published a statement on the COVID-19 outbreak and urged for immediate action in prisons. In their article, they emphasized on informing the public, especially family and lawyers of prisoners, about quarantine practices and the health status of prisoners.
March 2020:
Free public transportation for people 65 years of age or older was temporarily suspended in Balıkesir, Konya and Malatya.
Horse racing games were postponed until a second announcement is made in the future.
21 March On 21 March, Minister Koca has reported that the number of confirmed cases rose to 947 with a death toll of 21, following the death of 12 elderly patients.
The Ministry of the Interior reported that, with the circular it sent to the 81 provincial governorships, military farewell ceremonies were temporarily suspended. In addition, it was announced that the activities of barber shops, hair dressers and beauty parlours were to cease by 6:00 pm.
The Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry banned barbecuing in gardens, parks and promenades.
The Ministry of Transport and Infrastructure announced that as of 5:00 pm flights to 46 more countries had stopped, thereby cutting air transport with 68 countries in total.
The Ministry of Interior announced a total curfew for those who are over the age 65 or chronically ill.
The announcement further stated that starting from midnight, restaurants, dining places and patisseries were to be closed to the public for sitting, and were only allowed to offer home delivery and take-away.
Fenerbahçe Basketball announced that some players in its team and administrative staff had symptoms of the coronavirus disease.
Free public transportation for people over 65 was temporarily suspended in Ankara, Antalya and İzmir.
22 March With a presidential order, all bankruptcy and financial executives processes were stopped until 30 April, however obligations regarding alimony and child support payments remained in force.
Additionally, through a new statement issued by the president, public institutions and organizations were ordered to allow for alternating and flexible schedules and enforce remote working if possible.
The Ministry of the Interior declared that the health workers, mayors, provincial directors, social service institutions officers, public servants, public service providers and pharmacists, especially doctors, were exempted from the curfew, which is enforced for the people aged 65 and over.
The Banks Association of Turkey also sent a notice to different banks across the country and limited their working hours to 12:00 pm to 5:00 pm, which went into effect on 23 March 2020.
23 March At a press conference, Koca announced that a drug called Favipiravir, which was reported by Chinese authorities to be effective in treating the disease, was imported and started to be administered to intensive care patients. Koca also announced that healthcare workers would be paid an additional fee on their paychecks for 3 months.
On the same day, Fatih Terim, a famous Turkish association football manager and former player, was diagnosed with the COVID-19.
The remote classes for primary, secondary and high schools started on 23 March 2020 on TRT EBA TV, a channel created through the collaboration of TRT and the Ministry of Education.
It was decided that the Grand Bazaar in Istanbul would remain open between 10.00 am-4.00 pm, however, entering and exiting would be controlled and done only through two doors.
The Youth and Sports Minister Mehmet Kasapoğlu announced that the number of people coming from abroad and quarantined at home was 11,269.
March 2020:
24 March The Ministry of the Interior issued a statement, announcing that markets could serve customers between 9:00 am to 9:00 pm, adding that the number of customers in every store needed to be limited to one tenth of its original number based on its area. In addition, it was announced that public transportation vehicles that work in and across the cities could fill up only 50% of their capacity with people at a time.
March 2020:
Import tariffs on ethanol, disposable medical masks, and ventilators have been lifted with presidential decrees.
25 March At the press conference held on 25 March, Minister Selçuk announced that remote teaching would continue until 30 April.
It was announced that a football player and a healthcare professional from Fenerbahçe football team, President of Başakşehir F.K. Göksel Gümüşdağ, and journalist Ali Sirmen had tested positive for COVID-19.
President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan delivered a speech to the nation.
March 2020:
26 March On the same day, YÖK President Yekta Saraç stated that there would be no in-person teaching at universities in the remainder of the spring semester, and that they would continue with remote education only. He added that the programs, courses and practical courses that could not be offered with distance education and digital education would be completed in the summer months. He announced that the Higher Education Institutions Exam was postponed to 25–26 July.
March 2020:
With the decision of the Ministry of Trade, the export of respiratory equipment was permitted.
TÜBİTAK and the Ministry of Industry and Technology launched the COVID-19 Turkey Web Portal.
The Minister of National Education Ziya Selçuk announced that the High School Entrance Exams would be made only from the material covered in the first semester curriculum.
During the pandemic, the first call for tender for Istanbul Canal was criticized by the opposition.
The Ministry of the Interior postponed the meetings of the metropolitan, provincial, district, municipal municipalities and local administrative unions and provincial councils in April, May and June.
Kilyos and Beykoz were determined as burial places in Istanbul for those who lost their lives due to COVID-19.
In his statement, the mayor of Istanbul Ekrem İmamoğlu announced that they were expecting a controlled curfew for Istanbul from the government.
March 2020:
27 March On 27 March, the Ministry of the Interior issued a new statement regarding gatherings during weekends, announcing that starting from 28 to 29 March, having picnics, fishing at the shores, doing outside physical exercises (including running and walking in the weekends in city and town centers) would be banned until the virus spread has been contained. It was also stated that, should they deem it necessary, local authorities may extend these new measures to weekdays.
March 2020:
With the advice of the Ministry of Health, Kendirli town in Rize and Yeniselimiye, Beştepe, Esentepe and Maltepe villages close to the town were quarantined to prevent the spread of coronavirus.
In a message published by the Minister of National Education Twitter on 27 March, it announced that subjects that were set to be covered during the second semester were removed from the Higher Education Institutions Exam.
Also on 27 March, President Erdoğan announced that all overseas flights were terminated, adding that intercity travel was subject to permission by the state governors, and that places such as picnic areas, forests and ruins would be closed on the weekend.
Public Personnel Selection Examinations were postponed to September, October and November.
Friday prayers were done in Beştepe National Mosque with a limited number of people determined by the Directorate of Religious Affairs.
It was announced that public and private healthcare workers could not leave their posts for three months.
28 March Turkish Airlines announced that its domestic flights were restricted from Istanbul and Ankara to some metropolitan cities.
The Minister of Transport Mehmet Cahit Turhan was dismissed and Adil Karaismailoğlu was appointed to replace him.
Rüştü Reçber, former captain of the national football team of Turkey, announced that he had tested positive for COVID-19.
At the entrance and exit points of the cities, new measurements were enforced for the drivers and passengers.
With the circular issued by the Ministry of the Interior, a "Travel Permit Certificate" requirement was introduced for domestic air transportation.
29 March With the circular issued by the Ministry of the Interior, it was announced that from midnight, Istanbul, Ankara and İzmir would limit the number of commercial taxis by enforcing an even-odd system, according to the last digit on their registration plate. The decision was left to the governors for other provinces.
With the decision taken by the governorships of Istanbul and Ankara, children were prohibited from entering bazaars and markets.
March 2020:
30 March On the same day, the presidential cabinet gathered for the first time using the teleconference method. Speaking after the meeting, President Erdoğan announced that 41 settlements were under quarantine. He also announced the initiation of a donation campaign called "We're Enough for Each Other Turkey" (Biz Bize Yeteriz Türkiyem). While the campaign was supported by representatives of the ruling party, members of the oppositions had a less favorable reaction to it.
March 2020:
It was announced that the sea buses and ferry services that make intercity trips in Istanbul would stop operating from 5:00 pm.
The Turkish Medical Association announced the number of confirmed cases and death figures by province.
31 March The Mayor of Istanbul, Ekrem İmamoğlu, mentioned Istanbul as the center of the pandemic in Turkey, and reiterated the demand for a curfew in Istanbul.
Kırklareli Governor Osman Bilgin and a doctor in the Grand National Assembly tested positive for COVID-19.
Through a circular issued by the Ministry of the Interior, the donation accounts set by the municipalities were blocked.
March 2020:
TÜRK-İŞ leader Ergün Atalay issued a written statement on 31 March, demanding the banning of layoffs and asked for stopping all works for at least 15 days except those offering essential goods and services. Atalay stressed the necessity of the rapid introduction of the Unemployment Insurance Fund to address the issue of the loss of income, and added that all workers who suffer loss of employment and income should have their provisional income support by their employer, the Unemployment Insurance Fund and the state.
March 2020:
DİSK, KESK, TMMOB and TTB launched a signature campaign on 31 March to enforce seven emergency measures. During this period, they believed that "Works should be terminated immediately during the epidemic in all sectors except those providing basic, compulsory and urgent goods and services. Dismissals should be prohibited during the epidemic, small tradesmen should be supported, employees should be given paid leave, and unemployment support should be provided for the unemployed. Consumer, housing and vehicle loans and credit card debts and electricity, water, natural gas and communication bills should be postponed during the epidemic without future interests."
April 2020:
1 April On 1 April, Minister Koca broke down the regional cases for the first time, adding that confirmed cases had been detected in all 81 of Turkey's provinces. Until then, regional figures were not made public to avoid people moving away from worse affected areas, spreading the virus from one region to another. In Turkey, 60% of cases were seen in Istanbul.
April 2020:
The Minister of Health also announced that 601 health workers had tested positive for coronavirus and 1 doctor had died.
April 2020:
As of 1 April 2020, the campaign Biz Bize Yeteriz Türkiyem had raised ₺552 million. After the government's decision to take money from the income of several institutions in order to make donations to this campaign, the Confederation of Public Employees' Unions filed a criminal complaint as a result of the salary cuts of the staff of many institutions such as MEB, BOTAŞ, General Directorate of Forestry, Ministry of Justice, Supreme Court and Social Service Provincial Directorates.
April 2020:
11 metropolitan mayors from the CHP issued a joint statement on the decision made by the government to block their donation accounts.
With the circular issued by the Ministry of the Interior, it was announced that there should at least be a 3-meter distance between the racks in the market places, a determined number of customers could be allowed in the market, and entries and exits would be made from different places.
Cemil Taşcıoğlu, a faculty member at the Internal Medicine Department of Istanbul University, died due to complications from COVID-19. Taşçıoğlu was the first doctor to die due to COVID-19 in Turkey.
April 2020:
2 April After the donation campaign initiated by the metropolitan municipalities with CHP administration was terminated by the Ministry of the Interior and their bank accounts were blocked, the Ankara Bar Association issued a statement, saying: "Although the aforementioned circular and blocking process enforced by the Ministry of the Interior are clearly unlawful, the provision of social services belongs neither exclusively to the local governments nor to the central government." With the decision of Provincial Sanitary Boards, it was announced that those coming to Antalya, Burdur, Tunceli and Bodrum would be kept under quarantine for 14 days.
April 2020:
It was decided to control the traffic in Tunceli on an even-odd base, according to the last digit of the vehicle registration plates.
President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan met with the AK Party mayors using the video conferencing method.
PTT announced that it has temporarily closed its branches, which are usually filled with people and where social distancing rules cannot be applied.
3 April The Istanbul Chamber of Physicians suggested that the figures given by the Ministry of Health were based on cases that test positive for PCR, and do not include the number of 'suspected / possible cases' among inpatients or outpatients. The Chamber of Physicians also criticized the practices carried out in private hospitals in Istanbul.
April 2020:
On the same day, President Erdoğan announced a 15-day entrance ban to 30 metropolitan municipalities as well as Zonguldak. Also, the curfew was extended to people younger than 20 years old. Using masks in public places became mandatory. However, with the additional circular issued and sent to all provinces, exceptions to this ban were determined. According to the new order, procedures involving health care assistance, funerals, military and passenger transports would be exempted from the ban, provided that certain conditions were met.
April 2020:
Istanbul and Ankara Metropolitan Municipalities announced that free masks would be distributed to the public after a ban on traveling without a mask in public transport vehicles was enforced.
The Turkish Football Federation said in a statement that the league could start at the earliest in early June, and the situation would be reassessed by the Board of Directors in the first week of May.
Turkish Airlines stopped domestic flights until 20 April.
The Kocaeli Governorate announced that it was forbidden to leave a job in the province for 15 days. The governor's office later issued a new statement, saying that the previous one was released by accident.
April 2020:
4 April On 4 April 2020, Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs Yavuz Selim Kıran announced that the death toll of Turkish expatriates who lost their lives to COVID-19 reached to 156. Kıran tweeted that 55 in France, 31 in Germany, 22 in Netherlands, 16 in UK, 14 in Belgium, 7 in US, 5 in Sweden, 3 in Switzerland, 2 in Austria and 1 in Lebanon died because of the disease.
April 2020:
Tekirdağ Governorate announced that public transportation would be stopped in the province for 15 days.
Mayor of Istanbul Ekrem İmamoğlu stated on his Twitter account that starting from Monday, 6 April, the metro services would be made until 9:00 PM. He also added that the İstiklal Street trams and the F1 Taksim–Kabataş funicular line would be stopped and emergency lighting system would be implemented at metro stations.
5 April The Ministry of the Interior announced in its circular that workers between the ages of 18 and 20 would be exempted from the curfew set by the government for people under the age of 20.
According to a report published by Google, community mobility in Turkey had decreased by 75%.
6 April The Speaker of the Grand National Assembly, Mustafa Şentop, announced that the celebrations of National Sovereignty and Children's Day on 23 April were postponed and asked the public to sing the National Anthem from their balconies on 23 April at 9.00 pm local time.
President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan said in his statement that the sale of masks in exchange for money was banned and a 1000-room field hospital would be established in the lands surrounding Istanbul Atatürk Airport and Sancaktepe.
With the decision taken by the Ministry of Health and the Ministry of Transport and Infrastructure, it was decided to distribute free masks to citizens aged 20–65 through Ptt.
7 April All MPs attending the general session of the Grand National Assembly appeared in their seats wearing masks.
Lemon exports were subjected to permission by the government.
8 April Cemeteries were temporarily closed to visitors in Ankara.
President of the Religious Affairs, Ali Erbaş, announced that the Tarawih prayers to be performed in Ramadan will not take place in mosques during the pandemic.
9 April The Ministry of the Interior announced in its circular that citizens under 20 years of age diagnosed with autism, severe mental retardation and down syndrome are exempt from curfew.
It was announced that free mask distribution would be made through pharmacies in Istanbul.
Treatment of coronavirus cases officially fell under the tasks performed by the emergency sections of hospitals.
Turkey donated 100,000 protective masks, 2,000 protective suits, and 1,500 COVID-19 testing kits to Serbia.
April 2020:
10 April On the same day, at a special meeting among the members of the Turkic Council, President Erdoğan expressed hopes for overcoming the pandemic, "Of course we will win this war. The adoption of such a movement will make our council more visible and increase its global strength." In the late hours of 10 April, a 48-hour curfew was declared by the Ministry of the Interior in 30 metropolitan municipalities and Zonguldak, starting from 12:00 am on 11 April. Upon announcement of the ban 2 hours ahead of its start, people lined in front of bakeries and markets. A number of incidents and quarrels took place among the people who were waiting in line in different locations.
April 2020:
11 April It was announced that the Istanbul Metro would not operate for two days due to the curfew.
12 April On the same day, the Minister of the Interior Süleyman Soylu announced that he intended to resign after criticism of the weekend lockdown which led to panic buying and other incidents. The resignation was not accepted by President Erdoğan, and Soylu remained in office.
13 April After the cabinet meeting on Monday, 13 April, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan announced that a curfew will be imposed from Friday, 17 April to Sunday night, 19 April.
14 April On 14 April, Independent Turkey Party chairman Haydar Baş died at age 73, from COVID-19.
The Minister of National Defense, Hulusi Akar, announced that the recruitment of 53 thousand people who would join the army in April was postponed, and the service period of those who joined the military in November 2019 was extended by one month.
The presidential decision to provide care for all citizens who have caught COVID-19 for free is published in the T.C. Resmi Gazete.
15 April The Grand National Assembly passes a new set to protect healthcare workers from violence A separate bill was also passed, setting the framework for teachers during and after the pandemic.
The Minister of Agriculture and Forestry, Bekir Pakdemirli, announced that those engaged in agriculture and animal husbandry will be exempted from the curfew.
Ali Ülkü Azrak, one of the former deans of the Faculty of Political Sciences of Istanbul University, died of COVID-19.
The Ministry of the Interior announced that quarantine was implemented in a total of 227 neighborhoods in 58 provinces.
16 April The bill, which includes new measures for alleviate the effects of the coronavirus pandemic on social and economic life, was ratified by the Grand National Assembly.
In the circular sent to the 81 provincial governorships by the Ministry of the Interior, it was stated that a curfew would be applied in 31 provinces for the upcoming weekend. Bakeries, pharmacies, public and private health institutions and public institutions and organizations and businesses necessary for the maintenance of compulsory public services will be open during the curfew.
The writer and translator Nevzat Erkmen, who made the first Turkish translation of Ulysses, died due to COVID-19.
29 April On 29 April, Ziya Selçuk announced that the interval previously announced for remote education was extended until 31 May.
May 2020:
4 May On the same day, President Erdoğan made a press statement after the cabinet meeting. Explaining that the return to normal life will happen gradually, Erdoğan stated that they made the regulations regarding the gradual stretching of the restrictions to be imposed through several steps in May, June and July.
5 May On the same day, the Industry and Technology Minister Mustafa Varank stated that on 11 May, all the main automotive factories in the country will start to operate again.
6 May On 6 May 2020, Fahrettin Koca spoke about the normalization process in Turkey. Describing the new phase with loosened restrictions as "controlled social life", Koca stated that the outbreak in Turkey was now under control but the risk continues and that citizens should not give up measures.
7 May On 7 May 2020, the price ceiling for surgical masks was estimated as ₺1.
Through a handbook published on the same day, it was announced that barbers, hairdressers and beauty saloons will not be able to accept customers without masks and preexisting appointments, and that nobody other than customers and employees can be present at the workplace.
18 May On 18 May, President Erdoğan announced that the schools which were expected to open on 1 June will remain closed and the 2019–2020 Academic Year has officially ended. He added that the new academic year will begin in September 2020.
June 2020:
1 June On 1 June, domestic flights were resumed and most public spaces were opened, including restaurants, swimming pools, beaches, parks, libraries and museums.
2 June On 2 June, the Turkish Parliament resumed full activities for the first time in 48 days since a hiatus was declared due to the pandemic. The Parliament started working under "new norms" including enhanced hygiene measures, use of masks and social distancing.
4 June In June, the Emergency Medical Experts Association launched a story contest titled "COVID-19 Stories". They said that in this contest they would evaluate the stories related to the effects of the pandemic on citizens' lives and later award the best three inputs.
13 June On 13 June 2020, the National Defense University Military Student Candidate Determination Exam (2020-MSÜ) was held.
20 June On 20 June 2020, the exams organized by the Transition System for High Schools were held across Turkey. A partial curfew was imposed during the exam.
27 June A partial curfew was imposed during the Higher Education Institutions Exams that were held on 27–28 June.
August 2020:
26 August With the circular issued by the president's office, rotational, flexible and remote work in public institutions and organizations was allowed. The rotational, flexible and remote working practice, which was initiated by the circular previously published on 22 March 2020, had expired on 1 June 2020.
September 2020:
30 September 2020 The Minister of Health, Fahrettin Koca, released a statement after meeting with the Coronavirus Scientific Advisory Board and said, "Not every case is sick. Because there are those who test positive but show no symptoms, and they are the vast majority." Explaining the distinction between definitions of patient and case, Koca said, "The number of new patients that are announced and focused on every day should be an issue of attention."
October 2020:
2 October 2020 The Ministry of Health released its September weekly reports with delay, approximately a month after the weekly report covering 24–30 August. The ministry, which explained the number of cases in previous reports, started to give data on the number of patients instead of cases in new reports.
9 October 2020 Fahrettin Koca announced the latest developments in making an indigenous vaccine and added that trials on humans would probably begin in 2 weeks.
November 2020:
17 November Recep Tayyip Erdoğan announced new measures to control the spread of the virus. He stated that distant learning would continue until the end of the year, a curfew would be imposed on weekends except between 10:00 am–08:00 pm, restaurants would only provide take-away service, and shopping malls and markets would close at 08:00 pm.
20 November On 20 November, Ministry of Health reinstated the curfew on people age 65 and older and people twenty and younger. On the same day, Minister of Internal Affairs ordered businesses and places of worship to halt indoor activities. Grocery stores and pharmacies have remained open, with legally imposed limits to capacity.
30 November On 30 November, official figures showed that gross domestic product expanded 15.6 per cent compared with the previous quarter, and 6.7 per cent compared with a year earlier.
December 2020:
6 December On 6 December, Ministry of Health Fahrettin Koca announced that 50 million doses of CoronaVac should arrive by the end of February 2021, and 10 million doses of the Pfizer–BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine should start arriving still during December.
December 2020:
7 December On 7 December, Pfizer and BioNTech finalized their submission to the Turkish Medicines and Medical Devices Agency (TMA), which has been reviewing data from the clinical trial on a rolling basis since October. The TMA said it would recommend granting an emergency use authorization if it concluded "that the benefits of the vaccine outweigh its risks in protecting against COVID-19", based on the 2004 law that created the TMA's process.
December 2020:
10 December On 10 December, the seven-day averages for three of the primary metrics (tests, cases, hospitalizations) were at record highs. Earlier in the spring of 2020, during the first COVID-19 surge in the Turkey, the rising death toll reached a peak on 22 April, with a seven-day average of 122 daily deaths. In December, the seven-day average of deaths in Turkey from COVID-19 broke that record, at 255 on 29 December.
December 2020:
13 December On 13 December, TMA pushed back formal assessments of two COVID-19 vaccines, delaying distribution of the Pfizer–BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine and CoronaVac in Turkey to the end of December. The TMA said it planned to give an opinion on the Pfizer–BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine at a meeting on 29 December. TMA has also delayed assessing the rival Moderna vaccine until 12 January.
January 2021:
1 January Turkey detected 15 cases of the UK coronavirus variant on 1 January 2021.
14 January On 14 January 2021, Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan received the COVID-19 vaccine.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Flame (malware)**
Flame (malware):
Flame, also known as Flamer, sKyWIper, and Skywiper, is modular computer malware discovered in 2012 that attacks computers running the Microsoft Windows operating system. The program is used for targeted cyber espionage in Middle Eastern countries.Its discovery was announced on 28 May 2012 by the MAHER Center of the Iranian National Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT), Kaspersky Lab and CrySyS Lab of the Budapest University of Technology and Economics. The last of these stated in its report that Flame "is certainly the most sophisticated malware we encountered during our practice; arguably, it is the most complex malware ever found." Flame can spread to other systems over a local network (LAN). It can record audio, screenshots, keyboard activity and network traffic. The program also records Skype conversations and can turn infected computers into Bluetooth beacons which attempt to download contact information from nearby Bluetooth-enabled devices. This data, along with locally stored documents, is sent on to one of several command and control servers that are scattered around the world. The program then awaits further instructions from these servers.According to estimates by Kaspersky in May 2012, Flame had initially infected approximately 1,000 machines, with victims including governmental organizations, educational institutions and private individuals. At that time 65% of the infections happened in Iran, Israel, Palestine, Sudan, Syria, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, and Egypt, with a "huge majority of targets" within Iran. Flame has also been reported in Europe and North America. Flame supports a "kill" command which wipes all traces of the malware from the computer. The initial infections of Flame stopped operating after its public exposure, and the "kill" command was sent.Flame is linked to the Equation Group by Kaspersky Lab. However, Costin Raiu, the director of Kaspersky Lab's global research and analysis team, believes the group only cooperates with the creators of Flame and Stuxnet from a position of superiority: "Equation Group are definitely the masters, and they are giving the others, maybe, bread crumbs. From time to time they are giving them some goodies to integrate into Stuxnet and Flame."In 2019, researchers Juan Andres Guerrero-Saade and Silas Cutler announced their discovery of the resurgence of Flame. The attackers used 'timestomping' to make the new samples look like they were created before the 'suicide' command. However, a compilation error included the real compilation date (circa 2014). The new version (dubbed 'Flame 2.0' by the researchers) includes new encryption and obfuscation mechanisms to hide its functionality.
History:
Flame (a.k.a. Da Flame) was identified in May 2012 by the MAHER Center of the Iranian National CERT, Kaspersky Lab and CrySyS Lab (Laboratory of Cryptography and System Security) of the Budapest University of Technology and Economics when Kaspersky Lab was asked by the United Nations International Telecommunication Union to investigate reports of a virus affecting Iranian Oil Ministry computers. As Kaspersky Lab investigated, they discovered an MD5 hash and filename that appeared only on customer machines from Middle Eastern nations. After discovering more pieces, researchers dubbed the program "Flame" after one of the main modules inside the toolkit [FROG.DefaultAttacks.A-InstallFlame].According to Kaspersky, Flame had been operating in the wild since at least February 2010. CrySyS Lab reported that the file name of the main component was observed as early as December 2007. However, its creation date could not be determined directly, as the creation dates for the malware's modules are falsely set to dates as early as 1994.Computer experts consider it the cause of an attack in April 2012 that caused Iranian officials to disconnect their oil terminals from the Internet. At the time the Iranian Students News Agency referred to the malware that caused the attack as "Wiper", a name given to it by the malware's creator. However, Kaspersky Lab believes that Flame may be "a separate infection entirely" from the Wiper malware. Due to the size and complexity of the program—described as "twenty times" more complicated than Stuxnet—the Lab stated that a full analysis could require as long as ten years.On 28 May, Iran's CERT announced that it had developed a detection program and a removal tool for Flame, and had been distributing these to "select organizations" for several weeks. After Flame's exposure in news media, Symantec reported on 8 June that some Flame command and control (C&C) computers had sent a "suicide" command to infected PCs to remove all traces of Flame.According to estimates by Kaspersky in May 2012, initially Flame had infected approximately 1,000 machines, with victims including governmental organizations, educational institutions and private individuals. At that time the countries most affected were Iran, Israel, the Palestinian Territories, Sudan, Syria, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, and Egypt.
History:
A sample of the Flame malware is available at GitHub
Operation:
Flame is an uncharacteristically large program for malware at 20 megabytes. It is written partly in the Lua scripting language with compiled C++ code linked in, and allows other attack modules to be loaded after initial infection. The malware uses five different encryption methods and an SQLite database to store structured information. The method used to inject code into various processes is stealthy, in that the malware modules do not appear in a listing of the modules loaded into a process and malware memory pages are protected with READ, WRITE and EXECUTE permissions that make them inaccessible by user-mode applications. The internal code has few similarities with other malware, but exploits two of the same security vulnerabilities used previously by Stuxnet to infect systems. The malware determines what antivirus software is installed, then customises its own behaviour (for example, by changing the filename extensions it uses) to reduce the probability of detection by that software. Additional indicators of compromise include mutex and registry activity, such as installation of a fake audio driver which the malware uses to maintain persistence on the compromised system.Flame is not designed to deactivate automatically, but supports a "kill" function that makes it eliminate all traces of its files and operation from a system on receipt of a module from its controllers.Flame was signed with a fraudulent certificate purportedly from the Microsoft Enforced Licensing Intermediate PCA certificate authority. The malware authors identified a Microsoft Terminal Server Licensing Service certificate that inadvertently was enabled for code signing and that still used the weak MD5 hashing algorithm, then produced a counterfeit copy of the certificate that they used to sign some components of the malware to make them appear to have originated from Microsoft. A successful collision attack against a certificate was previously demonstrated in 2008, but Flame implemented a new variation of the chosen-prefix collision attack.
Deployment:
Like the previously known cyber weapons Stuxnet and Duqu, it is employed in a targeted manner and can evade current security software through rootkit functionality. Once a system is infected, Flame can spread to other systems over a local network or via USB stick. It can record audio, screenshots, keyboard activity and network traffic. The program also records Skype conversations and can turn infected computers into Bluetooth beacons which attempt to download contact information from nearby Bluetooth enabled devices. This data, along with locally stored documents, is sent on to one of several command and control servers that are scattered around the world. The program then awaits further instructions from these servers.Unlike Stuxnet, which was designed to sabotage an industrial process, Flame appears to have been written purely for espionage. It does not appear to target a particular industry, but rather is "a complete attack toolkit designed for general cyber-espionage purposes".Using a technique known as sinkholing, Kaspersky demonstrated that "a huge majority of targets" were within Iran, with the attackers particularly seeking AutoCAD drawings, PDFs, and text files. Computing experts said that the program appeared to be gathering technical diagrams for intelligence purposes.A network of 80 servers across Asia, Europe and North America has been used to access the infected machines remotely.
Origin:
On 19 June 2012, The Washington Post published an article claiming that Flame was jointly developed by the U.S. National Security Agency, CIA and Israel's military at least five years prior. The project was said to be part of a classified effort code-named Olympic Games, which was intended to collect intelligence in preparation for a cyber-sabotage campaign aimed at slowing Iranian nuclear efforts.According to Kaspersky's chief malware expert, "the geography of the targets and also the complexity of the threat leaves no doubt about it being a nation-state that sponsored the research that went into it." Kaspersky initially said that the malware bears no resemblance to Stuxnet, although it may have been a parallel project commissioned by the same attackers.
Origin:
After analysing the code further, Kaspersky later said that there is a strong relationship between Flame and Stuxnet; the early version of Stuxnet contained code to propagate via USB drives that is nearly identical to a Flame module that exploits the same zero-day vulnerability.Iran's CERT described the malware's encryption as having "a special pattern which you only see coming from Israel". The Daily Telegraph reported that due to Flame's apparent targets—which included Iran, Syria, and the West Bank—Israel became "many commentators' prime suspect". Other commentators named China and the U.S. as possible perpetrators. Richard Silverstein, a commentator critical of Israeli policies, claimed that he had confirmed with a "senior Israeli source" that the malware was created by Israeli computer experts. The Jerusalem Post wrote that Israel's Vice Prime Minister Moshe Ya'alon appeared to have hinted that his government was responsible, but an Israeli spokesperson later denied that this had been implied. Unnamed Israeli security officials suggested that the infected machines found in Israel may imply that the virus could be traced to the U.S. or other Western nations. The U.S. has officially denied responsibility.A leaked NSA document mentions that dealing with Iran's discovery of FLAME is an NSA and GCHQ jointly-worked event.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**International Student Congress Of (bio)Medical Sciences**
International Student Congress Of (bio)Medical Sciences:
The International Student Congress Of (bio)Medical Sciences, also known as ISCOMS, is an annually held student congress on biomedical sciences. The primary aim of ISCOMS is getting medical students acquainted with research and its many elements.
750 participants from 60 countries attended the 25th edition of ISCOMS in 2018. The 26th edition of ISCOMS will take place from 3–7 June 2019 and the abstract submission is open from October 29, 2018 till February 7, 2019.
History:
ISCOMS started as a congress for medical students in Groningen, named "Studenten Congres Geneeskunde". In 2003, the Student Congres Geneeskunde changed to an international congress with the name International Student Congress of Medicine. In 2004 the name was changed to ISCOMS. In 2010, the name was changed to the International Student Congress Of (bio)Medical Sciences, to show that it is a congress for students in all biomedical fields.
Location:
ISCOMS takes place at the University Medical Center Groningen (UMCG) in the Netherlands. It is one of the largest hospitals in the world, offering supraregional tertiary care to the northern part of the Netherlands. The medical center employs almost 17,000 people, numbers almost 1400 beds and is affiliated with the University of Groningen.
Congress structure:
The congress is for (bio)medical students who are interested in research. Students may be either presenting or non-presenting participants. If a participant wants to present their research, they are required to submit their abstract beforehand. A strict selection procedure takes place and only the best students are invited to present their research at ISCOMS.
Congress structure:
When accepted, participants are divided into different session in which they present their research. This may be either through a poster presentation, or an oral presentation where students can present their research by means of a slideshow presentation. In both sessions other students and professionals from the UMCG listen and discuss the research. Thirdly, there is a plenary session: the eight best abstracts will be presented in the primary lecture hall of the UMCG.
Congress structure:
The congress also holds pre-course masterclasses about research skills, and a great variety of workshops during the congress days on practical skills. Besides that ISCOMS offers keynote lectures from renowned scientist presenting their research to the participants.
Moreover, ISCOMS offers an extensive social programme, where all the participants have the opportunity to get to know each other and the ISCOMS organising committees. Finally, there is a post-congress tour visiting parts of the Netherlands.
Keynote Speakers:
Nobel Prize laureates who have given a keynote lecture during one of the previous ISCOMS editions.
Healthy Ageing:
‘Healthy Ageing’ is the primary focus of research, patient care, and education & training within the University of Groningen and the University Medical Center Groningen. Knowing that ageing of the population poses an increasing burden on society, and that associated disabilities and diseases incur increasing economic, healthcare, infrastructural and personal costs that tax national societies heavily, stimulation of a healthy lifestyle is a key in order to deal with this societal challenge. Therefore, ISCOMS continues to emphasize the importance of ‘Healthy Ageing’. It is well known that lifestyles, nutritional patterns, the amount of exercise, and the use of medication are all factors that affect the development of health. However, the influences of these factors and the way they relate to each other is still unclear. As such, ISCOMS is proud to contribute to the gaining of new knowledge.
Organisational structure:
The organisation of ISCOMS consists of (bio)medical students from the University of Groningen. There are nine Executive Board members and 21 committee members. Committees include the Scientific Programme, Hosting and Logistics, International Contacts, Sponsors and Fundraising, Public Relations, and Research and Development.
ISCOMS Research Fellowships (IRF):
ISCOMS is more than just a congress; it also incorporates several different projects. The ISCOMS Research Fellowships (IRF) is such a project and is unique in Europe and has become an integral part of the experience. It provides a starting point for students to pursue a career in medical sciences, broaden their scientific network, increase the range of their knowledge and amplify their experience with research by giving 25 enthusiastic and talented students the opportunity to join a research group in the University Medical Center Groningen. During a challenging two-week period, chosen students will work on their own individual project and for some this may transcend into a chance to conduct a long-term PhD project in Groningen.
Partners:
The official partners of the ISCOMS are: Leiden International Medical Student Conference (LIMSC) International Federation of Medical Students' Associations the Netherlands (IFMSA-NL) Zagreb International Medical Summit (ZIMS) European Medical Students' Association (EMSA) Asian Medical Students' Association (AMSA) Young European Scientists meeting Porto (YES-meeting) International Medical Students' Congress Novi Sad (IMSCNS) International Conference for Healthcare and Medical Students (ICHAMS)
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Folding endurance**
Folding endurance:
In paper testing, folding endurance is defined as the logarithm (to the base of ten) of the number of double folds that are required to make a test piece break under standardized conditions: F = log10 d,where F is the folding endurance and d the number of double folds.
Folding endurance:
Folding endurance is especially applicable for papers used for maps, bank notes, archival documents, etc. The direction of the grain in relation to the folding line, the type of fibres used, the fibre contents, the calliper of the test piece, etc., as well as which type of folding tester that is used affect how many double folds a test piece can take.
Folding endurance:
Folding endurance must not be confused with the related term fold number.
Standards on folding endurance:
ISO 5626: Paper – Determination of folding endurance.
TAPPI Test Method T 511: Folding endurance of paper (MIT tester).
TAPPI Test Method T 423: Folding endurance of paper (Schopper type tester).
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Nesbitt's inequality**
Nesbitt's inequality:
In mathematics, Nesbitt's inequality states that for positive real numbers a, b and c, ab+c+ba+c+ca+b≥32.
It is an elementary special case (N = 3) of the difficult and much studied Shapiro inequality, and was published at least 50 years earlier.
There is no corresponding upper bound as any of the 3 fractions in the inequality can be made arbitrarily large.
Proof:
First proof: AM-HM inequality By the AM-HM inequality on (a+b),(b+c),(c+a) ,(a+b)+(a+c)+(b+c)3≥31a+b+1a+c+1b+c.
Clearing denominators yields ((a+b)+(a+c)+(b+c))(1a+b+1a+c+1b+c)≥9, from which we obtain 2a+b+cb+c+2a+b+ca+c+2a+b+ca+b≥9 by expanding the product and collecting like denominators. This then simplifies directly to the final result.
Second proof: Rearrangement Suppose a≥b≥c , we have that 1b+c≥1a+c≥1a+b define x→=(a,b,c) y→=(1b+c,1a+c,1a+b) The scalar product of the two sequences is maximum because of the rearrangement inequality if they are arranged the same way, call y→1 and y→2 the vector y→ shifted by one and by two, we have: x→⋅y→≥x→⋅y→1 x→⋅y→≥x→⋅y→2 Addition yields our desired Nesbitt's inequality.
Third proof: Sum of Squares The following identity is true for all a,b,c: ab+c+ba+c+ca+b=32+12((a−b)2(a+c)(b+c)+(a−c)2(a+b)(b+c)+(b−c)2(a+b)(a+c)) This clearly proves that the left side is no less than 32 for positive a, b and c.
Note: every rational inequality can be demonstrated by transforming it to the appropriate sum-of-squares identity, see Hilbert's seventeenth problem.
Fourth proof: Cauchy–Schwarz Invoking the Cauchy–Schwarz inequality on the vectors ⟨a+b,b+c,c+a⟩,⟨1a+b,1b+c,1c+a⟩ yields ((b+c)+(a+c)+(a+b))(1b+c+1a+c+1a+b)≥9, which can be transformed into the final result as we did in the AM-HM proof.
