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**Sun path**
Sun path:
Sun path, sometimes also called day arc, refers to the daily and seasonal arc-like path that the Sun appears to follow across the sky as the Earth rotates and orbits the Sun. The Sun's path affects the length of daytime experienced and amount of daylight received along a certain latitude during a given season.
The relative position of the Sun is a major factor in the heat gain of buildings and in the performance of solar energy systems. Accurate location-specific knowledge of sun path and climatic conditions is essential for economic decisions about solar collector area, orientation, landscaping, summer shading, and the cost-effective use of solar trackers.
Effect of the Earth's axial tilt:
Sun paths at any latitude and any time of the year can be determined from basic geometry. The Earth's axis of rotation tilts about 23.5 degrees, relative to the plane of Earth's orbit around the Sun. As the Earth orbits the Sun, this creates the 47° declination difference between the solstice sun paths, as well as the hemisphere-specific difference between summer and winter.
Effect of the Earth's axial tilt:
In the Northern Hemisphere, the winter sun (November, December, January) rises in the southeast, transits the celestial meridian at a low angle in the south (more than 43° above the southern horizon in the tropics), and then sets in the southwest. It is on the south (equator) side of the house all day long. A vertical window facing south (equator side) is effective for capturing solar thermal energy. For comparison, the winter sun in the Southern Hemisphere (May, June, July) rises in the northeast, peaks out at a low angle in the north (more than halfway up from the horizon in the tropics), and then sets in the northwest. There, the north-facing window would let in plenty of solar thermal energy to the house.
Effect of the Earth's axial tilt:
In the Northern Hemisphere in summer (May, June, July), the Sun rises in the northeast, peaks out slightly south of overhead point (lower in the south at higher latitude), and then sets in the northwest, whereas in the Southern Hemisphere in summer (November, December, January), the Sun rises in the southeast, peaks out slightly north of overhead point (lower in the north at higher latitude), and then sets in the southwest. A simple latitude-dependent equator-side overhang can easily be designed to block 100% of the direct solar gain from entering vertical equator-facing windows on the hottest days of the year. Roll-down exterior shade screens, interior translucent-or-opaque window quilts, drapes, shutters, movable trellises, etc. can be used for hourly, daily or seasonal sun and heat transfer control (without any active electrical air conditioning).
Effect of the Earth's axial tilt:
Everywhere around the world during the equinoxes (March 20/21 and September 22/23) except for the poles, the sun rises due east and sets due west. In the Northern Hemisphere, the equinox sun peaks in the southern half (about halfway up from the horizon at mid latitude) of the sky, while in the Southern Hemisphere, that sun peaks in the northern half of the sky. When facing the equator, the sun appears to move from left to right in the Northern Hemisphere and from right to left in the Southern Hemisphere.
Effect of the Earth's axial tilt:
The latitude (and hemisphere)-specific solar path differences are critical to effective passive solar building design. They are essential data for optimal window and overhang seasonal design. Solar designers must know the precise solar path angles for each location they design for, and how they compare to place-based seasonal heating and cooling requirements.
In the U.S., the precise location-specific altitude-and-azimuth seasonal solar path numbers are available from NOAA – the "equator side" of a building is south in the Northern Hemisphere, and north in the Southern Hemisphere, where the peak summer solstice solar altitude occurs on December 21.
Effect of the Earth's axial tilt:
Shadow of a vertical stick at solar noon On the equator, the sun will be straight overhead and a vertical stick will cast no shadow at solar noon on the equinoxes. Roughly 23.5 degrees north of the equator on the Tropic of Cancer, a vertical stick will cast no shadow on June 21, the summer solstice for the northern hemisphere. The rest of the year, the noon shadow will point to the North pole. Roughly 23.5 degrees south of the equator on the Tropic of Capricorn, a vertical stick will cast no shadow on December 21, the summer solstice for the southern hemisphere, and the rest of the year its noon shadow will point to the South pole. North of the Tropic of Cancer, the noon shadow will always point north, and conversely, south of the Tropic of Capricorn, the noon shadow will always point south.
Effect of the Earth's axial tilt:
The solar noon shadows of objects on points beyond and below subsolar points will point towards true north and true south respectively only when the solar declination has its maximum positive (δ☉ = +23.44°) or maximum negative (δ☉ = −23.44°) value. On the other hand, on the equinoxes when the sun is neither declined north nor south (δ☉ = 0°) and solar time noon shadows point NNW north of the equator and SSE south of the equator on the vernal equinox (and point NNE north of the equator and SSW south of the equator on the autumnal equinox).
Effect of the Earth's axial tilt:
Duration of daylight Within the polar circles (north of the Arctic Circle and south of the Antarctic Circle), each year will experience at least one day when the Sun remains below the horizon for 24 hours (on the winter solstice), and at least one day when the Sun remains above the horizon for 24 hours (on the summer solstice).
In the middle latitudes, the length of daytime, as well as solar altitude and azimuth, vary from one day to the next, and from season to season. The difference between the lengths of a long summer day and of a short winter day increases as one moves farther away from the Equator.
Visualization:
The pictures below show the following perspectives from Earth, marking the hourly positions of the Sun on both solstice days. When connected, the suns form two day arcs, the paths along which the Sun appears to follow on the celestial sphere in its diurnal motion. The longer arc is always the midsummer path while the shorter arc the midwinter path. The two arcs are 46.88° (2 × 23.44°) apart, indicating the declination difference between the solstice suns.
Visualization:
In addition, some "ghost" suns are visible below the horizon, as much as 18° down, during which twilight occurs. The pictures can be used for both the northern and the southern hemispheres of Earth. A theoretical observer is supposed to stand near the tree on a small island in the middle of the sea. The green arrows represent the cardinal directions.
Visualization:
In the Northern Hemisphere, north is to the left. The Sun rises in the east (far arrow), culminates in the south (to the right) while moving to the right, and sets in the west (near arrow). Both rise and set positions are displaced towards the north in midsummer and the south in midwinter.
Visualization:
In the Southern Hemisphere, south is to the left. The Sun rises in the east (near arrow), culminates in the north (to the right) while moving to the left, and sets in the west (far arrow). Both rise and set positions are displaced towards the south in midsummer and the north in midwinter.The following cases are depicted: On the abstract line of the Equator (0° latitude), the Sun's maximum altitude is great during the entire year, but it does not form a perfect right angle with the ground at noon every day. In fact it happens two days of the year, during the equinoxes. The solstices are the dates that the Sun stays farthest away from the zenith but also in those cases it's high in the sky, reaching an altitude of 66.56° either to the north or the south. All days of the year, solstices included, have the same length of 12 hours.
Visualization:
Solstice day arcs as viewed from 20° latitude. The Sun culminates at 46.56° altitude in winter and 93.44° altitude in summer. In this case an angle larger than 90° means that the culmination takes place at an altitude of 86.56° in the opposite cardinal direction. For example, in the southern hemisphere, the Sun remains in the north during winter, but can reach over the zenith to the south in midsummer. Summer days are longer than winter days, but the difference is no more than approximately two and a half hours. The daily path of the Sun is steep at the horizon the whole year round, resulting in a twilight of only about one hour and 20 minutes in the morning and in the evening.
Visualization:
Solstice day arcs as viewed from 50° latitude. During the winter solstice, Sun does not rise more than 16.56° above the horizon at midday, but 63.44° in summer solstice above the same horizon direction. The difference in the length of the day between summer and winter, from here to the north, begin to be striking – slightly more than 8 hours at winter solstice, to more than 16 hours during the summer solstice. Likewise is the difference in direction of sunrise and sunset. At this latitude at midnight (around 1 a.m. with summer legal hour) the summer sun is 16.56° below the horizon, which means that astronomical twilight continues the whole night. This phenomenon is known as the grey nights, nights when it does not get dark enough for astronomers to do their observations of the deep sky. Above 60° latitude, the Sun would be even closer to the horizon, only 6.56° away from it. Then civil twilight continues almost all night, only a little bit of nautical twilight around the local midnight. Above 66.56° latitude, there is no sunset at all, a phenomenon referred to as the midnight sun.
Visualization:
Solstice day arcs as viewed from 70° latitude. At local noon the winter Sun culminates at −3.44°, and the summer Sun at 43.44°. Said another way, during the winter the Sun does not rise above the horizon, it is the polar night. There will be still a strong twilight though. At local midnight the summer Sun culminates at 3.44°. Said another way, it does not set; it is the polar day.
Visualization:
Solstice day arcs as viewed from either pole (90° latitude). At the time of the summer or winter solstices, the Sun is 23.44° degrees above or below the horizon, respectively, irrespective of time of day. Whilst the Sun is up (during summer months) it will circle around the whole sky (clockwise from the North Pole and counter-clockwise from the South Pole), appearing to stay at the same angle from the horizon, therefore the concept of day or night is meaningless. The angle of elevation will gradually change on an annual cycle, with the Sun reaching its highest point at the summer solstice, and rising or setting at the equinox, with extended periods of twilight lasting several days after the autumn equinox and before the spring equinox.Solstice day arcs as viewed from selected latitudes
Visualization:
A 2021 publication about solar geometry first calculates the x-, y-, and z-component of the solar vector, which is a unit vector with its tail fixed at the observer's location and its head kept pointing toward the Sun, and then uses the components to calculate the solar zenith angle and solar azimuth angle. The calculated solar vector at 1-hour step for a full year for both daytime and nighttime can be used to visualize the Sun path effectively.
Visualization:
In the following figures, the origin of the coordinate system is the observer's location, x-positive is East, y-positive is North, and z-positive is upward; at North Pole, y-negative is tangent to the prime meridian; at South Pole, y-positive is tangent to the prime meridian; z-positive is daytime, and z-negative is nighttime; the time step is 1 hour.
Each "8" pattern in all figures is an analemma corresponding to a specific hour of every day of the year; all the 24 hours on a specific day of the year depict the sun path of that day. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**TLK1**
TLK1:
Serine/threonine-protein kinase tousled-like 1 is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the TLK1 gene.
Function:
The Tousled-like kinases, first described in Arabidopsis, are nuclear serine/threonine kinases that are potentially involved in the regulation of chromatin assembly.[supplied by OMIM]
Interactions:
TLK1 has been shown to interact with ASF1B, ASF1A and TLK2. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Xylulokinase**
Xylulokinase:
In enzymology, a xylulokinase (EC 2.7.1.17) is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction ATP + D-xylulose ⇌ ADP + D-xylulose 5-phosphateThus, the two substrates of this enzyme are ATP and D-xylulose, whereas its two products are ADP and D-xylulose 5-phosphate.
This enzyme belongs to the family of transferases, specifically those transferring phosphorus-containing groups (phosphotransferases) with an alcohol group as acceptor. The systematic name of this enzyme class is ATP:D-xylulose 5-phosphotransferase. Other names in common use include xylulokinase (phosphorylating), and D-xylulokinase. This enzyme participates in pentose and glucuronate interconversions.
Structural studies:
As of late 2007, two structures have been solved for this class of enzymes, with PDB accession codes 2ITM and 2NLX.
Applications:
Hydrogen production In 2014 a low-temperature 50 °C (122 °F), atmospheric-pressure enzyme-driven process to convert xylose into hydrogen with nearly 100% of the theoretical yield was announced. The process employs 13 enzymes, including xylulokinase. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Rhapsody (operating system)**
Rhapsody (operating system):
Rhapsody is an operating system that was developed by Apple Computer after its purchase of NeXT in the late 1990s. It is the fifth major release of the Mach-based operating system that was developed at NeXT in the late 1980s, previously called OPENSTEP and NEXTSTEP. Rhapsody was targeted to developers for a transition period between the Classic Mac OS and Mac OS X. Rhapsody represented a new and exploratory strategy for Apple, more than an operating system, and runs on x86-based PCs and on Power Macintosh.
Rhapsody (operating system):
Rhapsody's OPENSTEP based Yellow Box API frameworks were ported to Windows NT for creating cross-platform applications. Eventually, the non-Apple platforms were discontinued, and later versions consist primarily of the OPENSTEP operating system ported to Power Macintosh, merging the Copland-originated GUI of Mac OS 8 with that of OPENSTEP. Several existing classic Mac OS frameworks were ported, including QuickTime and AppleSearch. Rhapsody can run Mac OS 8 and its applications in a paravirtualization layer called Blue Box for backward compatibility during migration to Mac OS X.
Background:
Naming Rhapsody follows Apple's pattern through the 1990s of music-related codenames for operating system releases (see Rhapsody (music)). Apple had canceled its previous next-generation operating system strategy of Copland (named for American composer, Aaron Copland) and its pre-announced successor Gershwin (named for George Gershwin, composer of Rhapsody in Blue). Other musical code names include Harmony (Mac OS 7.6), Tempo (Mac OS 8), Allegro (Mac OS 8.5), and Sonata (Mac OS 9).
Background:
Previous attempts to develop a successor to the Classic Mac OS In the mid-1990s, Mac OS was falling behind Windows. In 1993, Microsoft had introduced the next-generation Windows NT, which was a processor-independent, multiprocessing and multi-user operating system. At the time, Mac OS was still a single-user OS, and had gained a reputation for being unstable. Apple made several attempts to develop modern replacements for Mac OS, which all failed, harming public confidence in the company, while Macintosh sales continued to decline. Apple's most promising next-generation operating system, Copland, was mismanaged and had to be abandoned in 1996. In response, Apple CEO Gil Amelio decided to acquire or license an already-built operating system from another company. Apple's executive team considered BeOS, NeXT's NeXTSTEP, Sun Microsystems' Solaris, and Windows NT, and eventually acquired NeXT in December 1996.
Announcement:
Rhapsody was announced by Gil Amelio at the January 7, 1997 Macworld Expo SF, and first demonstrated at the May 1997 Worldwide Developers Conference (WWDC).
Announcement:
Pitch to developers At Macworld SF 1997, Steve Jobs said that Mac OS and its Macintosh Toolbox placed developers on the "fifth floor", Windows NT on the "seventh floor", while Rhapsody's OpenStep libraries would let developers start on the "twentieth floor". Jobs argued that this would make it faster to implement existing apps, and would allow even small developer teams to create innovative apps. At the time, fewer than 25% of Americans used computers, and many thought the computing industry was "just waiting to take off"; most existing applications were office tools, and "the software for the vast majority of people [had] yet to be written". Jobs gave the examples of Lighthouse Design, which had created an entire office suite for NeXTSTEP with only 18 employees, Tim Berners-Lee, who had created WorldWideWeb, the first web browser, on NeXTSTEP, and Dell, which created its first eCommerce website using NeXT's WebObjects.Since Yellow Box was also available on Windows as a dynamic-link library (DLL), Yellow Box apps would be able to run on both Rhapsody and Windows through a recompile. Microsoft provided no equivalent that would enable Win32 apps to run on other platforms. Additionally, Rhapsody itself could be installed on either PowerPC Macintoshes or Intel x86 PCs, enlarging developers' potential customer base.
Announcement:
Pitch to users Apple pitched Rhapsody to users by emphasizing its improved stability and responsiveness. For example, on classic Mac OS, incoming faxes could leave the machine frozen until the fax completes; and if an app crashed, it could take down the whole system and require a reboot, potentially leading to data loss. Additionally, Rhapsody would inherit NeXTSTEP's local network sharing functionality, and make it easy to share data across apps. At Macworld SF 1997, Steve Jobs vaunted NeXTSTEP's maturity by pointing out that it had been adopted by many large organizations, including Wall Street banks and the CIA. BYTE magazine described NeXTSTEP as "field-tested, time-proven code" in January 1998, ten years after the operating system's introduction.
Announcement:
Planned transition from Mac OS Apple's plan was to maintain compatibility with "most" existing Mac OS applications through Blue Box but require apps to be rewritten for Yellow Box to take advantage of Rhapsody's new features. Blue Box would run in a window, and support System 7 apps (Motorola 68k and PowerPC), but would only be able to support apps that did not need to communicate with the hardware. Throughout Rhapsody's development, Apple would continue to release major upgrades to the classic Mac OS, which would remain supported for several years after Rhapsody's public release.
Architecture:
Rhapsody runs on a modified Mach 2.5 kernel and 4.4BSD Unix environment. Atop that were the threaded, object-oriented Yellow Box libraries, the Blue Box compatibility layer for Mac OS applications, and a Java virtual machine. Rhapsody combines NeXT's OpenStep object-oriented framework, NeXT's other frameworks (WebObjects, Enterprise Objects Framework), and Apple's Mac OS technologies (including AppleScript, QuickTime Media Layer, ColorSync, Apple events). Rhapsody uses the Unix File System (UFS) for hard disks, and Network File System on network drives.Pixels are drawn onscreen using Display PostScript instead of Mac OS's QuickDraw. Since Display PostScript relies on the same PostScript language that is used to communicate with printers, no conversion process is required when printing, and printed documents are more faithful to how they look onscreen.Rhapsody supports app development in three programming languages: Objective-C, Java, and C++.
Architecture:
Kernel Rhapsody uses Carnegie Mellon University's Mach 2.5 kernel, which was modified to add support for the Network File System, SCSI disks, and removable devices like CD-ROMs and Jaz drives. This kernel lacks symmetric multiprocessing (SMP) support, which was planned to be added in a later release of Rhapsody that would use a Mach 3.0 kernel. Mach had been created at CMU by Avie Tevanian, who was in charge of Rhapsody's development as Apple's senior vice president of software engineering, a role he previously held at NeXT.In a WWDC 1997 presentation, Jeff Robbin said Rhapsody was based on Mach 2.6.
Architecture:
Blue Box Blue Box is a non-reentrant virtualization layer that allows Rhapsody to run classic Mac OS apps. It was released after Rhapsody DR1, in the form of an application called MacOS.app that loaded a Macintosh ROM file stored on disk. Blue Box did not support Mac OS applications that needed hardware access or that relied on non-public Mac OS APIs.Blue Box beta 1.0 only worked in full screen, requiring users to press ⌘ Cmd+↵ Enter to exit the environment, and it implements networking through Open Transport, instead of Rhapsody's BSD sockets. Later versions of Blue Box could run Mac OS in a window.Rhapsody's Blue Box environment, available only on PowerPC due to paravirtualization, provides runtime compatibility with Mac OS 8 applications. All virtualized applications and their associated windows are encapsulated within a single Blue Box desktop window instead of being interspersed with native Yellow Box applications.
Architecture:
Blue Box later became the Classic environment, which remained in Mac OS X until Mac OS X Tiger, with support for Classic dropped in Mac OS X Leopard.
Architecture:
Yellow Box Yellow Box is Rhapsody's development platform. It consists of the much of the OpenStep framework, combined with a runtime, and a development environment. Since Yellow Box also had a Windows NT implementation, apps made for it could also run natively on Microsoft Windows, and would look like normal Windows applications. Yellow Box includes three major frameworks: Foundation, Application Kit, and Display PostScript. It also includes NeXTSTEP's Project Builder and Interface Builder development tools.Yellow Box has full support for preemptive multitasking, multithreading, and protected memory (which would have only been partially supported under the previous Copland project). Third-party apps would need to be rewritten for Yellow Box to take advantage of Rhapsody's new features.In May 1997, Amelio announced that Yellow Box would be renamed Concert.Yellow Box was later used as the foundation for Mac OS X's Cocoa framework.
Architecture:
Java virtual machine Rhapsody's Java virtual machine is derived from Sun's JDK 1.1.3, which was modified so that Java apps could call Yellow Box APIs. Rhapsody DR1 included Sun's Java compiler and libraries.
Developer releases:
Apple issued two developer releases of Rhapsody for both the PowerPC and Intel x86 architectures.
Developer releases:
Developer Release 1 The first developer release of Rhapsody was released on October 13, 1997 (for Power Macintosh) to 10,000 developers, who were given two CDs: the bootable Rhapsody installer, and another CD with sample source code (including a version of TextEdit in Java that calls Yellow Box APIs). Apple modified its implementation of Open Firmware to allow users to dual boot Rhapsody and Mac OS by holding down ⇪ Caps Lock. DR1 did not have Blue Box, and was missing many promised Mac OS technologies like QuickTime, AppleScript, and AppleTalk; its main purpose was to give developers a shipping version of Yellow Box so they could start rewriting their apps for it. DR1 has OPENSTEP's Workspace Manager instead of the Mac OS Finder. Within the following weeks, Apple also released the Windows version of the Yellow Box runtime, as well as DR1 of Rhapsody for PC Compatibles (Intel), and the first release of Blue Box.The overall developer reaction to DR1 was positive. BYTE magazine's Tom Thompson described DR1 as a "Jekyll-and-Hyde mixture" of an "amazingly Mac-like" user interface and hard-to-use NeXTSTEP components, some of which could only be configured properly through the command line, but said it "did not crash once" during his testing.
Developer releases:
User interface Rhapsody's user interface was considered preliminary, with the developer previews focusing on the system's underlying architecture. Its user interface was a blend of the OPENSTEP UI and Mac OS 8's Platinum UI, with the latter originating with the cancelled Copland prototype. Developer Release 1 (DR1) does not have Mac OS's Finder, and has OPENSTEP's Workspace Manager, Shelf, and column view. The Shelf was eliminated in favor of OPENSTEP's Dock; and Finder was added, inheriting column view.
Reception:
Developers were "impressed" and "enthusiastic" about Apple's plans, but, with Copland in mind, many were skeptical of Apple's ability to deliver on these plans, and the Macintosh's declining sales raised doubts about Apple's odds of survival. As a result, "many" developers were unwilling to commit to rewriting their apps for Rhapsody, which posed a chicken-and-egg problem, since Rhapsody would not be commercially successful without apps rewritten to take advantage of its new features.Technology columnist Walt Mossberg observed that many third-party developers were already abandoning the Mac due to its shrinking market share, and that NeXTSTEP's lack of consumer applications, combined with the need to rewrite apps for Rhapsody, "[made] buying a Mac a relatively risky investment" compared to buying a Windows 95 or Windows NT computer.To assuage developers' concerns, Apple announced in May 1997 that it would add support for Yellow Box apps to Mac OS, to make the transition from Mac OS smoother. However, the same month, Apple announced in an SEC filing that contrary to its previous earnings guidance, it would fail to return to profitability by the fourth quarter of fiscal year 1997 (ending in September), and that it expected Macintosh net sales to continue to decline. In Q4 FY1997, quarterly Macintosh sales declined from 932,000 to 625,000 year-over-year, and Apple had an operating loss of $24 million (though it still had $1.45 billion in cash). Shortly before the August 6, 1997 Macworld Expo Boston, Amelio tried to obtain a commitment from Microsoft to release Office for Rhapsody, but Bill Gates refused. Some small developers announced Rhapsody ports of their apps, including Stone Design's Create, Anderson Financial systems' PasteUp, Onyshuk & Associates' Glyphix, OpenBase, and Dantz Development's Retrospect.In February 1998, Macworld columnist David Pogue wrote: The intriguing thing about Apple's upcoming Rhapsody OS is that it'll be available for Mac and Intel computers. What if it's a huge hit? What if it's cheaper and less troublesome than Windows and NT? What if it dawns on software companies that they can write one Rhapsody program and sell it on both "Mac" and "Windows" machines? The experience of using a computer is determined mostly by its system software. In other words, Rhapsody will put Apple elegance on any personal computer, no matter who made it. Every PC in the world will become, in effect, a Mac. On the other hand, a Rhapsody triumph would mean nobody'd have to buy computers from Apple anymore. Has Apple thought this thing through?
Strategy:
In a meeting with Michael Dell, owner of PC maker Dell, Steve Jobs demonstrated Rhapsody on Intel x86, and offered to license the operating system to Dell for distribution on its PCs. The deal failed, however, when Jobs insisted that all of its computers ship with both Mac OS and Windows so that consumers could choose the platform they prefer (which would have resulted in Dell having to pay royalties to Apple for every computer it sells), as opposed to Dell's preference that the choice of OS be a factory option.In mid-1997, after Amelio was ousted as Apple's CEO and Jobs informally replaced him, the company grew quieter on Rhapsody, leading to speculation over its fate. At the October 1997 Seybold publishing conference, Jobs announced that the transition would be more "gradual" than previously announced by Amelio, and would follow a "dual-OS" strategy, with Rhapsody oriented towards servers, followed by a consumer released several years later, imitating Microsoft's Windows NT strategy.At WWDC 1998 held in May, Apple stated that "not a single" major third-party developer had committed to rewriting their apps for Rhapsody. Apple instead unveiled their Mac OS X strategy: classic Mac OS applications would not need a complete rewrite to run well on the system, which Jobs said could have taken as long as two years; instead, applications could run on Mac OS X with only "minor adjustments". Apple also ported existing classic Mac OS frameworks into Mac OS X and developed the cross-platform Carbon API for Mac OS 9 and X as the transition layer. Widely used Mac OS libraries like QuickTime and AppleScript were ported and published to developers. Carbon allows full compatibility and native functionality for both platforms, while enabling new features. Apple also announced that Adobe, Microsoft and Macromedia were on board with the new strategy, and had committed to releasing their applications for Mac OS X. Programmer Dave Winer celebrated the new strategy.As part of the landmark Microsoft antitrust trial, Avie Tevanian argued that Rhapsody's failure was partly caused by Windows's dominance, which made new operating system platforms inherently uncompetitive; however, The Register's John Lettice argued that "those [Yellow Box] APIs Apple couldn't get developers to support [...] are of course APIs that NeXT couldn't get developers to support". Lettice described Rhapsody as inherently flawed, stating that: "The theory of this school of OS development [that] says you allow users to run their existing apps while making it possible for a whole new generation of compelling apps to take over in the long run" is a strategy that "has not so far worked in practice".Though developers were expecting Rhapsody DP3, Steve Jobs announced at the July 1998 MacWorld Expo NY that an improved version of Rhapsody would be publicly released as Mac OS X Server 1.0, which would bundle WebObjects, the QuickTime Streaming Server, and an Apache web server.
Legacy:
Apple forked Rhapsody into Darwin, an open source operating system that is the foundation for Apple's current commercial operating systems.Since Rhapsody could run on both PowerPC and Intel x86, some commentators speculated that Apple could be planning to switch the Macintosh from PowerPC to Intel processors. This switch occurred in 2005, with Apple revealing that it had internally tested Intel builds of Mac OS X since the year 2000.In 2016, historian Hanson Hsu called Steve Jobs's vision for developers "prescient" (Jobs's vision is described in the §Pitch to developers section). Many NeXTSTEP innovations were foundational to Mac OS X, including the Cocoa framework, Interface Builder (which became part of Xcode), and the Objective-C programming language. These technologies attracted many indie developers to the Mac, and are still in use today on the Mac; they were later used on the iPhone, the iPad, the Apple Watch, and the Apple TV.
System requirements:
The PowerPC version of Rhapsody DR1 required 32 MB of RAM (64 MB recommended), and 1 GB of disk space, and only officially supported the Power Macintosh 9500, 9600, 8500 and 8600.
Release history:
Apple initially planned to release a developer preview of Rhapsody in the third quarter of 1997. It would be followed in January 1998 by a consumer release codenamed Rhapsody Premier, containing a preliminary version of Blue Box, the compatibility environment that would allow Rhapsody to run Mac OS apps. The full Blue Box would come in Rhapsody Unified, planned for mid-1998.Rhapsody's version numbers start at version 5.0, since was a rename of NeXT's OPENSTEP for Mach operating system, whose last version was OPENSTEP for Mach 4.2. Though Apple never released Rhapsody 5.2, some speculated that it was meant to be Rhapsody Premier. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Corderoite**
Corderoite:
Corderoite is an extremely rare mercury sulfide chloride mineral with formula Hg3S2Cl2. It crystallizes in the isometric crystal system. It is soft, 1.5 to 2 on the Mohs scale, and varies in color from light gray to black and rarely pink or yellow.
It was first described in 1974 for occurrences in the McDermitt Mercury mine in Humboldt County, Nevada. The name is from the old name of the mine, the Old Cordero Mine.
Structure:
The structure of Hg3S2Cl2 was determined in the 1960s before it was found in nature.
It has crankshaft chains that are crosswise linked by additional Hg²+.
Structure:
The crystals are chiral (existing in two enantiomorphic forms), in space group I213 (no. 199). The chloride ions form a lattice similar to a primitive cubic lattice (but with the ions slightly displaced along three-fold axes), and the sulfide ions form a similar lattice by occupying positions near the centres of the cubes of chloride ions, also on three-fold rotation axes. This gives eight chloride and eight sulfide ions per unit cell. The mercury ions are located on two-fold rotation axes that do not intersect the three-fold rotation axes. They occupy positions close to the centres of the faces of the chloride cubes, but only half of such positions are occupied, giving 12 mercury ions per unit cell. The closest neighbors of a mercury ion are two sulfide ions, at a distance of 2.422 Å, the S-Hg-S angle being 165.1°. Each sulfide ion has three mercury ions near it, with the Hg-S-Hg angles being 94.1°. The nearest neighbors of a chloride ion are six mercury ions, at two somewhat different distances. A diagram can be seen on line, with blue balls representing mercury, green chlorine, and yellow sulfur. Various sulfide halides of Hg share the feature of being face-sharing [HgS2X4]−6 polyhedral, with X=Cl in the case of corderoite.
Geologic occurrence:
The main occurrence of corderoite in the type locality is in the Upper Miocene playa sediments within a thick zone, around 5–7 m (16–23 ft), sub parallel to bedding. Lake sediments including altered rhyolitic tuff and ash were deposited on the Tertiary rhyolitic volcanic rocks. Corderoite occurs as isolated grains or with cinnabar as replacements. Corderoite occurs as a low temperature supergene mineral. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Atrioventricular septal defect**
Atrioventricular septal defect:
Atrioventricular septal defect (AVSD) or atrioventricular canal defect (AVCD), also known as "common atrioventricular canal" or "endocardial cushion defect" (ECD), is characterized by a deficiency of the atrioventricular septum of the heart that creates connections between all four of its chambers. It is a very specific combination of 3 defects: 1) Atrial Septal Defect (ASD), a hole in the wall between the right and left atria; 2) Ventricular Septal Defect (VSD), a hole in the wall between the right and left ventricles; and 3) Abnormalities of the mitral and/or tricuspid valves.AVCD is caused by an abnormal or inadequate fusion of the superior and inferior endocardial cushions with the mid portion of the atrial septum and the muscular portion of the ventricular septum. Unlike some heart defects, the condition will not resolve over time and most infants must undergo open heart surgery. The surgery to correct this defect is usually successful and most babies do very well post-op.
Symptoms and signs:
Symptoms may include difficulty breathing (dyspnea) and bluish discoloration on skin, fingernails, and lips (cyanosis). An infant will begin to show signs of congestive heart failure, which can include rapid breathing, feeding problems, slow weight gain, low energy, and cold, clammy sweating. Symptoms often appear between 1-2 months of age but can occur earlier in some newborns.
Symptoms and signs:
Complications Normally, the four chambers of the heart divide oxygenated and de-oxygenated blood into separate pools. When holes form between the chambers, as in AVSD, the pools can mix. Consequently, arterial blood supplies become less oxygenated than normal, causing ischemia and cyanosis in distal tissues. To compensate, the heart must pump a larger volume of blood to deliver enough oxygen, leading to cardiac enlargement and hypertrophy.The development of pulmonary hypertension is very serious. And this because the left ventricle is weakened due to its overuse. When this happens, the pressure backs up into the pulmonary veins and the lungs. This type of damage is irreversible which is why immediate treatment is recommended after diagnosis.
Symptoms and signs:
Associated conditions Down syndrome is often associated with AVCD. Other risk factors include: having a parent with a congenital heart defect, alcohol use while pregnant, uncontrolled diabetes treatment during pregnancy and some medications during pregnancy.This type of congenital heart defect is associated with patients with Down syndrome (trisomy 21) or heterotaxy syndromes. 45% of children with Down syndrome have congenital heart disease. Of these, 35–40% have AV septal defects. Approximately 40-50% of fetuses diagnosed with AVCD have Down syndrome, and a further 15-20% are associated with other chromosomal abnormalities and syndromes, such as DiGeorge syndrome. The remaining 30-40% of cases are not linked to a syndrome, with AVCD observed without other major defects.
Symptoms and signs:
AVCD is also linked with Noonan syndrome. The pattern seen in those patients with Noonan syndrome differ from those patients who have Down syndrome in that "partial" AVCD is more prevalent in those with NS, whereas those with down syndrome show a prevalence of the "complete" form of AVCD.
Pathophysiology:
Defective embryonic formation of the heart results in multiple holes between the heart chambers. In AVSD, all four chambers are connected, but the exact characteristics of holes and malformations may vary between patients. Even within the categories of "complete" and "partial" AVSD, multiple morphologies exist, with varying clinical consequences. Clinical and physiological manifestations of disease may also change over time, in response to continued stress.
Pathophysiology:
Genetic Relationship Like other congenital heart defects, major associations have been found between AVCD and genes regulating embryonic cell cilia. These human cell cilia normally contain receptors for signal molecules that regulate the healthy and organized tissue. Dysfunctional cilia can create multiple disease manifestations, leading to broad syndromes. Chromosome 21 harbors important regulators for cilia, and trisomy 21 (Down syndrome) can de-regulate them.
Diagnosis:
AVSDs can be detected by cardiac auscultation; they cause atypical murmurs and loud heart tones. Confirmation of findings from cardiac auscultation can be obtained with a cardiac ultrasound (echocardiography - less invasive) and cardiac catheterization (more invasive). It is also possible to diagnose AVSD in-utero via routine fetal ultrasounds or, more conclusively, fetal echocardiograms.
Classification A variety of different classifications have been used, but the defects are usefully divided into "partial" and "complete" forms.
Diagnosis:
In the partial AVSD, there is a small or partial defect in the interventricular septum, and a primum atrial septal defect, which is a moderate or large connection between the atria, often featuring mitral valve regurgitation. Partial AVSD may be asymptomatic in early childhood, but typically progresses by late childhood or adulthood into symptoms of heart failure. The onset of symptoms may be earlier in children with more significant mitral regurgitation.
Diagnosis:
In the complete AVSD (CAVSD), there is a large ventricular component beneath either or both the superior or inferior bridging leaflets of the AV valve. The defect involves the whole area of the junction of the upper and lower chambers of the heart, i.e. where the atria join the ventricles. There is a large hole between the lower portion of the atria and the upper or 'inlet' portion of the ventricles and this is associated with a significant abnormality of the valves separating the atria from the ventricles. The valves in effect become a common atrio-ventricular valve, and the severity of the defect depends largely on the supporting attachments of the valve to the ventricles and whether the valve allows dominant flow from the right atrium to right ventricle and from left atrium to left ventricle ("unbalanced" flow). The overall problems are similar to those of VSD but are more complicated. There is an increased flow of blood to the lungs through both the ventricular and atrial components of the defect. In addition, the abnormal atrio-ventricular valve invariably leaks, so that when the ventricles contract, blood flows not only forwards to the body and the lungs, but also backwards into the atria. The back-pressure effect on the atria causes congestion of blood in the left atrium in particular, and this in turn causes congestion in the veins draining the lungs. The effect on the baby is to worsen the heart failure that is associated with an isolated VSD and to hasten the onset of pulmonary hypertension. It should be mentioned that CAVSD is found in approximately one-third of babies who have Down syndrome, but it also occurs as an isolated abnormality.
Treatment:
Treatment is surgical and involves closure of the atrial and ventricular septal defects and restoration of a competent left AV valve as far as is possible. Open surgical procedures require a heart-lung machine and are done with a median sternotomy. Surgical mortality for uncomplicated ostium primum defects in experienced centers is 2%; for uncomplicated cases of complete atrioventricular canal defect, 4% or less. Certain complications such as tetralogy of Fallot or highly unbalanced flow across the common AV valve can increase risk significantly.Infants born with AVSD are generally in sufficient health to not require immediate corrective surgery. If surgery is not required immediately after birth, the newborn will be closely monitored for the next several months, and the operation held-off until the first signs of lung distress or heart failure. This gives the infant time to grow, increasing the size of, and thereby the ease of operation on, the heart, as well as the ease of recovery. Infants will generally require surgery within three to six months, however, they may be able to go up to two years before the operation becomes necessary, depending on the severity of the defect. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Cypenamine**
Cypenamine:
Cypenamine (INN, BAN), or cypenamine hydrochloride (USAN), also known as 2-phenylcyclopentylamine, is a psychostimulant drug which was developed by a group at the William S. Merrell Chemical Company in the 1940s. It is currently known only in scientific research and has never been developed for market use. Cypenamine is currently legal throughout the entire world, and though its chemical structure has a vague similarity to certain controlled stimulants like fencamfamine, it is likely that it is too distant for it to be considered an illicit analogue under the United States Federal Analogue Act of the Controlled Substances Act.
Chemistry:
Stereochemistry 2-Phenylcyclopentan-1-amine is a compound with two stereocenters. Thus, the following two enantiomeric pairs may exist: (1RS,2SR)-trans-2-phenylcyclopentan-1-amine (1RS,2RS)-cis-2-phenylcyclopentan-1-amineThe racemate (±)-trans-2-phenylcyclopentan-1-amine [1:1 mixture of (1R,2S)-trans-2-phenylcyclopentan-1-amine (box, left) and (1S,2R)-trans-2-phenylcyclopentan-1-amine (box, right)] is the active ingredient of cypenamine. Furthermore, the kinetic resolution of (±)-trans-2-phenylcyclopentan-1-amine by lipase B from Candida antarctica may be effectively performed by an aminolysis reaction.Racemic cis-2-phenylcyclopentan-1-amine [1:1 mixture of (1R,2R)-cis-2-phenylcyclopentan-1-amine and (1S,2S)-cis-2-phenylcyclopentan-1-amine] has found no pharmacological application.
Chemistry:
Homology Cypenamine is a homolog of tranylcypromine, containing an expanded alicyclic ring that is two methylene units larger than the highly strained/reactive cyclopropane. The cyclohexane homologue has been reported, although the LD50s were all less than for plain amphetamine, it was still a functional stimulant. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**SUPER (computer program)**
SUPER (computer program):
Simplified Universal Player Encoder & Recorder (SUPER) is a closed-source adware front end for open-source software video players and encoders provided by the FFmpeg, MEncoder, MPlayer, x264, ffmpeg2theora, musepack, Monkey's Audio, True Audio, WavPack, libavcodec, and the Theora/Vorbis RealProducer plugIn projects. It was first released in 2005. SUPER provides a graphical user interface to these back-end programs, which use a command-line interface.
Features:
SUPER can manipulate and produce many multimedia file formats supported by its back-end programs.
As of 2016, SUPER has a built-in enhanced 3D Video Converter & Recorder engine.
The proposed 3D variations are 3D Anaglyph, Polarized or Shutter side-by-side.
Features:
v2017.Build.71+3D+Recorder (April 7, 2017) offers the following encoding modes: Normal 2D 2D >> 3D 3D >> 2D 3D >> 3DBack-end program features supported by SUPER include saving various streaming protocols (mms, rtsp, and http), conversion of Flash Video to other formats, and user-controlled conversion of video between different container formats. Users can choose between various lossless direct audio/video transfers between container formats or lossy video/audio encoding, with encoding possessing the added ability to change video and audio specifications such as bitrate, frame rate, audio channels, resolution, sampling rate, and aspect ratio.
Features:
SUPER is also able to utilize its back-end's built-in media players, allowing playback of supported video and audio formats.
Features:
Input file format support File formats supported by SUPER as input source file for playing and transcoding include: Video 3GP ASF AVI DAT Microsoft Digital Video Recording (DVR-MS) FLIC animation (FLI and FLC) GXF General Exchange Format Flash Video (FLV) MPEG (both MPEG-1 and MPEG-2) Matroska (MKV) MPEG-4 Part 14 container (MP4) MPEG transport stream (TS and M2T and TRP) OGM Theora/Vorbis Old PlayStation (STR) QuickTime movie (MOV and QT) RealVideo (RM and RMVB) Shockwave Flash (SWF) TiVo (TMF and TY and TY+) VivoActive (VIV) DVD video files (VOB) WebM WTV Windows Media Video (WMV) Audio aac AC3 ALAC AMR FLAC MP2 MP3 M4A Monkey's Audio Lossless (APE) Musepack audio SV7 & SV8(MPC) Ogg Vorbis RealAudio (RA) True Audio Lossless (TTA) SMAF cell phone audio (MMF) WMA WavPack Audio Lossless (WV) WAV Other Avisynth scripts (AVS) Animated GIF images
System requirements:
Operating System: Windows XP, Windows 2003, Windows Vista, Windows 7, Windows 8, Windows 10 or Windows 11.
Administrator privileges (if installed on Administrative account then subsequently converted to a Limited account during the same session, the program will work on the limited) Processor: Minimum 1.8 GHz Intel Pentium 4 processor or equivalent.
512MB of RAM with 176MB available.
20GB of free space on the Hard disk where the OS is installed 1024 × 768 video resolution or larger 32,000-color video or more IE 7 or later Internet connectionSUPER is capable of working on machines with lesser capabilities; the actual minimum system requirements depend on the back-end programs and settings chosen by the program user. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**SOLID**
SOLID:
In software engineering, SOLID is a mnemonic acronym for five design principles intended to make object-oriented designs more understandable, flexible, and maintainable. The principles are a subset of many principles promoted by American software engineer and instructor Robert C. Martin, first introduced in his 2000 paper Design Principles and Design Patterns discussing software rot.: 2–3 The SOLID ideas are The Single-responsibility principle: "There should never be more than one reason for a class to change." In other words, every class should have only one responsibility.
SOLID:
The Open–closed principle: "Software entities ... should be open for extension, but closed for modification." The Liskov substitution principle: "Functions that use pointers or references to base classes must be able to use objects of derived classes without knowing it." See also design by contract.
SOLID:
The Interface segregation principle: "Clients should not be forced to depend upon interfaces that they do not use." The Dependency inversion principle: "Depend upon abstractions, [not] concretions."The SOLID acronym was introduced later, around 2004, by Michael Feathers.Although the SOLID principles apply to any object-oriented design, they can also form a core philosophy for methodologies such as agile development or adaptive software development. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**HIST1H2AJ**
HIST1H2AJ:
Histone H2A type 1-J is a protein that in humans is encoded by the HIST1H2AJ gene.Histones are basic nuclear proteins that are responsible for the nucleosome structure of the chromosomal fiber in eukaryotes. Two molecules of each of the four core histones (H2A, H2B, H3, and H4) form an octamer, around which approximately 146 bp of DNA is wrapped in repeating units, called nucleosomes. The linker histone, H1, interacts with linker DNA between nucleosomes and functions in the compaction of chromatin into higher order structures. This gene is intronless and encodes a member of the histone H2A family. Transcripts from this gene lack polyA tails but instead contain a palindromic termination element. This gene is found in the small histone gene cluster on chromosome 6p22-p21.3. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**SPIKES**
SPIKES:
The SPIKES protocol is a method used in clinical medicine to break bad news to patients and families. As receiving bad news can cause distress and anxiety, clinicians need to deliver the news carefully. By using the SPIKES method for introducing and communicating information to patients and their families, it can aid in the presentation of the material. The SPIKES method is helpful in providing an organized manner of communication during situations that are typically complex and difficult to communicate. According to research related to the SPIKES method, important factors to consider when using this protocol involve empathy, acknowledgement and validation of feelings, providing information about intervention and treatment, and ensuring that the patient understands the news being delivered.The protocol was first proposed in 2000 by Baile et al, in the context of oncology.The name SPIKES is an acronym, where the letters stand for: S: setting, i.e. setting up the consultation appropriately:→ This entails never to give bad news by use of phone or in a hallway. One may consider to sit in a private space or room with no distractions so to be sure the message being delivered is the one focused on; no use of televisions or cellphones. Ensure that you face both the patient and the family and establish therapeutic alliance or connection by use of eye contact and physical touch, i.e. holding a hand or touching an arm.
SPIKES:
P: perception, i.e. assessing the patient's perception of the situation→ Begin by asking the patient what they believe is going on. This not only allows you to find out what they know about the situation, but also engages the patient. It allows for them to realize what they think matters, and forms a starting point for how to proceed. It is important to listen to what the patient tells you as this is the first place to correct any misconceptions that are held right away.
SPIKES:
I: invitation, i.e. prompting the patient to invite the clinician to deliver the news→ Using phrases such as "Shall I share the results of the scan with you now?" or "Is this a good time to share with you what I believe is going on?" allow for the patient to decide if they are ready to hear more and also allows for open discussion to follow. Phrasing is important as you are essentially asking for permission to share unpleasant news with them. The way it is worded shows respect for the patient's feelings and reflects on their readiness to receive news.
SPIKES:
K: knowledge, i.e. providing the knowledge to the patient→ Speak slowly, maintain eye contact, and use terms both parties can understand. This is the time to explain what the bad news means for the patient. Beware of adding extra details right away as this is the place to be clear and concise of what is happening.
SPIKES:
E: empathy, i.e. empathizing with the impact of the news on the patient→ Often it is hard to fully understand what is going through the patient's or families' minds. Silence is often best instead of speaking out as everyone is processing emotions. When you feel it is the right time to speak, speak out of empathy and acknowledge that your patient is feeling something. Do not discourage tears or silence, this may be a processing strategy that is necessary to fully come to terms with the situation. Provide support.
SPIKES:
S: strategy, i.e. devising a strategy for what to do next→ Summarize all thoughts and decide where to go from here. Options to discuss may be treatment, setting another meeting, discussing hospice care, or many others. Each situation is unique and it is best to do what is in the best interest of the patient's needs and wants. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Linux console**
Linux console:
The Linux console is a system console internal to the Linux kernel. A system console is the device which receives all kernel messages and warnings and which allows logins in single user mode. The Linux console provides a way for the kernel and other processes to send text output to the user, and to receive text input from the user. The user typically enters text with a computer keyboard and reads the output text on a computer monitor. The Linux kernel supports virtual consoles – consoles that are logically separate, but which access the same physical keyboard and display. The Linux console (and Linux virtual consoles) are implemented by the VT (virtual terminal) subsystem of the Linux kernel, and do not rely on any user space software. This is in contrast to a terminal emulator, which is a user space process that emulates a terminal, and is typically used in a graphical display environment.
Linux console:
The Linux console was one of the first features of the kernel and was originally written by Linus Torvalds in 1991 (see history of Linux). There are two main implementations: framebuffer and text mode. The framebuffer implementation is the default in modern Linux distributions, and together with kernel mode setting, provides kernel-level support for display hardware and features such as showing graphics while the system is booting. The legacy text mode implementation was used in PC-compatible systems with CGA, EGA, MDA and VGA graphics cards. Non-x86 architectures used framebuffer mode because their graphics cards did not implement text mode. The Linux console uses fixed-size bitmap, monospace fonts, usually defaulting to 8x16 pixels per character.The Linux console is an optional kernel feature, and most embedded Linux systems do not enable it. These systems typically provide an alternative user interface (e.g. web based), or boot immediately into a graphical user interface and use this as the primary means of interacting with the user. Other implementations of the Linux console include the Braille console to support refreshable Braille displays and the serial port console.
Purpose:
The Linux console provides a way for the kernel and other processes to output text-based messages to the user, and to receive text-based input from the user. In Linux, several devices can be used as system console: a virtual terminal, serial port, USB serial port, VGA in text-mode, framebuffer. Some modern Linux-based systems have deprecated kernel based text-mode input and output, and instead show a graphical logo or progress bar while the system is booting, followed by the immediate start of a graphical user interface (e.g. the X.Org Server on desktop distributions, or SurfaceFlinger on Android).
Purpose:
During kernel boot, the console is commonly used to display the boot log of the kernel. The boot log includes information about detected hardware, and updates on the status of the boot procedure. At this point in time, the kernel is the only software running, and hence logging via user-space (e.g. syslog) is not possible, so the console provides a convenient place to output this information. Once the kernel has finished booting, it runs the init process (also sending output to the console), which handles booting of the rest of the system including starting any background daemons.
Purpose:
After the init boot process is complete, the console will be used to multiplex multiple virtual terminals (accessible by pressing Ctrl-Alt-F1, Ctrl-Alt-F2 etc., Ctrl-Alt-LeftArrow, Ctrl-Alt-RightArrow, or using chvt). On each virtual terminal, a getty process is run, which in turn runs /bin/login to authenticate a user. After authentication, a command shell will be run. Virtual terminals, like the console, are supported at the Linux kernel level.The Linux console implements a terminal type of "linux" and the escape sequences it uses are in the console_codes man page.
Virtual consoles:
Virtual consoles allow the storage of multiple text buffers, enabling different console programs to run simultaneously but interact with the user in different contexts. From the user's point of view, this creates the illusion of several independent consoles.
Each virtual console can have its own character set and keyboard layout.
Linux 2.6 introduced the ability to load a different font for each virtual console (kernel versions predating 2.6 change the font only on demand).
Text mode console:
The text mode implementation is used on PC-based systems with a legacy CGA/EGA/MDA/VGA video card that implements text-based video modes. In text mode, the kernel sends a 2D array of characters to the video card, and the video card converts the characters to pixels for display.
Text mode console:
Font, character set and keyboard layout The text buffer is a part of VGA memory which describes the content of a text screen in terms of code points and character attributes. Code points in the text buffer and font are generally not the same as encoding used in text terminal semantics to put characters on the screen. The set of glyphs on the screen is determined by the current font. The text screen is handled by console.c and consolemap.c drivers. There is a utility for altering fonts and terminal encodings called consolechars.
Text mode console:
The Linux kernel (keyboard.c driver) has almost complete support for keyboard input (keyboard layouts), but it remains a bit inconsistent because it interacts badly with different character sets. Layouts are loaded by the loadkeys utility.
These two utilities and corresponding data files are packed in Linux Console Tools http://lct.sourceforge.net/ shipped with many Linux distributions.
Efforts on the internationalization of Linux at the kernel level started as early as in 1994 by Markus Kuhn and Andries Brouwer.
Text modes The Linux console is capable of supporting any VGA-style text mode, but the kernel itself has very limited means to set these modes up. SVGATextMode helps to enable more complex text modes than the standard EGA and VGA modes. It is fully compatible with Console Tools, but has some conflicts with dosemu, SVGAlib and display servers.
Currently, there is no support for different modes on different virtual consoles.
Comparison to Windows and DOS Microsoft Windows (of any version) does not have a fully functional support of the console. The comparable feature there, but for application software only, is the Win32 console.
Text mode console:
a b Unicode supported since Windows NT based systems, which allow to switch code pages and use Unicode, but only in window mode. Also, NT systems use own text buffer format incompatible with VGA, which produces an overhead in hardware text modes. No Unicode support in non-NT versions of Windows a As non-ASCII keyboard layout should be reloaded because of flawed implementation.
Text mode console:
a Kernel mode settings in recent kernels make this more practical for some video hardware.
Linux framebuffer console:
The Linux framebuffer (fbdev) is a graphic hardware-independent abstraction layer, which was originally implemented to allow the Linux kernel to emulate a text console on systems such as the Apple Macintosh that do not have a text-mode display. Now it offers a kernel space text mode emulation on any platform. Its advantage over (currently unmaintained) SVGATextMode is a reliance and better hardware compatibility. It also permits to overcome all technical restrictions of VGA text modes.
Linux framebuffer console:
A Linux framebuffer console differs from a VGA one only in ways of drawing characters. The processing of keyboard events and virtual consoles’ support are exactly the same.
Linux serial port console:
Linux serial console is a console implementation via serial port, enabled by option CONFIG_SERIAL_CONSOLE in the kernel configuration. It may be used in some embedded systems, and on servers, where a direct interaction with operator is not expected. The serial console allows the same mode of access for the system, but usually at a slower speed due to the small bandwidth of RS-232. A serial console is often used during development of software for embedded systems, and is sometimes left accessible via a debug port.
Control characters:
The console responds to a number of control characters: For ^[ press the Escape key.
The console also supports extended escape sequences, ANSI CSI Mode sequences, and DEC Private Mode sequences. These extended sequences can control colors, visual effects like blinking, underline, intensity and inverse video, bell tone frequency and duration, VESA screen blanking interval. Aside from the textual blanking, there is no known way to place the VGA adapter into standby.
Future plans:
The Kmscon projects aims to create a modern user-space replacement for the Linux console. Development priorities include support for multi-monitor setups, Unicode font rendering with Pango, XKB keyboard handling, and GPU OpenGL acceleration. Complaints about the current kernel implementation include "that it's a user-interface in kernel-space, the code is poorly maintained, handles keyboards badly, produces bad font rendering, misses out on mode-setting and multi-head support, contains no multi-seat awareness, and only has limited hot-plugging handling, limited to VT102 compliance." | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Plachutta**
Plachutta:
The Plachutta is a device found in chess problems wherein a piece is sacrificially positioned in blockade to deny coverage of multiple distant squares required by the opposition. For example, two of an opponent's bishops, queen, or rooks are defending locations through an intersection square, and an enemy unit moved into that square blocks disrupts coverage in such a way that, even if captured, the previous defensive situation cannot be restored.
Plachutta:
The Plachutta is named after Joseph Plachutta (1827–1883), and related to a number of other problem themes: it can be regarded as a Würzburg–Plachutta brought about by a sacrifice on the critical square (a Würzburg-Plachutta itself being a pair of Holzhausen interferences); or it can be thought of as a Novotny with similarly moving (rather than differently moving) black pieces involved (a Novotny itself being a Grimshaw brought about by a white sacrifice on the critical square). It can also be compared to the anti-Bristol, in which two similarly moving black pieces interfere with each other along the same line.
Examples:
The problem to the right is a relatively simple example by William Shinkman, published in White Rooks, 1910. It is a mate in three (white moves first and must checkmate black in three moves against any defence). The key (first move of the solution) is 1.d5. Examining the initial position reveals why this works: white would like to play either 1.Ra8 or 1.Rg8, but the former is prevented by black's bishop and the latter is prevented by black's queen. 1.d5 blocks the paths of both black pieces to these squares, and whichever black piece takes the pawn interferes with the other and has to defend against both threats itself (to use chess jargon, it becomes overloaded). So, if 1...Qxd5 white can play 2.Ra8+ Qxa8, when the queen is deflected from her defence of g8, allowing 3.Rg8#, while if 1...Bxd5 white can play 2.Rg8+ Bxg8, deflecting the bishop from defence of a8, allowing 3.Ra8#.
Examples:
To the right is another relatively simple example, but this time it is two rooks, rather than bishop and queen, involved in the interferences. The problem, by D. J. Densmore, published in the Gazette-Times, 1916, is another mate in three. The key is 1.Nb7, which interferes with both rooks and so threatens both 2.Rh7# and 2.Rb1#. Black can defend with Raxb7, but this overloads the capturing rook, so white can play 2.Rb1+ Rxb1 3.Rh7#. The other capture is similar: 1...Rbxb7 2.Rh7+ Rxh7 3.Rb1#. Whichever rook captures, it interferes with the other and becomes overloaded, having to defend against two threats on its own.
Examples:
A more sophisticated modern example is the award-winning mate-in-four problem to the right by Aleksandr N. Pankrat'ev and Josip Varga, which was published in Sahovski Glasnik in 1991 and won 1st prize. White begins with 1.e3, adding protection to d4 and threatening 2.Rc5#. Black's two main defenses are the two captures on e3, but each one allows a different Plachutta interference by White on move 2. If 1...Rxe3, White plays 2.f4!, a Plachutta interference with the queen and bishop: 2...Qxf4 allows 3.Nxe3+ Qxe3 4.Nxe5# and 2...Bxf4 allows 3.Nxe5+ Bxe5 4.Nxe3#. If 1...Bxe3, White plays 2.Bb3+!, a Plachutta interference with the two black rooks: 2...Rbxb3 allows 3.Nxe3+ Rxe3 4.Nb6# and 2...Raxb3 allows 3.Nb6+ Rxb6 4.Nxe3#.
Examples:
1.e3 anything-else 2. Rc5# 1.e3 Rxe3 2.f4 Qxf4 allows 3.Nxe3+ Qxe3 4.Nxe5#.
1.e3 Rxe3 2.f4 Bxf4 allows 3.Nxe5+ Bxe5 4.Nxe3#.
1.e3 Bxe3 2.Bb3+ Rbxb3 allows 3.Nxe3+ Rxe3 4.Nb6#.
1.e3 Bxe3 2.Bb3+ Raxb3 allows 3.Nb6+ Rxb6 4.Nxe3# 4.
Examples:
Although the term Plachutta is confined to the world of chess problems, not being used in a wider chess context, the underlying Plachutta pattern does occasionally (though rarely) appear in an actual game. One example is to the right, a position which occurred in a 1914 game between Siegbert Tarrasch (with white) and a team of opponents consisting of Davide Marotti (who became the champion of Italy in 1921), E. Napoli, de Simone, and del Giudice. In the diagrammed position, the black queen defends against Qb7 and the rook on c8 defends against Rxc5. Tarrasch played 31.Bc7!, a Plachutta interference after which black cannot maintain control over both b7 and c5 (black actually resigned after this move). If 31...Rxc7 the rook is overloaded, having to look after both the key squares: 32.Qb7+ Rxb7 and the rook is deflected from defence of c5, allowing 33.Rxc5#. If instead 31...Qxc7 it is the queen which is overloaded: 32.Rxc5+ Qxc5 deflects the queen from defence of b7, allowing 33.Qb7+ Kxa5 34.Ra1#. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Putidaredoxin—NAD+ reductase**
Putidaredoxin—NAD+ reductase:
Putidaredoxin—NAD+ reductase (EC 1.18.1.5, putidaredoxin reductase, camA (gene)) is an enzyme with systematic name putidaredoxin:NAD+ oxidoreductase. This enzyme catalyses the following chemical reaction reduced putidaredoxin + NAD+ ⇌ oxidized putidaredoxin + NADH + H+Putidaredoxin—NAD+ reductase requires FAD. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Digital transmission group**
Digital transmission group:
In telecommunication, a digital transmission group is a group of digitized voice or data channels or both with bit streams that are combined into a single digital bit stream for transmission over communications media. Digital transmission groups usually are categorized by their maximum capacity, not by a specific number of channels. However, the maximum digital transmission group capacity must be equal to or greater than the sum of the individual multiplexer input channel capacities. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Ammonium phosphate**
Ammonium phosphate:
Ammonium phosphate is the inorganic compound with the formula (NH4)3PO4. It is the ammonium salt of orthophosphoric acid. A related "double salt", (NH4)3PO4.(NH4)2HPO4 is also recognized but is impractical to use. Both triammonium salts evolve ammonia. In contrast to the unstable nature of the triammonium salts, the diammonium phosphate (NH4)2HPO4 and monoammonium salt (NH4)H2PO4 are stable materials that are commonly used as fertilizers to provide plants with fixed nitrogen and phosphorus.
Preparation of triammonium phosphate:
Triammonium phosphate can be prepared in the laboratory by treating 85% phosphoric acid with 30% ammonia solution: H3PO4 + 3 NH3 → (NH4)3PO4(NH4)3PO4 is a colorless, crystalline solid. The solid, which has the odor of ammonia, is readily soluble in water. The salt converts to diammonium hydrogen phosphate (NH4)2HPO4. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Degeneration (algebraic geometry)**
Degeneration (algebraic geometry):
In algebraic geometry, a degeneration (or specialization) is the act of taking a limit of a family of varieties. Precisely, given a morphism π:X→C, of a variety (or a scheme) to a curve C with origin 0 (e.g., affine or projective line), the fibers π−1(t) form a family of varieties over C. Then the fiber π−1(0) may be thought of as the limit of π−1(t) as t→0 . One then says the family π−1(t),t≠0 degenerates to the special fiber π−1(0) . The limiting process behaves nicely when π is a flat morphism and, in that case, the degeneration is called a flat degeneration. Many authors assume degenerations to be flat.
Degeneration (algebraic geometry):
When the family π−1(t) is trivial away from a special fiber; i.e., π−1(t) is independent of t≠0 up to (coherent) isomorphisms, π−1(t),t≠0 is called a general fiber.
Degenerations of curves:
In the study of moduli of curves, the important point is to understand the boundaries of the moduli, which amounts to understand degenerations of curves.
Stability of invariants:
Ruled-ness specializes. Precisely, Matsusaka'a theorem says Let X be a normal irreducible projective scheme over a discrete valuation ring. If the generic fiber is ruled, then each irreducible component of the special fiber is also ruled.
Infinitesimal deformations:
Let D = k[ε] be the ring of dual numbers over a field k and Y a scheme of finite type over k. Given a closed subscheme X of Y, by definition, an embedded first-order infinitesimal deformation of X is a closed subscheme X' of Y ×Spec(k) Spec(D) such that the projection X' → Spec D is flat and has X as the special fiber.
Infinitesimal deformations:
If Y = Spec A and X = Spec(A/I) are affine, then an embedded infinitesimal deformation amounts to an ideal I' of A[ε] such that A[ε]/ I' is flat over D and the image of I' in A = A[ε]/ε is I.
Infinitesimal deformations:
In general, given a pointed scheme (S, 0) and a scheme X, a morphism of schemes π: X' → S is called the deformation of a scheme X if it is flat and the fiber of it over the distinguished point 0 of S is X. Thus, the above notion is a special case when S = Spec D and there is some choice of embedding. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Monophthongization**
Monophthongization:
Monophthongization is a sound change by which a diphthong becomes a monophthong, a type of vowel shift. It is also known as ungliding, as diphthongs are also known as gliding vowels. In languages that have undergone monophthongization, digraphs that formerly represented diphthongs now represent monophthongs. The opposite of monophthongization is vowel breaking.
Arabic:
Classical Arabic had two diphthongs, /aj/ and /aw/, which are realised as the long vowels /eː/ and /oː/ in numerous Arabic dialects. This monophthongization has further developed into /iː/ and /uː/, respectively, in urban North African dialects.
Arabic:
Some notable exceptions to this monophthongization are some rural Lebanese dialects, which preserve the original pronunciations of some of the diphthongs. Other urban Lebanese dialects, such as in Beirut, use the mid vowels /eː/ and /oː/. Another exception is the Sfax dialect of Tunisian Arabic, which is known mostly for keeping the Classical Arabic diphthongs /aj/ and /aw/. Some varieties might maintain the diphthong for words recently borrowed from Standard Arabic or use them in free variation.
English:
Some English sounds that may be perceived by native speakers as single vowels are in fact diphthongs; an example is the vowel sound in pay, pronounced /ˈpeɪ/. However, in some dialects (e.g. Scottish English) /eɪ/ is a monophthong [e].
Some dialects of English make monophthongs from former diphthongs. For instance, Southern American English tends to realize the diphthong /aɪ/ as in eye as a long monophthong [äː], a feature known as /aj/ ungliding or /ay/ ungliding. Monophthongization is also one of the most widely used and distinguishing features of African American Vernacular English.
English:
Smoothing Smoothing is a monophthongization of a closing diphthong (most commonly /eɪ, aɪ, ɔɪ, əʊ, aʊ/) before a vowel that can occur in Received Pronunciation and other accents of English. (Some have called this "levelling", but this is rarely used because it may be confused with dialect levelling.) For example, chaos, pronounced [ˈkeɪɒs] without smoothing, becomes [ˈkeːɒs] with smoothing. Smoothing applies particularly readily to /aɪ/ and /aʊ/ when preceding /ə/, hence [faːə] for fire and [taːə] for tower, or with the syllabicity loss of /ə/, [faə̯, taə̯]. The centring diphthong [aə̯] deriving from smoothing and syllabicity loss may further undergo monophthongization, realizing fire and tower as [faː, taː] or [fɑː, tɑː], similar or identical to far, tar; unlike smoothing, this type of monophthongization (which Wells terms "monophthonging") does not require a following vowel.Smoothing can occur across word boundaries in the same conditions (closing diphthong + vowel), as in [weː aʊt] way out, [ðeː iːt] they eat, [ɡəː ɒf] go off.
Indo-Aryan languages:
Vedic Sanskrit diphthongs /ɐɪ/ and ɐʊ/ later monophthongize to /eː/ and /oː/ respectively in Classical Sanskrit, but these may remain as diphthongs under sandhi rules.In Hindustani, the pure vowels /ɛː/ and /ɔː/ are written with the letters for the diphthongs ai and au in Devanagari and related alphabets. The vowel sequences /aːɪ/ and /aːʊ/ exist in Hindi, but are written as āi and āu, with long initial vowels.
German:
The so-called early frühneuhochdeutsche Monophthongierung (monophthongization in the earliest stages of New High German) is particularly important in today's Standard German. It changed the diphthongs ie [iə], uo [uə] and üe [yə] to respectively ie [iː], u [uː] and ü [yː]: Before 11th century > nowadays: liebe [iə] > liebe [iː] guote [uə] > gute [uː] brüeder [yə] > Brüder [yː]The digraph "ie" has kept its spelling despite monophthongization.
German:
The New High German monophthongization started in the 11th century in the center of the German-speaking area. Bavarian and Alemannic dialects in the south did not undergo the monophthongization changes and thus these dialects remain in an older language state.
Greek:
Greek underwent monophthongization at many points during its history. For instance, the diphthongs /ei ou/ monophthongized to /eː oː/ around the 5th century BC, and the diphthong /ai/ monophthongized to /eː/ in the Koine Greek period. For more information, see Ancient Greek phonology § Monophthongization and Koine Greek phonology.
French:
French underwent monophthongization and so the digraph ⟨ai⟩, which formerly represented a diphthong, represents the sound /ɛ/ or /e/ in Modern French. Similarly, the digraph ⟨au⟩ and trigraph ⟨eau⟩ represent the monophthong /o/ due to the same process.
Korean:
Korean underwent monophthongization two times─18th century, and 20th century. Their common point is that all of the monophthongized vowels were falling diphthongs. In 18th century, /ɐi əi/ monophthongized to /ɛ e/. Similarly, in 20th century /oi ui/ monophthongized to /ø y/. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Dropbear (software)**
Dropbear (software):
Dropbear is a software package written by Matt Johnston that provides a Secure Shell-compatible server and client. It is designed as a replacement for standard OpenSSH for environments with low memory and processor resources, such as embedded systems. It is a core component of OpenWrt and other router distributions.
Dropbear was originally released in April 2003.
Technology:
Dropbear implements version 2 of the Secure Shell (SSH) protocol.The cryptographic algorithms are implemented using third-party cryptographic libraries like LibTomCrypt included internally in the Dropbear distribution. It derives some parts from OpenSSH to handle BSD-style pseudo terminals.
Features:
Dropbear implements the complete SSH version 2 protocol in both the client and the server. It does not support SSH version 1 backwards-compatibility in order to save space and resources, and to avoid the inherent security vulnerabilities in SSH version 1. SCP is also implemented. SFTP support relies on a binary file which can be provided by OpenSSH or similar programs. FISH works in any case and is supported by Konqueror. Dropbear supports elliptic curve cryptography for key exchange, as of version 2013.61test and beyond. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Connected speech**
Connected speech:
In linguistics, connected speech or connected discourse is a continuous sequence of sounds forming utterances or conversations in spoken language. Analysis of connected speech shows sound changes affecting linguistic units traditionally described as phrases, words, lexemes, morphemes, syllables, phonemes or phones. The words that are modified by those rules will sound differently in connected speech than in citation form (canonical form or isolation form). | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Mie kering**
Mie kering:
Mie Kering or Makassar Dried Noodle is a Chinese Indonesian cuisine, a type of dried noodle served with thick gravy and sliced chicken, shrimp, mushrooms, liver, and squid. It is somewhat similar to Chinese I fu mie, only the noodle is thinner.