Fifth proof: AM-GM Let x=a+b,y=b+c,z=c+a . We then apply the AM-GM inequality to obtain the following 6.
because 6.
Substituting out the x,y,z in favor of a,b,c yields 2a+b+cb+c+a+b+2ca+b+a+2b+cc+a≥6 2ab+c+2ca+b+2ba+c+3≥6 which then simplifies to the final result.
Proof:
Sixth proof: Titu's lemma Titu's lemma, a direct consequence of the Cauchy–Schwarz inequality, states that for any sequence of n real numbers (xk) and any sequence of n positive numbers (ak) , ∑k=1nxk2ak≥(∑k=1nxk)2∑k=1nak . We use the lemma on (xk)=(1,1,1) and (ak)=(b+c,a+c,a+b) . This gives, 1b+c+1c+a+1a+b≥322(a+b+c) This results in, a+b+cb+c+a+b+cc+a+a+b+ca+b≥92 i.e., ab+c+bc+a+ca+b≥92−3=32 Seventh proof: Using homogeneity As the left side of the inequality is homogeneous, we may assume a+b+c=1 . Now define x=a+b , y=b+c , and z=c+a . The desired inequality turns into 1−xx+1−yy+1−zz≥32 , or, equivalently, 1x+1y+1z≥9/2 . This is clearly true by Titu's Lemma.
Proof:
Eighth proof: Jensen inequality Define S=a+b+c and consider the function f(x)=xS−x . This function can be shown to be convex in [0,S] and, invoking Jensen inequality, we get aS−a+bS−b+cS−c3≥S/3S−S/3.
A straightforward computation yields ab+c+bc+a+ca+b≥32.
Ninth proof: Reduction to a two-variable inequality By clearing denominators, ab+c+ba+c+ca+b≥32⟺2(a3+b3+c3)≥ab2+a2b+ac2+a2c+bc2+b2c.
It now suffices to prove that x3+y3≥xy2+x2y for (x,y)∈R+2 , as summing this three times for (x,y)=(a,b),(a,c), and (b,c) completes the proof.
As x3+y3≥xy2+x2y⟺(x−y)(x2−y2)≥0 we are done.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Prehomogeneous vector space**
Prehomogeneous vector space:
In mathematics, a prehomogeneous vector space (PVS) is a finite-dimensional vector space V together with a subgroup G of the general linear group GL(V) such that G has an open dense orbit in V. Prehomogeneous vector spaces were introduced by Mikio Sato in 1970 and have many applications in geometry, number theory and analysis, as well as representation theory. The irreducible PVS were classified by Sato and Tatsuo Kimura in 1977, up to a transformation known as "castling". They are subdivided into two types, according to whether the semisimple part of G acts prehomogeneously or not. If it doesn't then there is a homogeneous polynomial on V which is invariant under the semisimple part of G.
Setting:
In the setting of Sato, G is an algebraic group and V is a rational representation of G which has a (nonempty) open orbit in the Zariski topology. However, PVS can also be studied from the point of view of Lie theory: for instance, in Knapp (2002), G is a complex Lie group and V is a holomorphic representation of G with an open dense orbit. The two approaches are essentially the same, and the theory has validity over the real numbers. We assume, for simplicity of notation, that the action of G on V is a faithful representation. We can then identify G with its image in GL(V), although in practice it is sometimes convenient to let G be a covering group.
Setting:
Although prehomogeneous vector spaces do not necessarily decompose into direct sums of irreducibles, it is natural to study the irreducible PVS (i.e., when V is an irreducible representation of G). In this case, a theorem of Élie Cartan shows that G ≤ GL(V)is a reductive group, with a centre that is at most one-dimensional. This, together with the obvious dimensional restriction dim G ≥ dim V,is the key ingredient in the Sato–Kimura classification.
Castling:
The classification of PVS is complicated by the following fact. Suppose m > n > 0 and V is an m-dimensional representation of G over a field F. Then: (G×SL(n),V⊗Fn) is a PVS if and only if (G×SL(m−n),V∗⊗Fm−n) is a PVS.The proof is to observe that both conditions are equivalent to there being an open dense orbit of the action of G on the Grassmannian of n-planes in V, because this is isomorphic to the Grassmannian of (m-n)-planes in V*.
Castling:
(In the case that G is reductive, the pair (G,V) is equivalent to the pair (G, V*) by an automorphism of G.) This transformation of PVS is called castling. Given a PVS V, a new PVS can be obtained by tensoring V with F and castling. By repeating this process, and regrouping tensor products, many new examples can be obtained, which are said to be "castling-equivalent". Thus PVS can be grouped into castling equivalence classes. Sato and Kimura show that in each such class, there is essentially one PVS of minimal dimension, which they call "reduced", and they classify the reduced irreducible PVS.
Classification:
The classification of irreducible reduced PVS (G,V) splits into two cases: those for which G is semisimple, and those for which it is reductive with one-dimensional centre. If G is semisimple, it is (perhaps a covering of) a subgroup of SL(V), and hence G×GL(1) acts prehomogenously on V, with one-dimensional centre. We exclude such trivial extensions of semisimple PVS from the PVS with one-dimensional center. In other words, in the case that G has one-dimensional center, we assume that the semisimple part does not act prehomogeneously; it follows that there is a relative invariant, i.e., a function invariant under the semisimple part of G, which is homogeneous of a certain degree d.
Classification:
This makes it possible to restrict attention to semisimple G ≤ SL(V) and split the classification as follows: (G,V) is a PVS; (G,V) is not a PVS, but (G×GL(1),V) is.However, it turns out that the classification is much shorter, if one allows not just products with GL(1), but also with SL(n) and GL(n). This is quite natural in terms of the castling transformation discussed previously. Thus we wish to classify irreducible reduced PVS in terms of semisimple G ≤ SL(V) and n ≥ 1 such that either: (G×SL(n),V⊗Fn) is a PVS; (G×SL(n),V⊗Fn) is not a PVS, but (G×GL(n),V⊗Fn) is.In the latter case, there is a homogeneous polynomial which separates the G×GL(n) orbits into G×SL(n) orbits.
Classification:
This has an interpretation in terms of the grassmannian Grn(V) of n-planes in V (at least for n ≤ dim V). In both cases G acts on Grn(V) with a dense open orbit U. In the first case the complement Grn(V)-U has codimension ≥ 2; in the second case it is a divisor of some degree d, and the relative invariant is a homogeneous polynomial of degree nd.
Classification:
In the following, the classification list will be presented over the complex numbers.
General examples * Strictly speaking, we must restrict to n ≤ (dim V)/2 to obtain a reduced example.
Irregular examples Type 1 10 16 Type 2 Sp(2m,C)×SO(3,C)onC2m⊗C3 Both of these examples are PVS only for n=1.
Remaining examples The remaining examples are all type 2. To avoid discussing the finite groups appearing, the lists present the Lie algebra of the isotropy group rather than the isotropy group itself.
Here 14 denotes the space of 3-forms whose contraction with the given symplectic form is zero.
Proofs:
Sato and Kimura establish this classification by producing a list of possible irreducible prehomogeneous (G,V), using the fact that G is reductive and the dimensional restriction. They then check whether each member of this list is prehomogeneous or not.
Proofs:
However, there is a general explanation why most of the pairs (G,V) in the classification are prehomogeneous, in terms of isotropy representations of generalized flag varieties. Indeed, in 1974, Richardson observed that if H is a semisimple Lie group with a parabolic subgroup P, then the action of P on the nilradical p⊥ of its Lie algebra has a dense open orbit. This shows in particular (and was noted independently by Vinberg in 1975) that the Levi factor G of P acts prehomogeneously on := p⊥/[p⊥,p⊥] . Almost all of the examples in the classification can be obtained by applying this construction with P a maximal parabolic subgroup of a simple Lie group H: these are classified by connected Dynkin diagrams with one distinguished node.
Applications:
One reason that PVS are interesting is that they classify generic objects that arise in G-invariant situations. For example, if G=GL(7), then the above tables show that there are generic 3-forms under the action of G, and the stabilizer of such a 3-form is isomorphic to the exceptional Lie group G2.
Another example concerns the prehomogeneous vector spaces with a cubic relative invariant. By the Sato-Kimura classification, there are essentially four such examples, and they all come from complexified isotropy representations of hermitian symmetric spaces for a larger group H (i.e., G is the semisimple part of the stabilizer of a point, and V is the corresponding tangent representation).
Applications:
In each case a generic point in V identifies it with the complexification of a Jordan algebra of 3 x 3 hermitian matrices (over the division algebras R, C, H and O respectively) and the cubic relative invariant is identified with a suitable determinant. The isotropy algebra of such a generic point, the Lie algebra of G and the Lie algebra of H give the complexifications of the first three rows of the Freudenthal magic square.
Applications:
Other Hermitian symmetric spaces yields prehomogeneous vector spaces whose generic points define Jordan algebras in a similar way.
The Jordan algebra J(m−1) in the last row is the spin factor (which is the vector space Rm−1 ⊕ R, with a Jordan algebra structure defined using the inner product on Rm−1). It reduces to J2(R),J2(C),J2(H),J2(O) for m= 3, 4, 6 and 10 respectively.
The relation between hermitian symmetric spaces and Jordan algebras can be explained using Jordan triple systems.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Obstacles to troop movement**
Obstacles to troop movement:
Obstacles to troop movement represent either natural, human habitat originated, constructed, concealed obstacles, or obstructive impediments to movement of military troops and their vehicles, or to their visibility. By impeding strategic, operational or tactical manoeuvre, the obstacle represents an added barrier between opposing combat forces, and therefore prevent achievement of objectives and goals specified in the operational planning schedule. The constructed obstacles are used as an aid to defending a position or area as part of the general defensive plan of the commander. The obstacles that originate from the human habitat can be converted by troops into constructed obstacles by either performing additional construction, or executing demolitions to obstruct movement over the transport network, to create a choke point, or to deny traversing of an area to the enemy. The natural obstacles can be used defensively by securing a more difficult to breach defensive position by for example securing a flank on terrain that is deemed impossible to traverse, thus denying the enemy an ability to close into combat range of direct fire weapons.
Role of obstacles:
Obstacles are used in combat operations to create choke points, deny mobility corridors and avenue of approach to positions, to enhance field of fire for direct fire weapons, or to protect key tactical terrain features to the enemy.
Types of obstacles:
Natural obstacles Natural obstacles are represented by those terrain features that for which few troops and their vehicles have capability to traverse. They include water obstacles, or areas of poor drainage such as lakes, rivers, swamps and marshes. The former two can be crossed by amphibious vehicles capable of swimming, or vehicles capable of deep wading after preparation, or by constructing a water crossing, and thus creating an easily targeted choke point. Soil and rock can also represent mobility obstacles if the soil is too soft and unable to support the weight of the military vehicles, or the terrain is fractured by cliffs, or large boulders that make organised movement impossible. While soft soil is relative to vehicle ground pressure, there is little that can be done to negotiate very rocky terrain or cliffs except by using specially trained light infantry troops. Vegetation such as jungles or dense forests can also represent obstacles to movement, in some cases even to light infantry troops. Some natural obstacles can be a result of climatic or soil activity such as deep snow that by covering all terrain makes safe traversing difficult and slow, or landslides that may create an obstruction suddenly despite previously clear route reconnaissance report.
Types of obstacles:
Habitat obstacles While human habitat had, since early construction of roads, sought to create ways of negotiating terrain faster, the human activity on the landscape can create obstacles in its own right. Artificial lakes and ponds, canals, and areas of agricultural cultivation, particularly those that are water-intensive such as rice-paddy fields create obstacles often more difficult than the natural equivalents. Mining activity creates quarries, and the building of roads, rail roads and dams also involve construction of cuts and fills. Seeded tree-line windbreaks, hedgerows, stone walls and plantation forests also disrupt mobility, particularly of vehicles. Lastly the urban areas in themselves represent obstacles by offering elevated firing positions and canyon-like choke points by forcing the opponent to advance through the streets.
Types of obstacles:
Constructed obstacles Constructed obstacles are those prepared by military engineering troops, often combat engineers, by either using materials to construct impediments to foot and vehicle-borne troops, or by using demolition methods, or excavation such as an abatis, to create obstacles from natural materials and terrain in specific location in accordance with the overall plan of operations. Sometimes such obstacles can be created intentionally or unintentionally through effects of artillery fire cratering. Buildings demolished due to combat or aerial bombing become very effective obstacles as rubble represents difficult to negotiate and irregular piles of building materials.
Types of obstacles:
Concealed obstacles Concealed obstacles are used with the intention of not only preventing movement of enemy troops, but also causing casualties during attempted movement. Although one of the oldest forms of obstacle use, this became far deadlier with the invention of the mine warfare, and more so with air-delivered scattered submunition minelets that can create an instant minefield.
Obstructive obstacles Obstructive obstacles are used primarily to deny terrain visibility to the enemy, thus creating uncertainty in targeting friendly troops. Although ancient in use as tar smoke pots, modern smoke screens are temporary and are used as a tactical measure during manoeuvring, often when a unit is performing a position change.
Obstacle negotiation:
Ground troops prefer to deal with physical obstacles by circumventing them as rapidly as possible, thus avoiding becoming stationary targets to the enemy direct and indirect fire weapons, and aircraft. Where this is not possible, in modern warfare the most expedient measures taken against constructed or urban obstacles are to either use armoured vehicles, preferably tanks, to remove the obstacle, or to demolish them by firing High Explosive munitions at them. Where combat engineers are present, they can perform this using their specialist skills and tools or vehicles. In the case of natural obstacles, specialist engineering equipment is usually required to negotiate the obstacle, commonly bridging or pontoons. The solution to obstacle bridging had at the strategic level created new forms of warfare and employment of troops in the amphibious operations, and later the airborne operations. At the operational level the use of helicopters in airmobile operations offers a vertical option to negotiating obstacles, often of considerable extent such as mountain passes or extensive areas of impossible vegetation.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Payment terminal**
Payment terminal:
A payment terminal, also known as a point of sale (POS) terminal, credit card machine, PIN pad, EFTPOS terminal (or by the older term as PDQ terminal which stands for "Process Data Quickly"), is a device which interfaces with payment cards to make electronic funds transfers. The terminal typically consists of a secure keypad (called a PINpad) for entering PIN, a screen, a means of capturing information from payments cards and a network connection to access the payment network for authorization.
Payment terminal:
A payment terminal allows a merchant to capture required credit and debit card information and to transmit this data to the merchant services provider or bank for authorization and finally, to transfer funds to the merchant. The terminal allows the merchant or their client to swipe, insert or hold a card near the device to capture the information. They are often connected to point of sale systems so that payment amounts and confirmation of payment can be transferred automatically to the merchant's retail management system. Terminals can also be used in stand alone mode, where the merchant keys the amount into the terminal before the customer present their card and personal identification number (PIN).
Payment terminal:
The majority of card terminals today transmit data over cellular network connections and Wi-Fi. Legacy terminals communicate over standard telephone line or Ethernet connections. Some also have the ability to cache transactional data to be transmitted to the gateway processor when a connection becomes available; the major drawback to this is that immediate authorization is not available at the time the card was processed, which can subsequently result in failed payments. Wireless terminals transmit card data using Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, cellular, or even satellite networks in remote areas and onboard airplanes.
Payment terminal:
Prior to the development of payment terminals, merchants would capture card information manually using ZipZap machines. The development of payment terminals was led by the advantage of efficiency by decreased transaction processing times and immediate authorisation of payments. In terms of security, terminals provide end to end card data encryption and auditing functions. Nevertheless, there have been some cases of POS pin pad malware. There have also been incidence of skimming at card terminals and this led to the move away from using the magnetic strip to capture information using EMV standards.
History:
Prior to the development of payment terminals, merchants would use manual imprinters (also known as ZipZap machines) to capture the information from the embossed information on a credit card onto a paper slip with carbon-paper copies. These paper slips had to be taken to the bank for processing. This was a cumbersome and time-consuming process.
Point of sale terminals emerged in 1979, when Visa introduced a bulky electronic data capturing terminal which was the first payment terminal. In the same year magnetic stripes were added to credit cards for the first time. This allowed card information to be captured electronically and led to the development of payment terminals.
One of the first companies to produce dedicated payment terminals was Verifone. It started in 1981 in Hawaii as a small electronic company. In 1983 they introduced the ZON terminal series, which would become the standard for modern payment terminals.
History:
Hungarian-born George Wallner in Sydney, Australia, founded rival Hypercom in 1978 and in 1982 started producing dedicated payment terminals. It went on to dominate the Oceania region. The company signed a deal with American Express to provide its terminals to them in the US. To consolidate the deal, Hypercom moved its head office from Australia to Arizona in the US. It then faced head-to-head competition with VeriFone on its home market.Over a decade later in 1994, Lipman Electronic Engineering, Ltd. was established in Israel. Lipman manufactured the Nurit line of processing terminals. Because of Verifone's already firm place in the payment processing industry when Lipman was established, Lipman targeted an untapped niche in the processing industry. While, Lipman holds about a 10% share in wired credit card terminals, they are the undisputed leader, with more than 95% share in wireless processing terminals in the late 1990s.
History:
Verifone would later acquire both of these major rivals, acquiring Lipman in 2006 and the payment part of the Hypercom business including its brand in 2011.
History:
In 1980, Jean-Jacques Poutrel and Michel Malhouitre established Ingenico in France and developed their first payment terminal in 1984. Its Barcelona-based R&D unit would lead the development of payment terminals for the next decade. Ingenico, through a number of acquisitions, would dominate the European market for payment terminals for a number of years. They acquired French based Bull and UK based De La Rue payment terminal activity as well as German Epos in 2001.Initially, information was captured from the magnetic strip on the back of the card, by swiping the card through the terminal. In the late 1990s, this started to be replaced by smart cards where an electronic chip was embedded in the card. This was done for added security and required the card to be inserted into the credit card terminal. In the late 1990s and early 2000s contactless payment systems were introduced and the payment terminals were updated to include the ability to read these cards using near field communication (NFC) technology.
Typical features:
Key entry (for customer not present mail and telephone order) Tips/gratuities Refunds and adjustments Settlement (including automatic) Pre-authorisation Payments using near field communication enabled devices Remote initialisation and software update Point of sale (POS) integration Multi-merchant capabilities Pen or PIN authorization by the customer Surcharge function Secure password operation Additional PIN pad attachmentsLike automated teller machines, many payment terminals are also equipped with raised tactile buttons and an earphone jack which allow the blind to audibly finish the payment process.
Major manufacturers:
There are three main global players who offer both a wide range of payment terminals, sell worldwide, and continue to develop to the latest international payment industry standards. In most countries terminals are provided to merchants via a multitude of distributors that support and pre-configure devices to operate with local payment networks or financial institutions.
Ingenico PAX Technology VeriFone
Alternatives:
A merchant can replace the functionality of dedicated credit card terminal hardware using a terminal application running on a PC or mobile device, such as a smartphone. The payment acceptance applications are also called tap-on-phone or software point of sale. They usually work with dedicated hardware readers that can transfer magnetic stripe data to the application, while there are also some that also work with smart cards (using technology such as EMV), although this is rarely seen on smartphone readers. In case the necessary hardware is unavailable, these applications usually support manual entry of the card number and other data. In addition, more and more devices are beginning to offer built-in RFID or NFC technology to accommodate contactless or mobile device payment methods, often without requiring additional external hardware.Some payment processors offer virtual terminals for processing payments without the card being present, for example when taking payments over the phone.Mobile payment systems such as those based on QR code payments bypass the need for payment terminals altogether, relying on smartphones and a printed QR code.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Acne with facial edema**
Acne with facial edema:
Acne with facial edema occurs uncommonly, and is associated with a peculiar inflammatory edema of the mid-third of the face.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**DDX41**
DDX41:
Probable ATP-dependent RNA helicase DDX41 is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the DDX41 gene.DEAD box proteins, characterized by the conserved motif Asp-Glu-Ala-Asp (DEAD), are putative RNA helicases. They are implicated in a number of cellular processes involving alteration of RNA secondary structure, such as translation initiation, nuclear and mitochondrial splicing, and ribosome and spliceosome assembly. Based on their distribution patterns, some members of the DEAD box protein family are believed to be involved in embryogenesis, spermatogenesis, and cellular growth and division. This gene encodes a member of this family. The function of this member has not been determined. Based on studies in Drosophila, the abstrakt gene is widely required during post-transcriptional gene expression. Germ line DDX41 mutations define a unique subtype of myeloid neoplasms.
Function:
DDX41 is believed to take part in several cell functions. It is mainly concentrated in the nucleus of the cell, but it can also be expressed in the citoplasm.
In the citoplasm it takes part in the Interferon I production pathway by recognizing foreign citoplasmic DNA and signaling STING. It has been observed that hypomorphic DDX41 mutations impair the immune system response to viral and bacterial infections.
In the nucleus, DDX41 is believed to regulate the transcriptional elongation process signaling Pol II to slow down the elongation while the splicing process is taking place. Underexpression and inhibition of DDX41have been shown to lead to the formation of an R-loop which results in transcriptional errors with no specific patterns.
DDX41 is also believed to take part in the ribosome biogenesis process, given its implications in the processing of snoRNA.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Dialogue in Silence**
Dialogue in Silence:
Dialogue in Silence is an exhibition about non-verbal communication, where participants discover a repertoire of expression possibilities with the help of deaf and hearing impaired guides and trainers. Participants enter an area of complete silence, wearing noise-cancelling headsets, and experience an environment that helps them discover openness, empathy and an enhanced power of concentration. Throughout the entire exhibition tour, a reversal of roles is created: hearing visitors lose their usual routines of articulating themselves and discover a new repertoire of non-verbal expression. They experience a different openness and empathy towards "the other".
Background and history:
In 2005, the World Health Organization (WHO) estimated 278 million people worldwide having moderate to profound hearing loss in both ears or are born deaf. "The impact of hearing impairment on a child's speech, language, education and social integration depends on the level and type of hearing impairment, and the age of onset, especially if it begins before the age when speech normally develops." The prototype of Dialogue in Silence was called “Schattensprache”. Focusing on silent communication it was presented for the first time 1998 in Frankfurt. Orna Cohen and Andreas Heinecke then developed this model further into the large exhibition format of today. In 2003 they introduced the new concept with great success to the public in Paris at the “Cité des Sciences et l’Industrie”. In 2006 the exhibition was established as first permanent exhibition at the Children’s Museum in Holon, Israel. In 2008 and 2009 Mexico hosted the exhibition at the Children Museum in Papalote. In Germany, the Museum für Kommunikation in Frankfurt presented the exhibition in 2010 and 2011. So did the DASA Museum in Dortmund in 2009. In September 2014 Dialogue in Silence became the second permanent exhibition at the Dialoghaus in Hamburg, next to Dialogue in the Dark. In 2015, the exhibition Dialogue in Silence also became a permanent exhibition in Istanbul, Turkey. In August 2017, a 30-days-trial will run in Japan, preparing for a longer exhibition in 2020.
Background and history:
Corporate learning workshops are offered as a spin off from the actual exhibition. All Dialogue in Silence exhibitions and corporate learning workshops are handled by Dialogue Social Enterprise GmbH, Hamburg.
The exhibition layout:
»Dialogue in Silence« is an exhibition that invites visitors into a world of silence. Different forms of expression are used here and language must be visible in order to be understood. Hearing-impaired guides lead visitors through the exhibition, which is totally soundproof. It is the encounter which lies at the heart of the experience. At the same time, a reversal of roles is created: hearing people are torn out of social routine and familiar perception. They discover their repertoire of non-verbal expression in order to communicate creatively by gestures and body language. Hearing-impaired people, who by virtue of their experience and ability to sign are more competent, support the visitors and become ambassadors of a world without sound which is no way poorer – but different.
The exhibition layout:
The exhibition consists of a series of circular rooms dedicated to different aspects of non-verbal communication. All walls are specially constructed with a fabric absorbing sound to the best of effects, while providing a monochromatic background. The visitor’s visual concentration is not distracted and full attention can be is given to the visual experience and communication means. Each room has a name, indicating the activity it hosts. In each room, the scenario is broken down into several short stages thus creating a sense of progression: Invitation to Silence - Entrance into the world of silence Dance of Hands - Focus on hands and their capacity to express Gallery of Faces - Work on facial expressions and how to decipher them Play of Signs - Introduction to sign language Forum of Figures - Learning about the body's capacity to express via postures and movement Dialogue Room - Dialogue between visitors and the facilitator with the support of an interpreterWhereas headphones are worn during the first 5 rooms, visitors are invited to go back to verbal language in the last room to get into an intensive dialogue with the tour guide and learn more about deaf culture and
Venues:
Dialogue in Silence currently presented in the following venues around the world: Dialoghaus Hamburg, Germany: Dialog im Stillen Children's Museum Holon, Israel: Invitation to Silence Diyalog Müzesi Istanbul, Turkey: Sessizlikte Dyjalog
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Transient modelling**
Transient modelling:
Transient modelling is a way of looking at a process with the primary criterion of time, observing the pattern of changes in the subject being studied over time. Its obverse is Steady state, where you might know only the starting and ending figures but do not understand the process by which they were derived.
Transient modelling:
Transient models will reveal the pattern of a process, which might be sinusoidal or another shape that will help to design a better system to manage that process. Transient models can be done on a spreadsheet with an ability to generate charts, or by any software that can handle data of inputs and outputs and generate some sort of a display. Transient modelling does not need a computer. It is a methodology that has worked for centuries, by observers noting patterns of change against time, analysing the result and proposing improved design solutions.
Transient modelling:
A simple example is a garden water tank. This is being topped up by rainfall from the roof, but when the tank is full, the remaining water goes to the drain. When the gardener draws water off, the level falls. If the garden is large and the summer is hot, a steady state will occur in summer where the tank is nearly always empty in summer. If the season is wet, the garden is getting water from the sky, and the tank is not being emptied sufficiently, so in steady state it will be observed to be always full. If the gardener has a way of observing the level of water in the tank, and a record of daily rainfall and temperatures, and is precisely metering the amount of water being drawn off every day, the numbers and the dates can be recorded in spreadsheet at daily intervals. After enough samples are taken, a chart can be developed to model the rise and fall pattern over a year, or over 2 years. With a better understanding of the process, it might emerge that a 200litre water tank would run out 20–25 days a year, but a 400-litre water tank would never run out, and a 300-litre tank would run out only 1-2 day a year and therefore that would be an acceptable risk and it would be the most economical solution.
Transient modelling:
One of the best examples of transient modelling is transient climate simulation. The analysis of ice cores in glaciers to understand climate change. Ice cores have thousands of layers, each of which represents a winter season of snowfall, and trapped in these are bubbles of air, particle of space dust and pollen which reveal climatic data of the time. By mapping these to a time scale, scientists can analyse the fluctuations over time and make predictions for the future.
Transient modelling:
Transient modelling is the basis of weather forecasting, of managing ecosystems, rail timetabling, managing the electricity grid, setting the national budget, floating currency, understanding traffic flows on a freeway, solar gains on glass fronted buildings, or even of checking the day-to-day transactions of one's monthly bank statement.
With the transient modelling approach, you understand the whole process better when the inputs and outputs are graphed against time.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Fredholm theory**
Fredholm theory:
In mathematics, Fredholm theory is a theory of integral equations. In the narrowest sense, Fredholm theory concerns itself with the solution of the Fredholm integral equation. In a broader sense, the abstract structure of Fredholm's theory is given in terms of the spectral theory of Fredholm operators and Fredholm kernels on Hilbert space. The theory is named in honour of Erik Ivar Fredholm.
Overview:
The following sections provide a casual sketch of the place of Fredholm theory in the broader context of operator theory and functional analysis. The outline presented here is broad, whereas the difficulty of formalizing this sketch is, of course, in the details.
Fredholm equation of the first kind:
Much of Fredholm theory concerns itself with the following integral equation for f when g and K are given: g(x)=∫abK(x,y)f(y)dy.
Fredholm equation of the first kind:
This equation arises naturally in many problems in physics and mathematics, as the inverse of a differential equation. That is, one is asked to solve the differential equation Lg(x)=f(x) where the function f is given and g is unknown. Here, L stands for a linear differential operator. For example, one might take L to be an elliptic operator, such as L=d2dx2 in which case the equation to be solved becomes the Poisson equation. A general method of solving such equations is by means of Green's functions, namely, rather than a direct attack, one first finds the function K=K(x,y) such that for a given pair x,y, LK(x,y)=δ(x−y), where δ(x) is the Dirac delta function. The desired solution to the above differential equation is then written as an integral in the form of a Fredholm integral equation, g(x)=∫K(x,y)f(y)dy.
Fredholm equation of the first kind:
The function K(x,y) is variously known as a Green's function, or the kernel of an integral. It is sometimes called the nucleus of the integral, whence the term nuclear operator arises.
In the general theory, x and y may be points on any manifold; the real number line or m-dimensional Euclidean space in the simplest cases. The general theory also often requires that the functions belong to some given function space: often, the space of square-integrable functions is studied, and Sobolev spaces appear often.
Fredholm equation of the first kind:
The actual function space used is often determined by the solutions of the eigenvalue problem of the differential operator; that is, by the solutions to Lψn(x)=ωnψn(x) where the ωn are the eigenvalues, and the ψn(x) are the eigenvectors. The set of eigenvectors span a Banach space, and, when there is a natural inner product, then the eigenvectors span a Hilbert space, at which point the Riesz representation theorem is applied. Examples of such spaces are the orthogonal polynomials that occur as the solutions to a class of second-order ordinary differential equations.
Fredholm equation of the first kind:
Given a Hilbert space as above, the kernel may be written in the form K(x,y)=∑nψn(x)ψn(y)ωn.
In this form, the object K(x,y) is often called the Fredholm operator or the Fredholm kernel. That this is the same kernel as before follows from the completeness of the basis of the Hilbert space, namely, that one has δ(x−y)=∑nψn(x)ψn(y).
Since the ωn are generally increasing, the resulting eigenvalues of the operator K(x,y) are thus seen to be decreasing towards zero.
Inhomogeneous equations:
The inhomogeneous Fredholm integral equation f(x)=−ωφ(x)+∫K(x,y)φ(y)dy may be written formally as f=(K−ω)φ which has the formal solution φ=1K−ωf.
A solution of this form is referred to as the resolvent formalism, where the resolvent is defined as the operator R(ω)=1K−ωI.
Given the collection of eigenvectors and eigenvalues of K, the resolvent may be given a concrete form as R(ω;x,y)=∑nψn(y)ψn(x)ωn−ω with the solution being φ(x)=∫R(ω;x,y)f(y)dy.
A necessary and sufficient condition for such a solution to exist is one of Fredholm's theorems. The resolvent is commonly expanded in powers of λ=1/ω , in which case it is known as the Liouville-Neumann series. In this case, the integral equation is written as g(x)=φ(x)−λ∫K(x,y)φ(y)dy and the resolvent is written in the alternate form as R(λ)=1I−λK.
Fredholm determinant:
The Fredholm determinant is commonly defined as det exp Tr Kn] where Tr K=∫K(x,x)dx and Tr K2=∬K(x,y)K(y,x)dxdy and so on. The corresponding zeta function is det (I−sK).
The zeta function can be thought of as the determinant of the resolvent.
The zeta function plays an important role in studying dynamical systems. Note that this is the same general type of zeta function as the Riemann zeta function; however, in this case, the corresponding kernel is not known. The existence of such a kernel is known as the Hilbert–Pólya conjecture.
Main results:
The classical results of the theory are Fredholm's theorems, one of which is the Fredholm alternative.
One of the important results from the general theory is that the kernel is a compact operator when the space of functions are equicontinuous.
A related celebrated result is the Atiyah–Singer index theorem, pertaining to index (dim ker – dim coker) of elliptic operators on compact manifolds.
History:
Fredholm's 1903 paper in Acta Mathematica is considered to be one of the major landmarks in the establishment of operator theory. David Hilbert developed the abstraction of Hilbert space in association with research on integral equations prompted by Fredholm's (amongst other things).
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Fantastická fakta**
Fantastická fakta:
Fantastická fakta (Fantastic facts) is a Czech monthly paranormal magazine. It deals with unexplained phenomena, UFOs, and urban legends.
History and profile:
Fantastická fakta was first published in August 1997. The headquarters is in Prague. The magazine is published on a monthly basis. The launching editor-in-chief was Vladimír Mátl. Ivan Mackerle was the chief editor from 1998 to 2002.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Derlin-1**
Derlin-1:
Derlin-1 also known as degradation in endoplasmic reticulum protein 1 is a membrane protein that in humans is encoded by the DERL1 gene. Derlin-1 is located in the membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and is involved in retrotranslocation of specific misfolded proteins and in ER stress. Derlin-1 is widely expressed in thyroid, fat, bone marrow and many other tissues. The protein belongs to the Derlin-family proteins (also called derlins) consisting of derlin-1, derlin-2 and derlin-3 that are components in the endoplasmic reticulum-associated protein degradation (ERAD) pathway. The derlins mediate degradation of misfolded lumenal proteins within ER, and are named ‘der’ for their ‘Degradation in the ER’. Derlin-1 is a mammalian homologue of the yeast DER1 protein, a protein involved in the yeast ERAD pathway. Moreover, derlin-1 is a member of the rhomboid-like clan of polytopic membrane proteins.Overexpression of derlin-1 are associated with many cancers, including colon cancer, breast cancer, bladder cancer and non-small cell lung cancer.
Discovery:
In 2004 the DERL1 gene was discovered independently by two research groups when they were exploring the machinery of retrotranslocation in the ER in the cell. One evidence for the existence of DERL1 was provided by Professor Tom A. Rapoport and his research group at Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts. Another evidence of the DERL1 gene was discovered by Professor Hidde L. Ploegh and his research group who is also at Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts. As the mammalian DERL1 gene was found to be a homologue of the yeast DER1 gene found in 1996, it was named after the yeast gene.
Gene location:
The human DERL1 gene is located on the long (q) arm of chromosome 8 at region 2 band 4, from base pair 123,013,164 to 123,042,423 (Build GRCh37/hg19) (map).
Function and mechanism:
Rerouting factor during ER stress ER stress is caused by an accumulation of unfolded or misfolded proteins in ER and is critical for cell function. The accumulation of unfolded and misfolded proteins activates an unfolded protein response (UPR) which regulate the homeostasis of the cell. One of the strategies cells possess to ER stress as a quality control system is the ERAD pathway, by which Derlin-1 is a component of. As a part of an ER membrane protein complex (that includes VIMP, SEL1, HRD1, and HERP) derlin-1 detects misfolded proteins in ER and mediate them for their degradation in the ERAD pathway.Under ER stress, the carboxyl-terminus region of derlin-1 captures specific misfolded proteins in the ER lumen. Derlin-1 also interacts with VIMP, an ER membrane protein that recruits the cytosolic ATPase p97 and its cofactor. The interaction of derlin-1 with p97 via VIMP is essential for export of misfolded proteins. p97 is required for the transport of the misfolded proteins through the ER membrane and back to the cytosolic side for their degradation. This process is referred to as retrotranslocation. Hence, one of the functions of derlin-1 is to reroute specific misfolded protein to the cytosol for their degradation. Prior to the cytosolic degradation, the retrotranslocated misfolded proteins interacts with HRDI E3 ubiquitin ligase. This ligase ubiquitinates the misfolded proteins promoting their degradation in the cytosol by the ubiquitin-protease system (UPS). Currently, the molecular mechanism by which derlin-1 reroutes the misfolded proteins from ER to their degradation are not fully understood.
Function and mechanism:
The structure of Derlin-1 The cryo-EM analysis revealed that human Derlin-1 forms a tetrameric channel across the ER membrane. Derlin-1 channel holds a short, large transmembrane funnel in the center of tetramer with a diameter about 11-13 angstrom, which might serve as a permeation pathway for misfolded protein substrates in ERAD. Each protomer in human Derlin-1 tetramer shares a high structural similarity with yeast DER1 protein or other rhomboid members. However, this channel architecture makes human derlin-1 different from other known rhomboid structures and implies its centraal role in mammalian ERAD retrotranslocation.
Clinical significance:
Derlin 1 (DERL1) is up-regulated in metastatic canine mammary tumors as part of the unfolded protein response.
Interactions:
Derlin-1 has been shown to interact with the following proteins: HRD1 VIMP US11
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Xyloglucan 4-glucosyltransferase**
Xyloglucan 4-glucosyltransferase:
In enzymology, a xyloglucan 4-glucosyltransferase (EC 2.4.1.168) is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction in which a beta-D-glucosyl residue is transferred from UDP-glucose to another glucose residue in xyloglucan, linked by a beta-1,4-D-glucosyl-D-glucose bond.
This enzyme belongs to the family of glycosyltransferases, specifically the hexosyltransferases. The systematic name of this enzyme class is UDP-glucose:xyloglucan 1,4-beta-D-glucosyltransferase. Other names in common use include uridine diphosphoglucose-xyloglucan 4beta-glucosyltransferase, xyloglucan 4beta-D-glucosyltransferase, and xyloglucan glucosyltransferase.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Fleischer's syndrome**
Fleischer's syndrome:
Fleischer's syndrome is an extremely rare congenital anomaly characterized by displacement of the nipples, occasional polymastia, and hypoplasia of both kidneys.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Batterie de cuisine**
Batterie de cuisine:
The batterie de cuisine (French; literally, kitchen artillery, i.e., kitchenware) is the range of tools and pans used in a professional kitchen. It includes the knives, frying pans, bakeware and the complete set of kitchen utensils required for cooking and for the making of desserts, pastries and confectionery. It does not include any of the fixed equipment such as cooking ranges, refrigeration equipment, etc.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Vestibular fold**
Vestibular fold:
The vestibular fold (ventricular fold, superior or false vocal cord) is one of two thick folds of mucous membrane, each enclosing a narrow band of fibrous tissue, the vestibular ligament, which is attached in front to the angle of the thyroid cartilage immediately below the attachment of the epiglottis, and behind to the antero-lateral surface of the arytenoid cartilage, a short distance above the vocal process.
Vestibular fold:
The lower border of this ligament, enclosed in mucous membrane, forms a free crescentic margin, which constitutes the upper boundary of the ventricle of the larynx.
They are lined with respiratory epithelium, while true vocal cords have stratified squamous epithelium.
Function:
The vestibular folds of the larynx play a significant role in the maintenance of the laryngeal functions of breathing and preventing food and drink from entering the airway during swallowing. They aid phonation (speech) by suppressing dysphonia. In some ethnic singing and chanting styles, such as in Tuva, Sardinia, Mongolia, South Africa and Tibet (...) the vestibular folds may be used in co-oscillation with the vocal folds, producing very low or high pitched sounds(most of the time, one octave higher). Conversely, people who have had their epiglottis removed because of cancer do not choke any more than when it was present.
Society and culture:
They have a minimal role in normal phonation, but are often used to produce deep sonorous tones in Tuvan throat singing, as well as in musical screaming and the death growl singing style used in various forms of metal. Simultaneous voicing with the vocal and vestibular folds is diplophonia. Some voice actors occasionally employ small amounts of this phonation for its dark, growling quality while portraying a "villainous" or antagonistic voice.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Touch guitar**
Touch guitar:
The touch guitar is a stringed instrument of the guitar family which has been designed to use a fretboard-tapping playing style. Touch guitars are meant to be touched or tapped, not strummed.
History:
The touch or tapping technique was formally codified by American guitarist Jimmie Webster in his 1952 method book called the Illustrated Touch System.
History:
Webster credited pickup designer Harry DeArmond with first demonstrating the potential for touch-style playing. Webster himself collaborated with Gretsch Guitars on a guitar stereo pickup design for the Touch System (which fed the bass and melody output to two separate amplifiers), but the concept was not commercially successful.Unlike Webster's approach, which was to play on a single-necked instrument, guitarist and luthier Dave Bunker designed, built, and patented (in 1961) the first double-necked, headless, touch-tapping instrument called the DuoLectar. While both guitars employed a two-handed tapping technique, Webster used a single-necked instrument while Bunker used his double-necked DuoLectar guitar.Webster's tapping technique can be heard on a 1959 record. In 1960, Bunker first demonstrated his double-necked instrument for the Portland Oregonian newspaper, and then on the nationally broadcast television show Ozark Jubilee. His designs ultimately led to his double-necked touch guitar in 1975.Other designs followed. Among them was the single-neck Chapman Stick (developed by Emmett Chapman in 1970 and produced in 1974), the single-neck Warr Guitar (first produced in 1991) and the single-neck Mobius Megatar. Other touch guitars have included the Solene, Chuck Soupios's dual-necked BiAxe (patented in 1980 and produced during the early 1980s), and Sergio Santucci's TrebleBass.
History:
Merle Travis occasionally used a tapping style on his single-neck, strummed guitar, as did Roy Smeck, George Van Eps, Barney Kessel and Harvey Mandell. Subsequent years have seen Eddie Van Halen, Stanley Jordan, Steve Vai, Jeff Healey, Fred Frith, Hans Reichel, Elliott Sharp, and Markus Reuter all feature the use of tapping techniques.
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**Waterproofing**
Waterproofing:
Waterproofing is the process of making an object or structure waterproof or water-resistant so that it remains relatively unaffected by water or resisting the ingress of water under specified conditions. Such items may be used in wet environments or underwater to specified depths.
Water-resistant and waterproof often refer to resistance to penetration of water in its liquid state and possibly under pressure, whereas damp proof refers to resistance to humidity or dampness. Permeation of water vapour through a material or structure is reported as a moisture vapor transmission rate (MVTR).
The hulls of boats and ships were once waterproofed by applying tar or pitch. Modern items may be waterproofed by applying water-repellent coatings or by sealing seams with gaskets or o-rings.
Waterproofing is used in reference to building structures (such as basements, decks, or wet areas), watercraft, canvas, clothing (raincoats or waders), electronic devices and paper packaging (such as cartons for liquids).
In construction:
In construction, a building or structure is waterproofed with the use of membranes and coatings to protect contents and structural integrity. The waterproofing of the building envelope in construction specifications is listed under 07 - Thermal and Moisture Protection within MasterFormat 2004, by the Construction Specifications Institute, and includes roofing and waterproofing materials.In building construction, waterproofing is a fundamental aspect of creating a building envelope, which is a controlled environment. The roof covering materials, siding, foundations, and all of the various penetrations through these surfaces must be water-resistant and sometimes waterproof. Roofing materials are generally designed to be water-resistant and shed water from a sloping roof, but in some conditions, such as ice damming and on flat roofs, the roofing must be waterproof. Many types of waterproof membrane systems are available, including felt paper or tar paper with asphalt or tar to make a built-up roof, other bituminous waterproofing, ethylene propylene diene monomer EPDM rubber, hypalon, polyvinyl chloride, liquid roofing, and more.
In construction:
Walls are not subjected to standing water, and the water-resistant membranes used as housewraps are designed to be porous enough to let moisture escape. Walls also have vapor barriers or air barriers. Damp proofing is another aspect of waterproofing. Masonry walls are built with a damp-proof course to prevent rising damp, and the concrete in foundations needs to be damp-proofed or waterproofed with a liquid coating, basement waterproofing membrane (even under the concrete slab floor where polyethylene sheeting is commonly used), or an additive to the concrete.
In construction:
Within the waterproofing industry, below-ground waterproofing is generally divided into two areas: Tanking: This is waterproofing used where the below-ground structure will be sitting in the water table continuously or periodically. This causes hydrostatic pressure on both the membrane and structure and requires full encapsulation of the basement structure in a tanking membrane, under slab and walls.
In construction:
Damp proofing: This is waterproofing used where the water table is lower than the structure and there is good free-draining fill. The membrane deals with the shedding of water and the ingress of water vapor only, with no hydrostatic pressure. Generally, this incorporates a damp proof membrane (DPM) to the walls with a polythene DPM under the slab. With higher grade DPM, some protection from short-term Hydrostatic pressure can be gained by transitioning the higher quality wall DPM to the slab polythene under the footing, rather than at the footing face.In buildings using earth sheltering, too much humidity can be a potential problem, so waterproofing is critical. Water seepage can lead to mold growth, causing significant damage and air quality issues. Properly waterproofing foundation walls is required to prevent deterioration and seepage.
In construction:
Another specialized area of waterproofing is rooftop decks and balconies. Waterproofing systems have become quite sophisticated and are a very specialized area. Failed waterproof decks, whether made of polymer or tile, are one of the leading causes of water damage to building structures and personal injury when they fail. Where major problems occur in the construction industry is when improper products are used for the wrong application. While the term waterproof is used for many products, each of them has a very specific area of application, and when manufacturer specifications and installation procedures are not followed, the consequences can be severe. Another factor is the impact of expansion and contraction on waterproofing systems for decks. Decks constantly move with changes in temperatures, putting stress on the waterproofing systems. One of the leading causes of waterproof deck system failures is the movement of underlying substrates (plywood) that cause too much stress on the membranes resulting in a failure of the system. While beyond the scope of this reference document, waterproofing of decks and balconies is a complex of many complimentary elements. These include the waterproofing membrane used, adequate slope-drainage, proper flashing details, and proper construction materials.
In construction:
The penetrations through a building envelope must be built in a way such that water does not enter the building, such as using flashing and special fittings for pipes, vents, wires, etc. Some caulkings are durable, but many are unreliable for waterproofing.
Also, many types of geomembranes are available to control water, gases, or pollution.
In construction:
From the late 1990s to the 2010s, the construction industry has had technological advances in waterproofing materials, including integral waterproofing systems and more advanced membrane materials. Integral systems such as hycrete work within the matrix of a concrete structure, giving the concrete itself a waterproof quality. There are two main types of integral waterproofing systems: the hydrophilic and the hydrophobic systems. A hydrophilic system typically uses a crystallization technology that replaces the water in the concrete with insoluble crystals. Various brands available in the market claim similar properties, but not all can react with a wide range of cement hydration by-products and thus require caution. Hydrophobic systems use concrete sealers or even fatty acids to block pores within the concrete, preventing water passage.
In construction:
Sometimes the same materials used to keep water out of buildings are used to keep water in, such as a pool or pond liners.
New membrane materials seek to overcome shortcomings in older methods like polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and high-density polyethylene (HDPE). Generally, new technology in waterproof membranes relies on polymer-based materials that are very adhesive to create a seamless barrier around the outside of a structure.
Waterproofing should not be confused with roofing, since roofing cannot necessarily withstand hydrostatic head while waterproofing can.
The standards for waterproofing bathrooms in domestic construction have improved over the years, due in large part to the general tightening of building codes.
In clothing:
Some garments, and tents, are designed to give greater or lesser protection against rain. For urban use raincoats and jackets are used; for outdoor activities in rough weather there is a range of hiking apparel. Typical descriptions are "showerproof", "water resistant", and "waterproof". These terms are not precisely defined. A showerproof garment will usually be treated with a water-resisting coating, but is not rated to resist a specific hydrostatic head. This is suitable for protection against light rain, but after a short time water will penetrate. A water-resistant garment is similar, perhaps slightly more resistant to water but also not rated to resist a specific hydrostatic head. A garment described as waterproof will have a water-repellent coating, with the seams also taped to prevent water ingress there. Better waterproof garments have a membrane lining designed to keep water out but allow trapped moisture to escape ("breathability")—a totally waterproof garment would retain body sweat and become clammy. Waterproof garments specify their hydrostatic rating, ranging from 1,500 for light rain, to 20,000 for heavy rain.
In clothing:
Waterproof garments are intended for use in weather conditions which are often windy as well as wet and are usually also wind resistant.
Footwear can also be made waterproof by using a variety of methods including but not limited to, the application of beeswax, waterproofing spray, or mink oil.
In other objects:
Waterproofing methods have been implemented in many types of objects, including paper packaging, cosmetics, and more recently, consumer electronics. Electronic devices used in military and severe commercial environments are routinely conformally coated in accordance with IPC-CC-830 to resist moisture and corrosion but encapsulation is needed to become truly waterproof. Even though it is possible to find waterproof wrapping or other types of protective cases for electronic devices, a new technology enabled the release of diverse waterproof smartphones and tablets in 2013. This method is based on a special nanotechnology coating a thousand times thinner than a human hair which protects electronic equipment from damage due to the penetration of water. Several manufacturers use the nano coating method on their smartphones, tablets, and digital cameras.
In other objects:
A 2013 study found that nanotextured surfaces using cone forms produce highly water-repellent surfaces. These nanocone textures are superhydrophobic (extremely water-hating).
Applications:
Waterproof packaging or other types of protective cases for electronic devices can be found. A new technology enabled the release of various waterproof smartphones and tablets in 2013.
A study from 2013 found that nano-textured surfaces using cone shapes produce highly water-repellent surfaces. These "nanocone" textures are superhydrophobic.
Standards:
ASTM C1127 - Standard Guide for Use of High Solids Content, Cold Liquid-Applied Elastomeric Waterproofing Membrane with an Integral Wearing Surface ASTM D779 - Standard Test Method for Determining the Water Vapor Resistance of Sheet Materials in Contact with Liquid Water by the Dry Indicator Method ASTM D2099 - Standard Test Method for Dynamic Water Resistance of Shoe Upper Leather by the Maeser Water Penetration Tester ASTM D3393 - Standard Specification for Coated Fabrics Waterproofness D6135 - Standard Practice for Application of Self-Adhering Modified Bituminous Waterproofing ASTM D7281 - Standard Test Method for Determining Water Migration Resistance Through Roof Membranes British Standards Institution BS.8102:2009 - "Protection of Below Ground Structures against Water from the Ground".
Standards:
IEC 60529 - Degrees of protection provided by enclosures (IP Code) ISO 2281 - Horology — Water-resistant watches
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**Pin insulator**
Pin insulator:
A pin insulator is a device that isolates a wire from a physical support such as a pin (a wooden or metal dowel of about 3 cm diameter with screw threads) on a telegraph or utility pole. It is a formed, single layer shape that is made out of a non-conducting material, usually porcelain or glass. It is thought to be the earliest developed overhead insulator and is still popularly used in power networks up to 33 KV. Single or multiple pin insulators can be used on one physical support, however, the number of insulators used depends upon the application's voltage.Pin insulators are one of three types of overhead insulators, the others being strain insulators and suspension insulators. Unlike the others, pin insulators are directly connected to the physical support compared to being suspended from the wire. Pin insulators are shaped to allow the secure attachment of the conducting wire and avoid it coming adrift. The wire is usually attached to the insulator by being wrapped around it or in other circumstances, fixed into grooves on the insulator itself.When an insulator is wet, its outer surface becomes conductive making the insulator less effective. An insulator has an umbrella-like design so that it can protect the lower part of the insulator from rain. To keep the inner side of the insulator dry, ridges around the insulator, "rain sheds", are made. These increase the creepage distance from the energized wire to the mounting pin.
Collecting:
Pin insulators have become collectible items. All glass pin insulators are assigned a Consolidated Design (CD) number, a system first implemented by hobbyist N.R. Woodward in 1954, and widely introduced starting in 1965 by collector Helmer Turner. CD numbers first appeared in print in Woodward’s “Glass insulators in America, 1967 report”. Each CD number corresponds to a specific glass style, shape, or manufacturer. CD numbers are only hobby-specific for collectors, and are not used or recognised by insulator manufacturers.Insulators, at the time of manufacturing, were simply viewed as an engineering product and were not meant to be an entertainment product for spectators. This meant that the quality of the insulators was not a primary concern of the manufacturers that made them. The finished product was usually discoloured from impurities and foreign objects diffused within the molten glass and metal molds. These impurities give the insulator a unique character and high value as collectors would rather obtain an imperfect product rather than a perfect, common product. Impurities in the glass can create amber swirls, milk swirls, graphite inclusions, and two or three-tone insulators. Foreign objects contained within the glass are known to be nails, pennies, and screws.Although glass insulators are the most popular for the majority of collectors, many people collect porcelain insulators as well. These also come in a variety of shapes, sizes, and colors. They are classified in the U and M systems, primarily developed by Jack Tod and Elton Gish.
Manufacturers:
One of the major U.S. manufacturers that produced glass insulators during the 19th century and early 20th century in the USA was Brookfield Glass Company. It can be assumed that Brookfield may have had poor quality control as their insulators seem to be found with the most imperfections, however, this could be disputed.
Manufacturers:
Another major U.S. manufacturer that produced glass insulators was the Hemingray Glass Company. They were known for producing the most variety of colors. Some examples of colors that the company produced are yellow, golden yellow, butterscotch, glowing orange, amber, whiskey amber, "root beer" amber, orange-amber, red-amber, oxblood, green, lime green, sage green, depression green, emerald green, olive green, yellow-olive green, aqua, cornflower blue, electric blue, cobalt blue, sapphire blue, glowing peacock blue, and many others. Different colors were produced to allow two or more different utility companies to quickly identify which wires were theirs by the color of insulator if multiple wires were strung over the same utility pole. For example, one company may have a string of amber insulators, while another, on the same poles, might have their insulators in cobalt blue.
Manufacturers:
There are many manufacturers in the United States, Canada, and other countries that can be found embossed on all styles of insulators. A non-comprehensive list of these manufacturers is below: United States AT&T American Insulator Company Armstrong Brookfield Glass Company Beaver Falls Glass Company Baltimore glass manufacturing company Barclay Birmingham Boston bottle works Buzby California California Electric Works Chambers Chester Chicago Insulating Company Duquesne Electrical Construction and Maintenance Company Emminger’s Gayner Greeley Gregory Good Hawley Homer Brooks Hamilton Hemingray Glass Company King City Glass Works (K.C.G.W.) Kerr Knowles Kimble Luther G. Tillotson & Company Lefferts Locke Lynchburg McLaughlin Maydwell McKee & Co.
Manufacturers:
McMicking Mulford & Biddle New England Glass Manufacturing Company (N.E.G.M.Co.) National Insulator Company Oakman Manufacturing Company Ohio Valley Glass Company (O.V.G.Co.) Owens Illinois Paisley Pyrex Sterling Seiler’s Standard Glass Insulator Company Thomas-Houston Electric Company Thames Glass Works Twiggs Western Electric Manufacturing Company Western Glass Manufacturing Company Western Flint Glass Company Whitall Tatum Company Canada Diamond Dominion Hamilton Glass Works G.N.W.TEL. Co.
Manufacturers:
International Agee (Australia) Isorex (France) Miva (Italy) Telgraficos Nacionales (Mexico) Zicme (South America)
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**Nålebinding**
Nålebinding:
Nålebinding (Danish: literally 'binding with a needle' or 'needle-binding', also naalbinding, nålbinding, nålbindning or naalebinding) is a fabric creation technique predating both knitting and crochet. Also known in English as "knotless netting", "knotless knitting", or "single-needle knitting", the technique is distinct from crochet in that it involves passing the full length of the working thread through each loop, unlike crochet where the work is formed only of loops, never involving the free end. It also differs from knitting in that lengths must be pieced together during the process of nålebinding, rather than a continuous strand of yarn that can easily be pulled out. Archaeological specimens of fabric made by nålebinding can be difficult to distinguish from knitted fabric.
Nålebinding:
Nålebinding is still practiced by women of the Nanti tribe, an indigenous people of the Camisea region of Peru. They use it to make bracelets. Nålebinding also remains popular in the Scandinavian countries, as well as in the Balkans.
History:
The oldest known textile fragment of Nålbinding dating from c. 6500 BCE was found in Nahal Hemar Cave, Israel. Another made of lime bast fibre, from the Ertebølle period c. 4200 BCE was found in Tybrind Vig, a Mesolithic fishing village in Denmark.The oldest known samples of single-needle knitted clothing include the color-patterned sandal socks of the Coptic Christians of Egypt (4th century CE), and hats and shawls from the Paracas and Nazca cultures in Peru, dated between 300 BCE and 300 CE.Historically needles were made out of wood, antler, or bone. Contemporary selections also include plastic.
History:
Nålbinding predates knitting and crochet. Historical samples have often been misidentified as knitting due to how similar they can appear in the finished products if made using the Coptic stitch. Often a textile historian will need to closely follow the path of the yarn itself to identify the item as either knitting or nålbinding. This is possible by knowing the textile structures created by the two crafts and identifying those within the fabric or by looking for a frequent use of joining of strands.
History:
Nålbinding was used during the Viking age of 793–1066 CE in Scandinavia before knitting and crochet were known. This was an effective method for them to create sturdy, serviceable garments.
Nålbinding requires working with several short pieces of yarn (each usually hardly more than 2 meters long), which are connected together by humidifying each extremity in order to bind them together through felting, thus creating the appearance of one continuous thread.
History:
The term "nålebinding" was introduced in the 1970s.A famous piece of nålbinding is the 'Coppergate sock' found during an excavation of the Coppergate area of York. A clear Viking influence in the textiles was found in the finds in this area. This was a wool sock that had been created using a technique never before recorded in England. The sock was slipper-like in style and would have covered the whole foot.
History:
Nålbinding was used in some regions of Northern Europe until the 1950s, when it most likely declined because of the changes in the textile industry and almost disappeared. It later gained renewed interest among many textile historians, archaeologists, craftspeople and reenactors, so that it is today an exotic but well-kept handicraft tradition.
Technique:
The method creates an elastic fabric using short lengths of yarn and a single-eyed needle that is often broad and flat. The stitches are commonly, but not invariably, gauged by wrapping them around the thumb. In its simplest form, the needle is passed through a seed loop to form a new loop, taking care to avoid tightening either into a firm knot. The needle is then passed through the new loop, repeating the process until a chain of desired length has been formed. Subsequent stitches are formed in the same manner but are also joined laterally to the corresponding stitch in the chain. The extended process is similarly repeated with reference to the preceding row rather than the initial chain. Fabric is commonly worked in a single direction – "in the round" – forming spirals and tubes for socks and mittens. The work may also be turned at the end of a row for fabric "worked flat".
Technique:
Crafters nowadays often use a specialised notation called the Hansen code to create patterns and communicate about the nålebinding technique. This code has been developed in 1990 by Egon Hansen, an expert on textile reconstruction who worked at the Moesgård Museum in Denmark.
Technique:
The Hansen code is a coding system used to indicate the path of the needle as it is worked through the preexisting fabric, with its passage under a loop shown as U and over a loop as O. A slash shows where the yarn changes direction and returns through loops it has already passed. If a loop is skipped an O or a U is put in brackets. If there is more than one change of direction a colon is used. The connection to the previous row is described using the letter F (if the yarn passes through the loop from the front) or B (if the yarn passes through the loop from the back), as well as a number to show how many loops are worked in this way. Stitches that can be described in this manner vary significantly in appearance, texture, and elasticity. As an example, the Coppergate sock described above was made in York stitch, or UU/OO O F2. As an example to show the use of brackets and colons, the Ålse stitch is U(U)O/UO:UO O. Some people prefer to use superscript numbers to describe the age of the passed loops, as it provides a clearer description for practical nalbinding than the brackets and colons.Wool yarn is often used because short lengths of it can easily be joined together, as the technique intrinsically requires. However, yarn made of fibers that do not felt as easily can be joined in other ways.In the construction of the 'Coppergate sock', the work began at the toe and worked in circular rows. Looping continued by the passing of the needle through two loops of the previous row, one of which had already been worked, and then brought back through the last two loops of the current row. A heavy, thick fabric was created with great elasticity. No loose ends were visible and are thought to be joined by splicing or having been stitched into the fabric. Shaping was achieved by adding an extra loop or leaving a lower loop out of the sequence. The heel had been turned back on itself several times to create the heel shaping.
Characteristics:
Nålebinding is often called more laborious and slower than knitting. This is not necessarily true, especially for the simpler stitches, such as the Oslo-, Mammen- and Brodén-stitches. Although each stitch might take slightly longer than a knitted one, nålbinding is often quicker than knitting, because each row's height (in the most common nålbinding-techniques) corresponds to 2–3 rows of knitting. It is also easier on the shoulders, back and hands, and the fabric it produces can be more dense and durable than knitted fabric. It is still used in Peru and Iran to make socks, and in parts of Scandinavia to make hats, gloves and other items that are very warm.[1]Another common mistake is to think of nålbinding as superior to knitting, because it requires more skill. It is very easy to learn and master; given proper instruction, even the more complex techniques are quite possible to learn with comparably little prior knowledge (though some is recommended). It can create different textiles, thin and flexible ones as well as thick and comparably stiff ones, depending on which technique is used. Nålbinding does not unravel and therefore special finishing borders are not necessary.
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**Linguistic diversity index**
Linguistic diversity index:
Linguistic diversity index (LDI) may refer to either Greenberg's (language) Diversity Index or the related Index of Linguistic Diversity (ILD) from Terralingua, which measures changes in the underlying LDI over time.Greenberg's Diversity Index (LDI) is the probability that two people selected from the population at random will have different mother tongues; it therefore ranges from 0 (everyone has the same mother tongue) to 1 (no two people have the same mother tongue). The ILD measures how the LDI has changed over time; a global ILD of 0.8 indicates a 20% loss of diversity since 1970, but ratios above 1 are possible, and have appeared in regional indexes.The computation of the diversity index is based on the population of each language as a proportion of the total population. The index cannot fully account for the vitality of languages. Also, the distinction between a language and a dialect is fluid and often political. A great number of languages are considered to be dialects of another language by some experts and separate languages by others. The index does not consider how different the languages are from each other, nor does it account for second language usage; it considers only the total number of distinct languages, and their relative frequency as mother tongues.
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**Involuntary memory**
Involuntary memory:
Involuntary memory, also known as involuntary explicit memory, involuntary conscious memory, involuntary aware memory, madeleine moment, mind pops and most commonly, involuntary autobiographical memory, is a sub-component of memory that occurs when cues encountered in everyday life evoke recollections of the past without conscious effort. Voluntary memory, its opposite, is characterized by a deliberate effort to recall the past.
Occurrences:
There appear to be at least three different contexts within which involuntary memory arises, as described by J.H. Mace in his book Involuntary Memory. These include those that occur in everyday life, those that occur during the processes of voluntary and involuntary recall, and those that occur as part of a psychiatric syndrome.
Occurrences:
Precious Fragments These include involuntary memories as they arise in everyday mental functioning, comprising the most common occurrences. They are characterized by their element of surprise, as they appear to come into conscious awareness spontaneously. They are the products of common every-day experiences such as eating a piece of cake, bringing to mind a past experience evoked by the taste. Research suggests that such experiences are especially strong and frequent in relation to one's sense of smell. The term "precious fragments" was coined by Marigold Linton, a pioneer in the study of autobiographical memory research. This is reflected, for example, in Proust's experience of remembering, upon dunking a madeleine cake in his tea in adulthood, a memory from childhood that occurred while eating madeleine dunked in tea.
Occurrences:
By-products of other memories These are less common, and appear to be the result of voluntary/involuntary retrieval. Characteristic of such occurrences is the triggering effect this has, as one involuntary memory leads to another and so on. Again, Linton describes her own experiences with such memories as "coming unbidden sometimes when my mind is silent, but also as by-products of searches for other information." Mace terms these “involuntary memory chains,” stating that they are the product of spreading activation in the autobiographical memory system. These involuntary retrievals are experienced when activations are strong or relevant enough to current cognitive activity that they come into consciousness. According to Mace, this suggests that autobiographical memories are organized primarily conceptually (“experiential type concepts: people, places, locations, activities, etc.”), while temporal associations are not retained over time the same way.
Occurrences:
Not so precious fragments Finally, some involuntary memories arise from traumatic experiences, and as such are fairly rare compared to other involuntary memories. Subjects describe them as salient, repetitive memories of traumatic events. The troubling nature of such memories makes these occurrences important to clinical researchers in their studies of psychiatric syndromes such as post-traumatic stress disorder. Some researchers have found that involuntary memories tend to have more emotional intensity and less centrality to life story than voluntary memories do. However, one study also shows that recurrent involuntary memories post-trauma can be explained with the general mechanisms of autobiographical memory, and tend to not come up in a fixed, unchangeable form. This suggests that psychologists may be able to develop ways to help individuals deal with traumatic involuntary memories.
Occurrences:
Implications for Dementia Patients Further research on the automatic nature of involuntary retrieval suggests that they may not require working memory input. Thus, one report hypothesizes that dementia patients may still have available precious autobiographical memories that remain inaccessible until “suitable triggers release them,” prodding at the possibility for caregivers to be trained to reactivate these memories to elicit positive emotional effects and maintain patients’ life stories and sense of identity. Further empirical research is needed, but this insight starts a hopeful path into improving dementia care.
History:
Hermann Ebbinghaus Born in Bremen, Germany in 1850, Hermann Ebbinghaus is recognized as the first to apply the principles of experimental psychology to studying memory. He is especially well known for his introduction and application of nonsense syllables in studying memory, study of which led him to discover the forgetting curve and the spacing effect, two of his most well-known contributions to the field. Ebbinghaus was also the first to attempt a description of involuntary memory, stating that, "often, even after years, mental states once present in consciousness return to it with apparent spontaneity and without any act of the will; that is, they are reproduced involuntarily." He goes on to explain that these mental states were once experienced, rendering, by definition, their future spontaneous appearance into consciousness the act of remembering, though we may not always be aware of where or how we experienced this information the first time. Ebbinghaus also made the key note that these involuntary reproductions are not random or accidental; instead, "they are brought about through the instrumentality of other immediately present mental images," under the laws of association. This reflects congruence with Mace's and Linton's theory of involuntary memories as by-products of other memories, as discussed above.
History:
Marcel Proust—Proustian memory Marcel Proust was the first person to coin the term involuntary memory, in his novel À la recherche du temps perdu (In Search of Lost Time or Remembrance of Things Past). Proust did not have any psychological background, and worked primarily as a writer.
History:
Proust viewed involuntary memory as containing the "essence of the past," claiming that it was lacking from voluntary memory. When the protagonist of Proust's novel eats a tea soaked madeleine, a long-forgotten childhood memory of eating tea soaked madeleine with his aunt is restored to him. From this memory, he then proceeds to recall the childhood home he was in, and even the town itself. This becomes a theme throughout In Search of Lost Time, with sensations reminding the narrator of previous experiences. Proust dubbed these "involuntary memories".
Current research:
Chaining One idea that has recently become the subject of studies on involuntary memory is chaining. This is the concept that involuntary memories have the tendency to trigger other involuntary memories that are related. Typically, it is thought to be the contents of involuntary memories that are related to one another, thereby causing the chaining effect.
Current research:
In a diary study done by J.H Mace, participants reported that frequently, when one involuntary memory arose, it would quickly trigger a series of other involuntary memories. This was recognized as the cueing source for involuntary memories.In the work by Bernstein, the diary method was also applied to the study of involuntary memory chaining. The main hypothesis was that chaining would also occur on autobiographical memory tasks. Participants were asked to report the presence of involuntary memories while performing an autobiographical memory task. Results showed that participants did experience involuntary memory recall when they were recalling the past deliberately (also known as voluntary memory). This implies that involuntary memory production occurs as a product of chaining from voluntary memory—the deliberate recall of the past.
Current research:
Priming A common question in the study of involuntary memory is related to priming; what is it that activates such a memory? Various studies have been conducted in recent years to observe the conditions under which involuntary memories are primed.
Current research:
Mace, in one of his recent studies, wanted to test the notion that basic cognitive activities, such as thinking about the past, may prime involuntary memories. To test this idea, Mace set up a diary method study in which participants recorded involuntary memories they experienced during a two-week period, in a diary. During this two-week period, participants also had to come into a laboratory at intervals, and were instructed to recall memories from certain life periods (e.g., high school, first five years of marriage). Following this, comparing their involuntary memories to a control condition found that a significant number of their involuntary memories related to the time period they were instructed to recall. Such findings suggest that involuntary memories may be primed by even the simplest of cognitive tasks—namely, reminiscing and recalling the past.
Neurological basis:
Research studies regarding the neurological functions of involuntary memory have been few in number. Thus far, only two neuroimaging studies have been conducted comparing involuntary memories to voluntary memories using Positron Emission Tomography (PET).
Neurological basis:
The first study found that while involuntary memory retrieval is mediated by the hippocampus, a structure of the brain known to be associated with successful episodic memory retrieval, involvement of the hippocampus was independent of whether or not remembering was intentional. The researchers believe this suggests that involuntary memories may reflect the “relative automaticity” of hippocampally-mediated retrieval. However, their research mainly focuses on identifying areas and functions involved in intentional retrieval. Activity in the medial/lateral parietal and right prefrontal cortex was insensitive to depth of encoding, but rather, varied depending on the intentionality of retrieval. These areas were increasingly engaged during intentional retrieval, suggesting that one function of this region may be to align remembering to aid with current behavioral goals. This is distinct from involuntary memory, where individuals do not consciously retrieve memories that will be most helpful to their current situation; however, it remains unclear if this process is unconsciously undertaken by the brain. When dealing with involuntary word recognition tasks, activity in areas such as the left inferior frontal gyrus, left superior temporal gyrus, left hippocampus, and right superior occipital cortex have all been implicated. Yet, areas and structures that are uniquely associated with involuntary memory remain unclear and more research is needed to understand the cognitive and neurological basis of this memory phenomenon.
Neurological basis:
The second study found that the medial temporal lobe, the posterior cingulate gyrus, and the precuneus, are activated during retrieval success with or without executive control seen within the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. This implies that involuntary memories are successfully retrieved using the same system as voluntary memory when retrieving perceptual information. This is significant because it suggests that voluntary and involuntary retrieval are largely not mediated by separate cortical networks, which raises questions for future research of what distinguishes the two sub-components of memory, if not cognitive pathways and brain activation areas. Further, it might be explored whether these similarities in cognitive mechanism reflect shared properties and impacts of the recalled memories themselves, regardless of intentionality of retrieval. In this particular study, voluntary and involuntary recall were both associated with increased activations in the posterior cingulated gyrus, left precuneus, and right parahippocampal gyrus. In addition, right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, and left precuneus were more active during voluntary recall, while left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex was more active during involuntary recall. It is suggested that the activation seen in left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex during involuntary memory recall reflects the attempt to prevent the recollected material from interfering with the semantic judgment task.
Effects of age:
Development While age plays a role in memory capabilities, it has been found that general strategies used to encode (to remember) memories is more important. Those that are better at memorizing information are more likely to have more involuntary memories. In younger children (ages 10 and under), it has also been found that inducing involuntary memory during testing produced significantly better results than using voluntary memory. This can be accomplished by posing a vague, mildly related question or sentence prior to the actual test question. In older children (aged 14 and above), the opposite holds, with strictly voluntary memory leading to better test results.
Effects of age:
Reminiscence bump The reminiscence bump is the phenomenon where in memories formed during adolescence and early adulthood are more commonly remembered than those throughout other periods in life. This is due to the formation of self-identity or the development of cognitive abilities across the lifespan. It has been found that this is true for both voluntary and involuntary memories. Age has been found to have a difference on the amount of memories recalled, but no age differences were found in the specificity of involuntary memories.
The role of emotion:
Emotion intensity Emotion plays a strong role in relation to memory. It has been found that memories associated with stronger emotions (e.g.: being happy at your wedding) are more easily remembered and quickly recalled, as are those formed during moments of intense stress. The same holds true for involuntary memories, with happy involuntary memories occurring twice as often as unhappy or neutral involuntary memories.
In clinical disorders:
Posttraumatic stress disorder Often people who have been the victims of some type of trauma describe vivid memories that intrude on their thoughts spontaneously and without warning. Such mental intrusions, if maintained over time compose the hallmark symptom of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD).The DSM-IV defines a trauma as an event in which someone experiences, or witnesses' severe injury to themselves or others or a threat to their integrity. The person must also have responded with fear, helplessness or horror at the time of the trauma. The main psychological consequences of this include re-experiencing the traumatic event (through both intrusive thoughts and images), avoidance of trauma-related stimuli, and increased arousal levels.
In clinical disorders:
When it comes to involuntary memory, researchers are mainly interested in the concept of these trauma-related intrusions, which generally involved some form of re-experiencing the event, including a sensory component (e.g., imagery in any modality be it visual, auditory etc.). These intrusions, often termed "flashbacks", make the victim feel as though they are reliving the trauma, and cause high levels of emotional arousal, and the sense of an impending threat. Typically, they are parts of the traumatic event that were most salient at the time, known as "hotspots" and have the definitive feature that they cause high levels of emotional distress, and may be difficult to recall deliberately. Although this is a defining feature of PTSD, intrusive memories are also frequently encountered in anxiety-based disorders, psychotic disorders and even within the general population. Regardless of the context in which they are encountered, intrusions tend to have the same central feature; that the stored information is being recalled involuntarily. It is thought that intrusions arise when an individual encounters stimuli similar to the stimuli that were processed and stored during the trauma, thus triggering the memory into the conscious mind. A common example is one in which someone who has the victim of a car crash, upon hearing the screeching of tires experiences a flashback of their own collision, as if they are back at the original event.
In clinical disorders:
Psychosis Stressful and traumatic events, which may manifest as involuntary memories called flashbacks, may trigger a wide range of anxiety-based and psychotic disorders. Social phobia, bipolar disorder, depression, and agoraphobia, are a few examples of disorders that have influences from flashbacks.
In clinical disorders:
Psychosis is defined as a range of perceptual presentations, with the associated symptoms frequently referred to as either positive or negative. Positive symptoms are delusional, and may include hallucinations, while negative symptoms are characterized by a "lack" of functioning, which may include a lack of affect (emotional feeling) and loss of motivation. One study found that there was a high prevalence of trauma in patients with severe mental illness. However, only a small percentage had been diagnosed with PTSD when displaying PTSD-like symptoms. Therefore, the more complex symptoms of psychosis may prevent the clinical detection required when diagnosing PTSD. In addition, those who have been diagnosed with PTSD and have an identified form of trauma show positive symptoms of psychosis such as delusions and/or hallucinations. Finally, it has been suggested that individuals suffering from psychosis may be more vulnerable to intrusions.