Mie kering:
The recipe was devised by a Chinese descent, Ang Kho Tjao. He opened his noodle shop to sell his dried noodle and it gaining popularity in Makassar since early 1970s. Ang Kho Tjao passed his knowledge of the recipe to his three children namely Hengky, Awa', and Titi. After Ang Kho Tjao died, dried noodle shop business was continued by his three children who separately opened their own shop. Titi's are the most popular in Makassar, hence the name of "Mie Titi" become synonymous with Makassar dried noodle. Mie Kering is one of the most famous Makassar dishes, the others are Coto Makassar and Konro. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Uhl anomaly**
Uhl anomaly:
The Uhl anomaly is a partial or total loss of the myocardial muscle in the right ventricle. A congenital heart disease, it is very rare: fewer than 100 cases in 1900–1993.It was first described in 1952 by Dr. Henry Uhl (1921–2009) upon examining one of his patients. Three findings are enlarged right ventricular cavity without apical trabeculation with a thin hypokinetic ventricular wall. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Methylazoxymethanol acetate**
Methylazoxymethanol acetate:
Methylazoxymethanol acetate, MAM, is a neurotoxin which reduces DNA synthesis used in making animal models of neurological diseases including schizophrenia and epilepsy. MAM is found in cycad seeds, and causes zamia staggers. It selectively targets neuroblasts in the central nervous system. In rats, administration of MAM affects structures in the brain which are developing most quickly. It is an acetate of methylazoxymethanol.
MAM animal models:
Schizophrenia In rat models, the specific effect of MAM on neural development depends on the gestational age of the subject. At the seventeenth gestational day (GD17), administration of MAM produces behavioral and histopathological patterns found in schizophrenia. The molecular mechanism behind this model is not fully known. Methylazoxymethanol acetate administered at GD17 reduces the thickness of the hippocampus and the thalamus. The locomotor effects of amphetamines and the spontaneous firing rate of dopaminergic neurons in the ventral tegmental area are increased. In alternating maze tests, GD17 MAM rats quickly learned the first rule, but took longer to accommodate to alterations to the rule; this is thought to indicate deficits in working spatial memory, which is also impaired in schizophrenia. Another study found that mice whom methylazoxy-methanol acetate was administered on 16th gestational day, but not those whom it was adminitred on GD17 showed decreased parvalbumin expression in hippocampus and prefrontal cortex, and schizophrenia-like characteristics. Mice whom MAM was administered on GD16 also exhibited reduced size of hippocampus and thinning of the prefrontal cortex. PFC-dependent cognitive deficits were shown only in male MAM-treated mice.
MAM animal models:
Epilepsy Exposure to MAM before birth increases susceptibility to epileptic seizures caused by flurothyl. Prenatal MAM exposure in rats results in a model of brain malformation. In some MAM animals, video-EEG monitoring has documented the presence of spontaneous electrographic seizure activity In some epilepsy rat models, MAM is administered at the fifteenth gestational day. Previous studies have found impaired cognitive function in GD15 MAM rats, and a reduced seizure threshold. At the cellular level, dysplastic hippocampal neurons in the MAM model were shown to have reduced potassium current function and expression for the Kv4.2 channel subunit These findings may contribute to the spontaneous seizures and reduced seizure thresholds seen in this model. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Pelvic inlet**
Pelvic inlet:
The pelvic inlet or superior aperture of the pelvis is a planar surface which defines the boundary between the pelvic cavity and the abdominal cavity (or, according to some authors, between two parts of the pelvic cavity, called lesser pelvis and greater pelvis). It is a major target of measurements of pelvimetry.
Its position and orientation relative to the skeleton of the pelvis is anatomically defined by its edge, the pelvic brim. The pelvic brim is an approximately apple-shaped line passing through the prominence of the sacrum, the arcuate and pectineal lines, and the upper margin of the pubic symphysis.
Occasionally, the terms pelvic inlet and pelvic brim are used interchangeably.
Boundaries:
The edge of the pelvic inlet (pelvic brim) is formed as follows:
Diameters:
The diameters or conjugates of the pelvis are measured at the pelvic inlet and outlet and as oblique diameters.
Two diameters may be measured from the outside of the body using a pelvimeter | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**How the Mind Works**
How the Mind Works:
How the Mind Works is a 1997 book by the Canadian-American cognitive scientist Steven Pinker, in which the author attempts to explain some of the human mind's poorly understood functions and quirks in evolutionary terms. Drawing heavily on the paradigm of evolutionary psychology articulated by John Tooby and Leda Cosmides, Pinker covers subjects such as vision, emotion, feminism, and "the meaning of life". He argues for both a computational theory of mind and a neo-Darwinist, adaptationist approach to evolution, all of which he sees as the central components of evolutionary psychology. He criticizes difference feminism because he believes scientific research has shown that women and men differ little or not at all in their moral reasoning. The book was a Pulitzer Prize Finalist.
Reception:
Jerry Fodor, considered one of the fathers of the computational theory of mind, criticized the book. Fodor wrote a book called The Mind Doesn't Work That Way, saying "There is, in short, every reason to suppose that the Computational Theory is part of the truth about cognition. But it hadn't occurred to me that anyone could suppose that it's a very large part of the truth; still less that it's within miles of being the whole story about how the mind works". He continued, "I was, and remain, perplexed by an attitude of ebullient optimism that's particularly characteristic of Pinker's book. As just remarked, I would have thought that the last forty or fifty years have demonstrated pretty clearly that there are aspects of higher mental processes into which the current armamentarium of computational models, theories and experimental techniques offers vanishingly little insight."Pinker responded to Fodor's criticisms in Mind & Language. Pinker argued that Fodor had attacked straw man positions, wryly suggesting a possible title for his riposte as No One Ever Said it Did.Daniel Levitin has criticized Pinker for referring to music as an "auditory cheesecake" in the book. In his book This Is Your Brain on Music (2006), Levitin takes some time in the last chapter to rebut Pinker’s arguments. When asked about Levitin's book by New York Times journalist Clive Thompson, Pinker said he hadn't read it. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Wallet gun**
Wallet gun:
A wallet gun is a concealed firearm. It is a small handgun covered in leather or cloth in a wallet shape with openings for the barrel and trigger to disguise it as a wallet (at least at first glance). | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**LiMAx test**
LiMAx test:
The LiMAx test (maximum liver function capacity) is a dynamic liver function test based on the metabolism of 13C-methacetin by the liver-specific cytochrome P450 1A2 system. The test can be carried out at bedside displaying actual liver function at the point of measurement (Point-of-care testing).
Test principle:
The LiMAx test is an innovative enzymatic liver function test. 13C-methacetin, a selective metabolite of the liver specific cytochrome P450 1A2 is administered intravenously. Via the bloodstream the drug is transported to the liver and immediately metabolized to paracetamol and ultimately to 13CO2 (Fig. 1), which is in turn transported via the bloodstream to the lung and exhaled.
Test principle:
Cytochrome P450 1A2 is evenly distributed over all the cells of a liver acinus, and is in contrast to other members of the cytochrome P450 family exclusively expressed in the liver. Cytochrome P450 A2 is usually not inducible by clinically frequently used drugs making it ideal even in complex clinical situations (exceptions are oral contraceptives resulting in a strong induction of P450 A2). Nutrition and lifestyle can strongly influence P450 A2 induction e.g. smoking or coffee consumption.
Test principle:
The test substance 13C methacetin itself is considered as is non-toxic and very well tolerated in the used dosage. Similarly, 13C is a stable, naturally occurring and non-radioactive carbon isotope. For this reason, patients need to fast for at least three hours before measurement to remove potential interferences with carbon from the food.
Test procedure:
The test is started with placing a breathing mask on the patient's face, separating the inhaled from the exhaled air by two valves. Consequently, the ratio of the 13CO2/12CO2 is determined in the exhaled air over a period of 10 to 20 minutes to measure the individual baseline of each patient (Fig. 2).After intravenous injection of 13C-methacetin the ratio of 13CO2/12CO2 increases subsequently and is quantified by a special device continuously and realtime at the bedside (FLIP). Since the device is detecting the carbon dioxide ratio chronic lung diseases (e.g. COPD, fibrosis) do not influence test results. The turnover of 13C-methacetin can be continuously determined using kinetic analysis. The LiMAx (maximum liver function capacity) is defined as the maximum value of the substrate conversion normalized to body weight.
Clinical application:
The LiMAx test was developed at Charité University Hospital Berlin and is deployed in German, Austrian and Swiss university hospitals gaining widespread use in hepatology and liver surgery. Stockmann et al. could show that LiMAx is an excellent predictor of postoperative liver failure after partial hepatic resection. Moreover, Lock et al. showed that the onset and course of liver regeneration after liver surgery could be validly displayed using LiMAx. In the context of liver transplantation LiMAx demonstrated high diagnostic accuracy in detecting early transplant dysfunction or non-function of liver grafts allowing an appropriate clinical management.Similarly, present liver cirrhosis can be diagnosed adequately by means of the LiMAx test and graded according to the functional impairment. Present research on LiMAx test addresses the non-invasive diagnosis of liver cirrhosis, the influence of chemotherapy on liver function and liver function adapted drug therapy as well as other issues in hepatology and surgery. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**AMP nucleosidase**
AMP nucleosidase:
In enzymology, an AMP nucleosidase (EC 3.2.2.4) is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction AMP + H2O ⇌ D-ribose 5-phosphate + adenineThus, the two substrates of this enzyme are AMP and H2O, whereas its two products are D-ribose 5-phosphate and adenine.
This enzyme belongs to the family of hydrolases, specifically those glycosylases that hydrolyse N-glycosyl compounds. The systematic name of this enzyme class is AMP phosphoribohydrolase. Other names in common use include adenylate nucleosidase, and adenosine monophosphate nucleosidase. This enzyme participates in purine metabolism.
Structural studies:
As of late 2007, 5 structures have been solved for this class of enzymes, with PDB accession codes 1T8R, 1T8S, 1T8W, 1T8Y, and 2GUW. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Children's magic**
Children's magic:
Children's magic is a specialized aspect of parlor magic and is meant to entertain children. It is typically performed at birthday parties, churches, preschools, elementary schools, Sunday Schools or libraries. It is often the only type of magic most Westerners experience other than that seen on television. This type of magic is usually comedic in nature.A distinction should be made between Children's magic and "young magicians." The former is meant for audiences made up of mostly children while the latter refers to performers who are under-aged. The later has organizations dedicated to them including Society of Young Magicians, Magic Youth International and Young Magicians' Club.
Children's magic:
Not every magician is interested in performing for children both artistically and in terms of patience. When Br. John Hamman, sm, was honored in 1995 during the first St. Louis Magical Heritage Awards, he explained in his acceptance speech the key to a successful magic performance: "The object of magic is misdirection. Audiences are more apt to believe what they hear than what they see, and intelligent people are the easiest to fool because they don't expect me to use some childish gimmick to deceive them. On the other hand, children are hard to fool, because they watch closely and don't listen." (bold letters added) Since children do not have the social filters adults have in such situations, they have no compunction against pointing out every error or inconsistency a magician makes during his performance. This makes performing for children exceedingly difficult.Children's magicians often use certain gambits while performing for children. Some performers use their knowledge to intentionally misdirect the children in a given audience. One form of this type of misdirection is referred to as "Magician-in-Trouble" wherein a performer pretends to have made a mistake.
Children's magic:
The style used for children's magic is often comical and frequently uses props that are large and colorful.
Children's magic:
It is not uncommon for magicians to dress as clowns or in wild and outlandish costumes while performing.Generally, children's magicians are reluctant to use tricks that focus on the use of playing cards, however magic with coins (see Coin magic) or paper money are frequently popular with children. Movement and action are preferable to patter. Buffoonery is a better vehicle than "mystery" for children.[1] These performers commonly use as many audience members as impromptu assistants as possible.[1] Common Children's Magic Props include: Run Rabbit Run, Hip Hop Rabbits, Change Bag Routines, Breakaway Wand, Tipsy Turvy Bottles, and Spongeballs. Older children (from 7 upwards) tend to have a far greater logic and less traditional and more innovative magic effects can be performed. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Savior sibling**
Savior sibling:
A savior baby or savior sibling is a child who is conceived in order to provide a stem cell transplant to a sibling that is affected with a fatal disease, such as cancer or Fanconi anemia, that can best be treated by hematopoietic stem cell transplantation.
The savior sibling is conceived through in vitro fertilization. Fertilized zygotes are tested for genetic compatibility (human leukocyte antigen (HLA) typing), using preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD), and only zygotes that are compatible with the existing child are implanted. Zygotes are also tested to make sure they are free of the original genetic disease. The procedure is controversial.
Indications:
A savior sibling may be the solution for any disease treated by hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. It is effective against genetically detectable (mostly monogenic) diseases, e.g. Fanconi anemia, Diamond–Blackfan anemia and β-thalassemia, in the ailing sibling, since the savior sibling can be selected to not have inherited the disease. The procedure may also be used in children with leukemia, and in such cases HLA match is the only requirement, and not exclusion of any other obvious genetic disorder.
Procedure:
Multiple embryos are created and preimplantation genetic diagnosis is used to detect and select ones that are free of a genetic disorder and that are also a HLA match for an existing sibling who requires a transplant. Upon birth, umbilical cord blood is taken and used for hematopoietic stem cell transplantation.
Laws:
In the United Kingdom, the Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority (HFEA) has ruled that it is lawful to use modern reproductive techniques to create a savior sibling.
In Victoria, Australia, use of PGD for HLA typing is reviewed by the Infertility Treatment Authority on a case-by-case basis.
Ethical considerations:
Arguments for or against the use of PGD/HLA tissue typing are based on several key issues including the commodification and welfare of the donor child.The main ethical argument against is the possible exploitation of the child, e.g. potential adverse psychological effects on a child born not for itself but solely for the purpose of saving another, such as the possible future emotional reaction of the savior sibling upon discovering that they were born solely to save the life of the recipient, rather than being 'wanted' for reasons other than transplantation.A survey of 4,000 Americans showed that 61% approved of PGD use for savior siblings.
History:
Yury Verlinsky and collaborators described the first case in 2001: that of Adam Nash, born August 29, 2000.
Popular culture:
The novel My Sister's Keeper, later adapted into a film, is about a child who was born as a savior sibling to her sister Kate who is affected by acute promyelocytic leukemia.
In the British soap opera Emmerdale, Debbie Dingle gave birth to her son Jack, who would serve as a savior sibling to his older sister Sarah, who was suffering from Fanconi anemia.
On the popular American show CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, the episode "Harvest" deals with the reported abduction and later murder of a thirteen-year-old girl named Alycia who was later revealed to be a savior sibling for her brother Daniel.
In the American show Heroes, one of the protagonists, Mohinder Suresh, is revealed to have been conceived to cure his sister Shanti of a deadly disease known as the Shanti Virus, although he was ultimately born too late to save her life. His antibodies act as a cure for other patients with the disease throughout the show as well.
On Star Trek: Enterprise, the episode "Similitude" sees a clone created of Trip Tucker for the purpose of organ harvesting. "Sim" is born through the highly controversial use of an alien lifeform.
The novel Never Let Me Go, later adapted into a film, is centred around a dystopian future society where human clones are created and allowed to live to their teenage years before being used for organ harvesting. The film Parts: The Clonus Horror has a similar premise.
In the Grey's Anatomy episode "I Bet It Stung," the character Donna is a savior sibling to her older sister Reese.
In the 9-1-1 episode "Buck Begins", it is revealed that Evan "Buck" Buckley was conceived as a savior sibling for his older brother Daniel.
In the Korean Drama 'The Penthouse', the character Anna is adopted by a Korean-American family to be a savior sibling to their son, Logan Lee, who was suffering from bone marrow cancer at the time. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Morphological analysis (problem-solving)**
Morphological analysis (problem-solving):
Morphological analysis or general morphological analysis is a method for exploring possible solutions to a multi-dimensional, non-quantified complex problem. It was developed by Swiss astronomer Fritz Zwicky.
Overview:
General morphology was developed by Fritz Zwicky, the Bulgarian-born, Swiss-national astrophysicist based at the California Institute of Technology. Among others, Zwicky applied morphological analysis to astronomical studies and jet and rocket propulsion systems. As a problem-structuring and problem-solving technique, morphological analysis was designed for multi-dimensional, non-quantifiable problems where causal modelling and simulation do not function well, or at all. Zwicky developed this approach to address seemingly non-reducible complexity: using the technique of cross-consistency assessment (CCA), the system allows for reduction by identifying the possible solutions that actually exist, eliminating the illogical solution combinations in a grid box rather than reducing the number of variables involved. General morphology has found use in fields including engineering design, technological forecasting, organizational development and policy analysis.
Decomposition versus morphological analysis:
Problems that involve many governing factors, where most of them cannot be expressed numerically can be well suited for morphological analysis. The conventional approach is to break a complex system into parts, isolate the parts (dropping the 'trivial' elements) whose contributions are critical to the output and solve the simplified system for desired scenarios. The disadvantage of this method is that many real-world phenomena do not have obviously trivial elements and cannot be simplified.
Decomposition versus morphological analysis:
Morphological analysis works backwards from the output towards the system internals without a simplification step. The system's interactions are fully accounted for in the analysis. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**UW Coronae Borealis**
UW Coronae Borealis:
UW Coronae Borealis, also known as MS 1603.6+2600, is a low-mass X-ray binary star system in the constellation Corona Borealis. Astronomer Simon Morris and colleagues discovered the X-ray source in 1990 and were able to match it up with a faint star with an average visual magnitude of 19.4. The system is thought to be made up of a neutron star that has an accretion disk that draws material from its companion, a star less massive than the Sun. The disk is asymmetrical. The variability of the system is complex, with several periods identified: the two components orbit each other every 111 minutes, while there is another period of 112.6 minutes. The beat period of these is 5.5 days, which is thought to represent the precession of the asymmetrical accretion disk around the neutron star. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Proportionality (mathematics)**
Proportionality (mathematics):
In mathematics, two sequences of numbers, often experimental data, are proportional or directly proportional if their corresponding elements have a constant ratio. The ratio is called coefficient of proportionality (or proportionality constant) and its reciprocal is known as constant of normalization (or normalizing constant). Two sequences are inversely proportional if corresponding elements have a constant product, also called the coefficient of proportionality.
Proportionality (mathematics):
This definition is commonly extended to related varying quantities, which are often called variables. This meaning of variable is not the common meaning of the term in mathematics (see variable (mathematics)); these two different concepts share the same name for historical reasons.
Two functions f(x) and g(x) are proportional if their ratio {\textstyle {\frac {f(x)}{g(x)}}} is a constant function.
If several pairs of variables share the same direct proportionality constant, the equation expressing the equality of these ratios is called a proportion, e.g., a/b = x/y = ⋯ = k (for details see Ratio).
Proportionality is closely related to linearity.
Direct proportionality:
Given an independent variable x and a dependent variable y, y is directly proportional to x if there is a non-zero constant k such that y=kx.
The relation is often denoted using the symbols "∝" (not to be confused with the Greek letter alpha) or "~": y∝x, or y∼x.
For x≠0 the proportionality constant can be expressed as the ratio k=yx.
It is also called the constant of variation or constant of proportionality.
A direct proportionality can also be viewed as a linear equation in two variables with a y-intercept of 0 and a slope of k. This corresponds to linear growth.
Examples If an object travels at a constant speed, then the distance traveled is directly proportional to the time spent traveling, with the speed being the constant of proportionality.
The circumference of a circle is directly proportional to its diameter, with the constant of proportionality equal to π.
On a map of a sufficiently small geographical area, drawn to scale distances, the distance between any two points on the map is directly proportional to the beeline distance between the two locations represented by those points; the constant of proportionality is the scale of the map.
The force, acting on a small object with small mass by a nearby large extended mass due to gravity, is directly proportional to the object's mass; the constant of proportionality between the force and the mass is known as gravitational acceleration.
The net force acting on an object is proportional to the acceleration of that object with respect to an inertial frame of reference. The constant of proportionality in this, Newton's second law, is the classical mass of the object.
Inverse proportionality:
The concept of inverse proportionality can be contrasted with direct proportionality. Consider two variables said to be "inversely proportional" to each other. If all other variables are held constant, the magnitude or absolute value of one inversely proportional variable decreases if the other variable increases, while their product (the constant of proportionality k) is always the same. As an example, the time taken for a journey is inversely proportional to the speed of travel.
Inverse proportionality:
Formally, two variables are inversely proportional (also called varying inversely, in inverse variation, in inverse proportion) if each of the variables is directly proportional to the multiplicative inverse (reciprocal) of the other, or equivalently if their product is a constant. It follows that the variable y is inversely proportional to the variable x if there exists a non-zero constant k such that y=kx, or equivalently, xy=k.
Inverse proportionality:
Hence the constant "k" is the product of x and y.
The graph of two variables varying inversely on the Cartesian coordinate plane is a rectangular hyperbola. The product of the x and y values of each point on the curve equals the constant of proportionality (k). Since neither x nor y can equal zero (because k is non-zero), the graph never crosses either axis.
Hyperbolic coordinates:
The concepts of direct and inverse proportion lead to the location of points in the Cartesian plane by hyperbolic coordinates; the two coordinates correspond to the constant of direct proportionality that specifies a point as being on a particular ray and the constant of inverse proportionality that specifies a point as being on a particular hyperbola.
Computer encoding:
The Unicode characters for proportionality are the following: U+221D ∝ PROPORTIONAL TO (∝, ∝, ∝, ∝, ∝) U+007E ~ TILDE U+2237 ∷ PROPORTION U+223C ∼ TILDE OPERATOR (∼, ∼, ∼, ∼) U+223A ∺ GEOMETRIC PROPORTION (∺) | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Tenascin X**
Tenascin X:
A member of the tenascin family, tenascin X (TN-X) also known as flexillin or hexabrachion-like protein is a 450kDa glycoprotein that is expressed in connective tissues. TN-X possesses a modular structure composed, from the N- to the C-terminal part by a Tenascin assembly domain (TAD), a series of 18.5 repeats of epidermal growth factor (EGF)-like motif, a high number of Fibronectin type III (FNIII) module, and a fibrinogen (FBG)-like globular domain. In humans, tenascin X is encoded by the TNXB gene.
Gene:
This gene localizes to the major histocompatibility complex (MHC class III) region on chromosome 6. The structure of this gene is unusual in that it overlaps the CREBL1 and CYP21A2 genes at its 5' and 3' ends, respectively. TNXB also possesses a pseudogene, TNXA, which is a consequence of MHC classe III locus duplication during evolution. Strong 3' homology between TNXB and TNXA can provoke genetic recombination between the two loci, thus leading to the apparition of TNXA/TNXB chimera.
Function:
TN-X is constitutively expressed in adult tissues such as skin, ligaments, tendons, lungs, kidneys, optic nerves, mammary and adrenal glands, blood vessels, testis, and ovaries. It is also found in different compartments of the digestive tract, including pancreas, stomach, jejunum, ileum, and colon. In this wide variety of organs, TN-X is mainly located within the connective tissue such as peritendineum (external structural component of tendons), epimysium and perimysium (muscle components), renal glomeruli, blood vessels and skin dermis. TN-X has been proposed to have an important structural and architectural function, especially within the skin. In fact, in vitro experiments demonstrate that TN-X physically interacts with fibrillar collagens type I, III and V, as well as FACIT (Fibrillar Associated Collagen with Interruption of the Triple helix) including type XII and XIV collagens. It also interacts with Transforming Growth Factor (TGF)-β which is a pro-fibrotic cytokine and Decorin, a small 100 kDa dermatan sulfate proteoglycan that plays a crucial role in collagen fibrillogenesis. In vivo, transmission electron microscopy coupled with immuno-labelling confirms the very close location of TN-X with collagen fibbers in dermis, tendons and kidney glomeruli.In addition to this architectural function, TN-X also demonstrated counter-adhesive properties, at least for human osteosarcoma cells (MG-63), murine embryonic fibroblasts (MRC-5) as well as human endothelial cells (ECV-304).
Clinical significance:
Homozygous mutations, heterozygous compound (bi-allelic) mutations or haploinsufficiency in TN-X cause classical-like Ehlers-Danlos syndrome (EDS), a rare and hereditary connective tissue disorder in mice and human. This pathology is characterized by skin hyperlaxity, joint hypermobility and global tissue weakness as a consequence of elastin fragmentation and reduced collagen density, especially in skin. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Access-independent services**
Access-independent services:
Access-independent service (AIS) is a service concept in which a service does not depend on guaranteed access network cooperation for service delivery. Telecoms industry analyst Dean Bubley first used the term in a report on Telco-OTT in February 2012.Traditionally, most telecom company or internet service provider services are access-dependent, because they rely heavily on guaranteed access cooperation on the network the service is delivered over. For instance, traditional IP-based TV service (IPTV) delivered by a telecom company is generally a managed service. This means that IPTV service assumes the IPTV service provider has control over the access network that the IPTV service is delivered over, and network quality of service (QoS) guarantees are available for IPTV service delivery. As a result, the reach of a telecom company's IPTV service is generally restricted by the reach of the telecom company's access network.
Access-independent services:
In contrast, services offered by non-traditional video content delivery service providers such as Netflix, Hulu, and Amazon Video are considered access-independent services. Netflix's video content streaming service, for example, dynamically adapts to network conditions in real-time to strive for the best overall quality of experience (QoE) and does not assume guaranteed cooperation from the underlying IP network, such as QoS. As a result, without considering content rights and different countries' government restrictions, the reach of Netflix's video content streaming service is, in theory, the reach of the Internet. Skype is another example of AIS, because Skype offers an IP-based telephony service over the Internet without depending on IP network cooperation guarantees other than basic IP network connectivity.
Access-independent services:
In the context of telecom service delivery, the concept of access independent services is also commonly described by the term "over-the-top" (OTT) services. OTT service providers such as but not limited to Facebook, WeChat, and Netflix generally do not own or directly manage any wide-area access network to begin with, so they design their services for overall quality of experience, with no assumptions on guaranteed access network cooperation. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Glossary of baseball terms**
Glossary of baseball terms:
This is an alphabetical list of selected unofficial and specialized terms, phrases, and other jargon used in baseball, along with their definitions, including illustrative examples for many entries.
0–9:
0 "Oh and ..." See count.
1 Official scorekeepers assign a number from 1 to 9 to each position on the field in order to record the outcome of each play in their own shorthand. The number 1 corresponds to the pitcher.
A shout of "One!" indicates the ball should be thrown to first base.
A "one-bagger" is a single.
In the context of pitching, the number 1 is a common sign (and nickname) for the fastball.
0–9:
1-2-3 inning An inning in which a pitcher faces only three batters and none safely reaches a base. "Three up, three down." 1-2-3 double play A double play in which the pitcher (1) fields a batted ball and throws home to the catcher (2), who retires a runner advancing from third. The catcher then throws to the first baseman (3) to force out the batter. These almost always happen with the bases loaded.
0–9:
1-6-3 double play The pitcher (1) fields a batted ball and throws to the shortstop (6) to force out a runner advancing to second. The shortstop then throws to the first baseman (3) to force out the batter.
2 The catcher, in scorekeeping shorthand.
A shout of "Two!" indicates the ball should be thrown to second base.
A "two-bagger" is a double.
In the context of pitching, the number 2 is a common sign (and nickname) for a curveball.
2–2–2 (2 balls, 2 strikes, 2 outs) See deuces wild.
3 The first baseman, in scorekeeping shorthand.
A shout of "Three!" indicates the ball should be thrown to third base.
A "three-bagger" is a triple.
In the context of pitching, the number 3 is a common sign (and nickname) for a slider.
3-2-3 double play The first baseman (3) fields a batted ball and throws to the catcher (2), who retires a runner advancing from third and then throws back to the first baseman to force out the batter. These almost always happen with the bases loaded.
3-6 double play The first baseman (3) fields a batted ball, steps on first (to force the batter out), and then throws to the shortstop (6), who tags out a runner. Another possibility is a line drive caught by the first baseman, who throws to the shortstop, who then steps on second base for a second out.
3-6-1 double play The first baseman (3) fields a batted ball and throws to the shortstop (6) to force out a runner at second. The shortstop then throws to the pitcher (1) (who is now covering first because the first baseman was busy fielding the ball) to force out the batter.
3-4-3 double play The first baseman (3) fields a batted ball and throws to the second baseman (4) to force out a runner at second. The second baseman then throws back to the first baseman to force out the batter.
3-6-3 double play The first baseman (3) fields a batted ball and throws to the shortstop (6) to force out a runner at second. The shortstop then throws back to the first baseman to force out the batter.
4 The second baseman, in scorekeeping shorthand.
A shout of "Four!" indicates the ball should be thrown to home plate.
A "four-bagger" is a home run.
In the context of pitching, the number 4 is a common sign (and nickname) for a change-up.
4-6-3 double play The second baseman (4) fields a batted ball and throws to the shortstop (6), who forces out a runner at second and then throws to the first baseman (3) to force out the batter.
0–9:
45-foot line The line between home plate and first base that begins 45 feet down the first base line and extends past first base. The rules state that if the batter-runner is in the path of a throw that originates near home plate and is outside the area created by the base line and the 45-foot line, he shall be called out if the umpire believes he interfered with the play. If he remains within the line, he cannot be called out for interference. This rule is designed to allow catchers and pitchers the ability to field bunts and throw the batter-runner out without having to worry about the batter-runner intentionally or unintentionally interfering with the throw.
0–9:
This line is also used to decide whether a pickoff move is legal or a balk. If the pitcher steps with his lead foot towards the base he intends to throw to it is considered legal; the 45-foot line determines whether that step is towards the base or towards home plate. This only comes into play when the pickoff move is to the base the pitcher naturally faces, i.e. third for a right-hander or first for a lefty.
0–9:
4 wide ones Four consecutive pitches deliberately wide of the strike zone. Preacher Roe summarized this strategy to Stan Musial as "I throw him four wide ones and try to pick him off at first." 5 The third baseman, in scorekeeping shorthand.
5 hole Between a player's legs (the catcher's in particular). From the hockey term for how a puck is advanced past the goalie ("through the five hole").
5.5 hole The space between the third baseman (5) and shortstop (6).Made famous by perennial batting champion Tony Gwynn of the San Diego Padres as his description of where he liked to hit the baseball.
5-4-3 double play The third baseman (5) fields a batted ball and throws to the second baseman (4) to force out a runner advancing from first. The second baseman then throws to the first baseman (3) to force out the batter.
5-4-3 triple play The third baseman (5) fields a batted ball and steps on third base to force out a runner advancing from second, then throws to the second baseman (4) to force out a runner advancing from first. The second baseman then throws to the first baseman (3) to force out the batter.
5-tool player A position player (non-pitcher) like Willie Mays, Andre Dawson, Duke Snider, Vladimir Guerrero or Ken Griffey Jr., who excels at: hitting for average hitting for power base running throwing fielding 6 The shortstop, in scorekeeping shorthand.
6-4-3 double play The shortstop (6) fields a batted ball and throws to the second baseman (4), who forces out a runner advancing from first and then throws to the first baseman (3) to force out the batter.
7 The leftfielder, in scorekeeping shorthand.
7-2, 8-2, or 9-2 double play A fly ball is caught by an outfielder, and a runner tries to tag up and score from third but is tagged out by the catcher.
8 The centerfielder, in scorekeeping shorthand.
9 The rightfielder, in scorekeeping shorthand.
9 to 0 The official score of a forfeited game in Major League Baseball.
12–6 A type of curveball, the motion of which evokes the hands of a clock.
30-30 club Players who hit 30 home runs and steal 30 bases in a single season.
40-40 club Players who hit 40 home runs and steal 40 bases in a single season.
55-footer A pejorative term for a pitch that bounces short of the 60+1⁄2 feet between the pitching rubber and the plate.
90 feet When a runner advances one base, he "moves up 90 feet"—the distance between successive bases. A runner on third base is "90 feet away" from scoring.
A:
A-Ball or Class A As of the 2022 season, "Class A" is the lowest grouping of modern affiliated minor league baseball, with sub-categories of "High-A" and "Single-A". "Short-Season A" leagues also existed before 2021. High-A is divided into three leagues: Midwest League, Northwest League, and South Atlantic League. Single-A is also divided into three leagues: California League, Carolina League, and Florida State League.
A:
AA "Double-A" (AA) is the second-highest level of minor league baseball (below AAA), and as of 2022 includes the Eastern League, the Southern League, and the Texas League.
"AA" is also the abbreviation for the American Association, which has been the name of numerous professional baseball leagues: a short-lived major league of the 19th century, a minor league for much of the 20th century, and an independent minor league that became a "Partner League" of Major League Baseball in 2021.
AAA "Triple-A" is the highest level of minor league baseball. As of 2022, this level includes the International League and the Pacific Coast League.
A:
AAAA player "Four-A player" (alternatively, "Quadruple-A player") is a term for a minor-league player who is consistently successful in the high minor leagues, but cannot translate that into success at the major-league level. Poor management can be responsible. "AAAA" may also informally refer to high-quality but unaffiliated foreign baseball leagues outside North America where play is considered less competitive than in MLB but more competitive than in AAA; this is usually restricted to describing Japan's NPB, but may also include South Korea's KBO and (rarely) Taiwan's CPBL.
A:
aboard When a runner is on base. When there are runners safely on base, there are "runners aboard".
ace The best starting pitcher on the team, who is usually first on a pitching rotation.
advance a runner To move a runner ahead safely to another base, often the conscious strategy of a team that plays small ball. If a batter does make an out, his plate appearance will have been less negative if he still got a runner into scoring position; in certain situations, batters even deliberately sacrifice themselves.
ahead in the count A term that signifies whether the batter or pitcher possesses the advantage in an at-bat. If a pitcher has thrown more strikes than balls to a batter in an at-bat, the pitcher is ahead in the count; conversely, if the pitcher has thrown more balls than strikes, the batter is ahead.
If the pitcher is ahead in the count, the batter is in increasing danger of striking out. If the batter is ahead, the pitcher is in increasing danger of walking him.
aim the ball Sometimes when a pitcher tries a bit too carefully to control the location of a pitch, he is said to "aim the ball" instead of throwing it. This is a different meaning of "aim" from the situation in which a pitcher aims a pitch at a batter in an effort to hit him.
A:
airmail Slang for a fielder's errant throw that sails high over the player to whom he intended to throw the ball. For example, if the third baseman were to throw the ball over the first baseman's head and into the stands, he is said to have "airmailed" the throw. "But Chandler airmailed her throw to third into the dugout ..." alabaster blast Coined by Pittsburgh Pirates announcer Bob Prince, a Baltimore chop would bounce higher than normal due to the extraordinarily hard dirt at Forbes Field.
A:
alley Also "gap" or "power alley", the space between the leftfielder and the centerfielder, or the rightfielder and centerfielder. If a batter hits the ball "up the alley" with enough force, he has a stronger chance of advancing beyond first base and being credited with an extra-base hit. Typically, this is an appropriate term for describing a line drive or ground ball; fly balls that hit the wall are not normally described this way.
A:
ambush Swinging at (and especially hitting) the first pitch.
American League (AL) The junior of the two existing Major Leagues.
A:
American League Championship Series (ALCS) The season's final best-of-seven playoff series which determines the American League team that will advance to the World Series. The ALCS–like its analog, the NLCS–came into being in 1969. The ALCS winner takes the American League pennant and the title of American League Champion for that season. The winners of the American League Division Series have met in the ALCS since 1995.
A:
American League Division Series (ALDS) The first round of the league playoffs. The winners of the three divisions and the winner of the Wild Card Game are paired off in two best-of-five series, the winners of which advance to the ALCS.
Annie Oakley A free ticket to attendance at a ballgame or to first base (a "free pass" or "base on balls").
A:
appeal play A play in which the defense has an opportunity to gain a favorable ruling from an umpire by addressing a mistake by the offense or seeking the input of another umpire. Appeals require the defense to make a verbal appeal to an appropriate umpire, or if the situation being appealed is obvious a player may indicate an appeal with a gesture. The onus is on the defense to make an appeal; umpires will not announce potential appeal situations such as runners failing to touch a base, batting out of order, or unchecked swings until an appeal is made.
A:
Arizona Fall League (AFL) A short-season minor league in which high-level prospects from all thirty Major League Baseball clubs are organized into six teams on which players have the opportunity to refine and showcase their skills for evaluation by coaches, scouts, and executives. Such teams are referred to as "scout teams" and "taxi squads".
arm A metonym for a pitcher ("A's trade two young arms to Kansas City ...", "... Anthopoulos is just stockpiling arms in an attempt to lure a trade ...").
A:
around the horn The infielders' practice of throwing the ball to each other after recording an out, provided there are no runners on base. The purpose is as much traditional as anything, but it serves as a way to celebrate the out. Typically, if an out is made at first base, the first baseman will throw to the shortstop, who throws to the second baseman, who throws to the third baseman, who returns the ball to the pitcher. Patterns vary from team to team, but the third baseman is usually the last infielder to receive a throw, regardless of the pattern.
A:
Throwing the ball around the horn is also done after a strikeout with no baserunners. The catcher will throw the ball to the third baseman, who then throws it to the second baseman, who throws it to the shortstop, who then throws it to the first baseman. Some catchers, such as Iván Rodríguez, prefer to throw the ball to the first baseman, who then begins the process in reverse. Some catchers determine to whom they will throw based on the handedness of the batter (to first for a right-handed batter because the line to the first baseman is not blocked and vice versa) or whether the team is in an overshift, when the third baseman would be playing close to where the shortstop normally plays and would require a harder throw to be reached.
A:
An additional application of this term is when a 5-4-3 double play has occurred, which mimics the pattern of throwing the ball around the horn.
arsonist An ineffective relief pitcher. Usually a pitcher who comes into the game with no one on base but proceeds to give up several runs. Opposite of fireman.
A:
ash An old-fashioned word referring to a baseball bat, which is typically made of wood from an ash tree. "The shrewd manager substitutes a fast runner for a slow one, and sends in a pinch hitter when the man he takes out is just as good with the ash as the man he sends in." aspirin Slang for a fastball that is especially hard to hit due to its velocity and/or movement, in reference to the difficulty of making contact with something as small as an aspirin tablet. May additionally reference batters seeing a pitched ball as relatively smaller than normal, a potential psychological effect on batters who are in a slump.
A:
assist The official scorer awards an assist to every defensive player who fields or touches the ball (after it has been hit by the batter) prior to a putout, even if the contact was unintentional. For example, if a ball strikes a player's leg and bounces off him to another fielder, who tags the baserunner, the first player is credited with an assist.A fielder can receive only one assist per out recorded. A fielder also receives an assist if a putout would have occurred, had not another fielder committed an error.
A:
asterisk A slang term for a baseball record that is disputed in popular opinion (i.e., unofficially) because of a perception that the record holder had an unfair advantage in attaining the record. It implies that the record requires a footnote explaining the purportedly unfair advantage, with the asterisk being a symbol commonly used in typography to call out footnotes. In recent times it has been prominently used in the following circumstances: The record holder is widely believed to have used performance-enhancing drugs, whether or not such use is proven or admitted. Barry Bonds was regularly greeted with banners and signs bearing an asterisk during the 2007 season when he broke Hank Aaron's career home run record. The ball Bonds hit for the record-breaking home run was subsequently branded with an asterisk before it was sent to the Baseball Hall of Fame.
A:
A holder of a single-season record accomplished the feat in a longer season, and thus had additional opportunities to break the record. A well-known example of this was when Roger Maris broke Babe Ruth's single-season home run record on the last day of a 162-game regular season in 1961, while Ruth set the previous record in a 154-game season in 1927; the asterisk usage is exemplified in the title of the film 61*, which was about Maris' quest to break Ruth's record. Baseball Commissioner Ford Frick declared that Maris's record should be listed separately from Ruth's (contrary to popular belief no asterisk was mentioned or used in this case), a decision not formally reversed until 1991.
A:
The Houston Astros's 2017 World Series championship, which was later marred by allegations of the Astros using technology to steal signs throughout the 2017 season. Fans of opposing teams, especially the Yankees and Dodgers, frequently employ the use of asterisks when referencing the team's season in 2017, often derisively calling the team the "Houston Asterisks".
at 'em ball or "atom ball"; slang for a ball batted directly at a defender.
A:
at bat A completed plate appearance by a batter which results in a base hit or a non-sacrifice out. At-bats (or "times at bat") are used for the calculation of a player's batting average and slugging percentage. Note that a plate appearance is not recorded as an "at-bat" if the batter reaches first base as a result of a base on balls, or hit by pitch, nor if he executes a sacrifice bunt or sacrifice fly.
A:
Occasionally a batter may be at the plate when the third out of the inning is made against a base-runner; in this case the batter will lead off the next inning with a clean strike count and his interrupted plate appearance is not counted as an at-bat.
at the letters A pitch that crosses the plate at the height of the letters of the team's name on the shirt of the batter's uniform is said to be "at the letters", "letter-high" or "chest-high".
ate him up Slang expression of the action of a batted ball that is difficult for a fielder to handle.
ate the ball See: eat the ball attack the strike zone Slang for pitching aggressively by throwing strikes, rather than trying to trick hitters into swinging at pitches out of the strike zone or trying to "nibble at the corners" of the plate. Equivalent phrases are "pound the strike zone" and "challenge the hitters".
automatic double A batted ball in fair territory which bounces out of play (e.g. into the seats) entitles the batter and all runners on base to advance two bases but no further. This term is used by some commentators in lieu of ground rule double, which refers to ground rules in effect at each ballpark.
automatic strike A strike is deemed "automatic" when the pitcher grooves a strike–typically on a 3-0 count–with such confidence that the batter takes the pitch without swinging at it.
Since 2023 in MLB, a batter is charged with an automatic strike if he is not in the batter's box and alert to the pitcher when there are at least 8 seconds remaining on the pitch clock.
away A pitch outside the strike zone, on the opposite side of the plate as the batter, is referred to as being "away", in contrast to a pitch thrown between the plate and the batter that is known as "inside".
Slang for outs. For example, a two-out inning may be said to be "two away"; a strikeout may be referred to as "putting away" the batter.
Games played at an opponent's home field are "away games". The visiting team is sometimes called the "away" team.
B:
backdoor breaking ball A breaking pitch, usually a slider, curveball, or cut fastball that, due to its lateral motion, passes through a small part of the strike zone on the outside edge of the plate after seeming as if it would miss the plate entirely. It may not cross the front of the plate but only the back and thus have come in through the "back door". A slider is the most common version, because a slider has more lateral motion than other breaking pitches (it curves down and 'slides' across the zone).
B:
backstop The fence behind homeplate, designed to protect spectators from wild pitches or foul balls.
Catcher, sometimes "backstopper".
back-to-back Consecutive. When two consecutive batters hit home runs, they are said to hit back-to-back homers. Or a pitcher may issue back-to-back walks, and so forth.
backup Opposite of "backdoor". Usually a mistake, a pitch that begins inside off of home plate and breaks back over the plate. A pitch that does this is said to have "backed up".
bad-ball hitter A batter who excels at hitting pitches that are outside the strike zone. Notable bad ball hitters include Yogi Berra and Vladimir Guerrero.
bad hop A ball that bounces in front of an infielder in an unexpected way, often as a result of imperfections in the playing surface or the spin on the ball.
bag A base. Also, a two-bagger is a double or two-base hit; a three-bagger is a triple or three-base hit; a four-bagger is a home run.
bail A batter who sees a pitch coming toward his head may "bail out" (hit the deck).
When two fielders are converging on a fly ball, one of them may "bail out" to avoid running into the other.
A relief pitcher may come into the game with men on base and bail the previous pitcher out of a jam.While the first two examples are analogues to bailing out of a plane via parachute, the last one is akin to bailing out a boat on the verge of being swamped, or perhaps bailing somebody out of jail.
B:
balk A ruling made by an umpire against a pitching motion that violates rules intended to prevent the pitcher from unfairly deceiving a baserunner. When a balk is called, each runner can freely advance one base. In professional baseball, a balk does not instantly result in a dead ball. If a pitch is thrown and all runners advance one base due to a hit, play continues and the balk is ignored. This rarely occurs because when the balk is called the pitcher normally stops his delivery and the umpire declares the ball dead and awards the bases. In non-professional baseball (high school and college), a balk instantly results in a dead ball and the runners are awarded their bases. The rules specify which pitching movements are illegal. Commonly called balks are failure for the pitcher to come to a set position (or coming set multiple times) or failure to step in the direction of the base he is throwing toward. The spirit of a balk is that certain movements mean the pitcher has begun the pitch, so the runner cannot then be picked off. Some balks result from errant or unsuccessful motions, such as when the ball slips out of the pitcher's hand. Far more rare is a catcher's balk, when the catcher moves from behind the area of the plate before the pitcher starts his delivery (applicable only during an intentional walk).
B:
ball A pitch that misses the strike zone and is not swung at by the batter. (For the physical object used in the game, see baseball (ball).) ball in play In sabermetrics, "ball in play" and "batting average on balls in play" (BABIP) have specific technical definitions that are used to determine pitchers' ability independently of the fielding defense of a team. In this definition, a home run is not a ball in play. See Defense Independent Pitching Statistics. Also see in play.
B:
Baltimore chop A ball hit forcefully into the ground near home plate, producing a bounce high above the head of a fielder. This gives the batter time to reach first base safely before the ball can be fielded. An important element of Baltimore Orioles coach John McGraw's "inside baseball" strategy, the technique was popularized during Major League Baseball's dead-ball era, during which baseball teams could not rely on the home run.To give the maximum bounce to a Baltimore chop, Orioles groundskeeper Tom Murphy packed the dirt tightly around home plate, mixed it with hard clay and left the infield unwatered. Speedy Orioles players like McGraw, Joe Kelley, Steve Brodie, and Willie Keeler most often practiced and perfected it.In modern baseball, the Baltimore chop is much less common, usually resulting when a batter accidentally swings over the ball. The result is sometimes more pronounced on those diamonds with artificial turf. The technique still sees use in softball.
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banana stalk A bat made with an inferior, low-quality grade of wood. See also morning journal bandbox A ballpark with small dimensions that encourages offense, especially home runs. A crackerbox. (see: Baker Bowl and Citizens Bank Ballpark) bang Cancelling a game because of bad weather: "I thought we were gonna get banged but we got in five innings." To hit the ball hard, especially to hit a homer. "Utley banged the game-tying home run." Players who are banged up are injured, though may continue to play. Example: "Banged up Braves ready for playoff rematch with Astros." A bang-up game is an exciting or close game. Example from a sports headline: "A Real Bang-Up Finish." A bang bang play is one in which the runner is barely thrown out, a very close call, typically at first base. Perhaps reflecting the "bang" of the ball in the first-baseman's glove followed immediately by the "bang" of the baserunner's foot hitting the bag.
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bang it inside is when a pitcher throws on the inside of the plate, and the batter cannot get his arms extended enough to hit the ball, which goes "bang" into the catcher's mitt. "It was an unbelievable feeling and a feeling I'll never forget," Giavotella said. "Scherzer was trying to come in on me all day. He was banging me inside and I couldn't get my hands extended. I guess he missed over the plate that time and I got my hands inside and barreled it up and it flew out of the park." banjo hitter A batter who lacks power. A banjo hitter usually hits bloop singles, often just past the infield dirt, and would have a low slugging percentage. The name is said to come from the twanging sound of the bat at contact, like that of a banjo. See also Punch and Judy hitter.
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barehand it Refers to when a fielder catches a ball with the hand not covered by his glove.
barrel An advanced metric that measures the times a batter hits the ball at certain launch angles with certain exit velocities. Barrels are more likely to produce hits, particularly extra-base hits, than non-barrels.
barrel up In modern baseball, refers to hitting a pitch hard with the sweet spot of the baseball bat.
See sweet spot.
base hit See hit.
base knock A single. Also see knocks.
Baseball Annie Female "groupie" known to "be easy" for baseball players. Susan Sarandon played such a role as the character Annie Savoy in the 1988 American film "Bull Durham".
Infamous Ruth Ann Steinhagen was the first "Baseball Annie". She became obsessed with Cubs and then Phillies first baseman Eddie Waitkus. She shot him through the chest, nearly killing him in 1949. This story inspired the 1952 novel The Natural.
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bases loaded Runners on first, second, and third bases. Also known as "bases full", "bases packed", "bases jammed", "bases juiced", "bases chucked", or "bases drunk". This presents a great scoring opportunity for the batting team, but it also presents an easy double play opportunity for the defense. Causing the bases to become loaded is called loading the bases. A batter is often intentionally walked when there are runners on 2nd and 3rd base to make it easier for the defense to record more than one out.A bases-loaded situation is the only time there is a force at home plate.Since there is no additional room to place the batter, should he be awarded first base from a base on balls or hit by pitch, one run will score due to the third-base player's being forced home. Chronologically, only big leaguers Abner Dalrymple, Nap Lajoie, Mel Ott, Bill Nicholson, Barry Bonds, Josh Hamilton, and Corey Seager hold the distinction of being intentionally walked with the bases loaded.When a home run is hit with the bases loaded, it is called a grand slam. It scores four runs, which is the most runs that can be scored on a single play.
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basement Last place, bottom of the standings. Also cellar.
baserunner A baserunner (shortened as "runner") is a player on the offensive team (i.e., the team at bat) who has safely reached base.
basket catch Catching a fly ball with the glove situated about the waistline, as opposed to the hands being situated above the shoulders.
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bat A baseball bat is a smooth contoured round wooden or metal rod used to hit the ball thrown by the pitcher. A bat's diameter is larger at one end (the barrel-end) than at the other (the handle). The bottom end of the handle is the knob. A batter generally tries to strike the ball in the sweet spot near the middle of the barrel-end of the bat, sometimes referred to as the fat part of the bat or the meat end of the bat.
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The player who uses it to strike the ball—a batter, hitter, or batsman—can be said to bat the ball.
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A player known as a good hitter might be said to have a good bat. Headline: "Shortstop mixes golden glove with solid bat." A player who is adept at both hitting and fielding might be said to have a good bat and good glove. The headline "Wesleyan shortstop Winn has bat and glove" does not mean Winn owns a bat and a glove, it means he is very skilled at both hitting and fielding.
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A team with many good hitters might be said to have a lot of "bats" (referring to the players not the instrument). "It's an awesome thing when we all get going like that," Murphy said. "We've got so many bats in our lineup that we're hard to beat if we keep hitting." bat around According to The Dickson Baseball Dictionary, a team has "batted around" when each of the nine batters in the team's lineup has made a plate appearance, and the first batter is coming up again during a single inning. Dictionary.com, however, defines "bat around" as "to have every player in the lineup take a turn at bat during a single inning". It is not an official statistic. Opinions differ as to whether nine batters must get an at-bat, or if the opening batter must bat again for "batting around" to have occurred.
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bat drop A physical property of a bat, expressed as a (usually) negative number equal to the bat's weight in ounces minus its length in inches. For example, a bat that is 34 inches (86 cm) long and weighs 31 ounces (880 g) has a bat drop of –3. In general, bats with a larger bat drop (i.e., lighter) are easier to swing, and bats with a smaller bat drop (i.e., heavier) can produce faster ball velocity, though these results depend on the batter's ability.
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bat flip A celebration in which a batter who just hit a home run flips/tosses the bat in a dramatic way, rather than simply dropping it as they start running. The practice is controversial - some players such as Tim Anderson and Jose Bautista have been subject to retaliation by the opposing team when they bat flipped after a home run against them.
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bat the ball To hit the ball with the bat – whether into fair territory or foul.
batter The player who is at bat and tries to hit the ball with the bat. Also referred to as the "hitter" or "batsman".
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batter's eye A solid-colored, usually dark area beyond the center field wall that is the visual backdrop for the batter looking out at the pitcher. It allows the batter to see the pitched ball against a dark and uncluttered background, as much for the batter's safety as anything. The use of a batter's background has been standard in baseball (as well as cricket where they are called "sight screens") since at least the late 1800s.One example of a batter's background is the black area in center field of the first Yankee Stadium. At one time there were seats in that section, but because of distractions the seats were removed and the area was painted black.
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batter's box A rectangle on either side of home plate in which the batter must be standing for fair play to resume. A foot and a hand out of the box are not sufficient to stop play (although pitchers will usually respect a batter's wish to step out of the box). The umpire must grant the batter a timeout before play is stopped.
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battery The pitcher and catcher considered as a single unit, who may also be called batterymen or batterymates of one another. The use of this word was first coined by Henry Chadwick in the 1860s in reference to the firepower of a team's pitching staff and inspired by the artillery batteries then in use in the American Civil War. Later, the term evolved to indicate the combined effectiveness of pitcher and catcher.
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battery mates A pitcher and catcher from the same team. See "battery".
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batting average Batting average (BA) is the average number of hits per at-bat (BA=H/AB). A perfect batting average would be 1.000 (read: "one thousand"). A batting average of .300 ("three hundred") is considered to be excellent, which means the best hitters fail to get a hit in 70% of their at-bats. Even the level of .400, which is outstanding and rare (last achieved at the major league level in 1941), suggests "failure" 60% of the time. Bases on balls are not counted in calculating batting average. This is part of the reason OBP is now regarded by "figger filberts" as a truer measure of a hitter's worth at the plate. In 1887, there was an experiment with including bases-on-balls as hits (and as at-bats) in computing the batting average. It was effectively an early attempt at an OBP, but it was regarded as a "marketing gimmick" and was dropped after the one year. It eventually put Cap Anson in limbo regarding his career hits status; dropping the bases on balls from his 1887 stats, as some encyclopedias do, put his career number of hits below the benchmark 3,000 total.
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batting practice The period, often before a game, when players warm up or practice their hitting technique. Sometimes refers to a period within a game when one team's hitters have so totally dominated a given pitcher that the game resembles a batting practice session. Referred to colloquially as well as abbreviated as BP.
battle When a hitter works the count, by being patient, perhaps by deliberately fouling off pitches that he can't get good wood on, he's said to be "battling".
bazooka A strong throwing arm. A gun, a cannon, a rifle.
BB A line drive hit so hard that a fielder has trouble catching up to it. The reference is to being shot from a BB gun.
"BB" is scorer's shorthand for a walk, otherwise known as a "base on balls". Walks are recorded under the "BB" column of a box score.
BBCOR An initialism for Batted-Ball Coefficient of Restitution, a standard that all non-wooden bats (both metal and composite) must meet in order to be approved for use in most amateur baseball leagues, such as U.S. college baseball.
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bean A pitch intentionally thrown to hit the batter if he does not move out of the way, especially when directed at the head (or the "bean" in old-fashioned slang). The word bean can also be used as a verb, as in the following headline: "Piazza says Clemens Purposely Beaned Him." beat out When a runner gets to first base before the throw, he beats the throw or beats it out. Akin to leg out. "Greene's throw to first base pulls Gonzalez off the bag and Norris Hopper is fast enough to beat it out before Gonzalez can get his foot back on the bag." beat the rap Occurs when a batter hits the ball on the ground with a runner on first and fewer than two outs. If the play has the potential of being a double play, the batter can beat the rap if he reaches first base before the throw from the fielder who recorded the putout at second base. The result of the play becomes a fielder's choice.
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behind in the count Opposite of ahead in the count. For the batter: when the count contains more strikes than balls. For the pitcher: vice versa.If the pitcher is behind in the count, he is in increasing danger of walking the batter. If the batter is behind, he is in increasing danger of striking out. "While he allowed only three hits, he walked five and pitched from behind in the count." belt To hit a ball hard to the outfield or out of the park, fair or foul. "Jones belts that one deep to left ... but just foul." The actual belt worn by a player as part of the uniform, usually mentioned in reference to the location of a pitch or a ball in play. "Benard takes a fastball, outside corner at the belt, called a strike", or "Grounded sharply into the hole at short--ranging to his right, Aurilia fields the belt-high hop and fires on to first; two away." bench "The bench" is where the players sit in the dugout when they are not at bat, in the on-deck circle, or in the field.
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"The bench" may also refer to the players who are not in the line-up but are still eligible to enter the game. "LaRussa's bench is depleted because of all the pinch hitting and pinch running duties it's been called on to perform tonight." bench jockey A player, coach or manager with the talent of annoying and distracting opposition players and umpires from his team's dugout with verbal repartee. Especially useful against those with rabbit ears. The verbal jousting is frequently called "riding"; hence the "rider" from the dugout becomes a "bench jockey". Riding opposition players enough to unnerve them but not enough to enrage them and provoke a fight is believed to be fast-fading in the 21st-century game. Major League Baseball players on the injured list are permitted to be on the bench but they are not permitted to engage in bench jockeying.
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big as a grapefruit When a hitter sees the pitch so well that it appears to be larger than its actual size, he may describe the ball as being "as big as a grapefruit". "After hitting a 565-foot home run, Mickey Mantle once said, 'I just saw the ball as big as a grapefruit'. During a slump, Joe 'Ducky' Medwick of the St. Louis Cardinals said he was 'swinging at aspirins'." big fly A home run.
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big inning The opposite mentality of small ball, if a team is thinking "big inning" they are focusing on scoring runs strictly through base hits and home runs, as opposed to bunts or other sacrifices. More generically, a "big inning" is an inning in which the offense scores a large number of runs, usually four or more.
Big Leagues A nickname for Major League Baseball big swing A swing of the bat that produces a home run. "Pinch runner Hernán Pérez came in for Martinez and Perez walked Dirks, setting the stage for Avila's big swing." bigs The Big Leagues, Major Leagues, "the Show". If you're in the bigs you're a big leaguer, a major leaguer.
bingle A single. A base hit that ends up with the hitter on first base. "Brown tried to stretch the bingle into a double, and was out, Monte Irvin to Frank Austin." (A rare usage nowadays.) blast A home run, normally one that is well hit.
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bleachers Bleacher seats (in short, bleachers) are uncovered seats that are typically tiered benches or other inexpensive seats located in the outfield or in any area past the main grandstand. The term comes from the assumption that the benches are sun-bleached. "Bleachers" is short for the term originally used, "bleaching boards". Fans in the bleacher seats are sometimes called bleacher bums or bleacher creatures.
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bleeder A weakly hit ground ball that goes for a base hit. A scratch hit. "Dunn walked to bring up Morra, who jumped on the first pitch he saw and hit a bleeder that didn't leave the infield, driving in Gradwohl." blistered A ball that is hit so hard that it seems to generate its own heat may be said to have been blistered. "Chapman then blistered a ball toward left-center, and Knoblauch raced back, moving smoothly, and made the catch with his arm outstretched." block the plate A catcher who puts a foot, leg, or whole body between home plate and a runner attempting to score, is said to "block the plate". Blocking the plate is a dangerous tactic, and may be considered obstruction (Official Rules of Baseball, Rule 2.00 (Obstruction)).
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bloop curve An Eephus pitch (q.v.); a trick pitch thrown like a slow-pitch softball pitch, with a high arcing trajectory and very little velocity (ca. 40-55 mph or less). Specifically, such a pitch thrown ostensibly as a curveball.
blooper A blooper or bloop is a weakly hit fly ball that drops in for a single between an infielder and an outfielder. Also known as a bloop single, a dying quail, or a duck snort.
A fielding error. Headline: "Red Sox roll White Sox after Contreras blooper".
An odd or funny play, such as when a pitcher throws the ball to the catcher after the batter has stepped out of the batter's box and timeout has been called -- perhaps hitting the catcher in the head with the pitch.
blow To blow a game is to lose it after having the lead. "We had the game in hand and we blew it." To blow a pitch ("by" a batter) is to throw one so fast the batter is unable to keep up (with it).
To blow a save is to lose a lead or the game after coming into the game in a "save situation". This has a technical meaning in baseball statistics.
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A hit, typically a home run: "Ortiz's Blow Seals Win." blow open To gain a commanding lead in a game, perhaps after the game has been very competitive or the score has remained tied or close. "Pirates Score Late To Blow Open Close Game Against Stony Brook." blown save A blown save (BS) is charged to a relief pitcher who enters a game in a save situation but allows the tying run to score. If the pitcher further allows the winning run to score, he is charged with both a loss and a blown save. If, after blowing the save, the pitcher's team regains the lead, the pitcher may also be credited with the win. The blown save is not an officially recognized statistic by Major League Baseball, but is recognised by the Rolaids Relief Man Award, which charges two points against a reliever's record for a blown save opportunity. It is often used on broadcasts to characterize the "record" of closers analogous to win–loss records of starters. "Jones has made 31 out of 34 saves" or "Jones has 31 saves and three blown saves." blowser Rhymes with "closer". A closer who seems to get more blown saves than saves.
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blue An umpire, referring to the typical dark blue color of the umpire's uniform. Sometimes used derisively in professional baseball, such as when complaining about a ruling, e.g.: "Oh, come on, Blue!" bomb A home run.
boner A boner is a mental mistake that changes the course of a game dramatically.
bonus baby A young player who received a signing bonus.
bonus baseball Extra innings. Most famously used by San Diego Padres (and former Boston Red Sox) announcer Don Orsillo. Also called "bonus cantos" by Yankees announcer Michael Kay.
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booted Made an error, kicked it – typically referring to a misplay on a ground ball. "Miguel Cabrera hit a ground ball to Alex S. Gonzalez, who booted the ball. Had Gonzalez fielded the ball properly, the Cubs could have ended the half-inning with a double play." bottom of the inning The second half or "last half" of an inning, during which the home team bats, derived from its position in the line score.
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bottom dropped out of it Sometimes said of a sinker or drop ball, implying that a pitch suddenly moved downward as if through a trap door. Ideally, the pitcher throws with the same familiar arm speed and release point only to have the "bottom drop out" at the last instant, leaving the batter wondering what happened.
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box The vicinity of the pitcher's mound. Baseball announcers will sometimes refer to a batted ball going back through the pitcher's mound area as having gone through the box, or a pitcher being removed from the game will be said to have been knocked out of the box. In the early days of the game, there was no mound; the pitcher was required to release the ball while inside a box drawn on the ground. Even though the mound has replaced the box, this terminology still exists.
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Also, the batter's box, the area within which the batter stands when hitting. The batter must be in the box for the pitcher to pitch.
box score Statistical summary of a game. The line score is an abbreviated version of the box score, duplicated from the field scoreboard. Invention of the box score is credited to Henry Chadwick.
BP batting practice.
Devotees of baseball research also sometimes refer to Baseball Prospectus as BP.
BR Bats right; used in describing a player's statistics, for example: John Doe (TR, BR, 6', 172 lbs.) brand new ball game When a team scores run(s) that bring the score up to a tie, it is said to be "a brand new ball game". The phrase was popularized by Hall of Fame Dodgers broadcaster Vin Scully.
breaking ball Any pitch that markedly deviates from a "straight" or expected path due to a spin used by the pitcher to achieve the desired effect. Some examples are the curveball, the slider and the screwball.
break one off To throw a curveball.
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break open the game When a team gains a multiple-run lead, perhaps in a single rally that expands their lead, the game may be said to be "broken open". "The Padres broke the game open with five runs in the fifth, thanks to three errors by the Cubs, who have dropped 12 of 14." bring To pitch; often used for a fastball: bring the gas, bring the heat, bring it.
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broken-bat An adjective referring to a play that originates with a batter's breaking his bat upon making contact with the ball.
Bronx Bombers A nickname given to the New York Yankees due to their ability to playing in a hitter-friendly ballpark.
bronx cheer A sarcastic cheer from the crowd; "raspberries".
browsing A batter who strikes out looking, especially if the batter did not move his bat at all. This term is mainly used by sports commentators.
brushback A pitch intentionally thrown close to a batter to intimidate him, i.e., to "brush him back" from the plate. Also a purpose pitch or chin music. Archaic usage: "a blowdown".
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buck and change A player batting between .100 and .199 is said to be batting "a buck and change" or, more specifically, the equivalent average in dollars (bucks) and cents (change). Example: A batter batting .190 is said to be batting "a buck ninety". Major league position players with a batting average this low will very likely be demoted down to AAA for seasoning or even released outright. See also Mendoza line.
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bug on the rug Phrase coined by Pittsburgh Pirates announcer Bob Prince in the 1970s. A basehit that skittered through the gap, particularly on artificial turf.
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Bugs Bunny change-up A change-up pitch that appears to arrive at homeplate so slowly that a batter can make three swings and misses on a single pitch. Whiff-whiff-whiff, three strikes and the batter is out. The reference is to Bugs Bunny, the animated cartoon character, who is depicted employing such a pitch in the cartoon Baseball Bugs. As Trevor Hoffman's changeup evolved into an all-world weapon, his pitching teammates were in awe of it, much like many hitters were. They liked it so much, they gave it a nickname. They called it the Bugs Bunny Pitch. 'You could swing at it three times and it still wouldn't be in the mitt', Andy Ashby said, bringing up the image of the famous cartoon. 'I swear, he could tell them it's coming and they still couldn't hit it.' bullpen The area used by pitchers and catchers to warm up before taking the mound when play has already begun. This area is usually off to the side along either the left or right base line, or behind an outfield fence. It is almost never in fair territory, presumably due to the risk of interference with live action. A rare exception was at New York's Polo Grounds where the bullpens were in the deep left and right center field quarter-circles of the outfield wall.
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A team's relief pitching corps (so named because the relievers are in the bullpen during games).There are varying theories of the origin of the term, discussed in more detail in the main article.
bullpen by committee A strategy by which a club does not assign relief pitchers to specific roles such as "closer", "set-up", or "long relief", and instead may use any reliever at any given time. At the major league level, this strategy is commonly used when the club's closer is unavailable.
bullpen session A regular activity for starting pitchers during a season.
bullpenning An infrequently used strategy that involves using a string of relief pitchers (some of whom, in this strategy, may be pitchers more often used as starters) in stints of no more than two innings instead of relying on one pitcher to work most of the innings.
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bump The pitchers mound. "Who's on the bump today?" bunt To deliberately bat the ball weakly to a particular spot on the infield by holding the bat nearly still, with one hand behind the sweet spot (q.v. under bat) and letting the ball hit it. Typically, a bunt is used to advance other runners and is then referred to as a sacrifice or a sacrifice hit or a sacrifice bunt. When done correctly, fielders have no play except, at best, to throw the batter-runner out at first base.
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Speedy runners also bunt for base hits when infielders are playing back. In such a situation, left-handed hitters may use a drag bunt, in which they start stepping towards first base while completing the bunt swing. Even the great slugger Mickey Mantle would drag bunt once in a while, taking advantage of his 3.1 second speed from home to first base. Currently, Ryan Zimmerman of the Nationals is notable in that he is a right-handed hitter who uses drag bunts successfully.
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bush league A slang term for play that is of minor league or unprofessional quality. The "bushes" or the "sticks" are small towns where minor league teams may operate. A "busher" refers to someone from the "bush leagues": see subtitle of Ring Lardner's first book, You Know Me Al: A Busher's Letters.
businessman's special A day game on a weekday.
bust him in To throw a fastball in on the hitter's hands. Also: tie him up, in the kitchen.
butcher A very poor fielder.
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butcher boy A strategy where the hitter first shows he intends to bunt, pulls back the bat when the pitcher begins the delivery, and takes a quick swing at the pitch. Generally used by weaker hitters such as pitchers. Greg Maddux was known for employing this tactic effectively in the early part of his career with the Chicago Cubs and Atlanta Braves.
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buzz the tower To throw a high fastball up-and-in to a hitter, typically with intent to back the hitter off the plate or make a statement. Also see brushback and purpose pitch.