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**Positional advantage**
Positional advantage:
Positional advantage is a combative position relative to an opponent. It is used extensively to describe a situation of significant tactical advantage over an opponent in open-hand conflict (i.e. without weapons) in William Cheung's Traditional Wing Chun Kung Fu and Ian Protheroe's Classical Wing Chun.In physical altercations, positional advantage is significant because a defender who has attained positional advantage: is not as open to an attack from the attacker's rear hand may control the attacker's lead limbs (one arm and one leg) is in range to attack or defend both hands is able to redirect their opponent's forceIn the words of Sifu Ian Protheroe, "as long as your strongest side is facing your opponent's weakest side, you have the advantage". Although positional advantage has been adopted specifically by Classical and Traditional Wing Chun practitioners, the term is applicable to all martial styles, both with and without weapons. Related concepts include centre and central line theory. These terms are used to describe many different things by Wing Chun practitioners (see the Wikipedia entry for Wing Chun for more information).
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**Exceptional object**
Exceptional object:
Many branches of mathematics study objects of a given type and prove a classification theorem. A common theme is that the classification results in a number of series of objects and a finite number of exceptions — often with desirable properties — that do not fit into any series. These are known as exceptional objects. In many cases, these exceptional objects play a further and important role in the subject. Furthermore, the exceptional objects in one branch of mathematics often relate to the exceptional objects in others.A related phenomenon is exceptional isomorphism, when two series are in general different, but agree for some small values. For example, spin groups in low dimensions are isomorphic to other classical Lie groups.
Regular polytopes:
The prototypical examples of exceptional objects arise in the classification of regular polytopes: in two dimensions, there is a series of regular n-gons for n ≥ 3. In every dimension above 2, one can find analogues of the cube, tetrahedron and octahedron. In three dimensions, one finds two more regular polyhedra — the dodecahedron (12-hedron) and the icosahedron (20-hedron) — making five Platonic solids. In four dimensions, a total of six regular polytopes exist, including the 120-cell, the 600-cell and the 24-cell. There are no other regular polytopes, as the only regular polytopes in higher dimensions are of the hypercube, simplex, orthoplex series. In all dimensions combined, there are therefore three series and five exceptional polytopes.Moreover, the pattern is similar if non-convex polytopes are included: in two dimensions, there is a regular star polygon for every rational number p/q>2 . In three dimensions, there are four Kepler–Poinsot polyhedra, and in four dimensions, ten Schläfli–Hess polychora; in higher dimensions, there are no non-convex regular figures.
Regular polytopes:
These can be generalized to tessellations of other spaces, especially uniform tessellations, notably tilings of Euclidean space (honeycombs), which have exceptional objects, and tilings of hyperbolic space. There are various exceptional objects in dimension below 6, but in dimension 6 and above, the only regular polyhedra/tilings/hyperbolic tilings are the simplex, hypercube, cross-polytope, and hypercube lattice.
Regular polytopes:
Schwarz triangles Related to tilings and the regular polyhedra, there are exceptional Schwarz triangles (triangles that tile the sphere, or more generally Euclidean plane or hyperbolic plane via their triangle group of reflections in their edges), particularly the Möbius triangles. In the sphere, there are 3 Möbius triangles (and 1 1-parameter family), corresponding to the 3 exceptional Platonic solid groups, while in the Euclidean plane, there are 3 Möbius triangles, corresponding to the 3 special triangles: 60-60-60 (equilateral), 45-45-90 (isosceles right), and 30-60-90. There are additional exceptional Schwarz triangles in the sphere and Euclidean plane. By contrast, in the hyperbolic plane, there is a 3-parameter family of Möbius triangles, and none exceptional.
Finite simple groups:
The finite simple groups have been classified into a number of series as well as 26 sporadic groups. Of these, 20 are subgroups or subquotients of the monster group, referred to as the "Happy Family", while 6 are not, and are referred to as "pariahs".
Several of the sporadic groups are related to the Leech lattice, most notably the Conway group Co1, which is the automorphism group of the Leech lattice, quotiented out by its center.
Division algebras:
There are only three finite-dimensional associative division algebras over the reals — the real numbers, the complex numbers and the quaternions. The only non-associative division algebra is the algebra of octonions. The octonions are connected to a wide variety of exceptional objects. For example, the exceptional formally real Jordan algebra is the Albert algebra of 3 by 3 self-adjoint matrices over the octonions.
Simple Lie groups:
The simple Lie groups form a number of series (classical Lie groups) labelled A, B, C and D. In addition, there are the exceptional groups G2 (the automorphism group of the octonions), F4, E6, E7, E8. These last four groups can be viewed as the symmetry groups of projective planes over O, C⊗O, H⊗O and O⊗O, respectively, where O is the octonions and the tensor products are over the reals.
Simple Lie groups:
The classification of Lie groups corresponds to the classification of root systems, and thus the exceptional Lie groups correspond to exceptional root systems and exceptional Dynkin diagrams.
Supersymmetric algebras:
There are a few exceptional objects with supersymmetry. The classification of superalgebras by Kac and Tierry-Mieg indicates that the Lie superalgebras G(3) in 31 dimensions and F(4) in 40 dimensions, and the Jordan superalgebras K3 and K10, are examples of exceptional objects.
Unimodular lattices:
Up to isometry, there is only one even unimodular lattice in 15 dimensions or less — the E8 lattice. Up to dimension 24, there is only one even unimodular lattice without roots, the Leech lattice. Three of the sporadic simple groups were discovered by Conway while investigating the automorphism group of the Leech lattice. For example, Co1 is the automorphism group itself modulo ±1. The groups Co2 and Co3, as well as a number of other sporadic groups, arise as stabilisers of various subsets of the Leech lattice.
Codes:
Some codes also stand out as exceptional objects, in particular the perfect binary Golay code, which is closely related to the Leech lattice. The Mathieu group 24 , one of the sporadic simple groups, is the group of automorphisms of the extended binary Golay code, and four more of the sporadic simple groups arise as various types of stabilizer subgroup of 24
Block designs:
An exceptional block design is the Steiner system S(5,8,24) whose automorphism group is the sporadic simple Mathieu group 24 The codewords of the extended binary Golay code have a length of 24 bits and have weights 0, 8, 12, 16, or 24. This code can correct up to three errors. So every 24-bit word with weight 5 can be corrected to a codeword with weight 8. The bits of a 24-bit word can be thought of as specifying the possible subsets of a 24 element set. So the extended binary Golay code gives a unique 8 element subset for each 5 element subset. In fact, it defines S(5,8,24).
Outer automorphisms:
Certain families of groups often have a certain outer automorphism group, but in particular cases, they have other exceptional outer automorphisms.
Outer automorphisms:
Among families of finite simple groups, the only example is in the automorphisms of the symmetric and alternating groups: for n≥3,n≠6 the alternating group An has one outer automorphism (corresponding to conjugation by an odd element of Sn ) and the symmetric group Sn has no outer automorphisms. However, for n=6, there is an exceptional outer automorphism of S6 (of order 2), and correspondingly, the outer automorphism group of A6 is not C2 (the group of order 2), but rather C2×C2 , the Klein four-group.If one instead considers A6 as the (isomorphic) projective special linear group PSL (2,9) , then the outer automorphism is not exceptional; thus the exceptional-ness can be seen as due to the exceptional isomorphism PSL (2,9).
Outer automorphisms:
This exceptional outer automorphism is realized inside of the Mathieu group 12 and similarly, 12 acts on a set of 12 elements in 2 different ways.
Among Lie groups, the spin group Spin (8) has an exceptionally large outer automorphism group (namely S3 ), which corresponds to the exceptional symmetries of the Dynkin diagram D4 . This phenomenon is referred to as triality.
The exceptional symmetry of the D4 diagram also gives rise to the Steinberg groups.
Algebraic topology:
The Kervaire invariant is an invariant of a (4k + 2)-dimensional manifold that measures whether the manifold could be surgically converted into a sphere. This invariant evaluates to 0 if the manifold can be converted to a sphere, and 1 otherwise. More specifically, the Kervaire invariant applies to a framed manifold, that is, to a manifold equipped with an embedding into Euclidean space and a trivialization of the normal bundle. The Kervaire invariant problem is the problem of determining in which dimensions the Kervaire invariant can be nonzero. For differentiable manifolds, this can happen in dimensions 2, 6, 14, 30, 62, and possibly 126, and in no other dimensions. The final case of dimension 126 remains open. These five or six framed cobordism classes of manifolds having Kervaire invariant 1 are exceptional objects related to exotic spheres. The first three cases are related to the complex numbers, quaternions and octonions respectively: a manifold of Kervaire invariant 1 can be constructed as the product of two spheres, with its exotic framing determined by the normed division algebra.Due to similarities of dimensions, it is conjectured that the remaining cases (dimensions 30, 62 and 126) are related to the Rosenfeld projective planes, which are defined over algebras constructed from the octonions. Specifically, it has been conjectured that there is a construction that takes these projective planes and produces a manifold with nonzero Kervaire invariant in two dimensions lower, but this remains unconfirmed.
Symmetric quantum measurements:
In quantum information theory, there exist structures known as SIC-POVMs or SICs, which correspond to maximal sets of complex equiangular lines. Some of the known SICs—those in vector spaces of 2 and 3 dimensions, as well as certain solutions in 8 dimensions—are considered exceptional objects and called "sporadic SICs". They differ from the other known SICs in ways that involve their symmetry groups, the Galois theory of the numerical values of their vector components, and so forth. The sporadic SICs in dimension 8 are related to the integral octonions.
Connections:
Numerous connections have been observed between some, though not all, of these exceptional objects. Most common are objects related to 8 and 24 dimensions, noting that 24 = 8 · 3. By contrast, the pariah groups stand apart, as the name suggests.
8 and 24 dimensions Exceptional objects related to the number 8 include the following.
The octonions are 8-dimensional.
The E8 lattice can be realized as the integral octonions (up to a scale factor).
The exceptional Lie groups can be seen as symmetries of the octonions and structures derived from the octonions; further, the E8 algebra is related to the E8 lattice, as the notation implies (the lattice is generated by the root system of the algebra).
Triality occurs for Spin(8), which also connects to 8 · 3 = 24.Likewise, exceptional objects related to the number 24 include the following.
The Leech lattice is 24-dimensional.
Most sporadic simple groups can be related to the Leech lattice, or more broadly the Monster.
Connections:
The exceptional Jordan algebra has a representation in terms of 24×24 real matrices together with the Jordan product rule.These objects are connected to various other phenomena in math which may be considered surprising but not themselves "exceptional". For example, in algebraic topology, 8-fold real Bott periodicity can be seen as coming from the octonions. In the theory of modular forms, the 24-dimensional nature of the Leech lattice underlies the presence of 24 in the formulas for the Dedekind eta function and the modular discriminant, which connection is deepened by Monstrous moonshine, a development that related modular functions to the Monster group.
Connections:
Physics In string theory and superstring theory we often find that particular dimensions are singled out as a result of exceptional algebraic phenomena. For example, bosonic string theory requires a spacetime of dimension 26 which is directly related to the presence of 24 in the Dedekind eta function. Similarly, the possible dimensions of supergravity are related to the dimensions of the division algebras.
Connections:
Monstrous moonshine Many of the exceptional objects in mathematics and physics have been found to be connected to each other. Developments such as the Monstrous moonshine conjectures show how, for example, the Monster group is connected to string theory. The theory of modular forms shows how the algebra E8 is connected to the Monster group. (In fact, well before the proof of the Monstrous moonshine conjecture, the elliptic j-function was discovered to encode the representations of E8.) Other interesting connections include how the Leech lattice is connected via the Golay code to the adjacency matrix of the dodecahedron (another exceptional object). Below is a mind map showing how some of the exceptional objects in mathematics and mathematical physics are related.
Connections:
The connections can partly be explained by thinking of the algebras as a tower of lattice vertex operator algebras. It just so happens that the vertex algebras at the bottom are so simple that they are isomorphic to familiar non-vertex algebras. Thus the connections can be seen simply as the consequence of some lattices being sub-lattices of others.
Supersymmetries The Jordan superalgebras are a parallel set of exceptional objects with supersymmetry. These are the Lie superalgebras which are related to Lorentzian lattices. This subject is less explored, and the connections between the objects are less well established. There are new conjectures parallel to the Monstrous moonshine conjectures for these super-objects, involving different sporadic groups.
Unexceptional objects:
Pathologies "Exceptional" object is reserved for objects that are unusual, meaning rare, the exception, not for unexpected or non-standard objects. These unexpected-but-typical (or common) phenomena are generally referred to as pathological, such as nowhere differentiable functions, or "exotic", as in exotic spheres — there are exotic spheres in arbitrarily high dimension (not only a finite set of exceptions), and in many dimensions most (differential structures on) spheres are exotic.
Unexceptional objects:
Extremal objects Exceptional objects must be distinguished from extremal objects: those that fall in a family and are the most extreme example by some measure are of interest, but not unusual in the way exceptional objects are. For example, the golden ratio φ has the simplest continued fraction approximation, and accordingly is most difficult to approximate by rationals; however, it is but one of infinitely many such quadratic numbers (continued fractions).
Unexceptional objects:
Similarly, the (2,3,7) Schwarz triangle is the smallest hyperbolic Schwarz triangle, and the associated (2,3,7) triangle group is of particular interest, being the universal Hurwitz group, and thus being associated with the Hurwitz curves, the maximally symmetric algebraic curves. However, it falls in a family of such triangles ((2,4,7), (2,3,8), (3,3,7), etc.), and while the smallest, is not exceptional or unlike the others.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**LigD**
LigD:
LigD is a multifunctional ligase/polymerase/nuclease (3'-phosphoesterase) found in bacterial non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) DNA repair systems. It is much more error-prone than the more complex eukaryotic system of NHEJ, which uses multiple enzymes to fill its role. The polymerase preferentially use rNTPs (RNA nucleotides), possibly advantageous in dormant cells.The actual architecture of LigD is variable.
The LigD homolog in Bacillus subtilis does not have the nuclease domain.
LigD with its ligase domain artificially removed can perform its function (with loss of fidelity) with a separate LigC acting as the ligase.
The LigD homolog in the archaeon Methanocella paludicola is broken into three single-domain proteins sharing an operon.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Concrete cover**
Concrete cover:
Concrete cover, in reinforced concrete, is the least distance between the surface of embedded reinforcement and the outer surface of the concrete (ACI 130). The concrete cover depth can be measured with a cover meter. The purpose of concrete cover is to protect the reinforcement from corrosion, fire, and other potential damage.
The required concrete cover depends on several factors, including the environmental conditions to which the structure will be exposed, the size of the reinforcing steel, the concrete strength, and the type of structure being constructed. Generally, larger diameter reinforcement bars require more concrete cover than smaller ones.
In most cases, local building codes and engineering standards specify the minimum required concrete cover for various types of structures. It is important to adhere to these requirements to ensure the safety and longevity of the structure.
Purpose of provision of concrete cover:
The concrete cover must have a minimum thickness for three main reasons: to protect the steel reinforcement bars (rebars) from environmental effects to prevent their corrosion; to provide thermal insulation, which protects the reinforcement bars from fire, and; to give reinforcing bars sufficient embedding to enable them to be stressed without slipping.The premature failure of corroded steel reinforcements and the expansion of the iron corrosion products around the rebars are amongst the main causes of the concrete degradation. The carbon steel of rebars is protected from oxidation by atmospheric oxygen by the high pH of concrete interstitial water. Iron bar surface is passivated as long as the pH value is higher than 10.5. Fresh cement water has a pH of about 13.5 while evolved cement water pH ~ 12.5 is controlled by the dissolution of calcium hydroxide (portlandite). Carbon dioxide present in the air slowly diffuses through the concrete cover over the rebar and progressively reacts with the alkaline hydroxides (KOH, NaOH) and with calcium hydroxide leading to the carbonatation of the hydrated cement paste. As a result, the pH of the cement drops and when its value is below 10.5 – 9.5, steel surface is no longer passivated and starts to corrode. A sufficient thickness of concrete cover is thus required in order to slow down the carbonatation process towards the rebar. The minimum concrete cover will depend on the environmental conditions encountered and must be thicker when the concrete is also exposed to moisture and chloride (proximity to the sea, use of de-icing salt for bridges or roads, ...). A high quality concrete made with a low water-to-cement (w/c) ratio will have a lower porosity and will be less permeable to water and to the ingress of corrosive species (dissolved oxygen, chloride, ...). A thicker cover or a more compact concrete will also reduce the diffusion of CO2 in the concrete, protecting it better from carbonatation and maintaining a higher pH for a longer time period, increasing so the rebar service life.
Structural applications:
Concrete covers are frequently used in the construction of commercial developments, homes, bridges, municipalities, curb forming, and other locations or projects requiring long-lasting, durability. Concrete and steel reinforcement bars combine to create strong, resilient structures in the following ways: Upon contact with each other, the cement paste and steel rebar form a non-reactive surface film preventing corrosion.
Reinforcement bars or beams can be strategically set throughout the concrete to achieve the required support system.
The bond created by utilizing rebar and concrete can also be attributed to the ridged rebar surface. This allows stresses to transfer from the concrete to the steel, and from the steel to concrete.
Concrete and steel have similar thermal expansion coefficients. Upon freezing or heating, they contract and expand in a similar manner, maintaining the structure needed.
Guidelines:
National codes also specify minimum cover requirements based on their respective local exposure conditions.
Paradox:
Large cover depths (50–75 mm) are required to protect reinforcement against corrosion in aggressive environments, but thick cover leads to increased crack widths in flexural reinforced concrete members. Large crack-widths (greater than 0.3 mm) permit ingress of moisture and chemical attack to the concrete, resulting in possible corrosion of reinforcement and deterioration of concrete. Therefore, thick covers defeat the very purpose for which it is provided. There is a need for judicious balance of cover depth and crack width requirements.
Paradox:
A possible economical solution for this paradox is the placing of a second layer of corrosion-resistant reinforcement like stainless steel rebars or meshes or FRP rebars in the concrete cover to distribute the cracks.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**NS-2664**
NS-2664:
NS-2664 (LS-193,048) is an anxiolytic drug with a novel chemical structure, developed by the small pharmaceutical company NeuroSearch. It has similar effects to benzodiazepine drugs, but is structurally distinct and so is classed as a nonbenzodiazepine anxiolytic. NS-2664 is a potent but non-selective partial agonist at GABAA receptors, although with little efficacy at the α1 subtype and more at α2 and α3. It has potent anticonvulsant effects in animal studies, but a relatively short duration of action, and produces little sedative effects or physical dependence.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Mean value theorem (divided differences)**
Mean value theorem (divided differences):
In mathematical analysis, the mean value theorem for divided differences generalizes the mean value theorem to higher derivatives.
Statement of the theorem:
For any n + 1 pairwise distinct points x0, ..., xn in the domain of an n-times differentiable function f there exists an interior point min max {x0,…,xn}) where the nth derivative of f equals n ! times the nth divided difference at these points: f[x0,…,xn]=f(n)(ξ)n!.
For n = 1, that is two function points, one obtains the simple mean value theorem.
Proof:
Let P be the Lagrange interpolation polynomial for f at x0, ..., xn.
Then it follows from the Newton form of P that the highest term of P is f[x0,…,xn](x−xn−1)…(x−x1)(x−x0) Let g be the remainder of the interpolation, defined by g=f−P . Then g has n+1 zeros: x0, ..., xn.
By applying Rolle's theorem first to g , then to g′ , and so on until g(n−1) , we find that g(n) has a zero ξ . This means that 0=g(n)(ξ)=f(n)(ξ)−f[x0,…,xn]n! ,f[x0,…,xn]=f(n)(ξ)n!.
Applications:
The theorem can be used to generalise the Stolarsky mean to more than two variables.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Lek paradox**
Lek paradox:
The lek paradox is the conundrum of how additive or beneficial genetic variation is maintained in lek mating species in the face of consistent sexual selection based on female preferences. While many studies have attempted to explain how the lek paradox fits into Darwinian theory, the paradox remains. Persistent female choice for particular male trait values should erode genetic diversity in male traits and thereby remove the benefits of choice, yet choice persists. This paradox can be somewhat alleviated by the occurrence of mutations introducing potential differences, as well as the possibility that traits of interest have more or less favorable recessive alleles.
Lek paradox:
The basis of the lek paradox is continuous genetic variation in spite of strong female preference for certain traits. There are two conditions in which the lek paradox arises. The first is that males contribute only genes and the second is that female preference does not affect fecundity. Female choice should lead to directional runaway selection, resulting in a greater prevalence for the selected traits. Stronger selection should lead to impaired survival, as it decreases genetic variance and ensures that more offspring have similar traits. However, lekking species do not exhibit runaway selection.
Lek paradox:
In a lekking reproductive system, what male sexual characteristics can signal to females is limited, as the males provide no resources to females or parental care to their offspring. This implies that a female gains indirect benefits from her choice in the form of "good genes" for her offspring. Hypothetically, in choosing a male that excels at courtship displays, females gain genes for their offspring that increase their survival or reproductive fitness.
Lek paradox:
Amotz Zahavi declared that male sexual characteristics only convey useful information to the females if these traits confer a handicap on the male. Otherwise, males could simply cheat: if the courtship displays have a neutral effect on survival, males could all perform equally and it would signify nothing to the females. But if the courtship display is somehow deleterious to the male’s survival—such as increased predator risk or time and energy expenditure—it becomes a test by which females can assess male quality. Under the handicap principle, males who excel at the courtship displays prove that they are of better quality and genotype, as they have already withstood the costs to having these traits. Resolutions have been formed to explain why strong female mate choice does not lead to runaway selection. The handicap principle describes how costly male ornaments provide females with information about the male’s inheritable fitness. The handicap principle may be a resolution to the lek paradox, for if females select for the condition of male ornaments, then their offspring have better fitness.
Lek paradox:
One potential resolution to the lek paradox is Rowe and Houle's theory of condition-dependent expression of male sexually selected traits. Similar to the handicap principle, Rowe and Houle argue that sexually selected traits depend on physical condition. Condition, in turn, summarizes a large number of genetic loci, including those involved in metabolism, muscular mass, nutrition, etc. Rowe and Houle claim that condition dependence maintains genetic variation in the face of persistent female choice, as the male trait is correlated with abundant genetic variation in condition. This is the genic capture hypothesis, which describes how a significant amount of the genome is involved in shaping the traits that are sexually selected. There are two criteria in the genic capture hypothesis: the first is that sexually selected traits are dependent upon condition and the second is that general condition is attributable to high genetic variance.Genetic variation in condition-dependent traits may be further maintained through mutations and environmental effects. Genotypes may be more effective in developing condition dependent sexual characteristics in different environments, while mutations may be deleterious in one environment and advantageous in another. Thus genetic variance remains in populations through gene flow across environments or generation overlap. According to the genic capture hypothesis, female selection does not deplete the genetic variance, as sexual selection operates on condition dependence traits, thereby accumulating genetic variance within the selected for trait. Therefore, females are actually selecting for high genetic variance.
Lek paradox:
In an alternate but non-exclusionary hypothesis, W. D. Hamilton and M. Zuk proposed that successful development of sexually selected traits signal resistance to parasites. Parasites can significantly stress their hosts so that they are unable to develop sexually selected traits as well as healthy males. According to this theory, a male who vigorously displays demonstrates that he has parasite-resistant genes to the females. In support of this theory, Hamilton and Zuk found that male sexual ornaments were significantly correlated with levels of incidence of six blood diseases in North American passerine bird species. The Hamilton and Zuk model addresses the lek paradox, arguing that the cycles of co-adaptation between host and parasite resist a stable equilibrium point. Hosts continue to evolve resistance to parasites and parasites continue to bypass resistant mechanisms, continuously generating genetic variation. The genic capture and parasite resistance hypotheses could logically co-occur in the same population.
Lek paradox:
One resolution to the lek paradox involves female preferences and how preference alone does not cause a drastic enough directional selection to diminish the genetic variance in fitness. Another conclusion is that the preferred trait is not naturally selected for or against and the trait is maintained because it implies increased attractiveness to the male. Thus, there may be no paradox.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Dark Engine**
Dark Engine:
The Dark Engine was a game engine developed by Looking Glass Studios and was used from 1998 to 2000, mainly in the early Thief games.
Features:
The Dark Engine's renderer, originally created by Sean Barrett in 1995, supports graphics similar to that of the original Quake, with Unreal-like skybox effects and colored lighting introduced in Thief II. Due to the limited hardware of the time, the Dark Engine was not designed with scalability in mind, and can therefore only display 1024 terrain polygons onscreen at once, as well as various other limits on objects and lights. In terms of textures, the game supports palletized PCX and TGA textures, in powers of two up to 256x256. Textures are grouped in "families" which share the same palette. There is a maximum of 216 textures and independent palettes, excluding 8 animated water textures.
Features:
The engine does not natively support advanced game scripting, with AI and object behavior being controlled by "Object Script Module" (.OSM) files, which are DLLs that are loaded at runtime. As such, new modules can be written and plugged into the level editor, DromEd, but are limited due to the scope of the functions made available by the core engine. In order to overcome this, editors must resort to complicated Rube Goldberg machine-like effects using a combination of its other systems.
Features:
For its time, the Dark Engine offered advanced AI and sound features, as well as a powerful object-oriented object system.
Features:
The designer has full control of sound propagation within the level, and the "artificial intelligence" of the non-player characters (NPCs) allows for three levels of awareness: vague acknowledgement caused by mild visual or auditive disturbances, which only prompts a startled bit of dialogue; definite acknowledgement caused by significant visual or auditive disturbances, which causes the NPC to enter "search mode", and definite acquisition (triggered by visual on the fully lit player, or face-first contact with a player regardless of the light level), prompting a direct attack.
Source code:
In 2009, a complete copy of the Dark Engine source code was discovered in the possession of an ex-Looking Glass Studios employee who was at the time continuing his work for Eidos Interactive. The code was a complete set of the engine's resources, and included the libraries needed to compile the code. Fans of the Thief and System Shock series subsequently petitioned the publisher to consider releasing the code.
Source code:
In late April 2010, a user on the Dreamcast Talk forum disassembled the contents of a Dreamcast development kit he had purchased. The contents of the kit included, among other things, items pertaining to ports of Thief 2 and System Shock 2 to that system. By December 2010, it had been discovered by the user and subsequently the greater Looking Glass Studios fan community that a compact disc included with the kit - the contents of which had been uploaded to the Internet - included a second copy of the Dark Engine source, minus the libraries needed to compile the code.In September 2012, a significant unofficial update to the Dark Engine was published anonymously in a French forum, most probably based on the leaked Dreamcast source code. This unofficial patch extended the limits of the engine, introduced support for recent graphics and sound hardware, as well as better support for newer versions of Windows.
DromEd:
DromEd is the level editor for the Dark Engine. It was originally used in the design of Thief: The Dark Project, but after a petition from the fan community it was released to the public, as were later versions.
DromEd:
There are four different versions of DromEd: for Thief: The Dark Project, for Thief Gold, for Thief II, and lastly for System Shock 2, commonly called "ShockEd." DromEd for Thief: The Dark Project and Thief Gold use the same version of the Dark Engine and therefore can open levels created for each game, although Thief Gold levels may refer to in-game objects that are not found in Thief. Thief II uses a revised version of the Dark Engine, and therefore it is difficult to open levels created for Thief with DromEd for Thief II. ShockEd is not compatible with any Dark Engine games aside from System Shock 2. However, basic level geometry can be moved between editors using a geometry export feature called "multibrush". System Shock 2 levels can be loaded by DromEd 2 with some work.
DromEd:
The name of the level editor, DromEd, is a reference to the original project it was designed for — a game based on the Arthurian legend of Camelot — the Camel becoming Dromedary and thence Dromed. DromEd has been used by fans to create hundreds of fan missions for Thief and Thief II, and several missions for System Shock 2.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Compartmental models in epidemiology**
Compartmental models in epidemiology:
Compartmental models are a very general modelling technique. They are often applied to the mathematical modelling of infectious diseases. The population is assigned to compartments with labels – for example, S, I, or R, (Susceptible, Infectious, or Recovered). People may progress between compartments. The order of the labels usually shows the flow patterns between the compartments; for example SEIS means susceptible, exposed, infectious, then susceptible again.
Compartmental models in epidemiology:
The origin of such models is the early 20th century, with important works being that of Ross in 1916, Ross and Hudson in 1917, Kermack and McKendrick in 1927 and Kendall in 1956. The Reed-Frost model was also a significant and widely-overlooked ancestor of modern epidemiological modelling approaches.The models are most often run with ordinary differential equations (which are deterministic), but can also be used with a stochastic (random) framework, which is more realistic but much more complicated to analyze.
Compartmental models in epidemiology:
Models try to predict things such as how a disease spreads, or the total number infected, or the duration of an epidemic, and to estimate various epidemiological parameters such as the reproductive number. Such models can show how different public health interventions may affect the outcome of the epidemic, e.g., what the most efficient technique is for issuing a limited number of vaccines in a given population.
The SIR model:
The SIR model is one of the simplest compartmental models, and many models are derivatives of this basic form. The model consists of three compartments: S: The number of susceptible individuals. When a susceptible and an infectious individual come into "infectious contact", the susceptible individual contracts the disease and transitions to the infectious compartment.
I: The number of infectious individuals. These are individuals who have been infected and are capable of infecting susceptible individuals.
The SIR model:
R for the number of removed (and immune) or deceased individuals. These are individuals who have been infected and have either recovered from the disease and entered the removed compartment, or died. It is assumed that the number of deaths is negligible with respect to the total population. This compartment may also be called "recovered" or "resistant".This model is reasonably predictive for infectious diseases that are transmitted from human to human, and where recovery confers lasting resistance, such as measles, mumps and rubella. It has also been used outside of epidemiology, for example in modeling the spread of song popularity , political influence , rumors and gun ownership. These variables (S, I, and R) represent the number of people in each compartment at a particular time. To represent that the number of susceptible, infectious and removed individuals may vary over time (even if the total population size remains constant), we make the precise numbers a function of t (time): S(t), I(t) and R(t). For a specific disease in a specific population, these functions may be worked out in order to predict possible outbreaks and bring them under control.As implied by the variable function of t, the model is dynamic in that the numbers in each compartment may fluctuate over time. The importance of this dynamic aspect is most obvious in an endemic disease with a short infectious period, such as measles in the UK prior to the introduction of a vaccine in 1968. Such diseases tend to occur in cycles of outbreaks due to the variation in number of susceptibles (S(t)) over time. During an epidemic, the number of susceptible individuals falls rapidly as more of them are infected and thus enter the infectious and removed compartments. The disease cannot break out again until the number of susceptibles has built back up, e.g. as a result of offspring being born into the susceptible compartment.
The SIR model:
Each member of the population typically progresses from susceptible to infectious to recovered. This can be shown as a flow diagram in which the boxes represent the different compartments and the arrows the transition between compartments, i.e.
The SIR model:
Transition rates For the full specification of the model, the arrows should be labeled with the transition rates between compartments. Between S and I, the transition rate is assumed to be d(S/N)/dt = -βSI/N2, where N is the total population, β is the average number of contacts per person per time, multiplied by the probability of disease transmission in a contact between a susceptible and an infectious subject, and SI/N2 is the fraction of those contacts between an infectious and susceptible individual which result in the susceptible person becoming infected. (This is mathematically similar to the law of mass action in chemistry in which random collisions between molecules result in a chemical reaction and the fractional rate is proportional to the concentration of the two reactants).Between I and R, the transition rate is assumed to be proportional to the number of infectious individuals which is γI. This is equivalent to assuming that the probability of an infectious individual recovering in any time interval dt is simply γdt. If an individual is infectious for an average time period D, then γ = 1/D. This is also equivalent to the assumption that the length of time spent by an individual in the infectious state is a random variable with an exponential distribution. The "classical" SIR model may be modified by using more complex and realistic distributions for the I-R transition rate (e.g. the Erlang distribution).
The SIR model:
For the special case in which there is no removal from the infectious compartment (γ=0), the SIR model reduces to a very simple SI model, which has a logistic solution, in which every individual eventually becomes infected.
The SIR model:
The SIR model without birth and death The dynamics of an epidemic, for example, the flu, are often much faster than the dynamics of birth and death, therefore, birth and death are often omitted in simple compartmental models. The SIR system without so-called vital dynamics (birth and death, sometimes called demography) described above can be expressed by the following system of ordinary differential equations: {dSdt=−βISN,dIdt=βISN−γI,dRdt=γI, where S is the stock of susceptible population, I is the stock of infected, R is the stock of removed population (either by death or recovery), and N is the sum of these three.
The SIR model:
This model was for the first time proposed by William Ogilvy Kermack and Anderson Gray McKendrick as a special case of what we now call Kermack–McKendrick theory, and followed work McKendrick had done with Ronald Ross.This system is non-linear, however it is possible to derive its analytic solution in implicit form. Firstly note that from: dSdt+dIdt+dRdt=0, it follows that: constant =N, expressing in mathematical terms the constancy of population N . Note that the above relationship implies that one need only study the equation for two of the three variables.
The SIR model:
Secondly, we note that the dynamics of the infectious class depends on the following ratio: R0=βγ, the so-called basic reproduction number (also called basic reproduction ratio). This ratio is derived as the expected number of new infections (these new infections are sometimes called secondary infections) from a single infection in a population where all subjects are susceptible. This idea can probably be more readily seen if we say that the typical time between contacts is Tc=β−1 , and the typical time until removal is Tr=γ−1 . From here it follows that, on average, the number of contacts by an infectious individual with others before the infectious has been removed is: Tr/Tc.
The SIR model:
There is also an effective reproduction number Re , which is similarly defined but in a population made up of both susceptible and infected individuals. The basic reproduction rate R0 quantifies the initial contagiousness of the disease, but the effective reproduction number Re is a time-dependent rate. By dividing the first differential equation by the third, separating the variables and integrating we get S(t)=S(0)e−R0(R(t)−R(0))/N, where S(0) and R(0) are the initial numbers of, respectively, susceptible and removed subjects. Writing s0=S(0)/N for the initial proportion of susceptible individuals, and s∞=S(∞)/N and r∞=R(∞)/N for the proportion of susceptible and removed individuals respectively in the limit t→∞, one has s∞=1−r∞=s0e−R0(r∞−r0) (note that the infectious compartment empties in this limit).
The SIR model:
This transcendental equation has a solution in terms of the Lambert W function, namely s∞=1−r∞=−R0−1W(−s0R0e−R0(1−r0)).
The SIR model:
This shows that at the end of an epidemic that conforms to the simple assumptions of the SIR model, unless s0=0 , not all individuals of the population have been removed, so some must remain susceptible. A driving force leading to the end of an epidemic is a decline in the number of infectious individuals. The epidemic does not typically end because of a complete lack of susceptible individuals.
The SIR model:
The role of both the basic reproduction number and the initial susceptibility are extremely important. In fact, upon rewriting the equation for infectious individuals as follows: dIdt=(R0SN−1)γI, it yields that if: R0⋅S(0)>N, then: dIdt(0)>0, i.e., there will be a proper epidemic outbreak with an increase of the number of the infectious (which can reach a considerable fraction of the population). On the contrary, if R0⋅S(0)<N, then dIdt(0)<0, i.e., independently from the initial size of the susceptible population the disease can never cause a proper epidemic outbreak. As a consequence, it is clear that both the basic reproduction number and the initial susceptibility are extremely important.
The SIR model:
The force of infection Note that in the above model the function: F=βI, models the transition rate from the compartment of susceptible individuals to the compartment of infectious individuals, so that it is called the force of infection. However, for large classes of communicable diseases it is more realistic to consider a force of infection that does not depend on the absolute number of infectious subjects, but on their fraction (with respect to the total constant population N ): F=βIN.
The SIR model:
Capasso and, afterwards, other authors have proposed nonlinear forces of infection to model more realistically the contagion process.
The SIR model:
Exact analytical solutions to the SIR model In 2014, Harko and coauthors derived an exact so-called analytical solution (involving an integral that can only be calculated numerically) to the SIR model. In the case without vital dynamics setup, for S(u)=S(t) , etc., it corresponds to the following time parametrization S(u)=S(0)u I(u)=N−R(u)−S(u) ln (u) for t=Nβ∫u1du∗u∗I(u∗),ρ=γNβ, with initial conditions (S(1),I(1),R(1))=(S(0),N−R(0)−S(0),R(0)),uT<u<1, where uT satisfies I(uT)=0 . By the transcendental equation for R∞ above, it follows that uT=e−(R∞−R(0))/ρ(=S∞/S(0) , if S(0)≠0) and I∞=0 An equivalent so-called analytical solution (involving an integral that can only be calculated numerically) found by Miller yields S(t)=S(0)e−ξ(t)I(t)=N−S(t)−R(t)R(t)=R(0)+ρξ(t)ξ(t)=βN∫0tI(t∗)dt∗ Here ξ(t) can be interpreted as the expected number of transmissions an individual has received by time t . The two solutions are related by e−ξ(t)=u Effectively the same result can be found in the original work by Kermack and McKendrick.These solutions may be easily understood by noting that all of the terms on the right-hand sides of the original differential equations are proportional to I . The equations may thus be divided through by I , and the time rescaled so that the differential operator on the left-hand side becomes simply d/dτ , where dτ=Idt , i.e. τ=∫Idt . The differential equations are now all linear, and the third equation, of the form dR/dτ= const., shows that τ and R (and ξ above) are simply linearly related.
The SIR model:
A highly accurate analytic approximant of the SIR model as well as exact analytic expressions for the final values S∞ , I∞ , and R∞ were provided by Kröger and Schlickeiser, so that there is no need to perform a numerical integration to solve the SIR model (a simplified example practice on COVID-19 numerical simulation using Microsoft Excel can be found here ), to obtain its parameters from existing data, or to predict the future dynamics of an epidemics modeled by the SIR model. The approximant involves the Lambert W function which is part of all basic data visualization software such as Microsoft Excel, MATLAB, and Mathematica.
The SIR model:
While Kendall considered the so-called all-time SIR model where the initial conditions S(0) , I(0) , and R(0) are coupled through the above relations, Kermack and McKendrick proposed to study the more general semi-time case, for which S(0) and I(0) are both arbitrary. This latter version, denoted as semi-time SIR model, makes predictions only for future times t>0 . An analytic approximant and exact expressions for the final values are available for the semi-time SIR model as well.
The SIR model:
Numerical solutions to the SIR model with approximations Numerical solutions to the SIR model can be found in the literature. An example is using the model to analyze COVID-19 spreading data. Three reproduction numbers can be pulled out from the data analyzed with numerical approximation, the basic reproduction number: R0=β0γ0 the real-time reproduction number: Rt=βtγt and the real-time effective reproduction number: Re=βtSγtN R0 represents the speed of reproduction rate at the beginning of the spreading when all populations are assumed susceptible, e.g. if 0.4 day−1 and 0.2 day−1 meaning one infectious person on average infects 0.4 susceptible people per day and recovers in 1/0.2=5 days. Thus when this person recovered, there are two people still infectious directly got from this person and R0=2 , i.e. the number of infectious people doubled in one cycle of 5 days. The data simulated by the model with R0=2 or real data fitted will yield a doubling of the number of infectious people faster than 5 days because the two infected people are infecting people. From the SIR model, we can tell that β is determined by the nature of the disease and also a function of the interactive frequency between the infectious person I with the susceptible people S and also the intensity/duration of the interaction like how close they interact for how long and whether or not they both wear masks, thus, it changes over time when the average behavior of the carriers and susceptible people changes. The model use SI to represent these factors but it indeed is referenced to the initial stage when no action is taken to prevent the spread and all population is susceptible, thus all changes are absorbed by the change of β . γ is usually more stable over time assuming when the infectious person shows symptoms, she/he will seek medical attention or be self-isolated. So if we find Rt changes, most probably the behaviors of people in the community have changed from their normal patterns before the outbreak, or the disease has mutated to a new form. Costive massive detection and isolation of susceptible close contacts have effects on reducing 1/γ but whose efficiencies are under debate. This debate is largely on the uncertainty of the number of days reduced from after infectious or detectable whichever comes first to before a symptom shows up for an infected susceptible person. If the person is infectious after symptoms show up, or detection only works for a person with symptoms, then these prevention methods are not necessary, and self-isolation and/or medical attention is the best way to cut the 1/γ values. The typical onset of the COVID-19 infectious period is in the order of one day from the symptoms showing up, making massive detection with typical frequency in a few days useless.
The SIR model:
Rt does not tell us whether or not the spreading will speed up or slow down in the latter stages when the fraction of susceptible people in the community has dropped significantly after recovery or vaccination. Re corrects this dilution effect by multiplying the fraction of the susceptible population over the total population. It corrects the effective/transmissible interaction between an infectious person and the rest of the community when many of the interaction is immune in the middle to late stages of the disease spreading. Thus, when Re>1 , we will see an exponential-like outbreak; when Re=1 , a steady state reached and no number of infectious people changes over time; and when Re<1 , the disease decays and fades away over time.
The SIR model:
Using the differential equations of the SIR model and converting them to numerical discrete forms, one can set up the recursive equations and calculate the S, I, and R populations with any given initial conditions but accumulate errors over a long calculation time from the reference point. Sometimes a convergence test is needed to estimate the errors. Given a set of initial conditions and the disease-spreading data, one can also fit the data with the SIR model and pull out the three reproduction numbers when the errors are usually negligible due to the short time step from the reference point. Any point of the time can be used as the initial condition to predict the future after it using this numerical model with assumption of time-evolved parameters such as population, Rt , and γ . However, away from this reference point, errors will accumulate over time thus convergence test is needed to find an optimal time step for more accurate results.
The SIR model:
Among these three reproduction numbers, R0 is very useful to judge the control pressure, e.g., a large value meaning the disease will spread very fast and is very difficult to control. Rt is most useful in predicting future trends, for example, if we know the social interactions have reduced 50% frequently from that before the outbreak and the interaction intensities among people are the same, then we can set 0.5 R0 . If social distancing and masks add another 50% cut in infection efficiency, we can set 0.25 R0 . Re will perfectly correlate with the waves of the spreading and whenever Re>1 , the spreading accelerates, and when Re<1 , the spreading slows down thus useful to set a prediction on the short term trends. Also, it can be used to directly calculate the threshold population of vaccination/immunization for the herd immunity stage by setting Rt=R0 The SIR model with vital dynamics and constant population Consider a population characterized by a death rate μ and birth rate Λ , and where a communicable disease is spreading. The model with mass-action transmission is: dSdt=Λ−μS−βISNdIdt=βISN−γI−μIdRdt=γI−μR for which the disease-free equilibrium (DFE) is: (S(t),I(t),R(t))=(Λμ,0,0).
The SIR model:
In this case, we can derive a basic reproduction number: R0=βμ+γ, which has threshold properties. In fact, independently from biologically meaningful initial values, one can show that: lim DFE =(Λμ,0,0) lim EE =(γ+μβ,μβ(R0−1),γβ(R0−1)).
The SIR model:
The point EE is called the Endemic Equilibrium (the disease is not totally eradicated and remains in the population). With heuristic arguments, one may show that R0 may be read as the average number of infections caused by a single infectious subject in a wholly susceptible population, the above relationship biologically means that if this number is less than or equal to one the disease goes extinct, whereas if this number is greater than one the disease will remain permanently endemic in the population.
The SIR model:
The SIR model In 1927, W. O. Kermack and A. G. McKendrick created a model in which they considered a fixed population with only three compartments: susceptible, S(t) ; infected, I(t) ; and recovered, R(t) . The compartments used for this model consist of three classes: S(t) is used to represent the individuals not yet infected with the disease at time t, or those susceptible to the disease of the population.
The SIR model:
I(t) denotes the individuals of the population who have been infected with the disease and are capable of spreading the disease to those in the susceptible category.
The SIR model:
R(t) is the compartment used for the individuals of the population who have been infected and then removed from the disease, either due to immunization or due to death. Those in this category are not able to be infected again or to transmit the infection to others.The flow of this model may be considered as follows: S→I→R Using a fixed population, N=S(t)+I(t)+R(t) in the three functions resolves that the value N should remain constant within the simulation, if a simulation is used to solve the SIR model. Alternatively, the analytic approximant can be used without performing a simulation. The model is started with values of S(t=0) , I(t=0) and R(t=0) . These are the number of people in the susceptible, infected and removed categories at time equals zero. If the SIR model is assumed to hold at all times, these initial conditions are not independent. Subsequently, the flow model updates the three variables for every time point with set values for β and γ . The simulation first updates the infected from the susceptible and then the removed category is updated from the infected category for the next time point (t=1). This describes the flow persons between the three categories. During an epidemic the susceptible category is not shifted with this model, β changes over the course of the epidemic and so does γ . These variables determine the length of the epidemic and would have to be updated with each cycle.
The SIR model:
dSdt=−βSIN dIdt=βSIN−γI dRdt=γI Several assumptions were made in the formulation of these equations: First, an individual in the population must be considered as having an equal probability as every other individual of contracting the disease with a rate of a and an equal fraction b of people that an individual makes contact with per unit time. Then, let β be the multiplication of a and b . This is the transmission probability times the contact rate. Besides, an infected individual makes contact with b persons per unit time whereas only a fraction, S/N of them are susceptible. Thus, we have every infective can infect abS=βS susceptible persons, and therefore, the whole number of susceptibles infected by infectives per unit time is βSI . For the second and third equations, consider the population leaving the susceptible class as equal to the number entering the infected class. However, a number equal to the fraction γ (which represents the mean recovery/death rate, or 1/γ the mean infective period) of infectives are leaving this class per unit time to enter the removed class. These processes which occur simultaneously are referred to as the Law of Mass Action, a widely accepted idea that the rate of contact between two groups in a population is proportional to the size of each of the groups concerned. Finally, it is assumed that the rate of infection and recovery is much faster than the time scale of births and deaths and therefore, these factors are ignored in this model.
The SIR model:
Steady-state solutions The expected duration of susceptibility will be min (TL∣TS)] where TL reflects the time alive (life expectancy) and TS reflects the time in the susceptible state before becoming infected, which can be simplified to: min (TL∣TS)]=∫0∞e−(μ+δ)xdx=1μ+δ, such that the number of susceptible persons is the number entering the susceptible compartment μN times the duration of susceptibility: S=μNμ+λ.
Analogously, the steady-state number of infected persons is the number entering the infected state from the susceptible state (number susceptible, times rate of infection) λ=βIN, times the duration of infectiousness 1μ+v :I=μNμ+λλ1μ+v.
The SIR model:
Other compartmental models There are many modifications of the SIR model, including those that include births and deaths, where upon recovery there is no immunity (SIS model), where immunity lasts only for a short period of time (SIRS), where there is a latent period of the disease where the person is not infectious (SEIS and SEIR), and where infants can be born with immunity (MSIR). Compartmental models can also be used to model multiple risk groups, and even the interaction of multiple pathogens.
Variations on the basic SIR model:
The SIS model Some infections, for example, those from the common cold and influenza, do not confer any long-lasting immunity. Such infections may give temporary resistance but do not give long-term immunity upon recovery from infection, and individuals become susceptible again.
We have the model: dSdt=−βSIN+γIdIdt=βSIN−γI Note that denoting with N the total population it holds that: dSdt+dIdt=0⇒S(t)+I(t)=N .It follows that: dIdt=(β−γ)I−βNI2 ,i.e. the dynamics of infectious is ruled by a logistic function, so that ∀I(0)>0 lim lim t→+∞I(t)=(1−γβ)N.
Variations on the basic SIR model:
It is possible to find an analytical solution to this model (by making a transformation of variables: I=y−1 and substituting this into the mean-field equations), such that the basic reproduction rate is greater than unity. The solution is given as I(t)=I∞1+Ve−χt .where I∞=(1−γ/β)N is the endemic infectious population, χ=β−γ , and V=I∞/I0−1 . As the system is assumed to be closed, the susceptible population is then S(t)=N−I(t) Whenever the integer nature of the number of agents is evident (populations with fewer than tens of thousands of individuals), inherent fluctuations in the disease spreading process caused by discrete agents result in uncertainties. In this scenario, the evolution of the disease predicted by compartmental equations deviates significantly from the observed results. These uncertainties may even cause the epidemic to end earlier than predicted by the compartmental equations.
Variations on the basic SIR model:
As a special case, one obtains the usual logistic function by assuming γ=0 . This can be also considered in the SIR model with R=0 , i.e. no removal will take place. That is the SI model. The differential equation system using S=N−I thus reduces to: dIdt∝I⋅(N−I).
In the long run, in the SI model, all individuals will become infected.
The SIRD model The Susceptible-Infectious-Recovered-Deceased model differentiates between Recovered (meaning specifically individuals having survived the disease and now immune) and Deceased. This model uses the following system of differential equations: dSdt=−βISN,dIdt=βISN−γI−μI,dRdt=γI,dDdt=μI, where β,γ,μ are the rates of infection, recovery, and mortality, respectively.
Variations on the basic SIR model:
The SIRV model The Susceptible-Infectious-Recovered-Vaccinated model is an extended SIR model that accounts for vaccination of the susceptible population. This model uses the following system of differential equations: dSdt=−β(t)ISN−v(t)S,dIdt=β(t)ISN−γ(t)I,dRdt=γ(t)I,dVdt=v(t)S, where β,γ,v are the rates of infection, recovery, and vaccination, respectively. For the semi-time initial conditions S(0)=(1−η)N , I(0)=ηN , R(0)=V(0)=0 and constant ratios k=γ(t)/β(t) and b=v(t)/β(t) the model had been solved approximately. The occurrence of a pandemic outburst requires k+b<1−2η and there is a critical reduced vaccination rate bc beyond which the steady-state size S∞ of the susceptible compartment remains relatively close to S(0) . Arbitrary initial conditions satisfying S(0)+I(0)+R(0)+V(0)=N can be mapped to the solved special case with R(0)=V(0)=0 The numerical solution of this model to calculate the real-time reproduction number Rt of COVID-19 can be practiced based on information from the different populations in a community. Numerical solution is a commonly used method to analyze complicated kinetic networks when the analytical solution is difficult to obtain or limited by requirements such as boundary conditions or special parameters. It uses recursive equations to calculate the next step by converting the numerical integration into Riemann sum of discrete time steps e.g., use yesterday's principal and interest rate to calculate today's interest which assumes the interest rate is fixed during the day. The calculation contains projected errors if the analytical corrections on the numerical step size are not included, e.g. when the interest rate of annual collection is simplified to 12 times the monthly rate, a projected error is introduced. Thus the calculated results will carry accumulative errors when the time step is far away from the reference point and a convergence test is needed to estimate the error. However, this error is usually acceptable for data fitting. When fitting a set of data with a close time step, the error is relatively small because the reference point is nearby compared to when predicting a long period of time after a reference point. Once the real-time Rt is pulled out, one can compare it to the basic reproduction number R0 . Before the vaccination, Rt gives the policy maker and general public a measure of the efficiency of social mitigation activities such as social distancing and face masking simply by dividing RtR0 . Under massive vaccination, the goal of disease control is to reduce the effective reproduction number Re=RtSN<1 , where S is the number of susceptible population at the time and N is the total population. When Re<1 , the spreading decays and daily infected cases go down.
Variations on the basic SIR model:
The MSIR model For many infections, including measles, babies are not born into the susceptible compartment but are immune to the disease for the first few months of life due to protection from maternal antibodies (passed across the placenta and additionally through colostrum). This is called passive immunity. This added detail can be shown by including an M class (for maternally derived immunity) at the beginning of the model.
Variations on the basic SIR model:
To indicate this mathematically, an additional compartment is added, M(t). This results in the following differential equations: dMdt=Λ−δM−μMdSdt=δM−βSIN−μSdIdt=βSIN−γI−μIdRdt=γI−μR Carrier state Some people who have had an infectious disease such as tuberculosis never completely recover and continue to carry the infection, whilst not suffering the disease themselves. They may then move back into the infectious compartment and suffer symptoms (as in tuberculosis) or they may continue to infect others in their carrier state, while not suffering symptoms. The most famous example of this is probably Mary Mallon, who infected 22 people with typhoid fever. The carrier compartment is labelled C.
Variations on the basic SIR model:
The SEIR model For many important infections, there is a significant latency period during which individuals have been infected but are not yet infectious themselves. During this period the individual is in compartment E (for exposed).
Assuming that the latency period is a random variable with exponential distribution with parameter a (i.e. the average latency period is a−1 ), and also assuming the presence of vital dynamics with birth rate Λ equal to death rate Nμ (so that the total number N is constant), we have the model: dSdt=μN−μS−βISNdEdt=βISN−(μ+a)EdIdt=aE−(γ+μ)IdRdt=γI−μR.
We have S+E+I+R=N, but this is only constant because of the simplifying assumption that birth and death rates are equal; in general N is a variable.
For this model, the basic reproduction number is: R0=aμ+aβμ+γ.
Similarly to the SIR model, also, in this case, we have a Disease-Free-Equilibrium (N,0,0,0) and an Endemic Equilibrium EE, and one can show that, independently from biologically meaningful initial conditions (S(0),E(0),I(0),R(0))∈{(S,E,I,R)∈[0,N]4:S≥0,E≥0,I≥0,R≥0,S+E+I+R=N} it holds that: lim t→+∞(S(t),E(t),I(t),R(t))=DFE=(N,0,0,0), lim t→+∞(S(t),E(t),I(t),R(t))=EE.
In case of periodically varying contact rate β(t) the condition for the global attractiveness of DFE is that the following linear system with periodic coefficients: dE1dt=β(t)I1−(γ+a)E1dI1dt=aE1−(γ+μ)I1 is stable (i.e. it has its Floquet's eigenvalues inside the unit circle in the complex plane).
The SEIS model The SEIS model is like the SEIR model (above) except that no immunity is acquired at the end.
S→E→I→S In this model an infection does not leave any immunity thus individuals that have recovered return to being susceptible, moving back into the S(t) compartment. The following differential equations describe this model: dSdt=Λ−βSIN−μS+γIdEdt=βSIN−(ϵ+μ)EdIdt=εE−(γ+μ)I The MSEIR model For the case of a disease, with the factors of passive immunity, and a latency period there is the MSEIR model.
M→S→E→I→R dMdt=Λ−δM−μMdSdt=δM−βSIN−μSdEdt=βSIN−(ε+μ)EdIdt=εE−(γ+μ)IdRdt=γI−μR The MSEIRS model An MSEIRS model is similar to the MSEIR, but the immunity in the R class would be temporary, so that individuals would regain their susceptibility when the temporary immunity ended.
Variations on the basic SIR model:
M→S→E→I→R→S Variable contact rates It is well known that the probability of getting a disease is not constant in time. As a pandemic progresses, reactions to the pandemic may change the contact rates which are assumed constant in the simpler models. Counter-measures such as masks, social distancing and lockdown will alter the contact rate in a way to reduce the speed of the pandemic.
Variations on the basic SIR model:
In addition, Some diseases are seasonal, such as the common cold viruses, which are more prevalent during winter. With childhood diseases, such as measles, mumps, and rubella, there is a strong correlation with the school calendar, so that during the school holidays the probability of getting such a disease dramatically decreases. As a consequence, for many classes of diseases, one should consider a force of infection with periodically ('seasonal') varying contact rate F=β(t)IN,β(t+T)=β(t) with period T equal to one year.
Variations on the basic SIR model:
Thus, our model becomes dSdt=μN−μS−β(t)INSdIdt=β(t)INS−(γ+μ)I (the dynamics of recovered easily follows from R=N−S−I ), i.e. a nonlinear set of differential equations with periodically varying parameters. It is well known that this class of dynamical systems may undergo very interesting and complex phenomena of nonlinear parametric resonance. It is easy to see that if: lim t→+∞(S(t),I(t))=DFE=(N,0), whereas if the integral is greater than one the disease will not die out and there may be such resonances. For example, considering the periodically varying contact rate as the 'input' of the system one has that the output is a periodic function whose period is a multiple of the period of the input.
Variations on the basic SIR model:
This allowed to give a contribution to explain the poly-annual (typically biennial) epidemic outbreaks of some infectious diseases as interplay between the period of the contact rate oscillations and the pseudo-period of the damped oscillations near the endemic equilibrium. Remarkably, in some cases, the behavior may also be quasi-periodic or even chaotic.
Variations on the basic SIR model:
SIR model with diffusion Spatiotemporal compartmental models describe not the total number, but the density of susceptible/infective/recovered persons. Consequently, they also allow to model the distribution of infected persons in space. In most cases, this is done by combining the SIR model with a diffusion equation ∂tS=DS∇2S−βISN,∂tI=DI∇2I+βISN−γI,∂tR=DR∇2R+γI, where DS , DI and DR are diffusion constants. Thereby, one obtains a reaction-diffusion equation. (Note that, for dimensional reasons, the parameter β has to be changed compared to the simple SIR model.) Early models of this type have been used to model the spread of the black death in Europe. Extensions of this model have been used to incorporate, e.g., effects of nonpharmaceutical interventions such as social distancing.
Variations on the basic SIR model:
Interacting Subpopulation SEIR Model As social contacts, disease severity and lethality, as well as the efficacy of prophylactic measures may differ substantially between interacting subpopulations, e.g., the elderly versus the young, separate SEIR models for each subgroup may be used that are mutually connected through interaction links. Such Interacting Subpopulation SEIR models have been used for modeling the COVID-19 pandemic at continent scale to develop personalized, accelerated, subpopulation-targeted vaccination strategies that promise a shortening of the pandemic and a reduction of case and death counts in the setting of limited access to vaccines during a wave of virus Variants of Concern.
Variations on the basic SIR model:
SIR Model on Networks The SIR model has been studied on networks of various kinds in order to model a more realistic form of connection than the homogeneous mixing condition which is usually required. A simple model for epidemics on networks in which an individual has a probability p of being infected by each of his infected neighbors in a given time step leads to results similar to giant component formation on Erdos Renyi random graphs.
Variations on the basic SIR model:
SIRSS model - combination of SIR with modelling of social stress Dynamics of epidemics depend on how people's behavior changes in time. For example, at the beginning of the epidemic, people are ignorant and careless, then, after the outbreak of epidemics and alarm, they begin to comply with the various restrictions and the spreading of epidemics may decline. Over time, some people get tired/frustrated by the restrictions and stop following them (exhaustion), especially if the number of new cases drops down. After resting for some time, they can follow the restrictions again. But during this pause the second wave can come and become even stronger than the first one. Social dynamics should be considered. The social physics models of social stress complement the classical epidemics models.
Variations on the basic SIR model:
The simplest SIR-social stress (SIRSS) model is organised as follows. The susceptible individuals (S) can be split in three subgroups by the types of behavior: ignorant or unaware of the epidemic (Sign), rationally resistant (Sres), and exhausted (Sexh) that do not react on the external stimuli (this is a sort of refractory period). In other words: S(t) = Sign(t) + Sres(t) + Sexh(t). Symbolically, the social stress model can be presented by the "reaction scheme" (where I denotes the infected individuals): Sign+2I→Sres+2I – mobilization reaction (the autocatalytic form here means that the transition rate is proportional to the square of the infected fraction I); Sres→Sexh – exhaustion process due to fatigue from anti-epidemic restrictions; Sexh→Sign – slow relaxation to the initial state (end of the refractory period).The main SIR epidemic reaction S...+I→2I has different reaction rate constants β for Sign, Sres, and Sexh. Presumably, for Sres, β is lower than for Sign and Sign.
Variations on the basic SIR model:
The differences between countries are concentrated in two kinetic constants: the rate of mobilization and the rate of exhaustion calculated for COVID-19 epidemic in 13 countries. These constants for this epidemic in all countries can be extracted by the fitting of the SIRSS model to publicly available data The KdV-SIR equation Based on the classical SIR model, a Korteweg-de Vries (KdV)–SIR equation and its analytical solution have been proposed to illustrate the fundamental dynamics of an epidemic wave, the dependence of solutions on parameters, and the dependence of predictability horizons on various types of solutions. The KdV-SIR equation is written as follows: d2Idt−σo2I+32σo2ImaxI2=0 Here, σo=γ(Ro−1) ,Ro=βγSoN and Imax=So2(Ro−1)2Ro2 .So indicates the initial value of the state variable S . Parameters σo (σ-naught) and Ro (R-naught) are the time-independent relative growth rate and basic reproduction number, respectively. Imax presents the maximum of the state variables I (for the number of infected persons). An analytical solution to the KdV-SIR equation is written as follows: I=Imaxsech2(σo2t) which represents a solitary wave solution.
Modelling vaccination:
The SIR model can be modified to model vaccination. Typically these introduce an additional compartment to the SIR model, V , for vaccinated individuals. Below are some examples.
Modelling vaccination:
Vaccinating newborns In presence of a communicable diseases, one of the main tasks is that of eradicating it via prevention measures and, if possible, via the establishment of a mass vaccination program. Consider a disease for which the newborn are vaccinated (with a vaccine giving lifelong immunity) at a rate P∈(0,1) :dSdt=νN(1−P)−μS−βINSdIdt=βINS−(μ+γ)IdVdt=νNP−μV where V is the class of vaccinated subjects. It is immediate to show that: lim t→+∞V(t)=NP, thus we shall deal with the long term behavior of S and I , for which it holds that: lim t→+∞(S(t),I(t))=DFE=(N(1−P),0) lim t→+∞(S(t),I(t))=EE=(NR0(1−P),N(R0(1−P)−1)).
Modelling vaccination:
In other words, if P<P∗=1−1R0 the vaccination program is not successful in eradicating the disease, on the contrary, it will remain endemic, although at lower levels than the case of absence of vaccinations. This means that the mathematical model suggests that for a disease whose basic reproduction number may be as high as 18 one should vaccinate at least 94.4% of newborns in order to eradicate the disease.
Modelling vaccination:
Vaccination and information Modern societies are facing the challenge of "rational" exemption, i.e. the family's decision to not vaccinate children as a consequence of a "rational" comparison between the perceived risk from infection and that from getting damages from the vaccine. In order to assess whether this behavior is really rational, i.e. if it can equally lead to the eradication of the disease, one may simply assume that the vaccination rate is an increasing function of the number of infectious subjects: 0.
Modelling vaccination:
In such a case the eradication condition becomes: P(0)≥P∗, i.e. the baseline vaccination rate should be greater than the "mandatory vaccination" threshold, which, in case of exemption, cannot hold. Thus, "rational" exemption might be myopic since it is based only on the current low incidence due to high vaccine coverage, instead taking into account future resurgence of infection due to coverage decline.
Modelling vaccination:
Vaccination of non-newborns In case there also are vaccinations of non newborns at a rate ρ the equation for the susceptible and vaccinated subject has to be modified as follows: dSdt=μN(1−P)−μS−ρS−βINSdVdt=μNP+ρS−μV leading to the following eradication condition: P≥1−(1+ρμ)1R0 Pulse vaccination strategy This strategy repeatedly vaccinates a defined age-cohort (such as young children or the elderly) in a susceptible population over time. Using this strategy, the block of susceptible individuals is then immediately removed, making it possible to eliminate an infectious disease, (such as measles), from the entire population. Every T time units a constant fraction p of susceptible subjects is vaccinated in a relatively short (with respect to the dynamics of the disease) time. This leads to the following impulsive differential equations for the susceptible and vaccinated subjects: dSdt=μN−μS−βINS,S(nT+)=(1−p)S(nT−),n=0,1,2,…dVdt=−μV,V(nT+)=V(nT−)+pS(nT−),n=0,1,2,… It is easy to see that by setting I = 0 one obtains that the dynamics of the susceptible subjects is given by: S∗(t)=1−p1−(1−p)E−μTE−μMOD(t,T) and that the eradication condition is: R0∫0TS∗(t)dt<1
The influence of age: age-structured models:
Age has a deep influence on the disease spread rate in a population, especially the contact rate. This rate summarizes the effectiveness of contacts between susceptible and infectious subjects. Taking into account the ages of the epidemic classes s(t,a),i(t,a),r(t,a) (to limit ourselves to the susceptible-infectious-removed scheme) such that: S(t)=∫0aMs(t,a)da I(t)=∫0aMi(t,a)da R(t)=∫0aMr(t,a)da (where aM≤+∞ is the maximum admissible age) and their dynamics is not described, as one might think, by "simple" partial differential equations, but by integro-differential equations: ∂ts(t,a)+∂as(t,a)=−μ(a)s(a,t)−s(a,t)∫0aMk(a,a1;t)i(a1,t)da1 ∂ti(t,a)+∂ai(t,a)=s(a,t)∫0aMk(a,a1;t)i(a1,t)da1−μ(a)i(a,t)−γ(a)i(a,t) ∂tr(t,a)+∂ar(t,a)=−μ(a)r(a,t)+γ(a)i(a,t) where: F(a,t,i(⋅,⋅))=∫0aMk(a,a1;t)i(a1,t)da1 is the force of infection, which, of course, will depend, though the contact kernel k(a,a1;t) on the interactions between the ages.
The influence of age: age-structured models:
Complexity is added by the initial conditions for newborns (i.e. for a=0), that are straightforward for infectious and removed: i(t,0)=r(t,0)=0 but that are nonlocal for the density of susceptible newborns: s(t,0)=∫0aM(φs(a)s(a,t)+φi(a)i(a,t)+φr(a)r(a,t))da where φj(a),j=s,i,r are the fertilities of the adults.
The influence of age: age-structured models:
Moreover, defining now the density of the total population n(t,a)=s(t,a)+i(t,a)+r(t,a) one obtains: ∂tn(t,a)+∂an(t,a)=−μ(a)n(a,t) In the simplest case of equal fertilities in the three epidemic classes, we have that in order to have demographic equilibrium the following necessary and sufficient condition linking the fertility φ(.) with the mortality μ(a) must hold: exp (−∫0aμ(q)dq)da and the demographic equilibrium is exp (−∫0aμ(q)dq), automatically ensuring the existence of the disease-free solution: DFS(a)=(n∗(a),0,0).
The influence of age: age-structured models:
A basic reproduction number can be calculated as the spectral radius of an appropriate functional operator.
Other considerations within compartmental epidemic models:
Vertical transmission In the case of some diseases such as AIDS and Hepatitis B, it is possible for the offspring of infected parents to be born infected. This transmission of the disease down from the mother is referred to as vertical transmission. The influx of additional members into the infected category can be considered within the model by including a fraction of the newborn members in the infected compartment.
Other considerations within compartmental epidemic models:
Vector transmission Diseases transmitted from human to human indirectly, i.e. malaria spread by way of mosquitoes, are transmitted through a vector. In these cases, the infection transfers from human to insect and an epidemic model must include both species, generally requiring many more compartments than a model for direct transmission.
Others Other occurrences which may need to be considered when modeling an epidemic include things such as the following: Non-homogeneous mixing Variable infectivity Distributions that are spatially non-uniform Diseases caused by macroparasites
Deterministic versus stochastic epidemic models:
It is important to stress that the deterministic models presented here are valid only in case of sufficiently large populations, and as such should be used cautiously.To be more precise, these models are only valid in the thermodynamic limit, where the population is effectively infinite. In stochastic models, the long-time endemic equilibrium derived above, does not hold, as there is a finite probability that the number of infected individuals drops below one in a system. In a true system then, the pathogen may not propagate, as no host will be infected. But, in deterministic mean-field models, the number of infected can take on real, namely, non-integer values of infected hosts, and the number of hosts in the model can be less than one, but more than zero, thereby allowing the pathogen in the model to propagate. The reliability of compartmental models is limited to compartmental applications.
Deterministic versus stochastic epidemic models:
One of the possible extensions of mean-field models considers the spreading of epidemics on a network based on percolation theory concepts. Stochastic epidemic models have been studied on different networks and more recently applied to the COVID-19 pandemic.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Boltzmann distribution**
Boltzmann distribution:
In statistical mechanics and mathematics, a Boltzmann distribution (also called Gibbs distribution) is a probability distribution or probability measure that gives the probability that a system will be in a certain state as a function of that state's energy and the temperature of the system. The distribution is expressed in the form: exp (−εikT) where pi is the probability of the system being in state i, exp is the exponential function, εi is the energy of that state, and a constant kT of the distribution is the product of the Boltzmann constant k and thermodynamic temperature T. The symbol {\textstyle \propto } denotes proportionality (see § The distribution for the proportionality constant).
Boltzmann distribution:
The term system here has a wide meaning; it can range from a collection of 'sufficient number' of atoms or a single atom to a macroscopic system such as a natural gas storage tank. Therefore the Boltzmann distribution can be used to solve a wide variety of problems. The distribution shows that states with lower energy will always have a higher probability of being occupied.
Boltzmann distribution:
The ratio of probabilities of two states is known as the Boltzmann factor and characteristically only depends on the states' energy difference: exp (εj−εikT) The Boltzmann distribution is named after Ludwig Boltzmann who first formulated it in 1868 during his studies of the statistical mechanics of gases in thermal equilibrium. Boltzmann's statistical work is borne out in his paper “On the Relationship between the Second Fundamental Theorem of the Mechanical Theory of Heat and Probability Calculations Regarding the Conditions for Thermal Equilibrium" The distribution was later investigated extensively, in its modern generic form, by Josiah Willard Gibbs in 1902.The Boltzmann distribution should not be confused with the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution or Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics. The Boltzmann distribution gives the probability that a system will be in a certain state as a function of that state's energy, while the Maxwell-Boltzmann distributions give the probabilities of particle speeds or energies in ideal gases. The distribution of energies in a one-dimensional gas however, does follow the Boltzmann distribution.
The distribution:
The Boltzmann distribution is a probability distribution that gives the probability of a certain state as a function of that state's energy and temperature of the system to which the distribution is applied. It is given as where: exp() is the exponential function, pi is the probability of state i, εi is the energy of state i, k is the Boltzmann constant, T is the absolute temperature of the system, M is the number of all states accessible to the system of interest, Q (denoted by some authors by Z) is the normalization denominator, which is the canonical partition function It results from the constraint that the probabilities of all accessible states must add up to 1.The Boltzmann distribution is the distribution that maximizes the entropy subject to the normalization constraint and the constraint that {\textstyle \sum {p_{i}{\varepsilon }_{i}}} equals a particular mean energy value (which can be proven using Lagrange multipliers).
The distribution:
The partition function can be calculated if we know the energies of the states accessible to the system of interest. For atoms the partition function values can be found in the NIST Atomic Spectra Database.The distribution shows that states with lower energy will always have a higher probability of being occupied than the states with higher energy. It can also give us the quantitative relationship between the probabilities of the two states being occupied. The ratio of probabilities for states i and j is given as where: pi is the probability of state i, pj the probability of state j, εi is the energy of state i, εj is the energy of state j.The corresponding ratio of populations of energy levels must also take their degeneracies into account.
The distribution:
The Boltzmann distribution is often used to describe the distribution of particles, such as atoms or molecules, over bound states accessible to them. If we have a system consisting of many particles, the probability of a particle being in state i is practically the probability that, if we pick a random particle from that system and check what state it is in, we will find it is in state i. This probability is equal to the number of particles in state i divided by the total number of particles in the system, that is the fraction of particles that occupy state i.
The distribution:
pi=NiN where Ni is the number of particles in state i and N is the total number of particles in the system. We may use the Boltzmann distribution to find this probability that is, as we have seen, equal to the fraction of particles that are in state i. So the equation that gives the fraction of particles in state i as a function of the energy of that state is This equation is of great importance to spectroscopy. In spectroscopy we observe a spectral line of atoms or molecules undergoing transitions from one state to another. In order for this to be possible, there must be some particles in the first state to undergo the transition. We may find that this condition is fulfilled by finding the fraction of particles in the first state. If it is negligible, the transition is very likely not observed at the temperature for which the calculation was done. In general, a larger fraction of molecules in the first state means a higher number of transitions to the second state. This gives a stronger spectral line. However, there are other factors that influence the intensity of a spectral line, such as whether it is caused by an allowed or a forbidden transition.
The distribution:
The softmax function commonly used in machine learning is related to the Boltzmann distribution: softmax [−ε1kT,…,−εMkT]
Generalized Boltzmann distribution:
Distribution of the form Pr exp [∑η=1nXηxη(ω)kBT−E(ω)kBT] is called generalized Boltzmann distribution by some authors.The Boltzmann distribution is a special case of the generalized Boltzmann distribution. The generalized Boltzmann distribution is used in statistical mechanics to describe canonical ensemble, grand canonical ensemble and isothermal–isobaric ensemble. The generalized Boltzmann distribution is usually derived from principle of maximum entropy, but there are other derivations.The generalized Boltzmann distribution has the following properties: It is the only distribution for which the entropy as defined by Gibbs entropy formula matches with the entropy as defined in classical thermodynamics.
Generalized Boltzmann distribution:
It is the only distribution that is mathematically consistent with the fundamental thermodynamic relation where state functions are described by ensemble average.
In statistical mechanics:
The Boltzmann distribution appears in statistical mechanics when considering closed systems of fixed composition that are in thermal equilibrium (equilibrium with respect to energy exchange). The most general case is the probability distribution for the canonical ensemble. Some special cases (derivable from the canonical ensemble) show the Boltzmann distribution in different aspects: Canonical ensemble (general case) The canonical ensemble gives the probabilities of the various possible states of a closed system of fixed volume, in thermal equilibrium with a heat bath. The canonical ensemble has a state probability distribution with the Boltzmann form.
In statistical mechanics:
Statistical frequencies of subsystems' states (in a non-interacting collection) When the system of interest is a collection of many non-interacting copies of a smaller subsystem, it is sometimes useful to find the statistical frequency of a given subsystem state, among the collection. The canonical ensemble has the property of separability when applied to such a collection: as long as the non-interacting subsystems have fixed composition, then each subsystem's state is independent of the others and is also characterized by a canonical ensemble. As a result, the expected statistical frequency distribution of subsystem states has the Boltzmann form.