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Cactus League The group of teams that conduct their pre-season spring training exhibition games in Arizona where the cactus grows in abundance. See also Grapefruit League.
caddy A caddy's sole function is to come in as a substitute in the late innings of a lopsided game to act as a defensive replacement for an aging power hitter or to pinch run.
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called up A Major League team may call up or promote a player from the minor leagues during the season to take a spot on its roster, often to replace a player who has been sent down to the minor leagues or else placed on the disabled list. Players who have been in the major leagues previously (and were sent down) may be said to be recalled rather than called up. After August 31, several minor leaguers may be called up to take a spot on the expanded roster.
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cannon A strong arm. Also, a gun.
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To throw strongly. Announcer following a play in which the shortstop fields a ground ball and throws hard to first: "Guillen cannons and gets him." can of corn A high, easy-to-catch, fly ball hit to the outfield. The phrase is said to have originated in the nineteenth-century and relates to an old-time grocer's method of getting canned goods down from a high shelf. Using a stick with a hook on the end, a grocer could tip a can so it would fall for an easy catch into his apron. One theory for use of corn as the canned good in the phrase is that a can of corn was considered the easiest "catch" as corn was the best selling vegetable in the store and so was heavily stocked on the lowest shelves. Another theory is that the corn refers to the practice in the very early days of baseball of calling the outfield the "corn field", especially in early amateur baseball where the outfield may have been a farm field. Frequently used by Red Barber, a variation, 'A #8 CAN OF GOLDEN BANTAM' was favored by Bob Prince, Pittsburgh Pirates' announcer. The phrase was also used by Yankee announcer Phil Rizzuto, Red Sox and then White Sox broadcaster Ken "The Hawk" Harrelson, and Blue Jays broadcaster and former manager Buck Martinez as voiced in the popular video game Triple Play 2000. Also, a phrase used to refer to something that is not challenging. Informally, can of corn may be used as a phrase to describe mild excitement, personal acknowledgement or recognition of significance.
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Captain Hook A manager who often takes a pitcher out of the game at the first sign of trouble. Sparky Anderson was perhaps the best example of a "Captain Hook" at the major league level. See hook.
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carve up When a pitcher quickly dispatches a batter with three or four pitches that the batter only whiffs at, the pitcher may be said to have "carved up the batter" – like a chef carving up a turkey. Headline: "How Buehrle carved up Tampa Bay with just one 90-m.p.h. pitch." cash in To knock in a runner who is already on base. "Lauren Rorebeck then cashed both runners in with a home run over the left field fence to tie the game at 7–7 with two innings to play." catbird seat A desirable or auspicious situation. Popularized by Red Barber, longtime broadcaster for the Brooklyn Dodgers. James Thurber wrote in his short story of the same title: "[S]itting in the catbird seat" means sitting pretty, like a batter with three balls and no strikes on him. The catbird is said to seek out the highest point in a tree to sing his song, so someone in the catbird seat is high up.
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catch up to a fastball As if a batter were running a footrace with a fastball, he's said to "catch up" to a fastball if his reaction time and bat speed are quick enough to hit a fastball by a power pitcher. "Our scouting reports indicate he can still hit and still catch up to a fastball. As long as he can catch up to a fastball, he's going to get the money." catcher's interference It is catcher's interference when the catcher physically hinders the batter's opportunity to swing at a pitch. In professional baseball, play continues and after continuous playing action ceases, the umpire calls time. The penalty is that the batter is awarded first base; any runner attempting to steal is awarded that base and all other runners advance only if forced. The manager of the offensive team has the option of keeping the result of the play. He will not be given the option by the umpires and must explicitly declare it before the play continues after awarding bases. The catcher is charged with an error. This is one of many types of interference call.
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caught looking From Open-site.org: A term used when the third strike is called on a batter without the batter attempting to swing at the pitch.
caught napping A baserunner who is tagged out because he wasn't paying attention to what the defensive players were doing is "caught napping". Often this involves a pickoff play in which the infielder sneaks up behind the runner and takes a throw from the pitcher or, less often, the catcher.
cellar Last place, bottom of the standings. A team that spends too much time in last place, especially over a stretch of years, tends to acquire the unflattering title of cellar dweller. SYNONYM: basement.
cement mixer A baseball pitched with the intent to break out of the strike zone that fails to break and ends up hanging in the strike zone; an unintentional slow fastball with side spin resembling a fixed-axis spinning cement mixer, which does not translate.
center cut From bronxpinstripes.com: A butcher's term for the best cut of beef. In baseball lingo, it is a fastball down the middle.
the chair Specifically regarding a batter: A seat on the bench, as opposed to reaching base or remaining in the batter's box. As in, "throw him the chair". The expression is an encouragement to the pitcher to strike out the batter, sending him back to the dugout, thus "throwing him the chair"—forcing him to sit down.
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challenge the hitter When a pitcher is aggressive and throws strikes, perhaps his best fastball, he may be said to "challenge the hitter". Akin to pounding the strike zone or attacking the strike zone. "Jared has outstanding stuff", Mee said. "The one thing I would like to see him do is throw more strikes and challenge the hitters. He has a lot of ability and when he is ahead in the count he's a very difficult guy to hit off of." change the eye level A pitcher "changes the eye level" of a hitter by throwing pitches at different heights in the strike zone. This is intended to keep the hitter off-balance or uncomfortable. "Changing the eye-level of a hitter is important because as you advance, it'll become more difficult for you to get a hitter to move his feet in the batters box – even by pitching inside – so the next option is to move the hitter's eyes." changeup A changeup or a change is a pitch meant to look like a fastball - but with less velocity - short for change of pace. A variety of this pitch is the circle change, where a circle is formed using the thumb and index finger on the last third of a ball. This causes the ball to break inside and down to right-handed batter from a right-handed pitcher, frequently resulting in ground balls. Also, a straight change - made famous by Pedro Martínez - can be utilized. The grip requires all fingers to be used in holding the ball, resulting in more friction, thus slowing the ball down tremendously.
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charge When an infielder runs towards a ground ball rather than wait for it to come to him.
Runs are said to be "charged" to the pitcher who initially allowed the scoring runner to get on base.
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charging the mound Charging the mound refers to a batter assaulting the pitcher after being hit by a pitch or in some cases after narrowly avoiding being hit. The first incident of a professional charging the mound has not been identified but the practice certainly dates back to the game's early days. Charging the mound is often the precipitating cause of a bench-clearing brawl and will most likely result in the batter's ejection.
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chase To chase (or chase after) is to swing at a pitch well outside of the strike zone.
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A pitcher who is removed from the game by the manager because he gave up too many runs is said to have been "chased from the game" or "chased from the mound" by the opposing batters. "Pettitte was chased from the game in the seventh inning following an RBI single by Willy Taveras and a two-RBI triple by Kazuo Matsui." A player or coach who is ejected from the game by an umpire can be said to be chased. "Martin was tossed by umpire Lee Weyer in the fourth game of the 1976 Series, seven years after Weaver was chased by Shag Crawford in the fourth game in 1969." chatter To verbally challenge or taunt to distract the opposing batter. Fans and players alike participate in chatter. "Heybattabattabatta" is an example of common baseball chatter.
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Chavez Ravine Nickname for Dodger Stadium. The ballpark was built in the late 1950s in a former residential neighborhood named Chavez Ravine.
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cheap run A run that comes about from luck or with little effort by the offensive team. Headline: "A Cheap Run for the Rays." Story: "Carl Crawford got lucky with that blooper down the line; wasn't a bad pitch from Jamie Moyer." check the runner When the pitcher or an infielder who fields a ball, looks in the direction of a runner on base and thereby causes him to not take as large of a lead as he would otherwise have taken.
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checked swing A batter checks a swing by stopping it before the bat crosses the front of home plate. If he fails to stop it in time, the umpire will call a strike because he swung at the pitch. Often the umpire's view of the swing is obstructed. If the umpire calls the pitch a ball, a defensive player such as the catcher or pitcher can ask the home plate umpire to ask another umpire whether the batter swung at the pitch. In such a case, the home plate umpire always accepts the judgment of the other umpire. "Basically, the Tigers tied the Sox in knots the entire game—or else they wouldn't have had as many checked swings as they did. Or as many strikes that they tried to sell to the umpires as balls." cheddar See cheese.
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cheese A fastball, particularly one that is difficult to hit. A fastball high in the strike zone is also called high cheese, and one low in the zone can be called cheese at the knees. 'Easy Cheese' refers to the seemingly effortless motion of a pitcher as he throws a fastball at very high velocity.
chin music A high and tight, up and in pitch meant to knock a batter back from home plate to avoid being hit on the chin. Also known as a brush-back or purpose pitch.
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Chinese home run An older term for a home run, often a high fly ball, that barely clears the fence at that part of the outfield closest to the plate. It was frequently used in reference to such hits at the Polo Grounds, former home of the New York Giants, which had notoriously short foul lines. Its use has declined since that stadium was demolished, and even further as it has been perceived as ethnically offensive.
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A secondary sense is that of a long fly ball, usually one that travels backward from home plate. This usage appears to be restricted to sandlot ball games in New England, where it may have evolved from a supposed "Chaney's home run", a backward foul by a player of that name who eventually won a game for the hitting team when the ball, the last one available, could not be found. The umpire then ruled that the other team failed to provide an adequate number of balls and had thus forfeited the game.
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chinker A blooper; a dying quail; a bleeder.
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chopper A chopper refers to a batted ball that immediately strikes the hardened area of dirt directly in front of home plate, causing it to bounce high into the infield. Batters who are fast runners can convert such choppers into base hits. Also a batted ball that bounces several times before either being fielded by an infielder or reaching the outfield. Former Braves broadcaster Skip Caray often whimsically called bouncers to third base when Atlanta was on defense as "a chopper to Chipper" in reference to long-time Braves third baseman Chipper Jones.
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choke up A batter "chokes up" by sliding his hands up from the knob end of the bat to give him more control over his bat. It reduces the power and increases the control. Prior to driving in the Series-winning hit with a bloop single in the 2001 World Series, Luis Gonzalez choked up on the bat. Thus he came through, and did not "choke" in the clutch.
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chuck Throw. A pitcher is sometimes referred to as a chucker or someone who can really chuck the ball. In San Francisco, sometimes the fans are referred to as battery chuckers, referring to several incidents where many fans threw batteries onto the field. These incidents date back at least to the early aughts in San Francisco, although there was at least one earlier incident involving Phillies fans.
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circle The on-deck circle, officially known as the next batter's box.
circus catch An outstanding catch, usually when a fielder has to leave his feet or go through contortions to make, resembling a circus acrobat in the process.
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clean hit When a batter hits a ball through the infield without its being touched by a fielder, he may be said to have a "clean hit". Similarly, if a batter hits a ball over an outfielder's head, he may have a "clean hit". "Tris truly loved to hit and would always get a thrill when getting a 'clean' hit that travelled over an outfielder's head." clean inning When a team pitches and plays defense without mental or physical errors or allowing the other team to score runs or advance runners easily. "I want to see clean innings", Cooper said. "This is a time when we should be seeing them – crisp, clean innings. Yet we're hitting guys [who] are trying to bunt, walking guys on four pitches ... This is not young kids doing this stuff. This is ridiculous. I don't care who it is. It shouldn't be happening. We've got to clean it up. I'd like to see some clean innings sooner or later. We should be throwing strike one, strike two, make some pitches. We're all over the place. We're not even close to the strike zone." cleanup hitter The fourth batter in the lineup, usually a power hitter. The strategy is to get some runners on base for the cleanup hitter to drive home. In theory, if the first three batters of the game were to load the bases, the No. 4 hitter would ideally "clean up" the bases with a grand slam.
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clear the bases A batter who drives home all the runners on base without scoring himself is said to "clear the bases". "Dikito's base-clearing triple sent the pro-Falcon crowd into a frenzy." climbing the ladder A tactic where a pitcher delivers a succession of pitches out of the strike zone, each higher than the last, in an attempt to get the batter to swing at a pitch "in his eyes".
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When a fielder makes an unusually high jump to catch a high line drive, as though he climbed an invisible ladder to make the catch clinic A dominant performance by one person or team. "David Price really put on a clinic out there, striking out the side." closer A relief pitcher who is consistently used to "close" or finish a game by getting the final outs. Closers are often among the most overpowering pitchers, and sometimes even the most erratic. Alternatively, they might specialize in a pitch that is difficult to hit, such as the splitter or the cut fastball.
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close the book One can "close the book" on a pitcher who has been replaced when his statistics for the game become final. If a relief pitcher enters the game with one or more inherited runners, and those runners eventually score, they still affect the statistics of the pitcher who allowed them on base (e.g., earned run average). Once all runners charged to a particular pitcher score or get put out, or the third out is made in the inning, then his statistics can no longer change (except his status as pitcher of record) and his "book" is "closed".
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clothesline See "throw a clothesline".
clubhouse A team's locker room, which may also include eating, entertainment, and workout facilities, especially at the highest professional level. The term "clubhouse" is also frequently used in the sports of golf and thoroughbred horse racing.
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clutch Good performance under pressure when good performance really matters. May refer to such a situation (being in the clutch) or to a player (a good clutch hitter, or one who "can hit in the clutch"); or to specific hits ("that was a clutch hit"). Most baseball fans believe that clutch hitting exists, but there is significant disagreement among statheads whether clutch hitting is a specific skill or instead just something good hitters in general do. An old synonym for clutch is pinch, as in Christy Mathewson's book, Pitching in a Pinch.
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cock-shot A belt-high, very hittable fastball, usually down the middle of the plate. As used by Bob McClure, former Red Sox Pitching Coach: "When you throw a cock-shot fastball just above the belt, right down the middle, you're hoping they don't swing. A lot of times, that gets hit out of the ballpark." collar Symbol of going hitless in a game, suggested by its resemblance to a zero, along with the implication of "choking"; to wear the collar: "If Wright doesn't get a hit here, he'll be wearing an 0 for 5 collar on the day." Also, to take the collar: "Cameron Maybin took the collar in his major league debut, striking out twice." Also, Bob Starr (sportscaster) who was a Major League baseball announcer for 25 years (1972-97), restricted his use of the term "wears the collar" only to players who struck out 4 times in a game.
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comebacker A line drive or ground ball batted directly back to the pitcher.
command The advanced skill of a pitcher's ability to throw a pitch where he intends to. Contrast with control, which is just the ability to throw strikes; command is the ability to hit particular spots in or out of the strike zone. Also see location.
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complete game A complete game (denoted by CG) is the act of a pitcher pitching an entire game himself, without the benefit of a relief pitcher. A complete game can be either a win or a loss. A complete game can be awarded to a pitcher even if he pitches less than (or more than) nine innings, as long as he pitches the entire game.
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complete game shut out A complete game shut out (CGSO) occurs when a pitcher throws a complete game and does not allow the other team to score.
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contact hitter A hitter who does not strike out often. Thus, he's usually able to make contact with the ball and put it in play. This doesn't mean he's necessarily a pitty-patty slap hitter. He may hit for power, but typically with more doubles/triples instead of home runs. Pete Rose, Tony Gwynn, and Wade Boggs are all excellent examples of contact hitters.
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contact pitcher See pitch to contact.
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contact play When a runner at third base is instructed by a coach to attempt to score as soon as he hears the bat make contact with a pitch, not waiting to learn what kind of contact has been made (fair ball or foul ball, fly ball or ground ball). In such a case, the runner is told to "run on contact". This play would typically occur when the game is close or the bases are loaded. More generally, "Baserunners 'run on contact' when there are two outs, since there is nothing to lose if the ball is caught or the batter is thrown out." control artist A pitcher who gives up very few bases on balls or has excellent command of his pitches. Also known as a control pitcher.
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cookie A pitch that is easy to hit. Conversely, in the case where the first pitch is a strike and the second pitch is a ball, the second may be the result of a pitcher's missing his spot; the pitcher responds by throwing a cookie to regain control.
Cooperstown A metonym for the Hall of Fame, located in Cooperstown, New York. A player or manager "on his way to Cooperstown" is one thought destined for induction into the Hall of Fame.
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corked bat A bat in which cork (or possibly rubber or some other elastic material) has been inserted into the core of the wooden barrel. Although modifying a bat in this way may help to increase bat speed or control by making the bat lighter, contrary to popular belief it does not impart more energy to the batted ball. A batter could achieve a similar effect by choking up on the bat or using a shorter bat. A player who is caught altering his bat illegally is subject to suspension or other penalties. The last such case in Major League Baseball involved the slugger Sammy Sosa.
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corners When runners are "at the corners", they are at first base and third base on the baseball diamond, with no runner on second base.
The "corners of the plate" are the inside and outside edges of home plate. Some pitchers live on the corners or just nibble on them. Others are skilled at "painting the corners".
corner outfielder The left fielder and right fielder are corner outfielders.
cornerman A corner infielder, or an infielder who plays third or first base.
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count The number of balls and strikes a batsman has in his current at-bat. Usually announced as a pair of numbers, for instance "3–0" (pronounced "three and oh"), with the first number being the number of balls and the second being the number of strikes. A 3–2 count – one with the maximum number of balls and strikes in a given at bat – is referred to as a full count. A count of 1–1 or 2–2 is called even, although the pitcher is considered to have the advantage on a 2–2 pitch because he can still throw another ball without consequence, whereas another strike means the batter is out. A batter is said to be ahead in the count (and a pitcher behind in the count) if the count is 1–0, 2–0, 2–1, 3–0, or 3–1. A batter is said to be behind in the count (and a pitcher ahead in the count) if the count is 0–1, 0–2, or 1–2.
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cousin A pitcher who is easy for a particular batter to hit.
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covering a base Part of the infielders' job is to cover bases. That is, stand next to a base in anticipation of receiving the ball from another fielder, then make a play on a baserunner who is approaching that base. On a force play or an appeal play, the fielder covering a base stands with one foot on that base when he catches the ball.
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When a fielder goes to make a play at a base that is not his position (usually because the fielder for that base is unavailable to catch the ball at that base because he is busy fielding the batted ball). A common example is when the first baseman fields a batted ground ball, but is too far from the base to put the runner out. The pitcher runs over to "cover" first base to take the throw from the first baseman (play would be scored as "3-1", meaning first baseman to pitcher).
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crack of the bat The sound of the bat hitting the ball. The term is used in baseball to mean "immediately, without hesitation". For example, a baserunner may start running "on the crack of the bat", as opposed to waiting to see where the ball goes.
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Outfielders often use the sound of bat-meeting-ball as a clue to how far a ball has been hit. As physicist Robert Adair has written, "When a baseball is hit straight at an outfielder he cannot quickly judge the angle of ascent and the distance the ball will travel. If he waits until the trajectory is well defined, he has waited too long and will not be able to reach otherwise catchable balls. If he starts quickly, but misjudges the ball such that his first step is wrong (in for a long fly or back for a short fly), the turn-around time sharply reduces his range and he will again miss catchable balls. To help his judgment, the experienced outfielder listens to the sound of the wooden bat hitting the ball. If he hears a 'crack' he runs out, if he hears a 'clunk' he runs in." Similarly, with metal bats, the outfielders have to learn to distinguish a "ping" from a "plunk".
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crackerbox A small baseball field considered to be friendly to power hitters and unfriendly to pitchers. A bandbox. (see: Baker Bowl) crackerjack A player or team with power and exceptional skill.
crafty Another term for a control pitcher. Greg Maddux was a crafty pitcher.
crank To hit a ball for extra bases, typically a home run. "Jeter cranked a homer to left to make it 6–5." Also, a turn of the century (19th century) euphemism for baseball spectators, referring to the cranking of the turnstiles as they pass into the ballpark.
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crash A method of defending against a bunt in which the first and third basemen charge towards the batter to field the ball, the second baseman covers first base, and the shortstop covers second or third, depending on where the lead runner is going. May also refer more generally to the action of any infielder charging towards the batter on a bunt.
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crooked number A number other than a zero or a one, referring to the appearance of the actual number. A team which is able to score two or more runs in an inning is said to "hang a crooked number" on the scoreboard or on the pitcher.
creature A home run that is clearly going out as soon as it is hit. It is referred to in this manner because it is disturbing to the pitcher like some type of creature.
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crossed up When a catcher calls for the pitcher to throw one type of pitch (e.g., a fastball) but the pitcher throws another (e.g., a curveball), the catcher has been crossed up. This may lead to a passed ball, allowing a runner on base to advance. "Barrett's passed ball allowed the last of three runs to score in the fifth as the Reds increased their lead to 7–2. Williams' pitch crossed him up. 'I was looking for a sinker and it cut away from me', Barrett said. 'I had a play at the plate, but my shin guard stuck in the grass. It was a frustrating day.'" When a batter has been set up to expect a certain type of pitch but instead receives a different one, he may be crossed up, perhaps leading to a weakly hit ball or a swing and a miss.
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crowd the hitter When a pitcher throws the ball toward the inside part of the plate, he may be trying to "crowd the hitter" by making it difficult for him to extend his arms and get a full swing at the pitch.
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crowd the plate When a batter sets his stance extremely close to the plate, sometimes covering up part of the strike zone. This angers pitchers and, if done repeatedly, can lead to a brush-back pitch or even a beanball being thrown at the batter to clear the plate. "I am fully aware that when you crowd the plate, you're going to get a high heater." crush the ball A batter who hits a ball extremely hard and far might be said to crush the ball, as if he had destroyed the baseball or at least changed its shape. Related expressions are crunched the ball or mashed the ball. Indeed, a slugger is sometimes described as a masher. Illustration: "Though the 25-year-old has impressed with two homers in five games, he's more of a pure hitter than a masher." Other types of baseball destruction include knocking the stuffing out of the ball and knocking the horsehide [cover] off the ball.
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cue the ball When a ball is hit off the end of the bat, the batter may be said to have "cued the ball" (as if he hit it with a pool cue). "Kendrick took third on a broken-bat ground-out and scored on a cued grounder to first base by Ryan Shealy ..." cup of coffee A short time spent by a minor league player at the major league level. The idea is that the player was there only long enough to have a cup of coffee. It can also be used to describe a very brief stay (less than a season) with a major league club.
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curveball A pitch that curves or breaks from a straight or expected flight path toward home plate. Also called simply "a curve".
cut A swing of the bat.
To be removed from the roster or from the team.
cut fastball A cut fastball or cutter is a fastball that has lateral movement. A "cut fastball" is similar to a slider that is more notable for its speed than its lateral movement.
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cut down on his swing When a batter reduces the amplitude of his swing, either by choking up on the bat or just by starting his swing less far behind his head, he "cuts down on his swing", thereby helping him to get his bat around faster. Also "shorten his swing". "Guerrero swung so hard during an 0-for-5 night Tuesday he looked as if he might come right out of his spikes. So, Hatcher suggested Wednesday that Guerrero widen his stance slightly, a move that forces hitters to cut down on their swing a bit." cut the ball off When a ball is hit in the gap between outfielders, a fielder often has to make a choice whether to run toward the fence to catch or retrieve the ball or to run toward the ball and try to field it before it gets by him and reaches the fence. In the latter case, he's said to "cut the ball off" because he's trying to shorten the path of the ball. "When Granderson drifted towards left-center field on Carlos Peña's fifth-inning line drive, he wasn't heading that direction to make a catch. He was preparing to field it on the bounce. 'I was actually getting into position to cut the ball off', Granderson said after the Tigers' 11–7 loss to the Rays Monday afternoon. 'I didn't think I was going to have a chance to catch it.' " cut-off A defensive tactic where a fielder moves into a position between the outfielder who has fielded the batted ball and the base where a play can be made. This fielder is said to "cut off" the throw or to be the "cut-off man". This tactic increases accuracy over long distances and shortens the time required to get a ball to a specific place. It also gives the cut-off man the choice of putting out a trailing runner trying to advance on the throw if he thinks it impossible to make the play at home. Missing the cut-off (man) is considered a mistake by an outfielder (though not scored as an error) because it may allow a runner to advance or to score.
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cut-off man A fielder who "cuts off" a long throw to an important target. Often the shortstop, second baseman, or first baseman will be the "cut-off man" for a long throw from the outfield to third base or home plate. "Hit the cut-off man" is a common admonition from a coach.
cycle See hit for the cycle.
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daisy cutter Old-fashioned term for a hard-hit ground ball, close enough to the grass to theoretically lop the tops off any daisies that might be growing on the field.
dance The erratic movement of a well-thrown knuckleball. "Hopefully his knuckler doesn't dance, and hangs a little, or we're in trouble." dark one A pitch that is difficult to see, much less hit. "Throw him the dark one" is an encouragement to the pitcher, typically given with two strikes, to throw a strike past the batter.
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dead arm When a normally effective or dominant pitcher seems unable to throw as hard as he usually does, he may be said to have a "dead arm". "If you have watched the radar gun when Carlos Zambrano has pitched this month, you know something's not right. The problem, the Cubs right-hander said Saturday, is that he's going through a 'dead arm' phase." dead ball The ball becomes "dead" (i.e., the game's action is stopped) after a foul ball and in cases of fan or player interference, umpire interference with a catcher, and several other specific situations. When the ball is dead, no runners may advance beyond bases they are entitled to, and no runners may be put out. The ball becomes "live" again when the umpire signals that play is to resume.
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dead-ball era The period between 1903 and 1918, just prior to the Live Ball Era, when the composition of the baseball along with other rules tended to limit the offense, and the primary batting strategy was the inside game. Hitting a home run over the fence was a notable achievement.
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dead pull hitter A pull hitter is a batter who generally hits the ball to the same side as which he bats. That is, for a right-handed batter, who bats from the left side of the plate, will hit the ball to left field. Hitters are often referred to as dead pull if they rarely do anything other than pull the ball. A contemporary example of a dead pull hitter is Jason Giambi.
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dead red If a batter is "sitting/looking dead red" on a pitch, this means he was looking for a pitch (typically a fastball), and received it, usually hitting a home run or base hit.
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deal Delivery of a pitch, commonly used by play-by-play announcers as the pitcher releases the ball, e.g., "Smith deals to Jones." Pitching effectively, e.g., "Smith is really dealing tonight." decided in the last at bat A team's games "decided in the last at bat" are those with a winning team scoring the go-ahead or winning run in its last offensive inning. In this case, "at bat" is the team's time at the plate, constituting three outs (not to be confused with an individual at bat). See also walk-off.
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deep in the count Whenever a third ball has been called, (3-0, 3-1, or 3-2 count), the situation favors the batter. "In his fourth start after missing two months following elbow surgery, Robertson (2-2) went deep in the count against many hitters but allowed just five hits and two earned runs in five innings." defensive efficiency rating A sabermetric concept: the rate at which balls put into play are converted into outs by a team's defense. An analogous concept is used in the analysis of other team sports, including basketball and football. It is figured this way in baseball: 1-(((H+ROE)-HR)/(PA-(SO+HBP+HR))) where H=Hits allowed, ROE=opposing team's reached base on error, HR=home runs allowed, PA=opposing team's number of plate appearances, SO=team's pitching strikeouts, and HBP=pitcher's hit-by-pitch.
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defensive indifference When the defense allows a baserunner to advance one or more bases. The runner then does not get credit for a stolen base because the base was "given" not "stolen". The defense may allow this in the ninth inning with a large lead, where the focus is on inducing the final batters to make outs.
deliver To deliver is to pitch. Announcer: "Koufax delivers ... Strike three!!!" Delivery is the basic arm angles of pitchers, e.g., overhand delivery, sidearm delivery. This is in contrast to cricket, in which the term "delivery" is akin to type of pitch in baseball.
designated for assignment A process that allows a player to be removed from his team's 40-man roster.
designated hitter The designated hitter (DH) is a player who permanently hits in the place of a defensive player (typically the pitcher) and whose only role in the game is to hit. The American League has used the DH since 1973, while the National League did not permanently adopt the role until 2022.
deuce A curveball, because the catcher's sign is usually made by extending the first two fingers.
A double play.
From playing cards, where the "2" card is conventionally called the "deuce".
deuces wild When a large quantity of the number "2" appears on the scoreboard at the same time: 2 baserunners, 2 outs, 2 balls and 2 strikes on the batter. Derived from the poker phrase "deuces are wild". Often used by Hall of Fame broadcaster Vin Scully.
DFA An abbreviation of designated for assignment.
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DH Designated hitter dial long distance To hit a home run. Headline: "Sox Sluggers Dial Long Distance—Ramirez, Ortiz Each Crank Two-Run Homers." The phrase is sometimes stated as "Dial 9 for long distance." dialed up Referring to a fastball. "He dialed up that pitch." diamond The layout of the four bases in the infield. It's actually a square 90 feet (27 m) on each side, but from the stands it resembles a parallelogram or "diamond".
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die A fly ball is said to die if it travels a shorter distance from home plate than initially expected due to wind or other aerodynamic factors. Not to be confused with dead ball.
dig it out To field a ball on or near the ground. Usually a first baseman taking a low throw from another infielder. To "dig it out of the dirt".
To run hard through first base on a close ground ball play in an attempt to beat the throw.
dinged (up) Injured; often used in reference to persistent minor injuries.
dinger A home run.
dong A home run.
dirt-nap To trip or fall in the outfield or on the base paths. A blown save may also be referred to as a dirt-nap.
disabled list A means by which Major League teams may temporarily remove injured players from their active roster. Another player can then be called up as a replacement during this time. The term "disabled list" was replaced by "injured list" prior to the 2019 MLB season.
dish The Hitter (Batter) stands off the dish [Home Plate].
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Home plate. "The catcher settles in behind the dish." A pitch, particularly a good one. "Here comes the dish (the pitch)", or "He's really dishing it (pitching well) tonight." diving over the plate When a batter tends to lean in toward the plate so he can more easily hit a ball that is on the outside of the strike zone, he is said to be "diving over the plate" or "diving for the pitch". To protect the strike zone, a pitcher may respond to this by pitching the ball inside, perhaps with a "purpose pitch". "Now Glavine has an equalizer with his cutter. He can bore it into the hands of righthanders to keep them from diving over the plate with impunity at his sinker and changeup." DL The disabled list. Sometimes used as a verb, as in "Wood was DL'ed yesterday." doctoring the ball Applying a foreign substance to the ball or otherwise altering it in order to put an unnatural spin on a pitch. Examples: By applying Vaseline or saliva (a spitball), or scuffing with sandpaper, emery board (an emery ball), or by rubbing vigorously to create a shiny area of the ball (a shineball). All of these became illegal beginning in the 1920 season, helping to end the dead-ball era. (Official Rules of Baseball, Rule 8.02(a).) In practice, there are ambiguities about what kinds of things a pitcher can legally do.A number of famous cases of doctoring the bat have also occurred in the Major Leagues. See corked bat.
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dot A slang term for the pitcher hitting the batter with a pitched ball (knockdown pitch), either intentionally or accidentally. If a player "shows up" a pitcher (taking a long time to circle the bases or having an excessive celebration after a home run), if an important player on a team is struck by a pitch, or a player violates of one of baseballs unwritten rules, the offending player can expect to get "dotted" the next time he is at bat as a form of intimidation or correction of the perceived offense. Another of the "unwritten rules" is the "dotting" done by the pitcher should be below chest level on the batter to minimize risk of injury as a higher pitch risks injuries to the hands or even the head. Pitching higher is known as "head hunting" or "buzzing the tower", and puts the pitcher at risk of actual violence by the other team.
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When a pitcher is throwing strikes on the corners of the strike zone, it is said he is dotting the corners.
double A hit where the batter makes it safely to second base before the ball can be returned to the infield. Also a two-base hit.
double clutch When a fielder – usually an infielder or a catcher – draws his arm back twice before throwing he's said to "double clutch". This hesitation often leads to a delayed or late throw, allowing runners to advance a base. The term is borrowed from a method of shifting gears on an automotive vehicle.
double parked A pitcher who is getting a lot of quick outs. Implies that he has parked his car illegally and is trying to get back to it and avoid a ticket, and this is why he is keen to get outs quickly.
double play A play by the defense where two offensive players are put out as a result of continuous action resulting in two outs. A typical example is the 6-4-3 double play.
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The double play combination (or DP combo) on a team consists of the shortstop and the second baseman, because these players are the key players in a 6-4-3 or 4-6-3 double play. They are also sometimes called sackmates because they play either side of second base (also known as second sack).'Roll a bump' is a colloquial east coast slang for turning a 1-6-3 double play or a 1-4-3 double play.
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double play depth A defensive tactic that positions the middle infielders to be better prepared for a double play at the expense of positioning for a hit to the third-base side.
double steal Two runners attempt to simultaneously steal a base. Typically this is seen when runners who are on first and second make an attempt to steal second and third. Another common example is when a runner on first steals second, enticing the catcher to throw down to second so the runner on third can then steal home.
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double switch The double switch is a type of player substitution that allows a manager to make a pitching substitution and defensive (fielding) substitution while at the same time improving the team's offensive (batting) lineup. This is most effectively used when a pitcher needs to be replaced while his team is on defense, and his turn to bat is coming up in his team's next offensive try. Rather than replace the pitcher with another pitcher, a position player (one who recently batted in his team's last offensive try) is replaced with a new pitcher, and the outgoing pitcher is replaced by a player able to play the position of the outgoing position player. The two subs then trade to their natural defensive roles but keep the batting order positions of those they replaced so that when the team next comes up to bat, it is the newly subbed position player who hits during the turn of the vacated pitcher, and the new pitcher does not have to hit until the outgoing position player's turn comes again. The double switch is primarily used by leagues that do not use designated hitters, such as Japan's Central League, or the National League prior to 2022.
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double up When a runner becomes the second out in a double play, he may be said to have been doubled up (or doubled off). This could be a batter who has hit into a double play or a runner who is caught off base when a fielder catches a ball and throws behind the runner to a fielder who touches the base to complete a double play (hence "doubling up" the runner).
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A team that wins a doubleheader may be described as having doubled up their opponent: "Royals double up Blue Jays". Also refers to winning by exactly double the amount of runs of the opponent, such as an 8–4 or 6–3 score.
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doubleheader When two games are played by the same two teams on the same day. When the games are played late in the day, they are referred to as a "twilight-night" or "twinight" doubleheader. When one game is played in the afternoon and one in the evening (typically with separate admission fees), it is referred to as a "day-night" doubleheader. A doubleheader can also be referred to as a Twinbill. In minor league and college baseball, doubleheader games are often scheduled for seven innings rather than the standard nine for a regulation game.
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According to the Dickson dictionary, the term is thought to derive from a railroading term for using two joined engines (a "double header") to pull an exceptionally long train.
doubles hitter A gap hitter.
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"down" Put out. "One down" means one out has been made in the inning (two more to go in the inning). "One up (and) one down" means the first batter in the inning was out. "Two down" means two outs have been made in the inning (one more to go). "Two up (and) two down": the first two batters of the inning were retired (made outs). "Three up, three down": side retired in order.
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down the line On the field near the foul lines, often refers to the location of batted balls.
down the middle Over the middle portion of home plate, often refers to the location of pitches. Also referred to as down the pipe, down the pike, down Main Street, down Broadway, and, in Atlanta, down Peachtree. Very different from up the middle.
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down the stretch When a team is approaching the end of the season in pursuit of the pennant or championship, it is heading down the stretch. Perhaps this derives from horse racing or automobile racing in which competitors come out of the final turn of the track and are heading down the home stretch toward the finish line. "Detroit provided more than enough offense for Fister, who was terrific down the stretch after the Tigers acquired him in a trade with Seattle shortly before the July 31 deadline." DP combo A slang term for a shortstop and second baseman combination, as primary executors of double plays. They are also occasionally referred to as sackmates. Generally speaking, only the best sets of middle infielders get called DP combos.
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drag bunt A bunt in which a left-handed hitter lays down a bunt out of the reach of the pitcher and toward the right side of the infield, in hopes that he will safely reach first base. Often such a bunt has an element of surprise to take advantage of the batter's speed and the fact that the first baseman and second baseman are playing their positions back. The batter may even take a stride toward first base as he bunts the ball, thereby appearing to drag the ball with him as he runs toward first base.
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draw A batter who gets called balls is sometimes said to have "drawn a ball" or "drawn a walk". "After a brief pause to put specially marked baseballs in play, Bonds drew ball one and ball two – with boos raining down on VandenHurk - before a called first strike. Then, the 96 mph fastball was gone – a drive estimated at 420 feet." drawn in When the outfield plays closer to the infield to prevent fly balls from dropping between them and the infielders, they are said to be "drawn in". This typically happens when the game is close in the final inning, and with less than two outs, and the defensive team wants to prevent the offense from getting base hits that might score the winning run (while conceding that a long fly ball might score a run even if the ball is caught in the outfield).
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The infield may also be drawn in if there is a runner on third base with less than two outs, so that the infielders may field a ground ball and attempt to throw out the runner at the plate.
A single infielder, typically the third baseman or the first baseman may also play "in" when it's anticipated that a batter may attempt to make a sacrifice bunt.
dribbler A poorly hit grounder that gains little distance and consists of several hops; sometimes used synonymously with tapper drilled Hit by a pitch, plunked.
drive A line drive (noun).
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To hit a line drive (verb). "Magglio drove the ball to center." To make hits that produce RBIs. "Tejada drove him home from second." "Ramirez drove in three." drop To lose a game. "Tigers drop fourth in a row in loss to Blue Jays." To beat another team is also to drop them. Headline: "Dodgers one win from clinching playoff berth after dropping Nationals." Bat drop.
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drop ball A sinkerball. Also known as a dropper or el droppo.
Some extreme 12-to-6 curveballs are also referred to as "drop balls", since they start high and dive as they reach the plate.
drop off the table A pitched ball, usually a curveball, that breaks extremely sharply.
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dropped third strike A dropped third strike occurs when the catcher fails to cleanly catch a pitch which is a third strike (either because the batter swings and misses it or because the umpire calls it). The pitch is considered not cleanly caught if the ball touches the dirt before being caught, or if the ball is dropped after being caught. On a dropped third strike, the strike is called (and a pitcher gets credited with a strike-out), but the umpire indicates verbally that the ball was not caught, and does not call the batter out. If first base is not occupied at the time (or, with two outs, even with first base occupied), the batter can then attempt to reach first base prior to being tagged or thrown out. Given this rule, it is possible for a pitcher to record more than three strike-outs in an inning.
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duck snort A softly hit ball that goes over the infielders and lands in the outfield for a hit. Originally called a "duck fart", the term was popularized by White Sox announcer Hawk Harrelson to make it more family friendly.
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ducks on the pond Runners on second or third base, but especially when the bases are loaded. "His batting average is .350 when there are ducks on the pond." due A batter is said to be "due" when he's been in a hitting slump, but he usually hits for a fair or better average. Example: "Paul Konerko is 0-for-3 today, he's due for a hit." This is a baseball version of the Gambler's fallacy.
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dugout The dugout is where a team's bench is located. With the exception of relief pitchers in the bullpen, active players who are not on the field watch the play from the dugout. A dugout is the area being slightly depressed below field level, as is common in professional baseball. There is typically a boundary, often painted yellow, defining the edges of the dugout, to help the umpire make certain calls, such as whether an overthrown ball is considered to be "in the bench" or not. The rule book still uses the term bench, as there is no requirement that it be "dug out" or necessarily below field level. The original benches typically were at field level, with or without a little roof for shade. As ballpark design progressed, box seats were built closer to the field, lowering the height of the grandstand railing, and compelling the dugout approach to bench construction.
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dump A player who bunts the ball may be said to dump a bunt. "Polanco dumped a bunt down the third base line." See also lay down. A right handed hitter dumps a bunt to third and pushes the bunt to first. A left handed hitter drags the ball to first and pushes the bunt to third duster, dust-off pitch A pitch, often a brush-back, thrown so far inside that the batter drops to the ground ("hits the dust") to avoid it. Somewhat contradictorily, on the same play the pitcher may be said to have "dusted off" the batter.
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dying quail A batted ball that drops in front of the outfielders for a hit, often unexpectedly (like a shot bird). Also known as a blooper, a li'l looper, a chinker, a bleeder, or a gork.
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ERA See earned run average.
early innings The first three innings of a regulation nine-inning game.
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earned run Any run for which the pitcher is held accountable (i.e., the run did not score as a result of a fielding error or a passed ball). Primarily used to calculate the earned run average. In determining earned runs, an error charged to a pitcher is treated exactly like an error charged to any other fielder. Some pitchers, notably Ed Lynch, referred to earned runs as "earnies".
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earned run average In baseball statistics, earned run average is the mean of earned runs given up by a pitcher per nine innings pitched. It is determined by dividing the number of earned runs allowed by the number of innings pitched and multiplying by nine. Runs resulting from defensive errors are recorded as unearned runs and omitted from ERA calculations.
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earnie An earned run. "The unlucky loser was Carson Wheeler, who gave up six earnies in one plus innings of work." easy out A reminder to the defensive team that when there are two outs only one more is needed to end the inning, and therefore they should get the easiest out possible. "Let's go D, two away, get the easy out." An easy out is also a weak-hitting batter, usually at the bottom of the order.
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eat the ball The action of fielding a batted ball (usually cleanly or almost so) but holding on to it rather than attempting to make a throw to a base to retire a runner. This is usually done because the fielder believes there is little chance of retiring the runner and that it would be preferable to allow the runner to reach one base unchallenged rather than risk committing an error that might allow the runner to advance additional bases. The phrase is usually used only to describe the action of an infielder, catcher, or pitcher. "That slow roller didn't get past a diving Scutaro, but he decided to eat the ball rather than risk a throw to nip the quick-running Gardner." Also commonly used in the past-tense. "The charging third baseman Cabrera ate the ball after that great bunt from Juan Pierre." Eephus A very slow pitch with a high arcing trajectory. Invented by 1930s Pittsburgh Pirates hurler Rip Sewell, it is a part of Phillies pitcher Jose Contreras' repertoire; thrown very rarely to fool a hitter's timing. It is best used sparingly, because it can be very easy to hit without the element of surprise. Ted Williams said the game-winning home run that he hit off of Sewell in the 1946 All-Star Game was his greatest thrill in baseball.
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eject A player or coach who is disqualified from the game by an umpire for unsportsmanlike conduct. Synonyms include: tossed, thrown out, banished, chased, given the thumb, given the (ol') heave-ho, kicked out, booted, run, sent to the clubhouse.
elephant ear(s) When the lining of a player's pockets are sticking out of the pockets.
emergency hack A late and often awkward defensive swing at a pitch that usually appears to be a ball but breaks late into the strike zone.
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emergency starter When a pitcher who is normally a reliever or in the minor leagues is called on to start the game on short notice because the originally scheduled starter is injured or ill. Illustration: "With Chan Ho Park sidelined indefinitely by what was diagnosed as anemia, Mike Thompson is expected to get the call yet again as the emergency starter, arriving via Portland, where he has spent the past 10 days with the Triple-A Beavers." emery ball A baseball that has been scuffed by an emery board. A method for a pitcher to doctor the ball; illegal since 1920. Also known as a scuff ball.
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erase A runner who is already safely on a base is "erased" by being thrown out.
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error An error is a fielder's misplay which allows a batter or baserunner to reach one or more additional bases when, in the judgment of the official scorer, that advance could have been prevented by ordinary effort. An error is also charged when a fielder fails to catch a foul fly ball that could have been caught with ordinary effort. The term error can also refer to the play in which an error was committed. Because the pitcher and catcher handle the ball so much, some misplays by them are called a "wild pitch" or a "passed ball", and are not counted as errors.
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SYNONYMS: bobble, blooper, muff, miscue, flub, kick or boot ("Lopez kicked the grounder"; "Johnson booted it".) even count 1-1 or 2-2. See count.
everyday player A position player, as opposed to a pitcher who may play only every few days. Sometimes a talented prospect who is a good pitcher but an outstanding hitter will be encouraged to focus on playing another position and thereby become an everyday player to take advantage of his hitting.
A position player who's a regular in the starting line-up in virtually every game, as opposed to either: a platoon player who plays only against pitchers of the opposite hand.
a substitute who begins most games on the bench or only occasionally starts games to spell the regular starting player at his position. Sometimes these players are referred to as bench players or role players. They may also take on pinch hitting or pinch running assignments.
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Evil Empire A common nickname for the New York Yankees due to its wealth and winning by far the most championships. This nickname is used especially by fans of the Boston Red Sox and by fans of other teams to a lesser extent. Even some Yankees fans have been known to call themselves and their team the "Evil Empire" as a badge of honor.
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excuse me swing When a batter inadvertently hits the ball during a check swing. Contrast with swinging bunt.
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expand the strike zone When a pitcher gets ahead in the count, he "expands the strike zone" because the hitter is more likely to swing at a pitch that is at the edge or out of the strike zone or in some other location where he can't hit it. "Ideally, a pitcher is going to try and get ahead in the count and when this happens the pitcher has effectively 'expanded the strike zone' since the batter is now on the defensive and will be more prone to chase pitches outside the strike zone." expanded roster A Major League term for the larger roster of players that can be used under specific circumstances, such as when gaining an extra player on days of a double header or the previous (before 2019) controversial practice when major league rosters could expand from 25 to up to 40 players on September 1.
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extend the arms When a batter is able to hit a pitch that is at a comfortable distance from his body, he is said to have "extended his arms", which allows a full swing and hitting the ball harder. "J. D. Martinez has hit two homers in three career at-bats off Allen, who was trying to protect a 2–1 lead against the middle of Detroit's vaunted lineup. 'I was just overthrowing it', Allen said. 'I just didn't make pitches when I had to. One pitch – J. D. Martinez got extended on a fastball and hit it very hard.'" extra bases Any bases gained by a batter beyond first base on a hit. So doubles count for one "extra base", triples for two, and home runs for three. These kinds of hits are referred to as "extra base hits" and improve a batter's slugging percentage.
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extra innings Additional innings needed to determine a winner if a game is tied after the regulation number of innings (nine at the college/professional level, seven at high school level, six in Little League). Also known as bonus baseball or free baseball because paying spectators are witnessing more action than normal. It is sometimes, but not commonly, referred to as "overtime" as a play on other team sports.
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extra frames See extra innings. Also see frame.
extra out When a team makes a mistake on a defensive play that should have been an easy out, the team is said to have given its opponent an "extra out". "'There were a couple of innings where we gave them extra outs,' Wedge said. 'They may not be errors, but we're not making plays.'"
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fall classic The World Series—the championship series of Major League Baseball, in which the champion of the American League faces off against the champion of the National League. Typically, this series takes place in October, so playing in October is the goal of any major league team. Reggie Jackson's moniker "Mr. October" indicates that he played with great distinction in the World Series for the Yankees. Another Yankee, Derek Jeter, picked up the nickname "Mr. November" after he hit a walk-off home run in Game 4 of the 2001 World Series just after midnight local time on November 1. By comparison, Yankees owner George Steinbrenner's dubbing another of his players (Dave Winfield) "Mr. May" expressed his disappointment with that player's performance in the Fall Classic.
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The one time the Fall Classic was actually played in the summer was 1918, when the season was curtailed due to World War I and the Series was played in early September.
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The first time the Fall Classic extended in to November was in 2001. Jeter's walk-off homer was the first plate appearance in the month of November in MLB history; the 2001 season had been delayed for several days following 9/11, eventually pushing the start of the World Series into the last week of October – and the end of the Series in to November. The 2009, 2010, and 2015–17 World Series would subsequently have games in November.
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fall off the table A pitch is said to "fall off the table" when it starts in the strike zone or appears hittable to the batter and ends low or in the dirt. This term is mainly used for change ups and split-fingered fastballs, and occasionally for an overhand curveball.
fan To "fan" a batter is to strike him out, especially a swinging strike three.
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fan interference When a fan or any person not associated with one of the teams alters play in progress (in the judgment of an umpire), it is fan interference. The ball becomes dead, and the umpire will award any bases or charge any outs that, in his judgment, would have occurred without the interference. This is one of several types of interference calls in baseball.
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If a fan touches a ball that is out of the field of play, such as a pop fly into the stands, it is not considered to be fan interference even if a defensive player might have fielded the ball successfully. So the infamous case in Game 6 of the NLCS in which a Chicago Cubs fan, Steve Bartman, attempted to catch a ball in foul territory thereby possibly preventing Cubs left fielder Moisés Alou from making a circus catch, was not a case of fan interference.
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fancy Dan A fielder who puts an extra flourish on his movements while making a play in hopes of gaining the approval of the spectators. Wilbert Robinson was manager when Al López started out as a catcher in the majors. Robinson watched Lopez' style and finally hollered, "Tell that punk he got two hands to catch with! Never mind the Fancy Dan stuff." Lopez went on to eventually surpass Robinson's record of games behind the plate.
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farm team A farm team is a team or club whose role it is to provide experience and training for young players, with an expectation that successful players will move to the big leagues at some point. Each Major League Baseball team's organization has a farm system of affiliated farm teams at different minor league baseball levels.
fastball A pitch that is thrown more for high velocity than for movement; it is the most common type of pitch. Also known as smoke, a bullet, a heater (the heat generated by the ball can be felt), the express (as opposed to the local, an offspeed pitch), or a hummer (the ball cannot be seen, only heard).
fastball count A count in which the pitcher would be ordinarily expected to throw a fastball, such as 3–1, 3–2, or 2–1, as fast ball are usually easiest to locate in the strike zone. Occasionally a pitcher will pull the string by throwing an off-speed pitch.
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fastball happy When a pitcher relies too much on his fastball, perhaps because his other pitches are not working well for him during that game, he is said to be "fastball happy". This can get a pitcher into trouble if the batters can anticipate that the next pitch will be a fastball. "Andy is at his best when he trusts his breaking stuff and doesn't try to overpower guys. When he gets fastball happy he gets knocked around." fat pitch A pitch that is located exactly where the hitter is expecting it. The ball may look bigger than it actually is, and the batter may hit it a long way.
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feed To throw the ball carefully to another fielder in a way that allows him to make an out. A first-baseman who has just fielded a ground ball will "feed the ball" to the pitcher who is running over from the mound to make the force out at first base. An infielder who has fielded a ground-ball will feed the ball to the player covering second base so the latter can step on the base and quickly throw to first base to complete a double play.
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fencebuster A slugger.
field A baseball field or baseball diamond upon which the game of baseball is played.
A ballfield, ballpark, or stadium (e.g., Dodger Stadium, Wrigley Field, Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome).
To field the ball is to capture or make a play on a ground ball or to catch a fly ball.
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To take the field means the defensive players are going to their positions, while the other team is on the offense or at bat. "The Reds have taken the field, and Jose Reyes is leading off for the Mets." fielder Any defensive player (the offense being batters and runners). Often, defensive players are distinguished as either pitchers or position players. Position players are further divided into infielders and outfielders.
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field manager The head coach of a team is called the manager (more formally, the field manager). He controls team strategy on the field. He sets the line-up and starting pitcher before each game as well as making substitutions throughout the game. In modern baseball the field manager is normally subordinate to the team's general manager (or GM), who among other things is responsible for personnel decisions, including hiring and firing the field manager. However, the term manager used without qualification almost always refers to the field manager.
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fielder's choice A fielder's choice (FC) is the act of a fielder, upon fielding a batted ball, choosing to try to putout a baserunner and allow the batter-runner to advance to first base. Despite reaching first base safely after hitting the ball, the batter is not credited with a hit but would be charged with an at-bat.
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figger filbert An old-fashioned and more colorful way of saying "numbers nut", for a fan with a near-obsessive interest in the statistics or "figures" of the game. The first true "figger filbert" was probably Ernest Lanigan, who was the first historian of the Baseball Hall of Fame and prior to that was one of the first, if not the first, to publish an encyclopedia of baseball stats, in the 1920s. In the modern era, Bill James could be said to be the iconic "figger filbert". He is also a founding father of the field of baseball research called sabermetrics.
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fight off a pitch When a batter has two strikes on him and gets a pitch he cannot hit cleanly, he may be said to "fight off the pitch" by fouling it off. "Langerhans fought off one 3-2 pitch, then drove the next one to the gap in left-center to bring home the tying and winning runs." filthy A compliment for a pitcher, especially one who specializes in breaking balls with a lot of movement. Also for a particularly impressive breaking ball, especially one thrown for a third strike. Synonymous with "nasty". Bert Blyleven was an example of a pitcher with an absolutely filthy curveball.
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find a hole To get a base hit by hitting the ball between infielders. "The 13th groundball that Zachry allowed found a hole." find his bat When a batter has been in a slump perhaps for no evident reason, but then starts getting hits, he may be said to have "found his bat". "With the Tigers having found their bats for a night, they reset the series and put themselves in position to all but lock up the AL Central." find his swing When a batter has experienced a slump, he may take extra practice or instruction to "find his swing". Perhaps he has a hitch in his swing, or his batting stance has changed. Having "lost his swing", now he must "find it". This phrase is also used in golf.
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find the seats As if a ball leaving the bat is in search of a place to land, a ball that "finds the seats" is one that leaves the field of play and reaches the stands. It may either be a home run or a foul ball (out of the reach of the fielders).
fireballer A pitcher who throws extremely high-velocity fastballs, in excess of 95 miles per hour. A flamethrower.
fireman A team's top relief pitcher who is often brought in to end an offensive rally and "put out the fire". The term has been attributed to New York Daily News cartoonist Bruce Stark, who in the 1970s first depicted relievers for the New York Mets and Yankees as firemen coming in to save their teams from danger.
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fireplug A player, often one of small stature, who is known for his energy, extroversion, and team spirit – sometimes perhaps more than for his playing ability. "Morgan defied this mold by outworking everybody and employing his moderate athletic gifts to become one of the best all-around players of his era. He hit for power, he hit for average, he stole bases and manufactured runs and he was one of the toughest, smartest defensive second basemen the game has ever seen. He was a relentless fireplug, respected by opposing players and hated by opposing fans." first-ball hitter A hitter who likes to hit the first pitch in an at bat, especially if the hitter often gets a hit on the first pitch.
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fisted When a batter swings at a pitch that is inside and the ball hits the bat close to his fists (hands). "Following the top half of the first, the Bulls offense struck early when junior leftfielder Junior Carlin fisted a pitch back up the middle on a 1–0 count." five and dive A derogatory term referring to a starting pitcher who is unable to go beyond five innings before wearing out. In the current era in which managers are increasingly aware of the risk of injury to pitchers who have high pitch counts, and in which relief pitching has become a critical part of the game, starters achieve fewer and fewer complete games. Headline: "Vasquez Disputes Five-and-Dive Label".
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five o'clock hitter A hitter who hits really well during batting practice, but not so well during games. These were formerly known as "ten o'clock hitters" or "two-o'clock hitters" back when there were no night games.
five-tool player A position player who has great skill in all the tools or basic skills: hitting for average, hitting for power, base running and speed, throwing, and fielding. See tools for how baseball scouts rate these skills.
FL or F.L.
Abbreviation for Federal League, a major league that existed from 1914 to 1915. This would be the last "third Major League" to come into existence.
flag down To catch or knock down a line drive, as if flagging down a speeding train. "Cody Ross, who singled and moved to second on a ground-out, was stranded when Ramírez's scorched liner ... was flagged down by a diving Jones." flamethrower A fireballer.
flare A fly ball hit a short distance into the outfield. "Pudge hit a flare just out of the shortstop's reach." flashing the leather Making an outstanding or difficult defensive play. A player who regularly makes difficult defensive plays may be described as a "leather flasher". See leather.
flip The act of a fielder's softly tossing the ball to a teammate covering a base when the two are so close that making a regular overhand throw would waste time and/or unnecessarily risk an inaccurate throw.
A game played in the bullpen by relief pitchers. There are multiple rules and strategies that can be used.
floater A knuckleball. A pitch that may appear to the batter to float or bob up and down on its way to the plate.
fluke hit A base hit that results from a weakly batted ball or one that takes an odd bounce.
flutterball A knuckleball, a floater.
fly ball A ball hit high in the air. See also pop fly, infield fly, and ground ball.
fly ball pitcher A pitcher who tends to induce more fly balls than ground balls. Those pitchers are disadvantageous in that they allow more home runs than any other pitcher.
fly out An out that results from an outfielder catching a fly ball.
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A batter whose fly ball is caught in the outfield is said to "fly out". "Rodriguez flew out to center fielder Suzuki." (Past tense "flied" is acceptable.) force play When a runner must advance to another base because the batter becomes a runner and, as such, must advance to first base. In this situation, the runner is out if a fielder with the ball touches the base the runner is being forced to; this is considered a "force out". A play when a fly ball is caught and a fielder touches a base prior to the runner tagging up is not a force play, but an appeal play.
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forkball A type of split-finger fastball or splitter in which the fingers are spread out as far as possible. The ball drops sharply and typically out of the strike zone, maybe even into the dirt.
foul ball A batted ball that settles into foul territory.
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foul lines Two straight lines drawn on the ground from home plate to the outfield fence to indicate the boundary between fair territory and foul territory. These are called either the left-field foul line and the right-field foul line, or the third-base foul line and first-base foul line, respectively. The foul poles on the outfield walls are vertical extensions of the foul lines.
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Despite their names, both the foul lines and the foul poles are in fair territory. Any fly ball that strikes the foul line (including the foul pole) beyond first or third base is a fair ball (and in the case of the foul pole, a home run).
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Note that while the foul lines in baseball are in fair territory, just like the side- and end-lines of a tennis court, in basketball or American football the sidelines are considered out of bounds. In other words, hitting the ball "on the line" is good for the offensive player in baseball and tennis, but stepping on the line is bad for the offensive player in basketball and American football. The situation is slightly different in association football (soccer): the sideline and the goal line are inbounds, and the ball is out of play when it has wholly crossed the side line (touch line) or the goal line, whether on the ground or in the air.
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foul off Purposely batting a pitch foul with two strikes in order to keep the at-bat going, in part to tire the pitcher and in part to get another, different pitch that might be easier to hit. Luke Appling was said to be the king of "fouling them off". Such a hitter might also be said to be battling or working the pitcher.
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foul pole A pole located on each foul line on the outfield fence or wall. The left-field foul pole and right-field foul pole are used by umpires to determine whether a batted ball is a home run or a foul ball. The foul pole is a vertical extension of the foul line. The term "foul pole" is actually a misnomer, because the "foul pole" (like the foul line) is in fair territory and a fly ball that hits the foul pole is considered to be a fair ball (and a home run).
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foul tip A batted ball that is hit sharply and directly from the bat to the catcher's mitt and legally caught by the catcher. It is not a foul tip, as most announcers and journalists mistakenly use the term, if the ball is not caught by the catcher. In this case, it is simply a foul ball. It is also not considered a foul tip if it rebounds off something, like the ground, catcher's mask, the batter, etc. after being struck by the bat but before touching the catcher's mitt. A foul tip is considered in play, not a foul ball, and also counts as a strike, including the third strike (and is also considered a strikeout for the pitcher). It is signalled by the umpire putting his right hand flat in the air and brushing his left hand against it (imitating the ball glancing off the bat) and then using his standard strike call. If the out is not the third out then the ball is alive and in play (unlike on a foul) and runners are in jeopardy if they are trying to advance.
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four-bagger A home run. Note that the 4th "bag" is actually a plate.
four-fingered salute An intentional base on balls, from the manager's signal to direct the pitcher to issue one, or to direct the umpire to award the batter first base.
four-seam fastball A standard fastball, which does not necessarily break though a good one will have movement as well as velocity and location that makes it difficult to hit. The batter sees the four parallel seams spin toward him. A four-seamer. See two-seamer.
frame As a noun, a frame is half an inning (either the top or the bottom). Announcer: "Two hits, and two runs scored so far in this frame." Also a bowling term, as suggested by the resemblance of an inning-by-inning scoreboard to a bowling scoresheet.
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As a verb, framing [a pitch] refers to the positioning and/or movement of the catcher's mitt and body when he catches a pitch and the effect this has on the umpire calling a pitch a strike. The boundaries of the strike zone are clearly defined in the rules; however, with many major-league pitches traveling well in excess of 90 mph (140 km/h), or with "moving" pitches such as the curveball and the knuckleball, it is often difficult for an umpire to judge whether a ball went through the strike zone based solely on watching the ball, particularly at the boundaries of the strike zone. Consequently, umpires sometimes unofficially use the catcher's position and/or movement to help judge whether a pitch is a strike. Framing is a catcher's attempt to use this to his team's advantage. For example, on a pitch near the boundary of the strike zone, a catcher might move his mitt a short, subtle distance toward the strike zone within a split second after catching the ball, with the hope that the umpire will call a strike even if it did not go through the strike zone. Conversely, a pitch near the top of the strike zone might be called a ball if the catcher has to rise from his crouched position to catch it, even if it did go through the defined strike zone. Sabermetricians have developed metrics for how well catchers perform in framing pitches.
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free baseball Slang for extra innings. The fans get to see extra innings "for free".
free pass A base on balls. "Free" because the batter does not have to hit the ball to get on base. Also referred to as a "free ticket" and an Annie Oakley.
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freeze the hitter To throw a strike that is so unexpected or in such a location that the batter doesn't swing at it. "As Cashman spoke, Pettitte fired a strike on the corner, which froze the hitter." "But the right-hander reached in her bag of tricks and threw a tantalizing changeup that froze the hitter for the final out." friendly confines A nickname for Wrigley Field, home of the Chicago Cubs.
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frozen rope A hard-hit line drive. Also a strong throw from the outfield.
full count A count of 3 balls and 2 strikes; another strike will result in a strikeout, while another ball will result in a walk. At that point, only a foul ball will extend the at-bat.
full house Three of a kind (three balls), and two of a kind (two strikes): a full count. From the term used in poker. Sometimes called full boat. Instead of holding up fingers indicating the count, the umpire may hold up closed fists, implying "full".
Capacity crowd; all seats filled in the stadium. From the theatrical term.
fungo A fly ball hit for fielders to practice catching. It is not part of the game, but is accomplished by a batter tossing the ball a short distance up in the air and then batting it himself.
fungo bat A lightweight bat with a long, skinny barrel used to hit fungoes. It is not a legal or safe bat to use in a game or even in practice with a live pitcher, because it is too light.
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gamer A player who plays particularly hard (especially with a willingness to sacrifice his body for the play) and is prone to making the right play at the right time, often in big games. Also used to refer to an excellent piece of equipment, such as a glove or mitt.
gap The space between outfielders. Also alley. A ball hit in the gap is sometimes called a flapper or a gapper. "He's swinging the bat right now better than he has all year, and I'm hoping now some of them turns into gappers", Leyland said.
gap hitter Hits with power up the alleys and tends to get a lot of doubles. A doubles hitter.
gas A fastball. "Give him [the batter] the gas"; as in stepping on a car's gas pedal to accelerate.
gascan A pitcher who gives up runs in bunches or in untimely situations. Named as such because he'd be pouring gas over a fire.
gate receipts The gross ticket prices paid by all the customers who passed through the entrance gates for a game or a series. Also referred to simply as "the gate". "There's a big gate awaiting the champions ..." GEDP Abbreviation for game ending double play.
general manager The general manager (GM) runs the organization of a baseball team (personnel, finance, and operations). Normally distinct from the field manager and the club owner.
gem A very well pitched game, almost always a win, in which the pitcher allows few if any hits and at most a run or two. Headline: "Mulder Shakes Off Injury to Pitch Gem".
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get a good piece of it When swinging a round bat at a round ball, the batter hopes to hit the ball solidly in the center. When he does, he's said to "get a good piece of the ball". "'When you hit in the middle of the order, those are the situations you want', said Cabrera, who leads the major leagues with 116 RBIs. 'He threw me a fastball, and I got a good piece of it.'" Getaway Day Getaway Day (or Getaway Game) refers to the last game of a regular season series (usually on a Wednesday, Thursday, or Sunday afternoon) that sees the visiting team leave town ("get away") after its conclusion, either for the next stop on their road trip or for home. May also refer to the last day of a team's home stand. "MLB's new labor deal requires earlier start times on getaway days." Getaway Day lineup A starting lineup for Getaway Day that features backup players. Usually assembled by a manager so that his regular starers can enjoy a day's rest (especially if they had played the night before), though considerations such as the team's standing in the pennant race may preclude him from making such moves. "The San Francisco Giants completed a four-game sweep of the Colorado Rockies, even with a getaway day lineup taking the field." get on one's horse When a fielder (usually an outfielder) runs extremely fast towards a hard hit ball in an effort to catch it.
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get good wood To hit a ball hard. A batter who "gets good wood on the ball" or who "gets some lumber on the ball" hits it hard.
get off the schneid To break a scoreless, hitless, or winless streak (i.e., a schneid). According to the Dickson Baseball Dictionary, the term "schneid" comes to baseball via gin rummy, and in turn comes from German / Yiddish "schneider", one who cuts cloth, i.e., a tailor.
GIDP Statistical abbreviation for grounded into double play.
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glove A baseball glove or mitt is a large padded leather glove that players on the defensive team wear to assist them in catching and fielding. Different positions require different shapes and sizes of gloves. The term "mitt" is officially reserved to describe the catcher's mitt and the first-baseman's mitt. By rule, fielders other than the first-baseman and the catcher can wear only conventional gloves (with individual finger slots), not mitts. There is no rule requiring fielders to wear a glove or mitt, but the nature of the game makes it necessary. A fielder may have to catch a ball bare-handed, if he loses his glove in pursuit of a ball or finds himself at the wrong angle to use it.
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Most batters nowadays wear leather batting gloves to improve their grip and provide a small amount of padding. Base-stealing artists, especially those who practice the head-first hands-first slide, wear specialized sliding gloves.
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Players generally keep batting and sliding gloves in their pants pockets when not in use, and their fielding gloves in the dugout. At one time, players would leave their fielding gloves on the field; later they carried them in their pants pockets. This illustrates (1) how much larger and baggier uniforms were and (2) how much smaller the gloves were. The adage "two hands while you're learning" was a necessity in the early years, when gloves simply absorbed shock. The glove has since evolved into a much more effective "trap", and one-hand catches are now the norm.
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Jokes used in movies and cartoons notwithstanding, the rules forbid throwing the glove to "catch", slow down, or even touch a batted ball. When the umpire calls it, the batter is awarded an automatic triple (meaning all runners ahead of him are allowed to score freely); it is also a live ball, and the batter-runner can try for home. Similarly, it is against the rules to use one's cap as a glove, as "All the Way Mae" (Madonna) did in A League of Their Own. Note that it is only against the rules to actually touch the ball with a thrown glove or other equipment; there is no penalty if the ball is not touched.
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A player who is very skilled at defense is said to have a good glove.
GM An abbreviation for general manager.
go-ahead run The run which puts a team which was behind or tied into the lead. Used particularly with runners on base (e.g., "The Phillies have Jimmy Rollins and Shane Victorino on base down 4–2; Victorino represents the tying run and Chase Utley is the go-ahead run at the plate.").
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go deep To hit a home run. "Richie Sexson and Kenji Johjima also went deep for the Mariners." A starting pitcher who pitches past the 6th inning is said to "go deep into the game". "Against the White Sox on Thursday, Morrow's command wasn't there. He walked six batters in 5+2⁄3 innings, and despite coming one out shy of recording a quality start, he didn't prove yet he's able to pitch deep into games." go down in order When the defending team allows no opponent on base in a half-inning, thereby retiring the side facing the minimum three batters, the batting team is said to have gone down in order, the defending team is said to have retired it in order.
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go quietly When a team fails to mount a strong offense, such as going 1–2–3 in an inning, it may be said to have "gone quietly". "Outside of a walk to Mantle after Tresh's clout and a ninth-inning single by Pepitone, the Yankees went quietly the rest of the way." A player who retires without a lot of fanfare or complaining may be said to "go quietly".