In statistical mechanics:
Maxwell–Boltzmann statistics of classical gases (systems of non-interacting particles) In particle systems, many particles share the same space and regularly change places with each other; the single-particle state space they occupy is a shared space. Maxwell–Boltzmann statistics give the expected number of particles found in a given single-particle state, in a classical gas of non-interacting particles at equilibrium. This expected number distribution has the Boltzmann form.Although these cases have strong similarities, it is helpful to distinguish them as they generalize in different ways when the crucial assumptions are changed: When a system is in thermodynamic equilibrium with respect to both energy exchange and particle exchange, the requirement of fixed composition is relaxed and a grand canonical ensemble is obtained rather than canonical ensemble. On the other hand, if both composition and energy are fixed, then a microcanonical ensemble applies instead.
In statistical mechanics:
If the subsystems within a collection do interact with each other, then the expected frequencies of subsystem states no longer follow a Boltzmann distribution, and even may not have an analytical solution. The canonical ensemble can however still be applied to the collective states of the entire system considered as a whole, provided the entire system is in thermal equilibrium.
In statistical mechanics:
With quantum gases of non-interacting particles in equilibrium, the number of particles found in a given single-particle state does not follow Maxwell–Boltzmann statistics, and there is no simple closed form expression for quantum gases in the canonical ensemble. In the grand canonical ensemble the state-filling statistics of quantum gases are described by Fermi–Dirac statistics or Bose–Einstein statistics, depending on whether the particles are fermions or bosons, respectively.
In mathematics:
In more general mathematical settings, the Boltzmann distribution is also known as the Gibbs measure. In statistics and machine learning, it is called a log-linear model. In deep learning, the Boltzmann distribution is used in the sampling distribution of stochastic neural networks such as the Boltzmann machine, restricted Boltzmann machine, energy-based models and deep Boltzmann machine. In deep learning, the Boltzmann machine is considered to be one of the unsupervised learning models. In the design of Boltzmann machine in deep learning , as the number of nodes are increased the difficulty of implementing in real time applications becomes critical, so a different type of architecture named Restricted Boltzmann machine is introduced.
In economics:
The Boltzmann distribution can be introduced to allocate permits in emissions trading. The new allocation method using the Boltzmann distribution can describe the most probable, natural, and unbiased distribution of emissions permits among multiple countries.
The Boltzmann distribution has the same form as the multinomial logit model. As a discrete choice model, this is very well known in economics since Daniel McFadden made the connection to random utility maximization.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Sstream**
Sstream:
In the C++ programming language, <sstream> is a part of the C++ Standard Library. It is a header file that provides templates and types that enable interoperation between stream buffers and string objects.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Carey Fineman Ziter syndrome**
Carey Fineman Ziter syndrome:
Carey Fineman Ziter syndrome is a rare genetic condition. Fewer than 10 cases have been reported in the literature.
Signs and symptoms:
Several features have been described in this syndrome. These include: cleft palate micrognathia laryngostenosis developmental delay small pons scoliosis myopathy intermittent episodes of hypertension Poland sequence Möbius sequence hydronephrosis bilateral clubfeet (talipes)
Genetics:
Mutations in the gene Myomaker (MYMK) have been shown to be responsible for this condition. The gene is located on the long arm of chromosome 9 (9q34.2). Inheritance is autosomal recessive.
Pathogenesis:
The Myomaker gene encodes a transmembrane protein that is found on the surface of muscle cells. Mutations in this protein result in failure of myoblast fusion.
Diagnosis:
Diagnosis is made by sequencing the MYMK gene.
Previously diagnosis could be made on clinical features, though brain anomalies could only be determined with an MRI.
Differential diagnosis Native American myopathy Moebius syndrome
Treatment:
There is no curative treatment known. Management is supportive.
History:
The condition was first described in 1982.Jordan River Anderson, born in 1999 in and died in 2005, was diagnosed with Carey Fineman Ziter syndrome and lived his entire life in hospital in Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada. There were plans for him to live outside hospital with family but funding was subject to a jurisdictional dispute between the federal government of Canada and the provincial government of Manitoba because the federal government has financial responsibilities for health and education of Indigenous First Nations people in particular. Jordan became the namesake of Jordan's Principle in Canadian First Nations policy, stipulating that government-funded public services should be to First Nations children promptly and work out later which level of government will ultimately pay for any services whose funding is in dispute. Jordan River Anderson, the Messenger is a 2019 documentary film about Jordan and the campaign for and enactment of the principle.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Filters, random fields, and maximum entropy model**
Filters, random fields, and maximum entropy model:
In the domain of physics and probability, the filters, random fields, and maximum entropy (FRAME) model is a Markov random field model (or a Gibbs distribution) of stationary spatial processes, in which the energy function is the sum of translation-invariant potential functions that are one-dimensional non-linear transformations of linear filter responses. The FRAME model was originally developed by Song-Chun Zhu, Ying Nian Wu, and David Mumford for modeling stochastic texture patterns, such as grasses, tree leaves, brick walls, water waves, etc. This model is the maximum entropy distribution that reproduces the observed marginal histograms of responses from a bank of filters (such as Gabor filters or Gabor wavelets), where for each filter tuned to a specific scale and orientation, the marginal histogram is pooled over all the pixels in the image domain. The FRAME model is also proved to be equivalent to the micro-canonical ensemble, which was named the Julesz ensemble. Gibbs sampler is adopted to synthesize texture images by drawing samples from the FRAME model.
Filters, random fields, and maximum entropy model:
The original FRAME model is homogeneous for texture modeling. Xie et al. proposed the sparse FRAME model, which is an inhomogeneous generalization of the original FRAME model, for the purpose of modeling object patterns, such as animal bodies, faces, etc. It is a non-stationary Markov random field model that reproduces the observed statistical properties of filter responses at a subset of selected locations, scales and orientations. The sparse FRAME model can be considered a deformable template.
Filters, random fields, and maximum entropy model:
The deep FRAME model is a deep generalization of the original FRAME model. Instead of using linear filters as in the original FRAME model, Lu et al. uses the filters at a certain convolutional layer of a pre-learned ConvNet. Instead of relying on the pre-trained filters from an existing ConvNet, Xie et al. parameterized the energy function of the FRAME model by a ConvNet structure and learn all parameters from scratch. The deep FRAME model is the first framework that integrates modern deep neural network from deep learning and Gibbs distribution from statistical physics. The deep FRAME models are further generalized to modeling video patterns, 3D volumetric shape patterns
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Call-by-push-value**
Call-by-push-value:
In programming language theory, the call-by-push-value (CBPV) paradigm, inspired by monads, allows writing semantics for lambda-calculus without writing two variants to deal with the difference between call-by-name and call-by-value. To do so, CBPV introduces a term language that distinguishes computations and values, according to the slogan a value is, a computation does; this term language has a single evaluation order. However, to evaluate a lambda-calculus term according to either the call-by-name (CBN) or call-by-value (CBV) reduction strategy, one can translate the term to CBPV using a call-by-name or call-by-value translation strategy, which give rise to different terms. Evaluating the result of the call-by-value translation corresponds to evaluating the original term with the call-by-value strategy; evaluating the result of the call-by-name translation corresponds instead to evaluating the original term with the call-by-name strategy.
Call-by-push-value:
This is especially useful when dealing with the semantics of different side effects, such as nontermination, mutable state or nondeterminism. Instead of giving two variants of the semantics, one for the call-by-name evaluation order and one for the call-by-value one, one can simply give a semantics for the CBPV term language; one gets two semantics for lambda-calculus by composing this CBPV semantics with the same CBV and CBN translations from lambda-calculus.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Encirclement**
Encirclement:
Encirclement is a military term for the situation when a force or target is isolated and surrounded by enemy forces. The situation is highly dangerous for the encircled force. At the strategic level, it cannot receive supplies or reinforcements, and on the tactical level, the units in the force can be subject to an attack from several sides. Lastly, since the force cannot retreat, unless it is relieved or can break out, it must fight to the death or surrender. A special kind of encirclement is the siege. In that case, the encircled forces are enveloped in a fortified position in which long-lasting supplies and strong defences are in place, allowing them to withstand attacks. Sieges have taken place in almost all eras of warfare.
History:
Encirclement has been used throughout the centuries by military leaders, including generals such as Spartacus, Alexander the Great, Julius Caesar, Genghis Khan, Khalid bin Waleed, Hannibal, Sun Tzu, Yi Sun Shin, Shaka Zulu, von Wallenstein, Nader Shah, Napoleon, von Moltke, Heinz Guderian, von Rundstedt, von Manstein, Zhukov, Patton and Soleimani.
History:
Sun Tzu and other military thinkers suggest that an army should be not completely encircled but instead given some room for escape. Otherwise, the "encircled" army's men will lift their morale and fight to the death. It is better to have them consider the possibility of a retreat. Once the enemy retreats, it can be pursued and captured or destroyed with far less risk to the pursuing forces than a fight to the death.
Types of encirclement:
The main form of encircling, the "double pincer", is executed by attacks on the flanks of a battle whose mobile forces of the era, such as light infantry, cavalry, tanks, or armoured personnel carriers attempt to force a breakthrough to utilize their speed to join behind the back of the enemy force and complete the "ring" while the main enemy force is stalled by probing attacks. The encirclement of the German Sixth Army in the Battle of Stalingrad in 1942 is a typical example. During the Winter War, Finland used "pocket tactics" against the Soviet Union, called motti; in the context of war, motti describes a tactic that the Finns used to immobilise, segment, surround and destroy the Soviet troops that were many times as large as them.If there is a natural obstacle, such as ocean or mountains on one side of the battlefield, only one pincer is needed ("single pincer"), because the function of the second arm is taken over by the natural obstacle. The German attack into the lowlands of France in 1940 is a typical example of this.
Types of encirclement:
A third and rare type of encirclement can ensue from a breakthrough in an area of the enemy front, and exploiting that with mobile forces, diverging in two or more directions behind the enemy line. Full encirclement rarely follows, but the threat of it severely hampers the defender's options. This type of attack pattern is centerpiece to blitzkrieg operations. Because of the extreme difficulty of this operation, it cannot be executed unless the offensive force has a vast superiority, either in technology, organization, or sheer numbers. The Barbarossa campaign of 1941 saw some examples.
Types of encirclement:
The danger to the encircling force is that it is, itself, cut off from its logistical base; if the encircled force is able to stand firm, or maintain a supply route, the encircling force can be thrown into confusion (for example, Rommel's "Dash to the Wire" in 1941 and the Demyansk Pocket in 1942) or be comprehensively destroyed (as during the Burma campaign, in 1944).
Notable encirclement battles:
Some examples of battles of encirclement are listed below.
Notable encirclement battles:
Battle of Thermopylae (480 BC) Battle of Cannae (216 BC) Battle of the Abas (65 BC) Battle of Walaja (633 AD) Battle of Ekeren (1703) Battle of Fraustadt (1706) Battle of Kirkuk (1733) Battle of Kars (1745) Battle of Maymyo (1768) Ulm Campaign (1805) Battle of Ocaña (1809) Battle of Isandlwana (1879) Battle of Tannenberg (1914) Battle of Magdhaba (1916) Battle of Rafa (1916) First Battle of Gaza (1917) Battle of Beersheba (1917) Battle of Megiddo (1918) Battle of Suomussalmi (1939-1940) Battle of Kiev (1941) Battle of Smolensk (1941) Battle of Białystok–Minsk (1941) Battle for Velikiye Luki (1942) Battle of Hong Kong (1941) Battle of Stalingrad (1942-1943) Battle of the Korsun-Cherkassy Pocket (1944) Kamenets-Podolsky pocket (1944) Operation Bagration (1944) Battle of the Mons Pocket (1944) Siege of Bastogne, Belgium (1944) Battle of the Ruhr Pocket (1945) Battle of Berlin (1945) Six-Day War (1967) Battle of Khorramshahr (1980) Battle of Mogadishu (1993) Battle of Misrata (2011) Battle of Aleppo (2012–2016) Battle of Ilovaisk (2014) Second Battle of Tikrit (2015) Battle of Afrin (2018) Siege of Mariupol (2022)
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Cyanoacetylene**
Cyanoacetylene:
Cyanoacetylene is an organic compound with formula C3HN or H−C≡C−C≡N. It is the simplest cyanopolyyne. Cyanoacetylene has been detected by spectroscopic methods in interstellar clouds, in the coma of comet Hale–Bopp and in the atmosphere of Saturn's moon Titan, where it sometimes forms expansive fog-like clouds.Cyanoacetylene is one of the molecules that was produced in the Miller–Urey experiment.
H−C≡C−H+H−C≡N⟶H−C≡C−C≡N+H2
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Nabkha**
Nabkha:
A nabkha, nebkha or nebka is a type of sand dune. Other terms used include coppice dune and dune hummock or hummocky dune, but these more accurately refer to similar, but different, sand dune types. Authors have also used the terms phytogenic hillock, bush-mound, shrub-coppice dune, knob dune, dune tumulus, rebdou, nebbe, and takouit.In simplest terms, a nabkha is a sand dune that forms around vegetation. It is an aeolian landform, a structure built and shaped by the action of wind.Nabkhas are common and occur in many regions. Well known nabkha fields occur in the Lut Desert of Iran, Arabian Desert of Kuwait, the Hotan River Basin in Xinjiang, China, and New Mexico in the United States and adjacent Chihuahua in Mexico.
Structure:
Many species of sand-dwelling plants form nabkhas. In the Chihuahuan Desert they include soaptree (Yucca elata), creosote (Larrea tridentata), and atriplex (Atriplex spp.). In China nabkhas form quite often around Caragana microphylla, as well as Cleistogenes squarrosa, Leymus chinensis, Caragana stenophylla, Stipa grandis, and S. glareosa, plus tamarisks, reeds, and alhagi. In Jal Az-Zor National Park in Kuwait, they occur around Nitraria retusa, Zygophyllum qatarense, Haloxylon salicornicum, and Panicum turgidum. Halophytes such as Tamarix aucheriana, Halocnemum strobilaceum and Salicornia europaea have nabkhas in saline soils, while Cyperus conglomeratus, Rhanterium epapposum, Astragalus spinosus, Lycium shawii, and Citrulus colocynthis are seen in non-saline zones. On the Sinai Peninsula of Egypt they are recorded on Artemisia monosperma, Moltkiopsis ciliata, Calligonum polygonoides, Stipagrostis scoparia, and Retama raetam. In central Asia and surrounding areas they occur on Calotropis, Ziziphus, Salvadora, and Heliotropium species.A nabkha is variable in size and shape. The typical example is a steep mound with a flat top. The larger nabkhas of the Chihuahuan Desert reach about 4.3 meters tall by 40 meters wide. The largest known were 10 meters tall and a kilometer long; these large dunes have been called mega-nabkhas. Mega-nabkhas in various places have also been called precipitation ridges, bordering dune ridges, and in Dutch, randwallen. Sometimes only the tips of the branches of the plant within protrude from the sand, and sometimes the plant is completely engulfed. Nabkhas may join together and form broad, hilly dune fields, or more often, chains and scattered dune patches. The sand composition is also variable. Silt and clay pellets can be part of the dune. Nabkhas in the Namib Desert are rich in sediment. On the Kuwaiti coastline nabkhas form around Nitraria retusa growing on sabkhas, a form of salt pan. These dunes are composed of quartz, gypsum, and feldspar sands mixed with bits of volcanic rock and calcite grains. Fragments of mollusc shell and oolites can be found. Traces of garnet, zircon, topaz, and tourmaline occur. Dolomite is common. Coastal nabkhas can be eroded by saltwater, and even washed away completely, leaving the plant behind.The type of plant influences the shape of the nabkha; for example, treasure flower (Gazania rigens) forms tall, conical or elongated dunes, while beach daisy (Arctotheca populifolia) forms shorter, semi-circular dunes. Retama raetam is a salinity-tolerant woody shrub that can extend roots up to 20 meters deep in the soil, persisting through harsh conditions and eventually building nabkhas up to 8 meters wide. A plant generally cannot hold enough sand to start a nabkha until it is at least 10 centimeters tall.Some sources describe nabkhas as ephemeral features of the landscape, but other research shows that they may last longer than previously thought. Some last over 100 years. Still, a nabkha on an annual plant generally only lasts one season. A nabkha can also be self-limiting if the sand accumulation lifts the plant far enough out of the water table that it dies.
Ecology:
Nabkhas are common features in landscapes that are undergoing desertification. In North America, a characteristic sign of desertification is the spread of mesquites (Prosopis spp.) into the habitat. Mesquites rapidly accumulate windblown sand, forming nabkhas. In northern China, nabkhas were present on grasslands before they were converted to agriculture, but this conversion accelerated their development and they are a common feature of abandoned farm fields in the region. They are indicators of soil erosion there.Nabkhas develop their own ecosystems. They are home to a variety of animals, including many invertebrates such as nematodes and the sand flea Talochestria capensis. The dune tends to have more organic material than the surrounding sand, as windblown plant matter accumulates in it and the roots of the plant penetrate it. In degraded and oil-polluted desert areas in Kuwait, plants with nabkhas act as ecosystem engineers, hosting a sheltered site with layers of relatively rich soil in which other plants can grow. Nabkhas on nitrogen-fixing plants like legumes can have elevated nitrogen levels and other nutrients that other plants can use. The dunes can become islands of plant diversity in otherwise poor habitat.
Etymology:
Nabkha is an Arabic word that has been in use for at least 14 centuries. It translates roughly to "small, sandy hillock".
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Papulonecrotic tuberculid**
Papulonecrotic tuberculid:
Papulonecrotic tuberculid is usually an asymptomatic, chronic skin disorder, presenting in successive crops, skin lesions symmetrically distributed on the extensor extremities.: 337
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Shades of magenta**
Shades of magenta:
The color magenta has notable tints and shades. These various colors are shown below.
Definition of magenta:
Magenta is a color made up of equal parts of red and blue light. This would be the precise definition of the color as defined for computer display (the color #FF00FF shown in the color swatch above). It is a pure chroma on the RGB color wheel (Image of RGB color wheel:) midway between violet and rose. In HSV color space, magenta has a hue of 300°.
Definition of magenta:
In a color proximity sense, a primary color has a color range of 120° (60° on each side of the color's hue) and any color has to be within that range to be considered a variation of that color. Secondary colors have a color range of 60° (30°), tertiary colors have a color range of 30° (15°), quaternary colors have a color range of 15° (7.5°), quinary colors have a color range of 7.5° (3.75°), and so on. Because magenta is located at a hue angle of 300°, it has a tertiary color range of 285° and 315°, and any color out of this range is more related to violet or rose than magenta.
Definition of magenta:
Magenta is not a spectral but an extraspectral color: it cannot be generated by light of a single wavelength. Humans, being trichromats, can only see as far as 380 nanometers into the spectrum, i.e., as far as violet.
The hue magenta is the complement of green: magenta pigments absorb green light, thus magenta and green are opposite colors. This makes magenta an "extra-spectral color".
Three major historical variations of magenta:
Magenta dye (original variation) (1860) Before printer's magenta was invented in the 1890s for CMYK printing, and electric magenta was invented in the 1980s for computer displays, these two artificially engineered colors were preceded by the color displayed at right, which is the color originally called magenta made from coal tar dyes in the year 1859.
Besides being called original magenta, magenta dye color is also called rich magenta to distinguish it from the colors printer's magenta and electric magenta, shown below.
Magenta was one of the first aniline dyes, discovered shortly after the Battle of Magenta (1859), which occurred near the town of Magenta in northern Italy. The color was originally called fuchsine or roseine, but for marketing purposes in 1860 the color name was changed to magenta after the battle. Hence, the color is named indirectly after the town.
Three major historical variations of magenta:
Process magenta (pigment magenta) (printer's magenta) (1890s) In color printing, the color called process magenta or pigment magenta is one of the three primary pigment colors which, along with yellow and cyan, constitute the three subtractive primary colors of pigment. (The secondary colors of pigment are blue, green, and red.) As such, the CMYK printing process was invented in the 1890s, when newspapers began to publish color comic strips.
Three major historical variations of magenta:
Process magenta is not an RGB color, and there is no fixed conversion from CMYK primaries to RGB. Different formulations are used for printer's ink, so there can be variations in the printed color that is pure magenta ink. A typical formulation of process magenta is shown in the color box at right. The source of the color shown at right is the color magenta that is shown in the diagram located at the bottom of the following website offering tintbooks for CMYK printing: [2].
Three major historical variations of magenta:
Web colors magenta and fuchsia (1990s) Magenta, shown at the right, is one of the three secondary colors in the RGB color model, used to make all the colors on computer and television displays. It is made by a mixture of red and blue light at equal intensity. It is called magenta on X11 list of color names, and fuchsia on the HTML color list. The web colors magenta and fuchsia are exactly the same color. Sometimes the web color magenta is called electric magenta or electronic magenta.
Additional variations of magenta:
Magenta (Pantone) Displayed at right is the color magenta (Pantone), i.e., the color that is called magenta in the Pantone color system.
The source of this color is the "Pantone Textile Paper eXtended (TPX)" color list, color #17-2036 TPX—Magenta.
Magenta (Crayola) At right is displayed a Crayola color formulated in 1949; it was originally called brilliant rose but the name was changed in 1958 to magenta.
This color has a hue angle of 329, which is close to the hue angle of the color rose, which is 330.
Dark magenta Displayed at right is the web color dark magenta.
Hot magenta Displayed at right is the color hot magenta.
This color was formulated by Crayola in 1986.
Magenta haze Displayed at right is the color magenta haze.
The source of this color is the "Pantone Textile Paper eXtended (TPX)" color list, color #18-2525 TPX—Magenta Haze.
Quinacridone magenta At right is displayed the color quinacridone magenta.
Quinacridone magenta is a color made from quinacridone pigment. It is sold in tubes at art supply stores. By mixing various amounts of white with it, artists may create a wide range of light, bright, brilliant, vivid, rich, or deep tints of magenta.
Additional variations of magenta:
Sky magenta Displayed at right is the color sky magenta. The color sky magenta is a representation of the color of the sky near the Sun during the brief period during twilight when the pink of sunset transitions into the blue of early evening. This color was one of the colors in the set of Venus Paradise colored pencils, a popular brand of colored pencils in the 1950s.
Additional variations of magenta:
This color is also called medium lavender pink.
A photograph of the sky displaying the color sky magenta in its natural context by photographer Dave Horne [3] is displayed here: [4] Telemagenta Displayed at right is the color telemagenta.
This is one of the colors in the RAL color matching system, a color system widely used in Europe. The RAL color list first originated in 1927, and it reached its present form in 1961.
Amaranth Amaranth (color) is a reddish-rose color that is a representation of the color of the flower of the amaranth plant. The color amaranth purple is displayed at right.
Orchid The color orchid, since it has a hue code of 302, may be classified as a rich tone of magenta. Orchid is a representation of the color of the orchid flower.
The first recorded use of orchid as a color name in English was in 1915.In 1987, orchid was included as one of the X11 colors. After the invention of the World Wide Web in 1991, these became known as the X11 web colors.
Pale purple Pale purple is a pale tint of magenta despite it being called a purple.
Plum The color plum, since it has a hue code of 307, may be regarded as a dark tone of magenta. The color plum is a close representation of the average color of the plum fruit.
The first recorded use of plum as a color name in English was in 1805.
Purple pizzazz Displayed at right is the color purple pizzazz.
This color was formulated by Crayola in 1990.
Razzle dazzle rose Displayed at right is the color razzle dazzle rose.
This color is a vivid tone of rose tending toward magenta.
This is a Crayola crayon color formulated in 1972 and called hot magenta. In 1990 the name changed to razzle dazzle rose.
Rose quartz There is a grayish shade of magenta that is called rose quartz.
The first recorded use of rose quartz as a color name in English was in 1926.
Shocking pink Shocking pink (the original 1937 shocking pink) takes its name from the tone of pink used in the lettering on the box of the perfume called Shocking, designed by Leonor Fini for the Surrealist fashion designer Elsa Schiaparelli in 1937.
Shocking pink (Crayola) Displayed at right is the Crayola color shocking pink.
This is a Crayola crayon color formulated in 1972 and called ultra pink. In 1990 the name was changed to shocking pink.
Steel pink The color steel pink is displayed at right.
The color steel pink was introduced by Crayola in January 2011, when the Ultra Hot and Super Cool set of Crayola colored pencils was fully introduced.
"Steel pink" is a deep tone of magenta.
Web color violet Although called violet, it is actually a shade of magenta.
African violet The color African violet is displayed at right.
The source of this color is the "Pantone Textile Paper eXtended (TPX)" color list, color #16-3250 TPX—African Violet.
English violet The color English violet is displayed at right.
The first recorded use of English violet as a color name in English was in 1928.
Chinese violet The color Chinese violet is displayed at right.
The first recorded use of Chinese violet as a color name in English was in 1912.The source of this color is the "Pantone Textile Paper eXtended (TPX)" color list, color #18-3418 TPX—Chinese Violet.
Japanese violet The color Japanese violet is shown at right.
This is the color called "violet" in the traditional Japanese colors group, a group of colors in use since beginning in 660 CE in the form of various dyes that are used in designing kimono.The name of this color in Japanese is sumire-iro, meaning "violet color".
Finn The color Finn is displayed at right.
Finn is a dark magenta color.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Pitting resistance equivalent number**
Pitting resistance equivalent number:
Pitting resistance equivalent number (PREN) is a predictive measurement of a stainless steel's resistance to localized pitting corrosion based on its chemical composition. In general: the higher PREN-value, the more resistant is the stainless steel to localized pitting corrosion by chloride. PREN is frequently specified when stainless steels will be exposed to seawater or other high chloride solutions. In some instances stainless steels with PREN-values > 32 may provide useful resistance to pitting corrosion in seawater, but is dependent on optimal conditions. However, crevice corrosion is also a significant possibility and a PREN > 40 is typically specified for seawater service.These alloys need to be manufactured and heat treated correctly to be seawater corrosion resistant to the expected level. PREN alone is not an indicator of corrosion resistance. The value should be calculated for each heat to ensure compliance with minimum requirements, this is due to chemistry variation within the specified composition limits.
PREN formulas (w/w):
There are several PREN formulas. They commonly range from: PREN = %Cr + 3.3 × %Mo + 16 × %Nto: PREN = %Cr + 3.3 × %Mo + 30 × %N.There are a few stainless steels which add tungsten (W), for those the following formula is used: PREN = %Cr + 3.3 × (%Mo + 0.5 × %W ) + 16 × %NAll % values of elements must be expressed by mass, or weight (wt. %), and not by volume. Tolerance on element measurements could be ignored as the PREN value is indicative only.
Pitting resistance measurement:
Exact pitting test procedures are specified in the ASTM G48 standard.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Fitocracy**
Fitocracy:
Fitocracy is an online game and social network that aims to use gamification to help users improve their fitness. It has received coverage from mainstream media sources.
History:
Fitocracy was founded by Dick Talens and Brian Wang. Both were self-described computer nerds who had succeeded in improving their own fitness and decided that game mechanics could help others to do the same.Fitocracy launched in February 2011, using an invite system to control new user signups. Invite codes were initially distributed through sites such as Reddit.In November 2011, the site introduced advertising, along with a paid option, known as Fitocracy Hero, which was ad-free and offered additional features. By then, Fitocracy claimed to have 120,000 users and a waiting list of a further 120,000.In January 2012, Fitocracy began a partnership with Red Bull in which the site would be used to host the Red Bull Fitness Challenge.By the end of January 2012, Fitocracy claimed a user base of 230,000 registered members.In March 2012, Fitocracy launched an app for iOS devices.In January 2013, Fitocracy launched an app for Android.
History:
In March 2013, Fitocracy reached one million users and announced a collaboration with Arnold Schwarzenegger, which challenges users to exercise for 15 minutes per day.In August 2014, Fitocracy was listed as one of Time's Best Websites of 2014.Fitocracy was acquired in 2016 by an unnamed buyer.In October 2017 it was announced that Fitocracy had reached 12.5 million active users.
Game:
Fitocracy users log their exercise activity by selecting from a collection of activities such as weight lifting or running and entering details such as weight lifted or distance run. Points are awarded based on the estimated fitness benefit of each activity. Users must reach points thresholds in order to level up.
Quests and achievements The site presents users with quests to perform for additional points, typically consisting of a set of related activities. Particularly significant fitness milestones are recognized with achievement badges.
Social networking In addition to the game, Fitocracy also provides a social network which enables users to follow other users, view and comment on their workouts and join groups for specific interests.
Reception:
Fitocracy was initially covered by technology and gaming focused media, such as TechCrunch, Slate, Lifehacker, Kotaku, and Destructoid. As it grew, it was covered by more mainstream media, including Popular Mechanics, The New York Observer, CNN, The New York Times and The Globe and Mail.
2012 Shorty Awards Fitocracy was nominated in the 2012 Shorty Awards. Although it received the most votes in its category, Social Fitness, it was not selected as the winner by the judges.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Rumble (noise)**
Rumble (noise):
A rumble is a continuous deep, resonant sound, such as the sound made by heavy vehicles or thunder. In the context of audio reproduction rumble refers to a low frequency sound from the bearings inside a turntable. This is most noticeable in low quality turntables with ball bearings. Higher quality turntables use slide bearings, minimizing rumble.
Some phono pre-amplifiers implement a rumble filter, in an attempt to remove the noise. A heavier platter can also help dampen this.
Rumble measurement is carried out on turntables (for vinyl recordings) which tend to generate very low frequency noise originating from the centre bearing and from drive pulleys or belts, as well as from irregularities in the record disc itself.
It can be heard as low-frequency noise and becomes a serious problem when playing records on audio systems with a good low-frequency response. Even when not audible, rumble can cause intermodulation, modulating of the amplitude of other frequencies. The ‘unweighted’ response curve is intended for use in assessing the level of inaudible rumble with such intermodulation in mind.
Turntable design:
One way to reduce rumble is to make the turntable very heavy, so that it acts as mechanical damper or low-pass filter, but even with the best turntables a lot of rumble tends to be generated by warped records or pressing irregularities sometimes visible as ‘bobbles’ in the surface. An important factor affecting rumble is low-frequency resonance resulting from pickup arm mass bouncing against stylus compliance. This resonance is usually in the 10–30 Hz region, and will increase rumble as well as reducing tracking ability if not well-damped. Some pickup arms incorporate viscous damping aimed at eliminating such resonance.
Rumble filters:
Because these effects generate a mostly vertical component at the stylus, which corresponds to a difference signal in stereo reproduction, the incorporation of a high-pass filter operating only on the channel difference can be very effective in reducing rumble without loss of bass. Such a filter merges the two channels to mono at very low frequencies, which is not generally considered to have any effect on stereo perception, though it can change the sound balance (often for the better) by altering the way in which resonant room modes are stimulated (reducing corner to corner stimulation). The original circuit was designed in 1978 by Jeff Macaulay and featured as a circuit idea in Wireless World. Most so-called rumble filters work by simply rolling off the low-frequency response, which is detrimental to sound quality.
Rumble filters:
Though several standards exist that define how rumble should be measured, they all have a common basis, and use the weighting curves shown here.
DIN 45539 (1971) and IEC98-1964 both cover rumble measurement.
BS4852: Part 1 (1972) is specific in requiring that a slow rectifier be used, which shall reach 99% of its steady indication in 5s +-0.5s with not more than 10% overshoot.
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**CLOUD experiment**
CLOUD experiment:
Cosmics Leaving Outdoor Droplets (CLOUD) is an experiment being run at CERN by a group of researchers led by Jasper Kirkby to investigate the microphysics between galactic cosmic rays (GCRs) and aerosols under controlled conditions. This is a fixed-target experiment that began operation in November 2009, though it was originally proposed in 2000.The primary goal is to understand the influence of galactic cosmic rays (GCRs) on aerosols and clouds, and their implications for climate. Although its design is optimised to address the possibility of cosmic rays nucleating cloud particles, (as posed by, for example, Henrik Svensmark and colleagues) CLOUD allows as well to measure aerosol nucleation and growth under controlled laboratory conditions. Atmospheric aerosols and their effect on clouds are recognised by the IPCC as the main source of uncertainty in present radiative forcing and climate models, since an increase in cloud cover reduces global warming.
Setup:
The core of the experiment is a stainless steel chamber of 26m³ volume filled with synthetic air made from liquid nitrogen and liquid oxygen. The chamber atmosphere and pressure is being measured and regulated by various instrumentations. The aerosol chamber can be exposed to an adjustable particle beam simulating GCRs at various altitude or latitude. UV illumination allows photolytic reaction. The chamber contains an electric field cage to control the drift of small ions and charged aerosols. The ionisation produced by cosmic rays can be removed with a strong electric field. Besides, humidity and temperature inside the chamber can be regulated, allowing for fast adiabatic expansion for artificial clouds (compare cloud chamber) or experiments on ice microphysics. According to Kirkby "the level of cleanliness and control in a laboratory experiment is at the limit of current technology, and CERN know-how has been crucial for CLOUD being the first experiment to achieve this performance."
Results:
CERN posted a 2009 progress report on the CLOUD project. J. Kirkby (2009) reviews developments in the CERN CLOUD project and planned tests. He describes cloud nucleation mechanisms which appear energetically favourable and depend on GCRs.On 24 August 2011, preliminary research published in the journal Nature showed there was a connection between Cosmic Rays and aerosol nucleation. Kirkby went on to say in the definitive CERN press Release "Ion-enhancement is particularly pronounced in the cool temperatures of the mid-troposphere and above, where CLOUD has found that sulphuric acid and water vapour can nucleate without the need for additional vapours.The first CLOUD experiments showed that sulphuric acid (derived from sulphur dioxide, for which fossil fuels are the predominant source) as such has a much smaller effect than had been assumed. In 2014, CLOUD researchers presented newer experimental results showing an interaction between oxidised biogenic vapours (e.g., alpha-pinene emitted by trees) and sulphuric acid. Ions produced in the atmosphere by galactic cosmic rays enhance the formation rate of these particles significantly, provided the concentrations of sulphuric acid and oxidised organic vapours are quite low. This new process may account for seasonal variations in atmospheric aerosol particles, which are being related to higher global tree emissions in the northern hemisphere summer.Besides biogenic vapours produced by plants, another class of trace vapours, amines have been shown by CLOUD to cluster with sulphuric acid to produce new aerosol particles in the atmosphere. These are found close to their primary sources, e.g. animal husbandry, while alpha-pinene is generally found over landmasses. The experiments show that sulfuric acid and oxidized organic vapors at low concentrations reproduce suitable particle nucleation rates. The nucleation mechanism used on global aerosol models yields a photochemically and biologically driven seasonal cycle of particle concentrations and cloud formation in good agreement with observations. CLOUD insofar allows to explain a large fraction of cloud seeds in the lower atmosphere involving sulphuric acid and biogenic aerosols. CLOUD researchers note that cosmic rays have little influence on the formation of sulphuric acid–amine particle formation: "The ion-induced contribution is generally small, reflecting the high stability of sulphuric acid–dimethylamine clusters and indicating that galactic cosmic rays exert only a small influence on their formation, except at low overall formation rates." This result does not support the hypothesis that cosmic rays significantly affect climate, although a CERN press release states that neither does it "rule out a role for cosmic radiation" in climate.Dunne et al. (2016) have presented the main outcomes of 10 years of results obtained at the CLOUD experiment performed at CERN. They have studied in detail the physico-chemical mechanisms and the kinetics of aerosols formation. The nucleation process of water droplets/ice micro-crystals from water vapor reproduced in the CLOUD experiment and also directly observed in the Earth atmosphere do not only involve ions formation due to cosmic rays but also a range of complex chemical reactions with sulfuric acid, ammonia and organic compounds emitted in the air by human activities and by organisms living on land or in the oceans (plankton). Although they observe that a fraction of cloud nuclei is effectively produced by ionisation due to the interaction of cosmic rays with the constituents of Earth atmosphere, this process is insufficient to attribute all of the present climate modifications to the fluctuations of the cosmic rays intensity modulated by changes in the solar activity and Earth magnetosphere.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Novikov's condition**
Novikov's condition:
In probability theory, Novikov's condition is the sufficient condition for a stochastic process which takes the form of the Radon–Nikodym derivative in Girsanov's theorem to be a martingale. If satisfied together with other conditions, Girsanov's theorem may be applied to a Brownian motion stochastic process to change from the original measure to the new measure defined by the Radon–Nikodym derivative.
Novikov's condition:
This condition was suggested and proved by Alexander Novikov. There are other results which may be used to show that the Radon–Nikodym derivative is a martingale, such as the more general criterion Kazamaki's condition, however Novikov's condition is the most well-known result.