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go the distance See go the route.
go the route A pitcher who throws a complete game "goes the route".
go yard To "go yard" is to hit a home run, i.e., to hit the ball the length of the baseball field or "ball yard".
going bridge One more way to say "hit a home run".
gold glove The major league player chosen as the best in his league at fielding his position is given a Gold Glove Award.
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golden sombrero One who strikes out four times in one game is said to have gotten a "golden sombrero". Three strike outs is called the "hat trick", while the rare five strike outs is called the "platinum sombrero." Only eight times has a player struck out six times in a game; this is called the "horn" (named by Mike Flanagan after Sam Horn who did this in 1991), "double-platinum sombrero," or "titanium sombrero." If it ever happens, Flanagan said a seven-strikeout game shall be called "Horn-A-Plenty." golfing Swinging at an obviously low pitch, particularly one in the dirt. Also used to describe actual contact with a pitch low in the zone.
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gone A home run. Announcer: "That ball is gone." Conversely, a batter who has just been struck out, especially by a power pitcher, as in "He gone!" An announcer may simply announce "one gone" or "two gone" to indicate how many outs have been made in the inning; likewise "one away" and "two away".
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good eye A hitter who has excellent awareness of the strike zone, and is able to lay off pitches that are barely out of the strike zone, is said to have a "good eye", "Ortiz and Ramirez are a constant threat, whether it's swinging the bats or taking pitches", Cleveland third baseman Casey Blake said. "They have a couple of the best swings in the game and a couple of the best eyes in the game ..." good hit, no field Said to have been the world's shortest scouting report, and often quoted in reference to sluggers such as Dick Stuart and Dave Kingman, who were notoriously poor fielders.
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good piece of hitting A situation where a batter puts the ball in play in a way that maximizes the result for his team. "Good pieces of hitting" tend to result in runs scoring and draining several pitches out of an opposing pitcher, especially in situations where the pitcher's team was looking for a decent amount of length.
good take An accolade given to a batter who does not swing at a pitch that is close to, but not in, the strike zone; most often said to a batter with two strikes (who is naturally tempted).
Goodbye Mr. Spalding! Exclamation by a broadcaster when a batter hits a home run. First uttered by an unknown broadcaster in the film The Natural. Spalding is a major manufacturer of baseballs.
goose egg When a team has zero on the scoreboard.
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gopher ball A gopher ball (or gopher pitch) is a pitch that leads to a home run, one the batter will "go for". Illustration from an on-line chat: "He was always that guy who'd go in and throw the gopher pitch in the first inning and he'd be two down." A game in which several home runs are hit by both teams may also be described as "gopher ball".
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got a piece of it When a batter hits a foul ball or foul tip, perhaps surviving a two strike count and remaining at bat, a broadcaster may say "He got a piece of it." got him Short for "got him out".
got to him early When a team's batters gets several hits and runs off of the opposing starting pitcher in early innings the batters are said to "get to him early".
got under the ball When a hitter swings slightly under the center of the pitched ball, thereby leading to a high fly ball out instead of a home run, he's said to "get under the ball".
grab some pine Go sit on the bench, used as a taunt after a strikeout. Popularized by Giants sportscaster Mike Krukow.
grand slam Home run hit with the bases loaded. A "grand salami" or a "grand ol' ding dong".
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grandstand play Showing off for the fans in the grandstands. Also called grandstanding. Not only players, but managers, owners, and politicians often play to the crowd to raise their public image. An example: "Tellem weighed in with a thoughtful back-page article in this Sunday's New York Times regarding the recent Congressional and mainstream media grandstanding over steroids." granny A grand slam. "Torii Hunter's game-winning grand slam was his 10th career granny and third career walk-off homer." Grapefruit League The group of Major League teams that conduct Spring Training in Florida, where grapefruit trees grow in abundance.
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great seats A sarcastic term for seats high in the bleachers, a long way from the playing field. The phrase was popularized by Bob Uecker in a series of TV commercials.
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green light Permission from the manager for a batter or runner to be aggressive. Examples include permission for the batter to swing away on a 3–0 count or for a runner to steal a base. An example: "Instead of the bunt sign, Tigers manager Jim Leyland gave Rodríguez the green light and he hit a three-run homer off Riske to give the Tigers a 3–2 win over Kansas City on Sunday." green monster The Green Monster is a popular nickname for the 37.2 feet (11.3 m) high left field wall at Fenway Park, home to the Boston Red Sox baseball team. The wall is 310 feet (94.5 m) from home plate and is a popular target for right-handed hitters. The seats on top of the Monster, installed for the 2003 season, are among the most coveted seats at Fenway.
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The Red Sox have spring training at JetBlue Park at Fenway South (informally, JetBlue Park) in Fort Myers, Florida. JetBlue is an exact copy of Fenway, including a full-sized Green Monster.
The Red Sox' mascot is "Wally, the Green Monster".
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groove a pitch When a pitcher throws a pitch down the middle of the plate ("the groove"). The result may be predictable. An example: "But in the third, with two out and a man at second and the Cards ahead 2–1, Verlander grooved a pitch that Pujols clobbered for a home run." ground ball A hit that bounces in the infield. Also grounder. A bunt is not considered a ground ball.
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ground ball with eyes A ground ball that barely gets between two infielders for a base hit, seeming to "see" the only spot where it would be unfieldable. Also seeing-eye single.
ground ball pitcher A pitcher who tends to induce more ground balls than fly balls. Often a manager will bring a ground ball pitcher in as a relief pitcher when there are men on base and less than two outs, hoping the next batter hits a grounder into a double play.
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ground-rule double Under standard ground rules, there are conditions under which a batter is awarded second base automatically. If a ball hit in fair territory bounces over a wall or fence (or gets caught in the ivy at Wrigley Field) without being touched by a fielder, it will likely be declared a double. If a ball hit into fair territory is touched by a fan, the batter is awarded an extra base.
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ground rules Rules specific to a particular ballpark (or grounds) due to unique features of the park and where the standard baseball rules may be inadequate.
guess hitter A hitter who primarily guesses what type of pitch is coming and where it will be located as their approach to hitting rather than just looking for a fastball and then reacting to off speed pitches.
gun A strong arm. Also, a cannon.
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To throw hard. Announcer (following a grounder and throw to first): "Guillen guns and gets him." gun down To throw out a runner. "Valentin was erased when he tried to steal second, though, and Posada gunned him down." gyroball A type of curveball with a severe break. Boston Red Sox pitcher Daisuke Matsuzaka is said to throw a gyroball. It was designed by a couple of Japanese scientists to reduce arm fatigue in pitchers. The result was a way to throw the ball with an extreme break. Whether such a special pitch really exists remains the subject of great controversy among experts of various pedigrees.
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hack To swing awkwardly at the ball. "As his son stood in the batter's box and hacked away, Wolpert came up with the idea of opening his own batting cage in Manhattan." Sometimes said of an aggressive hitter who would swing at any pitch within reach, whether high, low, inside, or outside. "An unrepentant free swinger who hacked at anything in the same area code as the strike zone, Puckett drew just 23 walks that year." Hall of Fame The Baseball Hall of Fame in Cooperstown, New York. Abbreviated HOF. In popular usage, the terms "Hall of Fame broadcaster" and "Hall of Fame writer" are often used to describe recipients of two annual awards, respectively the Ford C. Frick Award and J. G. Taylor Spink Award. Recipients of these awards are recognized in dedicated Hall exhibits, but are not considered actual Hall of Fame members.
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Hall of Very Good A tongue-in-cheek expression used to refer to players who had successful careers, but whose stats and/or overall performance are not good enough to put them into consideration for the Hall of Fame. Example of players said to be in the "Hall of Very Good" are Chris Carpenter, Lee Smith (who eventually earned Hall of Fame induction), and Mark McGwire.
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hammer To hit the ball hard, typically for extra bases. "Aaron hammered that pitch." The nickname of Henry Aaron—Hank "The Hammer" Aaron—second all-time in Major League career home runs.
A curve ball, usually of the 12 to 6 variety.
handcuff A hard-hit ground ball that bounces directly at an infielder is difficult for him to get his hands on – he appears to have been handcuffed.
A pitch thrown high and inside "handcuffs" a batter because he can't get his hands far enough away from his body to swing the bat.
handle Often it's said of a player who has not fielded a batted ball cleanly that he "couldn't find the handle on it". This suggests the fanciful notion that a baseball would be easier to hold onto if it had a handle.
hang A breaking ball that does not "break", or change direction, and so is easy to hit. A hanging curveball.
A pitcher may be hung with a loss if he is responsible for his team falling behind in runs and the team never recovers the lead.
A runner may be hung up if he is caught in a rundown.
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A runner may be hung out to dry if he gets picked off at first base, or if a hitter misses a hit-and-run sign and the runner is easily tagged out at second base. A player may be hung out to dry if his team treats him in an unexpected or disappointing way. (Story: "The Mets got what they needed from pitcher Al Leiter yesterday. Unfortunately, Leiter was hung out to dry again, done in by his team's anemic offense.") A team may hang a (number) on the opposing pitcher or his team by scoring that many runs. May use a literal number or an informal term such as a crooked number or a snowman.
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happy When a pitcher uses a particular type of pitch so much that he becomes less effective, he's sometimes said to be "happy" with the pitch – fastball happy or curveball happy, for example. "This article is a response, in part, to a Boston Globe sports rumor asserting that Josh Beckett has become 'Curveball Happy' and has changed his release point." hard hands A tendency to mishandle fielded balls. Also stone fingers. Contrast soft hands.
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hardball Baseball, as opposed to softball.
hat trick To strike out three times. Used jokingly, as the same term means to score three times in hockey and other sports. This term is also used to indicate someone who has hit three home runs in a game.
HBP Hit By Pitch.
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head of lettuce When a player breaks their bat after hitting the pitch, and the main portion of the bat (the barrel) lands within the infield, the broken portion can splinter into many pieces. (If the barrel lands either in foul territory or outside the established infield, the event is not a head of lettuce.) The term pays homage to other food-related baseball terms such as "can of corn", "high cheese", "in a pickle", etc. The original use of the term dates to 2006 when Joshua Githens first noted the likeness to striking a head of lettuce with the bat. "That bat exploded like a head of lettuce!" headhunter A pitcher who has a reputation for throwing beanballs.
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heart of the plate Middle of home plate. "Looking to go up the ladder, Hughes instead missed right over the heart of the plate just below belt high with a 95-mph fastball. As good hitters do, Vladimir Guerrero made him pay with a single up the middle." heat Also heater. A fastball.
heavy hitter A power hitter. A player who hits a lot of home runs or other extra-base hits. A batter with a high slugging percentage. A slugger. A term shared with the sport of boxing, referring to a fighter who scores a large number of knockouts.
help his own cause Said of a pitcher who knocks in runs as a hitter, thereby helping himself to earn credit for a win.
herky-jerky A pitcher with an unusual or awkward wind-up or motion, as if he's not in full control of his legs and arms, may be said to have a herky-jerky motion.
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hesitation pitch A pitcher who pauses in his wind-up, perhaps at the top of the wind-up, may be said to have a hesitation pitch. If this is part of his regular motion, it may be effective in throwing off the timing of the batter. If it's an occasional motion and used when there are runners on base, the pitcher is at risk of being called for a balk.
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hidden ball trick A very rare feat in which a fielder has the ball and hides it from a runner, tricking him into believing some other fielder has it or that it has gotten away from them. (There is no rule against such deception except that once the pitcher toes or stands astride the rubber, he must have the ball in his possession or else a balk will be called.) Any baserunner so victimized will be ribbed endlessly by his teammates for having been caught napping.
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high and tight A location pitch thrown above the strike zone and close to the batter.
high cheese A fastball thrown high in the strike zone.
high hard one A fastball thrown high in, or above the strike zone.
high heat A strike thrown high in the strike zone.
high let it fly; low let it go An adage about batting against a knuckleball pitcher. Fluttering knuckleballs are notoriously hard to hit, especially low in the strike zone.
hill The pitcher's mound.
hit The act of safely reaching first base after batting the ball into fair territory. Abbreviated as H, this meaning is synonymous with base hit. See also single, double, triple, home run, extra-base hit, error, fielder's choice.
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The act of contacting the ball with the bat. "The batter hit the ball right at the second baseman." When a batter is touched by a pitch. See hit by pitch The term sacrifice hit is used by scorekeepers to indicate a sacrifice bunt. It is typically an out, not a base hit (unless the batter beats the throw to first without benefit of an error).
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hit a bullet To hit the ball very hard, typically a line drive.
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hit and run An offensive tactic whereby a baserunner (usually on first base) starts running as if to steal and the batter is obligated to swing at the pitch to try to drive the ball behind the runner to right field. Contrast this to a run and hit, where the runner steals, and the batter (who would normally take on a straight steal) may swing at the pitch.
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hit away After a batter has attempted but failed to lay down a bunt, or in a situation in which he might ordinarily be expected to bunt, he may instead make a normal swing at the ball on the next pitch. In such a case he is said to "hit away" or "swing away". "Smoltz swung away, fouling it off for strike one. Knowing that the bunt had been given away on the first pitch, Braves manager Bobby Cox took off the bunt sign this time." hit behind the runner An offensive tactic where the batter intentionally puts the ball in play to the right side (the first base side) with a runner on second. The intent is to advance the baserunner to third, where a sacrifice fly by the next hitter can score a run.
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hit by pitch When a pitch touches a batter in the batter's box, the batter advances to first base. If the pitch hits him while he is swinging (striking) he is not awarded a base, and if the umpire feels he made no effort to avoid getting hit he simply calls a ball.
Colloquially, a batter who is hit by a pitch has been plunked, drilled, nailed, plugged, or beaned.
hit 'em where they ain't Said to be the (grammatically casual) response of turn-of-the-20th-century player Willie Keeler to the question, "What's the secret to hitting?" in which "'em" or "them" are the batted balls, and "they" are the fielders.
hit for average Contrary to what might be literally implied, a player who "hits for average" is one who achieves a high batting average.
hit for the cycle When a given player hits a single, double, triple and home run in the same game. To accomplish this feat in order is termed a "natural cycle". Hitting for the cycle is a rare enough occurrence that Major League Baseball keeps special statistics on it.
hit it where the grass don't grow Hit the ball into the stands for a home run.
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hit on Christmas Day When a player seems to have a natural aptitude to get hits in all situations. "Magglio can hit Christmas Day", Tigers manager Jim Leyland said. "It's an old saying, and he's one of those guys who can. There's nothing fancy. He sees it, hits it and does it pretty damned good." hit parade A rapid succession of hits within the same inning or a high total of hits throughout a game.
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hit the ball on the screws To hit the ball even center with measured force, often resulting in a loud crack of the bat. A slumping batter might be comforted by "hitting the ball on the screws" when not getting a hit. The phrase derives from golf, referring to a well executed shot. Back when "woods" were actually made of wood, manufacturers screwed a plastic insert into the club face as a safeguard against premature wear. When a golfer hit a good shot he would say, "I hit it on the screws." Another source is the fact that early baseball bats usually cracked lengthwise into two pieces; many were repaired using glue and two screws. (Such repairs are now illegal.) hit the deck When a batter drops or dives to the ground to avoid being hit by a pitch. "The third kind of pitch is the one that is coming right at your head. This one you don't even have time to think about. Some part of you sees the ball as it leaves the pitcher's hand, and something about the fact that the ball is coming straight toward your eye makes it almost disappear into a blind spot. You hit the deck before you even know you've done it." hit the dirt To slide. Sometimes used also as equivalent to hit the deck.
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hitch in his swing When a batter does not swing the bat in a single motion – perhaps he lifts the bat or moves his hands or hesitates before swinging – he may be said to have a "hitch in his swing". Having a hitch may slow down how quickly or powerfully he swings at the pitch. "All winter, Green worked on eliminating a hitch from his swing. He did it by setting up a video camera at a batting cage near his home in Irvine, California, taping swing after swing, and comparing it with video from his days with the Los Angeles Dodgers." hitter Batter.a person who hits a ball with a bat in baseball.
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hitter's count When a batter is way ahead in the count (3–0, 3–1, 2–0) he's likely to anticipate that the next pitch will be thrown down Broadway—in the middle of the plate. See count.
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hitter's park A baseball park in which hitters tend to perform better than average. This may be a result of several factors, including the dimensions of the park (distance to the outfield fences, size of foul territory behind the plate and down the lines), prevailing winds, temperature and relative humidity, and altitude. Whether a park is a hitter's park or a pitcher's park (in which hitters perform worse than average) is determined statistically by measuring Park Factors, which involves comparing how well hitters perform in a given park compared with how they perform in all other parks. This measure is regularly reported and updated for Major League Baseball parks by ESPN.com. Baseball Reference and other baseball research organizations also report park factors for major league parks. Baseball Prospectus and other baseball researchers calculate park factors for minor league parks to help in adjusting the statistics of baseball prospects.
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Whether a park is a hitter's park or pitcher's park may change from day to day. For example, when the wind is blowing "out" at Wrigley Field, it is typically rendered a "hitter's park", and a double-digit score for one or both teams is not unusual.
On the other hand, some are hitter's parks, any and all other factors notwithstanding. Atlanta–Fulton County Stadium, Braves home field from 1966 to 1996, was known as The Launching Pad.
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hitterish A physical and/or mental state where a player is seeing pitches well and his timing is on, so that observers or the player himself feel he has a good chance at getting a hit. Often used by players and sportscasters. "It's like Charley Lau used to tell us, used to tell me: 'You look very hitterish up there. You look hitterish, you look like you're going to hit the ball hard'", Brett said in camp.
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hold A hold (abbreviated as H) is awarded to a relief pitcher if he enters in a save situation, records at least one out, and leaves the game without having relinquished that lead. To receive a hold, the pitcher must not finish the game (thus becoming the closing pitcher) or be the winning pitcher.
Unlike saves, more than one pitcher can earn a hold in a game. It is also not necessary for the pitcher's team to win the game in order to achieve a hold; they merely have to be in the lead at the time the pitcher exits.
The hold was invented in 1986 to give credit to non-closer relief pitchers. Holds are most often accredited to setup pitchers, as they usually pitch between the starter and the closer. Holds are not an official Major League Baseball statistic, but are recognized by the MLB in its rules.
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hold the runner on When a runner is on first base, the first baseman might choose to stand very close to first base rather than assume a position behind first base and more part-way toward second base (a position better suited to field ground balls hit to the right side of the diamond). When he does this he's said to "hold the runner on (first)" because he's in a position to take a throw from the pitcher and thereby discourage the runner from taking a big lead-off.
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hold up on a swing When a batter begins to swing the bat at a pitch but stops swinging before the bat makes contact with the ball or the bat passes the front of the plate, he may be said to "hold up on his swing".
hole One of the nine places in the batting lineup. The leadoff hitter in the first inning is the player in the "one hole". In the four hole, the cleanup hitter is hoping to get to the plate in that inning.
Also see in the hole.
hole in his glove A tendency to drop fly balls, usually after they hit (and seem to go through) the fielder's glove.
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hole in his swing A scouting report phrase describing a batter who can't hit strikes in a particular location. "Howard became a star after fixing a hole in his swing." hole in the lineup A team that has one or more weak hitters in its 9-person batting order has a "hole in the lineup" that opposition teams can take advantage of. "There are no holes in that lineup, so to say you're going to pitch around one batter might not be the best thing." "If the team that Shapiro has constructed is going to overtake the Boston Red Sox, the New York Yankees or any of the other contenders in the American League, it can't afford another season with a hole in the middle of the lineup that Hafner was from May through the playoffs last season." home Home plate. For a runner to reach home safely is to score a run. Getting a runner who is on base home is the goal of any batter.
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home cooking When a player for the home team gets a favorable or generous call from the official scorer, the players may refer to the scorer's call as "home cooking". For example, the scorer may credit a batter for a base hit on a batted ball that a fielder bobbled briefly and then failed to make a putout.
"Home cooking" is sometimes used synonymously with home field advantage. The reference may be to the home team having the advantage of living at home, not just to being able to play in its own stadium.
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home advantage/home field advantage Teams playing home games have a small advantage over visiting teams. In recent decades, home teams have tended to win about 53.5% of their games. Because teams play the same number of games at home as they do away during the regular season, this advantage tends to even out. In play-off series, however, teams hope to gain from home-field advantage by having the first game of the series played in their home stadium.
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home game/home team A game played at the home stadium or ballpark of a baseball club. When the Yankees play in Yankee Stadium, they're playing a home game. The team hosting the game is referred to as the home team. In rare instances, the home team plays in a stadium not their own. In 2005, the Houston Astros played a "home" series against the Chicago Cubs at Miller Park in Milwaukee, home of the Brewers, because their home stadium, Minute Maid Park, was rendered temporarily unusable because of Hurricane Rita. In 2010, the Toronto Blue Jays played a "home" series against the Philadelphia Phillies at the Phillies' home park, Citizens Bank Park, because of security concerns due to the G-20 summit being held in Toronto. Despite being in Philadelphia, the Blue Jays wore their home white uniforms and batted last. Also, despite Citizens Bank Park being a National League field, the designated hitter was used in the series.
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home half The second (bottom) half of an inning, in which the home team is at bat.
home plate See also plate.
home run A home run (or homer) is a base hit in which the batter is able to circle all the bases, ending at home plate and scoring a run himself.
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home run derby A batting competition in which the object is to hit the most home runs. The 1960 television series Home Run Derby featured such a competition. The term can also be used to refer to a game during which many home runs are hit. The term was first used in the 1920s to refer to the race ("derby") between batters to lead their league in home runs for the season.Since 1985, Major League Baseball has hosted an annual Home Run Derby, and the Chinese Professional Baseball League (CPBL) has done so since 1992. At least one minor league, the Southern League, has also held a home run derby. In 2007, the Israel Baseball League played seven-inning games, and if the teams were tied at the end of the seventh inning the tie was broken by use of a home run derby. A number of amusement parks, entertainment centers and batting cages offer a home run derby type competition.
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home run trot When a batter, realizing the ball he just hit is about become a home run, slows from a run to a celebratory trot. "Well, I've been saying it all year, and it finally happened tonight: David Ortiz became the first player in the 2010 season to take more than 30-seconds to trot around the bases after a home run. With four of the top five slowest home run trots of the year already - all four of which were clocked in at 28.95 seconds or slower - it seemed inevitable that he would be the first to break the half-minute barrier." Sometimes a player mistakenly slows down, however, when the wind or a superb play by an outfielder, turns a home run into a double or single off the outfield wall, or to a long out, or to another odd outcome, as the following case illustrates:Unfortunately for his personal power totals, Milledge was bamboozled into believing his liner in the fourth inning against the Chicago Cubs on Thursday night had cleared the left-field fence at PNC Park for his first career grand slam. Dead certain he had gone deep, Milledge raised his fist rounding first base, put his head down and went into a trot. Cool. Double-dog certain because the fireworks guy at PNC set off the pyrotechnics that explode every time a Bucs player goes deep. Music also began to blare. What a glorious moment for the Bucs! ... only, the ball had not cleared the fence. It hit the top and stayed in the field of play.
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As Bucs announcer Bob Walk said, "Uh oh, uh oh, uh oh, uh oh—we got a problem here." Milledge was not quite midway between second and third base when he realized the Cubs had him in a rundown. And, yeah, um, he was tagged out. Score that a two-run double and a big ol' base-running blunder.
home stand A series of home games. See also road trip.
home team The "home team" is the one in whose stadium the game is played against the "visiting team". The home team has the advantage of batting in the second or bottom half of the inning. In case a game is played at a neutral site, the "home" team is usually determined by coin toss.
homer A home run.
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A derisive term for a dedicated, almost delusional, fan. Especially used for a broadcaster, in any sport, whose team "can do no wrong;" for example, they might argue a bad strike call, but say nothing about one against the opponent. Johnny Most of the Boston Celtics and Hawk Harrelson of the Chicago White Sox were notorious "homers." In a somewhat more humorous example, Bert Wilson used to say, "I don't care who wins, as long as it's the Cubs!" A common "homer" saying is, "My two favorite teams are (my team) and whoever's playing (my team's rival)." hook When a manager leaves the dugout with the obvious intention of replacing the pitcher with a reliever, he may be said to be carrying a hook. "Here comes Sparky, and he's got the hook." Such a usage may have come from the large hooks that were sometimes used in Vaudeville to yank unsuccessful acts off the stage if they were reluctant to leave on their own. When he was manager of the Cincinnati Reds, Sparky Anderson's heavy reliance on relief pitching earned him the nickname "Captain Hook", a reference both to the standard usage and to the Peter Pan villain.
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A pitcher is said to be "on the hook" when he leaves the game with his team behind because of runs that he gave up—a hook on which he may be hung with the loss.
A curveball.
hook foul When the batter pulls the ball down the line, starting fair but ending foul, resulting in a foul ball. See also slice foul.
hopper A batted ball that takes several bounces in the infield, or a single "high hop" after it hits the ground just in front of home plate. Also see "short hop".
horsehide The ball (a baseball) used in the game of baseball.
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The leather cover on the baseball (which is now usually made of cowhide, not horsehide). A slugger may be said to "knock the horsehide off the ball". Horsehide was the cover of choice for decades, as it was less prone to stretching than cowhide. This was necessary in part because in the early days, they tried to play the entire game with a single ball, or as few as possible. That became moot in the 1920s, but horsehide continued to be used until the 1980s or so, when horsehide became prohibitively expensive and cowhide was finally adopted as the standard cover for a baseball.
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hose A strong arm, said typically of an outfielder. To "be hosed" is to be thrown out on the bases, typically from the outfield.
hot A batter who is having a hitting streak or a team having a winning streak is said to be "hot". "'Today was pretty impressive', Scioscia said. 'Hitters, they have their times. When they're hot, they're hot. You can't do anything about it.'" hot box The area between two fielders during a rundown.
hot corner The area around third base and the third baseman, so called because right-handed batters tend to hit line drives down the third base line. The third baseman is sometimes called a "cornerman".
hot stove league An old fashioned term for a "Winter league" with no games, just speculation, gossip, and story-telling during the months between the end of the World Series and the beginning of Spring training, presumably conducted while sitting around a hot stove. One of Norman Rockwell's well-known baseball paintings is a literal illustration of this term.
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house by the side of the road A batter who strikes out looking. The term was made popular by legendary Detroit Tigers radio broadcaster Ernie Harwell, who would often say, "He stood there like the house by the side of the road, and watched the ball go by." The phrase originates from the title of a poem by Sam Walter Foss.
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howitzer A very strong arm. A cannon. A gun. Usually applied to an outfielder. Named after the Howitzer artillery piece. Headline: "Roberto Clemente: A Howitzer for an Arm, An Ocean for a Heart".
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human rain delay A human rain delay is a derisive term for a player who is very deliberate in his play, such as a pitcher who takes a long time between pitches or a batter who constantly steps out of the batter's box. "The Seattle Mariners will announce a new manager today—Mike Hargrove. Hargrove bears a great nickname—'The Human Rain Delay'. The name stems from the fact that, as a player, Hargrove would take about 15 minutes for every plate appearance. He would step out of the batter's box, fidget with his gloves, his helmet, his pants. He drove the pitcher nuts, but that was his plan." humpback liner A ball hit deep in the infield on a trajectory between those of fly balls and line drives.
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ice cream cone See: snow cone.
I have it. You get it.
A fielding play, usually where a lofty fly ball is to land equidistant between two fielders. Both are unsure who should catch it, usually resulting in last-second leaps or dives. Often neither does, in which case the one who had the better chance is charged with an error.
immaculate inning A half-inning in which the pitcher strikes out all three batters he faces with exactly nine pitches.
in the batter's eyes A high fastball, usually at or near the batter's eye level. Above the strike zone, so a ball, and hard to hit, but also hard to lay off.
infield fly rule The umpire calls the batter out when (a) there are less than two outs in the inning, and (b) the batter hits a fly ball that can be caught with ordinary effort by an infielder in fair territory, and (c) there are runners on first and second (third base can optionally be occupied too).
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The batter is automatically called out in this situation whether or not a fielder attempts to catch the fly ball, assuming it stays fair. The rule states that the umpire is supposed to announce, "Infield fly, if fair." If the ball will be almost certainly fair, the umpire will likely yell, "Infield fly, batter's out!" or just "Batter's out!" This rule is intended to prevent the fielder from intentionally dropping the ball and getting force outs on the runners on base. The rule is a little mystifying to casual fans of the game, but it has been a fundamental rule since 1895, allegedly to prevent the notoriously tricky Baltimore Orioles from intentionally dropping the ball.
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infielder First baseman, second baseman and third baseman, plus the shortstop, so called because they are positioned on the infield dirt. The pitcher and catcher are typically not considered infielders, but instead as the battery. However, for purposes of implementing the Infield Fly Rule, the catcher, pitcher, and any player stationed in the infield when the pitch is delivered are included as infielders.
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inherited runner Inherited runners or inherited baserunners are the runners on base when a relief pitcher enters the game. Since a previous pitcher has allowed these runners to reach base (or was simply pitching when the runners reached base, such as in the case of a fielding error), any inherited runners who score when the relief pitcher is pitching are charged to the previous pitcher's runs allowed and/or earned runs allowed total, depending on how each runner reached base. Modern box scores list how many runners each relief pitcher inherits (if any), and how many of those inherited runners the relief pitcher allows to score, called inherited runs allowed (IRA).
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in jeopardy In general, a baserunner is in jeopardy at any time the ball is live and the baserunner is not touching a base, except in the cases of overrunning first base on a fair ball or advancing to an awarded base, e.g., on a base on balls or hit by pitch. A baserunner who is in jeopardy may be putout by a fielder at any time.
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injured list Major league teams may remove injured players from their active roster temporarily by placing them on the injured list. Another player can then be called up as a replacement during this time.
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inning An inning consists of two halves. In each half, one team bats until three outs are made. A full inning consists of six outs, three for each team; and a regulation game consists of nine innings. The first half-inning is called the top half of the inning; the second half-inning, the bottom half. The break between the top and bottom halves is called the middle of the inning. The visiting team is on offense during the top half of the inning, the home team is on offense during the bottom half. Sometimes the bottom half is also referred to as the home half.
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innings eater A pitcher who may or may not be a starter or a closer but who can be relied on to pitch several innings either to keep his team in contention or sometimes when the game is no longer close, is an "innings eater". Headline: "Appetites never diminish for 'innings-eating' pitchers".The success of most pitchers is based on statistics such as won-loss record, ERA or saves, but the unsung "innings eater" is judged by how many innings he pitches and the impact his work has on the rest of the staff. "I don't have a whole lot of goals going into the season. I don't shoot for a certain ERA or a certain strikeout number or certain number of wins," says Blanton, entering his second full season. "I try to go out and get a quality start every time, six innings or more, and not miss any starts. I feel if I can do that, I'll get my 200 innings in a year and everything else falls into place with that." inside baseball The inside baseball is an offensive strategy that focuses on teamwork and good execution. It usually centers on tactics that keep the ball in the infield: walks, base hits, bunts, and stolen bases. This was the primary offensive strategy during the Dead Ball Era. Inside baseball is also a common metaphor in American politics to describe background machinations. The equivalent modern term is small ball.
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inside the ball Proper mechanics of a baseball swing, in which the hitter rotates his body while keeping his hands and the bat close to his body, with the bat coming across the plate after the body has almost fully rotated 90 degrees from his initial stance. Sometimes the phrase used is that the hitter "keeps his hands inside the baseball", and sometimes that the hitter himself "keeps inside the ball" – never mind the connotation of a player's literally being inside a baseball. "He's staying inside the ball so good, man", Dunn said. "For big guys like us, that's a hard thing to do. You always want to get the head [of the bat] out. His right hand is staying inside, so good. That's why he's able to hit the ball to left, to center, to right. He's in a good place right now." inside-out swing When the batter swings at a pitch with his hands ahead of the end of the bat. For a right-handed hitter, this often leads to balls being hit toward the right side of the diamond. One of the most famous "inside-out" hitters is Derek Jeter: "While Jeter became known over his two decades for rising to the occasion and delighting fans with his heroics, he was above all a technician, slashing at pitches with his trademark inside-out swing." inside-the-park home run A play where a hitter scores a home run without hitting the ball out of play.
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insurance run A run scored by a team already in the lead. These surplus runs do not affect the game outcome but serve as "insurance" against the team giving up runs later.
intentional pass/intentional walk Additional terms for the intentional base on balls.
interference Interference is an infraction where a person illegally changes the course of play from what is expected. Interference might be committed by players on the offense, players not currently in the game, catchers, umpires, or fans; each type of interference is covered differently by the rules.
interleague play Regular-season games between teams in different major leagues, which allow natural rivals and crosstown rivals to play each other more often, not just in play-offs.
Internet baseball awards While Major League Baseball calls on the Baseball Writers' Association of America (BBWA) to name the most valuable player, rookie of the year, and Cy Young Award winner each year, since 1997 Baseball Prospectus has conducted an on-line poll to make Internet Baseball Awards in those categories as well as manager of the year.
interstate A batting average below .200. A player with a batting average of .195 is said to be on I-95, a reference to the numbering on the Interstate Highway System. See also the Mendoza Line.
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in the books The game is over. Long-time New York Mets radio broadcaster Howie Rose (first on WFAN, now on WOR) ends every Mets win with the catchphrase, "Put it in the books!" (Rose's memoir is entitled Put It In The Book!) in the hole The spaces between the first baseman and second baseman and between the shortstop and the third baseman, one of the usual places where a ground ball must go for a hit. "Ozzie went deep in the hole" but, despite Ozzie's best effort, the ball "found a hole" through the infield and into the outfield. See also up the middle and down the line.
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Due up to bat after the on-deck batter. Probably derived from boating, where it was originally "in the hold", the place prior to being "on deck". "In the hole" is a corruption of the original nautical term (a mondegreen or eggcorn) made popular by people who did not understand the original origin. Today, the corruption has become universal.
An unfavorable count. A pitcher would be "in the hole" 3-0 and a batter would be "in the hole" 0-2.
in the (his) kitchen Pitching in on the hitter's hands.
in play A game is in play when the umpire declares "play ball" at the beginning of the game or after a time-out.
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Any batted ball is "in play" until either the play ends, the umpire calls the ball foul, or there is fan interference or some other event that leads to a dead ball. A ball hit into foul territory but in the air is in play (a fielder may attempt to catch it for an out and runners may attempt to advance after such a catch), but only before it hits the ground or the fence.
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In sabermetrics, a special definition of "ball in play" is the calculation of "batting average on balls in play" (BABIP), which excludes home runs even though they are fair balls.
Also see play.
IO (in and out) Infield and outfield practice. "Everyone take your positions for a quick IO"
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J-run The run the pitcher takes from the mound to first base in order to cover for the first baseman who has just fielded the ball.
jack A home run or to hit a home run. "Hitting a jack" or "Jacking one out of here".
jake Half-hearted or lazy effort by a player, i.e. "He jaked that play." jam To pitch far enough inside that the batter is unable to extend while swinging. "The pitcher jammed the batter." The batter was "handcuffed" or "shackled" by the pitch.
When runners are in scoring position with less than two outs and good hitters coming up. "The pitcher is in a jam." The "bases are jammed" (or loaded or full) when there are runners on all three.
janitor throw When an outfielder, trying to throw hard, spins or falls down.
jelly legs A batter's legs are "made out of jelly" when he departs from a good stance. "His curve ball ... it jelly-legs you." - Phillies First Baseman Jim Thome, referring to Barry Zito's curve.
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jerk To "pull" the ball towards left field if you bat right handed or "pull" the ball towards right field if you're batting left handed. Opposite of jerk would be push or hitting an "oppo", meaning going towards the opposite field.To hit the ball hard, typically used to refer to pulling the ball over the fence for a home run. "Derrek Lee jerked one of his patented doubles into the left-field corner to lead off the fourth against Minnesota lefty Johan Santana, the reigning Cy Young winner." Judy A Punch and Judy hitter who hits with little power.
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juiced "Bases juiced" means bases loaded.
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A player who is said to be juiced is thought to be taking performance-enhancing drugs. "It is now assumed, of course, that Bonds may well have been juiced on steroids at the time; the previous year he had set the all-time single-season record of 73 home runs, and his musculature was almost freakishly swollen." A baseball that is juiced has been modified in some way that makes it travel farther when hit. "Spectacular increases in home runs have often raised the question: Has the ball been juiced up to travel farther, in order to increase the number of home runs?" jump A fielder is said to get a good jump on the ball when he anticipates or reacts quickly to a batted ball and is thereby able to make a good play by fielding or catching it. Also see crack of the bat.
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A baserunner gets a good jump when he is able to leave the base well before the pitch reaches the plate. "Upsetting the timing of the baserunner can effectively prevent him from getting a good jump ... Base runners often read a pitcher's look and get their jump, or start, based on the pattern the pitcher establishes." To move to another team or league despite existing contractual obligations.
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Junior Circuit The American League, so-called because it is the younger of the two major leagues. The American League was founded in 1901, while the National League – the Senior Circuit – was founded in 1876.
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junk breaking balls and knuckleballs, pitches that are hard to hit due to movement rather than velocity. "I couldn't believe he threw me a fastball because he had me down 1-2", Thames said. "He's usually a junk pitcher and he tried to sneak a fastball past me, and he left it up." See also: Eephus pitch junkball pitcher A pitcher who throws predominantly junk, usually due to a weak (or slow) fastball. A junkballer or a junk artist: "Like all junk artists, Trujillo will have to prove himself at the higher levels before getting a shot at a major league job." See also: Eephus pitch
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K The traditional abbreviation for a strikeout. A backwards K is often used to denote a called strikeout. Invented by Henry Chadwick by taking the "most prominent" letter and reinforcing it with an inferred knockout, the connotation still exists when an announcer says the pitcher "punched out" the batter, a play on words that also refers to punching a time clock and to the motion a home plate umpire usually makes on a called third strike.
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keep off the boards Also singular, "keep off the board". Keep a team from scoring, and hence off the scoreboard. "Wainwright has kept runs off the board at a better rate than Lester." "After loading the bases with one down in the fourth, the Gators were kept off the board by Barham." keep the hitter honest A pitcher needs to mix up his pitches and thereby "keep the hitter honest" by making it difficult for the hitter to anticipate the type, speed, and location of the next pitch. Sometimes this means throwing a brushback pitch to keep the batter from leaning over the plate to reach a pitch on the outer part of the plate. "Partially with Boston in mind, Wang focused this spring on expanding his repertoire to keep hitters honest and move them off the plate." keep the line moving A reference to a series of batters getting on base safely and advancing runners on base, alluding to an assembly line. "Beltran's popout tore apart a rally that had shaken the Hall of Fame-bound Rivera, molding a game out of what moments before had been a five-run rout. Instead, Beltran couldn't keep the line moving, leaving an eager David Wright awaiting on deck." The 2015 Kansas City Royals were one of the most notable examples of "keeping the line moving" during their postseason run, which led to a World Series title.
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keystone Second base.
Together the shortstop and second baseman – the fielders nearest second base, often combining on double plays – are sometimes referred to as the keystone combination.
kicked A player who makes an error fielding a ground ball may be said to have "kicked the ball" or "kicked it".
kill A batter who hits the ball very far may be said to have "killed the ball".
A pitcher who stifles a rally by the opposing team may be said to have "killed the rally".
knee-buckler A breaking ball (usually a curveball) that breaks very sharply, so much so that it freezes the hitter. It starts out directly at the batter (knees buckling out of fear) and then drops into the strike zone.
knock Knock in: To score an RBI. "Kenny Lofton knocked in the go-ahead run with a 10th-inning single Thursday afternoon as the Cleveland Indians beat Detroit, 3-1." A hit: as in "a two-base knock".
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Knocks: Hard hits or extra-base hits, not necessarily producing RBIs or referring to a specific type of hit. "Curtis had some solid knocks today." Knocked around: A pitcher who gives up a lot of hits and gets removed from the game is said to have been knocked around or knocked out of the box or knocked out of the game. Example headline: "Toronto 7, Detroit 4: Phil Coke knocked around; Tigers' bats don't respond".
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Knock down: an infielder who stops a line drive from getting through the infield "knocks it down", perhaps then picking up the ball and throwing the runner out.
Knock off: to knock off an opponent is to win the game. "Hawai'i knocks off Santa Clara." Knock the cover off the ball: to hit a baseball extremely hard. See also tore the cover off the ball.
knuckleball A pitch thrown with no spin, traditionally thrown with the knuckles, but also with the fingertips. It tends to flutter and move suddenly and erratically on its way to the plate. Also refers to a batted ball that flutters "like a knuckleball". SYNONYMS: knuckler, flutterball, butterfly ball, floater, bug.
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lace To reach base by hitting a ball between infielders. "McCann laced it through the shift on the right side of the infield." Lady Godiva A pitch delivered with nothing on it. A nod to the legend of Lady Godiva riding naked on horseback.
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LAIM An acronym for League Average Inning Muncher. A LAIM is generally a starting pitcher who can provide around 200 innings over the course of a season with an ERA (Earned Run Average) near the league average. A LAIM is counted on to consume innings, keeping his team in the game but not necessarily shutting down the opposition. The term was coined by baseball blogger Travis Nelson, but is used by other writers as well.
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large sausage A slang term for a grand slam home run. It is a takeoff from the term "grand salami" which some people use to refer to a grand slam.
laser show A batting performance with a high number of base hits, particularly line drives. Also, the nickname of Boston Red Sox second baseman Dustin Pedroia.
late innings The seventh, eighth and ninth innings of a regulation nine-inning game.
laugher A game in which one team gets a large lead, perhaps early in the game, and it appears the other team has no chance at all of catching up. With nothing to worry about, the manager and team can relax. An easy win; a romp; a blowout.
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launch To hit a long fly ball, as if launching a rocket. "Orso, who recently signed with Alabama Southern to play college baseball next season, launched several rocket shots and by far hit the furthest home runs of anyone in the competition ..." It is also said that a pitcher "launches" the ball when he throws a wild pitch that gets away from the catcher, and that a fielder "launches" the ball when he throws it wildly out-of-reach of the intended receiver.
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launch angle The angle, with respect to the ground at home plate, at which a batted ball leaves the bat.
launch pad A term for a ballpark in which many home runs are hit.
Lawrence Welk A (rare) 1-2-3 double play ("... an a one, an a two, an a ...").
lay down A player who bunts the ball is said to lay down a bunt. Also see dump.
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lay off If a batter decides not to swing at a pitch, especially if he deliberately avoids swinging at certain types of pitches, he may be said to "lay off" a pitch. Pitchers tempt hitters to swing at pitches they cannot hit; batters try to lay off such pitches. "Batters can't seem to lay off his slider, just as his parents can't seem to lay off his carrot cake—they're nearly addicted to it." lead When a baserunner steps off a base before a pitch is thrown in order to reduce the distance to the next base he takes a lead.
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The player who is first in the batting order for a given team in any given inning is said to lead off the inning.
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leadoff hitter The first batter listed on a team's lineup card (in the 1-hole or the "leadoff spot" on the line-up card). When the announcers read the starting line-up they might say, "Leading off, and playing short-stop, is Sammy Speedyrunner. Batting second, playing second base, Carlos Contacthitter. Batting third, in the pitcher's spot, is designated hitter Burt "Biggie" Brokenleg. Batting clean-up, playing left field, Thor Thunderbat ..." The first batter in an inning (who could be in any hole on a team's line-up card). If that batter gets a single, or a home run, or a walk, the announcer would say he has a "leadoff single", a "leadoff home run", or a "leadoff walk" respectively.
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leaning A baserunner is said to be "caught leaning" or "leaning the wrong way" when he is picked off a base while shifting his weight toward the next base.
leather Referring to a fielder's glove, a player with good leather is a good defensive player (typically an infielder).
Flashing the leather means making an outstanding defensive play.
A leather player refers to a player who is outstanding on defense but only average or even less on offense. Ron Karkovice is one example of a "leather player".
left-handed bat Although baseball bats are symmetrical in shape, and thus there is no such thing as a left-handed baseball bat (or a right-handed baseball bat), in colloquial language a hitter who bats left-handed may be referred to as a "left-handed bat" or "left-hand bat". Headline: "Giants look to acquire left-handed bat".
left-handed hitter Also "left-hand hitter". A batter who, paradoxically, bats from the right-side of the plate. Typically, an individual who is left-handed in most activities, including throwing a baseball, stands in the right-hand batter's box, the one closest to first base.
left-handed specialist A left-handed relief pitcher specializing in getting one out, often in critical situations. See also LOOGY.
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left on base A baserunner is said to have been left on base (abbreviated LOB) or stranded when the half-inning ends and he has not scored or been put out. This includes a batter-runner who has hit into a fielder's choice, causing another runner to be put out as the third out. It also includes runners on base at the end of a game, as when the home team scores a winning run in the ninth or a subsequent inning. Thus a batter who hits a single in the home half of the tenth inning in a tied game with the bases loaded drives in one run and leaves three on base (runners who were at first and second, and himself).
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Team LOB totals are commonly reported in a baseball box score. It counts only those left standing on the bases when the third out of each inning occurs. Team LOB is used in "proving" a box score. The number of a team's plate appearances is to equal the sum of that team's runs, that team's LOB, and the opposing team's putouts. In other words, every batter who completes a plate appearance is accounted for as a run scored, putout, or LOB.
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Individual LOB totals are sometimes reported in baseball box scores. This is a more recent statistic that is computed for each player who is at bat at least once in a game and is calculated on how many baserunners were "left on base" when the player was at-bat and caused an out, no matter how many outs there were at the time. Note that "at bat" does not include other plate appearances such as sacrifice bunts or flies made by the batter, third outs caused by pickoffs or caught stealing, or games ended with the winning run scoring on a successful steal, etc. Two common misconceptions of the individual LOB are that the individual LOB is the number of times the player was left on base as a baserunner (this is a "runner's LOB" and is not usually recorded), or that the individual LOB applies only when the at-bat player caused the third out. Note that the total of the individual LOBs for all players on a team will usually exceed the team LOB.
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A related statistic is "left on base in scoring position", which includes only those LOB where the runner was occupying second or third base. Yet another related statistic is "left on base in scoring position with less than two out". The intent of these statistics is to measure the tendency of a team or player to waste opportunities to score.
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leg out To run hard to get safely on base or to advance a base: "Podsednik legged out an infield hit, stole second and scored when Everett legged out a double." letter high A letter-high pitch is one that crosses the plate at the height of the letters on the batter's chest. Also see at the letters. Equivalent term: "chest high". "Dietrich fouled off a couple of pitches before Porcello put him away with a letter-high fastball at 94." lift To remove a player from the lineup in the middle of a game. "Casey was lifted for a pinch runner." lights-out A pitcher who so dominates the hitters that the game is effectively over once he takes the mound—so they can turn out the lights and go home. The pitcher retires the batters in order without allowing a single run. "Putz pitched lights-out baseball once he took over the job for good from Guardado." Linda Ronstadt A fastball the pitcher delivers with such velocity that the hitter has no time to respond—it "blew by you." A pun on the song title "Blue Bayou," originally recorded in 1961 by Roy Orbison but popularized through Linda Ronstadt's 1977 cover version.
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line drive Also known as a liner, a line drive is a batted ball that is hit hard in the air and has a low arc. See also rope.
A line drive may also be said to be "hit on a line".
A batter may be said to have "lined out" if the liner was caught by a fielder.
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Line drives can be dangerous to baseball players and spectators. For example, on July 22, 2007, Tulsa Drillers first base coach Mike Coolbaugh was killed in a line drive accident at an away game with the Arkansas Travelers. Though the ball hit his neck, his death was the impetus for base coaches to start wearing helmets. In a 2021 minor league game, pitcher Tyler Zombro was hit in the head by a 104-mile-per-hour (167 km/h) line drive, fracturing his skull and causing him to have a seizure.
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lineup The batting order, which also lists each player's defensive position. An announcer reading the starting lineup for a game will typically begin something like this: "Batting first, playing second base ..." lineup card A form kept by each manager listing the starting players and all other players who are on the active roster and available to play in the game. Typically this form will be taped to the wall inside the dugout for the manager and coaches to consult when they need to make substitutions during a game. Before the game starts the manager hands a lineup card to the home plate umpire. This lineup will change throughout the game as starting players are removed and substitutes inserted.
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live arm A strong arm, usually describing a pitcher who has a great deal of velocity on his pitches. "That pitcher has a live arm." Live Ball Era The time since 1919 or 1920 when several rule changes moved teams to adopt offensive strategies that favored power hitting over the inside game that was common in the Dead Ball Era.
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live on the corners A pitcher who "lives on the corners" throws most of his pitches on the inside or outside edges of home plate. He's not inclined to try to overwhelm the hitter with hard pitches down the center of the plate. Many of his pitches will appear to barely nibble the plate.
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lively fastball/life on the ball A fastball that seems to be not just fast but also hard to hit because it may have some movement on it or it may appear to speed up as it gets closer to the plate. "'His fastball has got more life to it', Jays catcher Rod Barajas said. 'It's finishing. What I mean by that is the last 10 feet [to home plate], it seems that it picks up speed.' According to Barajas, that has particularly helped Ryan against right-handed hitters. "They end up being late, because that last 10 feet, it seems like it picks up a couple miles per hour," Barajas said.
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load the bases A succession of plays that results in having runners on all three bases. See also bases loaded or bases full.
LOB Abbreviation for left on base.
locate A pitcher's command is reflected in his ability to locate the ball—to throw it to an intended spot. A pitcher with "good location" not only has command but makes the right choices about where to throw the ball against particular batters.
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lock him up To sign a player to a long-term contract, thereby keeping him off the free-agent market. "Come on Uncle Drayton, you have to lock this guy up for a few years. He is one of the best in the league and along with Berkman, is the new face of the Astros." To throw a pitch that keeps the hitter from making any effective swing. For example, when a left-handed pitcher throws a roundhouse curve or an inside fastball to a left-handed hitter, the hitter may appear to freeze in place. "We had him 0-2. We were trying to go in with a fastball, hopefully lock him up." Also see "freeze the hitter".
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lollipop A soft, straight pitch with a lot of arc.
long ball A home run. A team is said to "win by the long ball" after a walk-off home run or the team hits several home runs to win. Headline: "Phillies Use the Longball To Take Game 1 from the Dodgers".
long ones Home runs. "He ravaged Pacific Coast League pitching for seven more long ones before being recalled by the Reds later the same month." long out A ball that is hit deep into the outfield (and caught) is a "long out".
long reliever A type of relief pitcher. Long relievers enter early in a game (generally before the 5th inning) when the starting pitcher cannot continue, whether due to ineffective pitching, lack of endurance, rain delay, or injury.
long strike A foul ball which finishes particularly close to being fair, often where a fair ball would have been a home run. So named as despite the good effort of the hitter, the result is a strike against him if the count before the pitch was less than two strikes.
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LOOGY A mildly derogatory nickname for a left-handed specialist. An acronym for "Lefty One Out GuY", a left-handed pitcher who may be brought into the game to pitch against just one or two left-handed batters to take extreme advantage of platoon effects. An example is Javier Lopez, who was a key component of the Giants' World Series winning bullpen in the 2010s. Starting in 2020, MLB instituted a new rule that any pitcher who enters the game in the middle of an inning must face at least three batters or finish the inning before he can be replaced, unless he is injured. This rule intends to reduce the length of a game by limiting pitching changes, but also reduces the benefit of a LOOGY on the roster, since most of the time he would also have to face a right-handed hitter, who is much more likely to get a hit off him.
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look the runner back When there is a runner on first base, a pitcher who has already gone into the stretch may step off the rubber and either threaten a throw toward first base or just stare at the runner to encourage him to step back toward first. In either case he's said to "look the runner back" to first (rather than throwing over to first in an effort to pick the runner off).
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When there is a runner on second or third base (but not first) with fewer than two outs, an infielder fielding a sharp ground ball briefly stares at the runner to discourage him from trying to advance. The fielder then throws to first to force out the batter.
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looper A softly hit Texas leaguer that drops in between the infielders and outfielders. Also blooper. A fielder may make a superior defensive play, however, and turn a looper into an out. "Sacramento's Lloyd Turner ended the fourth with a sprinting, sliding snag of Alvin Colina's looping liner to left that sent the stands into a frenzy." Lord Charles A slang term for a "12-to-6" curveball. Similar to Uncle Charlie.
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lose a hitter When a pitcher gives up a walk, especially when he gets ahead in the count or has a full count but gives up a walk, he is said to have "lost the hitter".
losing record During the regular season, the team lost more games than it won. For a modern Major League team, this means a team lost at least 82 games out of 162 games played in what is called the losing season.
losing streak A series of consecutive losses.
loss See Win–loss record (pitching).
lost his swing See find his swing.
lost the ball in the sun When a player attempting to catch a fly ball is temporarily blinded by the glare of the sun in his eyes, he may "lose the flyball in the sun".
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loud out When a batter hits a long fly ball that is caught in the outfield, perhaps when a crowd reacts loudly thinking it will be a homer, the announcer may say the batter made a "loud out". "Home runs are already overrated. A home run in one park is a loud out in another." "Long, loud out as Garciaparra takes Green to the warning track. But the former Dodger makes the catch easily and we're in the bottom of the third." Louisiana ball A fastball thrown with such high speed that it goes right by you (pun on bayou). A term often used by Phillies radio play-by-play broadcaster Scott Frantzke.
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lumber A baseball bat. Sometimes used in reference to a powerful offensive showing, "The Yankees busted out the lumber tonight with a 10–0 victory." Also timber.
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Maddux Colloquial term for a game in which the pitcher throws a complete game shutout, on 99 or fewer pitches. Named after Hall of Fame pitcher Greg Maddux, who threw 13 such shutouts in his career.
Magic number A number that indicates how close a front-running team is to clinching a division or season title. It represents the total of additional wins by the front-running team or additional losses by the rival team after which it is mathematically impossible for the rival team to capture the title.
magic words Specific words directed towards an umpire that are almost certain to cause immediate ejection from the game.
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make a statement When a player does something to catch the attention or make an impression on the other team, he may be said to "make a statement". Perhaps he makes a spectacular fielding play, hits a home run, slides hard into second base, or throws a brushback pitch. This phrase is also used in other sports when a team seeks to show up or to demonstrate its power against an opponent. "There were a lot of times where we could have given up, but no one gave up. We made a statement here tonight".
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make the pitcher work When an offensive team tries to make the opposing pitcher throw a lot of pitches and tire them out by working the count, or taking pitches or fouling off pitches, it is said to be making the pitcher work. "We've got a lot of good hitters up and down this lineup, but the key is to make the pitchers work", Laird said. "Tonight we made Saunders work. Then we got to their bullpen and were able to string some key hits together." make-up call When an umpire makes a bad call on a pitch, he may implicitly acknowledge it on a later pitch by making another bad call to "make up" for the first. For example, say an umpire mistakenly calls a strike on a pitch that is out of the strike zone; he may later call a ball on a pitch that is in the strike zone so the hitter gets back what was initially taken away. Umpires typically, and understandably, deny there is any such thing as a "make-up call".
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make-up game When a game is canceled because of a rainout or some other reason, a make-up game is usually scheduled later in the season. Late in the regular season if the outcome of that game would not affect which teams would reach the play-offs, then the game might not be made up.
manager See field manager. Different from the general manager.
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Manfred Man The runner placed on second base to start all extra innings beginning in the 2020 season. The rule change was put in place due to the COVID-19 pandemic in order to prevent marathon games. The term "Manfred Man" has been used by many fans unhappy with the rule who are also unhappy with commissioner Rob Manfred and the changes he has made to the game. It reflects an attitude of disdain for the rule itself as well as for Manfred's ability as a commissioner, and is generally used more amongst traditional or die hard fans who believe that many changes under Manfred's commissionership aimed at growing the game have failed to do so and instead have only served to ruin parts of the game many people traditionally have enjoyed.
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manufacturing runs Producing runs one at a time, piece by piece, component by component by means of patience at the plate, contact hitting, advancing runners, taking advantage of errors, alert baserunning including stealing a base or advancing on an out or a mistake by a fielder. In other words: small ball.
masher A home run hitter. See crush the ball.
matchsticks A string of ones on the scoreboard, indicating successive innings in which exactly one run was scored. Also referred to as a picket fence.
meat On the barrel (fat end) of the bat, but not the very end, is the "meat" of the bat where a hitter tries to make contact with the ball.
The "meat (of the order)" is the middle of the lineup, usually the strongest hitters.
A rookie, popularized by the baseball movie, Bull Durham; implies more brawn than brain.
An easy out, typically evident during a strikeout.
A baserunner easily thrown out at a base.
Throwing hand, typically meaning a pitcher's. "Glavine started to reach for the ball with his meat hand but then thought better of it." meatball An easy pitch to hit—down the middle of the plate.
Mendoza line A batting average of .200. Named (most likely) for Mario Mendoza, a notoriously poor hitter but decent shortstop who managed to have a 9-year major league career from 1974 to 1982 with a life-time batting average of .215.
men in blue The umpires.
metal bat swing A long swing that does not protect the inside part of the plate. Generally used to describe college players adjusting to professional ball and wooden bats.
middle infielders The second baseman and shortstop.
middle innings The fourth, fifth and sixth innings of a regulation nine-inning game.
middle of the inning The time between the top half and bottom half of an inning when the visiting team takes the field and the home team prepares to bat. No gameplay occurs during this period and television and radio broadcasts typically run advertisements. See also seventh-inning stretch.
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middle of the order hitter A batter who hits with power, and who thus may be suited to be in the third, fourth, or fifth slot in the batting order. "I think Brett Jackson looks a lot more like a top of the order guy right now than a middle of the order guy, and he seems like a viable leadoff hitter based on his performance as a professional".
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middle reliever A relief pitcher who is brought in typically during the middle-innings (4, 5, and 6). Since they are typically in the game because the starting pitcher allowed the opponents a lot of runs, the middle reliever is expected to hold down the opponents' scoring for an inning or two in hopes that their own team can close the gap.
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midnight Used during the early days of racial integration to refer to any African-American player.
miscue An error. A word from billiards, when the cue stick slips or just brushes the cue ball thereby leading to a missed shot.
miss some bats A pitcher who excels at getting batters to swing but miss is said to "miss some bats". A relief pitcher who is good at missing bats may be brought into a game when the other team already has runners in scoring position.
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miss some spots A pitcher who does not have good command of their pitches and is not able to throw the ball where they intend to is said to "miss some spots". "Angels Manager Mike Scioscia agreed. 'He missed some spots on a couple of hitters', Scioscia said, 'and they didn't miss their pitches'." mistake A "mistake" is poor execution, as distinguished from an error. It could be throwing to the wrong base, missing the cut-off, running into an obvious out, or throwing a pitch into the batter's "hot zone" instead of where the catcher set up for it.
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There may be such a thing as a mistake hitter (a mediocre hitter who occasionally gets a pitch he can drive), but a "mistake pitcher" does not last long in the big leagues.
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When asked how the mighty Yankees lost the 1960 World Series, Yogi Berra remarked, "We made too many wrong mistakes." mitt "Mitt" (derived from "mitten") can refer to any type of baseball glove, though the term is officially reserved to describe the catcher's mitt and the first-baseman's mitt. Those mitts (like a mitten) have a slot for the thumb and a single sheath covering all the fingers, rather than the individual finger slots that gloves have. By rule, mitts are allowed to be worn only by the catcher and the first baseman. See the entry on glove.
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mix up pitches To be successful, most pitchers have to use a variety of pitches, and to mix them up tactically (not randomly) to keep hitters off balance. "Jackson was overwhelming. 'I was just trying to come out and be aggressive and mix my pitches up', he said. 'I've seen them in the past and I know what they can do. You have to mix it up to keep them honest'." MLB Commonly-used abbreviation for Major League Baseball, the organization that operates the two North American major professional baseball leagues, the American League and the National League.
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money pitch A pitcher's best pitch, or the one he throws at the most critical time. They are said to earn their pay – their money – with that pitch. Headline: "The Outlawed Spitball Was My Money Pitch".
money player A man who is good in the clutch. Someone you can count on (or bet on) when it really matters. Sometimes the term used is simply "money", as in "Alex has really been money these last few games".
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moneyball An often misused term. It refers to Michael Lewis's 2002 book. "Moneyball player" most often refers to one who has a high on-base percentage, and does not steal a lot of bases. However, the essence of the book is about running an organization effectively by identifying inefficiencies and finding undervalued assets in a given market. As an example, the so-called Moneyball teams have shifted their focus to defense and speed instead of OBP which is no longer undervalued. "Moneyball" is often seen as the antithesis of "smallball", where teams take chances on the basepaths in an attempt to "manufacture" runs. In more traditional baseball circles, evoking Moneyball to describe a player or team can be a term of derision.
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moonshot A home run that is hit very high. When the Brooklyn Dodgers relocated to Los Angeles and played in the L.A. Coliseum, Wally Moon took advantage of the short distance to the left-field fence—251 feet (77 m) from home plate down the left-field line, compared to 440 feet (130 m) to the right-field fence—to hit high home runs. The ball had to be hit high in order to clear the 42-foot-high (13 m) fence. For comparison, Fenway Park's famous Green Monster is 37 feet (11 m) tall. Dodgers broadcaster Jerry Doggett seems to have coined the phrase in 1959, and the rest of the media picked it up.
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mop up A mop-up pitcher or "mop-up man" is usually the bullpen's least effective reliever who comes in after the outcome of the game is almost certain. Sometimes other position players also come in to mop up in the last inning in order to gain playing experience as well as give the regulars a rest. "La Russa said Hancock's final outing was typical of a reliever whose role frequently called for mop-up duty." morning journal A bat made from low-quality wood, its effectiveness similar to hitting the ball with a rolled-up morning newspaper.
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motor A player who gets an extra-base hit, or who is on base when a teammate gets one, is sometimes said to "motor" for an additional base – to continue running without hesitation. "This allowed Loehrke to score, and then a miscue by Ranger right fielder Drew Orbergfell allowed Lounsbury to motor to third base".
"Pinch runner Brandon Varnell used his blazing speed to motor down the third base line on the fielding error by Memorial reliever Garrett Hill and slide head first into home plate to tie the game at 5-5".
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mound The pitcher's mound is a raised section in the middle of the diamond where the pitcher stands when throwing the pitch. In Major League Baseball, a regulation mound is 18 feet (5.5 m) in diameter, with the center 59 feet (18 m) from the rear point of home plate, on the line between home plate and second base. The front edge of the pitcher's plate or rubber is 18 inches (46 cm) behind the center of the mound, making it 60 feet 6 inches (18.44 m) from the rear point of home plate. Six inches (15.2 cm) in front of the pitcher's rubber the mound begins to slope downward. The top of the rubber is to be no higher than 10 inches (25 cm) above home plate. From 1903 through 1968 this height limit was set at 15 inches, but was often slightly higher, especially for teams that emphasized pitching, such as the Los Angeles Dodgers, who were reputed to have the highest mound in the majors.
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mound visit Mound visits occur when the pitching team's coaches, manager or players (most often the catcher) go out to the mound between pitches to consult with the pitcher, generally to discuss strategy. Each team is limited to one mound visit per inning (excluding visits to attend to an injury); a pitching change must be made on any subsequent visit. In 2016, Major League Baseball limited the amount of time allowed for individual mound visits to 30 seconds. In 2018, MLB limited the number of mound visits per team to six per nine-inning game, with one additional mound visit for each extra inning. This was reduced to five per nine-inning game in 2020.
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moundsman A pitcher.
movement Deviations from the expected flight of a pitch that make the ball harder to hit. Can be used to refer to both fastballs and breaking balls.
mow 'em down A pitcher who dominates the opposing hitters, allowing few if any to get on base, is said to have "mowed them down" as if they were just so much hay being cut down by a mower.
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muff To make an error, typically on an easy play. "He muffed it. The ball went right through his legs." murderer's row Murderers' Row was the nickname given to the New York Yankees of the late 1920s, in particular the 1927 team. The term was actually coined in 1918 by a sportswriter to describe the pre-Babe Ruth lineup, with quality hitters such as Frank "Home Run" Baker and Wally Pipp who led the A.L. in home runs. In subsequent years, any lineup with a series of power hitters who represent a daunting challenge to pitchers might be dubbed by the press as a "murderer's row".
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mustard Refers to a high amount of velocity on a throw or pitch. A player may be exhorted to "put some (extra) mustard on it", with "it" usually referring to a pitcher's fastball or fielder's throw.
MVP Abbreviation for Most Valuable Player. At the end of every season, the Baseball Writers' Association of America chooses an MVP from each Major League. Typically an MVP is also chosen for each major play-off series, the World Series, and the All-Star Game.
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NA (NABBP) - the 1857-1870 first governing body of baseball, the National Association of Base Ball Players (NA) - the 1871-1875 first professional league (in any sport), the National Association of Professional Base Ball Players (NAPBL) - the 1901–2021 trade association of minor leagues, the National Association of Professional Baseball Leagues—officially renamed Minor League Baseball in 1999. Replaced in 2021.
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nail-biter A close game. Nervous fans may be biting their nails.
nailed Hit by a pitch, drilled, plunked.
The last pitches or last play of a winning game nail down the win or put the nails in the coffin of the opposing team.
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To throw a runner out. "Laureano nailed him at the plate." nails A relief pitcher who is as "tough as nails" or very effective at nailing down a win is sometimes said to be "nails". "As the season has progressed, you can see that he looks forward to that 9th inning and he has been nails lately." "This guy has been nails for us," Cardinals manager Tony La Russa said. Phillies and Mets center fielder Lenny Dykstra was known as "Nails" for his all-out style of play.
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neighborhood play An informal rule that used to apply to double plays. As long as the defensive player covering second base was in the "neighborhood" of second base when he caught the ball and threw it on to first base, the runner would be called out. The rule was designed to compensate for runners who slid into second too hard, making it dangerous for the defensive player. In recent years, umpires have required the defensive player to have a foot actually on second base, not just in the neighborhood, and have penalized runners who slide toward the defensive players too aggressively, so neighborhood plays are rarely seen today.
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next batter's box The official name of either of the two on-deck circles. Each team has its own circular area, five feet (1.5 m) in diameter, which is designated for unencumbered use by the on-deck batter (the next batter due to bat after the current batter); the on-deck batter may wish to stretch, run in place, or take practice swings immediately prior to taking his turn in the batter's box (which actually is rectangular in shape). Especially during finals and semifinals, each circle is typically painted with the corresponding team logo. The location of the next batter's box is specifically defined in MLB rules, and the most common method to locate it was granted a patent.
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nibble When a pitcher focuses on pitching just at the left or right edges of home plate rather than throwing a pitch over the heart of the plate where a batter can get the meat of the bat on the ball, he's said to nibble at the edges. Tigers manager Jim Leyland praised Scherzer for his aggressiveness against such a powerful lineup: "The one thing you can't do against the Yankees is get behind in the count. If you do, they'll just sit on pitches and hit a lot of them hard. Max went after them. He understood he couldn't nibble around the edges of the plate, and he did a heckuva job." nickel curve A slider. Also used to mean an average or possibly "hanging" slider. Hitters look at the spin on a ball when it is released by the pitcher, so the "dot" (circle which is created from the pitcher's rotation on the ball that the batter sees to identify a pitch as a slider out of the pitcher's hand) is said to be "nickel sized". Also, it could be used to mean a pitch with more lateral movement (closer to a slurve than to a slider) rather than velocity.
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nightcap The second game of a doubleheader.
NL or N.L.
Abbreviation for National League, the older of the two major leagues.
NLCS or N.L.C.S.
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Abbreviation for National League Championship Series: the final, best 4 out of 7, playoff series to determine the National League champion. The winners of the National League Division Series play in this series. The winner of the NLCS is the winner of the National League pennant and advances to the World Series against the pennant winner from the American League.
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Abbreviation for National League Division Series: the first round of the league playoffs, to determine which two teams advance to the National League Championship Series (NLCS). This round pits the winners of each of the three league divisions plus the winner of the wild-card slot (the team that wins the most games in the regular season without winning a division) in two pairings, each of which plays a best three out of five series to determine who advances to the NLCS.
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NOBLETIGER Acronym for "No outs, bases loaded ending (with) team incapable of getting easy run". This situation occurs when the batting team loads the bases with nobody out but does not score a run in the inning. The unofficial statistic was first tracked on Reddit, where it was named in honor of the Detroit Tigers.
no decision Any starting pitcher who earns neither a win (W) nor a loss (L) is said to have a "no decision", which has no special meaning in official baseball statistics; however, it has become conventional to note whether he made a quality start.
no-doubter A home run whose landing destination in the stands is in no doubt from the moment it leaves the barrel of the bat. A no-doubter will be seen/heard to "leap" off the bat, usually having a launch angle between 20 and 40 degrees and high exit velocity.
no-hitter A game in which one team does not get any hits, a rare feat for a pitcher, especially at the major league level. Also colloquially called a "no-no". If no batter reaches base safely by any means (walk, error, etc.) the pitcher is said to have pitched a perfect game, which is much rarer than a "normal" no-hitter.
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It is a superstition that when a pitcher is working on a no-hitter (or perfect game), his teammates stay far away from him (sometimes even a whole bench length) and will not say anything to anyone about the no-hitter. Some play-by-play on-air announcers will also avoid mentioning the no-hitter until either an opposing batter gets a hit or the no-hitter is completed; others however will mention one in progress and are sometimes blamed for jinxing no-hitters.
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no man's land The area of the outfield between the middle infielders and outfielders, where a fly ball can fall for a hit (a Texas leaguer).
A baserunner caught in a pickle is said to be in "no man's land".
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The portion of a ballpark's spectator area, usually the front row of seats, where a fielder may legally reach into to catch a fly ball, while a spectator or other personnel may legally touch same fly ball even if it interferes with the fielder's attempt to catch it. A ball touched by a spectator in this manner is not spectator interference.
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no room at the inn Sometimes said by a play-by-play announcer when the bases are loaded, i.e., there is no open base. Usually means that intentionally walking and pitching around the batter are poor strategies for the fielding team, as a walk will score a run for the batting team. Also "no place/nowhere to put [the batter]".
no-no A no-hitter and a shut-out. Thus no hits, no runs. Headline: "Start of something good: Verlander's no-no may foreshadow future greatness".
northpaw A right-handed pitcher. See southpaw.
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NRI A Non-Roster Invitee (NRI) is a player invited to Spring training who is not yet on a Major League team's 40-man roster. He may be a young prospect, a veteran who has been released from or retired from a previous contract with a team, perhaps someone who left baseball after an injury. If he performs well, he has a chance to be placed on the roster and assigned to a minor league team or even join the major league team.
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nubber A batted ball that travels slowly and not very far, typically because the ball is hit with the very end of the bat.
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obstruction When a fielder illegally hinders a baserunner. He does not need to "get out of the way" while he is fielding the ball or actually has it (and can tag).
OBP See on-base percentage.
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O-fer A batter who goes hitless in a game, as in 0 for 4 (spoken as oh fur). Also wears the collar or "takes the collar." official game A game that can be considered complete. If more than half the game has been played before being ended, or "called", by an umpire, it is considered official and all records from the game are computed in the players' and teams' statistics. For a nine-inning game, five innings need to be played, or 4+1⁄2 if the home team is winning. An incomplete game can be either suspended or replayed from the first inning.
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official scorer The official scorer is a person appointed by the league to record the events on the field and to send this official record to the league offices. The official scorer never goes on the field during a game (but typically watches from the press box). The official scorer's judgments do not affect the progress or outcome of the game but they do affect game and player statistics. For example, only umpires call balls and strikes, whether a batted ball is fair or foul, whether a hit is a home run, and whether runners are safe or out. But it is the official scorer who determines whether a pitch that got by the catcher is a wild pitch or a passed ball, and whether a batted ball is a hit or an error (or a combination of the two); likewise whose errors, put-outs and assists are whose.
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off day A day when a player performs below his normal level, whether due to illness, bad luck, or other factors. "Bonderman had an off-day and didn't have good command of his breaking pitches." A day when a team does not have a game scheduled. During the regular season, Major League Baseball teams almost always have games scheduled on Fridays, Saturdays, and Sundays, and they may need to travel between series. Off-days tend to occur on Mondays and Thursdays.
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off-speed pitch A pitch that is significantly slower than a given pitcher's fastball. Typically, a curveball or a change-up.
off the hook When a team that is behind ties the game or takes the lead, the pitcher who would otherwise have been credited with the loss is said to be "off the hook".
off the trademark When a player hits the ball off the middle of the bat, where the manufacturer's trademark is usually placed, resulting in a weakly hit ball. Usually the result of a pitcher jamming the hitter.
OFP Overall Future Potential (OFP) is a scouting assessment of a young player's potential as a future major leaguer, scored from 20 to 80. The criteria are different for pitchers and position players. See also tools.
ol' number one A fastball. From the sign the catcher gives for that pitch.
Olympic rings When a batter strikes out five times in a game. This same dubious achievement is also called a platinum sombrero.
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on a line When an outfielder throws the ball directly to an infielder or the catcher without relaying it or bouncing it, he's said to "throw the ball on a line". Usually used when a strong throw beats the runner and gets him out. "Jack Barry, however, made a running stab to grab the ball and threw on a line to McInnis for an out." on-base percentage (OBP) Percentage of plate appearances where a batter reaches base for any reason other than an error or a fielder's choice.
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on deck The next batter due to bat after the current batter. The area designated for the on-deck batter is a circle five feet (1.5 m) in diameter, officially called the "next batter's box" and commonly called the "on-deck circle". Ironically, the on-deck batter rarely stands in the on-deck circle.
on his horse Running at full speed, especially in reference to an outfielder tracking down a fly ball.
on the black The edge of home plate, derived from its black border, which is buried if the plate is properly installed.
A pitch that just nicks the edge of the zone for a called strike.
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on the board A team is "on the board" (the scoreboard) when it has scored one or more runs. "After being shut out for six innings, the Sox are finally on the board." White Sox announcer Hawk Harrelson also uses the phrase as part of his home run call: "You can put it on the booooard ... YES!" on the farm When a player is playing in the minor leagues, he is said to be spending time "on the farm". It refers to a team's farm system.
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on the interstate A player batting between .100 and .199 is said to be "on the interstate". The term refers to the fact that a batting average in the .100s can resemble an interstate name (e.g., .195 looks like I-95, especially on older scoreboards). A hit to put an average above .199 gets a batter "off the interstate." A batter whose average is below .100 is sometimes said to be "off the map". See also Mendoza line. Players in the majors who spend too much time "on the interstate" will most likely be demoted to Triple-A.
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on the ropes When a pitcher appears to be tired or lost command of his pitches, he may be said to be "on the ropes" and about to be replaced by another pitcher. The term likely derives from the sport of boxing, in which a fighter who is being beaten up or dominated by his opponent may lean against the ropes to keep from falling to the mat.
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on the rug A player is said to be "on the rug" while playing a ball in the outfield on artificial turf.
on the throw A defensive attempt to put out a baserunner attempting to reach more bases than the type of hit would typically allow, such as a runner on first attempting to advance to third on a single.
Also refers to the successful advance of a baserunner while such a play is being attempted on his teammate. See also: fielder's choice.
A batter who safely reaches first base but is tagged out attempting to reach a subsequent base on the same play is credited with a hit for the number of bases he safely reached, but is said to be out on the throw.
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Example: With Abel on first base, Baker hits a base hit to center field. Abel easily reaches second and tries to advance to third, but the throw from the outfield is in time and he is tagged out by the third baseman. Meanwhile, Baker has safely reached second base. Abel is out at third base on the throw. Baker has a single and advanced to second on the throw. The next batter, Charlie, hits a double to the center field wall, allowing Baker to score from second. Charlie safely rounds first and second base and attempts for third, but the throw from center field is in time and Charlie is tagged out at third base. Charlie is credited with an RBI double, but is out at third base on the throw.
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one-game wonder A player who appears in just one major league game, plays respectably, and then is demoted either to the bench or back to the minors.
one-hitter A game in which one team was limited to one hit, a great feat for a pitcher. Batters may have reached base via walks, errors, or being hit by a pitch. See also no-hitter and perfect game.
one-two-three inning Side retired in order. Three up, three down.
opener A traditional relief pitcher who starts a game for strategic reasons and is replaced early in the game, usually after the first inning, by a pitcher who is expected to last as many innings as a true starter.
opposite field hit A hit to the "opposite" side of the field from the direction of a player's natural swing, i.e., a left-handed batter who hits to left field or a right-handed batter who hits to right field. Also known as going the other way. See pull hitter.
OPS (On-base Plus Slugging) A term recently invented by statheads to measure of a batter's ability to produce runs. Obtained by adding slugging average and on-base percentage.
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ordinary effort Defined in MLB Rule 2 as "the effort that a fielder of average skill at a position in that league or classification of leagues should exhibit on a play, with due consideration given to the condition of the field and weather conditions." A defensive player's ordinary effort is considered by the official scorer in making certain judgment calls, such as hit vs. error or wild pitch vs. passed ball.
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out pitch The type of pitch that a pitcher relies on to get an out, often his best pitch. Headline: "Angels Notebook: Rodriguez embraces change as out pitch".
outfielder An outfielder is a player whose position is either left field, center field, or right field. See position.
outside corner The location of a strike that travels over the far edge of home plate from the batter.
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overpower the hitter To throw a pitch that is so fast the batter cannot catch up to it with his swing. "And eight runs were more than enough offense to back Wolfe, as he continually overpowered hitters with his blazing fastball. Santa Clara hitters just couldn't catch up to it." overshift A baseball vernacular term synonymous with "shift", either an infield or outfield shift. The fielders shift to occupy the areas a particular batter is thought to typically hit.
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overthrow When a fielder throws the ball so high that it sails over the head and out of reach of his target. "Sean Halton struck out, but the catcher couldn't hold onto the pitch, and then overthrew first base, which allowed both Martin and Greene to score." If a thrown ball goes over the head or wide of the infielder and sails off the field of play into the dugout or the stands, the umpire will rule an overthrow and allow the runner to advance one base.
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A pitcher who throws the ball too hard to control it well is said to be "overthrowing the ball". "Gardenhire said Crain, demoted to Class AAA Rochester earlier this season, is pitching with more confidence and, most importantly, he's not trying to overthrow the ball."
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paint To throw pitches at the edges of the strike zone. A pitcher who can "paint" consistently may be said to paint the black or paint the corner.
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pair of shoes A batter who strikes out looking. "He was left standing there like nothing but a pair of shoes." paper doll cutter A hard hit line drive that is hit so "square" and powerfully, that it has little or no spin. (Like a knuckleball) This results in the ball suddenly and sharply cutting left or right as it speeds past defenders. It is said that if such a hit were to strike a defensive player or runner, they would be left "cutting paper dolls" for the rest of their lives.
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parachute A fly ball, perhaps driven into a strong wind, that appears to drop straight down into the fielder's glove.
park To hit (a home run) "out of the park"; reference to the parking lot may be inferred.
park effects See hitter's park.
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passed ball A catcher is charged with a passed ball (abbreviated PB) when he fails to hold or control a legally pitched ball which, in the opinion of the official scorer, should have been held or controlled with ordinary effort, and which permits a runner or runners to advance at least one base; and/or permits the batter to advance to first base, if it's a third strike (with first base unoccupied and/or two outs). A run that scores because of a passed ball is not scored as an earned run. Neither a passed ball nor a wild pitch is charged as an error. It is a separately kept statistic.
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paste To hit the ball hard. Often used in the past tense: "He pasted the ball." patient hitter Doesn't do a lot of first-pitch swinging, swinging at pitches out of the strike zone, or even swinging at strikes he can't hit because of their location and/or type. Generally gets a lot of walks.
patrol An outfielder may be said to be "patrolling the outfield" (like a good soldier or police officer patrolling his assigned territory), A catcher who keeps runners from stealing bases is said to be good at "patrolling the basepaths".
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payback If after the pitcher from one team tries to bean or otherwise hit a batter, the opposing pitcher retaliates by trying to hit a batter from the first pitcher's team, it's a "payback". Such retaliation often happens when it is one of a team's stars who is the initial target; in such a case the opposing pitcher is likely to target the star player on the other team when he gets his first opportunity. Umpires may issue a warning if they think a pitch is intentionally thrown at a batter, and if such an attempt happens again by either team's pitcher, the pitcher is likely to be ejected from the game.
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payoff game The decisive one in a series, e.g. the third of five (if one team has already won two) or the fifth (if both have won two).
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payoff pitch A pitch thrown with a full count. The implication is that much effort has gone into reaching this point (this is at least the sixth pitch of the at-bat), and the pitch will either pay off for the pitcher (a strikeout) or the batter (a hit or a walk). However, a foul ball can extend the at-bat. The term is most often used when a hit will score a run and a strikeout will end the inning.
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PCL A AAA minor league that formerly had "open" classification (between AAA and major league) from 1952 to 1957, now operating as under Triple-A classification in the Western United States pea A pitched ball thrown at high speed. "Clem can really fling that pea." pearl A brand new baseball that has been rubbed down with ball mud, causing the ball to no longer be bright white and instead is a pearl white color.
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pearod A hard line drive batted back at the pitcher.
PECOTA A system for forecasting pitcher and hitter performance developed by Nate Silver of Baseball Prospectus. A player's "PECOTA" may be the forecasted range of his performance on a variety of indicators for the current or future seasons.
peeking When the batter tries to see the catcher's signals to the pitcher.
peg To throw the ball to one of the bases. "The fielder pegged the ball to first." pen The bullpen.
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pennant race The competition to win the regular season championship in a baseball league. To win the pennant or flag, a major league baseball team must first win enough of the 162 games in the regular season to reach the playoffs. Then it must win the league division series (LDS) and the league championship series (LCS). See American League Division Series (ALDS), American League Championship Series (ALCS), National League Division Series (NLDS), and National League Championship Series (NLCS).
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pepper A common pre-game exercise, where one player bunts to a nearby group of fielders; they throw it back as quickly as possible.
percentage points If Team A is in first place by less than half a game over Team B, Team B is said to be "within percentage points" of Team A.
perfect game A special type of no-hitter where each batter is retired consecutively, allowing no baserunners via walks, errors, or any other means. In short, "27 up, 27 down". A "perfect game" could involve multiple pitchers with one pitcher relieving another, but in the major league they are defined as being thrown by a single pitcher.
perfect inning An inning in which a pitcher allows no runners to reach base.
permanently ineligible Major League Baseball's designation for someone who is banned from MLB or affiliated minor league clubs, for misconduct. Permanently ineligible players are also ineligible for induction into the Hall of Fame. Banned individuals may be reinstated at the discretion of the Commissioner of Baseball.
PFP A commonly used acronym for Pitchers' Fielding Practice. A session in which pitchers practice fielding bunts and other ground balls, throwing to a base, and covering first base and home plate.
phantom ballplayer Someone who is incorrectly listed in source materials as playing in a Major League Baseball game, although they did not actually play.
phantom tag an erroneous call by an umpire in which a baserunner is ruled as having been tagged out when in fact the fielder never legally tagged the runner.
pick it clean To field a sharply hit ground ball without bobbling it.
pick me up Having made a mistake or failed an attempt, a player may ask a teammate, "Pick me up." Said in praise by a pitcher, "The guys picked me up with a lot of runs today." pick up the pitch A batter's ability to detect what kind of pitch is being thrown.
picket fence A series of 1's on the scoreboard, resembling a picket fence.
pickle A rundown.
pickoff A quick throw from the pitcher (or sometimes the catcher) to a fielder covering a base when the ball has not been hit into play.
pill The baseball.
pimping Acting ostentatiously or showboating to gain the attention or approval of the fans. See grandstand play.
pinch hitter A substitute batter, brought in during a critical situation ("a pinch").
pinch runner A substitute baserunner, brought in during a critical situation ("a pinch").
pine tar Pine tar, which is notoriously sticky, improves a batter's grip on the bat. See Pine Tar Incident.
pink hat A fan of a team who is perceived to be merely "jumping on the bandwagon" as opposed to a more loyal, knowledgeable fan (of either gender).
pinpoint control A pitcher who is able to throw the ball to a precise spot in the strike zone has "pinpoint control". See control pitcher.
pitch A baseball delivered by the pitcher from the pitcher's mound to the batter as defined by the Official Rules of Baseball, Rule 2.00 (Pitch) and Rule 8.01.
pitch around To repeatedly miss the strike zone hoping the batter will "chase one". Also, deliberately walking him.
pitch count How many times a pitcher has thrown thus far (this game).
pitch to The opposite of pitching around, i.e. throwing every pitch into the strike zone.
pitch to contact A pitcher who doesn't try to strike out batters but instead tries to get them to hit the ball weakly, especially on the ground, is said to pitch to contact.
pitch tracking The use of technology and analytics to evaluate pitching, including information such as pitch velocity, spin rate, and break (curve).
pitcher The fielder responsible for pitching the ball. Prior to 1884, the rules specified that the ball was to be "pitched, not thrown to the bat", i.e. underhand.
pitcher of record See win.
pitcher's best friend Nickname for a double play.
pitchers' duel A very low-scoring game in which both starting pitchers allow few batters to reach base.
pitcher's mound The mound, or colloquially the hill or the bump.
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pitcher's park A park in which pitchers tend to perform better than they perform on average in all other parks; inverse of hitter's park. See park factor.When the wind is blowing "in" at Wrigley Field, it is typically rendered a "pitcher's park", and a low score for one or both teams is not unusual. Under those circumstances, no-hitters also become possible at a park many fans normally think of as a "hitter's park".
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Because of its large foul area (recently shrunk to add more seating), symmetrical outfield walls, and small "corners" near the foul poles, Dodger Stadium is traditionally known as a pitcher's park, especially at night, when fly balls tend to die more quickly than they do during the day.
pitcher's pitch The pitch the pitcher wants hit because he knows it will still most likely result in an out.
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pitcher's spot In games where the designated hitter rule is not in effect, or in DH rule games where a team has forfeited its DH, this term refers to the pitcher's turn in the batting order; its usage usually implies there is some possibility that the pitcher will not actually take his turn batting and instead will be replaced by a pinch hitter and by rule a relief pitcher.
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pitching from behind When a pitcher frequently falls behind in the count, he finds himself pitching from behind.
pitchout A defensive tactic used to pick off a baserunner, typically employed when the defense thinks a stolen base play is planned. The pitch is thrown outside and the catcher catches it while standing, and can quickly throw to a base.
pivot man Generally refers to the second baseman. A second baseman often has to turn or pivot on one foot in order to complete a double play. A short-stop also sometimes pivots to complete such a play.
PL or P.L.
Abbreviation for Players' League, a one-year (1890) major league.
place hitter A batter who has skill in controlling where he hits the ball.
plate As a noun, plate usually connotes home plate. There is also a pitcher's plate, but it is more commonly referred to as the rubber.
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As a verb, plate means to score a run. "In the fourth our defense continued to hold and we managed to plate a couple runs in the bottom half of the inning to tie the game at 3." plate appearance Any turn at bat is considered a plate appearance for computing stats such as on-base percentage, and for determining whether a batter has enough of them (minimum 3.1 X number of scheduled games) to qualify for the batting average championship. Plate appearances consist of standard at-bats plus situations where there is no at-bat charged, such as a base on balls or a sacrifice. However, if the batter is standing in the batter's box and the third out is made elsewhere (for example, by a caught-stealing or by an appeal play), then it does not count as an appearance, because that same batter will lead off the next inning.
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plate discipline A batter shows "plate discipline" by not swinging at pitches that are out of the strike zone, nor at pitches that are in the strike zone but not where he knows he can hit it. Such a batter might be described as a patient hitter.
platinum sombrero When a batter strikes out five times in one game. Also called Olympic Rings.
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platoon The practice of assigning two players to the same defensive position during a season, normally to complement a batter who hits well against left-handed pitchers with one who hits well against righties. Individual players may also find themselves marked as a platoon player, based on their hitting against righties vs. against lefties. Casey Stengel brought some attention to the system by using it frequently during his New York Yankees' run of five consecutive World Series champions during 1949–1953.
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"Platooning" sometimes refers to the in-game strategic replacement of batters in the line-up based on the handedness of a newly inserted relief pitcher, or conversely the strategic insertion of a relief pitcher to face a batter of the same hand. This is the logic behind having a LOOGY on the roster, for example. The LOOGY is to pitching what a pinch-hitter is to batting: put into the line-up for short-term strategic advantage.
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play Any small sequence of events during a game, never lasting long enough to contain more than one pitch, during which at least one offensive player could advance, or score a run, or tag up, etc., or could be put out. This includes, for example, a pop foul, during which it is possible for the batter to be put out, but advancing is not possible and neither is scoring. This term, "play", is mentioned (appears) in the article about the definition of an error.
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Where the action is focused at a given time, in particular where a runner is about to reach a base or reach home, and the defense is attempting to get him out. An announcer might declare "There's a play at home", for example, if a runner is attempting to score and the catcher is about to receive a throw and attempt to tag the runner out.
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Also see in play.
play by the book To follow the conventional wisdom in game strategy and player use. For example, when to bunt or when to bring in the closer.
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player to be named later When two baseball clubs make a trade, part of the publicly announced deal may involve an unspecified "player to be named later" who is not one of the headline players in the deal. In some cases, the PTBNL is simply a financial payment equal to the annual salary of a base-level major league baseball player ($300,000 as of 2007).
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players' manager A manager who is close to his players and whom the players consider a peer and a friend. The knock on players' managers is that they tend to not be disciplinarians and find it hard to make a tough decision in the team's best interest. Thus the term is not always complimentary, and many managers find they must maintain some aloofness in order to be effective. Joe Torre is often referred to as a player's manager; his approach can be effective with mature players who take their responsibilities seriously. Casey Stengel used to say the secret to managing was "to keep the guys who are neutral about you away from the guys that hate your guts." playing back The usual position depth taken by infielders when they're not anticipating a bunt or setting up for a double play.
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playing in When the infield is shallower than normal in order to attempt to throw out a runner on third-base on a ground ball. This does not allow the infielders to cover as much ground however, and can turn a routine ground ball into a base hit.
playoffs All the series played after the end of the 162-game regular season. This includes the American League Division Series, National League Division Series, American League Championship Series, National League Championship Series, and the World Series.
Any short set or series of games played after the regular season to determine a division or league champion. Also called the "post-season". Technically speaking, if a one-game playoff is required to determine who wins the regular season or the wild card (and thereby qualifies for the post-season) is counted as part of the regular season.
plunked Hit by a pitch.
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plus The plus sign (+) is an indicator that a starting pitcher began an inning and faced at least one hitter without recording an out. In the box score, the pitcher is said to have pitched x+ innings, where x is the number of innings completed in the game. For example, if the starter gives up two walks to lead off the sixth inning and is pulled for a reliever, "5+" innings is recorded in the box score.
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plus pitch A pitch that is better than above average when compared to the rest of the league. Often the strikeout pitch.
plus plus pitch A pitch that is among the best of its type in the league and is essentially unhittable when thrown well. Often a breaking pitch.
plus player A player with above-average major league skills. A term from baseball scouting and player evaluation. See tools.
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poke A hit. Referring to an extra-base hit or home run, a fan or announcer might exclaim, "That was quite a poke." A reporter might record a line drive as "Cameron pokes a shot into left field." pop A batter with "pop" has exceptional bat speed and power. "Reggie popped one" implies that Reggie hit a home run. Example in baseball writing: "Ian Kinsler Proves He Has Pop to Center".
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A pop-up is a batted ball that is hit very high and stays in the infield. Called a pop-foul when it falls or is caught in foul territory. Example: "Rondini popped it foul out of play" implies that Rondini hit a pop-up or pop-foul that went into the stands where a defender couldn't reach it.
Brendan C. Boyd and Fred C. Harris, in their impish commentary in The Great American Baseball Card Flipping, Trading and Bubble Gum Book, discussed a player who was known for hitting sky-high popups and said that "he could have played his career in a stovepipe".
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portsider A left-handed pitcher, so named because "port" refers to the left side of a ship. Synonym: southpaw position One of the nine defensive positions on a baseball team, consisting of (in scorekeepers' numerical order): (1) pitcher, (2) catcher, (3) first baseman, (4) second baseman, (5) third baseman, (6) shortstop, (7) left fielder, (8) center fielder, (9) right fielder. Positions 3 through 6 are called infield positions. Positions 7, 8, and 9 are outfield positions. The pitcher and catcher are the battery. For purposes of the infield fly rule the pitcher and catcher are counted as infielders, and such a broader definition of infielders is commonly used, if only to differentiate them from outfielders. Players in positions 2 through 9—all positions except the pitcher—are position players.
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A defensive player also positions himself differently—sets up in a different location on the field while playing his position—depending on who is pitching, who is at bat, whether runners are on base, the number of outs, and the score of the game.
position player Any defensive player other than the pitcher.
post-season The playoffs.
pound the batter inside To pitch the ball over the inside of the plate, in on his hands, typically with a fastball.
pound the strike zone See attack the strike zone.
powder river A fastball with extreme velocity.
power alleys Either of the two areas in the outfield between the outfielders, i.e. left-center field and right-center field. The furthest dimensions may not be marked on the wall.
power hitter A powerful batter who hits many home runs and extra base hits, but who may not have a high batting average, due to an "all or nothing" hitting approach. Dave Kingman is perhaps the best example of an "all power, low batting average" slugger. See slugger and slugging percentage.
power outage When a batter with a high slugging average suddenly appears to have lost that ability, he is "having a power outage".
power pitcher A pitcher who relies heavily on his fastball. Control pitchers and contact pitchers rely more on variety and location than velocity.
power stroke A hitter with a good power stroke is one who typically gets extra bases.
power surge When a batter with a low slugging average suddenly appears to have gained that ability, he is "having a power surge".
pow wow A meeting on the mound between a coach and players to discuss strategy. See tea party.
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prep A prep player is a draft prospect who is still in high school, e.g. "Nationals select prep right-hander Lucas Giolito 16th overall." pro ball Used to refer to both major and minor leagues, especially on trading cards. For example, "Complete Professional Record" would include major and minor league seasons while "Complete Major League Record" would not. (Minor league players consider it an insult if asked when they'll "get to the pros".) probable pitcher A pitcher who is scheduled to start the next game or one of the next few games is often described as a "probable pitcher".
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productive out When a batter makes an out but advances one or more runners in the process, he has made a productive out. In contrast, a strikeout or other out in which no runners advance is unproductive.
projectable A scouting term for a young player with excellent tools who appears likely to develop into a productive or more powerful player in the future.
protested game A manager may protest a game if he believes an umpire's decision is in violation of the official rules. An umpire's judgment call (i.e., balls and strikes, safe or out, fair or foul) may not be protested.
pull To pull the ball is to hit it toward the side of the field usually associated with a full swing: a right-handed hitter pulls it left and a left-handed hitter pulls it right.
To pull a hitter is to substitute a pinch hitter.
To pull a pitcher is to relieve him. See hook.
A pitcher has "pulled the string" (think marionette) if the batter swung where the pitch was going instead of where it went.
Punch and Judy A "Punch and Judy hitter" has very little power.
punch out A strikeout. Named such because the umpire will typically make a punching-like signal on the third strike, especially if the batter does not swing at the pitch.
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purpose pitch A brushback, intended to make the batter move away from home plate. A batter targeted by such a pitch is sometimes said to get a close shave. 1950s pitcher Sal Maglie was called "the Barber" due to his frequent use of such pitches. A sportswriting wag once stated that its "purpose" was "to separate the head from the shoulders".
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push A right-handed batter who hits the ball toward right field, ditto left, has "pushed" it.
The best situation for a "push bunt" is runners at first and third with one out (or no outs); if successful, the result will be a run scored, a runner on second, and two outs (or one).
put a charge on the ball To hit the ball very hard, typically for a home run.
put a hurt To hit the ball extremely hard.
To beat another team, especially by a decisive score.
put away A fielder who catches a fly ball, or who tags a runner may be said to "put away" his opponent. Similarly, a pitcher may "put away" a batter by striking him out.
A team may "put away" its opponent by making a decisive play or out, or by breaking open the game and gaining a substantial lead.
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qualifier A qualifier is a batter or pitcher that has played enough to be eligible for a percentage-based league leaderboard. In Major League Baseball (MLB), batters become eligible for the league leaderboards in batting average, on-base percentage, slugging percentage, and on-base plus slugging percentage once they've taken at least 3.1 plate appearances per game played by their team, extrapolated to a total of 502 plate appearances for a standard 162-game season. MLB pitchers become eligible for league leaderboards in earned run average (ERA), walks plus hits per inning pitched (WHIP), and batting average against once their innings pitched is greater than or equal to the number of games their team has played, setting a minimum of 162 innings pitched for a 162-game season. Players must be qualifiers in order to win a batting title or an ERA title.
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quality at bat An at bat in which the batter is productive, whether that involves advancing a runner with a sacrifice bunt (or even a ground ball out), getting on base, or just making the pitcher throw a lot. Thus a quality at bat is not measured simply by the standard batting statistics such as batting average, on-base percentage, or slugging average. Minnesota Twins catcher Joe Mauer: "Seeing a lot of pitches, fighting bad pitches off – basically, just waiting for a pitch you can handle. Whether you're a power guy, or more of a slap hitter guy, if you find a pitch you're comfortable in handling, that's a quality at-bat. If you get on base or drive a ball up the gap, you pretty much know you had a good plate appearance. But it's mostly about making sure you get your pitch." quality start When a starter pitches at least six complete innings and allows three or fewer earned runs – even in a loss. A pitcher can perform well yet not be involved in the win–loss "decision". This statistic was developed by sportswriter John Lowe to capture an aspect of pitcher performance that is not part of the standard statistics collected by Major League Baseball. It is catching on among baseball players and management, but also has some skeptics. Former Houston Astros manager Jimy Williams was said to hate this statistic. "Quality start?" he would harumph. "Quality means you win." quick pitch An illegal pitch where the ball is thrown before the batter is set in the batter's box. (Official Rules of Baseball, Rule 8.05(e)) If there is no one on base, the pitch is called a ball, but if there are any number of runners on base, it is ruled a balk. The ruling of a quick pitch is always up to the umpire.
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quiet bats When a pitcher prevents the opposing hitters from getting a lot of hits, or big hits, he's said to have "quieted some bats". "Iowa's starting pitcher, Jarred Hippen, was able to quiet the Spartans' bats the rest of the way to seal the victory." Headline: "Miscues, Quiet Bats, Cost D-Backs".
quiet swing A batter who holds his head, hands, and bat very still while awaiting the pitch may be said to have a quiet swing. "Hideki Matsui's quiet swing and stance are a big part of the reason why he is able to hit for both power and average."
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rabbit ears Indicates a participant in the game who hears things perhaps too well for their own good. A player who becomes nervous or chokes when opposing players or fans yell at or razz them is said to have rabbit ears. Also, an umpire who picks up on every complaint hurled at them from the dugouts is described this way.
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rag arm A player, typically a pitcher, with a weak arm. "I hope the Cubs did not give up an actual Major League player for this rag-arm home-run machine." railroad To run into and knock over the catcher when running home from third base, or to run into a first-baseman when running from home to first. In either case, neither the catcher nor the first baseman may be able to duck out of the way because he must play the ball and stay in position in order to make an out.
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rain delay Rain delay refers to situations when a game starts late due to rain or is temporarily suspended due to rain. A game that is suspended after it has begun may be resumed either the same day or at a later date. A game that never begins, or that is canceled after it begins, due to rain is a rainout and in most cases will be rescheduled for a later date – a make-up date. In the event of a non-tie game past the 5th inning with heavy inclement weather, the game may be called with the winner being the team that was ahead at the end of the last completed inning (except during the MLB postseason).
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rainbow A curveball with a high arc in its path to the plate.
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rainout A rainout refers to a game that is canceled or stopped in progress due to rain. Generally, Major League Baseball teams will continue play in light to moderate rain but will suspend play if it is raining heavily or if there is standing water on the field. Games can also be delayed or canceled for other forms of inclement weather, or if the field is found to be unfit for play. If a game is rained out before play begins, a make-up game is rescheduled for a later date. If a game is called after play begins but before 4½ innings have been completed (if the home team is ahead) or five innings have been completed (if the visitors are ahead or the game is tied), the game is not an official game. The umpire declares "No Game", the game is played in its entirety at a later date, and statistics compiled during the game are not counted. Games that are stopped after they become official games count in the standings (unless the game is tied, in which case it is replayed from the beginning), and statistics compiled during the game are counted. In the MLB postseason, however, games that are called before 4+1⁄2 innings have been completed are treated as suspended games, and fans are usually given a rain check to attend another game.
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rake To hit the ball really hard, and all over the park. When you're raking, you're hitting very well. "Mike Gosling allowed one run on five hits over 6+1⁄3 innings and Alex Terry raked Pawtucket pitching for 14 hits as the Bats defeated the Red Sox, 7–1, in an International League game Wednesday." rally To come back from a deficit. This typically occurs in the final innings of a game.
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rally cap A cap worn backwards, sideways, or inside-out by fans or players to bring a rally. Said to have originated by fans of the New York Mets during the 1985 baseball season, when the Mets captured several dramatic come-from-behind victories, and spread to the players themselves some time during the 1986 season. It rose to national awareness during the 1986 World Series. The Mets were down three games to two and losing the deciding game to the Red Sox, when in the seventh inning, television cameras showed some of the New York Mets players in the dugout wearing their caps inside-out. The team rallied to win the game and the series.
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range A fielder's ability to move from his position to field a ball in play.
RBI An RBI or "run batted in" is a run scored as a result of a hit; a bases-filled walk or hit-by-pitch or awarding of first base due to interference; a sacrifice; or a single-out fielder's choice (not a double play).
Official credit to a batter for driving in a run.
RBI situation Runners in scoring position.
receiver Another term for catcher. Also backstop, signal caller.
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regular season The 162-game schedule that all Major League Baseball teams usually complete. However, if a special one-game playoff is required to determine which team goes to the league division championship series (the ALDS or the NLDS), this 163rd game is also counted as part of the regular season. All team and player statistics from this game are also counted as regular season statistics. For example, if a pitcher wins his 20th game in the 163rd game played in the one-game playoff, he would be a "20 game winner" for the season. Similarly, a batter's performance in that extra game might determine whether he wins the title for best batting average or most home runs in the season.
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On occasion, teams do not complete every game of the regular season, as when playing a make-up game and the outcome of that game could not possibly help either team reach the playoffs.
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regulation game A standard baseball game lasts nine innings, although some leagues (such as high school baseball) use seven-inning games. The team with the most runs at the end of the game wins. If the home team is ahead after eight-and-a-half innings have been played, it is declared the winner, and the last half-inning is not played. If the home team is trailing or tied in the last inning and they score to take the lead, the game ends as soon as the winning run touches home plate; however, if the last batter hits a home run to win the game, he and any runners on base are all permitted to score.If both teams have scored the same number of runs at the end of a regular-length game, a tie is avoided by the addition of extra innings. As many innings as necessary are played until one team has the lead at the end of an inning. Thus, the home team always has a chance to respond if the visiting team scores in the top half of the inning; this gives the home team a small tactical advantage. In theory, a baseball game could go on forever; in practice, however, they eventually end (although see Longest professional baseball game).
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rehab assignment When a Major League player recovering from injury or illness plays a short stint with one of the team's minor-league affiliates before coming off the disabled list. The particular affiliate may be chosen based on its proximity to the club's home town rather than the level of play. A rehab assignment does not carry the same stigma as being sent down to the minors for poor performance.
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relay A defensive technique where the ball is thrown by an outfielder to an infielder who then throws to the final target. This is done because accurate throws are more difficult over long distances and the ball loses a considerable amount of speed the farther it must be thrown. Also cut-off. Also the second throw during a double play. As in "They were only able to get the lead runner because the relay was not in time." relief pitcher A relief pitcher or reliever is a pitcher brought in the game as a substitute for (i.e., "to relieve") another pitcher.
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reliever A relief pitcher or reliever is a baseball or softball pitcher who enters the game after the starting pitcher is removed due to injury, ineffectiveness, ejection from the game or fatigue.
replacement-level player A player of common skills available for minimum cost to a major league baseball team. A team of replacement-level players would be expected to win a baseline minimum number of games, typically 40–50, per 162-game season.
replacement player A player who is not a member of the Major League Baseball Players Association but plays during strikes or lockouts.
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restricted list A roster designation for players who are not available, either because of a player's own action (such as declining to play or getting arrested) or when "unusual circumstances exist." Placing a player on the restricted list allows a team to remove the player from both their roster and their payroll indefinitely, while retaining their rights to the player.
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retire the batter To get the batter out.
retire the runner To throw the runner out at a base.
retire the side See side retired.
rhubarb An argument or fight in a baseball game. Hence, Rhubarb, a novel by H. Allen Smith. The term was popularized by famed baseball broadcaster Red Barber.
ribbie, ribeye Slang for a run batted in (RBI).
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rifle A very strong arm. A cannon, a bazooka, a gun. Also used as a verb, "He rifled the ball home to catch the runner." A batter can also be said to rifle a ball when he hits a hard line drive. "Griffey rifles the ball ... foul, just outside first base." right-handed bat A baseball bat is symmetrical, thus there is no such thing as a right-handed or left-handed one. A player who bats right-handed may be referred to as a "right-handed bat" or "right-hand bat". Headline: "Can That Right Handed Bat Play Third Base?" right-handed hitter Also "right-hand hitter". A batter who, paradoxically, bats from the left-side of home plate.
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ring him up A strikeout. The phrase is drawn by analogy from cashiers, and from the "cha-ching" motion of a plate umpire. "Outside corner, ring him up, strike three called!" rip To hit a hard line drive, as in "He ripped a single through the right side." A hard swing that misses the ball: "Reyes took a good rip at that pitch." RISP Acronym for Runners In Scoring Position. See Runner In Scoring Position.
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RLSP Acronym for Runners Left in Scoring Position, typically seen in the box score of a game. This is the sum of the number of runners left occupying second and third bases (scoring position) when the batting side has been retired.
road game A game played away from a baseball club's home stadium. When a team plays away from home, it's on a "road trip" and is the "visiting team" at the home stadium of another team.
road trip A series of road games or away games occurs on a road trip, a term derived from the days when teams indeed traveled from one town to another by roadway or railroad.
robbed When a fielder makes a spectacular play that denies a hit or a home run, the batter may be said to have "been robbed" by him. Headline: "A-Rod robbed of HR, Joba will join rotation".
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If an umpire has made a questionable call, the losing team or fans may complain they "were robbed". "Braves Robbed of a Win ... was Beltran Out at 3rd in the 9th?" rocking chair The position occupied by the third base umpire, likely because the third base umpire does not generally have to make as many calls as the other umpires. For example, "Jim Joyce is in the rocking chair at third base." ROOGY A slightly derogatory acronym for a right-handed relief specialist. "Righty One Out GuY".
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rookie Conventionally, rookie is a term for athletes in their first year of play in their sport. In Major League Baseball, special rules apply for eligibility for the Rookie of the Year award in each league. To be eligible, a player must have accumulated:Fewer than 130 at bats (for hitters) and 50 innings (for pitchers) during the MLB regular season, or Fewer than 45 days on the active rosters of MLB clubs (excluding time on the disabled list or any time after rosters are expanded on September 1).
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roll a pair Reference to someone's saying the next play will be a double play. Also, "roll it".
room service A ball hit directly to a fielder such that he hardly has to move to get it, or a pitch that is easy to hit.
rooster tail A ball rolling on wet grass, kicking up water behind it.
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rope A hard line drive. Also see frozen rope. Sometimes used as a verb, "He roped one up the middle." roster The official list of players who are eligible to play in a given game and to be included on the lineup card for that game. Major League Baseball limits the regular-season active roster to 25 players during most of the season, but additional players may be on the disabled list, and the roster can be expanded to as many as 40 active players after August 31st by bringing up players on the 40-man roster.
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rotation A starting pitcher in professional baseball usually rests three or four days after pitching a game before pitching another. Therefore, most professional baseball teams have four or five starting pitchers on their roster. These pitchers, and the sequence in which they pitch, are known as "the rotation" or "starting rotation". In modern baseball, a five-man rotation is most common.Often a manager identifies pitchers by their order in the rotation, "number 1", "number 2", etc. "Discussions over whether Jason Schmidt or Brad Penny is more deserving to occupy the No. 2 spot in the starting rotation behind Derek Lowe can cease, as least temporarily." roughed up An offense has "roughed up" the opposing pitcher when it hits his pitches hard and scores several runs. Headline: "Hill Roughed Up in Loss to Pirates." roundhouse curveball A curveball that instead of breaking sharply makes a more gradual loop. "One Boston writer in the late-'40s summed up Joe Dobson's roundhouse curveball this way: 'It started out somewhere around the dugout and would end up clipping the outside corner of the plate. There are curveballs, and there are curveballs.'" round-tripper A home run. The analogy is to a commuter who buys a round-trip ticket from home plate to second base and back.
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rubber The rubber, formally the pitching plate, is a white rubber strip the front of which is exactly sixty feet six inches (18.4 m) from the rear point of home plate. A pitcher will push off the rubber with his foot in order to gain velocity toward home plate when pitching.
rubber arm A pitcher is said to have a "rubber arm" if he can throw many pitches without tiring. Relief pitchers who have the ability to pitch consecutive days with the same effectiveness tend to be known as "rubber arms". Examples of these include Justin Verlander and Aroldis Chapman.
rubber game Also referred to as a "rubber match", a term used for the last game of a series or match when the two teams have evenly split the previous games. See also rubber bridge / best-of-three playoff.
run A player who advances around all the bases to score is credited with a run; the team with the most runs wins the game.
A manager "runs his players" when he calls on them to steal bases and to be generally aggressive in trying to advance extra bases when the ball is in play.
A player or coach may be "run" by an umpire by being ejected from a game.
run on contact See contact play.
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rundown A play in which a runner is stranded between two bases, and runs back and forth to try to avoid fielders with the ball. The fielders (usually basemen) toss the ball back and forth, to prevent the runner from getting to a base, and typically close in on him and tag him. Also called a hotbox or a pickle. Sometimes used as a baserunning strategy by a trailing runner, to distract the fielders and allow a leading runner to advance.
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rung up Being ejected from the game. Also, slang for having struck out looking.
runners at the corners runners on 1st and 3rd, with 2nd base open.
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runners in scoring position Runners on 2nd or 3rd base are said to be in scoring position, i.e., a typical base hit should allow them to reach home. Batting average with runners in scoring position (RISP) is used as an approximation of clutch hitting. Game announcers are apt to put up and comment on the latter statistic during a broadcast to set the stage for an at bat.
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Ruthian Having the qualities of Babe Ruth, typically describing the flight of a long home run.
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sabermetrics Sabermetrics is the analysis of baseball through objective evidence, especially baseball statistics. The term is derived from the SABR – the Society for American Baseball Research. The term was coined by Bill James, an enthusiastic proponent and its most notable figure.
sack Synonymous with bag—1st, 2nd, or 3rd base.
A player who plays a particular base might be called a sacker. Most often this is the second sacker (second baseman). Together the second sacker and the short-stop may be referred to as sackmates because they often coordinate or share the coverage or play at second base. See double play.
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sacrifice bunt A sacrifice bunt (also called a sacrifice hit or simply a "sacrifice") is the act of deliberately bunting the ball in a manner that allows a runner on base to advance to another base, while the batter is himself put out. If the sacrifice is successful, the batter is not charged with an at bat (AB). But he is credited with an SAC or S or SH.
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sacrifice fly When a batter hits a fly ball to the outfield which is caught for an out, but a runner scores from 3rd base after tagging up or touching the bag following the catch. The batter is credited with an RBI and is not charged with an at bat. Also referred to as "sac fly", abbreviated as SF.
safety A base hit or "base knock". Getting "safely on (first) base" after hitting the ball without the interposition of a fielding error.
safety squeeze A squeeze play in which the runner on third waits for the batter to lay down a successful bunt before breaking for home. Contrast this with the suicide squeeze.
salad An easily handled pitch.
salami A grand slam.
Sally League The South Atlantic League ("SAL"), a Class A minor baseball league with teams located mainly in the southeastern United States.
sandwich round A round of drafts that occurs between the first and second rounds, and again between the second and the third, comprising solely compensatory drafts granted to teams that failed to sign their first or second round draft picks of the year before.
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save In baseball statistics, save (abbreviated SV, or sometimes, S) is the successful maintenance of a lead by a relief pitcher, usually the closer, until the end of the game. A save is credited to a pitcher who fulfills the following three conditions: The pitcher is the last pitcher in a game won by his team; The pitcher is not the winning pitcher (For instance, if a starting pitcher throws a complete game win or, alternatively, if the pitcher gets a blown save and then his team scores a winning run while he is the pitcher of record, sometimes known as a "vulture win".); The pitcher fulfills at least one of the following three conditions: He comes into the game with a lead of no more than three runs.
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He comes into the game with the potential tying run being either on base, at bat, or on deck.
He pitches effectively for at least three innings after entering the game with a lead and finishes the game.If the pitcher surrenders the lead at any point, he cannot get a save, even if his team comes back to win. No more than one save may be credited in each game.
If a relief pitcher satisfies all the criteria for a save, except he does not finish the game, he will often be credited with a hold.
The third rule can be contentious, as it is subject to the judgment of the official scorer.
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The last criterion in that rule can lead to ludicrous results. On August 22, 2007, the Texas Rangers beat the Baltimore Orioles by a score of 30 to 3. The winning pitcher, Kason Gabbard, pitched six innings, and left the game with a 14–3 lead. The Rangers' relief pitcher, Wes Littleton, pitched three scoreless innings, while his team went on to score another 16 runs, including six runs in the 9th inning. In return for protecting his team's lead for the last three innings, Littleton was awarded a "save".
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Generally, a save situation is when a pitcher enters the game in the seventh inning or later with a lead of three runs or fewer, or with the potential tying run in the on-deck circle. Most of the time, the saving pitcher pitches one or more innings. Also called a save opportunity.
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saw off When a pitcher gets a batter to hit the ball on the handle, and the batter hits the ball weakly or even breaks his bat, the pitcher may be said to have sawed off the bat. "If the bat handles are getting "sawed off" in players' hands or shattering into splinters, it's because players are ordering bats too thin to withstand the impact of a 90 mile-per-hour fast ball." scoring position A runner on 2nd or 3rd base is in scoring position, as he is presumed to have a good chance to score on a base hit to the outfield.
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scratch hit A weakly hit ground ball that eludes the infielders and leads to a base hit. A bleeder.
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screaming line drive Also a screamer. A line drive that is hit extremely hard, perhaps hard enough to knock the glove out of the hand of a fielder or to be so hard that the pitcher cannot get out of the way before he is hit by the ball. "I distinctly remember watching the game where Jon Matlack was hit in the head by a screaming line drive off the bat of Marty Perez and it bounced off his head. I also remember watching the night Cal Ripken hit a screamer right into Andy Pettitte's mouth. Both were a nauseating sight but this one must have been much worse. Baseball can be a dangerous game for the players and also the spectators." screwball A pitch that curves to the same side as the side from which it was thrown. For a right-hand pitcher, the ball would break to the pitcher's right—it would break "in" to a right-hand hitter. SYNONYMS: reverse curve, fadeaway, fader, screwgie, scroogie, reverse curveball.
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seal the win To finish off the opposing team and end the game. "Red Sox closer Jonathan Papelbon nearly blew the game with a walk and an error, so he had plenty to celebrate when he then whiffed the dangerous Tampa Bay trio of Carlos Peña, B. J. Upton and Carl Crawford to seal the win". See also nailed and shuts the door.
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seamer two-seamer – a "two seam fastball" where the ball is held by the pitcher such that, when thrown, its rotation shows only two seams per revolution four-seamer – like a two-seamer, but the rotation shows four seams per revolution.
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season The period from the first to the last scheduled game of a year. Typically, the major league baseball season runs from about April 1 until the end of October, including the "regular season" 162 games that each team plays and the play-offs, including the World Series. Baseball team and player records are also kept on a "seasonal" basis. "Sandy Koufax ended his career with four of the best seasons in history".The post-season, including divisional and league series plus the World Series, is sometimes called the "Second Season." seasoning The time-period when a struggling major-league player is temporarily sent down to the minors (most likely AAA) in the hope that the player can improve his skills enough to return to the major-league club. This can also refer more broadly to the time that a team keeps a young up-and-coming player in the minor-leagues, so as to give the player time to continue to develop their skills, before they are brought up to the major leagues.
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secondary pitch Any non-fastball pitch type.
seed Any hit that is hit so hard it barely has an arc on it. See rip. Also refers to any thrown ball with the same characteristic, typically in the infield.
seeing-eye ball A batted ground ball that just eludes capture by an infielder, just out of infielder's range, as if it could "see" where it needed to go. Less commonly used for a ball that takes an unusual lateral bounce to elude an infielder. Sometimes called a seeing-eye single. See ground ball with eyes.
send a runner If a coach signals for a runner to attempt to steal a base, he is "sending" a runner. Similarly, a third-base coach who signals to a runner who is approaching third base that he should turn toward home plate and attempt to score, the coach is "sending" the runner home.
senior circuit The National League, so-called because it is the older of the two major leagues, founded in 1876. As opposed to the Junior Circuit, the American League, which was founded in 1901.
sent down A major league player may be sent down or demoted to a minor league team either before or during the season. When this occurs during the season, another player is usually called up or promoted from the minor leagues or placed on the active roster after being removed from the disabled list.
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sent to the showers When a pitcher is removed from the lineup, he is sometimes said to be "sent to the showers" because his work for the day is done. Theoretically it is possible for him to be removed as pitcher and kept in the lineup as a designated hitter or even as a position player. But this is a very rare occurrence in the professional game, and is more frequent in the amateur game, especially in NCAA competition.
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series A set of games between two teams. During the regular season, teams typically play 3- or 4-game series against one another, with all the games in each series played in the same park. The set of all games played between two teams during the regular season is referred to as the season series. For games played between teams in a single league, the regular season series includes an equal number of games in the home parks of each team. Its purpose is to minimize travel costs and disruptions in the very long major league baseball season.
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In the playoffs, series involve games played in the home stadiums of both teams. Teams hope to gain from having a home field advantage by playing the first game(s) in their own ballpark.
serve To throw a pitch that gets hit hard, typically for a home run (as if the pitcher had intentionally "served up" an easy one).
set position The posture a pitcher takes immediately before pitching. His hands are together in front of him and he is holding the ball in his pitching hand. His rear foot is on the rubber.
set the table To get runners on base ahead of the power hitters in the lineup.
setup pitcher A relief pitcher who is consistently used immediately before the closer.
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seventh-inning stretch The period between the top and bottom of the seventh inning, when the fans present traditionally stand up to stretch their legs. A sing-along of the song "Take Me Out to the Ball Game" has become part of this tradition, a practice most associated with Chicago broadcaster Harry Caray. Since the September 11, 2001 attacks in the United States, "God Bless America" is sometimes played in addition to, or in lieu of, "Take Me Out to the Ball Game" in remembrance of those who lost their lives in the attacks, especially at home games of the New York Yankees and New York Mets. This occurs on Opening Day, Memorial Day, July 4, Labor Day, September 11th, Sundays and during the All-Star Game, and post-season including the World Series. In Milwaukee, fans often sing "Roll Out the Barrel" after the traditional song, while Boston fans sing "Sweet Caroline" and Baltimore fans sing along to "Thank God I'm a Country Boy". At Kaufmann Stadium, Royals fans sing "Friends in Low Places". "OK Blue Jays" is sung at Toronto Blue Jays home games.
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shade A player (usually an outfielder) who positions himself slightly away from his normal spot in the field based on a prediction of where the batter might hit the ball he is said to "shade" toward right or left.
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shag Catching fly balls in the outfield when not involved in actual baseball games. "While the other pitchers looked bored just shagging flies, he was busting a few dance moves to the music coming over the loudspeakers." shake off A player, typically a pitcher, who has a bad game or series, may be said to be trying to shake off the experience and regain his usual performance level. Detroit News headline: "Miner Tries to Shake Off Poor Start".
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A pitcher who disagrees with the catcher's call for the next pitch may shake off the sign by shaking his head "no", thereby telling the catcher to call for a different pitch. If the pitcher shakes off several signs in a row, the catcher may call time out and walk to the mound to talk to the pitcher.
shell A pitcher who is giving up numerous hits, especially extra-base hits, is said to be getting shelled – as if under siege by enemy artillery.
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shift Where all infielders and/or outfielders position themselves clockwise or counter-clockwise from their usual position. This is to anticipate a batted ball from a batter who tends to hit to one side of the field. Also shade. In the case of some batters, especially with left-handed batters and the bases empty, managers have been known to shift fielders from the left side to the right side of the diamond. The most extreme case was the famous "Ted Williams shift" (also once called the "Lou Boudreau shift"). Cleveland Indians manager Boudreau moved six of seven fielders (including himself, the shortstop) to the right of second base, leaving just the leftfielder playing shallow, and daring Teddy Ballgame to single to left rather than trying to "hit it where they ain't" somewhere on the right side. Williams saw it as a challenge, a game within The Game, and seldom hit the ball to left on purpose in that circumstance.
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shine ball One way for a pitcher to doctor the ball is to rub one area of the ball hard to affect the ball's flight toward the plate.
shoestring catch When a fielder, usually an outfielder, catches a ball just before it hits the ground ("off his shoetops"), and remains running while doing so.
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short hop A ball that bounces immediately in front of an infielder. If the batter is a fast runner, an infielder may intentionally "short hop the ball" (take the ball on the short hop) to hasten his throw to first base. Balls may be short-hopped to turn a double play, but it may backfire sometimes. For example, Carlos Guillén had a ground ball that bounced to him, and he short hopped it, however, it went off his glove and went high in the air.
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short porch When one of the outfield walls is closer to home plate than normal, the stadium may be said to have a short porch. For example, Yankee Stadium has long had a short porch in right field.
short rest When a pitcher starts games with just a three- or four-day break, instead of the typical five between starts, he is said to have had a short rest. "The big story Tuesday night, by a long shot, was Dallas Keuchel pitching six shutout innings. In the Bronx. On short rest".
shorten his swing See "cut down on his swing".
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shorten the game A team that has a strong staff of relief pitchers is sometimes said to have the ability to shorten games: "The Tigers will be fearsome postseason opponents because of their bullpen's ability to shorten games." If the team gets ahead in the first six innings, its bullpen can be counted on to hold the lead; thus the opponent needs to grab an early lead to still have a chance in the last few innings to win the game.
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shot A home run, as in "Ryan Howard's 2-run shot gives him 39 home runs for the year." the show The major leagues. Particularly "in the Show". Or in "the Bigs" (big leagues, major leagues).
show bunt When a batter changes his stance so that he appears ready to bunt the ball, he's said to "show bunt". Sometimes this move is intended to make the infielders creep in toward home plate, but the hitter swings away instead. And sometimes it's intended to cause the pitcher to change his pitch. See also butcher boy.
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show me An easy-to-hit ball thrown by a pitcher to a batter who has fouled off many balls in that particular at-bat, so risking an excessive pitch count. While the likelihood of an extra-base hit is high, there is also a chance that the batter will strike out or put the ball in play where it can be fielded. Either way, a show-me pitch usually finishes the at-bat quickly.
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Also used to describe a specific pitch in a pitcher's repertoire that is weaker than their other offerings, particularly one that is rarely thrown. "Mahle's slider has always been more show-me pitch than put-away weapon." shutout According to the Dickson dictionary, the term derives from horseracing, in which a bettor arrives at the window too late to place a bet, due to the race already having started, so the bettor is said to be "shut out" (this specific usage was referenced in the film The Sting).
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A team shuts out its opponent when it prevents them from scoring any runs in a given game.
"Santana shut out the Royals with a 3-hitter" means that the Royals went scoreless as Santana pitched a complete-game shutout. The pitcher or pitchers on the winning team thus get statistical credit for an individual shutout or a combined-to-pitch-shutout, respectively.
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shuts the door When a pitcher, generally the closer, finishes the ballgame with a save or makes the last out (or fails to do so): "No one from the Brandeis bullpen was able to shut the door in the top of the ninth in Tuesday's game." Also used more generally to refer to a victory: "Thomas, Halladay slam door shut on Dodgers." side retired When the third out of an inning is called, the "side is retired" and the other team takes its turn at bat. A pitcher or a defensive team can be said to have "retired the side". The goal of any pitcher is to face just three batters and make three outs: to "retire the side in order", have a "one-two-three inning", or have "three up, three down".
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sidearmer A pitcher who throws with a sidearm motion, i.e., not a standard overhanded delivery.
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sign Non-verbal gestures used by catchers and coaches to communicate team strategy:A catcher is said to call the game by sending signs to the pitcher calling for a particular pitch. After he moves into his crouch, the catcher gives the sign by placing his non-glove hand between his legs and using his fist, fingers, wags, or taps against his inner thigh to tell the pitcher what type of pitch to throw (fastball, curve, etc.) as well as the location. A pitcher may shake off (shake his head "no" to) the initial sign or nod in agreement when he receives the sign that he wants before going into his windup. If there is a runner on second base, a catcher may change the location of his glove (from his knee to the ground, for example) to signal the pitcher that he is using an alternate set of signs so that the runner won't be able to steal the sign.
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A coach sends signs to players on the field, typically using a sequence of hand movements. He may send signs to offensive players, including batters and runners, about what to do on the next pitch—for example, to sacrifice bunt, to take or to swing away at the next pitch; to steal a base; or to execute a hit-and-run. He may send signs to the catcher to call for a pitchout or to intentionally walk the batter.
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single A one-base hit.
sinker A pitch, typically a fastball, that breaks sharply downward as it crosses the plate. Also see drop ball.
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sitting on a pitch A batter who is waiting for a particular type of pitch before swinging at it. He may be sitting in wait for, say, a curveball or a change-up, or a pitch thrown in a certain location, and he won't swing at anything else even if it's down the middle of the plate. Sometimes hitters who know a pitcher's pattern of pitches, or what type of pitch he likes to throw in a given count, sit on that particular pitch. This approach stems from the advice Rogers Hornsby gave to Ted Williams, telling him that the secret to hitting was simply to "wait for a good pitch to hit".
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situational hitting When a batter changes his strategy depending on the game situation: the inning, number of outs, number of men on base, or the score. He may not swing for the fences or even try to get a base hit, but instead make a sacrifice bunt or try to get a sacrifice fly or make contact with the ball in some other way.
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skids A team that is on the skids is having a losing streak, perhaps a severe one that threatens to ruin their chances at the playoffs or to drop them into the cellar. Headline: "Yankees Remain on the Skids". Also used in the singular, skid, for a losing streak or hitless streak: "Peralta's single in the fourth ended an 0-for-26 skid." skip A manager. Taken from the boating term skipper, the captain or commanding officer of a ship.
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sky Used as a verb: to hit a fly ball. "Sizemore skies one. . . .Caught by the right fielder." skyscraper A very high fly ball. Sometimes referred to as a "rainmaker" because it is so high it may touch the clouds.
slap hitter A hitter who sacrifices power for batting average, trying to make contact with the ball and "hit it where they ain't". Prime examples: Willie Keeler, Ty Cobb, Tony Gwynn, Pete Rose, Rod Carew, and Ichiro Suzuki.
slash line A representation of multiple baseball statistics separated by the slash, for example .330/.420/.505. The typical data represented are batting average / on-base percentage / slugging percentage. Also known as a triple slash. Slash is used as a verb meaning to effect a given slash line.
slice foul When a fly ball or line drive starts out over fair territory, then curves into foul territory due to aerodynamic force caused by spinning of the ball, imparted by the bat. A slice curves away from the batter (i.e.: it curves to the right for a right-handed batter and to the left for a left-handed batter).
slide When a runner drops to the ground when running toward a base to avoid a tag. Players also sometimes slide head-first into first base. If former St. Louis Cardinals pitcher and Hall of Famer Dizzy Dean had seen something like that, he'd probably have said the player never should have "slud into first".
A team having a losing streak is in a slide or on the skids.
slider A relatively fast pitch with a slight curve in the opposite direction of the throwing arm.
slug A slugger maintains a high slugging average. Just as a "perfect" batting average would be 1.000 (a thousand), a "perfect" slugging average would be 4.000 (four thousand).
A slugfest is an exceptionally high scoring game, perhaps with double digits for both teams; the opposite of a slugfest is a pitchers' duel.
slump An extended period when player or team is not performing well or up to expectations; a dry spell or drought.
slurve A cross between a slider and a curveball.
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small ball A strategy by which teams attempt to score runs using station-to-station, bunting and sacrifice plays; usually used in a situation where one run will either tie or win the game; manufacturing runs; close kin to inside baseball. "It's important for us to think small ball and hit behind runners, and also score with base hits, doubles, sacrifices—there are many ways to score", Alex Rodriguez said. "Later on, when it counts the most, it's hard only to score by home runs".
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smoke To smoke a batter is to throw a smoker (an inside fastball) for a called strike.
A pitcher who throws smoke throws the ball so hard the batter sees only its (imaginary) vapor trail.
snap throw A throw made by the catcher to either first or third base after a pitch in an attempt to pick off the runner.
snicker A type of foul ball in which the batter grazes ("snicks") the ball with the bat. The ball continues toward the catcher, with a slightly modified trajectory, making it a difficult catch.
snow cone A catch made with the ball barely caught in the tip of a glove's webbing. Sometimes referred to as an "ice cream cone".
snowman An 8-run inning as it appears on the scoreboard, like two large balls of snow stacked on top of one another.
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soft hands A fielder's ability to cradle the ball well in his glove. Contrast hard hands. "I was teaching the players to field the ball out front and 'give in' with the ball and bring it up to a throwing position. The analogy I used was to pretend the ball is an egg and give in with it. I consider this to be 'soft' hands." soft toss When a coach or teammate from a position adjacent the hitter throws a ball under-hand to allow the hitter to practice hitting into a net or fence.
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soft tosser A pitcher who doesn't have a really fast fastball. "Jones, a soft tosser when compared to the Tigers' other hard throwers, struck out Posada, retired Cano on a soft fly, and got Damon to fly out." solo home run A home run hit when there are no runners on base, so the batter circles the bases solo.
sophomore jinx The tendency for players to follow a good rookie season with a less-spectacular one. (This term is used outside the realm of baseball as well.) Two of the most notorious examples are Joe Charboneau and Mark Fidrych. The statistical term for the sophomore jinx is "regression to the mean".
southpaw Left-hander, especially a pitcher. Most baseball stadiums are built so that home plate is in the west and the outfield is in the east, so that when the sun sets it is not in the batter's eye. Because of this, a left-handed pitcher's arm is always facing south when he faces the plate. Thus he has a "southpaw".
spank To hit the ball, typically a line drive to the opposite field.
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To win a game handily or decisively. Headline: "Tigers Spank KC 13-1. Did the Royals Wave the White Flag?" sparkplug A fireplug. A player known for his aggressive, never-say-die attitude (though perhaps modest ability) who may help to spark his team into a rally or a win. "Versalles was the sparkplug that led the 1965 Twins to their first World Series." Spider Tack A sticky paste product designed for strongman competitions that has been illegally used by some pitchers to enhance their grip on the ball. Illegal grip enhancers have been used by spitball pitchers before, but Spider Tack specifically made headlines during the 2021 pitch doctoring controversy.
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speed merchant A fast player, often collecting stolen bases, bunt singles and/or infield hits.
spike A runner can "spike" an infielder by sliding into him and causing an injury with the spikes of his shoes.
spitter A spitball pitch in which the ball has been altered by the application of spit, petroleum jelly, or some other foreign substance.
split-finger A fastball that breaks sharply toward the ground just before reaching the plate due to the pitcher's grip; his first two fingers are spread apart to put a downward spin on the ball. Also called a forkball, splitter or Mr. Splitee.
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splits A player's splits are his performance statistics broken down or split into categories such as batting average against right-handed vs. left-handed pitchers, in home games vs. away games, or in day games vs. night games. When statistics are split in such a way they may reveal patterns that allow a manager to use (perhaps to platoon) a player strategically where he can be most effective. Sabermetricians may use such splits to investigate patterns that explain overall performance, including topics such as whether a pitcher may have doctored the ball during home games.
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spoil a pitch When a pitcher throws a strike over the plate that at first seems good enough to strike the batter out but the batter fouls it off, the batter may be said to "spoil the pitch". The usage is similar to that of "fighting off a pitch".
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spot starter A pitcher who starts an occasional game (perhaps only one game) who is not a regular starter in the rotation. This is a pitcher who is already on a team's roster and usually works as a relief pitcher. In contrast to a spot starter, who is already on the roster, an emergency starter is typically a player who is brought up from the minor leagues on very short notice because a regular starter is injured. Sometimes, however, even a player who is already on the roster may be referred to as an emergency starter if his starting role arises because the regularly scheduled starter has been injured.
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In recent years, the term "spot starter" has more commonly been used to describe a pitcher called up from the minors specifically to make one start before being optioned back down to the minors immediately following the game, particularly when the pitcher in question is the extra player added to the active roster for a scheduled doubleheader.
spray hitter A batter who hits line drives to all fields. Not a pull hitter.
Spring training In Major League Baseball, spring training consists of work-outs and exhibition games that precede the regular season. It serves the purpose of both auditioning players for final roster spots and giving players practice prior to competitive play. The managers and coaches use spring training to set their opening-day 25-man roster.
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square around When a batter turns his stance from being sideways to the pitcher's mound to facing the pitcher's mound. This is typically done when a batter prepares to bunt a ball, in particular when he intends to do a sacrifice bunt. "Whether you square around or pivot, you want to make sure you are in a comfortable and athletic position to bunt the ball. Your knees should be bent and your bat should be held out in front of your body. The barrel of the bat should be at the same height as your eyes and at the top of the strike zone".
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square up To get a good swing at the ball and hit it hard near the center of the ball. "It makes a big difference because you work hard to square a ball up, but they catch it or make a good play", Pierre said. "It takes the wind out of you a little bit and it makes him (Verlander) probably feel better, too".
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squeeze play A tactic used to attempt to score a runner from third on a bunt. There are two types of squeeze plays: suicide squeeze and safety squeeze. In a suicide squeeze, the runner takes off towards home plate as soon as the pitcher begins his throw toward home plate. In a safety squeeze, the runner waits until the batter makes contact with the ball before committing himself to try to reach home.
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squeeze the zone When an umpire calls balls and strikes as if the strike zone is smaller than usual, he's said to "squeeze the zone".
squibber A nubber. A batted ball that is either off the end of the bat or from a very late swing, which puts side spin on it as it rolls (typically toward the first or third baseman).
staff The pitching staff of a given team.