Assume that (Xt)0≤t≤T is a real valued adapted process on the probability space (Ω,(Ft),P) and (Wt)0≤t≤T is an adapted Brownian motion:: 334 If the condition E[e12∫0T|X|t2dt]<∞ is fulfilled then the process E(∫0tXsdWs)=e∫0tXsdWs−12∫0tXs2ds,0≤t≤T is a martingale under the probability measure P and the filtration F . Here E denotes the Doléans-Dade exponential.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Bucherer carbazole synthesis**
Bucherer carbazole synthesis:
The Bucherer carbazole synthesis is a chemical reaction used to synthesize carbazoles from naphthols and aryl hydrazines using sodium bisulfite. The reaction is named after Hans Theodor Bucherer.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Isolichenan**
Isolichenan:
Isolichenan, also known as isolichenin, is a cold-water-soluble α-glucan occurring in certain species of lichens. This lichen product was first isolated as a component of an extract of Iceland moss in 1813, along with lichenin. After further analysis and characterization of the individual components of the extract, isolichenan was named in 1881. It is the first α-glucan to be described from lichens. The presence of isolichenan in the cell walls is a defining characteristic in several genera of the lichen family Parmeliaceae. Although most prevalent in that family, it has also been isolated from members of the families Ramalinaceae, Stereocaulaceae, Roccellaceae, and Cladoniaceae. Experimental studies have shown that isolichenan is produced only when the two lichen components – fungus and alga – are growing together, not when grown separately. The biological function of isolichenan in the lichen thallus is unknown.
Early studies:
Isolichenan was first isolated from Cetraria islandica in 1813 by Swedish chemist Jöns Jacob Berzelius, who also at the same time isolated the cellulose-like hot-water-soluble glucan lichenan. Because in these experiments the isolichenan component of the lichen extract had a positive reaction with iodine staining (i.e. production of a blue colour), Berzelius thought it to be similar in nature to starch, and he called it "lichen starch". It was thought to function as a reserve food source for the organism. Later studies showed it to be a mixture of polysaccharides. In 1838, Gerardus Johannes Mulder isolated the blue-staining component of the C. islandica extract, believing it to be starch. Friedrich Konrad Beilstein gave the name "isolichenan" to this substance in 1881. Isolichenan was the first α-glucan described from lichens.In 1947, Kurt Heinrich Meyer and P. Gürtler, discussing the preparation of lichenan, reported that the mother liquor contained a water-soluble glucan that could be purified by repeated freezing and thawing. In this process, which completely removed lichenan, they obtained isolichenan in a 0.55% yield.
Structure:
Isolichenan is a polymer of glucose units joined by a mixture of α-(1→3) and α-(1→4) linkages. Using the technique of partial acid hydrolysis, Stanley Peat and colleagues determined that the linkages are of the α-configuration. The ratio of these linkages has been reported differently by various authors in the scientific literature: 11:9, 3:2, 2:1, 3:1, and 4:1. Fleming and Manners found the ratio to be 56.5:43.5 and 57:43 in two separate experiments using the Smith degradation procedure. This technique uses the successive steps of periodate oxidation, borohydride reduction, and mild acid hydrolysis; in this way, acetal linkages become hydrolysed, but glucosidic linkages are not. The distribution of linkages in isolichenan was found to be somewhat irregular, with both types occurring in groups of two or more in at least some areas. Another study suggests that isolichenan has mostly groups of one or two α-(1→3) bonds surrounded by α-(1→4) bonds. Compared with, for example, amylose (a linear α-(1→4)-linked glucan and the major component of starch), isolichenan has a relatively weak iodine-staining reaction. This weak staining intensity is thought to be a result of its preponderance of (1→3) linkages, a property that reduces the formation of the polyiodide-complex that gives the positive reaction its blue colour.The chain length of isolichenan was estimated at 42–44 glucose units. The reported molecular weight of isolichenan also varies, from 26 kD to 2000 kD. The relatively short chain length of isolichenan may explain why it is soluble in cold water after it has been extracted from the lichen thallus. Purified isolichenan has a high positive specific rotation in water. It has been reported as high as +272, although different sources give differing values.The term "isolichenan-type" has been used as a general term for α-D-glucans having (1→3)-(1→4) linkages in their main chain. Similar to isolichenan, the α-D-glucan known as Ci-3 consists of 1→3 and 1→4 linked α-D-glucose residues in ratio of 2:1, but with a much higher degree of polymerization and a molecular weight of about 2000 kD. It is also found in Cetraria islandica. As the discrepancies in reported values demonstrate, lichens produce isolichenan-type polysaccharides with considerable variation in linkage ratios as well as molecular weight, even within the same species.The carbon-13 nuclear magnetic resonance spectrum of isolichenan was reported by Yokota and colleagues in 1979 and also by Gorin and Iacomini in 1984.
Occurrence:
Since its discovery in Cetraria islandica, isolichenan has been isolated from many other lichen species. It is predominant in the Parmeliaceae, a large and diverse family of the class Lecanoromycetes. Parmeliaceae genera and species containing isolichenan include: Alectoria (A. sulcata, A. sarmentosa); Cetraria (Cetraria cucullata, C. islandica, C. nivaris, C. richardsonii; Evernia (E. prunastri); Letharia (L. vulpina); Neuropogon (N. aurantiaco-ater); Parmelia (P. caperata, P. cetrarioides, P. conspersa, P. hypotrypella, P. laevior, P. nikkoensis, P. saxatilis, P. tinctorum); Parmotrema (P. cetrarum, P. araucaria, P. sulcata); and Usnea (U. barbata, U. baylei, U. faciata, U. longissima, U. meridionalis, U. rubescens). A few members of the family Ramalinaceae have been shown to contain isolichenan, including Ramalina celastri, R. ecklonii, R. scopulorum, and R. usnea. In the family Stereocaulaceae, isolichenan has been isolated from S. excutum, S. japonicum, and S. sorediiferum. It is also known to occur in single species in the Roccellaceae (Roccella montagnei) and the Cladoniaceae (Pilophorus acicularis).
Uses:
Although isolichenan is not nearly as constant at the genus level as lichenan, the presence of isolichenan in the cell walls is a defining character in several genera of the lichen family Parmeliaceae, including Asahinea, Cetrelia, Flavoparmelia, and Psiloparmelia. In contrast, the absence of isolichenan is a character of genus Xanthoparmelia.Isolichenan is used as an active ingredient in cough lozenges as a component of Cetraria islandica extract.
Research:
Isolichenan was shown to enhance hippocampal plasticity and behavioural performance in rats. When administered orally, isolichenan was also shown to improve memory acquisition in mice impaired by ethanol, as well as in rats in which memory impairment had been induced by beta-amyloid peptide. In more recent research, isolichenan was shown to improve cognitive function in healthy adults.The main α-glucan synthesized by lichens of the genus Ramalina in the symbiotic state is isolichenan. A series of experiments have shown, however, that it is not produced by either individual symbiont when cultivated apart from each other. Its absence in this circumstance suggests that it may not have an importance as a structural part of the fungal cell wall; this contrasts with lichenan, where the (1→3)(1→4)-β-glucan has been shown to be involved in cell wall structure. Isolichenan is synthesized by the mycobiont only in the presence of its symbiotic partner (the green alga Trebouxia) in a special microenvironment – the lichen thallus. The triggering of this phenomenon and the biological function of isolichenan in the symbiotic relationship between fungi and algae is still unknown. In a study on the immunomodulatory effects of an aqueous Cetraria islandica extract, it was shown that the extract was able to upregulate the secretion of the cytokine interleukin 10. However, when the individual components of this extract (including lichenan, isolichenan, protolichesterinic and fumarprotocetraric acids) were tested with the same assay, isolichenan had no anti-inflammatory effects (only lichenan did).
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**The Enchanter Completed**
The Enchanter Completed:
The Enchanter Completed (or a variant thereof) is a title that has been given to two separate books relating to the fiction of science fiction and fantasy writer L. Sprague de Camp: The Enchanter Compleated, a 1980 edition of the collection originally and more usually titled Wall of Serpents The Enchanter Completed: A Tribute Anthology for L. Sprague de Camp, a 2005 gedenkschrift honoring de Camp edited by Harry Turtledove.
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**Sexual arousal disorder**
Sexual arousal disorder:
Sexual arousal disorder is characterized by a lack or absence of sexual fantasies and desire for sexual activity in a situation that would normally produce sexual arousal, or the inability to attain or maintain typical responses to sexual arousal. The disorder is found in the DSM-IV. The condition should not be confused with a sexual desire disorder.
The term is often used in the diagnosis of women (female sexual arousal disorder), while the term erectile dysfunction (ED) is often used for men.
Signs and symptoms:
In women, the symptoms of the disorder include: Lack of vaginal lubrication Lack of vaginal dilation or lengthening Decreased genital tumescence or swelling Decreased genital or nipple sensationHowever, whether lack of physiological arousal is a reliable symptom of the disorder is questionable. Research has shown that women with arousal deficits and women without arousal deficits show equivalent increases in physiological response during experience of erotic stimuli.
Causes:
Contrary to popular belief, the disorder is not always caused from a lack of sexual arousal. Possible causes of the disorder include psychological and emotional factors, such as depression, anger, and stress; relationship factors, such as conflict or lack of trust; medical factors, such as depleted hormones, reduced regional blood flow, and nerve damage; and drug use. The lack of sexual arousal may be due to a general lack of sexual desire or due to a lack of sexual desire for the current partner (i.e., situational). A person may always have had no or low sexual desire or the lack of desire may have been acquired during the person's life.
Causes:
Certain medications like SSRIs may contribute to a loss of sexual arousal, either while taking the medication or during withdrawal. In seemingly rare cases, SSRIs have been reported to cause an reduction in sexual arousal that last months or years after discontinuation, a condition termed post-SSRI sexual dysfunction (PSSD).
Diagnosis:
A psychologist will first consider any psychological or emotional problems; while a sex therapist will examine relationship issues; after which a medical doctor will investigate medical causes for the disorder. In order to receive this diagnosis, a woman must, for at least 6 months, report at least 3 of the following symptoms: absent or significantly reduced interest in sexual activity, in sexual or erotic thoughts or fantasies, in initiation of sex or receptiveness to sex, in excitement or pleasure in most sexual encounters, in sexual responsiveness to erotic cues, or in genital or non-genital responses to sexual activity. This can be either lifelong or acquired.
Treatment:
Depending on the cause of the disorder, hormone therapy or a blood-flow enhancing medication, like Viagra, may be appropriate.
Treatment:
Bremelanotide (formerly PT-141) is being studied in clinical tests to increase sexual desire in women. In 2014, Palatin, the company developing the drug, announced the beginning of a Phase 3 clinical trial to determine its effectiveness.Vibrators have also been found to be effective at addressing sexual arousal disorder. Sometimes described as a massager, the vibrator is used on the body to produce sexual stimulation. Examples of FDA registered vibrators for sexual arousal disorder include MysteryVibe's Crescendo.
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**Furuta pendulum**
Furuta pendulum:
The Furuta pendulum, or rotational inverted pendulum, consists of a driven arm which rotates in the horizontal plane and a pendulum attached to that arm which is free to rotate in the vertical plane. It was invented in 1992 at Tokyo Institute of Technology by Katsuhisa Furuta and his colleagues. It is an example of a complex nonlinear oscillator of interest in control system theory. The pendulum is underactuated and extremely non-linear due to the gravitational forces and the coupling arising from the Coriolis and centripetal forces. Since then, dozens, possibly hundreds of papers and theses have used the system to demonstrate linear and non-linear control laws. The system has also been the subject of two texts.
Equations of motion:
Despite the great deal of attention the system has received, very few publications successfully derive (or use) the full dynamics. Many authors have only considered the rotational inertia of the pendulum for a single principal axis (or neglected it altogether). In other words, the inertia tensor only has a single non-zero element (or none), and the remaining two diagonal terms are zero. It is possible to find a pendulum system where the moment of inertia in one of the three principal axes is approximately zero, but not two.
Equations of motion:
A few authors have considered slender symmetric pendulums where the moments of inertia for two of the principal axes are equal and the remaining moment of inertia is zero. Of the dozens of publications surveyed for this wiki only a single conference paper and journal paper were found to include all three principal inertial terms of the pendulum. Both papers used a Lagrangian formulation but each contained minor errors (presumably typographical).
Equations of motion:
The equations of motion presented here are an extract from a paper on the Furuta pendulum dynamics derived at the University of Adelaide.
Equations of motion:
Definitions Consider the rotational inverted pendulum mounted to a DC motor as shown in Fig. 1. The DC motor is used to apply a torque τ1 to Arm 1. The link between Arm 1 and Arm 2 is not actuated but free to rotate. The two arms have lengths L1 and L2 . The arms have masses m1 and m2 which are located at l1 and l2 respectively, which are the lengths from the point of rotation of the arm to its center of mass. The arms have inertia tensors J1 and J2 (about the centre of mass of the arms respectively). Each rotational joint is viscously damped with damping coefficients b1 and b2 , where b1 is the damping provided by the motor bearings and b2 is the damping arising from the pin coupling between Arm 1 and Arm 2.
Equations of motion:
A right hand coordinate system has been used to define the inputs, states and the Cartesian coordinate systems 1 and 2. The coordinate axes of Arm 1 and Arm 2 are the principal axes such that the inertia tensors are diagonal.
Equations of motion:
The angular rotation of Arm 1, θ1 , is measured in the horizontal plane where a counter-clockwise direction (when viewed from above) is positive. The angular rotation of Arm 2, θ2 , is measured in the vertical plane where a counter-clockwise direction (when viewed from the front) is positive. When the Arm is hanging down in the stable equilibrium position θ2=0 The torque the servo-motor applies to Arm 1, τ1 , is positive in a counter-clockwise direction (when viewed from above). A disturbance torque, τ2 , is experienced by Arm 2, where a counter-clockwise direction (when viewed from the front) is positive.
Equations of motion:
Assumptions Before deriving the dynamics of the system a number of assumptions must be made. These are: The motor shaft and Arm 1 are assumed to be rigidly coupled and infinitely stiff.
Arm 2 is assumed to be infinitely stiff.
The coordinate axes of Arm1 and Arm 2 are the principal axes such that the inertia tensors are diagonal.
The motor rotor inertia is assumed to be negligible. However, this term may be easily added to the moment of inertia of Arm 1.
Only viscous damping is considered. All other forms of damping (such as Coulomb) have been neglected, however it is a simple exercise to add this to the final governing DE.
Equations of motion:
Non-linear Equations of Motion The non-linear equations of motion are given by sin cos cos sin sin (2θ2)(m2l22+J2yy−J2xx)+b1θ˙1=τ1 and cos sin sin (θ2)=τ2 Simplifications Most Furuta pendulums tend to have long slender arms, such that the moment of inertia along the axis of the arms is negligible. In addition, most arms have rotational symmetry such that the moments of inertia in two of the principal axes are equal. Thus, the inertia tensors may be approximated as follows: J1=diag[J1xx,J1yy,J1zz]=diag[0,J1,J1] J2=diag[J2xx,J2yy,J2zz]=diag[0,J2,J2] Further simplifications are obtained by making the following substitutions. The total moment of inertia of Arm 1 about the pivot point (using the parallel axis theorem) is J1^=J1+m1l12 . The total moment of inertia of Arm 2 about its pivot point is J2^=J2+m2l22 . Finally, define the total moment of inertia the motor rotor experiences when the pendulum (Arm 2) is in its equilibrium position (hanging vertically down), J0^=J^1+m2L12=J1+m1l12+m2L12 Substituting the previous definitions into the governing DEs gives the more compact form sin cos sin sin (2θ2)J2^+b1θ˙1=τ1 and cos sin sin (θ2)=τ2
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**Autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome type 1**
Autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome type 1:
Autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome type 1 (APS-1), is a subtype of autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome (autoimmune polyglandular syndrome). It causes the dysfunction of multiple endocrine glands due to autoimmunity. It is a genetic disorder, inherited in autosomal recessive fashion due to a defect in the AIRE gene (autoimmune regulator), which is located on chromosome 21 and normally confers immune tolerance.
Signs and symptoms:
APS-1 tends to cause severe symptoms. These are present from early in life, usually around 3.5 years of age. Common symptoms of APS-1 include: Chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis.
Hypoparathyroidism.
Addison's disease.
Ectodermal dystrophy (skin, dental enamel, and nails).APS-1 may also cause: Autoimmune hepatitis.
Hypogonadism.
Vitiligo.
Alopecia.
Malabsorption.
Pernicious anemia.
Cataract.
Cerebellar ataxia.
Cause:
APS-1 is caused by a mutation in the AIRE gene, encoding a protein called autoimmune regulator. This is found on the 21q22.3 chromosome location, hence chromosome 21. The AIRE gene may be affected by any of at least 90 mutations. Mutations may be inherited in an autosomal recessive manner.
Different mutations are more common in different geographic regions. R139X is a common mutation in Sardinia. R257* is a common mutation in Finland.
Pathophysiology:
APS-1 is due to problems with immune tolerance. APS-1 causes considerable reactions with both interferon omega and interferon alpha. There may also be a reaction against interleukin 22. This leads to damage to endocrine organs. Common problems include hypercalcaemia and nephrocalcinosis (due to a lack of calcitonin from the thyroid), and pituitary problems (such as growth hormone deficiency). Antibodies against NLRP5 may lead to hypoparathyroidism.
Diagnosis:
Diagnosis of APS-1 is based on a number of tests, including endoscopy, a CT scan, a biopsy (with histological testing), and serum endocrine autoantibody screening.
Treatment:
Autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome type 1 treatment is based on the symptoms that are presented by the affected individual. Treatments may involve hormone therapy, systemic antifungal treatments, and immunosuppression.
History:
APS-1 may also be known as autoimmunity endocrinopathy candidiasis ectodermal dystrophy / dysplasia (APECED), autoimmune polyglandular syndrome type 1, Whitaker syndrome, or candidiasis-hypoparathyroidism-Addison's disease syndrome.
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**Pedro Portugal**
Pedro Portugal:
Pedro Portugal (Castelo Branco, 12 August 1963) is a Portuguese artist, with a wide production.
Life:
Early Years His first individual exhibition was in 1985, the year he finished his painting course. At this exhibition he presented small pastel and oil paintings, already pregnant with a figurative stylizing code or, more generically, a signal system that is reportable to comics and cartoons. Coming close graphics as these is not an indication of spontaneity or any kind of lenience of execution; quite the contrary, it is a-route through a meticulous composition effort, with an unwavering use of a perfected plan of contrasts and symmetries.
Life:
'90s Pedro Portugal is, in fact, not just a painter, he is a cultural "agitator". By the end of the 80s his work became more ample and explicit in as far as its critical commentary was concerned. It focused on the artistic, cultural, social and political state of affairs.
As a prime example of the works under this general concept, one should identify the eucalyptus planted upside-down in Lisbon airport's main roundabout, in 1991.
Life:
Throughout the 90s, the artist's horizon became more diversified in terms of workable materials. One could witness an emphasis on installations that were created for very specific purposes. In terms of social intentions, it funneled down to ecological concerns and political criticism. And, finally, in terms of his own activities' modes of promulgation, he supported the foundation of artists' associations and other structures of research and transmission of thought.
Life:
Explainism and later years In 2007 he began the theoretical and artistic movement "Explainism" in collaboration with Pedro Proença. Thus, the artist dedicates himself in a multifaceted way to the ever-present question of the end of painting and of its aesthetic cultural tradition.
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**Bracht–Wachter bodies**
Bracht–Wachter bodies:
Bracht–Wachter bodies are a finding in infective endocarditis consisting of yellow-white miliary spots in the myocardium.
Histologically, these are collections of chronic inflammatory cells, mainly lymphocytes and histiocytes.
History:
They were described by two Germans, Erich Franz Eugen Bracht, a pathologist and obstetrician-gynecologist, and Hermann Julius Gustav Wächter, a physician.
Related findings:
Other findings in infective endocarditis are: Osler's nodes Janeway lesions Roth's spots Flea-bitten kidneys- pyemic spots
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**Horse opera**
Horse opera:
A horse opera, hoss opera, oat opera or oater is a Western film or television series that is clichéd or formulaic, in the manner of a (later) soap opera or space opera.The term, which was originally coined by silent film-era Western star William S. Hart, is used variously to convey either disparagement or affection. The name "horse opera" was also derived in part from the musical sequences frequently featured in these films and TV series, which depicted a cowboy singing to his horse on-screen. The term "horse opera" is quite loosely defined; it does not specify a distinct sub-genre of the Western (as "space opera" does with regard to the science fiction genre).
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**Latent autoimmune diabetes in adults**
Latent autoimmune diabetes in adults:
Slowly evolving immune-mediated diabetes, or latent autoimmune diabetes in adults (LADA), is a form of diabetes that exhibits clinical features similar to both type 1 diabetes (T1D) and type 2 diabetes (T2D), and is sometimes referred to as type 1.5 diabetes. It is an autoimmune form of diabetes, similar to T1D, but patients with LADA often show insulin resistance, similar to T2D, and share some risk factors for the disease with T2D. Studies have shown that LADA patients have certain types of antibodies against the insulin-producing cells, and that these cells stop producing insulin more slowly than in T1D patients.LADA appears to share genetic risk factors with both T1D and T2D but is genetically distinct from both. Within the LADA patient group, a genetic and phenotypic heterogeneity has been observed with varying degrees of insulin resistance and autoimmunity. With the knowledge we have today, LADA can thus be described as a hybrid form of T1D and T2D, showing phenotypic and genotypic similarities with both, as well as variation within LADA regarding the degree of autoimmunity and insulin resistance.
Latent autoimmune diabetes in adults:
The concept of LADA was first introduced in 1993, though The Expert Committee on the Diagnosis and Classification of Diabetes Mellitus does not recognize the term, instead including it under the standard definition of diabetes mellitus type 1.
Symptoms:
The symptoms of latent autoimmune diabetes in adults are similar to those of other forms of diabetes: polydipsia (excessive thirst and drinking), polyuria (excessive urination), and often blurred vision. Compared to juvenile type 1 diabetes, the symptoms develop comparatively slowly, over a period of at least six months.
Diagnosis:
A fasting blood sugar level of ≥ 7.0 mmol / L (126 mg/dL) is used in the general diagnosis of diabetes. There are no clear guidelines for the diagnosis of LADA, but the criteria often used are that the patient should develop the disease in adulthood, not need insulin treatment for the first 6 months after diagnosis and have autoantibodies in the blood.Glutamic acid decarboxylase autoantibody (GADA), islet cell autoantibody (ICA), insulinoma-associated (IA-2) autoantibody, and zinc transporter autoantibody (ZnT8) testing should be performed in order to correctly diagnose diabetes.Persons with LADA typically have low, although sometimes moderate, levels of C-peptide as the disease progresses. Those with insulin resistance or type 2 diabetes are more likely to have high levels of C-peptide due to an over production of insulin.
Diagnosis:
Autoantibodies Glutamic acid decarboxylase autoantibodies (GADA), islet cell autoantibodies (ICA), insulinoma-associated (IA-2) autoantibodies, and zinc transporter autoantibodies (ZnT8) are all associated with LADA; GADAs are commonly found in cases of diabetes mellitus type 1.
Diagnosis:
The presence of islet cell complement fixing autoantibodies also aids in a differential diagnosis between LADA and type 2 diabetes. Persons with LADA often test positive for ICA, whereas type 2 diabetics only seldom do.Persons with LADA usually test positive for glutamic acid decarboxylase antibodies, whereas in type 1 diabetes these antibodies are more commonly seen in adults rather than in children. In addition to being useful in making an early diagnosis for type 1 diabetes mellitus, GAD antibodies tests are used for differential diagnosis between LADA and type 2 diabetes and may also be used for differential diagnosis of gestational diabetes, risk prediction in immediate family members for type 1, as well as a tool to monitor prognosis of the clinical progression of type 1 diabetes.
Prevalence:
Since there is no regular autoantibody screening, patients with LADA are at risk of being diagnosed with type 2 diabetes, which makes it difficult to estimate the prevalence of LADA. Globally, it is estimated that about 8.5% of adults have some form of diabetes and it is estimated that LADA accounts for about 3-12% of all adult diabetes cases. Estimates from 2015 are saying that there could be as many as 10–20% of people with diabetes having LADA.
Risk factors:
There is limited research on LADA and its etiology. As with both T1D and T2D, the risk of LADA depends on both genetic and environmental factors. Genetic risk factors for LADA are similar to T1D, i.e. is affected by the HLA complex, but also genetic variants associated with T2D have been identified in LADA. LADA has several lifestyle risk factors in common with T2D, such as obesity, physical inactivity, smoking and consumption of sweetened beverages, all of which are linked to insulin resistance.Obesity has been shown to increase the risk of LADA in several studies, and one study showed that the risk was particularly high in combination with having diabetes in the family. Physical activity also affects the risk of LADA, with less physical activity increasing the risk. A Swedish study showed that low birth weight, in addition to increasing the risk of T2D, increases the risk of LADA.Although smoking has been shown to increase the risk of T2D while coffee consumption has been shown to reduce the risk of T2D, the results regarding these products and LADA are unclear. However, results from two studies based on the same population seem to indicate that coffee consumption increases the risk of LADA. Other foods that have been shown to increase the risk of LADA are sweetened beverages and processed red meat while consumption of fatty fish has been shown to have a protective effect.
Management:
Diabetes is a chronic disease, i.e. it cannot be cured, but symptoms and complications can be minimized with proper treatment. Diabetes can lead to elevated blood sugar levels, which in turn can lead to damage to the heart, blood vessels, kidneys, eyes and nerves. There are very few studies on how to treat LADA, specifically, which is probably due to difficulties in classifying and diagnosing the disease. LADA patients often do not need insulin treatment immediately after being diagnosed because their own insulin production decreases more slowly than T1D patients, but in the long run they will need it. About 80% of all LADA patients initially misdiagnosed with type 2 (and who have GAD antibodies) will become insulin-dependent within 3 to 15 years (according to differing LADA sources).The treatment for Type 1 diabetes/LADA is exogenous insulin to control glucose levels, prevent further destruction of residual beta cells, reduce the possibility of diabetic complications, and prevent death from diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA). Although LADA may appear to initially respond to similar treatment (lifestyle and medications) as type 2 diabetes, it will not halt or slow the progression of beta cell destruction, and people with LADA will eventually become insulin-dependent. People with LADA have insulin resistance similar to long-term type 1 diabetes; some studies showed that people with LADA have less insulin resistance, compared with those with type 2 diabetes; however, others have not found a difference.A Cochrane systematic review from 2011 showed that treatment with Sulphonylurea did not improve control of glucose levels more than insulin at 3 nor 12 months of treatment. This same review actually found evidence that treatment with Sulphonylurea could lead to earlier insulin dependence, with 30% of cases requiring insulin at 2 years. When studies measured fasting C-peptide, no intervention influenced its concentration, but insulin maintained concentration better compared to Sulphonylurea. The authors also examined a study utilizing Glutamic Acid Decarboxylase formulated with aluminium hydroxide (GAD65), which showed improvements in C-peptide levels that were maintained for 5 years. Vitamin D with insulin also demonstrated steady fasting C-peptide levels in the vitamin group, with the same levels declining in the insulin-only group at a 12-month follow-up. One study examining the effects of Chinese remedies on fasting C-peptide on a 3-month follow-up did not show a difference compared to insulin alone. Still, it is important to highlight that the studies available to be included in this review presented considerable flaws in quality and design.
History:
Although type 1 diabetes has been identified as an autoimmune disease since the 1970s, the concept of latent autoimmune diabetes mellitus was not noted until 1993, when it was used to describe slow-onset type 1 autoimmune diabetes occurring in adults. This followed the concept that GAD autoantibodies were a feature of type 1 diabetes and not type 2 diabetes.
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**Kepler-16**
Kepler-16:
Kepler-16 is an eclipsing binary star system in the constellation of Cygnus that was targeted by the Kepler spacecraft. Both stars are smaller than the Sun; the primary, Kepler-16A, is a K-type main-sequence star and the secondary, Kepler-16B, is an M-type red dwarf. They are separated by 0.22 AU, and complete an orbit around a common center of mass every 41 days.
Kepler-16:
The system is host to one known extrasolar planet in circumbinary orbit: the Saturn-sized Kepler-16b.
Eclipses:
The Kepler-16 system is almost edge-on to Earth and the two stars eclipse each other as they orbit. The larger and brighter primary star is partially eclipsed by the secondary for about six hours and the brightness drops by about 0.15 magnitudes. The secondary star is completely occulted by the primary star for about two hours, but the overall brightness only drops by about 0.02 magnitudes. There are also shallow eclipses caused by a large exoplanet. When this transits across the primary star, the brightness drops by slightly more than the secondary eclipse. When it transits the secondary star, the brightness drops by 0.001 magnitudes.
Planetary system:
Kepler-16b is a gas giant that orbits the two stars in the Kepler-16 system. The planet is a third of Jupiter's mass and slightly smaller than Saturn at 0.7538 Jupiter radii, but is more dense. Kepler-16b completes a nearly circular orbit every 228.776 days.
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**TURBINE (US government project)**
TURBINE (US government project):
TURBINE is the codename of an automated system which enables the United States National Security Agency (NSA) automated management and control of a large surveillance network.
TURBINE (US government project):
The NSA has built an infrastructure which enables it to covertly hack into computers on a mass scale by using automated systems that reduce the level of human oversight in the process. This system places and controls implants – a form of remotely transmitted malware on selected individual computer devices or in bulk on tens of thousands of devices. As quoted by The Intercept, TURBINE is designed to "allow the current implant network to scale to large size (millions of implants) by creating a system that does automated control implants by groups instead of individually." The NSA has shared many of its files on the use of implants with its counterparts in the so-called Five Eyes surveillance alliance – the United Kingdom, Canada, New Zealand, and Australia.
TURBINE (US government project):
Among other things due to TURBINE and its control over the implants the NSA is capable of: breaking into targeted computers and to siphoning out data from foreign Internet and phone networks infecting a target's computer and exfiltrating files from a hard drive covertly recording audio from a computer's microphone and taking snapshots with its webcam launching cyberattacks by corrupting and disrupting file downloads or denying access to websites exfiltrating data from removable flash drives that connect to an infected computerThe TURBINE implants are linked to, and relies upon, a large network of clandestine surveillance "sensors" that the NSA has installed at locations across the world, including the agency's headquarters in Maryland (Fort George G. Meade) and eavesdropping bases used by the agency in Misawa, Japan (Misawa Air Base) and Menwith Hill, England (RAF Menwith Hill). Codenamed as TURMOIL, the sensors operate as a sort of high-tech surveillance dragnet, monitoring packets of data as they are sent across the Internet. When TURBINE implants exfiltrate data from infected computer systems, the TURMOIL sensors automatically identify the data and return it to the NSA for analysis. And when targets are communicating, the TURMOIL system can be used to send alerts or "tips" to TURBINE, enabling the initiation of a malware attack. To identify surveillance targets, the NSA uses a series of data "selectors" as they flow across Internet cables. These selectors can include email addresses, IP addresses, or the unique "cookies" containing a username or other identifying information that are sent to a user's computer by websites such as Google, Facebook, Hotmail, Yahoo, and Twitter, unique Google advertising cookies that track browsing habits, unique encryption key fingerprints that can be traced to a specific user, and computer IDs that are sent across the Internet when a Windows computer crashes or updates.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Sensory phenomena**
Sensory phenomena:
Sensory phenomena are general feelings, urges or bodily sensations. They are present in many conditions including autism spectrum disorders, epilepsy, neuropathy, obsessive–compulsive disorder, pain conditions, tardive syndromes, and tic disorders.
In tic disorders:
Sensory phenomena are associated with Tourette syndrome and tic disorders, and defined as "uncomfortable feelings or sensations preceding tics that usually are relieved by the movement". The tics of Tourette's are temporarily suppressible and preceded by a premonitory urge which is similar to the need to sneeze or scratch an itch. Individuals describe the need to tic as the buildup of tension in a particular anatomical location, which they may consciously choose to release, or which is released involuntarily. The presence of sensory phenomena differentiates subjects with Tourette syndrome plus obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) from subjects with OCD alone, and may be an important measure for grouping patients along the OCD-Tourette's disorder spectrum.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Small nucleolar RNA F1/F2/snoR5a**
Small nucleolar RNA F1/F2/snoR5a:
In molecular biology, Small nucleolar RNA F1/F2/snoR5a refers to a group of related non-coding RNA (ncRNA) molecules which function in the biogenesis of other small nuclear RNAs (snRNAs). These small nucleolar RNAs (snoRNAs) are modifying RNAs and usually located in the nucleolus of the eukaryotic cell which is a major site of snRNA biogenesis.
These three snoRNas identified in rice (Oryza sativa), called F1, F2 and snoR5a, belong to the H/ACA box class of snoRNAs as they have the predicted hairpin-hinge-hairpin-tail structure and has the conserved H/ACA-box motifs. The majority of H/ACA box class of snoRNAs are involved in guiding the modification of uridine) to pseudouridine in other RNAs
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Pourbaix diagram**
Pourbaix diagram:
In electrochemistry, and more generally in solution chemistry, a Pourbaix diagram, also known as a potential/pH diagram, EH–pH diagram or a pE/pH diagram, is a plot of possible thermodynamically stable phases (i.e., at chemical equilibrium) of an aqueous electrochemical system. Boundaries (50 %/50 %) between the predominant chemical species (aqueous ions in solution, or solid phases) are represented by lines. As such a Pourbaix diagram can be read much like a standard phase diagram with a different set of axes. Similarly to phase diagrams, they do not allow for reaction rate or kinetic effects. Beside potential and pH, the equilibrium concentrations are also dependent upon, e.g., temperature, pressure, and concentration. Pourbaix diagrams are commonly given at room temperature, atmospheric pressure, and molar concentrations of 10−6 and changing any of these parameters will yield a different diagram.
Pourbaix diagram:
The diagrams are named after Marcel Pourbaix (1904–1998), the Russian-born Belgian chemist who invented them.
Naming:
Pourbaix diagrams are also known as EH-pH diagrams due to the labeling of the two axes.
Diagram:
The vertical axis is labeled EH for the voltage potential with respect to the standard hydrogen electrode (SHE) as calculated by the Nernst equation. The "H" stands for hydrogen, although other standards may be used, and they are for room temperature only.
Diagram:
For a reversible redox reaction described by the following chemical equilibrium: a A + b B ⇌ c C + d D With the corresponding equilibrium constant K: K=[C]c[D]d[A]a[B]b, The Nernst equation is: ln K, ln [C]c[D]d[A]a[B]b, sometimes formulated as: log [C]c[D]d[A]a[B]b, or, more simply directly expressed numerically as: 0.05916 log [C]c[D]d[A]a[B]b, where: 0.02569 volt is the thermal voltage or the "Nernst slope" at standard temperatureλ = ln(10) ≈ 2.30, so that 0.05916 volt.The horizontal axis is labeled pH for the −log function of the H+ ion activity.
Diagram:
pH log 10 log 10 (1aH+).
Diagram:
The lines in the Pourbaix diagram show the equilibrium conditions, that is, where the activities are equal, for the species on each side of that line. On either side of the line, one form of the species will instead be said to be predominant.In order to draw the position of the lines with the Nernst equation, the activity of the chemical species at equilibrium must be defined. Usually, the activity of a species is approximated as equal to the concentration (for soluble species) or partial pressure (for gases). The same values should be used for all species present in the system.For soluble species, the lines are often drawn for concentrations of 1 M or 10−6 M. Sometimes additional lines are drawn for other concentrations.
Diagram:
If the diagram involves the equilibrium between a dissolved species and a gas, the pressure is usually set to P0 = 1 atm = 101325 Pa, the minimum pressure required for gas evolution from an aqueous solution at standard conditions.In addition, changes in temperature and concentration of solvated ions in solution will shift the equilibrium lines in accordance with the Nernst equation.
Diagram:
The diagrams also do not take kinetic effects into account, meaning that species shown as unstable might not react to any significant degree in practice.
Diagram:
A simplified Pourbaix diagram indicates regions of "immunity", "corrosion" and "passivity", instead of the stable species. They thus give a guide to the stability of a particular metal in a specific environment. Immunity means that the metal is not attacked, while corrosion shows that general attack will occur. Passivation occurs when the metal forms a stable coating of an oxide or other salt on its surface, the best example being the relative stability of aluminium because of the alumina layer formed on its surface when exposed to air.
Applicable chemical systems:
While such diagrams can be drawn for any chemical system, it is important to note that the addition of a metal binding agent (ligand) will often modify the diagram. For instance, carbonate (CO−3) has a great effect upon the diagram for uranium. (See diagrams at right). The presence of trace amounts of certain species such as chloride ions can also greatly affect the stability of certain species by destroying passivating layers.
Limitations:
Even though Pourbaix diagrams are useful for a metal corrosion potential estimation they have, however, some important limitations:: 111 Equilibrium is always assumed, though in practice it may differ.
The diagram does not provide information on actual corrosion rates.
Does not apply to alloys.
Does not indicate whether passivation (in the form of oxides or hydroxides) is protective or not. Diffusion of oxygen ions through thin oxide layers are possible.
Excludes corrosion by chloride ions (Cl−, Cl3+ etc.).
Usually applicable only to temperature of 25 °C (77 °F), which is assumed by default. The Pourbaix diagrams for higher temperatures exist.