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stand-up double or triple (or standing/standing up) An extra-base hit in which the runner reaches base easily without needing to slide, i.e. remains standing up as he touches the bag. Also referred to simply as "standing" i.e. "the runner from 3rd base scores standing (up)." stance When a hitter steps into the batter's box, he typically stands a few inches from home plate with one shoulder facing the pitcher's mound. His particular manner of bending his knees or holding his bat is referred to as the batter's stance or hitting stance.
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A catcher typically crouches or squats behind home plate, holding his glove up as a target for the pitcher. This is referred to as a catcher's stance.
A pitcher's stance or pitching position involves how and where he stands on the mound, how his back foot toes the rubber, his windup, and his delivery.
stanza An inning. "In that stanza, however, the Tigers . . . clawed their way back into the ballgame." starting pitcher The "starter" is the first pitcher in the game for each team. (For a less frequently used strategy to start the game, see opener.) starting rotation Another term for rotation (the planned order of a team's starting pitchers).
station A player's assigned defensive position.
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station-to-station Oddly enough, this term can mean completely different things. It can be referred to as a close relative of inside baseball, where hit-and-runs and base-stealing are frequent. It can also mean its exact opposite, where a team takes fewer chances of getting thrown out on the bases by cutting down on steal attempts and taking the extra base on a hit; therefore, the team will maximise the number of runs scored on a homer.
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stathead Statheads use statistical methods to analyze baseball game strategy as well as player and team performance. They use the tools of sabermetrics to analyze baseball.
stats Short for "statistics", the numbers generated by the game: runs, hits, errors, strikeouts, batting average, earned run average, fielding average, etc. Most of the numbers used by players and fans are not true mathematical statistics, but the term is in common usage.
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stayed alive When a batter who already has two strikes swings at but fouls off a pitch, he may be said to have "stayed alive". He (or his at bat) will live to see another pitch. Similarly, when a team that is facing elimination from the playoffs wins a game, it may be said to have "stayed alive" to play another game.
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steady diet When a batter shows that it is easier to get him out with a certain type of pitch, he may receive a "steady diet" of that type of pitch thrown. Headline: "Phillies' Howard Gets a Steady Diet of Curveballs".
steaks RBIs. Derived from the common pronunciation of RBI as "ribbie", which was apparently once pronounced as Rib-eye.
steal See stolen base.
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stealing signs When a team that is at bat tries to see the sign the catcher is giving to the pitcher (indicating what type of pitch to throw), the team is said to be stealing signs. This may be done by a runner who is on base (typically second base) watching the catcher's signs to the pitcher and giving a signal of some kind to the batter. (To prevent this, the pitcher and catcher may change their signs when there is a runner on second base.) Sometimes a first-base or third-base coach might see a catcher's signs if the catcher isn't careful. In unusual cases, the signs may be read through binoculars by somebody sitting in the stands, perhaps in center field, and sending a signal to the hitter in some way.
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When a hitter is suspected of peeking to see how a catcher is setting up behind the plate as a clue to what pitch might be coming or what the intended location is, then the pitcher will usually send the hitter a message: stick it in his ear.
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stepping in the bucket A phrase for an "open" batting stance, in which the hitter's leading foot is aligned away from the plate (toward left field for a right-handed batter). The stance reduces power in the swing and slows the hitter's exit toward first base; however, many players believe it allows them to see the pitch better, and more naturally drive the ball to the opposite field.
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stick it in his ear "Stick it in his ear!" is a cry that may come from fans in the stands, appealing to the home team pitcher to be aggressive (throw the ball at the opposing batter). The line is attributed originally, however, to Leo Durocher.
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stick it in his pocket Said of an infielder who secures a batted or thrown ball, but chooses to hold the ball rather than throwing to try for an out. For example, a shortstop might range in the hole to field a ground ball, but then elect to "stick it in his pocket" rather than attempting to throw to first base to put out the batter-runner, whether to avoid the possibility of a throwing error or to prevent another runner on base from advancing on the throw. Often happens on a ball hit so slowly that, by the time it's fielded, the runner(s) have already advanced so far that a throw and catch for a force out is unlikely or impossible.
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sticky stuff Layman's term for illegal grip-enhancing substances used by pitchers such as pine tar, petroleum jelly, human saliva, and some resin-based products.
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stolen base In baseball, a stolen base (or "steal") occurs when a baserunner successfully advances to the next base while the pitcher is delivering the ball to home plate. In baseball statistics, stolen bases are denoted by SB. If the catcher thwarts the stolen base by throwing the runner out, the event is recorded as caught stealing (CS). Also see uncontested steal.
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stole first A batter who reaches first base following an uncaught third strike has (unofficially) "stolen" it.
stone fingers A fielder who misplays easy ground balls. Also see hard hands and tin glove.
stopper A team's best starting pitcher, called upon to stop a losing streak.
A team's closer.
stranded Another term for left on base.
streak A series of consecutive wins (a winning streak) or losses (a losing streak). Also, a string, especially if referring to a series of wins.
A series of games in which a batter gets a hit (hitting streak) or fails to get a hit (hitless streak), or accomplishes some other feat of interest (e.g., gets a stolen base or hits a home run).
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stretch To pitch from a stretch is to begin the pitching motion by facing sideways relative to home plate, raising one's arms at the elbow and bringing the glove hand and pitching hand together in a full stop, then hurling the ball toward the plate. This is the usual pitching motion when there are men on base, so that the pitcher can check on the runners before throwing home. Sometimes, however, pitchers use a stretch even when the bases are empty.
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For other uses of the word "stretch", see stretch a hit, stretch run, down the stretch, and seventh inning stretch.
stretch a hit To stretch a hit is to take an additional base on a hit, typically by aggressive running.
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stretch the lineup To stretch the lineup is to have strong hitters after the 3rd, 4th, and 5th places in the batting order, which are normally where the power hitters are found. "Victor goes out there every day and shows you why he is a professional hitter – he's never afraid to just take a base hit when that's what there for him", Leyland said. "Carlos lets us stretch our lineup with another professional hitter, and also a switch-hitter".
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stretch run The last part of the regular baseball season when teams are competing to reach the playoffs or championship. Perhaps derived from the term "home stretch" in horse racing or car racing when the horse (or car) comes out of the final turn and is racing toward the finish line. Headline: "Tigers eyeing help for stretch run" (The Tigers are seeking additional players as they approach the end of the season).
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strike When a batter swings at a pitch, but fails to hit it, when a batter does not swing at a pitch that is thrown within the strike zone, when the ball is hit foul and the strike count is less than 2 (a batter cannot strike out on a foul ball, however he can fly out), when a ball is bunted foul, regardless of the strike count, when the ball touches the batter as he swings at it, when the ball touches the batter in the strike zone, or when the ball is a foul tip.
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A particularly hard, accurate throw by a fielder attempting to put out a baserunner (or a particularly hard, accurate pickoff attempt by the pitcher) is sometimes referred to as throwing a strike.
strike out Of a pitcher, the throwing of three strikes in one plate appearance. This normally retires the batter, and counts as one out. However, it is possible for the hitter to strike out and still reach base, if the catcher drops the strikeout pitch.
Of a hitter, with a count of two strikes, to make a third strike by swinging at and missing a pitch, swinging at a pitch and tipping a foul ball directly into the catcher's mitt which is subsequently caught, taking a called strike, or bunting a ball foul.
strikeout pitch The last pitch of a strikeout; the third strike.
The type of pitch (specific to each pitcher) that he or she prefers to use as the last pitch of a strikeout. This is almost always a breaking pitch – a pitch that moves out of the strike zone, increasing the chance that the batter will swing and miss.
strikeout pitcher A pitcher who strikes out hitters a lot.
strike 'em out/throw 'em out A double play in which a batter strikes out and the catcher then immediately throws out a baserunner trying to steal. Sometimes this is called strikeout/double-play. Usually scored 2-6 or 2-4 for an out at second.
strike out the side A pitcher is said to have "struck out the side" when he retires all three batters in one inning by striking them out.
"All three" may mean that only three batters came to the plate (and struck out), but the phrase could refer to the three batters who made outs (regardless what happened to the others).
strike zone The imaginary prism over home plate used to "call" balls and strikes.
string A series of consecutive wins. A winning streak.
Any other series of consecutive events, such as strike-outs or scoreless innings.
struck out looking A batter called out on strikes without swinging on the third strike is said to have "struck out lookin'." Labeled with a backwards "K" by some scorecard keepers. Sports commentators have also been known to use the slang term "just browsing" when showing a batter that's "struck out looking" on SportsCenter or other related shows.
struck out swinging A batter called out on strikes when swinging at the third strike is said to have "struck out swinging". Usually labeled with the traditional forward "K" on scorecards.
struck out bunting A batter called out on strikes when the third strike resulted from a bunted ball that came to rest in foul territory.
stuff A pitcher's "stuff" is an overall evaluation of how effective his pitches are: "good stuff" when they are hard to hit, and "just stuff" or "lousy stuff" when they are not. More specifically, it refers to the movement of the ball in air of a breaking ball pitcher, and/or the speed of a fastball pitcher.
submarine A pitcher who throws with such a severe sidearm motion that the pitch comes from below his waist, sometimes near the ground. (A submariner does not throw underhanded, as in fastpitch softball.) See submarine.
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subway series When two teams from the same city or metropolitan area play a series of games, they are presumed to be so near to one another that they could take the subway to play at their opponent's stadium. Mets vs. Yankees would be (and is) called a subway series; a Cubs vs. White Sox series would be an "L" series; and a series between the Oakland A's and the San Francisco Giants would be (and was) the "BART" series. However, a series between the Los Angeles Dodgers and the Los Angeles Angels would not be a subway series, because there is no subway or other rail service between Dodger Stadium and Angel Stadium of Anaheim (not even the fabled but fanciful line between "Anaheim, Azusa and Cuc ... amonga"). Instead such a series is referred to as a freeway series.
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Sunday Funday After winning a weekend series in college baseball, the team will party Sunday night. This is because college teams play five nights a week and have no free time to party except on Sundays, because they can rest on their required Monday off day.
suicide squeeze A squeeze play in which the runner on third breaks for home on the pitch, so that, if the batter does not lay down a bunt, then the runner is an easy out (unless he steals home). Contrast this with the safety squeeze.
summer classic The Major League Baseball All-Star Game, also known as the Mid-Summer Classic. These annual games pit the all-stars of the National League against the all-stars of the American League, a concept designed to acknowledge and showcase the achievements of the best players in each league.
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sweep To win all the games in a series between two teams, whether during the regular 162-game season or during the league championships or World Series. During the regular season, pairs of teams typically square off in several 3- or 4-game series at the home parks of each team. It is also thus possible for one team to sweep a 3- or 4-game series, the "home series" (all the games a team plays at its home field against another given team), the "road series", or the "season series" between two teams. ("Sweep" was also used to mean winning both games of a doubleheader. Sweeps are also used for a college baseball team who wins all three games of a weekend series.) sweeper A pitch very similar to a slider, but with more horizontal movement.
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sweet spot The meat of the bat. "Batters know from experience that there is a sweet spot on the bat, about 17 centimetres (6.7 in) from the end of the barrel, where the shock of the impact, felt by the hands, is reduced to such an extent that the batter is almost unaware of the collision. At other impact points, the impact is usually felt as a sting or jarring of the hands and forearm, particularly if the impact occurs at a point well removed from the sweet spot". " 'I was ready for a fastball early in the count, because I knew he would go to his other stuff later", Santiago said. "I got one, and I just wanted to hit it on the sweet spot' ".
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swing When a batter is following his coach's advice to not bunt (never mind those runners), he is said to "swing away".
"Swing for the downs" means swing mightily – all or nothing.
Attempting a home run is to "swing for the fences".
"Swing from the heels" means swinging very hard, hoping for an extra base hit.
A "swingman" is a pitcher with relatively good stamina who can function as either a long reliever or a starter, e.g. Justin Masterson during his time with the Red Sox.
switch hitter A switch hitter can hit from either side of the plate, i.e. bats both left-handed and right-handed.
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tablesetter a player placed high in the batting order for his tendency to hit for average and steal bases is said to "set the table" for the power hitters behind him in the lineup.
an unexpected event early in a ball game, such as a defensive error or a hit batsmen, can be called a "tablesetter" for the outcome of the game.
tag A tag out. A runner is out if, while in jeopardy, a fielder touches him with a live ball or the hand or glove holding a live ball.
To hit the ball hard, typically for an extra-base hit.
tag up When a batter hits a ball that is caught before touching the ground (he is out) every runner must retreat back to the base he just left. Once he has touched that base (tagged up), he may legally advance again. If he fails to tag up he can be called out on appeal.
tailgate A catcher's butt. In the phrase "he didn't keep his tailgate down" an announcer means a pitched ball was very low or even hit the dirt and went between the catcher's legs.
take a pitch When a batter decides not to swing at a pitch, he "takes the pitch." He may do this following the instruction of a coach who has given him a take sign.
take sign The signal from a coach for the batter to not swing at the next pitch—to "take" it. Sometimes when a new pitcher or a reliever comes in, batters are given a general instruction to take the first pitch. Most often, they are told to take a pitch when the count is 3–0.
take something off the pitch To throw an off-speed pitch or to throw a given pitch slower than the pitcher usually throws it.
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take the bat out of his hands To issue an intentional walk. By doing so, a pitcher reduces the potential damage from allowing the batter to swing at and hit a pitch. "Buck Showalter took the bat out of Barry Bonds' hands with an unheard-of strategy – a bases-loaded intentional walk. Amazingly, the Arizona Diamondbacks manager got away with it." take the crown To win the championship, i.e. remove the current champions from the throne.
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take the field When the defensive players arrive at their positions at the beginning of a half-inning, they have "taken the field". (The pitcher "takes the hill".) take-out slide A slide performed for the purpose of hampering the play of the defense. A runner from first to second base will often try to "take out" the fielder at the base to disrupt his throw to first base and "break up the double play". Although the runner is supposed to stay within the base-paths, as long as he touches second base he has a lot of leeway to use his body. Runners in this situation usually need to slide in order to avoid being hit by the throw from second to first; but whether they do a "take-out slide" or come into the base with their spikes high in the air depends as much on their personal disposition as it does the situation. The title of a biography of Ty Cobb—"The Tiger Wore Spikes"—says something about how he ran the basepaths.Before the 2015 season, "runners were given a good deal of leeway when sliding into a base in an attempt to break up a double play." After some infielders were injured on rough plays during that season, notably when Chase Utley slid into Ruben Tejada during the National League Divisional playoffs and broke his leg, Major League Baseball instituted the "bona-fide slide" rule. The runner must make contact with the ground before reaching the base, he must be able to reach the base with a hand or foot, he must be able to remain on the base at the completion of the slide (except at home plate) and he must not change his path for the purpose of initiating contact with a fielder.
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tap To hit a slow or easy ground ball, typically to the pitcher: "Martinez tapped it back to the mound." A ball hit in this way is a tapper.
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tape measure home run An especially long home run. The term originated from a 1953 game in which Mickey Mantle hit a ball out of Griffith Stadium in Washington, D.C. The distance the ball flew was measured and the next day a picture of Mantle with a tape measure was published in the newspaper. A play-by-play announcer may also call a long home run a tape measure job. Although fans have always been interested in how far home runs may travel and in comparing the great home runs of the great and not-so-great home run hitters, the science of measuring home runs remains inexact.
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tater A home run. The term started to appear in the 1970s, specifically as "long tater". (The ball itself has been known as a "potato" or "tater" for generations.) tattoo To hit the ball very hard, figuratively to put a tattoo from the bat's trademark on the ball.
tax evader A deep fly ball which has a chance to become a base hit or home run. Said of Brett Lawrie's inside-the-park home run on 25 June 2016 when the ball was still in the air with its fate not yet certain.
TB Total bases.
tea party Conference on the mound, involving more players than just the pitcher and catcher, and sometimes coaches and managers. Also a pow wow.
tee off Easily hittable pitches are likened to stationary baseballs sitting on batting tees (or possibly golf tees, since this term is also part of the lexicon of golf), and therefore batters hitting such pitches are said to be 'teeing off'.
telegraph To tip one's pitches.
terminator A pitcher's "out pitch" (usually his best pitch); the one upon which he relies. Made famous by the movie Major League II.
Texas Leaguer A Texas Leaguer (or Texas League single) is a weakly hit fly ball that drops in for a single between an infielder and an outfielder. This is now more commonly referred to as a flare, blooper, or "bloop single". It is most colorfully called a 'gork shot' or a 'duck snort.' See blooper.
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Outfielder Ollie Pickering is credited with giving baseball the term "Texas Leaguer," a pejorative slang for a weak pop fly that lands unimpressively between an infielder and an outfielder for a base hit. According to the April 21, 1906, edition of The Sporting Life, John McCloskey, founder of the Texas League and then-manager of the Houston Mudcats – who would later go onto manage the St. Louis Cardinals – signed 22-year-old Pickering to play center field on the morning of May 21, 1892. That afternoon, Pickering turned in one of the most remarkable performances in the history of the Texas League, stringing together seven consecutive singles in one game, each a soft, looping fly ball that fell in no-man's land between either the first baseman and right fielder or the third baseman and left fielder. News of Pickering's feat spread quickly throughout the nation and the term "Texas Leaguer" became ingrained in the baseball lexicon. Pickering's seven consecutive singles in a game still stands as a Texas League record. Pickering would go on to play and manage for 30 years, with major league stops as an outfielder for the Louisville Colonels, Philadelphia A's, Cleveland Blues (now Guardians), St. Louis Browns and Washington Senators.
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third of an inning A concept in statistics to account for when a pitcher retires only one or two of the [at least] three batters in a full inning, e.g. 3.1 and 5.2 (for convenience in print; those represent 3+1⁄3 and 5+2⁄3 respectively).
three-bagger or three-base hit A triple.
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three true outcomes The three ways a plate appearance can end without fielders coming into play: walks, home runs, and strikeouts. Baseball Prospectus coined the term in homage to Rob Deer, who excelled at producing all three outcomes. The statistical result of the three true outcomes on a player's slash line is a low batting average, as well as an unusually high on-base percentage relative to the batting average. Traditionally, players with a high percentage of their plate appearances ending in one of the three true outcomes are underrated, as general managers often overestimate the harm in striking out, and underestimate the value of a walk.
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three up, three down To face just three batters in an inning. Having a "three up, three down inning" is the goal of any pitcher. Unlike in a 1-2-3 inning, batters are permitted to reach base so long as only three batters are faced by the pitcher. For instance, a single, then a strikeout, then a double play is a three up three down inning, but not a 1-2-3 inning. See also: side retired, 1-2-3 inning.
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through the wickets When a batted ball passes through the legs of a player on the field (most commonly an infielder) it's often said, "That one went right through the wickets." The term refers to the metal arches (called wickets) used in the game of croquet through which balls are hit. Letting the ball through his legs makes a baseball player look (and feel) inept, and the official scorekeeper typically records the play as an error.
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throw a clothesline When a fielder throws the ball so hard it appears to hardly arc at all, he has "thrown a clothesline". Akin to a line drive's being described as a rope or frozen rope.
throw him the chair Striking out a batter, causing him to sit down in the dugout.
thrower A pitcher who throws the ball hard in the direction of home plate but without much accuracy or command. Distinguished from a "pitcher", who may or may not throw the ball as hard but who has command and is likely to be more successful in getting batters out.
throwing seeds/throwing the pill/throwing BBs When a pitcher's fastball is so good it seems as though the baseball is the size of a seed (or pill or BB), and just about as hittable.
tie him up Getting a pitch in on the hitter's hands, making it impossible for him to swing.
tilt A game. A face-off between competitors, as in a joust. Headline: "Myers, Phillies beat Mets in key NL East tilt".
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time play A run can be scored on the same play as the third out, but only if the third out is not a force out, and is not made by the batter before reaching first base. In order for the run to count, the runner must reach home plate before the third out is made elsewhere on the field, so the play is known as a "time play".
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tin glove A poor fielding (defensive) player is often said to have a "tin glove", as if his baseball mitt was made of inflexible metal. This is a sarcastic reference to the gold glove awarded for defensive excellence.
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tipping When a pitcher inadvertently signals what type pitch is next, he is said to be "tipping" or "telegraphing" them. It may be something in his position on the rubber, his body lean, how he holds or moves his glove when going into the stretch, whether he moves his index finger outside his glove, or some aspect of his pitching motion. Akin to what is called a tell in poker: a habit, behavior, or physical reaction that gives other players more information about your hand.
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Coaches as well as players on the bench make a habit of watching everything an opposing pitcher is doing, looking for information that will allow them to forecast what kind of pitch is coming. When pitchers go through a bad spell, they may become paranoid that they're tipping their pitches to the opposing batters. A pitcher and coaches are likely to spend a lot of time studying film of the games to learn what the pitcher might be doing that tips his pitches.
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Pitchers will try to hide their grip even while delivering the ball. Rick Sutcliffe used to wind up in such a way that his body concealed the ball from the batter almost until the moment of release. In contrast, relief ace Dennis Eckersley, playing a psychological game, would hold the ball up in such a way that he purposely showed off the type of grip he had on it, essentially "daring" the batter to hit it.
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toe the slab To take the mound; to pitch. Sometimes expressed as "toe the rubber". Literally, to put the toe of his shoe on the rubber.
took the ball out of the catcher's glove When a batter swings a bit late, perhaps hitting the ball to the opposite field, a broadcaster may say he "took the ball out of the catcher's glove" (just before the catcher was able to catch it).
took the collar Went hitless. See collar.
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tomahawk To hit a high pitch, perhaps one that's out of the strike zone, so that the batter may appear to be swinging downwards as if his bat is a tomahawk. "Things started well for the Blue Jays in their first at-bat when Stairs tomahawked a Matsuzaka pitch on one bounce into the stands behind Fenway Park's famed Pesky's Pole for a ground-rule double." Kirby Puckett when asked by broadcaster Jim Kaat about his walk-off home run which won Game Six of the 1991 World Series, "I just tomahawked that ball, Kitty!" Tommy John surgery A type of reconstructive elbow surgery with estimated recovery time 14-18 months. Pitcher Tommy John was the first professional athlete to successfully undergo it.
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tools See 5-tool player.
tools of ignorance A catcher's gear.Different sources have credited Muddy Ruel and Bill Dickey with coining the phrase.
toolsy A player with many tools who hasn't matured yet.
TOOTBLAN A tongue-in-cheek term for when a baserunner commits a blunder that leads to him being tagged or forced out. It stands for "Thrown Out On The Basepaths Like A Nincompoop". It was created as part of an effort to determine what impact on-base outs had on a batter's on-base percentage.
top of the inning The first half of an inning during which the visiting team bats; derived from its position in the line score.
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top of the order batter A batter who has speed and a propensity to get on base, and who thus may be suited to be the lead-off or second hitter in the line-up. "I think Brett Jackson looks a lot more like a top of the order guy right now than a middle of the order guy, and he seems like a viable leadoff hitter based on his performance as a professional." top-step pitcher When a pitcher has reached a point where he's at risk of being pulled and replaced by another pitcher, the manager may be standing at the "top step" of the dugout, ready to go immediately to the mound after the next pitch.
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tore the cover off the ball Hit the ball so hard that the batter figuratively tore the cover off the ball. Also used in Ernest Thayer's famous "Casey at the Bat":"But Flynn let drive a single, to the wonderment of all, And Blake, the much despised, tore the cover off the ball ..." tossed When a player or manager is ordered by an umpire to leave a game, that player or manager is said to have been "tossed". Usually, this is the result of arguing with an umpire. Similar to being "red carded" in soccer. See ejected.
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total bases The sum of the number of bases advanced by a batter/runner on his own safe hits over a specified period of time, where a single = 1, a double = 2, a triple = 3, and a home run = 4. The quotient of total bases divided by at-bats is slugging average, a measure of hitting power. (It can be argued that total bases would include walks and steals.) touch all the bases To "touch all the bases" or "touch 'em all" is to hit a home run. (If a player fails to literally "touch 'em all" – if he misses a base during his home run trot – he can be called out on appeal).
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touched up A pitcher who gives up several hits may be said to have been "touched up".
touchdown A seven-run difference, derived from six points for a touchdown plus the extra point in American football. For example, a team ahead 10–3 is said to be "up by a touchdown".
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TR Throws right; used in describing a player's statistics, e.g. John Doe (TR, BR, 6', 172 lbs.) track down To field a ball, typically a ground ball that a fielder has to travel some distance to stop or a fly ball that an outfielder has to run far to catch. "Mike Cameron, Milwaukee Brewers, can track down flies with the best centerfielders in baseball today." trap When a fielder attempts to catch a batted baseball in the air but the ball hits the ground just before it enters the fielder's glove, the fielder is said to have "trapped the ball". Sometimes it is difficult for the umpire to tell whether the ball was caught for an out or instead trapped. "Any outfielder worth his salt always makes the catch of the sinking line drive by rolling over and raising his glove triumphantly. It does not matter if he trapped the ball. It does not matter that the replay shows he trapped the ball. What is important is the success of the deception at that moment so that the umpire calls the batter out." triple A three-base hit.
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triple crown A batter who (at season's end) leads the league in three major categories: home runs, runs batted in, and batting average.
A pitcher who (at season's end) leads the league in three major categories: earned run average, wins, and strikeouts.
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triple play When three outs are made on one play. This is rare. While a typical game may have several double plays, a typical season has only a few triple plays. This is primarily because the circumstances are rather specific—that there be at least two runners, and no outs, and that typically one of these circumstances occurs: (1) the batter hits a sharp grounder to the third baseman, who touches the base, throws to second base to get the second out, and the second baseman or shortstop relays the ball to first quickly enough to get the batter-runner for the third out (also called a 5-4-3 or 5-6-3 triple play, respectively); OR (2) the runners are off on the pitch, in a hit-and-run play, but an infielder catches the ball on a line-drive out, and relays to the appropriate bases in time to get two other runners before they can retreat to their bases. The latter situation can also yield an extremely rare unassisted triple play, of which 14 have occurred in the entire history of major league baseball. A second baseman or shortstop will catch the ball, his momentum will carry him to second base to make the second out, and he will run and touch the runner from first before the runner can fully regain his momentum and turn around back to first.
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turn two To execute a double play.
twin bill A doubleheader.
twin killing A double play.
Winning both ends of a doubleheader.
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twirler An old fashioned term for a pitcher. In the early years, pitchers would often twirl their arms in a circle one or more times before delivering the ball, literally using a "windup", in the belief it would reduce stress on their arms. The terms "twirler" and "twirling" faded along with that motion. The modern term "hurler" is effectively the substitute term.
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two away or two down When there are two outs in the inning.
two-bagger or two-base hit A double.
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two-seam fastball A fastball held in such a way that it breaks slightly downward, and most often away from the pitcher's arm, as it crosses the plate. A sinker. A two-seamer. Due to the grip, generally with or along the two straight seams, as opposed to a four seamer, which is gripped across the horseshoe, the batter sees only one pair of seams spinning instead of two.
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two-sport player Many college athletes play two sports, but it is rare for someone to play two major league professional sports well or simultaneously. Sometimes players have brief major league trial periods in two professional sports but quickly drop one of them. Some "two-sport" players who played multiple major league baseball seasons have been Jim Thorpe, Brian Jordan, Gene Conley, Bo Jackson, Danny Ainge, Ron Reed, Deion Sanders and Mark Hendrickson. Although Michael Jordan tried to become a major league baseball player after his first retirement from the National Basketball Association, he didn't make the big leagues and did not try to play both baseball and basketball at the same time.
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two-way player A term borrowed from American football to describe either a player who can pitch and hit well, or a player who can pitch and play another defensive position well. The most famous Major League ballplayer who was truly a two-way player was Babe Ruth. He started his career as an outstanding pitcher and later played in the outfield—and was one of the greatest home run hitters of all time.
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The term is sometimes used to describe a player who is good at both offense and defense: "Manager Jim Leyland said during the season that he believes Inge has the potential to become one of the league's best two-way players."
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UA or U.A.
Abbreviation for Union Association, a one-year (1884) major league.
Uecker seats Spectator seating offering a very poor box seats and learns that his ticket is actually for a seat in the back row of the right field upper deck.
ugly finder A foul ball hit into a dugout, presumably to "find" someone who is ugly or to render him that way if he fails to dodge the ball.
ukulele hitter A weak hitter – banjo hitter, Punch and Judy hitter. "Wolff: Ukulele Hitter Makes Hall of Fame as Broadcaster".
ultimate grand slam A grand slam by a member of the home team when they are exactly three runs behind in the bottom of the final inning, thus overcoming a 3-run deficit and winning the game with one swing. See also walk-off home run.
umpire "The ump" is in charge of a game, as are members of his crew ("refs" in most other sports).
unassisted play When a fielder single-handedly executes a play which is more often completed by multiple fielders. For example, with a runner on first base, a ground ball is hit to the shortstop who then steps on second base, completing a force out. Unassisted double plays are rare, and unassisted triple plays are extremely rare.
Uncle Charlie A curveball.
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uncontested steal, undefended steal If a base runner successfully advances to the next base while the pitcher is delivering the ball to home plate but the catcher does not attempt to throw him out, then the steal may be scored as an uncontested or undefended steal. In the game's statistics, the runner would not be credited with a stolen base. Also called defensive indifference. See also stolen base, fielder's choice.
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up The player at bat or on his way there.
"Batter up!": Start the inning (says an umpire).
Three up, three down: Three batters came to the plate and all three are out.
A team in the lead is "up" by some number of runs.
Called up, a player has been promoted from the minors to the majors.
up and in Same as high and tight.
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up in the zone A pitch to the upper part of the strike zone. "When Miller throws his fastball up in the zone, opponents are hitting .079 (6-for-76) and have missed on 36 percent of swings (league average is .232). When his fastball is down or in the middle of the strike zone, opponents hit .270 with a miss rate of 15 percent." up the middle (adverb) Said of a ball batted through the middle of the infield, i.e. over or near second base and toward or into the outfield.
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upper decker A home run that lands in the stadium's upper deck.
A dip of tobacco placed in the upper lip.
uppercut When a batter's swing moves upward as the bat moves forward. "The looping or uppercut swing is most common when the hitter 'loads up his swing' in order to hit with more power." upstairs A high pitch, usually above the strike zone.
up the elevator shaft A high pop-up directly over the batter.
up the middle The area near an imaginary line from home plate through the pitcher's mound and second base into center field. General managers typically build teams "up the middle", i.e. strength at catcher, second base, shortstop, and center field.
utility A player (usually a bench player) who can play several different positions.
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visit A team (and their fans) in another team's home stadium are "visiting" as "the visitors".
A conference with a pitcher is referred to as a "visit to the mound".
VORP Value Over Replacement Player, Keith Woolner's method of evaluating baseball players. VORP ranks players by comparing their run production (for batters) to that of an imaginary "replacement-level" player that teams can acquire for the league-minimum salary.
vulture A reliever who records wins in late innings by being the pitcher of record in the midst of a comeback.
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waiting for the express and caught the local A batter caught looking at an off-speed pitch for strike three, when the game situation called for (or the batter was expecting) a fastball.
wallop A home run. Also used as a verb: "Albert Pujols walloped that pitch." walk A base on balls.
walk-off A home team immediately wins the game when they score a run to take the lead in the bottom of the last inning.
warning track The dirt and finely-ground gravel area along the fence, intended to help prevent fielders from running into it.
warning track power The lack of "home run power" when a batter can only hit a fly ball that is caught at the warning track, just missing a home run.
waste a pitch When a pitcher gets ahead in the count he may deliberately throw the ball outside the strike zone, hoping the batter will chase it. "Waste a pitch", the opposite of attack the strike zone, is the counterpart to a batter's "taking" a 3-0 pitch.
The phrase is sometimes applied also to hitters who deliberately foul off a strike to get good wood.
wave To swing and miss a pitch, usually with a tentative swing.
When an umpire signals to a runner to take a base on an overthrow into the dug-out or in case of a ground rule double or a balk, he waves the runner to the next base.
When a third-base coach signals to a runner advancing toward the base to continue toward home plate he is said to wave the runner home.
"Doing the wave" in the stands.
wearing a pitch When a batter allows a pitch to hit them, or knowingly drops their elbow or shoulder into the pitch to be awarded first base.
Sometimes if a player jumps out of the way of a pitch you may hear his teammates telling him to, "wear it!" from the dugout.
web gem An outstanding defensive play. Refers to the webbing of a glove. Popularized by Baseball Tonight on ESPN.
went deep Hit a home run. See go deep.
went fishing When a batter reaches across the plate trying to hit an outside pitch (and misses) he "went fishing" for it.
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wheelhouse A hitter's power zone. Usually a pitch waist-high and over the heart of the plate. "Clem threw that one right into Ruben's wheelhouse. End of story." wheel play Upon a bunt to the left side of the infield, the third-baseman runs toward home to field the bunt, and the shortstop runs to third base to cover. The infielders thus rotate like a wheel. "Lohse's bunt was a bad one, in the air over the head of Beltré, but it required Andrus to make an outstanding pick, stopping in his tracks as he was headed to cover third on the wheel play and then throwing to first." wheels Legs. A player who runs the bases fast "has wheels".
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whiff A swinging strike (referring to the bat whiffing through the air without contacting the ball).
whiffout A swinging third strike.
whip A curveball.
See Walks plus hits per inning pitched.
whitewash A shutout.
wild card wild in the strike zone A pitcher who throws strikes but without sufficient control over their location is "wild in the strike zone". Headline: "Zambrano Is Too Wild in Strike Zone".
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wild pitch A wild pitch (abbreviated WP) is charged to a pitcher when, in the opinion of the official scorer, a pitch is too high, too low, or too wide of home plate for the catcher to catch the ball with ordinary effort, and which allows one or more runners to advance; or allows the batter to advance to first base, if it is a third strike with first base unoccupied. Neither a passed ball nor a wild pitch is charged as an error. It is a separate statistic.
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win See Win–loss record (pitching) window shopping Caught looking for strike three.
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windup In baseball, there are two legal pitching positions: the windup, and the set. The choice of pitching position may be tactical, as the windup has a generally slower execution than the set and is thus at greater risk of allowing a stolen base. However, some pitchers, particularly relief pitchers, are more comfortable pitching from the set position, and thus use it regardless of the situation.
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winning record A team that has won 82 games this year is having a winning season, because now they can lose the rest and still not have a total of that many losses.
winning streak A series of consecutive wins.
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winter leagues Leagues with their seasons held during the off-season of Major League Baseball include: Arizona Fall League, Australian Baseball League, Dominican Winter Baseball League, Mexican Pacific League, Panamanian Professional Baseball League, Puerto Rico Baseball League, Venezuelan Professional Baseball League, Nicaraguan Professional Baseball League, and Colombian Professional Baseball League. Defunct winter leagues include the Cuban League and California Winter League.
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wire-to-wire A phrase borrowed from horse racing. It refers to a team's leading a game from the first inning to the end of the game, or leading their division (or league) from the first two or three weeks of the season to the end of the season. Also sometimes used to refer to a pitcher's throwing a complete game, especially a shut-out.
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wood The bat. See get good wood.
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work the count When a batter is patient and tries to get ahead in the count, or to get a pitch that he can hit hard, he's said to "work the count" or to "work the pitcher". Tigers Manager Jim Leyland: "We tell our hitters to be aggressive all the time, and at the same time we tell them, 'Work the pitcher.'" worm burner A hard hit ground ball that "burns" the ground. A daisy cutter.
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worm killer A pitch, usually an off speed or breaking ball, that hits the ground before it reaches home plate.
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wrapped around the foul pole When a batted ball that goes for a home run passes just inside the foul pole while curving toward foul territory, it is sometimes described as having "wrapped around" the pole. (The ball may actually land in foul territory, but if it passed inside the pole it is still fair. This however was not the case before 1931.) WW Scoresheet notation for "wasn't watching", used by non-official scorekeepers when their attention has been distracted from the play on field. Supposedly used frequently by former New York Yankees broadcaster Phil Rizzuto.
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yacker/yakker A curveball with a big break.
yank To pull a fair ball down the foul line. "Damian Miller then yanked a double just inside the third-base bag and down the line, scoring both runners." yard The baseball field. A home run has "left the yard", and whoever hit it went yard. "Doing yardwork" is hitting many home runs or otherwise exhibiting power.
yellow hammer A sharp-breaking curveball. Named after the yellowhammer, a bird that dives steeply to catch prey.
yips A condition in which a player, usually a pitcher, loses control over the direction of his throws. "Rick Ankiel was transitioned to a position player due to developing a case of the yips on the mound."
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zeroes A no-hitter or perfect game, so called because the line score shown on the scoreboard is 0–0–0, though it is subjective when referring to a no-hitter and perfect games, because the opposing team can make errors. However, it will normally show as 0–0–0 (no runs, no hits, no errors) on the scoreboard.
zinger A hard-hit line drive base hit zip Speed. A pitcher with a good fastball is said to have zip on the ball.
zone The strike zone.
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A pitcher is said to be "in the zone" not only by throwing strikes but by maintaining his focus and throwing pitches that get batters out. "You hear about pitchers being in the zone and stuff like that, and that's what I was doing. I was zoned in. I was throwing the right pitch every time, and until the kid got the hit, I honestly didn't even realize." | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Tokyo-X**
Tokyo-X:
Tokyo-X is a Japanese breed of domestic pig, bred for high quality pork production. It is unusual for its marbled meat, seldom seen in pork.
The Tokyo-X breeding effort was begun in 1990 by the Tokyo Metropolitan Livestock Experiment Station, combining bloodlines from the Duroc (USA), Berkshire (UK), and Beijing Black (China) breeds. Five generations of breeding and selection ended in 1997 when the breed went to market.
Tokyo-X was also featured on the Japanese television program Iron Chef, where the cooks had to use it as an ingredient in each of their dishes. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Monotone convergence theorem**
Monotone convergence theorem:
In the mathematical field of real analysis, the monotone convergence theorem is any of a number of related theorems proving the convergence of monotonic sequences (sequences that are non-decreasing or non-increasing) that are also bounded. Informally, the theorems state that if a sequence is increasing and bounded above by a supremum, then the sequence will converge to the supremum; in the same way, if a sequence is decreasing and is bounded below by an infimum, it will converge to the infimum.
Convergence of a monotone sequence of real numbers:
Lemma 1 If a sequence of real numbers is increasing and bounded above, then its supremum is the limit.
Convergence of a monotone sequence of real numbers:
Proof Let (an)n∈N be such a sequence, and let {an} be the set of terms of (an)n∈N . By assumption, {an} is non-empty and bounded above. By the least-upper-bound property of real numbers, sup {\textstyle c=\sup _{n}\{a_{n}\}} exists and is finite. Now, for every ε>0 , there exists N such that aN>c−ε , since otherwise c−ε is an upper bound of {an} , which contradicts the definition of c . Then since (an)n∈N is increasing, and c is its upper bound, for every n>N , we have |c−an|≤|c−aN|<ε . Hence, by definition, the limit of (an)n∈N is sup {\textstyle \sup _{n}\{a_{n}\}.} Lemma 2 If a sequence of real numbers is decreasing and bounded below, then its infimum is the limit.
Convergence of a monotone sequence of real numbers:
Proof The proof is similar to the proof for the case when the sequence is increasing and bounded above.
Theorem If (an)n∈N is a monotone sequence of real numbers (i.e., if an ≤ an+1 for every n ≥ 1 or an ≥ an+1 for every n ≥ 1), then this sequence has a finite limit if and only if the sequence is bounded.
Proof "If"-direction: The proof follows directly from the lemmas.
"Only If"-direction: By (ε, δ)-definition of limit, every sequence (an)n∈N with a finite limit L is necessarily bounded.
Convergence of a monotone series:
Theorem If for all natural numbers j and k, aj,k is a non-negative real number and aj,k ≤ aj+1,k, then: 168 lim lim j→∞aj,k.
Convergence of a monotone series:
The theorem states that if you have an infinite matrix of non-negative real numbers such that the columns are weakly increasing and bounded, and for each row, the series whose terms are given by this row has a convergent sum,then the limit of the sums of the rows is equal to the sum of the series whose term k is given by the limit of column k (which is also its supremum). The series has a convergent sum if and only if the (weakly increasing) sequence of row sums is bounded and therefore convergent.
Convergence of a monotone series:
As an example, consider the infinite series of rows (1+1n)n=∑k=0n(nk)1nk=∑k=0n1k!×nn×n−1n×⋯×n−k+1n, where n approaches infinity (the limit of this series is e). Here the matrix entry in row n and column k is (nk)1nk=1k!×nn×n−1n×⋯×n−k+1n; the columns (fixed k) are indeed weakly increasing with n and bounded (by 1/k!), while the rows only have finitely many nonzero terms, so condition 2 is satisfied; the theorem now says that you can compute the limit of the row sums (1+1/n)n by taking the sum of the column limits, namely 1k!
Beppo Levi's lemma:
The following result is due to Beppo Levi, who proved a slight generalization in 1906 of an earlier result by Henri Lebesgue. In what follows, BR≥0 denotes the σ -algebra of Borel sets on [0,+∞] . By definition, BR≥0 contains the set {+∞} and all Borel subsets of R≥0.
Theorem Let (Ω,Σ,μ) be a measure space, and X∈Σ . Consider a pointwise non-decreasing sequence {fk}k=1∞ of (Σ,BR≥0) -measurable non-negative functions fk:X→[0,+∞] , i.e., for every k≥1 and every x∈X ,0≤fk(x)≤fk+1(x)≤∞.
Set the pointwise limit of the sequence {fn} to be f . That is, for every x∈X := lim k→∞fk(x).
Then f is (Σ,BR≥0) -measurable and lim k→∞∫Xfkdμ=∫Xfdμ.
Remark 1. The integrals may be finite or infinite.
Remark 2. The theorem remains true if its assumptions hold μ -almost everywhere. In other words, it is enough that there is a null set N such that the sequence {fn(x)} non-decreases for every x∈X∖N.
Beppo Levi's lemma:
To see why this is true, we start with an observation that allowing the sequence {fn} to pointwise non-decrease almost everywhere causes its pointwise limit f to be undefined on some null set N . On that null set, f may then be defined arbitrarily, e.g. as zero, or in any other way that preserves measurability. To see why this will not affect the outcome of the theorem, note that since μ(N)=0, we have, for every k, ∫Xfkdμ=∫X∖Nfkdμ and ∫Xfdμ=∫X∖Nfdμ, provided that f is (Σ,BR≥0) -measurable.: section 21.38 (These equalities follow directly from the definition of Lebesgue integral for a non-negative function).
Beppo Levi's lemma:
Remark 3. Under assumptions of the theorem, (Note that the second chain of equalities follows from Remark 5).
Remark 4. The proof below does not use any properties of Lebesgue integral except those established here. The theorem, thus, can be used to prove other basic properties, such as linearity, pertaining to Lebesgue integration.
Remark 5 (monotonicity of Lebesgue integral). In the proof below, we apply the monotonic property of Lebesgue integral to non-negative functions only. Specifically (see Remark 4), let the functions f,g:X→[0,+∞] be (Σ,BR≥0) -measurable.
If f≤g everywhere on X, then ∫Xfdμ≤∫Xgdμ.
If X1,X2∈Σ and X1⊆X2, then ∫X1fdμ≤∫X2fdμ.
Proof. Denote SF (h) the set of simple (Σ,BR≥0) -measurable functions s:X→[0,∞) such that 0≤s≤h everywhere on X.
1. Since f≤g, we have SF SF (g).
By definition of Lebesgue integral and the properties of supremum, sup sup s∈SF(g)∫Xsdμ=∫Xgdμ.
2. Let 1X1 be the indicator function of the set X1.
It can be deduced from the definition of Lebesgue integral that ∫X2f⋅1X1dμ=∫X1fdμ if we notice that, for every s∈SF(f⋅1X1), s=0 outside of X1.
Combined with the previous property, the inequality f⋅1X1≤f implies ∫X1fdμ=∫X2f⋅1X1dμ≤∫X2fdμ.
Proof This proof does not rely on Fatou's lemma; however, we do explain how that lemma might be used. Those not interested in this independency of the proof may skip the intermediate results below.
Intermediate results Lebesgue integral as measure Lemma 1. Let (Ω,Σ,μ) be a measurable space. Consider a simple (Σ,BR≥0) -measurable non-negative function s:Ω→R≥0 . For a subset S⊆Ω , define ν(S)=∫Ssdμ.
Beppo Levi's lemma:
Then ν is a measure on Ω Proof Monotonicity follows from Remark 5. Here, we will only prove countable additivity, leaving the rest up to the reader. Let S=⋃i=1∞Si , where all the sets Si are pairwise disjoint. Due to simplicity, s=∑i=1nci⋅1Ai, for some finite non-negative constants ci∈R≥0 and pairwise disjoint sets Ai∈Σ such that ⋃i=1nAi=Ω . By definition of Lebesgue integral, ν(S)=∑i=1nci⋅μ(S∩Ai)=∑i=1nci⋅μ((⋃j=1∞Sj)∩Ai)=∑i=1nci⋅μ(⋃j=1∞(Sj∩Ai)) Since all the sets Sj∩Ai are pairwise disjoint, the countable additivity of μ gives us ∑i=1nci⋅μ(⋃j=1∞(Sj∩Ai))=∑i=1nci⋅∑j=1∞μ(Sj∩Ai).
Beppo Levi's lemma:
Since all the summands are non-negative, the sum of the series, whether this sum is finite or infinite, cannot change if summation order does. For that reason, ∑i=1nci⋅∑j=1∞μ(Sj∩Ai)=∑j=1∞∑i=1nci⋅μ(Sj∩Ai)=∑j=1∞∫Sjsdμ=∑j=1∞ν(Sj), as required.
"Continuity from below" The following property is a direct consequence of the definition of measure.
Lemma 2. Let μ be a measure, and S=⋃i=1∞Si , where S1⊆⋯⊆Si⊆Si+1⊆⋯⊆S is a non-decreasing chain with all its sets μ -measurable. Then lim iμ(Si).
Proof of theorem Step 1. We begin by showing that f is (Σ,BR≥0) –measurable.: section 21.3 Note. If we were using Fatou's lemma, the measurability would follow easily from Remark 3(a).
To do this without using Fatou's lemma, it is sufficient to show that the inverse image of an interval [0,t] under f is an element of the sigma-algebra Σ on X , because (closed) intervals generate the Borel sigma algebra on the reals. Since [0,t] is a closed interval, and, for every k , 0≤fk(x)≤f(x) ,0≤f(x)≤t⇔[∀k0≤fk(x)≤t].
Thus, {x∈X∣0≤f(x)≤t}=⋂k{x∈X∣0≤fk(x)≤t}.
Being the inverse image of a Borel set under a (Σ,BR≥0) -measurable function fk , each set in the countable intersection is an element of Σ . Since σ -algebras are, by definition, closed under countable intersections, this shows that f is (Σ,BR≥0) -measurable, and the integral ∫Xfdμ is well defined (and possibly infinite).
Step 2. We will first show that lim k∫Xfkdμ.
The definition of f and monotonicity of {fk} imply that f(x)≥fk(x) , for every k and every x∈X . By monotonicity (or, more precisely, its narrower version established in Remark 5; see also Remark 4) of Lebesgue integral, ∫Xfdμ≥∫Xfkdμ, and lim k∫Xfkdμ.
Note that the limit on the right exists (finite or infinite) because, due to monotonicity (see Remark 5 and Remark 4), the sequence is non-decreasing.
End of Step 2.
We now prove the reverse inequality. We seek to show that lim k∫Xfkdμ .Proof using Fatou's lemma. Per Remark 3, the inequality we want to prove is equivalent to lim inf lim inf k∫Xfkdμ.
But the latter follows immediately from Fatou's lemma, and the proof is complete.
Independent proof. To prove the inequality without using Fatou's lemma, we need some extra machinery. Denote SF (f) the set of simple (Σ,BR≥0) -measurable functions s:X→[0,∞) such that 0≤s≤f on X Step 3. Given a simple function SF (f) and a real number t∈(0,1) , define Bks,t={x∈X∣t⋅s(x)≤fk(x)}⊆X.
Then Bks,t∈Σ , Bks,t⊆Bk+1s,t , and X=⋃kBks,t Step 3a. To prove the first claim, let s=∑i=1mci⋅1Ai , for some finite collection of pairwise disjoint measurable sets Ai∈Σ such that X=∪i=1mAi , some (finite) non-negative constants ci∈R≥0 , and 1Ai denoting the indicator function of the set Ai For every x∈Ai, t⋅s(x)≤fk(x) holds if and only if fk(x)∈[t⋅ci,+∞].
Given that the sets Ai are pairwise disjoint, Bks,t=⋃i=1m(fk−1([t⋅ci,+∞])∩Ai).
Since the pre-image fk−1([t⋅ci,+∞]) of the Borel set [t⋅ci,+∞] under the measurable function fk is measurable, and σ -algebras, by definition, are closed under finite intersection and unions, the first claim follows.
Step 3b. To prove the second claim, note that, for each k and every x∈X , fk(x)≤fk+1(x).
Step 3c. To prove the third claim, we show that X⊆⋃kBks,t Indeed, if, to the contrary, X⊈⋃kBks,t , then an element x0∈X∖⋃kBks,t=⋂k(X∖Bks,t) exists such that fk(x0)<t⋅s(x0) , for every k . Taking the limit as k→∞ , we get f(x0)≤t⋅s(x0)<s(x0).
But by initial assumption, s≤f . This is a contradiction.
Step 4. For every simple (Σ,BR≥0) -measurable non-negative function s2 lim n∫Bns,ts2dμ=∫Xs2dμ.
To prove this, define ν(S)=∫Ss2dμ . By Lemma 1, ν(S) is a measure on Ω . By "continuity from below" (Lemma 2), lim lim nν(Bns,t)=ν(X)=∫Xs2dμ, as required.
Step 5. We now prove that, for every SF (f) lim k∫Xfkdμ.
Indeed, using the definition of Bks,t , the non-negativity of fk , and the monotonicity of Lebesgue integral (see Remark 5 and Remark 4), we have ∫Bks,tt⋅sdμ≤∫Bks,tfkdμ≤∫Xfkdμ, for every k≥1 . In accordance with Step 4, as k→∞ , the inequality becomes lim k∫Xfkdμ.
Taking the limit as t↑1 yields lim k∫Xfkdμ, as required.
Step 6. We are now able to prove the reverse inequality, i.e.
lim k∫Xfkdμ.
Indeed, by non-negativity, f+=f and 0.
For the calculation below, the non-negativity of f is essential. Applying the definition of Lebesgue integral and the inequality established in Step 5, we have sup SF lim k∫Xfkdμ.
The proof is complete. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**CWTS Leiden Ranking**
CWTS Leiden Ranking:
The CWTS Leiden Ranking is an annual global university ranking based exclusively on bibliometric indicators. The rankings are compiled by the Centre for Science and Technology Studies (Dutch: Centrum voor Wetenschap en Technologische Studies, CWTS) at Leiden University in the Netherlands. The Clarivate Analytics bibliographic database Web of Science is used as the source of the publication and citation data.The Leiden Ranking ranks universities worldwide by number of academic publications according to the volume and citation impact of the publications at those institutions. The rankings take into account differences in language, discipline and institutional size. Multiple ranking lists are released according to various bibliometric normalization and impact indicators, including the number of publications, citations per publication, and field-normalized impact per publication. In addition to citation impact, the Leiden Ranking also ranks universities by scientific collaboration, including collaboration with other institutions and collaboration with an industry partner.The first edition of the Leiden Ranking was produced in 2007. The 2014 rankings include 750 universities worldwide, which were selected based on the number of articles and reviews published by authors affiliated with those institutions in 2009–2012 in so-called "core" journals, a set of English-language journals with international scope and a "sufficiently large" number of references in the Web of Science database.According to the Netherlands Centre for Science and Technology Studies, the crown indicator is Indicator 4 (PP top 10%), and is the only one presented in university rankings by the Swiss State Secretariat for Education, Research and Innovation website (UniversityRankings.ch).
Results:
As in other university rankings, Leiden's top 20 is heavily dominated by American universities. In the 2014 rankings, Rockefeller University was first by citation impact, as measured by both mean citation score and mean normalized citation score, as well as by the proportion of papers belonging to the top 10% in their field. Notably, the University of Oxford, the University of Cambridge, and other British universities score much lower than in other university rankings, such as the Times Higher Education World University Rankings and QS World University Rankings, which are based in part on reputational surveys among academics.When measuring by collaboration with other universities (the proportion of number of publications co-authored with other institutions), the top three spots were occupied by National Yang-Ming University and two other institutions from Taiwan in 2014, followed by universities from France, the United Kingdom and a number of other European countries. King Abdulaziz University and King Saud University in Saudi Arabia led the list in 2014 when measured by international collaboration.
Indicators:
The Leiden Ranking ranks universities by the following indicators: Citation impact MCS – mean citation score. The average number of citations of the publications of a university.
MNCS – mean normalized citation score. The average number of citations of the publications of a university, normalized for field differences and publication year. For example, an MNCS value of 2 means that the publications of a university have been cited twice above world average.
PP(top 10%) – proportion of top 10% publications. The proportion of the publications of a university that belong to the top 10% most frequently cited, compared with other publications in the same field and in the same year.
Scientific collaboration PP(collab) – proportion of interinstitutionally collaborative publications. The proportion of the publications of a university that have been co-authored with one or more other organizations.
PP(int collab) – proportion of internationally collaborative publications. The proportion of the publications of a university that have been co-authored by two or more countries.
PP(UI collab) – proportion of collaborative publications with industry. The proportion of the publications of a university that have been co-authored with one or more industrial partners.
PP(<100 km) – proportion of short-distance collaborative publications. The proportion of the publications of a university with a geographical collaboration distance of less than 100 km.
PP(>1000 km) – proportion of long-distance collaborative publications. The proportion of the publications of a university with a geographical collaboration distance of more than 1000 km.
Criticism:
In a 2010 article, Loet Leydesdorff criticized the method used by the Leiden Ranking to normalize citation impact by subject field. The mean normalized citation score (MNCS) indicator is based on the ISI subject category classification used in Web of Science, which was "not designed for the scientometric evaluation, but for the purpose of information retrieval". Also, normalizing at a higher aggregation level, rather than at the level of individual publications, gives more weight to older publications, particularly reviews, and to publications in fields where citation levels are traditionally higher. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Soil chemistry**
Soil chemistry:
Soil chemistry is the study of the chemical characteristics of soil. Soil chemistry is affected by mineral composition, organic matter and environmental factors. In the early 1870s a consulting chemist to the Royal Agricultural Society in England, named J. Thomas Way, performed many experiments on how soils exchange ions, and is considered the father of soil chemistry. Other scientists who contributed to this branch of ecology include Edmund Ruffin, and Linus Pauling.
History:
Until the late 1960s, soil chemistry focused primarily on chemical reactions in the soil that contribute to pedogenesis or that affect plant growth. Since then, concerns have grown about environmental pollution, organic and inorganic soil contamination and potential ecological health and environmental health risks. Consequently, the emphasis in soil chemistry has shifted from pedology and agricultural soil science to an emphasis on environmental soil science.
Environmental soil chemistry:
A knowledge of environmental soil chemistry is paramount to predicting the fate of contaminants, as well as the processes by which they are initially released into the soil. Once a chemical is exposed to the soil environment, myriad chemical reactions can occur that may increase or decrease contaminant toxicity. These reactions include adsorption/desorption, precipitation, polymerization, dissolution, hydrolysis, hydration, complexation and oxidation/reduction. These reactions are often disregarded by scientists and engineers involved with environmental remediation. Understanding these processes enable us to better predict the fate and toxicity of contaminants and provide the knowledge to develop scientifically correct, and cost-effective remediation strategies.
Key concepts:
Soil structure Soil structure refers to the manner in which these individual soil particles are grouped together to form clusters of particles called aggregates. This is determined by the types of soil formation, parent material, and texture. Soil structure can be influenced by a wide variety of biota as well as management methods by humans.
Formation of aggregates Aggregates can form under varying conditions and differ from each other in soil horizon and structure Natural aggregates results in what are called peds, whereas artificial aggregates are called clods.
Clods are formed due to disturbance of the field by ploughing or digging.
Microbial activity also influences the formation of aggregates.
Types of Soil structure The classification of soil structural forms is based largely on shape.
Spheroidal structure: sphere-like or rounded in shape. All the axes are approximately of the same dimensions, with curved and irregular faces. These are found commonly in cultivated fields.
Key concepts:
Crumb structure: small and are like crumbs of bread due to them being porous Granular structure: less porous than crumb structure aggregates and are more durable than crumb structure aggregates Plate-like structure: mainly horizontally aligned along plant based areas, with thin units being laminar and the thick units of the aggregates are classified as platy. Platy structures are usually found in the surface and sometimes in the lower sub-soils.
Key concepts:
Block-like structure: particles that are arranged around a central point are enclosed by surfaces that may be either flat or somewhat rounded. These types are generally found in subsoil.
Sub angular blocky: corners are more rounded than the angular blocky aggregates Prism-like structure: particles that are longer than they are wide, with the vertical axis being greater than the horizontal axis. They are commonly found in subsoil horizon of arid and semi-arid region soils.
Key concepts:
Prismatic: more angular and hexagonal at the top of the aggregate Columnar: particles that are rounded at the top of the aggregate Minerals The mineral components of the soil are derived from the parental rocks or regolith. The minerals present about 90% of the total weight of the soil. Some important elements, which are found in compound state, are oxygen, iron, silicon, aluminium, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, carbon, hydrogen, etc.
Key concepts:
The formation of primary and secondary minerals can better define what minerals are in the rock composition Soil pores The interactions of the soil's micropores and macropores are important to soil chemistry, as they allow for the provision of water and gaseous elements to the soil and the surrounding atmosphere. Macropores help transport molecules and substances in and out of the micropores. Micropores are comprised within the aggregates themselves.
Key concepts:
Soil water Water is essential for organisms within the soil profile, and it partially fills up the macropores in an ideal soil.
Leaching of the soil occurs as water carries along with it ions deeper into the lower soil horizons, causing the soil to become more oxidized in other soil horizons.
Water also will go from a higher water potential to a lower water potential, this can result in capillarity activity and gravitational force occurring with the water due to adhesion of the water to the soil surface and cohesion amongst the water molecules.
Key concepts:
Air/Atmosphere The atmosphere contains three main gases, namely oxygen, carbon dioxide (CO2) and nitrogen. In the atmosphere, oxygen is 20%, nitrogen is 79% and CO2 is 0.15% to 0.65% by volume. CO2 increases with the increase in the depth of soil because of decomposition of accumulated organic matter and abundance of plant roots. The presence of oxygen in the soil is important because it helps in breaking down insoluble rocky mass into soluble minerals and organic humification. Air in the soil is composed of gases that are present in the atmosphere, but not in the same proportions. These gases facilitate chemical reactions in microorganisms. Accumulation of soluble nutrients in the soil makes it more productive. If the soil is deficient in oxygen, microbial activity is slowed down or eliminated. Important factors controlling the soil atmosphere are temperature, atmospheric pressure, wind/aeration and rainfall.
Key concepts:
Soil texture Soil texture influences the soil chemistry pertaining to the soil's ability to maintain its structure, the restriction of water flow and the contents of the particles in the soil. Soil texture considers all particle types and a soil texture triangle is a chart that can be used to calculate the percentages of each particle type adding up to total 100% for the soil profile. These soil separates differ not only in their sizes but also in their bearing on some of the important factors affecting plant growth such as soil aeration, work ability, movement and availability of water and nutrients.
Key concepts:
Sand Sand particles range in size (about 0.05mm-2mm). Sand is the most coarse of the particle groups. Sand has the largest pores and soil particles of the particle groups. It also drains the most easily. These particles become more involved in chemical reactions when coated with clay.
Silt Silt particles range in size (about 0.002mm-0.5mm). Silt pores are considered a medium in size compared with the other particle groups. Silt has a texture consistency of flour. Silt particles allow water and air to pass readily, yet retain moisture for crop growth. Silty soil contains sufficient quantities of nutrients, both organic and inorganic.
Clay Clay has particles smallest in size (about <0.002mm) of the particle groups. Clay also has the smallest pores which give it a greater porosity, and it does not drain well. Clay has a sticky texture when wet. Some kinds can grow and dissipate, or in other words shrink and swell.
Loam Loam is a combination of sand, silt and clay that encompasses soils. It can be named based on the primary particles in the soil composition, ex. sandy loam, clay loam, silt loam, etc.
Key concepts:
Biota Biota are organisms that, along with organic matter, help comprise the biological system of the soil. The vast majority of biological activity takes place near the soil surface, usually in the A horizon of a soil profile. Biota rely on inputs of organic matter in order to sustain themselves and increase population sizes. In return, they contribute nutrients to the soil, typically after it has been cycled in the soil trophic food web.
Key concepts:
With the many different interactions that take place, biota can largely impact their environment physically, chemically, and biologically (Pavao-Zuckerman, 2008). A prominent factor that helps to provide some degree of stability with these interactions is biodiversity, a key component of all ecological communities. Biodiversity allows for a consistent flow of energy through trophic levels and strongly influences the structure of ecological communities in the soil.
Key concepts:
Soil organisms Types of living soil biota can be divided into categories of plants (flora), animals (fauna), and microorganisms. Plants play a role in soil chemistry by exchanging nutrients with microorganisms and absorbing nutrients, creating concentration gradients of cations and anions. In addition to this, the differences in water potential created by plants influence water movement in soil, which affects the form and transportation of various particles. Vegetative cover on the soil surface greatly reduces erosion, which in turn prevents compaction and helps to maintain aeration in the soil pore space, providing oxygen and carbon to the biota and cation exchange sites that depend on it (Peri et al., 2022). Animals are essential to soil chemistry, as they regulate the cycling of nutrients and energy into different forms. This is primarily done through food webs. Some types of soil animals can be found below.
Key concepts:
Detritivores Examples include millipedes, woodlice, and dung beetles Decomposers Examples include fungi, earthworms, and bacteria Protozoans Examples include amoeba, euglena, and parameciumSoil microbes play a major role in a multitude of biological and chemical activities that take place in soil. These microorganisms are said to make up around 1,000-10,000 kg of biomass per hectare in some soils (García-Sánchez, 2016). They are mostly recognized for their association with plants. The most well-known example of this is mycorrhizae, which exchange carbon for nitrogen with plant roots in a symbiotic relationship. Additionally, microbes are responsible for the majority of respiration that takes place in the soil, which has implications for the release of gases like methane and nitrous oxide from soil (giving it significance in discussion of climate change) (Frouz et al.,2020). Given the significance of the effects of microbes on their environment, the conservation and promotion of microbial life is often desired by many plant growers, conservationists, and ecologists.
Key concepts:
Soil Organic Matter Soil organic matter is the largest source of nutrients and energy in a soil. Its inputs strongly influence key soil factors such as types of biota, pH, and even soil order. Soil organic matter is often strategically applied by plant growers because of its ability to improve soil structure, supply nutrients, manage pH, increase water retention, and regulate soil temperature (which directly affects water dynamics and biota).
Key concepts:
The chief elements found in humus, the product of organic matter decomposition in soil, are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, sulphur and nitrogen. The important compound found in humus are carbohydrates, phosphoric acid, some organic acids, resins, urea etc. Humus is a dynamic product and is constantly changing because of its oxidation, reduction and hydrolysis; hence, it has much carbon content and less nitrogen. This material can come from a variety of sources, but often derives from livestock manure and plant residues.
Key concepts:
Though there are many other variables, such as texture, soils that lack sufficient organic matter content are susceptible to soil degradation and drying, as there is nothing supporting the soil structure. This often leads to a decline in soil fertility and an increase in erodibility. Other associated concepts: Anion and cation exchange capacity Soil pH Mineral formation and transformation processes and pedogenesis Clay mineralogy Sorption and precipitation reactions in soil Chemistry of problem soils C/N ratio Erosion and soil degradation Soil cycle Many plant nutrients in soil undergo biogeochemical cycles throughout their environment. These cycles are influenced by water, gas exchange, biological activity, immobilization, and mineralization dynamics, but each element has its own course of flow (Deemy et al., 2022). For example, nitrogen moves from an isolated gaseous form to the compounds nitrate and nitrite as it moves through soil and becomes available to plants. In comparison, an element like phosphorus transfers in mineral form, as it is contained in rock material. These cycles also greatly vary in mobility, solubility, and the rate at which they move through their natural cycles. Together, they drive all of the processes of soil chemistry.
Key concepts:
Elemental cycles Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium Sulfur Calcium Magnesium Iron Boron Manganese Copper Zinc Nickel Chlorine
Methods of investigation:
New knowledge about the chemistry of soils often comes from studies in the laboratory, in which soil samples taken from undisturbed soil horizons in the field are used in experiments that include replicated treatments and controls. In many cases, the soil samples are air dried at ambient temperatures (e.g., 25 °C (77 °F)) and sieved to a 2 mm size prior to storage for further study. Such drying and sieving soil samples markedly disrupts soil structure, microbial population diversity, and chemical properties related to pH, oxidation-reduction status, manganese oxidation state, and dissolved organic matter; among other properties. Renewed interest in recent decades has led many soil chemists to maintain soil samples in a field-moist condition and stored at 4 °C (39 °F) under aerobic conditions before and during investigations.Two approaches are frequently used in laboratory investigations in soil chemistry. The first is known as batch equilibration. The chemist adds a given volume of water or salt solution of known concentration of dissolved ions to a mass of soil (e.g., 25 mL of solution to 5 g of soil in a centrifuge tube or flask). The soil slurry then is shaken or swirled for a given amount of time (e.g., 15 minutes to many hours) to establish a steady state or equilibrium condition prior to filtering or centrifuging at high speed to separate sand grains, silt particles, and clay colloids from the equilibrated solution. The filtrate or centrifugate then is analyzed using one of several methods, including ion specific electrodes, atomic absorption spectrophotometry, inductively coupled plasma spectrometry, ion chromatography, and colorimetric methods. In each case, the analysis quantifies the concentration or activity of an ion or molecule in the solution phase, and by multiplying the measured concentration or activity (e.g., in mg ion/mL) by the solution-to-soil ratio (mL of extraction solution/g soil), the chemist obtains the result in mg ion/g soil. This result based on the mass of soil allows comparisons between different soils and treatments. A related approach uses a known volume to solution to leach (infiltrate) the extracting solution through a quantity of soil in small columns at a controlled rate to simulate how rain, snow meltwater, and irrigation water pass through soils in the field. The filtrate then is analyzed using the same methods as used in batch equilibrations.Another approach to quantifying soil processes and phenomena uses in situ methods that do not disrupt the soil. as occurs when the soil is shaken or leached with an extracting soil solution. These methods usually use surface spectroscopic techniques, such as Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance, Mössbauer spectroscopy, and X-ray spectroscopy. These approaches aim to obtain information on the chemical nature of the mineralogy and chemistry of particle and colloid surfaces, and how ions and molecules are associated with such surfaces by adsorption, complexation, and precipitation.These laboratory experiments and analyses have an advantage over field studies in that chemical mechanisms on how ions and molecules react in soils can be inferred from the data. One can draw conclusions or frame new hypotheses on similar reactions in different soils with diverse textures, organic matter contents, types of clay minerals and oxides, pH, and drainage condition. Laboratory studies have the disadvantage that they lose some of the realism and heterogeneity of undisturbed soil in the field, while gaining control and the power of extrapolation to unstudied soil. Mechanistic laboratory studies combined with more realistic, less controlled, observational field studies often yield accurate approximations of the behavior and chemistry of the soils that may be spatially heterogeneous and temporally variable. Another challenge faced by soil chemists is how microbial populations and enzyme activity in field soils may be changed when the soil is disturbed, both in the field and laboratory, particularly when soils samples are dried prior to laboratory studies and analysis. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Probability in the Engineering and Informational Sciences**
Probability in the Engineering and Informational Sciences:
Probability in the Engineering and Informational Sciences is an international journal published by Cambridge University Press. The founding Editor-in-chief is Sheldon M. Ross. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Micellar liquid chromatography**
Micellar liquid chromatography:
Micellar liquid chromatography (MLC) is a form of reversed phase liquid chromatography that uses an aqueous micellar solutions as the mobile phase.