Expression of the Nernst equation as a function of pH:
The Eh and pH of a solution are related by the Nernst equation as commonly represented by a Pourbaix diagram ( Eh – pH plot). Eh explicitly denotes red expressed versus the standard hydrogen electrode (SHE). For a half cell equation, conventionally written as a reduction reaction (i.e., electrons accepted by an oxidant on the left side): aA+bB+hH++ze−↽−−⇀cC+dD The equilibrium constant K of this reduction reaction is: K={C}c{D}d{A}a{B}b{H+}h=(γc)c[C]c(γd)d[D]d(γa)a[A]a(γb)b[B]b(γh+)h[H+]h=(γc)c(γd)d(γa)a(γb)b(γh)h×[C]c[D]d[A]a[B]b[H+]h where curly braces { } indicate activities (a), rectangle braces [ ] denote molar or molal concentrations (C), γ represent the activity coefficients, and the stoichiometric coefficients are shown as exponents. Activities correspond to thermodynamic concentrations and take into account the electrostatic interactions between ions present in solution. When the concentrations are not too high, the activity ( ai ) can be related to the measurable concentration ( Ci ) by a linear relationship with the activity coefficient ( γi ): ai=γiCi The half-cell standard reduction potential red ⊖ is given by red volt )=−ΔG⊖zF where ΔG⊖ is the standard Gibbs free energy change, z is the number of electrons involved, and F is the Faraday's constant. The Nernst equation relates pH and Eh as follows: red red log pH In the following, the Nernst slope (or thermal voltage) VT=RT/F is used, which has a value of 0.02569... V at STP. When base-10 logarithms are used, VT λ = 0.05916... V at STP where λ = ln[10] = 2.3026. red red 0.05916 log 0.05916 pH This equation is the equation of a straight line for red as a function of pH with a slope of 0.05916 (hz) volt (pH has no units). This equation predicts lower red at higher pH values. This is observed for the reduction of O2 into H2O, or OH−, and for reduction of H+ into H2. red is then often noted as Eh to indicate that it refers to the standard hydrogen electrode (SHE) whose red = 0 by convention under standard conditions (T = 298.15 K = 25 °C = 77 F, Pgas = 1 atm (1.013 bar), concentrations = 1 M and thus pH = 0).
Calculation of a Pourbaix diagram:
When the activities ( ai ) can be considered as equal to the molar, or the molal, concentrations ( Ci ) at sufficiently diluted concentrations when the activity coefficients ( γi ) tend to one, the term regrouping all the activity coefficients is equal to one, and the Nernst equation can be written simply with the concentrations ( Ci ) denoted here with square braces [ ]: red red 0.05916 log 0.05916 pH There are three types of line boundaries in a Pourbaix diagram: Vertical, horizontal, and sloped.
Calculation of a Pourbaix diagram:
Vertical boundary line When no electrons are exchanged (z = 0), the equilibrium between A, B, C, and D only depends on [H+] and is not affected by the electrode potential. In this case, the reaction is a classical acid-base reaction involving only protonation/deprotonation of dissolved species. The boundary line will be a vertical line at a particular value of pH. The reaction equation may be written: aA+bB+hH+↽−−⇀cC+dD and the energy balance is written as ln K , where K is the equilibrium constant: K=[C]c[D]d[A]a[B]b[H+]h Thus: ln ([C]c[D]d[A]a[B]b[H+]h) or, in base-10 logarithms, log pH ) which may be solved for the particular value of pH.
Calculation of a Pourbaix diagram:
For example consider the iron and water system, and the equilibrium line between the ferric ion Fe3+ ion and hematite Fe2O3. The reaction equation is: Fe aq Fe aq ) which has 8242.5 J/mol . The pH of the vertical line on the Pourbaix diagram can then be calculated: pH log Fe Fe 3+]2[H2O]3)) Because the activities (or the concentrations) of the solid phases and water are equal to unity: [Fe2O3] = [H2O] = 1, the pH only depends on the concentration in dissolved Fe3+: pH log Fe 3+]2)) At STP, for [Fe3+] = 10−6, this yields pH = 1.76.
Calculation of a Pourbaix diagram:
Horizontal boundary line When H+ and OH− ions are not involved in the reaction, the boundary line is horizontal and independent of pH. The reaction equation is thus written: , but without H+) As, the standard Gibbs free energy ln K ln ([C]c[D]d[A]a[B]b) Using the definition of the electrode potential ∆G = -zFE, where F is the Faraday constant, this may be rewritten as a Nernst equation: ln ([C]c[D]d[A]a[B]b) or, using base-10 logarithms: log ([C]c[D]d[A]a[B]b) For the equilibrium Fe2+/Fe3+, taken as example here, considering the boundary line between Fe2+ and Fe3+, the half-reaction equation is: Fe aq Fe aq ) Since H+ ions are not involved in this redox reaction, it is independent of pH. Eo = 0.771 V with only one electron involved in the redox reaction.
Calculation of a Pourbaix diagram:
The potential Eh is a function of temperature via the thermal voltage VT and directly depends on the ratio of the concentrations of the Fe2+ and Fe3+ ions: log Fe Fe 3+]) For both ionic species at the same concentration (e.g., 10 −6M ) at STP, log 1 = 0, so, 0.771 V , and the boundary will be a horizontal line at Eh = 0.771 volts. The potential will vary with temperature.
Calculation of a Pourbaix diagram:
Sloped boundary line In this case, both electrons and H+ ions are involved and the electrode potential is a function of pH. The reaction equation may be written: aA+bB+hH++ze−↽−−⇀cC+dD Using the expressions for the free energy in terms of potentials, the energy balance is given by a Nernst equation: log pH ) For the iron and water example, considering the boundary line between the ferrous ion Fe2+ and hematite Fe2O3, the reaction equation is: Fe aq Fe aq )+3H2O(l) with 0.728 V .The equation of the boundary line, expressed in base-10 logarithms is: log Fe Fe pH ) As, the activities, or the concentrations, of the solid phases and water are always taken equal to unity by convention in the definition of the equilibrium constant K: [Fe2O3] = [H2O] = 1. The Nernst equation thus limited to the dissolved species Fe2+ and H+ is written as: log Fe pH ) For, [Fe2+] = 10−6 M, this yields: 1.0826 0.1775 in volts ) Note the negative slope (-0.1775) of this line in a Eh–pH diagram.
The stability region of water:
In many cases, the possible conditions in a system are limited by the stability region of water. In the Pourbaix diagram for uranium presented here above, the limits of stability of water are marked by the two dashed green lines, and the stability region for water falls between these two lines. It is also depicted here beside by the two dashed red lines in the simplified Pourbaix diagram restricted to the water stability region only.
The stability region of water:
Under highly reducing conditions (low EH), water is reduced to hydrogen according to: 2H++2e−⟶H2(g) (at low pH)and, OH − (at high pH)Using the Nernst equation, setting E0 = 0 V as defined by convention for the standard hydrogen electrode (SHE, serving as reference in the reduction potentials series) and the hydrogen gas fugacity (corresponding to chemical activity for a gas) at 1, the equation for the lower stability line of water in the Pourbaix diagram at standard temperature and pressure is: pH 0.05916 pH Below this line, water is reduced to hydrogen, and it will usually not be possible to pass beyond this line as long as there is still water present in the system to be reduced.
The stability region of water:
Correspondingly, under highly oxidizing conditions (high EH) water is oxidized into oxygen gas according to: 2H2O⟶4H++O2(g)+4e− (at low pH)and, OH −⟶O2(g)+2H2O+4e− (at high pH)Using the Nernst equation as above, but with E0 = −ΔG0H2O/2F = 1.229 V for water oxidation, gives an upper stability limit of water as a function of the pH value: pH 1.229 0.05916 pH at standard temperature and pressure. Above this line, water is oxidized to form oxygen gas, and it will usually not be possible to pass beyond this line as long as there is still water present in the system to be oxidized. The two upper and lower stability lines having the same negative slope (−59 mV/pH unit), they are parallel in a Pourbaix diagram and the reduction potential decreases with pH.
Applications:
Pourbaix diagrams have many applications in different fields dealing with e.g., corrosion problems, geochemistry, and environmental sciences. Using the Pourbaix diagram correctly will help shedding light not only on the nature of the species present in aqueous solution, or in the solid phases, but may also help to understand the reaction mechanism.
Applications:
Concept of pe in environmental chemistry Pourbaix diagrams are widely used to describe the behaviour of chemical species in the hydrosphere. In this context, reduction potential pe is often used instead of EH. The main advantage is to directly work with a logarithm scale. pe is a dimensionless number and can easily be related to EH by the equation: 0.05916 16.903 ×EH Where, VT=RTF is the thermal voltage, with R, the gas constant (8.314 J⋅K−1⋅mol−1), T, the absolute temperature in Kelvin (298.15 K = 25 °C = 77 °F), and F, the Faraday constant (96 485 coulomb/mol of e−). Lambda, λ = ln(10) ≈ 2.3026. Moreover, log [e−] , an expression with a similar form to that of pH.pe values in environmental chemistry ranges from −12 to +25, since at low or high potentials water will be respectively reduced or oxidized. In environmental applications, the concentration of dissolved species is usually set to a value between 10−2 M and 10−5 M for the determination of the equilibrium lines.
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**Watson Davis and Helen Miles Davis Prize**
Watson Davis and Helen Miles Davis Prize:
This prize should not be confused with the Watson Davis Award from the Association for Information Science and Technology.
Watson Davis and Helen Miles Davis Prize:
The Watson Davis and Helen Miles Davis Prize of the History of Science Society is awarded yearly for a book published, during the past three years, on the history of science for a wide public. The book should "introduce an entire field, a chronological period, a national tradition, or the work of a noteworthy individual." The book can be written by multiple authors or editors and is required to be written in English and suitable for an audience including undergraduates and readers without specialized, technical knowledge. The author (or collective author) receives 1,000 U.S. dollars and a certificate. The prize, established in 1985, is named in honor of Watson Davis and Helen Miles Davis who were science popularizers in the USA.
Prize winners of the Watson Davis and Helen Miles Davis Prize:
1986 Daniel J. Boorstin, The Discoverers: A History of Man’s Search to Know His World and Himself (New York: Random House, 1983).
1987 Thomas L. Hankins, Science in the Enlightenment (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985).
1988 John Heilbron, The Dilemmas of an Upright Man: Max Planck as Spokesman for German Science (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986).
1989 Joan Mark, A Stranger in Her Native Land: Alice Fletcher and the American Indians (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1988). biography of Alice Fletcher.
1990 Robert W. Smith, The Space Telescope: A Study of NASA Science, Technology, and Policy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989).
1991 Nancy G. Siraisi, Medieval and Early Modern Medicine: An Introduction to Knowledge and Practice (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990).
1992 John Hedley Brooke, Science and Religion: Some Historical Perspectives (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991).
1993 James Moore and Adrian Desmond, Darwin: The Life of a Tormented Evolutionist (London: Michael Joseph, 1991).
1994 David C. Lindberg, The Beginnings of Western Science: The European Scientific Tradition in Philosophical, Religious, and Institutional Context, 600 B.C. to A.D. 1450 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992).
1995 Victor J. Katz, History of Mathematics: An Introduction (New York: Harper Collins, 1993).
1996 Betty Jo Teeter Dobbs and Margaret C. Jacob, Newton and the Culture of Newtonianism (Humanities Press, 1995).
1997 Richard Rhodes, Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb (Simon & Schuster, 1995).
1998 Ruth Lewin Sime, Lise Meitner: A Life in Physics (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996).
1999 Daniel J. Kevles, The Baltimore Case: A Trial of Politics, Science and Character (W.W. Norton & Company, 1998).
2000 Gregg Mitman, Reel Nature: America’s Romance with Wildlife on Film (Harvard University Press, 1999).
2001 Nancy Tomes, The Gospel of Germs: Men, Women, and the Microbe in American Life (Harvard University Press, 2000).
2002 Peter Dear, Revolutionizing the Sciences: European Knowledge and Its Ambitions, 1500-1700 (Princeton University Press, 2001).
Prize winners of the Watson Davis and Helen Miles Davis Prize:
2003 Ken Alder, The Measure of All Things: The Seven Year Odyssey and Hidden Error that Transformed the World (The Free Press, 2002, on Jean-Baptiste Joseph Delambre's meridian expedition in France in the 1790s) 2004 Jeff Hughes, The Manhattan Project: Big Science and the Atomic Bomb (Columbia University Press/Icon Books, 2003) 2005 Alan M. Kraut, Goldberger’s War: The Life and Work of a Public Health Crusader (Hill and Wang, 2004). biography of Joseph Goldberger.
Prize winners of the Watson Davis and Helen Miles Davis Prize:
2006 Robin Marantz Henig, Pandora’s Baby: How the First Test Tube Babies Sparked the Reproductive Revolution (Houghton Mifflin Press, 2004).
2007 Matt Ridley, Francis Crick: Discoverer of the Genetic Code (Atlas Books, Harper Collins Publishers, 2006).
2008 Helen Rozwadowski, Fathoming the Ocean: The Discovery and Exploration of the Deep Sea (Belknap Press, 2005).
2009 Charles Seife, Sun in a Bottle: The Strange History of Fusion and the Science of Wishful Thinking (Viking Adult, 2008).
2010 Marcia Bartusiak, The Day We Found the Universe (Pantheon Books, 2009).
2011 Naomi Oreskes and Erik M. Conway, Merchants of Doubt: How a Handful of Scientists Obscured the Truth on Issues from Tobacco Smoke to Global Warming (Bloomsbury Press, 2010).
2012 Mark Barrow, Nature’s Ghosts: Confronting Extinction from the Age of Jefferson to the Age of Ecology (University of Chicago Press, 2009).
2013 David Kaiser, How the Hippies Saved Physics: Science, Counterculture and the Quantum Revival (W.W. Norton & Company, 2011).
2014 W. Patrick McCray, The Visioneers: How a Group of Elite Scientists Pursued Space Colonies, Nanotechnologies, and a Limitless Future (Princeton University Press, 2012).
2015 Martin Rudwick, Earth's Deep History: How It Was Discovered and Why It Matters (The University of Chicago Press, 2014).
2016 Jacob Hamblin, Arming Mother Nature: The Birth of Catastrophic Environmentalism (Oxford University Press, 2013).
2017 Tania Munz, The Dancing Bees: Karl von Frisch and the Discovery of the Honeybee Language (University Of Chicago Press, 2016).
2018 Jim Endersby, Orchid: A Cultural History (University of Chicago Press, 2016).
2019 Michael F. Robinson, The Lost White Tribe: Explorers, Scientists, and the Theory that Changed a Continent (Oxford University Press, 2016).
2020 Cathy Gere, Pain, Pleasure and the Greater Good, from the Panopticon to the Skinner Box and Beyond (University of Chicago Press, 2017).
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**Bounding point**
Bounding point:
In functional analysis, a branch of mathematics, a bounding point of a subset of a vector space is a conceptual extension of the boundary of a set.
Definition:
Let A be a subset of a vector space X . Then x∈X is a bounding point for A if it is neither an internal point for A nor its complement.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Groundswell (book)**
Groundswell (book):
Groundswell is a book by Forrester Research executives Charlene Li and Josh Bernoff that focuses on how companies can take advantage of emerging social technologies. It was published in 2008 by Harvard Business Press. A revised edition was published in 2011.
The book attempts to explain a shift in the relationship between customers and companies, in which companies are no longer able to control customers' attitudes through market research, customer service, and advertising. Instead, customers are controlling the conversation by using new media to communicate about products and companies.
Synopsis:
The groundswell is characterized by several tactics that guide companies into using social technologies strategically and effectively.
Listening: Businesses should listen to their customers to understand what the market is looking for in their products. In order to do this, a company needs to find out if their customers are using social technologies and how they are using them.
Talking: Instead of advertising to customers, marketing departments should find creative ways to connect with users about their experience with a product and their feelings about the brand. One common method is participation in social networks.
Energizing: Enthusiastic customers are part of the groundswell, and companies can recognize and appreciate these customers by creating online communities and social platforms where they can connect with the brand and provide reviews.
Supporting: Businesses can harness the support of their own employees by creating internal social applications for them to connect with the brand, also known as enterprise social software.
Groundswell in action:
Examples Some companies distinguish their product through the use of social technologies. Tom Dickson successfully marketed his Blendtec line of blenders through the viral marketing campaign Will It Blend? The groundswell spread marketing messages through Digg and YouTube with a small budget and little marketing experience.
Other companies have been able to listen to and talk with the groundswell by building their own online communities. Procter & Gamble created beinggirl.com to introduce girls to P&G feminine care products. The community approach worked because the company could reach girls with information that might seem embarrassing or sensitive in a traditional marketing campaign.
Risks Features of particular industries or companies can make direct customer engagement more difficult. For instance, some companies must work within industry regulations, national or multinational corporations must balance corporate and local engagement, and other companies must find ways to engage with customers on time-sensitive issues.
Reception:
Kevin Allison of the Financial Times praised the book for its focus on Web analytics: "[Groundswell] is not so much a manifesto or a dissection of online culture as it is a how-to manual for executives and mid-level managers trying to navigate this fast-changing and often confusing environment."The book won the American Marketing Association Foundation’s Berry-AMA Book Prize for best marketing book of 2009. It was also listed by: Amazon, as one of the Top 10 Business & Investing Books of 2008 CIO Insight, as one of the Top 10 Business-Tech Books of 2008 and one of 10 Insightful Web 2.0 Books Fortune as Magazine as one of the 3 best Web books of 2008 Advertising Age as number 3 of 10 Books You Should Have Read BusinessWeek as one of the Best Innovation & Design Books of 2008 "strategy+business" as one of the Best Business Books 2008 and “Top Shelf” in Marketing
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Hohenhöfer Formation**
Hohenhöfer Formation:
The Hohenhöfer Formation is a geologic formation in Germany. It preserves fossils dating back to the Devonian period.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Zelda Wii**
Zelda Wii:
Zelda Wii may refer to three different video games in The Legend of Zelda series for the Wii console: The Legend of Zelda: Twilight Princess, released in 2006 The Legend of Zelda: Skyward Sword, released in 2011 Link's Crossbow Training, a spinoff game in The Legend of Zelda series, released in 2007These three particular games are the more modern works, though some others may now be in print
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Orbital apex syndrome**
Orbital apex syndrome:
Orbital apex syndrome, is a collection of cranial nerve deficits associated with a mass lesion near the apex of the orbit of the eye. This syndrome is a separate entity from Rochon–Duvigneaud syndrome, which occurs due to a lesion immediately anterior to the orbital apex. Most commonly optic nerve is involved.
Presentation:
The most common finding is oculomotor nerve dysfunction leading to ophthalmoplegia. This is often accompanied by ophthalmic nerve dysfunction, leading to hypoesthesia of the upper face. The optic nerve may eventually be involved, with resulting visual loss.
Causes:
Jacod Syndrome is commonly associated with a tumor of the middle cranial fossa (near the apex of the orbit); but it can have several other causes.
Neoplastic causes Head and neck cancer Neural tumors Hematological cancer Inflammatory causes Sarcoidosis Systemic lupus erythematosus Eosinophilic granulomatosis with polyangiitis Granulomatosis with polyangiitis Giant cell arteritis Thyroid disease Traumatic causes Iatrogenic (following surgery) Orbital apex fracture Penetrating injury Vascular causes Carotid aneurysm
Diagnosis:
Diagnostic methods vary, and are based on specific possible etiologies; however, an X-ray computed tomography scan of the face (or magnetic resonance imaging, or both) may be helpful.
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**Functional analog (chemistry)**
Functional analog (chemistry):
In chemistry and pharmacology, functional analogs are chemical compounds that have similar physical, chemical, biochemical, or pharmacological properties. Functional analogs are not necessarily structural analogs with a similar chemical structure. An example of pharmacological functional analogs are morphine, heroin and fentanyl, which have the same mechanism of action, but fentanyl is structurally quite different from the other two with significant variance in dosage.
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**Drug Addiction Treatment Act**
Drug Addiction Treatment Act:
The Drug Addiction Treatment Act of 2000 (DATA 2000), Title XXXV, Section 3502 of the Children's Health Act, permits physicians who meet certain qualifications to treat opioid addiction with Schedule III, IV, and V narcotic medications that have been specifically approved by the Food and Drug Administration for that indication. Since there is only one narcotic medication approved by the FDA for the treatment of opioid use disorder within the schedules given, DATA 2000 essentially governs the prescription of buprenorphine (Schedule III) for the treatment of opioid use disorder. Methadone and LAAM are Schedule II narcotics approved for the same purpose within the highly regulated methadone clinic setting, usually known as an opioid treatment program (OTP).
Legislative history:
The Drug Addiction Treatment Act of 2000 was authored by Senator Orrin Hatch (R-UT), Senator Joe Biden (D-DE), and Senator Carl Levin (D-MI).
DATA 2000 waiver:
Under the Act, physicians may apply for a waiver to prescribe buprenorphine for the treatment of opioid addiction or dependence outside of an opioid treatment program (OTP). Requirements include a current state medical license, a valid DEA registration number, specialty or subspecialty certification in addiction from the American Board of Medical Specialties, American Society of Addiction Medicine, or American Osteopathic Association. Exceptions were also created for physicians who participated in the initial studies of buprenorphine and for state certification of addiction specialists. However, the Act was intended to bring the treatment of addiction back to the primary care provider. Thus most waivers are obtained after taking an 8-hour course from one of the five medical organizations designated in the Act and otherwise approved by the Secretary of the Department of Health and Human Services. When physicians qualify for the waiver, they are given a second DEA number (i.e., in addition to the standard DEA prescribing number). This number begins with 'X', prompting the common nickname 'X-waiver'. Once prescribers obtain the waiver, they may treat up to 30 patients with buprenorphine-- following recent federal changes described below, they can request to increase their patient panel sizes after they have had a waiver for one year.
Recent changes impacting the DATA waiver and buprenorphine prescribing:
The Comprehensive Addiction Recovery Act of 2016 allowed for qualifying physician assistants and nurse practitioners to obtain DATA waivers.In July 2016, the Department of Health and Human Services issued a final rule, “Medication Assisted Treatment for Opioid Use Disorders”, in the Federal Register (81 FR 44712). This rule, effective on October 27, 2016, allowed eligible prescribers who have already held a waiver for one year to apply to treat up to 275 patients, up from the previous ceiling of 100.The SUPPORT Act of 2018 further amended the definition of “qualifying other practitioner” to include clinical nurse specialists (CNS), certified registered nurse anesthetists (CRNA), and certified nurse midwives (CNW) until October 1, 2023. Such "qualifying other providers" are subject to 24 hours of qualifying training while physicians are required to complete 8.
Current prescribing limits:
"Qualifying physicians can treat 100 patients in the first year if they meet the criteria outlined in the SUPPORT Act, and 275 after one year of prescribing at the 100-patient limit. If a physician does not meet the criteria to treat 100 patients in the first year, they would have to prescribe at the 30-patient limit for one year before requesting an increase to 100 patients, and then treat at the 100-patient limit for one year before requesting an increase to 275 patients."
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Direction cosine**
Direction cosine:
In analytic geometry, the direction cosines (or directional cosines) of a vector are the cosines of the angles between the vector and the three positive coordinate axes. Equivalently, they are the contributions of each component of the basis to a unit vector in that direction.
Three-dimensional Cartesian coordinates:
If v is a Euclidean vector in three-dimensional Euclidean space, R3, v=vxex+vyey+vzez, where ex, ey, ez are the standard basis in Cartesian notation, then the direction cosines are cos cos cos c=v⋅ez‖v‖=vzvx2+vy2+vz2.
It follows that by squaring each equation and adding the results cos cos cos 1.
Here α, β and γ are the direction cosines and the Cartesian coordinates of the unit vector v/|v|, and a, b and c are the direction angles of the vector v.
The direction angles a, b and c are acute or obtuse angles, i.e., 0 ≤ a ≤ π, 0 ≤ b ≤ π and 0 ≤ c ≤ π, and they denote the angles formed between v and the unit basis vectors, ex, ey and ez.
General meaning:
More generally, direction cosine refers to the cosine of the angle between any two vectors. They are useful for forming direction cosine matrices that express one set of orthonormal basis vectors in terms of another set, or for expressing a known vector in a different basis.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Combo box**
Combo box:
A combo box is a commonly used graphical user interface widget (or control). Traditionally, it is a combination of a drop-down list or list box and a single-line editable textbox, allowing the user to either type a value directly or select a value from the list. The term "combo box" is sometimes used to mean "drop-down list". In both Java and .NET, "combo box" is not a synonym for "drop-down list". Definition of "drop down list" is sometimes clarified with terms such as "non-editable combo box" (or something similar) to distinguish it from "combo box".
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Hippogonal**
Hippogonal:
A hippogonal (pronounced ) chess move is one similar to a knight's move. That is, a leap m squares in one of the orthogonal directions, and n squares in the other, for integer values of m and n. It need not be a 2:1 ratio for m and n. A specific type of hippogonal move can be written (m,n), usually with the smaller number first.
Hippogonal:
For example, the knight itself moves two squares in one orthogonal direction and one in the other—it moves hippogonally. It is a (1,2) hippogonal mover, sometimes referred to as a (1,2) leaper.
Hippogonal:
Other hippogonally moving pieces include the camel, a fairy chess piece, which moves three squares in one direction and one in the other, and thus is a (1,3) hippogonal mover. The Xiangqi horse is a hippogonal stepper and the nightrider is a hippogonal rider.The pieces are colourbound if the sum of m and n is even, and change colour with every move otherwise.
Etymology:
The word hippogonal is derived from the ancient Greek ἵππος, híppos, 'horse' (knights used to be called horses, and still are in some languages), and γωνία (gōnía), meaning "angle".
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Data Plane Development Kit**
Data Plane Development Kit:
The Data Plane Development Kit (DPDK) is an open source software project managed by the Linux Foundation. It provides a set of data plane libraries and network interface controller polling-mode drivers for offloading TCP packet processing from the operating system kernel to processes running in user space. This offloading achieves higher computing efficiency and higher packet throughput than is possible using the interrupt-driven processing provided in the kernel.
Data Plane Development Kit:
DPDK provides a programming framework for x86, ARM, and PowerPC processors and enables faster development of high speed data packet networking applications. It scales from mobile processors, such as Intel Atom, to server-grade processors, such as Intel Xeon. It supports instruction set architectures such as Intel, IBM POWER8, EZchip, and ARM. It is provided and supported under the open-source BSD license.
Data Plane Development Kit:
DPDK was created by Intel engineer Venky Venkatesan, who is affectionately known as "The Father of DPDK." He died in 2018 after a long battle with cancer.
Overview:
The DPDK framework creates a set of libraries for specific hardware/software environments through the creation of an Environment Abstraction Layer (EAL). The EAL hides the environment specifics and provides a standard programming interface to libraries, available hardware accelerators and other hardware and operating system (Linux, FreeBSD) elements. Once the EAL is created for a specific environment, developers link to the library to create their applications. For instance, EAL provides the frameworks to support Linux, FreeBSD, Intel IA-32 or 64-bit, IBM POWER9 and ARM 32- or 64-bit.
Overview:
The EAL also provides additional services including time references, generic bus access, trace and debug functions and alarm operations.
Overview:
Using DPDK libraries one can implement a low overhead run-to-completion, pipeline or staged, event driven, or hybrid model completely in userspace eliminating kernel and kernel to user copy. Hardware assists from NIC/Regex/Accelerators, libraries enhanced to make use of Intelligence Storage Acceleration (ISA) for bulk performance and accessing devices via polling helps to eliminate the performance overhead of interrupt too. Hugepages are used for large memory pool allocation, to decrease the amount of lookups and page management.The DPDK also includes software examples that highlight best practices for software architecture, tips for data structure design and storage, application profiling and performance tuning utilities and tips that address common network performance deficits.
Libraries:
The DPDK includes data plane libraries and optimized network interface controller (NIC) drivers for the following: A queue manager implements lockless queues A buffer manager pre-allocates fixed size buffers A memory manager allocates pools of objects in memory and uses a ring to store free objects; ensures that objects are spread equally on all DRAM channels Poll mode drivers (PMD) are designed to work without asynchronous notifications, reducing overhead A packet framework – a set of libraries that are helpers to develop packet processingAll libraries are stored in the dpdk/lib/librte_* directories Plugins The DPDK includes drivers for many hardware types. There have been some additional out-of-tree plugin drivers in the past, which are now considered deprecated.
Libraries:
librte_pmd_vmxnet3.so – provides PMD Ethernet layer supporting Vmxnet3 paravirtualized NIC; superseded by full VMXNET3 support in native DPDK.
librte_pmd_memnic_copy.so – provides a Virtual PMD Ethernet layer through shared memory based on 2 memory copies of packets
Environment:
The DPDK was originally designed to run using a bare-metal mode which is currently deprecated. DPDK's EAL provides support for Linux or FreeBSD userland application.EAL can be extended in order to support any processors.
Ecosystem:
DPDK is now an open-source project under the Linux Foundation, supported by many companies. DPDK is governed by a Governing Board. The technical activities are overseen by a Technical Board. Beside Intel, which is a contributor to the DPDK, several other vendors also support the DPDK within their products and some offer additional training, support and professional services. The list of vendors who have announced DPDK support includes: 6WIND, ALTEN Calsoft Labs, Advantech, Brocade, Big Switch Networks, Mellanox Technologies, Radisys, Tieto, Wind River, Lanner Inc. and NXP.
Projects:
The pfSense project published a road map on 25 February 2015, in which developer Jim Thompson announced the rewriting of the pfSense core—including pf, network packet forwarding and shaping, link bonding, IPsec—using DPDK: "We have a goal of being able to forward, with packet filtering at rates of at least 14.88 Mpps. This is 'line rate' on a 10 Gbps interface. There is simply no way to use today's FreeBSD (or linux) in-kernel stacks for this type of load."Open vSwitch (OVS) has a limited set of features running userland that can be leveraged to bypass the Linux kernel OVS processing. This use case of OVS with DPDK userland is usually named OVS-DPDK. It is mostly deployed with OpenStack Neutron but it assumes that many features and software-defined networking (SDN) capabilities of Openstack are disabled. For instance, when OVS-DPDK is used, Neutron provides a lower level of security than when OVS kernel is used (no stateful firewalling, less security group).
Projects:
The FD.IO VPP platform is an extensible framework that provides out-of-the-box production quality switch/router functionality. It is the open source version of Cisco's Vector Packet Processing (VPP) technology: a high performance, packet-processing stack that can run on commodity CPUs, and can leverage the Poll Mode Drivers for both NICs and cryptographic acceleration hardware and libraries. VPP supports and uses the DPDK library.TRex is an open source traffic generator using DPDK. It generates L4–7 traffic based on pre-processing and smart replay of real traffic templates. TRex amplifies both client and server side traffic and can scale to 200 Gbit/s with one UCS using Intel XL710. TRex also supports multiple streams, ability to change any packet field and provides per stream statistics, latency and jitter.DTS (DPDK Test Suite) is a Python-based framework for functional tests and benchmarks. It is an open-source project, started in 2014, and is hosted on dpdk.org. It supports both software traffic generators like Scapy and dpdk-pktgen, and a hardware traffic generator like Ixia.DPDK has support for several SRIOV network drivers, enabling creating a PF (Physical Function) and VFs, and also to launch VMs (like QEMU VMs) and assign VFs to them using PCI Passthrough DDP (Dynamic Device Personalization) is one of the new advanced features implemented with DPDK. It allows you to load firmware for a device dynamically, without resetting the host.
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kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded
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**Kushaura**
Kushaura:
In Shona music, the kushaura is the leading part. Compare with the kutsinhira part.
Kushaura:
The kushaura can be thought of being the first part, with the kutsinhira usually being a beat behind, within a cycle of 12 beats. However, this is not always the case. Furthermore, certain parts are both kushaura and kutsinhira parts, depending on where they are played. Typically a kushaura of this type is played a beat behind to make a kutsinhira.
Kushaura:
In the most standard form, both kushaura and kutsinhira parts can be conceptualized as a repetition of a sequence of four cycles in a western 12/8 meter with all notes falling exactly on one of the twelve eighth-note subdivisions. However the beginning of the cycle is not standardized, and may be different for different regions, players, and musical parts. In general the primary beat of the hosho falls on every three subdivisions, which can result in a 4/4-like sound. However the kushaura or kutsinhira parts also come in varieties that typically sound as a 3/4 part to most westerners. In this case, the two parts, nominally 4/4 and 3/4, combine in a polyrhythm encompassed by the conceptualization of the piece as 12/8, and sync at every 12 eighth notes. Some kushaura parts may sound like they begin with an upbeat to the western ear, whereas the first note actually lands on the beat itself.
Kushaura:
Both kushaura and kutsinhira parts typically have high lines played by the right hand (on the right manual of the mbira dzavadzimu), and these lines tend to be composed of notes that alternate on every other eighth note. The other defining feature of the kushaura in contrast with the kustinhira is that these high line notes are in alternating opposition to the notes of the kutsinhira, forming an interlocked high line composed of the right hand notes of both players. In many transcriptions, the first right hand note of the kushaura will fall on the eighth note immediately after the first hosho beat, whereas the kutsinhira's will fall directly on this beat—however since the beginning of a given cycle is somewhat arbitrary, this description is context-specific to these standard conceptualizations of the beginnings. Viewing a single line, especially in the left hand (lower) part, changing the perceived beginning of the cycle will often change the perceptual modal structure of the line.
Kushaura:
Example from Nhemamusasa (using western approximation of notes) version 1: CCEEAA CCFFAA DDFFAA CCEEGG version 2: FFAADD FFAACC EEGGCC EEAACC (same notes, different cycle divisions)Typically the player playing the kushaura part leads the performance in choosing variations to play, whereas the kutsinhira player will attempt to follow that lead with complementary parts. Variations exist for both the right hand, and left hand. Some variations of the left hand are almost exclusively played on the upper left manual, entirely avoiding the bottom left one.
Kushaura:
Typical to the right hand part are repeating notes, as well as descending, but not ascending, lines, for example: GGGGFEDD GGFEDDBB DDCCBBAA (Taireva, separated into three descending lines) FFEEDDCCBAGG EEDDCCBBAAGG (Nhemamusasa, separated into two descending lines)In the right hand, the most common chord is the octave composed of the far-left key played with the thumb, and the fourth key, played with the index finger. In the left hand, consecutive octaves and fifths are common, whereas thirds of chords are generally avoided, and chords entirely within the left hand are not played on most typical instruments, because only a single digit, the thumb, is used.
Kutsinhira:
This section refers to the Shona musical part. For the Cultural Arts Center located in Eugene, OR, see Kutsinhira Cultural Arts Center.In Shona music, the kutsinhira is the following part. The kutsinhira is often a beat behind the kushaura part. More generally, the kutsinhira is the part that is more, or mostly off the beat when compared to the kushaura.
Kutsinhira:
Usually the kushaura player begins to lead the direction of the improvisation, and the kutsinhira player follows or otherwise responds, especially with regard to particular registers, low or high. Emergent high and low lines are then composed of the interlocking of the kutsinhira part with the kushaura, rather than the lines of any one player alone.
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**Synephrine dehydratase**
Synephrine dehydratase:
The enzyme synephrine dehydratase (EC 4.2.1.88) catalyzes the chemical reaction (R)-synephrine ⇌ (4-hydroxyphenyl)acetaldehyde + methylamineThis enzyme belongs to the family of lyases, specifically the hydro-lyases, which cleave carbon-oxygen bonds. The systematic name of this enzyme class is (R)-synephrine hydro-lyase (methylamine-forming).
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**October 1966 lunar eclipse**
October 1966 lunar eclipse:
A penumbral lunar eclipse took place on Saturday, October 29, 1966, the second of two lunar eclipses in 1966. This was a deep penumbral eclipse, with over 90% within Penumbral Shadow.
Related lunar eclipses:
Lunar year series Metonic series The metonic cycle repeats nearly exactly every 19 years and represents a Saros cycle plus one lunar year. Because it occurs on the same calendar date, the earth's shadow will in nearly the same location relative to the background stars.
Half-Saros cycle A lunar eclipse will be preceded and followed by solar eclipses by 9 years and 5.5 days (a half saros). This lunar eclipse is related to two solar eclipses of Solar Saros 123.
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**International Computer Music Conference**
International Computer Music Conference:
The International Computer Music Conference (ICMC) is a yearly international conference for computer music researchers and composers. It is the annual conference of the International Computer Music Association (ICMA).
History:
In 1986, the Institute of Sonology institute was moved to the Royal Conservatory of The Hague, hosting the International Computer Music Conference there during its inaugural year.Each year there is a specific theme. For example, in 2007, the theme was "Immersed Music" and immersive media. ICMC 2007 took place in Copenhagen. On August 28, there was an "Underwater/Water Concert" at the DGI-byen swimcenter, in the hundred-metre DGI-byen pool, as well as the various other pools of the Vandkulturhuset.
History:
This "Immersed Music" theme of ICMC 2007 explored important issues in musical instrument classification and immersion.
2014 40th ICMC is organised joint with the 11th Sound and Music Computing Conference in Athens, Greece 14–20 September 2014.2017 43rd ICMC took place from Oct 16, 2017 - Oct 20, 2017 in Shanghai, China. 2018 44th ICMC took place from 5–10 August 2018 in Daegu, Korea.
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