Theory:
The use of micelles in high performance liquid chromatography was first introduced by Armstrong and Henry in 1980. The technique is used mainly to enhance retention and selectivity of various solutes that would otherwise be inseparable or poorly resolved. Micellar liquid chromatography (MLC) has been used in a variety of applications including separation of mixtures of charged and neutral solutes, direct injection of serum and other physiological fluids, analysis of pharmaceutical compounds, separation of enantiomers, analysis of inorganic organometallics, and a host of others.
Theory:
One of the main drawbacks of the technique is the reduced efficiency that is caused by the micelles. Despite the sometimes poor efficiency, MLC is a better choice than ion-exchange LC or ion-pairing LC for separation of charged molecules and mixtures of charged and neutral species. Some of the aspects which will be discussed are the theoretical aspects of MLC, the use of models in predicting retentive characteristics of MLC, the effect of micelles on efficiency and selectivity, and general applications of MLC.
Theory:
Reverse phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC) involves a non-polar stationary phase, often a hydrocarbon chain, and a polar mobile or liquid phase. The mobile phase generally consists of an aqueous portion with an organic addition, such as methanol or acetonitrile. When a solution of analytes is injected into the system, the components begin to partition out of the mobile phase and interact with the stationary phase. Each component interacts with the stationary phase in a different manner depending upon its polarity and hydrophobicity. In reverse phase HPLC, the solute with the greatest polarity will interact less with the stationary phase and spend more time in the mobile phase. As the polarity of the components decreases, the time spent in the column increases. Thus, a separation of components is achieved based on polarity. The addition of micelles to the mobile phase introduces a third phase into which the solutes may partition.
Micelles:
Micelles are composed of surfactant, or detergent, monomers with a hydrophobic moiety, or tail, on one end, and a hydrophilic moiety, or head group, on the other. The polar head group may be anionic, cationic, zwitterionic, or non-ionic. When the concentration of a surfactant in solution reaches its critical micelle concentration (CMC), it forms micelles which are aggregates of the monomers. The CMC is different for each surfactant, as is the number of monomers which make up the micelle, termed the aggregation number (AN). Table 1 lists some common detergents used to form micelles along with their CMC and AN where available.
Micelles:
Many of the characteristics of micelles differ from those of bulk solvents. For example, the micelles are, by nature, spatially heterogeneous with a hydrocarbon, nearly anhydrous core and a highly solvated, polar head group. They have a high surface-to-volume ratio due to their small size and generally spherical shape. Their surrounding environment (pH, ionic strength, buffer ion, presence of a co-solvent, and temperature) has an influence on their size, shape, critical micelle concentration, aggregation number and other properties.Another important property of micelles is the Kraft point, the temperature at which the solubility of the surfactant is equal to its CMC. For HPLC applications involving micelles, it is best to choose a surfactant with a low Kraft point and CMC. A high CMC would require a high concentration of surfactant which would increase the viscosity of the mobile phase, an undesirable condition. Additionally, a Kraft point should be well below room temperature to avoid having to apply heat to the mobile phase. To avoid potential interference with absorption detectors, a surfactant should also have a small molar absorptivity at the chosen wavelength of analysis. Light scattering should not be a concern due to the small size, a few nanometers, of the micelle.The effect of organic additives on micellar properties is another important consideration. A small amount of organic solvent is often added to the mobile phase to help improve efficiency and to improve separations of compounds. Care needs to be taken when determining how much organic to add. Too high a concentration of the organic may cause the micelle to disperse, as it relies on hydrophobic effects for its formation. The maximum concentration of organic depends on the organic solvent itself, and on the micelle. This information is generally not known precisely, but a generally accepted practice is to keep the volume percentage of organic below 15-20%.
Research:
Fischer and Jandera studied the effect of changing the concentration of methanol on CMC values for three commonly used surfactants. Two cationic, hexadecyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB), and N-(a-carbethoxypentadecyl) trimethylammonium bromide (Septonex), and one anionic surfactant, sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS) were chosen for the experiment. Generally speaking, the CMC increased as the concentration of methanol increased. It was then concluded that the distribution of the surfactant between the bulk mobile phase and the micellar phase shifts toward the bulk as the methanol concentration increases. For CTAB, the rise in CMC is greatest from 0–10% methanol, and is nearly constant from 10–20%. Above 20% methanol, the micelles disaggregate and do not exist. For SDS, the CMC values remain unaffected below 10% methanol, but begin to increase as the methanol concentration is further increased. Disaggregation occurs above 30% methanol. Finally, for Septonex, only a slight increase in CMC is observed up to 20%, with disaggregation occurring above 25%.As has been asserted, the mobile phase in MLC consists of micelles in an aqueous solvent, usually with a small amount of organic modifier added to complete the mobile phase. A typical reverse phase alkyl-bonded stationary phase is used. The first discussion of the thermodynamics involved in the retention mechanism was published by Armstrong and Nome in 1981. In MLC, there are three partition coefficients which must be taken into account. The solute will partition between the water and the stationary phase (KSW), the water and the micelles (KMW), and the micelles and the stationary phase (KSM).
Research:
Armstrong and Nome derived an equation describing the partition coefficients in terms of the retention factor, formally capacity factor, k¢. In HPLC, the capacity factor represents the molar ratio of the solute in the stationary phase to the mobile phase. The capacity factor is easily measure based on retention times of the compound and any unretained compound. The equation rewritten by Guermouche et al. is presented here: 1/k¢ = [n • (KMW-1)/(f • KSW)] • CM +1/(f • KSW)Where: k¢ is the capacity factor of the solute KSW is the partition coefficient of the solute between the stationary phase and the water KMW is the partition coefficient of the solute between the micelles and the water f is the phase volume ratio (stationary phase volume/mobile phase volume) n is the molar volume of the surfactant CM is the concentration of the micelle in the mobile phase (total surfactant concentration - critical micelle concentration)A plot of 1/k¢ verses CM gives a straight line in which KSW can be calculated from the intercept and KMW can be obtained from the ratio of the slope to the intercept. Finally, KSM can be obtained from the ratio of the other two partition coefficients: KSM = KSW/ KMWAs can be observed from Figure 1, KMW is independent of any effects from the stationary phase, assuming the same micellar mobile phase.The validity of the retention mechanism proposed by Armstrong and Nome has been successfully, and repeated confirmed experimentally. However, some variations and alternate theories have also been proposed. Jandera and Fischer developed equations to describe the dependence of retention behavior on the change in micellar concentrations. They found that the retention of most compounds tested decreased with increasing concentrations of micelles. From this, it can be surmised that the compounds associate with the micelles as they spend less time associated with the stationary phase.Foley proposed a similar retentive model to that of Armstrong and Nome which was a general model for secondary chemical equilibria in liquid chromatography. While this model was developed in a previous reference, and could be used for any secondary chemical equilibria such as acid-base equilibria, and ion-pairing, Foley further refined the model for MLC. When an equilibrant (X), in this case surfactant, is added to the mobile phase, a secondary equilibria is created in which an analyte will exist as free analyte (A), and complexed with the equilibrant (AX). The two forms will be retained by the stationary phase to different extents, thus allowing the retention to be varied by adjusting the concentration of equilibrant (micelles).The resulting equation solved for capacity factor in terms of partition coefficients is much the same as that of Armstrong and Nome: 1/k¢ = (KSM/k¢S) • [M] + 1/k¢SWhere: k¢ is the capacity factor of the complexed solute and the free solute k¢S is the capacity factor of the free solute KSM is the partition coefficient of the solute between the stationary phase and the micelle [M] may be either the concentration of surfactant or the concentration of micelleFoley used the above equation to determine the solute-micelle association constants and free solute retention factors for a variety of solutes with different surfactants and stationary phases. From this data, it is possible to predict the type and optimum surfactant concentrations needed for a given solute or solutes.Foley has not been the only researcher interested in determining the solute-micelle association constants. A review article by Marina and Garcia with 53 references discusses the usefulness of obtaining solute-micelle association constants. The association constants for two solutes can be used to help understand the retention mechanism. The separation factor of two solutes, a, can be expressed as KSM1/KSM2. If the experimental a coincides with the ratio of the two solute-micelle partition coefficients, it can be assumed that their retention occurs through a direct transfer from the micellar phase to the stationary phase. In addition, calculation of a would allow for prediction of separation selectivity before the analysis is performed, provided the two coefficients are known.The desire to predict retention behavior and selectivity has led to the development of several mathematical models. Changes in pH, surfactant concentration, and concentration of organic modifier play a significant role in determining the chromatographic separation. Often one or more of these parameters need to be optimized to achieve the desired separation, yet the optimum parameters must take all three variables into account simultaneously. The review by Garcia-Alvarez-Coque et al. mentioned several successful models for varying scenarios, a few of which will be mentioned here. The classic models by Armstrong and Nome and Foley are used to describe the general cases. Foley's model applies to many cases and has been experimentally verified for ionic, neutral, polar and nonpolar solutes; anionic, cationic, and non-ionic surfactants, and C8, C¬18, and cyano stationary phases. The model begins to deviate for highly and lowly retained solutes. Highly retained solutes may become irreversibly bound to the stationary phase, where lowly retained solutes may elute in the column void volume.Other models proposed by Arunyanart and Cline-Love and Rodgers and Khaledi describe the effect of pH on the retention of weak acids and bases. These authors derived equations relating pH and micellar concentration to retention. As the pH varies, sigmoidal behavior is observed for the retention of acidic and basic species. This model has been shown to accurately predict retention behavior. Still other models predict behavior in hybrid micellar systems using equations or modeling behavior based on controlled experimentation. Additionally, models accounting for the simultaneous effect of pH, micelle and organic concentration have been suggested. These models allow for further enhancement of the optimization of the separation of weak acids and bases.One research group, Rukhadze, et al. derived a first order linear relationship describing the influence of micelle and organic concentration, and pH on the selectivity and resolution of seven barbiturates. The researchers discovered that a second order mathematical equation would more precisely fit the data. The derivations and experimental details are beyond the scope of this discussion. The model was successful in predicting the experimental conditions necessary to achieve a separation for compounds which are traditionally difficult to resolve.Jandera, Fischer, and Effenberger approached the modeling problem in yet another way. The model used was based on lipophilicity and polarity indices of solutes. The lipophilicity index relates a given solute to a hypothetical number of carbon atoms in an alkyl chain. It is based and depends on a given calibration series determined experimentally. The lipophilicity index should be independent of the stationary phase and organic modifier concentration. The polarity index is a measure of the polarity of the solute-solvent interactions. It depends strongly on the organic solvent, and somewhat on the polar groups present in the stationary phase. 23 compounds were analyzed with varying mobile phases and compared to the lipophilicity and polarity indices. The results showed that the model could be applied to MLC, but better predictive behavior was found with concentrations of surfactant below the CMC, sub-micellar.A final type of model based on molecular properties of a solute is a branch of quantitative structure-activity relationships (QSAR). QSAR studies attempt to correlate biological activity of drugs, or a class of drugs, with structures. The normally accepted means of uptake for a drug, or its metabolite, is through partitioning into lipid bilayers. The descriptor most often used in QSAR to determine the hydrophobicity of a compound is the octanol-water partition coefficient, log P. MLC provides an attractive and practical alternative to QSAR. When micelles are added to a mobile phase, many similarities exist between the micellar mobile phase/stationary phase and the biological membrane/water interface. In MLC, the stationary phase become modified by the adsorption of surfactant monomers which are structurally similar to the membranous hydrocarbon chains in the biological model. Additionally, the hydrophilic/hydrophobic interactions of the micelles are similar to that in the polar regions of a membrane. Thus, the development of quantitative structure-retention relationships (QRAR) has become widespread.Escuder-Gilabert et al. tested three different QRAR retention models on ionic compounds. Several classes of compounds were tested including catecholamines, local anesthetics, diuretics, and amino acids. The best model relating log K and log P was found to be one in which the total molar charge of a compound at a given pH is included as a variable. This model proved to give fairly accurate predictions of log P, R > 0.9. Other studies have been performed which develop predictive QRAR models for tricyclic antidepressants and barbiturates.
Efficiency:
The main limitation in the use of MLC is the reduction in efficiency (peak broadening) that is observed when purely aqueous micellar mobile phases are used. Several explanations for the poor efficiency have been theorized. Poor wetting of the stationary phase by the micellar aqueous mobile phase, slow mass transfer between the micelles and the stationary phase, and poor mass transfer within the stationary phase have all been postulated as possible causes. To enhance efficiency, the most common approaches have been the addition of small amounts of isopropyl alcohol and increase in temperature. A review by Berthod studied the combined theories presented above and applied the Knox equation to independently determine the cause of the reduced efficiency. The Knox equation is commonly used in HPLC to describe the different contributions to overall band broadening of a solute. The Knox equation is expressed as: h = An^(1/3)+ B/n + CnWhere: h = the reduced plate height count (plate height/stationary phase particle diameter) n = the reduced mobile phase linear velocity (velocity times stationary phase particle diameter/solute diffusion coefficient in the mobile phase) A, B, and C are constants related to solute flow anisotropy (eddy diffusion), molecular longitudinal diffusion, and mass transfer properties respectively.Berthod's use of the Knox equation to experimentally determine which of the proposed theories was most correct led him to the following conclusions. The flow anisotropy in micellar phase seems to be much greater than in traditional hydro-organic mobile phases of similar viscosity. This is likely due to the partial clogging of the stationary phase pores by adsorbed surfactant molecules. Raising the column temperature served to both decrease viscosity of the mobile phase and the amount of adsorbed surfactant. Both results reduce the A term and the amount of eddy diffusion, and thereby increase efficiency.The increase in the B term, as related to longitudinal diffusion, is associated with the decrease in the solute diffusion coefficient in the mobile phase, DM, due to the presence of the micelles, and an increase in the capacity factor, k¢. Again, this is related to surfactant adsorption on the stationary phase causing a dramatic decrease in the solute diffusion coefficient in the stationary phase, DS. Again an increase in temperature, now coupled with an addition of alcohol to the mobile phase, drastically decreases the amount of the absorbed surfactant. In turn, both actions reduce the C term caused by a slow mass transfer from the stationary phase to the mobile phase. Further optimization of efficiency can be gained by reducing the flow rate to one closely matched to that derived from the Knox equation. Overall, the three proposed theories seemed to have contributing effects of the poor efficiency observed, and can be partially countered by the addition of organic modifiers, particularly alcohol, and increasing the column temperature.
Applications:
Despite the reduced efficiency verses reversed phase HPLC, hundreds of applications have been reported using MLC. One of the most advantageous is the ability to directly inject physiological fluids. Micelles have an ability to solubilize proteins which enables MLC to be useful in analyzing untreated biological fluids such as plasma, serum, and urine. Martinez et al. found MLC to be highly useful in analyzing a class of drugs called b-antagonists, so called beta-blockers, in urine samples. The main advantage of the use of MLC with this type of sample, is the great time savings in sample preparation. Alternative methods of analysis including reversed phase HPLC require lengthy extraction and sample work up procedures before analysis can begin. With MLC, direct injection is often possible, with retention times of less than 15 minutes for the separation of up to nine b-antagonists.Another application compared reversed phase HPLC with MLC for the analysis of desferrioxamine in serum. Desferrioxamine (DFO) is a commonly used drug for removal of excess iron in patients with chronic and acute levels. The analysis of DFO along with its chelated complexes, Fe(III) DFO and Al(III) DFO has proven to be difficult at best in previous attempts. This study found that direct injection of the serum was possible for MLC, verses an ultrafiltration step necessary in HPLC. This analysis proved to have difficulties with the separation of the chelated DFO compounds and with the sensitivity levels for DFO itself when MLC was applied. The researcher found that, in this case, reverse phase HPLC, was a better, more sensitive technique despite the time savings in direct injection.Analysis of pharmaceuticals by MLC is also gaining popularity. The selectivity and peak shape of MLC over commonly used ion-pair chromatography is much enhanced. MLC mimics, yet enhances, the selectivity offered by ion-pairing reagents for the separation of active ingredients in pharmaceutical drugs. For basic drugs, MLC improves the excessive peak tailing frequently observed in ion-pairing. Hydrophilic drugs are often unretained using conventional HPLC, are retained by MLC due to solubilization into the micelles. Commonly found drugs in cold medications such as acetaminophen, L-ascorbic acid, phenylpropanolamine HCL, tipepidine hibenzate, and chlorpheniramine maleate have been successfully separated with good peak shape using MLC. Additional basic drugs like many narcotics, such as codeine and morphine, have also been successfully separated using MLC.Another novel application of MLC involves the separation and analysis of inorganic compounds, mostly simple ions. This is a relatively new area for MLC, but has seen some promising results. MLC has been observed to provide better selectivity of inorganic ions that ion-exchange or ion-pairing chromatography. While this application is still in the beginning stages of development, the possibilities exist for novel, much enhanced separations of inorganic species.Since the technique was first reported on in 1980, micellar liquid chromatography has been used in hundreds of applications. This micelle controlled technique provides for unique opportunities for solving complicated separation problems. Despite the poor efficiency of MLC, it has been successfully used in many applications. The use of MLC in the future appears to be extremely advantages in the areas of physiological fluids, pharmaceuticals, and even inorganic ions. The technique has proven to be superior over ion-pairing and ion-exchange for many applications. As new approaches are developed to combat the poor efficiency of MLC, its application is sure to spread and gain more acceptance. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Dihydrotestosterone acetate**
Dihydrotestosterone acetate:
Dihydrotestosterone acetate, also known as androstanolone acetate or stanolone acetate, as well as 5α-dihydrotestosterone 17β-acetate, is a synthetic androgen and anabolic steroid and a dihydrotestosterone ester that was never marketed. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**CST8 (gene)**
CST8 (gene):
Cystatin-8 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the CST8 gene.The cystatin superfamily encompasses proteins that contain multiple cystatin-like sequences. Some of the members are active cysteine protease inhibitors, while others have lost or perhaps never acquired this inhibitory activity. There are three inhibitory families in the superfamily, including the type 1 cystatins (stefins), type 2 cystatins and the kininogens. The type 2 cystatin proteins are a class of cysteine proteinase inhibitors found in a variety of human fluids and secretions. The cystatin locus on chromosome 20 contains the majority of the type 2 cystatin genes and pseudogenes. This gene is located in the cystatin locus and encodes a protein similar to type 2 cystatins. The protein exhibits highly tissue-specific expression in the reproductive tract, suggesting implicit roles in reproduction. Alternative splicing identified in mouse is suggested in human based on EST evidence but the full-length nature of putative variants has not been determined. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Firewater (fire fighting)**
Firewater (fire fighting):
Firewater refers to water that has been used in firefighting and requires disposal. In many cases, it is a highly polluting material and requires special care in its disposal.
Description:
In many firefighting situations, large quantities of water remain after the fire has been extinguished. This firewater contains materials present in the building and also contains dissolved and particulate materials from combustion processes and materials generated through quenching.
Description:
Firewater can be particularly polluting when the building or site being extinguished itself contains potentially polluting materials such as pesticides, organic and inorganic chemical reagents, fertilizers, etc. Certain premises, including farms and the chemical industry, pose special risks because of the types of materials present. Premises containing quantities of plastics can also cause severe problems because of the taste and odor imparted to the firewater.
Description:
Releasing contaminated firewater into a river, lake or other body that supplies drinking water may render the untreated supply unsuitable for drinking or food preparation. Managing firewater frequently requires that the water be contained on the site until removed from a specialized treat statement. One of the recognized techniques is to contain the firewater in the drainage system using pneumatic bladders or lockable non-return valves, which can be activated automatically or manually.
Containment:
Firewater containment is the process of containing the run-off from fighting fires. Firewater contains many hazardous substances that result from combustion, which can turn safe materials into toxic, polluting and environmentally damaging substances. The preferred method of firewater containment is to use pneumatic bladders/drain stoppers that block the outflow from the drain or pneumatic non-return valves, both of which can convert the drains into containment vessels (called sumps) from which the firewater can be pumped away into tankers for safe disposal.
Containment:
Firewater containment is one of the many environmental factors considered alongside spill and pollution containment as an essential part of any company's environmental policy for ISO14001 accreditation.
Containment:
Firewater runoff often leaks into the surrounding environment through different routes such as rain, sprinkler systems (for example) or others. Containment of firewater is an integral component of preventing contamination of drainage and sewage systems, rivers, streams, and more. Pollution caused by firewater can last for hundreds of years following the initial use, making cost-effective and practical innovations to the current firewater containment system necessary for both the environment and businesses. Many of the largest negative environmental impacts due to firefighting related activities occur because of firewater runoff, making its containment necessary.
Containment:
Firewater recycling is often considered a type of firewater containment and disposal to reduce water use and pollution, but the means to do so require further research. Compact and mobile filtration units are proposed for this task to contribute to the spray and foaming of contaminated water for firefighters.
Increased recycling of firewater has allowed a surplus of benefits that have not been fully researched. Although, recycling is highly recommended by several countries. The table below describes a corresponding overview of commercially available firewater in-drain spill and pollution containment system examples. Products such as Flapstopper and similar technology provide the latest efficient state-of-the-art technology.
Containment:
Isolation valves are often used to prevent firewater from escaping the site of a fire until it can properly be removed. CIRIA C736 Containment systems for the prevention of pollution, a central industry guidance document in the United Kingdom designed to assist owners/operators of facilities storing potentially hazardous substances, exists as a response to faulty containment aiming to aid commercial and industrial facilities in the containment of potential firewater use.
Pollution and notable events:
Firewater's main association with pollution is its ability to rapidly spread hazardous substances if not correctly contained following use for firefighting; firewater run-off is often the culprit in or a main contributor to many chemical spill pollution events (see Water pollution). The Sandoz chemical spill of 1986, for example, turned the Rhine river red with pollutants and affected much of the wildlife due to faulty containment of the firewater used in treating an agrochemical warehouse fire, releasing 30 tonnes of toxic chemicals into the river.
Pollution and notable events:
Firewater containment and retention is an important issue because they can prevent the carrying of contaminants far from their sources through to connected bodies of water and neighboring areas. Drinking water, fish stocks, and other water-related necessities are potentially polluted by firewater. The Sandoz fire affected bodies of water connected to the Rhine in Switzerland, France, and Germany, despite the fire occurring only in Switzerland.
Pollution and notable events:
Often, damage to the environment following a fire at an industrial site occurs because of polluted firewater run-off. Water used in treating a fire may pick up contaminants from the burning object then leak into the surrounding environment when poorly contained. Rain and other environmental factors can increase the firewater run-off spread of a containment area. The 2013 Smethwick fire involved the burning of 100,000 t of plastic recycling materials and required 14 dam3 of firewater used for treatment within the first 12 hours of the initial burning, all pumped from the Birmingham Canal with the potential to disrupt the natural state of the canal and aid in the carrying of contaminated materials from the fire.
Pollution and notable events:
The UNECE Safety Guidelines and Good Practices for Fire-water Retention exist as a response to the Sandoz fire, outlining guidelines and proper practices for managing firewater and firewater retention.
Fire prevention:
Containment is the most commonly utilized methods of dealing with highly polluted fire-water, one other method would be the use of water distribution systems to give fire fighters an access to large quantities of water to combat large scale fires. This also gives firefighters access to high velocity water flow, which is known to have reduced toxicity and polluted levels. These, however, can still lead to polluted water. Even with high velocity water, it can still become polluted, even if the levels are indeed lower.
Fire prevention:
In using water as a main source of fire fighting, it is clear that there will always be some level of toxicity in the water that is utilized in the process of stopping these fires. Ultimately, the best method of lessening fire-water is lessening fires. The most successful way of lessening toxicity of water after fire fighting, is giving proper education to the public on preventing fires, in domestic homes and outside. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Sideband**
Sideband:
In radio communications, a sideband is a band of frequencies higher than or lower than the carrier frequency, that are the result of the modulation process. The sidebands carry the information transmitted by the radio signal. The sidebands comprise all the spectral components of the modulated signal except the carrier. The signal components above the carrier frequency constitute the upper sideband (USB), and those below the carrier frequency constitute the lower sideband (LSB). All forms of modulation produce sidebands.
Sideband creation:
We can illustrate the creation of sidebands with one trigonometric identity: cos cos cos cos (A−B) Adding cos (A) to both sides: cos cos cos cos cos (A−B) Substituting (for instance) 1000 ⋅t and 100 ⋅t, where t represents time: cos 1000 carrier wave cos 100 amplitude modulation cos 1100 upper sideband cos 1000 carrier wave cos 900 lower sideband .
Sideband creation:
Adding more complexity and time-variation to the amplitude modulation also adds it to the sidebands, causing them to widen in bandwidth and change with time. In effect, the sidebands "carry" the information content of the signal.
Sideband creation:
Sideband Characterization In the example above, a cross-correlation of the modulated signal with a pure sinusoid, cos (ωt), is zero at all values of ω except 1100, 1000, and 900. And the non-zero values reflect the relative strengths of the three components. A graph of that concept, called a Fourier transform (or spectrum), is the customary way of visualizing sidebands and defining their parameters.
Amplitude modulation:
Amplitude modulation of a carrier signal normally results in two mirror-image sidebands. The signal components above the carrier frequency constitute the upper sideband (USB), and those below the carrier frequency constitute the lower sideband (LSB). For example, if a 900 kHz carrier is amplitude modulated by a 1 kHz audio signal, there will be components at 899 kHz and 901 kHz as well as 900 kHz in the generated radio frequency spectrum; so an audio bandwidth of (say) 7 kHz will require a radio spectrum bandwidth of 14 kHz. In conventional AM transmission, as used by broadcast band AM stations, the original audio signal can be recovered ("detected") by either synchronous detector circuits or by simple envelope detectors because the carrier and both sidebands are present. This is sometimes called double sideband amplitude modulation (DSB-AM), but not all variants of DSB are compatible with envelope detectors.
Amplitude modulation:
In some forms of AM, the carrier may be reduced, to save power. The term DSB reduced-carrier normally implies enough carrier remains in the transmission to enable a receiver circuit to regenerate a strong carrier or at least synchronise a phase-locked loop but there are forms where the carrier is removed completely, producing double sideband with suppressed carrier (DSB-SC). Suppressed carrier systems require more sophisticated circuits in the receiver and some other method of deducing the original carrier frequency. An example is the stereophonic difference (L-R) information transmitted in stereo FM broadcasting on a 38 kHz subcarrier where a low-power signal at half the 38-kHz carrier frequency is inserted between the monaural signal frequencies (up to 15 kHz) and the bottom of the stereo information sub-carrier (down to 38–15 kHz, i.e. 23 kHz). The receiver locally regenerates the subcarrier by doubling a special 19 kHz pilot tone. In another example, the quadrature modulation used historically for chroma information in PAL television broadcasts, the synchronising signal is a short burst of a few cycles of carrier during the "back porch" part of each scan line when no image is transmitted. But in other DSB-SC systems, the carrier may be regenerated directly from the sidebands by a Costas loop or squaring loop. This is common in digital transmission systems such as BPSK where the signal is continually present.
Amplitude modulation:
If part of one sideband and all of the other remain, it is called vestigial sideband, used mostly with television broadcasting, which would otherwise take up an unacceptable amount of bandwidth. Transmission in which only one sideband is transmitted is called single-sideband modulation or SSB. SSB is the predominant voice mode on shortwave radio other than shortwave broadcasting. Since the sidebands are mirror images, which sideband is used is a matter of convention.
Amplitude modulation:
In SSB, the carrier is suppressed, significantly reducing the electrical power (by up to 12 dB) without affecting the information in the sideband. This makes for more efficient use of transmitter power and RF bandwidth, but a beat frequency oscillator must be used at the receiver to reconstitute the carrier. If the reconstituted carrier frequency is wrong then the output of the receiver will have the wrong frequencies, but for speech small frequency errors are no problem for intelligibility. Another way to look at an SSB receiver is as an RF-to-audio frequency transposer: in USB mode, the dial frequency is subtracted from each radio frequency component to produce a corresponding audio component, while in LSB mode each incoming radio frequency component is subtracted from the dial frequency.
Frequency modulation:
Frequency modulation also generates sidebands, the bandwidth consumed depending on the modulation index - often requiring significantly more bandwidth than DSB. Bessel functions can be used to calculate the bandwidth requirements of FM transmissions. Carson's rule is a useful approximation of bandwidth in several applications.
Effects:
Sidebands can interfere with adjacent channels. The part of the sideband that would overlap the neighboring channel must be suppressed by filters, before or after modulation (often both). In broadcast band frequency modulation (FM), subcarriers above 75 kHz are limited to a small percentage of modulation and are prohibited above 99 kHz altogether to protect the ±75 kHz normal deviation and ±100 kHz channel boundaries. Amateur radio and public service FM transmitters generally utilize ±5 kHz deviation.
Effects:
To accurately reproduce the modulating waveform, the entire signal processing path of the system of transmitter, propagation path, and receiver must have enough bandwidth so that enough of the sidebands can be used to recreate the modulated signal to the desired degree of accuracy.
In a non-linear system such as an amplifier, sidebands of the original signal frequency components may be generated due to distortion. This is generally minimized but may be intentionally done for the fuzzbox musical effect. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Allene oxide cyclase**
Allene oxide cyclase:
In enzymology, an allene-oxide cyclase (EC 5.3.99.6) is an enzyme that belongs to the family of isomerases, specifically a class of other intramolecular oxidoreductases. The systematic name of this enzyme class is (9Z)-(13S)-12,13-epoxyoctadeca-9,11,15-trienoate isomerase (cyclizing).
The allene oxide of linolenic acid (i.e., (9Z)-(13S)-12,13-epoxyoctadeca-9,11,15-trienoate) is converted by allene oxide cyclase to jasmonic acid ((15Z)-12-oxophyto-10,15-dienoate).
Structural studies:
As of late 2007, 6 structures have been solved for this class of enzymes, with PDB accession codes 1Z8K, 1ZVC, 2BRJ, 2DIO, 2GIN, and 2Q4I. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**EPHB3**
EPHB3:
Ephrin type-B receptor 3 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the EPHB3 gene.
Function:
Ephrin receptors and their ligands, the ephrins, mediate numerous developmental processes, particularly in the nervous system. Based on their structures and sequence relationships, ephrins are divided into the ephrin-A (EFNA) class, which are anchored to the membrane by a glycosylphosphatidylinositol linkage, and the ephrin-B (EFNB) class, which are transmembrane proteins. The Eph family of receptors are divided into 2 groups based on the similarity of their extracellular domain sequences and their affinities for binding ephrin-A and ephrin-B ligands. Ephrin receptors make up the largest subgroup of the receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) family. The protein encoded by this gene is a receptor for ephrin-B family members.
Interactions:
EPHB3 has been shown to interact with MLLT4 and RAS p21 protein activator 1. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Georgia Institute of Technology Institute for Robotics and Intelligent Machines**
Georgia Institute of Technology Institute for Robotics and Intelligent Machines:
The Institute for Robotics and Intelligent Machines (IRIM@GT) is an interdisciplinary research unit at the Georgia Institute of Technology. The center was launched May, 2006, and consists of researchers from the School of Interactive Computing in the College of Computing, College of Engineering, and Georgia Tech Research Institute. IRIM@GT currently offers a Ph.D. program in robotics, the first truly multi-disciplinary program in the country after the one of Carnegie Mellon University.
Mission:
"IRIM@Georgia Tech serves as the flagship for Georgia Tech's robotics efforts, coordinating the university's capabilities in this field under one roof." - Henrik Christensen, former director, distinguished professor and KUKA Chair of Robotics The center activities has 3 focal points: Engineering research on core technologies and methods at a level that is recognized as world leading.
An integrated Ph.D. program for education of a new generation of researchers that will take up positions at the best institutions and in the most influential companies worldwide. They will be recognized as the leading systems integrators for intelligent robot systems.
Transfer of technology to real world applications that illustrate the value of new generations of robot systems.
Organization:
Institutes Institute for Personal Robots in Education Laboratories Advanced Intelligent Mechatronics Research Laboratory, School of Mechanical Engineering.
Agricultural Technology Research Program, Georgia Tech Research Institute.
Biomedical Imaging Lab, Department of Biomedical Engineering.
The BORG Lab, College of Computing.
Computational Perception Lab, College of Computing.
Contextual Computing Group, College of Computing.
Construction Resource Center, College of Architecture.
Embedded and Autonomous Systems Laboratory, School of Electrical and Computer Engineering.
Georgia Robotics and Intelligent Systems Lab, School of Electrical and Computer Engineering.
Human Automation Systems Laboratory, School of Electrical and Computer Engineering.
Intelligent Machines Dynamics Laboratory, School of Mechanical Engineering.
Laboratory for Neuroengineering, Department of Biomedical Engineering and Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering.
The Mobile Robot Lab, College of Computing.
Robotic Mechanisms Laboratory, School of Mechanical Engineering.
The Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Research Facility (UAV Lab), School of Aerospace Engineering.
Virtual Factory Laboratory, School of Industrial and Systems Engineering.
Human Vision Simulation Laboratory, Georgia Tech Research Institute.
Socially Intelligent Machines Laboratory, College of Computing | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Paperboard**
Paperboard:
Paperboard is a thick paper-based material. While there is no rigid differentiation between paper and paperboard, paperboard is generally thicker (usually over 0.30 mm, 0.012 in, or 12 points) than paper and has certain superior attributes such as foldability and rigidity. According to ISO standards, paperboard is a paper with a grammage above 250 g/m2, but there are exceptions. Paperboard can be single- or multi-ply.
Paperboard:
Paperboard can be easily cut and formed, is lightweight, and because it is strong, is used in packaging. Another end-use is high quality graphic printing, such as book and magazine covers or postcards. Paperboard is also used in fine arts for creating sculptures.
Sometimes it is referred to as cardboard, which is a generic, lay term used to refer to any heavy paper pulp–based board, however this usage is deprecated in the paper, printing, and packaging industries as it does not adequately describe each product type.
History:
In 1817, the first paperboard carton was produced in England. Folding cartons first emerged around the 1860s and were shipped flat to save space, ready to be set up by customers when they were required. The mechanical die cutting and creasing of blanks was developed in 1879. In 1911 the first kraft sulphate mill was built in Florida. In 1915 the gable top milk carton was patented and in 1935 the first dairy plant was observed using them. Ovenable paperboard was introduced in 1974.
Terminology and classification:
Terminology and classifications of paperboard are not always uniform. Differences occur depending on specific industry, locale, and personal choice. In general, the following are often used: Boxboard or cartonboard: paperboard for folding cartons and rigid set-up boxes Folding boxboard (FBB): a bending grade capable of being scored and bending without fracture Chipboard: a recycled, low quality board White lined chipboard (WLC): a white, often clay-coated chipboard Kraft board: a strong virgin fiber board often used for beverage carriers. Often clay-coated for printing Laminated board: a lamination of paperboards and other materials, for example liquid packaging board Solid bleached board (SBB) or solid bleached sulphate (SBS): clean white board used for foods etc. Sulphate refers to the kraft process Solid unbleached board (SUB): board made from unbleached chemical pulp Containerboard: a type of paperboard manufactured for the production of corrugated fiberboard Corrugated medium: the inner fluted portion of corrugated fiberboard Linerboard: a strong stiff board for one or both sides of corrugated boxes. It is the flat covering over the corrugating medium.
Terminology and classification:
Other Binder's board: a paperboard used in bookbinding for making hardcovers.
Production:
Fibrous material is turned into pulp and bleached to create one or more layers of board, which can be optionally coated for a better surface and/or improved appearance. Pulp board is produced on pulping machines that can handle higher grammage and several plies.
Raw materials The above-mentioned fibrous material can either come from fresh (virgin) sources (e.g. wood) or from recycled waste paper. Around 90% of virgin paper is made from wood pulp.
Today paperboard packaging in general, and especially products from certified sustainable sources, are receiving new attention, as manufacturers dealing with environmental, health, and regulatory issues look to renewable resources to meet increasing demand. It is now mandatory in many countries for paper-based packaging to be manufactured wholly or partially from recycled material.
Production:
Raw materials include: Hardwood: C. 0.05 inches (1.3 mm) in length e.g. Birch which has short fibres. It is generally more difficult to work with; however, it does provide higher tensile strength, but lower tear and other strength properties. Although its fibres are not as long and strong as those in softwood, they make for a stiffer product defined by some stiffness tests. Hardwood fibres fill the sheet better and therefore make a smoother paper that is more opaque and better for printing. Hardwood makes an excellent corrugating medium.
Production:
Softwood: C. 0.13 inches (3.3 mm) in length e.g. Pine and spruce which have typically long fibres and make superior paperboard in services where strength is important. Softwood makes excellent linerboard.
Production:
Recycled: Used paper is collected and sorted and usually mixed with virgin fibres in order to make new material. This is necessary as the recycled fibre often loses strength when reused; the added virgin fibres enhance strength. Mixed waste paper is not usually deinked (skipping the deinking stage) for paperboard manufacture and hence the pulp may contain traces of inks, adhesives, and other residues which together give it a grey colour. Products made of recycled board usually have a less predictable composition and poorer functional properties than virgin fibre-based boards. Health risks have been associated with using recycled material in direct food contact. Swiss studies have shown that recycled material can contain significant portions of mineral oil, which may migrate into packed foods. Mineral oil levels of up to 19.4 mg/kg were found in rice packed in recycled board.Others: It is also possible to use the fibres of Sugarcane Bagasse, Straw, Hemp, Cotton, Flax, Kenaf, Abaca and other plant products Pulping Two principal methods for extracting fibres from their sources are: Chemical pulping uses chemical solutions to convert wood into pulp, yielding around 30% less than mechanical pulping; however, pulp made by the kraft process has superior strength Thermo mechanical pulp is a two-stage process which results in a very high yield of wood fibres at the expense of strength.
Production:
Bleaching Pulp used in the manufacture of paperboard can be bleached to decrease colour and increase purity. Virgin fibre pulp is naturally brown in colour, because of the presence of lignin. Recycled paperboard may contain traces of inks, bonding agents and other residue which colors it grey.
Production:
Although bleaching is not necessary for all end-uses, it is vital for many graphical and packaging purposes. There are various methods of bleaching, which are used according to a number of factors for example, the degree of colour change required, chemicals chosen and method of treatment. There are three categories of bleaching methods: Bleaching by delignification using chlorine gas, which is a method that has been largely replaced by procedures which are gentler to the environment such as the use of oxygen as a replacement for the chlorine gas.
Production:
Bleaching by oxidation using chemicals such as chlorine dioxide, hydrogen peroxide or sodium hypochlorite.
Bleaching by reduction using chemicals such as sodium bisulphite.
Plies Multi-ply paperboard generally has higher creasing and folding performance than single-ply as a result of layering different types of pulp into a single product. In cases where the same kind of pulp is being used in several layers, each separate layer is treated and shaped individually in order to create the highest possible quality.
Production:
Coating In order to improve whiteness, smoothness and gloss of paperboard, one or more layers of coating is applied. Coated paper is usually made up of: a pigment, which could be china clay, calcium carbonate or titanium dioxide, usually a combination of two an adhesive or binder as styrene-butadiene emulsions or starches and water.Additional components could be OBA (optical brightening agents).
Grades:
The DIN Standard 19303 "Paperboard - Terms and grades" (Publication date : 2005-09) defines different grades of paperboard based on the surface treatment (first letter), the main furnish (second letter) and the colour (non-D grade) or bulk (D grade only) (numbering).
Example: GC1 would be a "pigment coated", "virgin mechanical pulp" board with a "white reverse side". Often the used paperboard type would be FBB, which was coated on both sides.
Common terms:
Basis weight (US): Is the weight in 1,000 square feet (93 m2) of paperboard.
Brightness: Brightness is a technical term that is defined as the amount of blue-white light that a paper reflects. This property is very subjective and individual to each buyer and end use, as skin colour and food are better reproduced on 'warm' (yellow) whites and not blue whites.
Grammage: The grammage of the paperboard is assessed in accordance ISO 536.
Common terms:
Grammage expresses mass per unit area and is measured in g/m2.PH: Surface pH is measured on a water extract and is on a scale of 0–14. 0 is acidic, 7 is neutral and 14 is alkaline.Stiffness: Stiffness is one of the most important properties of paperboard as it affects the ability of cartons to run smoothly through the machine that erects, fills and closes them. Stiffness also gives strength and reduces the propensity of a carton to bulge under the weight of settling flowable contents such as cereals.
Common terms:
Although most paper strength properties increase with increasing sheet density, stiffness does not. A rule of thumb is that stiffness is proportional to the 1.6 power of sheet caliper.
The species of fiber used has an effect on stiffness, other things being equal. Northern softwood species impart superior stiffness compared to southern softwoods.
Common terms:
Other factors which affect board stiffness include coatings and moisture content.Smoothness: Smoothness is particularly important when being used for printing, the smoother the paperboard, the better the image quality, because of better ink coverage. Smoothness is measured using air leak methods – the greater the rate of air leakage, at a specific air pressure, from under a cylindrical knife placed on the surface, the rougher the surface.Caliper/thickness: In the United States caliper is usually expressed in thousandths of an inch (0.001”) or points, where a sheet of paperboard with a thickness of 0.024” would be 24 points. In Europe it is often sold in g/m2, however the thickness of the board is measured in micron (μm).
Common terms:
Paperboard also tends to be referred to with thickness rather than weight.Whiteness: It refers ideally to the equal presence of all colours, because a truly white sheet will reflect all wavelengths of visible light equally.
Paperboard industry:
The paperboard sector is mainly looked at in conjunction with the paper industry. The Paper & Paperboard market size (2007) had a value of US$630.9 billion and a volume of 320.3 million metric tons. Of that market 40.1% is European. About 50% of all produced paper is used for packaging, followed by printing and writing. According to ProCarton, the consumption of paper and paperboard seem to correlate with economic trends (GDP). Sales of carton in Europe sum up to around 8 billion Euros worth. Over 1,100 printers produce 5.4 million tonnes of cartonboard yearly. Cartons make up one third of paper and board packaging and 15% of all packaging. A bit more than half (54%) of the European carton is produced using recovered fibre or waste paper.
Paperboard industry:
The paper and paperboard industry is quite energy and capital intensive. Just a coated board machine itself can cost around 90 - 120 million Euros (about 125 - US$166 million in 11/2011). Economies of scale apply, because of which a few large players often dominate the market place. E.g. in North America the top 5 producers have a market share of 85%. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Yahoo M45**
Yahoo M45:
The M45 Project (or M45) is the name of a cluster announced in November 2007 by Yahoo!.
According to Yahoo!, it has approximately 4,000 processors, three terabytes of memory, 1.5 petabytes of disks, and a peak performance of more than 27 trillion calculations per second (27 teraflops), placing it among the top 50 fastest supercomputers in the world.
Name:
M45 is named after the Messier catalog number of the constellation commonly known as the Pleiades. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Joint railway**
Joint railway:
A joint railway is a railway operating under the control of more than one railway company: those companies very often supplying the traction over the railway.
United Kingdom:
There are many examples of joint railway working in the United Kingdom. The more important ones included: Midland and Great Northern Joint Railway (M&GN): Midland Railway and Great Northern Railway (MR/GNR), latterly London and North Eastern Railway and London, Midland and Scottish Railway (LNER/LMS). This was the UK's biggest joint railway system at 183 miles (295 km) and operated with its own locomotives and rolling stock. The system stretched mainly east-west from Great Yarmouth via South Lynn to Bourne and Peterborough and thence via the parent companies' systems to Leicester and the Midlands and to London King's Cross. A north-south route ran from Norwich City to Cromer. The two routes crossed at Melton Constable, the joint railway's main engineering centre.
United Kingdom:
Cheshire Lines Committee: Great Northern, Great Central and Midland Railways (GNR/GCR/MidR), 140 miles (230 km) operated with its own rolling stock.
Great Northern and Great Eastern Joint Railway: the Great Northern and Great Eastern Railways. From Huntingdon and Spalding to Doncaster, with a branch to Ramsey. 123 miles (198 km) Somerset and Dorset Joint Railway: London and South Western Railway (LSWR) and Midland Railway. 101 miles (163 km) operated, with its own locomotives and rolling stock until 1930.
United Kingdom:
East London Railway: the Great Eastern, London, Brighton and South Coast, South Eastern and Chatham, Metropolitan and District Railways (GER/LBSCR/SE&CR/MetR/District) 7 miles (11 km) Metropolitan and Great Central Joint Committee: the Metropolitan and Great Central Railways Manchester South Junction and Altrincham Railway: LNWR/GCR. 9 miles (14 km). Electrified in 1931 Portpatrick and Wigtownshire Joint Railway: the Caledonian, Glasgow and South Western, London and North Western and Midland Railways. 82 miles (132 km) Preston and Wyre Joint Railway: L&YR/LNWR. 45 miles (72 km) Great Western and Great Central Railways Joint Committee: the Great Western and Great Central Railways. 41 miles (66 km) Severn and Wye Joint Railway: Great Western Railway and Midland Railway. 39 miles (63 km) Shrewsbury and Hereford Railway: the Great Western and London and North Western Railways. 56 miles (90 km) Shrewsbury and Wellington Railway: the Great Western and London and North Western Railways. 10.5 miles (16.9 km) South Yorkshire Joint Railway: GCR/GNR/L&YR/MidR/NER. 20 miles (32 km) Furness and Midland Joint Railway: 9+1⁄2 miles (15.3 km) Metropolitan and Metropolitan District Joint Committee: Metropolitan and Metropolitan District Railway, Mansion House to Aldgate on the Circle Line. 1 mile (1.6 km) Norfolk and Suffolk Joint Railway (N&S): the Midland and Great Northern and the Great Eastern Railway). There were two stretches of line: the most important ran along the East Anglian coast from Lowestoft to Yarmouth, while a much shorter stretch ran from Cromer to Mundesley on the North Norfolk coast. This line was a unique joint railway in that one of its parents was itself a joint railway.
United Kingdom:
Axholme Joint Railway : North Eastern and Lancashire and Yorkshire Railways (NER/LYR) 27.5 miles (44.3 km) Forth Bridge Railway: the North British, Great Northern, North Eastern and Midland Railways. 2,765 yd (2,528 m) County Donegal Railways Joint Committee: the Northern Counties Committee and Great Northern Railway (Ireland). 111 miles (179 km) of 3 ft (914 mm) narrow gauge track in Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland, with its own locomotives and rolling stock.
United States:
"Joint railways" are called terminal railroads in the United States. Most true example of joint railways are in terminal areas, including union stations. Terminal railways are often co-owned by the railroads that connect with them. Among the more prominent joint operations were: Belt Railway of Chicago (BRC), the largest terminal switching railroad in the U.S., co-owned by all the "Big Six" American Class I railroads: Union Pacific Railroad, CSX Transportation, Norfolk Southern Railway, BNSF Railway, Canadian National Railway and Canadian Pacific Railway.
United States:
Terminal Railroad Association of St. Louis (TRRA), with extensive operations in East St. Louis, Illinois and St. Louis, Missouri, and co-owned by all the Big Six except the Canadian Pacific.
United States:
Conrail Shared Assets Operations (CSAO), the last corporate remnant of Conrail, which was formed from the remains of several bankrupt railroads in 1976; that company was split between CSX and Norfolk Southern, which formed CSAO in northern New Jersey, greater Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and greater Detroit, Michigan. Unlike the BRC and TRRA, CSAO uses crews and locomotives from its two parent companies, though the former Conrail paint scheme is still seen on numerous locomotives and freight cars that CSX and NS inherited.
United States:
The Powder River basin joint line, co-owned by BNSF and Union Pacific to serve the area's numerous coal mines.The concept of trackage rights is more common than joint railways in the United States. The railroad that owns the track permits trains from another railroad to use the line. The owner railroad normally charges a fee, but sometimes there is no charge because the arrangement results from a merger or sale of a line. For instance, when the Louisville and Nashville Railroad acquired the Monon Railroad a condition of the sale imposed by government regulators was a trackage rights arrangement over the southern part of the Monon for the Milwaukee Road, an agreement that was handed down to successive owners of the Milwaukee Road and finally the Indiana Rail Road.
United States:
Variations on trackage rights include "direction running" agreements between two railroads with parallel lines through an area, usually done to facilitate greater traffic volume. For instance, CSX and NS have a directional-running agreement between downtown Cincinnati, Ohio and nearby Hamilton, where northbound trains generally use NS trackage and southbound trains (with the exception of Amtrak's Cardinal) use CSX tracks. North of Hamilton, NS trains use CSX tracks on a traditional trackage-rights agreement for a two-mile (3 km) section. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Nonelementary problem**
Nonelementary problem:
In computational complexity theory, a nonelementary problem is a problem that is not a member of the class ELEMENTARY. As a class it is sometimes denoted as NONELEMENTARY.
Nonelementary problem:
Examples of nonelementary problems that are nevertheless decidable include: the problem of regular expression equivalence with complementation the decision problem for monadic second-order logic over trees (see S2S) the decision problem for term algebras satisfiability of W. V. O. Quine's fluted fragment of first-order logic deciding β-convertibility of two closed terms in typed lambda calculus reachability in vector addition systems; it is Ackermann-complete. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**TP53BP2**
TP53BP2:
Apoptosis-stimulating of p53 protein 2 (ASPP2) also known as Bcl2-binding protein (Bbp) and tumor suppressor p53-binding protein 2 (p53BP2) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the TP53BP2 gene. Multiple transcript variants encoding different isoforms have been found for this gene.
Nomenclature:
ASPP2 (amino acid residues 600 –1128) was initially identified as 53BP2 (p53-binding protein 2) in a yeast two hybrid screen using p53 as the bait. Another yeast two hybrid screening in which Bcl-2 was used as the bait gave rise to the discovery of another fragment of ASPP2 (residues 123-1128) and it was called Bbp. The full length ASPP2 (1128 amino acids) was identified later.
Function:
ASPP2 plays a central role in regulation of apoptosis and cell growth via its interactions. ASPP2 regulates TP53 by enhancing the DNA binding and transactivation function of TP53 on the promoters of proapoptotic genes in vivo. ASPP2 binds to wild-type p53 but fails to bind to mutant p53, suggesting that ASPP2 may be involved in the ability of wild-type p53 to suppress transformation. ASPP2 induces apoptosis but no cell cycle arrest.
Structure:
ASPP2 contains several structural and functional domains. Its N-terminus (residues 1–83) has the structure of a β-grasp ubiquitin-like fold. It is followed by a predicted α-helical domain located between aa 123 and 323. and a proline-rich (ASPP2 Pro) domain between aa 674 and 902. The C-terminal part of ASPP2 contains four ankyrin repeats and an SH3 domain involved in protein-protein interactions. ASPP2 is found in the perinuclear region of the cytoplasm.
Family members:
The ASPP family includes ASPP1, ASPP2, and iASPP. The name ASPP stands for apoptosis stimulating protein of p53, the name emphasizes the ankyrin repeats, SH3 domain, and proline-rich domains that characterize this family. The three family members come from different genes but ASPP1 and ASPP2 share a greater sequence similarity than either does with iASPP as the N terminus of iASPP has no homology with ASPP1 and ASPP2. The sequence similarities among ASPP family members indicates that ASPP1 and ASPP2 probably have similar biological functions that differ from that of iASPP. The family plays a key role in apoptosis regulation in the intrinsic and extrinsic apoptotic pathways. ASPP1 and ASPP2 promote, while iASPP inhibits, apoptosis.
Binding partners:
ASPP2 is the ASPP family member with the most known binding partners. The highly conserved C-terminus was first known to bind to p53 through its ankyrin repeats and SH3 domain in 1994 by a yeast two hybrid system and it was called p53 Binding Protein 2 (53BP2). Other binding partners have been discovered through the years, indicating the importance of the ankyrin repeats and SH3 domains for protein-protein interactions. Some of the known binding partners of ASPP2 include BCL2, p63, p73, Hepatitis C virus core protein, Amyloid-b-Precursor Protein-Binding Protein 1 (APP-BP1), YES-Associated Protein (YAP), Adenomatosis Polyposis Coli 2 (APC2), RelA/p65, Protein Phosphatase 1 (PP1) and NFκB (p65)
Expression:
The expression of ASPP2 is encoded by the gene TP53BP2 and is located in the long arm of chromosome 1 at q42.1. Northern-blot analyses showed that the ASPP2/53BP2 mRNA was expressed in many human tissues such as heart, brain, placenta, lung, liver, skeletal muscle, kidney, pancreas, but at varying levels. The highest expression level of ASPP2 was detected in skeletal tissue.
Clinical significance:
ASPP2 was first associated with human cancer when the crystal structure of p53 binding domain bound to the C-terminal ankyrin repeats and SH3 domain of ASP2. All the amino acids of p53 that are important for binding ASPP2 are mutated in human cancers. ASPP2 expression levels have been associated with cellular sensitivity to apoptosis. ASPP2 importance in human malignancies is emphasized by studies that show that downregulation of ASPP2 is commonly found in tumors and carcinoma cells expressing wild type p53, and to a lesser extent mutant p53. For example, it was found to be downregulated in both metastatic and invasive cells as compared to normal breast epithelium. It has been demonstrated the binding of ASPP2 to bcl-2 and p53 and to impede cell cycle progression at G2-M, as well as the fact that binding of ASPP2 to p53 changes the conformation of p53 and increases p53 binding to the promoters of proapoptotic genes such as Bax and PIG-3 but not those of G1-arrest genes such as p21waf1. Single nucleotide polymorphisms of ASPP2 have also shown to be associated with predisposition of gastric cancer development. These could be due to the fact that ASPP2 is also a tumor suppressor as well as an activator of p53.Levels of expression of ASPP2 are important, high levels of expression play an important role in inducing apoptosis independently of p53, mediated by p63 and p73. The expression is enhanced in response to DNA damage. On the other hand, silencing of ASPP2 expression by methylation was observed in several human carcinoma cells. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Lambda architecture**
Lambda architecture:
Lambda architecture is a data-processing architecture designed to handle massive quantities of data by taking advantage of both batch and stream-processing methods. This approach to architecture attempts to balance latency, throughput, and fault-tolerance by using batch processing to provide comprehensive and accurate views of batch data, while simultaneously using real-time stream processing to provide views of online data. The two view outputs may be joined before presentation. The rise of lambda architecture is correlated with the growth of big data, real-time analytics, and the drive to mitigate the latencies of map-reduce.Lambda architecture depends on a data model with an append-only, immutable data source that serves as a system of record.: 32 It is intended for ingesting and processing timestamped events that are appended to existing events rather than overwriting them. State is determined from the natural time-based ordering of the data.
Overview:
Lambda architecture describes a system consisting of three layers: batch processing, speed (or real-time) processing, and a serving layer for responding to queries.: 13 The processing layers ingest from an immutable master copy of the entire data set. This paradigm was first described by Nathan Marz in a blog post titled "How to beat the CAP theorem" in which he originally termed it the "batch/realtime architecture".
Overview:
Batch layer The batch layer precomputes results using a distributed processing system that can handle very large quantities of data. The batch layer aims at perfect accuracy by being able to process all available data when generating views. This means it can fix any errors by recomputing based on the complete data set, then updating existing views. Output is typically stored in a read-only database, with updates completely replacing existing precomputed views.: 18 By 2014, Apache Hadoop was estimated to be a leading batch-processing system. Later, other, relational databases like Snowflake, Redshift, Synapse and Big Query were also used in this role.
Overview:
Speed layer The speed layer processes data streams in real time and without the requirements of fix-ups or completeness. This layer sacrifices throughput as it aims to minimize latency by providing real-time views into the most recent data. Essentially, the speed layer is responsible for filling the "gap" caused by the batch layer's lag in providing views based on the most recent data. This layer's views may not be as accurate or complete as the ones eventually produced by the batch layer, but they are available almost immediately after data is received, and can be replaced when the batch layer's views for the same data become available.: 203 Stream-processing technologies typically used in this layer include Apache Kafka, Amazon Kinesis, Apache Storm, SQLstream, Apache Samza, Apache Spark, Azure Stream Analytics. Output is typically stored on fast NoSQL databases., or as a commit log.
Overview:
Serving layer Output from the batch and speed layers are stored in the serving layer, which responds to ad-hoc queries by returning precomputed views or building views from the processed data.
Examples of technologies used in the serving layer include Druid, which provides a single cluster to handle output from both layers. Dedicated stores used in the serving layer include Apache Cassandra, Apache HBase, Azure Cosmos DB, MongoDB, VoltDB or Elasticsearch for speed-layer output, and Elephant DB, Apache Impala, SAP HANA or Apache Hive for batch-layer output.: 45
Optimizations:
To optimize the data set and improve query efficiency, various rollup and aggregation techniques are executed on raw data,: 23 while estimation techniques are employed to further reduce computation costs. And while expensive full recomputation is required for fault tolerance, incremental computation algorithms may be selectively added to increase efficiency, and techniques such as partial computation and resource-usage optimizations can effectively help lower latency.: 93, 287, 293
Lambda architecture in use:
Metamarkets, which provides analytics for companies in the programmatic advertising space, employs a version of the lambda architecture that uses Druid for storing and serving both the streamed and batch-processed data.: 42 For running analytics on its advertising data warehouse, Yahoo has taken a similar approach, also using Apache Storm, Apache Hadoop, and Druid.: 9, 16 The Netflix Suro project has separate processing paths for data, but does not strictly follow lambda architecture since the paths may be intended to serve different purposes and not necessarily to provide the same type of views. Nevertheless, the overall idea is to make selected real-time event data available to queries with very low latency, while the entire data set is also processed via a batch pipeline. The latter is intended for applications that are less sensitive to latency and require a map-reduce type of processing.
Criticism and alternatives:
Criticism of lambda architecture has focused on its inherent complexity and its limiting influence. The batch and streaming sides each require a different code base that must be maintained and kept in sync so that processed data produces the same result from both paths. Yet attempting to abstract the code bases into a single framework puts many of the specialized tools in the batch and real-time ecosystems out of reach.
Criticism and alternatives:
Kappa architecture Jay Kreps introduced the kappa architecture to use a pure streaming approach with a single code base. In a technical discussion over the merits of employing a pure streaming approach, it was noted that using a flexible streaming framework such as Apache Samza could provide some of the same benefits as batch processing without the latency. Such a streaming framework could allow for collecting and processing arbitrarily large windows of data, accommodate blocking, and handle state. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Supermatrix**
Supermatrix:
In mathematics and theoretical physics, a supermatrix is a Z2-graded analog of an ordinary matrix. Specifically, a supermatrix is a 2×2 block matrix with entries in a superalgebra (or superring). The most important examples are those with entries in a commutative superalgebra (such as a Grassmann algebra) or an ordinary field (thought of as a purely even commutative superalgebra).
Supermatrices arise in the study of super linear algebra where they appear as the coordinate representations of a linear transformations between finite-dimensional super vector spaces or free supermodules. They have important applications in the field of supersymmetry.
Definitions and notation:
Let R be a fixed superalgebra (assumed to be unital and associative). Often one requires R be supercommutative as well (for essentially the same reasons as in the ungraded case).
Definitions and notation:
Let p, q, r, and s be nonnegative integers. A supermatrix of dimension (r|s)×(p|q) is a matrix with entries in R that is partitioned into a 2×2 block structure 00 01 10 11 ] with r+s total rows and p+q total columns (so that the submatrix X00 has dimensions r×p and X11 has dimensions s×q). An ordinary (ungraded) matrix can be thought of as a supermatrix for which q and s are both zero.
Definitions and notation:
A square supermatrix is one for which (r|s) = (p|q). This means that not only is the unpartitioned matrix X square, but the diagonal blocks X00 and X11 are as well.
An even supermatrix is one for which the diagonal blocks (X00 and X11) consist solely of even elements of R (i.e. homogeneous elements of parity 0) and the off-diagonal blocks (X01 and X10) consist solely of odd elements of R.
[evenoddoddeven] An odd supermatrix is one for which the reverse holds: the diagonal blocks are odd and the off-diagonal blocks are even.
[oddevenevenodd] If the scalars R are purely even there are no nonzero odd elements, so the even supermatices are the block diagonal ones and the odd supermatrices are the off-diagonal ones.
A supermatrix is homogeneous if it is either even or odd. The parity, |X|, of a nonzero homogeneous supermatrix X is 0 or 1 according to whether it is even or odd. Every supermatrix can be written uniquely as the sum of an even supermatrix and an odd one.
Algebraic structure:
Supermatrices of compatible dimensions can be added or multiplied just as for ordinary matrices. These operations are exactly the same as the ordinary ones with the restriction that they are defined only when the blocks have compatible dimensions. One can also multiply supermatrices by elements of R (on the left or right), however, this operation differs from the ungraded case due to the presence of odd elements in R.
Algebraic structure:
Let Mr|s×p|q(R) denote the set of all supermatrices over R with dimension (r|s)×(p|q). This set forms a supermodule over R under supermatrix addition and scalar multiplication. In particular, if R is a superalgebra over a field K then Mr|s×p|q(R) forms a super vector space over K.
Let Mp|q(R) denote the set of all square supermatices over R with dimension (p|q)×(p|q). This set forms a superring under supermatrix addition and multiplication. Furthermore, if R is a commutative superalgebra, then supermatrix multiplication is a bilinear operation, so that Mp|q(R) forms a superalgebra over R.
Addition Two supermatrices of dimension (r|s)×(p|q) can be added just as in the ungraded case to obtain a supermatrix of the same dimension. The addition can be performed blockwise since the blocks have compatible sizes. It is easy to see that the sum of two even supermatrices is even and the sum of two odd supermatrices is odd.
Algebraic structure:
Multiplication One can multiply a supermatrix with dimensions (r|s)×(p|q) by a supermatrix with dimensions (p|q)×(k|l) as in the ungraded case to obtain a matrix of dimension (r|s)×(k|l). The multiplication can be performed at the block level in the obvious manner: 00 01 10 11 00 01 10 11 00 00 01 10 00 01 01 11 10 00 11 10 10 01 11 11 ].
Algebraic structure:
Note that the blocks of the product supermatrix Z = XY are given by Zij=Xi0Y0j+Xi1Y1j.
If X and Y are homogeneous with parities |X| and |Y| then XY is homogeneous with parity |X| + |Y|. That is, the product of two even or two odd supermatrices is even while the product of an even and odd supermatrix is odd.
Algebraic structure:
Scalar multiplication Scalar multiplication for supermatrices is different than the ungraded case due to the presence of odd elements in R. Let X be a supermatrix. Left scalar multiplication by α ∈ R is defined by 00 01 10 11 ] where the internal scalar multiplications are the ordinary ungraded ones and α^ denotes the grade involution in R. This is given on homogeneous elements by α^=(−1)|α|α.
Algebraic structure:
Right scalar multiplication by α is defined analogously: 00 01 10 11 α^].
If α is even then α^=α and both of these operations are the same as the ungraded versions. If α and X are homogeneous then α·X and X·α are both homogeneous with parity |α| + |X|. Furthermore, if R is supercommutative then one has α⋅X=(−1)|α||X|X⋅α.
As linear transformations:
Ordinary matrices can be thought of as the coordinate representations of linear maps between vector spaces (or free modules). Likewise, supermatrices can be thought of as the coordinate representations of linear maps between super vector spaces (or free supermodules). There is an important difference in the graded case, however. A homomorphism from one super vector space to another is, by definition, one that preserves the grading (i.e. maps even elements to even elements and odd elements to odd elements). The coordinate representation of such a transformation is always an even supermatrix. Odd supermatrices correspond to linear transformations that reverse the grading. General supermatrices represent an arbitrary ungraded linear transformation. Such transformations are still important in the graded case, although less so than the graded (even) transformations.
As linear transformations:
A supermodule M over a superalgebra R is free if it has a free homogeneous basis. If such a basis consists of p even elements and q odd elements, then M is said to have rank p|q. If R is supercommutative, the rank is independent of the choice of basis, just as in the ungraded case.
As linear transformations:
Let Rp|q be the space of column supervectors—supermatrices of dimension (p|q)×(1|0). This is naturally a right R-supermodule, called the right coordinate space. A supermatrix T of dimension (r|s)×(p|q) can then be thought of as a right R-linear map T:Rp|q→Rr|s where the action of T on Rp|q is just supermatrix multiplication (this action is not generally left R-linear which is why we think of Rp|q as a right supermodule).
As linear transformations:
Let M be free right R-supermodule of rank p|q and let N be a free right R-supermodule of rank r|s. Let (ei) be a free basis for M and let (fk) be a free basis for N. Such a choice of bases is equivalent to a choice of isomorphisms from M to Rp|q and from N to Rr|s. Any (ungraded) linear map T:M→N can be written as a (r|s)×(p|q) supermatrix relative to the chosen bases. The components of the associated supermatrix are determined by the formula T(ei)=∑k=1r+sfkTki.
As linear transformations:
The block decomposition of a supermatrix T corresponds to the decomposition of M and N into even and odd submodules: M=M0⊕M1N=N0⊕N1.
Operations:
Many operations on ordinary matrices can be generalized to supermatrices, although the generalizations are not always obvious or straightforward.
Operations:
Supertranspose The supertranspose of a supermatrix is the Z2-graded analog of the transpose. Let X=[ABCD] be a homogeneous (r|s)×(p|q) supermatrix. The supertranspose of X is the (p|q)×(r|s) supermatrix Xst=[At(−1)|X|Ct−(−1)|X|BtDt] where At denotes the ordinary transpose of A. This can be extended to arbitrary supermatrices by linearity. Unlike the ordinary transpose, the supertranspose is not generally an involution, but rather has order 4. Applying the supertranspose twice to a supermatrix X gives (Xst)st=[A−B−CD].
Operations:
If R is supercommutative, the supertranspose satisfies the identity (XY)st=(−1)|X||Y|YstXst.
Parity transpose The parity transpose of a supermatrix is a new operation without an ungraded analog. Let X=[ABCD] be a (r|s)×(p|q) supermatrix. The parity transpose of X is the (s|r)×(q|p) supermatrix Xπ=[DCBA].
That is, the (i,j) block of the transposed matrix is the (1−i,1−j) block of the original matrix.
The parity transpose operation obeys the identities (X+Y)π=Xπ+Yπ (XY)π=XπYπ (α⋅X)π=α^⋅Xπ (X⋅α)π=Xπ⋅α^ as well as π2=id π∘st∘π=(st)4 where st denotes the supertranspose operation.
Supertrace The supertrace of a square supermatrix is the Z2-graded analog of the trace. It is defined on homogeneous supermatrices by the formula 00 11 ) where tr denotes the ordinary trace.
If R is supercommutative, the supertrace satisfies the identity str(XY)=(−1)|X||Y|str(YX) for homogeneous supermatrices X and Y.
Berezinian The Berezinian (or superdeterminant) of a square supermatrix is the Z2-graded analog of the determinant. The Berezinian is only well-defined on even, invertible supermatrices over a commutative superalgebra R. In this case it is given by the formula det 00 01 11 10 det 11 )−1.
where det denotes the ordinary determinant (of square matrices with entries in the commutative algebra R0).
The Berezinian satisfies similar properties to the ordinary determinant. In particular, it is multiplicative and invariant under the supertranspose. It is related to the supertrace by the formula Ber(eX)=estr(X). | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**SÜSS MicroTec**
SÜSS MicroTec:
Suss Microtec is a supplier of equipment and process solutions for the semiconductor, nano and microsystems technology and related markets with headquarters in Garching near Munich.
The company’s microstructuring machines, equipment, and systems, such as photolithographic devices, are used in the manufacture of processors, memory chips, MEMS, LEDs, and other microsystems technology components. The portfolio includes products for back-end lithography, wafer bonding, and photomask cleaning, complemented by micro-optical components. The company is a supplier for large-scale industrial production and for research and development facilities.
SUSS MicroTec is headquartered in Garching bei München, Germany.
Corporate Development:
In 1949, Karl Süss founded Karl Süss KG and, as a sales representative for Bavaria, took over the distribution of optical instruments (microscopes, cameras, and laboratory equipment) from Ernst Leitz GmbH. With increasing technical expertise, the company changed from a pure sales company with five employees to a contract manufacturer.The order from Siemens in 1963 to develop a simple photolithography device laid the foundation for the company’s later direction and was its first step into the semiconductor industry. The first order from Siemens involved small measuring tables with stereo microscopes bonded together. In 1963, the company developed the prototype of the first mask aligner, MJB3, for Siemens.
Corporate Development:
In 1968, the company moved its production and now 30 employees to Garching.With the development of the semiconductor industry, Suss Microtec started to manufacture diamond scribers and spin coaters. The first mask aligner, which enabled double-sided exposure, was invented in 1974. Suss MicroTec, whose name already stood for photolithography in the research and development sector, now also focused on customers from the manufacturing industry. In 1975, the first mask aligner for mass production was developed, the MJB55.In the 1980s, overseas activities began with a plant in Waterbury, Vermont, USA. In 1983, an Asian subsidiary was established in Thailand, followed by sales offices in Japan, China, and Taiwan. Suss Microtec was preparing to manufacture bonders. In addition, the company made a foray into the very specialized field of X-ray stepper lithography. A plant for the production of probers was opened in Dresden.
Corporate Development:
In addition to aligners, systems were developed for related processes such as development, cleaning, and bonding. The company went into volume production with the wafer bonder in 1980 in the U.S. in Waterbury/Vermont.Suss Microtec developed the first substrate bonder in 1989. In microsystems technology, substrate bonders allowed heterogeneous materials to be bonded with structured surfaces. In 1993, the company added device bonders to its product line.
Corporate Development:
In 1994, the company founder Karl Süss and his eldest son Ekkehard Süss died shortly after each other. This led to a reorganization of the company. Winfried Süss, son of Karl Süss, represented the family on the supervisory board. In 1999, the holding company of the Suss Group went public as Suss Microtec AG.
Development since the year 2000:
Through the acquisition of Fairchild Technologies, the company entered the upper market segments with coating systems in 2000. From 2002, the micro-optics business of the newly founded Suss Microoptics strengthened Suss Microtec’s lithographic portfolio. In 2002, the subsidiaries were renamed Suss Microtec.
Development since the year 2000:
In 2006, the successfully used equipment division was spun off into Suss Microtec Reman. In 2007, the Device Bonder product line was sold, and two years later the Prober line. This was followed by the opening of offices in Singapore and Korea.The 2010s were characterized by fluctuations in the semiconductor equipment technology market. As a result, the company changed its business policy and initiated a focus on core competencies and targeted acquisitions. In 2010, Suss Microtec acquired Hamatech APE, an equipment manufacturer for photomask processing technology. In the same year, the production of substrate bonders was relocated from Waterbury (USA) to the newly acquired plant in Sternenfels. Since then, coating equipment, bonders, and photomask processing equipment have been manufactured at the same plant, which has thus become a center of excellence for wet processing technology. With the acquisition of Tamarack Scientific in 2012, the company added advanced laser processing technology for microstructure transfer to its lithographic portfolio.Due to increasing digitalization in all areas of life, Suss Microtec expanded its production capacities in 2020 with a new production facility in Taiwan. In addition, another technology was added in the same year when the company acquired the inkjet printing business of solar specialist Meyer Burger, PiXDRO.Sales subsidiaries of Suss Microtec exist in Thailand, Japan, Taiwan, China, and Korea, among others.
Subsidiary Companies:
Since the foundation of the company GMA in 1989, which emerged from the former Elektromat, in Sacka near Dresden, Suss Microtec has been producing its own systems for testing micro components. In 1993, Suss Microtec expanded its product range with the acquisition of the French S.E.T. to include spin coaters and device bonders. The next acquisition was in 1999 with Convac (sold by Fairchild Semiconductor). Through the acquisition of Image Technology, USA, photomasks used for lithographic processes have supplemented the Group’s portfolio since 2001. Since the foundation of Suss Microoptics in Neuchâtel, Switzerland in 2002, the company also offers optical microlenses.
Subsidiary Companies:
In 2007, Suss Microtec sold its device bonder product division. With the acquisition of Hamatech APE at the beginning of 2010 and the sale of the Test Systems division, the Suss Group further expanded its core competence in wet processes on the one hand and set a clear focus on the microstructuring of components on the other.
In order to consolidate the portfolio, 2011 saw the sale of SUSS MicroTec Precision Photomask Inc.
In 2012, Suss Microtec purchased Tamarack Scientific Co. Inc. Tamarack develops, produces, and distributes UV projection exposure equipment and laser-based microstructuring systems.
Research and Development:
The company’s founder already maintained a close exchange with science. Suss Microtec is continuously expanding its efforts in the area of research and development in order to increase the speed of innovation. In addition to lively development activities and intensive cooperation with leading research institutes and universities, all processes are geared to the highest possible development speed and efficiency in order to improve the added value for users.
Research and Development:
Suss Microtec cooperates with various research organizations worldwide.
Applications:
Important end applications for sensors and microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) are consumer electronics (consumer electronics, household appliances, cell phones, cameras, etc.), mechanical and plant engineering, control, measurement and regulation technology, processors, laboratory technology, medical technology, automotive, aerospace and security applications. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Fufu machine**
Fufu machine:
A fufu machine is a kitchen appliance used to pound cooked starchy vegetables, particularly cassava, plantains, or yams, into the West and Central African staple food fufu.
Fufu machines can achieve the fine, dough-like, pasty texture of fufu in about one minute; traditional hand-pounding methods generally required at least 30 minutes for the same result.
Development:
The first fufu machine was developed in 2004 by Ghanaian electrical-equipment dealer Fadegnom Charles, who produced small numbers of electric fufu machines for local consumption. A mass-marketable design by a team led by Professor Kwadeo Kesse, Dr Lawrence Ansong and R.E Doddoo at Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST) was released shortly thereafter. The machine saw significant adoption in both homes and small businesses in Accra by 2014.In 2017, a Togolese entrepreneur named Logou Minsob successfully invented the model Foufoumix which allows for efficient mixing of the fufu into a well-set texture and consistency. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Retosiban**
Retosiban:
Retosiban also known as GSK-221,149-A is an oral drug which acts as an oxytocin receptor antagonist. It is being developed by GlaxoSmithKline for the treatment of preterm labour. Retosiban has high affinity for the oxytocin receptor (Ki = 0.65 nM) and has greater than 1400-fold selectivity over the related vasopressin receptors
Mechanism of action:
Retosiban is a competitive oxytocin receptor antagonist which blocks the oxytocin-mediated contraction of the uterine smooth muscle in the female uterus that occurs during the initiation of preterm labour. This has been used to prevent preterm labour and premature birth.
Pharmacology:
Retosiban has been shown to be an effective tocolytic. By intravenous and oral administration it produces a dose-dependent decrease in oxytocin-induced uterine contractions in non-pregnant female rats. In late-term pregnant rats it significantly reduces spontaneous uterine contractions in a dose-dependent manner by intravenous administration.
Pharmacology:
In humans retosiban prolongs pregnancy and reduces preterm birth. Intravenous administration of retosiban in women with spontaneous preterm labour was associated with a greater than 1-week increase in time to delivery compared with placebo, a significant reduction in preterm deliveries, a non-significant increase in uterine quiescence, and a favourable safety profile. The results demonstrate proof-of-concept in the treatment of threatened spontaneous preterm labour
Pharmacokinetics:
The oral bioavailability of retosiban is in the order of 100% in the rat with a half life of 1.4 hours. It has low to moderate intrinsic clearance in microsomes from three pre-clinical species (rat, dog, cynomolgus monkey) and low intrinsic clearance in human microsomes. It has a good cytochrome P450 (Cyp450) profile with no significant inhibition, with IC50 > 100μM, low protein binding (<80%) and low predicted CNS penetration.
Physical and chemical properties:
At physiological pH, retosiban exists in an uncharged state. It has good solubility (> 0.22 mg/ml), with a logd of 2.2.
Physical and chemical properties:
Retosiban consists of a central 2,5 diketopiperazine ring with an R-indanyl group at the 3 position and an R (S-secButyl) at the 6 position, both cis to each other, and with a R-2-methyl oxazole ring at the 7 position in the acyclic amide attached to the N1-position. Retosiban is the (3R, 6R, 7R)-isomer and is a sub-nanomolar (Ki = 0.65 nM) oxytocin receptor antagonist, while the (3R, 6R, 7S)-isomer where the stereochemistry in the amide side-chain at C-7 is inverted, is 10-fold less potent. Typically in this series of 2,5 diketopiperazine oxytocin antagonists the (3S, 6S, 7S) isomer is >500 less active than the (3R, 6R, 7R)-isomer. In addition to the 2,5 diketopiperazine essential core, retosiban also contains several structural characteristics that improve its effectiveness and safety. An indanyl group at position 3 is the best choice in terms of oxytocin receptor antagonist potency, its replacement by phenethyl and benzyl groups led to a progressive weakening of activity. At C-3, a 4-carbon branched alkyl was shown to be preferred with R (S-secButyl) being the best; smaller alkyl groups result in reduced antagonist activity. The 2-methyl oxazole ring at the 7 position gives good aqueous solubility, low protein binding and minimal Cyp450 interaction. This structure–activity relationship (SAR) is supported by the crystal structure of the human oxytocin receptor in complex with retosiban, where the lipophilic indanyl substituent penetrates into a deep, mainly hydrophobic crevice at the bottom of the binding pocket, while the oxazol-morpholine amide moiety is closest to the extracellular surface. The oxazole ring is the most solvent-exposed substituent, and the morpholine ring has no direct interactions with the receptor. The 2,5-diketopiperazine core specifically interacts with the receptor through a polar interaction interface.
Synthesis:
Retosiban is a cyclic dipeptide or 2,5-diketopiperazine and these are formed by cyclising the corresponding linear dipeptide. In the short lab-scale and highly stereoselective synthesis of Retosiban 8 the linear peptide 5 is formed by the four-component Ugi reaction of the carboxybenzyl (Cbz) protected R-indanylglycine 1, D-alloisoleucine methyl ester hydrochloride 2, 2-methyloxazole-4-carboxaldehyde 3 and 2-benzyloxyphenylisonitrile 4. Hydrogenation to remove the Cbz and benzyl protecting groups, enabled cyclization of the linear peptide 5 to occur to give the phenolic cyclic dipeptide 6. Hydrolysis of the phenolic amide, by reaction with carbonyl diimidazole (CDI), followed addition of aqueous hydrochloric acid gave the acid 7 which was converted to the amide Retosiban 8 by activating the acid with the peptide coupling reagent PyBOP (benzotriazol-1-yloxytripyrrolidinophosphonium hexafluorophosphate) followed by the addition of morpholine.
Synthesis:
Although the linear peptide 5 and the cyclic dipeptide 6 are a mixture of diastereoisomers (7RS) at the exocyclic amide, the hydrochloric acid hydrolysis of the activated phenolic amide caused epimerisation at the exocyclic position and yielded the acid 7 with the required (7R)-stereochemistry as the major product. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**C-NCAP**
C-NCAP:
The C-NCAP (Chinese: 中国新车评价规程) is a Chinese car safety assessment program. It is primarily modeled after safety standards established by Euro NCAP and is run by the China Automotive Technology and Research Center (Chinese: 中国汽车技术研究中心). | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Genstat**
Genstat:
Genstat (General Statistics) is a statistical software package with data analysis capabilities, particularly in the field of agriculture.It was developed in 1968 by the Rothamsted Research in the United Kingdom and was designed to provide modular design, linear mixed models and graphical functions. It was developed and distributed by VSN International (VSNi), which was owned by The Numerical Algorithms Group and Rothamsted Research.
Genstat:
Genstat is used in a number of research areas, including plant science, forestry, animal science, and medicine. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Convex drawing**
Convex drawing:
In graph drawing, a convex drawing of a planar graph is a drawing that represents the vertices of the graph as points in the Euclidean plane and the edges as straight line segments, in such a way that all of the faces of the drawing (including the outer face) have a convex boundary. The boundary of a face may pass straight through one of the vertices of the graph without turning; a strictly convex drawing asks in addition that the face boundary turns at each vertex. That is, in a strictly convex drawing, each vertex of the graph is also a vertex of each convex polygon describing the shape of each incident face.
Convex drawing:
Every polyhedral graph has a strictly convex drawing, for instance obtained as the Schlegel diagram of a convex polyhedron representing the graph. For these graphs, a convex (but not necessarily strictly convex) drawing can be found within a grid whose length on each side is linear in the number of vertices of the graph, in linear time. However, strictly convex drawings may require larger grids; for instance, for any polyhedron such as a pyramid in which one face has a linear number of vertices, a strictly convex drawing of its graph requires a grid of cubic area. A linear-time algorithm can find strictly convex drawings of polyhedral graphs in a grid whose length on each side is quadratic.
Convex drawing:
Other graphs that are not polyhedral can also have convex drawings, or strictly convex drawings. Some graphs, such as the complete bipartite graph K2,3 , have convex drawings but not strictly convex drawings. A combinatorial characterization for the graphs with convex drawings is known, and they can be recognized in linear time, but the grid dimensions needed for their drawings and an efficient algorithm for constructing small convex grid drawings of these graphs are not known in all cases.Convex drawings should be distinguished from convex embeddings, in which each vertex is required to lie within the convex hull of its neighboring vertices. Convex embeddings can exist in dimensions other than two, do not require their graph to be planar, and even for planar embeddings of planar graphs do not necessarily force the outer face to be convex. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Collateral circulation**
Collateral circulation:
Collateral circulation is the alternate circulation around a blocked artery or vein via another path, such as nearby minor vessels. It may occur via preexisting vascular redundancy (analogous to engineered redundancy), as in the circle of Willis in the brain, or it may occur via new branches formed between adjacent blood vessels (neovascularization), as in the eye after a retinal embolism or in the brain when an instance of arterial constriction occurs due to Moyamoya disease. Its formation may be related by pathological conditions such as high vascular resistance or ischaemia. It is occasionally also known as accessory circulation, auxiliary circulation, or secondary circulation. It has surgically created analogues in which shunts or anastomoses are constructed to bypass circulatory problems.
Collateral circulation:
An example of the usefulness of collateral circulation is a systemic thromboembolism in cats. This is when a thrombotic embolus lodges above the external iliac artery (common iliac artery), blocking the external and internal iliac arteries and effectively shutting off all blood supply to the hind leg. Even though the main vessels to the leg are blocked, enough blood can get to the tissues in the leg via the collateral circulation to keep them alive.
Brain:
Blood flow to the brain in humans and some other animals is maintained via a network of collateral arteries that anastomose (join) in the circle of Willis, which lies at the base of the brain. In the circle of Willis so-called communicating arteries exist between the front (anterior) and back (posterior) parts of the circle of Willis, as well as between the left and right side of the circle of Willis.
Brain:
Leptomeningeal collateral circulation is another anastomosis in the brain.
Heart:
Another example in humans and some other animals is after an acute myocardial infarction (heart attack). Collateral circulation in the heart tissue will sometimes bypass the blockage in the main artery and supply enough oxygenated blood to enable the cardiac tissue to survive and recover.
Eye:
After central retinal vein occlusion, neovascularization may restore some blood flow to the retina, but the new vessels' bulk also presents a risk of causing acute glaucoma by blocking the drainage of aqueous humour. Collateral circulation is created (within months) around the blocked central vein via a generally winding path, usually from a branch vein to the choroid.
Hand:
The circulatory system of the human hand features extensive collateral circulation in the form of the deep and superficial palmar arches, and the proper palmar digital arteries of the digits, with the exception of the thumb, which has its blood supplied by the princeps pollicis artery. As each finger has two proper digital arteries, blood can be continue to be supplied to specific digits if one of the two is injured.
Truncal venous system:
Hepatic cirrhosis arising from congestion in the hepatic portal vein may give rise to collateral circulation between branches of the portal and caval veins of the liver, or between the two caval veins. Consequences of newly established venous collaterals arising from portal hypertension include esophageal varices and hemorrhoids (portocaval collateral circulation). | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Cubic Hermite spline**
Cubic Hermite spline:
In numerical analysis, a cubic Hermite spline or cubic Hermite interpolator is a spline where each piece is a third-degree polynomial specified in Hermite form, that is, by its values and first derivatives at the end points of the corresponding domain interval.Cubic Hermite splines are typically used for interpolation of numeric data specified at given argument values x1,x2,…,xn , to obtain a continuous function. The data should consist of the desired function value and derivative at each xk . (If only the values are provided, the derivatives must be estimated from them.) The Hermite formula is applied to each interval (xk,xk+1) separately. The resulting spline will be continuous and will have continuous first derivative.
Cubic Hermite spline:
Cubic polynomial splines can be specified in other ways, the Bezier cubic being the most common. However, these two methods provide the same set of splines, and data can be easily converted between the Bézier and Hermite forms; so the names are often used as if they were synonymous. Cubic polynomial splines are extensively used in computer graphics and geometric modeling to obtain curves or motion trajectories that pass through specified points of the plane or three-dimensional space. In these applications, each coordinate of the plane or space is separately interpolated by a cubic spline function of a separate parameter t. Cubic polynomial splines are also used extensively in structural analysis applications, such as Euler–Bernoulli beam theory. Cubic polynomial splines have also been applied to mortality analysis and mortality forecasting.Cubic splines can be extended to functions of two or more parameters, in several ways. Bicubic splines (Bicubic interpolation) are often used to interpolate data on a regular rectangular grid, such as pixel values in a digital image or altitude data on a terrain. Bicubic surface patches, defined by three bicubic splines, are an essential tool in computer graphics.
Cubic Hermite spline:
Cubic splines are often called csplines, especially in computer graphics. Hermite splines are named after Charles Hermite.
Interpolation on a single interval:
Unit interval [0, 1] On the unit interval [0,1] , given a starting point p0 at t=0 and an ending point p1 at t=1 with starting tangent m0 at t=0 and ending tangent m1 at t=1 , the polynomial can be defined by where t ∈ [0, 1].
Interpolation on a single interval:
Interpolation on an arbitrary interval Interpolating x in an arbitrary interval (xk,xk+1) is done by mapping the latter to [0,1] through an affine (degree-1) change of variable. The formula is where t=(x−xk)/(xk+1−xk) , and h refers to the basis functions, defined below. Note that the tangent values have been scaled by xk+1−xk compared to the equation on the unit interval.
Interpolation on a single interval:
Uniqueness The formula specified above provides the unique third-degree polynomial path between the two points with the given tangents.
Proof. Let P,Q be two third-degree polynomials satisfying the given boundary conditions. Define R=Q−P, then: R(0)=Q(0)−P(0)=0, 0.
Since both Q and P are third-degree polynomials, R is at most a third-degree polynomial. So R must be of the form Calculating the derivative gives We know furthermore that R′(0)=Q′(0)−P′(0)=0, R′(1)=Q′(1)−P′(1)=0, Putting (1) and (2) together, we deduce that a=0 , and therefore R=0, thus P=Q.
Representations We can write the interpolation polynomial as where 00 , 10 , 01 , 11 are Hermite basis functions.
These can be written in different ways, each way revealing different properties: The "expanded" column shows the representation used in the definition above.
The "factorized" column shows immediately that 10 and 11 are zero at the boundaries.
You can further conclude that 01 and 11 have a zero of multiplicity 2 at 0, and 00 and 10 have such a zero at 1, thus they have slope 0 at those boundaries.
The "Bernstein" column shows the decomposition of the Hermite basis functions into Bernstein polynomials of order 3: Using this connection you can express cubic Hermite interpolation in terms of cubic Bézier curves with respect to the four values {\textstyle {\boldsymbol {p}}_{0},{\boldsymbol {p}}_{0}+{\frac {1}{3}}{\boldsymbol {m}}_{0},{\boldsymbol {p}}_{1}-{\frac {1}{3}}{\boldsymbol {m}}_{1},{\boldsymbol {p}}_{1}} and do Hermite interpolation using the de Casteljau algorithm.
It shows that in a cubic Bézier patch the two control points in the middle determine the tangents of the interpolation curve at the respective outer points.
We can also write the polynomial in standard form as where the control points and tangents are coefficients. This permits efficient evaluation of the polynomial at various values of t since the constant coefficients can be computed once and reused.
Interpolating a data set:
A data set, (xk,pk) for k=1,…,n , can be interpolated by applying the above procedure on each interval, where the tangents are chosen in a sensible manner, meaning that the tangents for intervals sharing endpoints are equal. The interpolated curve then consists of piecewise cubic Hermite splines and is globally continuously differentiable in (x1,xn) The choice of tangents is not unique, and there are several options available.
Interpolating a data set:
Finite difference The simplest choice is the three-point difference, not requiring constant interval lengths: mk=12(pk+1−pkxk+1−xk+pk−pk−1xk−xk−1) for internal points k=2,…,n−1 , and one-sided difference at the endpoints of the data set.
Interpolating a data set:
Cardinal spline A cardinal spline, sometimes called a canonical spline, is obtained if mk=(1−c)pk+1−pk−1xk+1−xk−1 is used to calculate the tangents. The parameter c is a tension parameter that must be in the interval [0, 1]. In some sense, this can be interpreted as the "length" of the tangent. Choosing c = 1 yields all zero tangents, and choosing c = 0 yields a Catmull–Rom spline in the uniform parameterization case.
Interpolating a data set:
Catmull–Rom spline For tangents chosen to be mk=pk+1−pk−12 a Catmull–Rom spline is obtained, being a special case of a cardinal spline. This assumes uniform parameter spacing.
Interpolating a data set:
The curve is named after Edwin Catmull and Raphael Rom. The principal advantage of this technique is that the points along the original set of points also make up the control points for the spline curve. Two additional points are required on either end of the curve. The uniform Catmull–Rom implementation can produce loops and self-intersections. The chordal and centripetal Catmull–Rom implementations solve this problem, but use a slightly different calculation. In computer graphics, Catmull–Rom splines are frequently used to get smooth interpolated motion between key frames. For example, most camera path animations generated from discrete key-frames are handled using Catmull–Rom splines. They are popular mainly for being relatively easy to compute, guaranteeing that each key frame position will be hit exactly, and also guaranteeing that the tangents of the generated curve are continuous over multiple segments.
Interpolating a data set:
Kochanek–Bartels spline A Kochanek–Bartels spline is a further generalization on how to choose the tangents given the data points pk−1 , pk and pk+1 , with three parameters possible: tension, bias and a continuity parameter.
Monotone cubic interpolation If a cubic Hermite spline of any of the above listed types is used for interpolation of a monotonic data set, the interpolated function will not necessarily be monotonic, but monotonicity can be preserved by adjusting the tangents.
Interpolation on the unit interval with matched derivatives at endpoints:
Consider a single coordinate of the points pn−1,pn,pn+1 and pn+2 as the values that a function f(x) takes at integer ordinates x = n − 1, n, n + 1 and n + 2, pn=f(n)∀n∈Z.
Interpolation on the unit interval with matched derivatives at endpoints:
In addition, assume that the tangents at the endpoints are defined as the centered differences of the adjacent points: To evaluate the interpolated f(x) for a real x, first separate x into the integer portion n and fractional portion u: x=n+u, floor (x), u=x−n=x−⌊x⌋, 0≤u<1, where ⌊x⌋ denotes the floor function, which returns the largest integer no larger than x.
Interpolation on the unit interval with matched derivatives at endpoints:
Then the Catmull–Rom spline is where T denotes the matrix transpose. The bottom equality is depicting the application of Horner's method.
This writing is relevant for tricubic interpolation, where one optimization requires computing CINTu sixteen times with the same u and different p. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**TYMP (gene)**
TYMP (gene):
TYMP is a gene that encodes for the enzyme thymidine phosphorylase. The TYMP gene is also known as ECGF1 (endothelial cell growth factor 1, platelet-derived) and MNGIE due to its role in MNGIE syndrome.
Structure:
The TYMP gene is located on chromosome 22 in humans and contains 10 exons spanning more than 4.3 kb.
Function:
TYMP encodes for the enzyme thymidine phosphorylase. TYMP and thymidine phosphorylase are associated with angiogenesis, growth of endothelial cells, and mitochondrial neurogastrointestinal encephalomyopathy (MNGIE).
Function:
Thymidine phosphorylase is angiogenic growth factor which promotes angiogenesis in vivo and stimulates the in vitro growth of a variety of endothelial cells. Thymidine phosphorylase has a highly restricted target cell specificity acting only on endothelial cells, hence its alternative name of ECGF1. Because it limits glial cell proliferation, thymidine phosphorylase is also known as gliostatin. Thymidine phosphorylase activity in leukocytes from mitochondrial neurogastrointestinal encephalomyopathy (MNGIE) patients was less than 5 percent of controls, indicating that loss-of-function mutations in TYMP cause MNGIE.
Interactive pathway map:
Click on genes, proteins and metabolites below to link to respective articles. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Frank Keller**
Frank Keller:
Frank Keller is a professor of computational cognition at the School of Informatics, University of Edinburgh and director at the Institute for Language, Cognition and Computation.
Keller got his B.S. from the University of Stuttgart and then got his Ph.D. from the University of Edinburgh. He then served as postdoc at Saarland University and Massachusetts Institute of Technology, before managing European Network on Vision and Language Committee and serving as a member of the European Association for Computational Linguistics' governing board. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**NBEAL2**
NBEAL2:
Neurobeachin-like 2 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the NBEAL2 gene.
Function:
The protein encoded by this gene contains a beige and Chediak-Higashi (BEACH) domain and multiple WD40 domains, and may play a role in megakaryocyte alpha-granule biogenesis.
Clinical relevance:
Mutation in this gene have been shown to cause gray platelet syndrome. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Node.js**
Node.js:
Node.js is a cross-platform, open-source server environment that can run on Windows, Linux, Unix, macOS, and more. Node.js is a back-end JavaScript runtime environment, runs on the V8 JavaScript engine, and executes JavaScript code outside a web browser. Node.js lets developers use JavaScript to write command line tools and for server-side scripting. The ability to run JavaScript code on the server is often used to generate dynamic web page content before the page is sent to the user's web browser. Consequently, Node.js represents a "JavaScript everywhere" paradigm, unifying web-application development around a single programming language, as opposed to using different languages for the server- versus client-side programming.
Node.js:
Node.js has an event-driven architecture capable of asynchronous I/O. These design choices aim to optimize throughput and scalability in web applications with many input/output operations, as well as for real-time Web applications (e.g., real-time communication programs and browser games).The Node.js distributed development project was previously governed by the Node.js Foundation, and has now merged with the JS Foundation to form the OpenJS Foundation. OpenJS Foundation is facilitated by the Linux Foundation's Collaborative Projects program.
History:
Node.js was written initially by Ryan Dahl in 2009, about thirteen years after the introduction of the first server-side JavaScript environment, Netscape's LiveWire Pro Web. The initial release supported only Linux and Mac OS X. Its development and maintenance was led by Dahl and later sponsored by Joyent.Dahl criticized the limited possibilities of the most popular web server in 2009, Apache HTTP Server, to handle a lot of concurrent connections (up to 10,000 and more) and the most common way of creating code (sequential programming), when code either blocked the entire process or implied multiple execution stacks in the case of simultaneous connections.Dahl demonstrated the project at the inaugural European JSConf on November 8, 2009. Node.js combined Google's V8 JavaScript engine, an event loop, and a low-level I/O API.In January 2010, a package manager was introduced for the Node.js environment called npm. The package manager makes it easier for programmers to publish and share source code of Node.js packages and is designed to simplify installation, updating, and uninstallation of packages.In June 2011, Microsoft and Joyent implemented a native Windows version of Node.js. The first Node.js build supporting Windows was released in July 2011.
History:
In January 2012, Dahl stepped aside, promoting coworker and npm creator Isaac Schlueter to manage the project. In January 2014, Schlueter announced that Timothy J. Fontaine would lead the project.In December 2014, Fedor Indutny started io.js, a fork of Node.js. Due to the internal conflict over Joyent's governance, io.js was created as an open governance alternative with a separate technical committee. Unlike Node.js, the authors planned to keep io.js up-to-date with the latest releases of the Google V8 JavaScript engine.In February 2015, the intent to form a neutral Node.js Foundation was announced. By June 2015, the Node.js and io.js communities voted to work together under the Node.js Foundation.In September 2015, Node.js v0.12 and io.js v3.3 were merged back together into Node v4.0. This merge brought V8 ES6 features into Node.js and a long-term support release cycle. As of 2016, the io.js website recommends that developers switch back to Node.js and that no further releases of io.js are planned due to the merge.In 2019, the JS Foundation and Node.js Foundation merged to form the OpenJS Foundation.
History:
On March 15 2023, Node.js 19.8.1 was released.
Overview:
Node.js allows the creation of Web servers and networking tools using JavaScript and a collection of "modules" that handle various core functionalities. Modules are provided for file system I/O, networking (DNS, HTTP, TCP, TLS/SSL, or UDP), binary data (buffers), cryptography functions, data streams, and other core functions. Node.js's modules use an API designed to reduce the complexity of writing server applications.JavaScript is the only language that Node.js supports natively, but many compile-to-JS languages are available. As a result, Node.js applications can be written in CoffeeScript, Dart, TypeScript, ClojureScript and others.
Overview:
Node.js is primarily used to build network programs such as Web servers. The most significant difference between Node.js and PHP is that most functions in PHP block until completion (commands execute only after previous commands finish), while Node.js functions are non-blocking (commands execute concurrently or even in parallel, and use callbacks to signal completion or failure).Node.js is officially supported on Linux, macOS and Microsoft Windows 8.1 and Server 2012 (and later), with tier 2 support for SmartOS and IBM AIX and experimental support for FreeBSD. OpenBSD also works, and LTS versions available for IBM i (AS/400). The provided source code may also be built on similar operating systems to those officially supported or be modified by third parties to support others such as NonStop OS and Unix servers.
Overview:
Platform architecture Node.js brings event-driven programming to web servers, enabling development of fast web servers in JavaScript. Developers can create scalable servers without using threading, by using a simplified model of event-driven programming that uses callbacks to signal the completion of a task. Node.js connects the ease of a scripting language (JavaScript) with the power of Unix network programming.Node.js was built on top of Google's V8 JavaScript engine since it was open-sourced under the BSD license. It is proficient with internet fundamentals such as HTTP, DNS, and TCP. JavaScript was also a well-known language, making Node.js accessible to the web development community.
Overview:
Industry support There are thousands of open-source libraries for Node.js, most of them hosted on the npm website. There are multiple developer conferences and events that support the Node.js community, including NodeConf, Node Interactive, and Node Summit as well as a number of regional events.
Overview:
The open-source community has developed web frameworks to accelerate the development of applications. Such frameworks include Connect, Express.js, Socket.IO, Feathers.js, Koa.js, Hapi.js, Sails.js, Meteor, Derby, and many others. Various packages have also been created for interfacing with other languages or runtime environments such as Microsoft .NET.Modern desktop IDEs provide editing and debugging features specifically for Node.js applications. Such IDEs include Atom, Brackets, JetBrains WebStorm, Microsoft Visual Studio (with Node.js Tools for Visual Studio, or TypeScript with Node definitions,) NetBeans, Nodeclipse Enide Studio (Eclipse-based), and Visual Studio Code.
Overview:
Certain online web-based IDEs also support Node.js, such as Codeanywhere, Codenvy, Cloud9 IDE, Koding, and the visual flow editor in Node-RED.
Node.js is supported across a number of cloud-hosting platforms like Jelastic, Google Cloud Platform, AWS Elastic Beanstalk, Joyent and others.
Releases:
New major releases of Node.js are cut from the GitHub main branch every six months. Even-numbered versions are cut in April and odd-numbered versions are cut in October. When a new odd version is released, the previous even version undergoes transition to Long Term Support (LTS), which gives that version 18 months of active support from the date it is designated LTS. After these 18 months expire, an LTS release receives an additional 12 months of maintenance support. An active version receives non-breaking backports of changes a few weeks after they land in the current release. A maintenance release receives only critical fixes and documentation updates. The LTS Working Group manages strategy and policy in collaboration with the Technical Steering Committee of the Node.js Foundation.
Technical details:
Node.js is a JavaScript runtime environment that processes incoming requests in a loop, called the event loop.
Technical details:
Internals Node.js uses libuv under the hood to handle asynchronous events. Libuv is an abstraction layer for network and file system functionality on both Windows and POSIX-based systems such as Linux, macOS, OSS on NonStop, and Unix. Node.js relies on nghttp2 for HTTP support. As of version 20, Node.js uses the ada library which provides up-to-date WHATWG URL compliance. As of version 19.5, Node.js uses the simdutf library for fast Unicode validation and transcoding.
Technical details:
Threading Node.js operates on a single-thread event loop, using non-blocking I/O calls, allowing it to support tens of thousands of concurrent connections without incurring the cost of thread context switching. The design of sharing a single thread among all the requests that use the observer pattern is intended for building highly concurrent applications, where any function performing I/O must use a callback. To accommodate the single-threaded event loop, Node.js uses the libuv library—which, in turn, uses a fixed-sized thread pool that handles some of the non-blocking asynchronous I/O operations.A thread pool handles the execution of parallel tasks in Node.js. The main thread function call posts tasks to the shared task queue, which threads in the thread pool pull and execute. Inherently non-blocking system functions such as networking translate to kernel-side non-blocking sockets, while inherently blocking system functions such as file I/O run in a blocking way on their own threads. When a thread in the thread pool completes a task, it informs the main thread of this, which in turn, wakes up and executes the registered callback.
Technical details:
A downside of this single-threaded approach is that Node.js does not allow vertical scaling by increasing the number of CPU cores of the machine it is running on without using an additional module, such as cluster, StrongLoop Process Manager, or pm2. However, developers can increase the default number of threads in the libuv thread pool. The server operating system (OS) is likely to distribute these threads across multiple cores. Another problem is that long-lasting computations and other CPU-bound tasks freeze the entire event-loop until completion.
Technical details:
V8 V8 is the JavaScript execution engine which was initially built for Google Chrome. It was then open-sourced by Google in 2008. Written in C++, V8 compiles JavaScript source code to native machine code at runtime. As of 2016, it also includes Ignition, a bytecode interpreter.
Package management npm is the pre-installed package manager for the Node.js server platform. It installs Node.js programs from the npm registry, organizing the installation and management of third-party Node.js programs. Packages in the npm registry can range from simple helper libraries such as Lodash to task runners such as Grunt.
Technical details:
Unified API Node.js can be combined with a browser with a site, a database that supports JSON data (such as Postgres, MongoDB, or CouchDB) and JSON for a unified JavaScript development stack. With the adaptation of what were essentially server-side development patterns such as MVC, MVP, MVVM, etc., Node.js allows the reuse of the same model and service interface between client side and server side.
Technical details:
Event loop Node.js registers with the operating system so the OS notifies it of connections and issues a callback. Within the Node.js runtime, each connection is a small heap allocation. Traditionally, relatively heavyweight OS processes or threads handled each connection. Node.js uses an event loop for scalability, instead of processes or threads. In contrast to other event-driven servers, Node.js's event loop does not need to be called explicitly. Instead, callbacks are defined, and the server automatically enters the event loop at the end of the callback definition. Node.js exits the event loop when there are no further callbacks to be performed.
Technical details:
WebAssembly Node.js supports WebAssembly and as of Node 14 has experimental support of WASI, the WebAssembly System Interface.
Technical details:
Native bindings Node.js provides a way to create "add-ons" via a C-based API called N-API, which can be used to produce loadable (importable) .node modules from source code written in C/C++. The modules can be directly loaded into memory and executed from within JS environment as simple CommonJS modules. The implementation of the N-API relies on internal C/C++ Node.js and V8 objects requiring users to import (#include) Node.js specific headers into their native source code.As the Node.js API is subject to breaking changes at a binary level, modules have to be built and shipped against specific Node.js versions to work properly. To address the issue, third parties have introduced open-sourced С/С++ wrappers on top of the API that partially alleviate the problem. They simplify interfaces, but as a side effect they may also introduce complexity which maintainers have to deal with. Even though the core functionality of Node.js resides in a JavaScript built-in library, modules written in C++ can be used to enhance capabilities and to improve performance of applications.
Technical details:
In order to produce such modules one needs to have an appropriate C++ compiler and necessary headers (the latter are typically shipped with Node.js itself), e.g., gcc, clang or MSVC++.
The N-API is similar to Java Native Interface.
Project governance:
In 2015, various branches of the greater Node.js community began working under the vendor-neutral Node.js Foundation. The stated purpose of the organization "is to enable widespread adoption and help accelerate development of Node.js and other related modules through an open governance model that encourages participation, technical contribution, and a framework for long-term stewardship by an ecosystem invested in Node.js' success."The Node.js Foundation Technical Steering Committee (TSC) is the technical governing body of the Node.js Foundation. The TSC is responsible for the core Node.js repo as well as dependent and adjacent projects. Generally the TSC delegates the administration of these projects to working groups or committees. The LTS group that manages long term supported releases is one such group. Other current groups include Website, Streams, Build, Diagnostics, i18n, Evangelism, Docker, Addon API, Benchmarking, Post-mortem, Intl, Documentation, and Testing.In August 2017, a third of the TSC members resigned due to a dispute related to the project's code of conduct. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Pan-American television frequencies**
Pan-American television frequencies:
The Pan-American television frequencies are different for terrestrial and cable television systems. Terrestrial television channels are divided into two bands: the VHF band which comprises channels 2 through 13 and occupies frequencies between 54 and 216 MHz, and the UHF band, which comprises channels 14 through 36 and occupies frequencies between 470 and 700 MHz. These bands are different enough in frequency that they often require separate antennas to receive (although many antennas cover both VHF and UHF), and separate tuning controls on the television set. The VHF band is further divided into two frequency ranges: VHF low band (Band I) between 54 and 88 MHz, containing channels 2 through 6, and VHF high band (Band III) between 174 and 216 MHz, containing channels 7 through 13. The wide spacing between these frequency bands is responsible for the complicated design of rooftop TV antennas. The UHF band has higher noise and greater attenuation, so higher gain antennas are often required for UHF.
Terrestrial television:
History The VHF band plan was modified several times before 1948. The last of these changes was the deletion of channel 1, originally intended as a community channel. This allocation of the spectrum was given to two-way land-mobile radio.UHF channels 70–83 in the United States were reallocated in 1983.
Terrestrial television:
In March 2008, the FCC requested public comment on turning the bandwidth currently occupied by analog television channels 5 and 6 (76–88 MHz) over to extending the FM terrestrial band when the DTT transition was to be completed in February 2009 (ultimately delayed to June 2009). This proposed allocation would effectively assign frequencies corresponding to the existing Japanese FM radio service (which begins at 76 MHz) for use as an extension to the existing North American FM broadcast band.
Terrestrial television:
700 MHz band The UHF 700 MHz band comprised the spectrum of UHF channels 52 through 69. Channels 52–69 are no longer available for normal, high-power digital terrestrial television broadcasting in the United States, but some channels are available for use as low-power or translator stations. Wireless microphones and medical telemetry devices shared some of the space on this television band, if transmitting at a very low power. After the migration to digital terrestrial television in 2009, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) banned all of these from using the 700 MHz band, effective June 12, 2010. The 700 MHz band is now used for public safety communications and wireless broadband providers.
Terrestrial television:
600 MHz band In 2017 the FCC auctioned off all remaining UHF spectrum including and above UHF channel 38. This required the reconfiguration of channel allotment (known in the terrestrial television industry as the channel "repack"), allowing for higher gain small antennas to cover a smaller frequency range. In April 2017 it was decided that channels 38 to 51 would be deleted, but channel 37 remains reserved. Channel repacking proceeded in 10 phases from September 2018 through July 2020.
Terrestrial television:
Channel frequencies VHF band UHF band The following table lists terrestrial television channels in the ultra high frequency band as they were allocated in their modern form by the Federal Communications Commission on April 11, 1952. The original allocation included 70 UHF channels (14–83) with 6 MHz separation. In the decades since, many of the channels have been de-allocated and reserved for other purposes. Channels 14–36 are usable UHF channels in the United States after the most recent change was completed in 2020. Formerly allocated channels are indicated with a colored background, and their dispositions are explained in the notes below the table.
Terrestrial television:
Notes Channels 1 and 37 (shaded pink above) are reserved for radio astronomy in the United States, Canada, Bermuda and the Bahamas; thus there are no television stations assigned to it. Mexico, Colombia, Chile, Peru, Brazil and Argentina informally observe a ban on transmitters using the channel. One San Francisco station, KAXT-CD, was assigned Channel 1 as a virtual channel in 2017, but broadcasts on UHF channel 22. One New York City station, WNWT-LD, was assigned Channel 37 as a virtual channel in 2019, but broadcasts on VHF channel 3.
Terrestrial television:
Channels 38 through 51 (the 600 MHz band, shaded yellow above) have been displaced in the US by the Broadcast incentive auction.
Terrestrial television:
On August 22, 2011, the United States' Federal Communications Commission announced a freeze on all future applications for broadcast stations requesting to use channel 51, to prevent adjacent-channel interference to the A-Block of the 700 MHz band. Later that year (on December 16, 2011), Industry Canada and the CRTC followed suit in placing a moratorium on future television stations using channel 51 for broadcast use for the same reason.
Terrestrial television:
Channels 52 through 69 (the 700 MHz band, shaded brown above) in the United States have been reallocated following the conversion to digital TV on June 12, 2009, although some low-power and translator stations may still be in use on these channels.
The frequencies used by UHF channels 70 through 83 (shaded blue above) were reallocated to the Land Mobile Radio System (Public Safety and Trunked Radio) and mobile phones in a CCIR worldwide convention in 1983.
With the advent of digital television in 2009, stations are allowed to identify themselves by a virtual channel that may not necessarily be the same as the station's RF channel. Virtual channels 1, 37, and 70 to 99 can be assigned via PSIP even though there is no corresponding physical station on that RF channel.
Cable television frequency issues UHF channels 14 to 43 translate to common cable-ready channels 65 to 94 (add 51).
UHF channels 44 to 83 translate to rarely used cable TV channels 100 to 139 (add 56).
Cable-ready channels 6, 95, 96, and 97 have audio carriers which overlap FM radio stations (87.7, 95.7, 101.7 and 107.7).
Cable-ready channels 57 to 61 overlap the 70cm amateur radio band and can be used for amateur television.
Cable-ready channel 64 is within the Family Radio Service and General Mobile Radio Service (GMRS) band.
Cable-ready channel 23 overlaps with Japanese channel 12.
Historical band plans
Cable television:
Harmonically-related carriers (HRC) Harmonically-related carriers (HRC) is a system for assigning television channel numbers to bands of frequencies over a cable television network. William Grant, in his book, states: "By harmonically relating the carrier frequencies themselves it is … possible to improve system performance. This does not reduce the beats produced, but positions them within the system transmission spectrum, such that they are more tolerable. In effect, all signal carriers are spaced precisely at 6 MHz apart, and thus, all beats generated are at 6 MHz increments.
Cable television:
Since the television signals are vestigial sideband modulation, if the beat products can be manipulated to fall on or near the Radio frequency carriers themselves, they are much less offensive." Incrementally-related carriers (IRC) Incrementally-related carriers (IRC) is a system for assigning television channel numbers to bands of frequencies over a cable television network. The IRC plan attempts to minimize distortion products by deriving all video carrier signals from a common source. The IRC system assigns channel frequencies (for the Pan-American NTSC-M system) spaced 6 MHz apart. In an IRC system, the VHF channels are at their off-air frequencies except for channels 5 and 6, which will be 2 MHz higher than usual.Both HRC and IRC systems have the added advantage of allowing for one extra channel to be positioned between channels four and five, as the gap between them increases from 4 MHz wide to 6 MHz wide. It is often mapped as channel one or channels 2, 3, and 4 become channels 1, 2, and 3, and the new one becomes channel 5.
Cable television:
Channel frequencies These frequencies are used for both NTSC-based analog television and QAM-based digital television. Band plans for Pan-American American cable television systems are standardized in EIA standard 542-B.Channels 57 to 61, and 143 to 145, are used in amateur television.
NOTE: Frequencies given are for luminance carriers. For channel center frequencies, add 1.75 MHz.
Channel usage Cable channels 98 and 99 (A2 and A1, 108-120 MHz), if used, have appeared as channel 00 and 01 respectively on some cable boxes. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Ballistocardiography**
Ballistocardiography:
The ballistocardiograph (BCG) is a measure of ballistic forces generated by the heart. The downward movement of blood through the descending aorta produces an upward recoil, moving the body upward with each heartbeat. As different parts of the aorta expand and contract, the body continues to move downward and upward in a repeating pattern. Ballistocardiography is a technique for producing a graphical representation of repetitive motions of the human body arising from the sudden ejection of blood into the great vessels with each heart beat. It is a vital sign in the 1–20 Hz frequency range which is caused by the mechanical movement of the heart and can be recorded by noninvasive methods from the surface of the body. It was shown for the first time, after an extensive research work by Dr. Isaac Starr, that the effect of main heart malfunctions can be identified by observing and analyzing the BCG signal. Recent work also validates BCG could be monitored using camera in a non-contact manner.One example of the use of a BCG is a ballistocardiographic scale, which measures the recoil of the persons body who is on the scale. A BCG scale is able to show a person's heart rate as well as their weight.The term ballistocardiograph originated from the Roman ballista, which is derived from the Greek word ballein (to throw), a machine for launching missiles, plus the Greek words for heart and writing. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Glyphosate**
Glyphosate:
Glyphosate (IUPAC name: N-(phosphonomethyl)glycine) is a broad-spectrum systemic herbicide and crop desiccant. It is an organophosphorus compound, specifically a phosphonate, which acts by inhibiting the plant enzyme 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase (EPSP). It is used to kill weeds, especially annual broadleaf weeds and grasses that compete with crops. Its herbicidal effectiveness was discovered by Monsanto chemist John E. Franz in 1970. Monsanto brought it to market for agricultural use in 1974 under the trade name Roundup. Monsanto's last commercially relevant United States patent expired in 2000.
Glyphosate:
Farmers quickly adopted glyphosate for agricultural weed control, especially after Monsanto introduced glyphosate-resistant Roundup Ready crops, enabling farmers to kill weeds without killing their crops. In 2007, glyphosate was the most used herbicide in the United States' agricultural sector and the second-most used (after 2,4-D) in home and garden, government and industry, and commercial applications. From the late 1970s to 2016, there was a 100-fold increase in the frequency and volume of application of glyphosate-based herbicides (GBHs) worldwide, with further increases expected in the future.
Glyphosate:
Glyphosate is absorbed through foliage, and minimally through roots, and from there translocated to growing points. It inhibits EPSP synthase, a plant enzyme involved in the synthesis of three aromatic amino acids: tyrosine, tryptophan, and phenylalanine. It is therefore effective only on actively growing plants and is not effective as a pre-emergence herbicide. An increasing number of crops have been genetically engineered to be tolerant of glyphosate (e.g. Roundup Ready soybean, the first Roundup Ready crop, also created by Monsanto), which allows farmers to use glyphosate as a post-emergence herbicide against weeds.
Glyphosate:
While glyphosate and formulations such as Roundup have been approved by regulatory bodies worldwide, concerns about their effects on humans and the environment have persisted. A number of regulatory and scholarly reviews have evaluated the relative toxicity of glyphosate as an herbicide. The WHO and FAO Joint committee on pesticide residues issued a report in 2016 stating the use of glyphosate formulations does not necessarily constitute a health risk, and giving an acceptable daily intake limit of 1 milligram per kilogram of body weight per day for chronic toxicity.The consensus among national pesticide regulatory agencies and scientific organizations is that labeled uses of glyphosate have demonstrated no evidence of human carcinogenicity. The German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment toxicology review in 2013 found that with regard to positive correlations between exposure to glyphosate formulations and risk of various cancers, including non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL), "the available data is contradictory and far from being convincing". A meta-analysis published in 2014 identified an increased risk of NHL in workers exposed to glyphosate formulations. In March 2015, the World Health Organization's International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) classified glyphosate as "probably carcinogenic in humans" (category 2A) based on epidemiological studies, animal studies, and in vitro studies. In contrast, the European Food Safety Authority concluded in November 2015 that "the substance is unlikely to be genotoxic (i.e. damaging to DNA) or to pose a carcinogenic threat to humans", later clarifying that while carcinogenic glyphosate-containing formulations may exist, studies "that look solely at the active substance glyphosate do not show this effect." In 2017, the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) classified glyphosate as causing serious eye damage and as toxic to aquatic life, but did not find evidence implicating it as a carcinogen, a mutagen, toxic to reproduction, nor toxic to specific organs.
Discovery:
Glyphosate was first synthesized in 1950 by Swiss chemist Henry Martin, who worked for the Swiss company Cilag. The work was never published.: 1 Stauffer Chemical patented the agent as a chemical chelator in 1964 as it binds and removes minerals such as calcium, magnesium, manganese, copper, and zinc.Somewhat later, glyphosate was independently discovered in the United States at Monsanto in 1970. Monsanto chemists had synthesized about 100 derivatives of aminomethylphosphonic acid as potential water-softening agents. Two were found to have weak herbicidal activity, and John E. Franz, a chemist at Monsanto, was asked to try to make analogs with stronger herbicidal activity. Glyphosate was the third analog he made.: 1–2 Franz received the National Medal of Technology of the United States in 1987 and the Perkin Medal for Applied Chemistry in 1990 for his discoveries.Monsanto developed and patented the use of glyphosate to kill weeds in the early 1970s and first brought it to market in 1974, under the Roundup brandname. While its initial patent expired in 1991, Monsanto retained exclusive rights in the United States until its patent on the isopropylamine salt expired in September 2000.In 2008, United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service (USDA ARS) scientist Stephen O. Duke and Stephen B. Powles – an Australian weed expert – described glyphosate as a "virtually ideal" herbicide. In 2010 Powles stated: "glyphosate is a one in a 100-year discovery that is as important for reliable global food production as penicillin is for battling disease."As of April 2017, the Canadian government stated that glyphosate was "the most widely used herbicide in Canada", at which date the product labels were revised to ensure a limit of 20% POEA by weight. Health Canada's Pest Management Regulatory Agency found no risk to humans or the environment at that 20% limit, and that all products registered in Canada at that time were at or below that limit.
Chemistry:
Glyphosate is an aminophosphonic analogue of the natural amino acid glycine and, like all amino acids, exists in different ionic states depending on pH. Both the phosphonic acid and carboxylic acid moieties can be ionised and the amine group can be protonated and the substance exists as a series of zwitterions. Glyphosate is soluble in water to 12 g/L at room temperature. The original synthetic approach to glyphosate involved the reaction of phosphorus trichloride with formaldehyde followed by hydrolysis to yield a phosphonate. Glycine is then reacted with this phosphonate to yield glyphosate, and its name is taken as a contraction of the compounds used in this synthesis step, namely glycine and a phosphonate.
Chemistry:
PCl3 + H2CO → Cl2P(=O)−CH2Cl Cl2P(=O)−CH2Cl + 2 H2O → (HO)2P(=O)−CH2Cl + 2 HCl (HO)2P(=O)−CH2Cl + H2N−CH2−COOH → (HO)2P(=O)−CH2−NH−CH2−COOH + HClThe main deactivation path for glyphosate is hydrolysis to aminomethylphosphonic acid.
Chemistry:
Synthesis Two main approaches are used to synthesize glyphosate industrially, both of which proceed via the Kabachnik–Fields reaction. The first is to react iminodiacetic acid and formaldehyde with phosphorous acid (sometimes formed in situ from phosphorus trichloride using the water generated by the Mannich reaction of the first two reagents). Decarboxylation of the hydrophosphonylation product gives the desired glyphosate product. Iminodiacetic acid is usually prepared on-site by various methods depending on reagent availability.
Chemistry:
The second uses glycine in place of iminodiacetic acid. This avoids the need for decarboxylation but requires more careful control of stoichiometry, as the primary amine can react with any excess formaldehyde to form bishydroxymethylglycine, which must be hydrolysed during the work-up to give the desired product.
This synthetic approach is responsible for a substantial portion of the production of glyphosate in China, with considerable work having gone into recycling the triethylamine and methanol solvents. Progress has also been made in attempting to eliminate the need for triethylamine altogether.
Chemistry:
Impurities Technical grade glyphosate is a white powder which, according to FAO specification, should contain not less than 95% glyphosate. Formaldehyde, classified as a known human carcinogen, and N-nitrosoglyphosate, have been identified as toxicologically relevant impurities. The FAO specification limits the formaldehyde concentration to a maximum of 1.3 g/kg glyphosate. N-Nitrosoglyphosate, "belonging to a group of impurities of particular concern as they can be activated to genotoxic carcinogens", should not exceed 1 ppm.
Formulations:
Glyphosate is marketed in the United States and worldwide by many agrochemical companies, in different solution strengths and with various adjuvants, under dozens of tradenames. As of 2010, more than 750 glyphosate products were on the market. In 2012, about half of the total global consumption of glyphosate by volume was for agricultural crops, with forestry comprising another important market. Asia and the Pacific was the largest and fastest growing regional market. As of 2014, Chinese manufacturers collectively are the world's largest producers of glyphosate and its precursors and account for about 30% of global exports. Key manufacturers include Anhui Huaxing Chemical Industry Company, BASF, Bayer CropScience (which also acquired the maker of glyphosate, Monsanto), Dow AgroSciences, DuPont, Jiangsu Good Harvest-Weien Agrochemical Company, Nantong Jiangshan Agrochemical & Chemicals Co., Nufarm, SinoHarvest, Syngenta, and Zhejiang Xinan Chemical Industrial Group Company.Glyphosate is an acid molecule, so it is formulated as a salt for packaging and handling. Various salt formulations include isopropylamine, diammonium, monoammonium, or potassium as the counterion. The active ingredient of the Monsanto herbicides is the isopropylamine salt of glyphosate. Another important ingredient in some formulations is the surfactant polyethoxylated tallow amine (POEA). Some brands include more than one salt. Some companies report their product as acid equivalent (ae) of glyphosate acid, or some report it as active ingredient (ai) of glyphosate plus the salt, and others report both. To compare performance of different formulations, knowledge of how the products were formulated is needed. Given that different salts have different weights, the acid equivalent is a more accurate method of expressing and comparing concentrations.
Formulations:
Adjuvant loading refers to the amount of adjuvant already added to the glyphosate product. Fully loaded products contain all the necessary adjuvants, including surfactant; some contain no adjuvant system, while other products contain only a limited amount of adjuvant (minimal or partial loading) and additional surfactants must be added to the spray tank before application.Products are supplied most commonly in formulations of 120, 240, 360, 480, and 680 g/L of active ingredient. The most common formulation in agriculture is 360 g/L, either alone or with added cationic surfactants.For 360 grams per litre (0.013 lb/cu in) formulations, European regulations allow applications of up to 12 litres per hectare (1.1 imp gal/acre) for control of perennial weeds such as couch grass. More commonly, rates of 3 litres per hectare (0.27 imp gal/acre) are practiced for control of annual weeds between crops.
Mode of action:
Glyphosate interferes with the shikimate pathway, which produces the aromatic amino acids phenylalanine, tyrosine and tryptophan in plants and microorganisms – but does not exist in the genome of animals, including humans. It blocks this pathway by inhibiting the enzyme 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase (EPSPS), which catalyzes the reaction of shikimate-3-phosphate (S3P) and phosphoenolpyruvate to form 5-enolpyruvyl-shikimate-3-phosphate (EPSP). Glyphosate is absorbed through foliage and minimally through roots, meaning that it is only effective on actively growing plants and cannot prevent seeds from germinating. After application, glyphosate is readily transported around the plant to growing roots and leaves and this systemic activity is important for its effectiveness. Inhibiting the enzyme causes shikimate to accumulate in plant tissues and diverts energy and resources away from other processes, eventually killing the plant. While growth stops within hours of application, it takes several days for the leaves to begin turning yellow. Glyphosate may chelate Co2+ which contributes to its mode of action.
Mode of action:
Under normal circumstances, EPSP is dephosphorylated to chorismate, an essential precursor for the amino acids mentioned above. These amino acids are used in protein synthesis and to produce secondary metabolites such as folates, ubiquinones, and naphthoquinone.
X-ray crystallographic studies of glyphosate and EPSPS show that glyphosate functions by occupying the binding site of the phosphoenolpyruvate, mimicking an intermediate state of the ternary enzyme–substrate complex. Glyphosate inhibits the EPSPS enzymes of different species of plants and microbes at different rates.
Uses:
Glyphosate is effective in killing a wide variety of plants, including grasses and broadleaf and woody plants. By volume, it is one of the most widely used herbicides. In 2007, glyphosate was the most used herbicide in the United States agricultural sector, with 180 to 185 million pounds (82,000 to 84,000 tonnes) applied, the second-most used in home and garden with 5 to 8 million pounds (2,300 to 3,600 tonnes) and 13 to 15 million pounds (5,900 to 6,800 tonnes) in non-agricultural settings. It is commonly used for agriculture, horticulture, viticulture, and silviculture purposes, as well as garden maintenance (including home use). It has a relatively small effect on some clover species and morning glory.
Uses:
Glyphosate and related herbicides are often used in invasive species eradication and habitat restoration, especially to enhance native plant establishment in prairie ecosystems. The controlled application is usually combined with a selective herbicide and traditional methods of weed eradication such as mulching to achieve an optimal effect.In many cities, glyphosate is sprayed along the sidewalks and streets, as well as crevices in between pavement where weeds often grow. However, up to 24% of glyphosate applied to hard surfaces can be run off by water. Glyphosate contamination of surface water is attributed to urban and agricultural use. Glyphosate is used to clear railroad tracks and get rid of unwanted aquatic vegetation. Since 1994, glyphosate has been used in aerial spraying in Colombia in coca eradication programs; Colombia announced in May 2015 that by October, it would cease using glyphosate in these programs due to concerns about human toxicity of the chemical.Glyphosate is also used for crop desiccation to increase harvest yield and uniformity. Glyphosate itself is not a chemical desiccant; rather crop desiccants are so named because application just before harvest kills the crop plants so that the food crop dries from normal environmental conditions ("dry-down") more quickly and evenly. Because glyphosate is systemic, excess residue levels can persist in plants due to incorrect application and this may render the crop unfit for sale. When applied appropriately, it can promote useful effects. In sugarcane, for example, glyphosate application increases sucrose concentration before harvest. In grain crops (wheat, barley, oats), uniformly dried crops do not have to be windrowed (swathed and dried) prior to harvest, but can easily be straight-cut and harvested. This saves the farmer time and money, which is important in northern regions where the growing season is short, and it enhances grain storage when the grain has a lower and more uniform moisture content.
Uses:
Genetically modified crops Some micro-organisms have a version of 5-enolpyruvoyl-shikimate-3-phosphate synthetase (EPSPS) resistant to glyphosate inhibition. A version of the enzyme that was both resistant to glyphosate and that was still efficient enough to drive adequate plant growth was identified by Monsanto scientists after much trial and error in an Agrobacterium strain called CP4, which was found surviving in a waste-fed column at a glyphosate production facility.: 56 This CP4 EPSPS gene was cloned and transfected into soybeans. In 1996, genetically modified soybeans were made commercially available. Current glyphosate-resistant crops include soy, maize (corn), canola, alfalfa, sugar beets, and cotton, with wheat still under development.
Uses:
In 2015, 89% of corn, 94% of soybeans, and 89% of cotton produced in the United States were from strains that were genetically modified to be herbicide-tolerant - including but not limited to glyphosate.
Environmental fate:
Glyphosate has four ionizable sites, with pKa values of 2.0, 2.6, 5.6 and 10.6. Therefore, it is a zwitterion in aqueous solutions and is expected to exist almost entirely in zwitterionic forms in the environment. Zwitterions generally adsorb more strongly to soils containing organic carbon and clay than their neutral counterparts. Glyphosate strongly sorbs onto soil minerals, and, with the exception of colloid-facilitated transport, its soluble residues are expected to be poorly mobile in the free porewater of soils. The spatial extent of ground and surface water pollution is therefore considered to be relatively limited. Glyphosate is readily degraded by soil microbes to aminomethylphosphonic acid (AMPA, which like glyphosate strongly adsorbs to soil solids and is thus unlikely to leach to groundwater). Though both glyphosate and AMPA are commonly detected in water bodies, a portion of the AMPA detected may actually be the result of degradation of detergents rather than from glyphosate. Glyphosate does have the potential to contaminate surface waters due to its aquatic use patterns and through erosion, as it adsorbs to colloidal soil particles suspended in runoff. Detection in surface waters (particularly downstream from agricultural uses) has been reported as both broad and frequent by the United States Geological Survey (USGS) researchers, although other similar research found equal frequencies of detection in urban-dominated small streams. Rain events can trigger dissolved glyphosate loss in transport-prone soils. The mechanism of glyphosate sorption to soil is similar to that of phosphate fertilizers, the presence of which can reduce glyphosate sorption. Phosphate fertilizers are subject to release from sediments into water bodies under anaerobic conditions, and similar release can also occur with glyphosate, though significant impact of glyphosate release from sediments has not been established. Limited leaching can occur after high rainfall after application. If glyphosate reaches surface water, it is not broken down readily by water or sunlight.The half-life of glyphosate in soil ranges between 2 and 197 days; a typical field half-life of 47 days has been suggested. Soil and climate conditions affect glyphosate's persistence in soil. The median half-life of glyphosate in water varies from a few to 91 days. At a site in Texas, half-life was as little as three days. A site in Iowa had a half-life of 141.9 days. The glyphosate metabolite AMPA has been found in Swedish forest soils up to two years after a glyphosate application. In this case, the persistence of AMPA was attributed to the soil being frozen for most of the year. Glyphosate adsorption to soil, and later release from soil, varies depending on the kind of soil. Glyphosate is generally less persistent in water than in soil, with 12- to 60-day persistence observed in Canadian ponds, although persistence of over a year has been recorded in the sediments of American ponds. The half-life of glyphosate in water is between 12 days and 10 weeks.
Environmental fate:
Residues in food products According to the National Pesticide Information Center fact sheet, glyphosate is not included in compounds tested for by the Food and Drug Administration's Pesticide Residue Monitoring Program, nor in the United States Department of Agriculture's Pesticide Data Program. The U.S. has determined the acceptable daily intake of glyphosate at 1.75 milligrams per kilogram of body weight per day (mg/kg/bw/day) while the European Union has set it at 0.5.Pesticide residue controls carried out by EU Member States in 2016 analysed 6,761 samples of food products for glyphosate residues. 3.6% of the samples contained quantifiable glyphosate residue levels with 19 samples (0.28%) exceeding the European maximum residue levels (MRLs), which included six samples of honey and other apicultural products (MRL = 0.05 mg/kg) and eleven samples of buckwheat and other pseudo‐cereals (MRL = 0.1 mg/kg). Glyphosate residues below the European MRLs were most frequently found in dry lentils, linseeds, soya beans, dry peas, tea, buckwheat, barley, wheat and rye. In Canada, a survey of 7,955 samples of food found that 42.3% contained detectable quantities of glyphosate and only 0.6% contained a level higher than the Canadian MRL of 0.1 mg/kg for most foods and 4 mg/kg for beans and chickpeas. Of the products that exceeded MRLs, one third were organic products. Health Canada concluded based on the analysis "that there was no long-term health risk to Canadian consumers from exposure to the levels of glyphosate".
Toxicity:
Glyphosate is the active ingredient in herbicide formulations containing it. However, in addition to glyphosate salts, commercial formulations of glyphosate contain additives (known as adjuvants) such as surfactants, which vary in nature and concentration. Surfactants such as polyethoxylated tallow amine (POEA) are added to glyphosate to enable it to wet the leaves and penetrate the cuticle of the plants.
Toxicity:
Glyphosate alone Humans The acute oral toxicity for mammals is low, but death has been reported after deliberate overdose of concentrated formulations. The surfactants in glyphosate formulations can increase the relative acute toxicity of the formulation. In a 2017 risk assessment, the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) wrote: "There is very limited information on skin irritation in humans. Where skin irritation has been reported, it is unclear whether it is related to glyphosate or co-formulants in glyphosate-containing herbicide formulations." The ECHA concluded that available human data was insufficient to support classification for skin corrosion or irritation. Inhalation is a minor route of exposure, but spray mist may cause oral or nasal discomfort, an unpleasant taste in the mouth, or tingling and irritation in the throat. Eye exposure may lead to mild conjunctivitis. Superficial corneal injury is possible if irrigation is delayed or inadequate.
Toxicity:
Cancer The consensus among national pesticide regulatory agencies and scientific organizations is that labeled uses of glyphosate have demonstrated no evidence of human carcinogenicity. The Joint FAO/WHO Meeting on Pesticide Residues (JMPR), the European Commission, the Canadian Pest Management Regulatory Agency, the Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines Authority and the German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment have concluded that there is no evidence that glyphosate poses a carcinogenic or genotoxic risk to humans. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has classified glyphosate as "not likely to be carcinogenic to humans." One international scientific organization, the International Agency for Research on Cancer, classified glyphosate in Group 2A, "probably carcinogenic to humans" in 2015.As of 2020, the evidence for long-term exposure to glyphosate increasing the risk of human cancer remains inconclusive. There is weak evidence human cancer risk might increase as a result of occupational exposure to large amounts of glyphosate, such as in agricultural work, but no good evidence of such a risk from home use, such as in domestic gardening. A meta-analysis published in 2019 looked at whether there was an association between an increased risk of non-Hodgkin lymphoma in humans and high cumulative exposures to glyphosate-based herbicides. The research found a correlation between exposures to glyphosate-based herbicides and increased risk for non-Hodgkin lymphoma. A 2021 meta-analysis of glyphosate exposure and non-Hodgkin lymphoma cautioned that such results can be biased by "assumptions made about both exposure level and latency period." Other mammals Amongst mammals, glyphosate is considered to have "low to very low toxicity". The LD50 of glyphosate is 5,000 mg/kg for rats, 10,000 mg/kg in mice and 3,530 mg/kg in goats. The acute dermal LD50 in rabbits is greater than 2,000 mg/kg. Indications of glyphosate toxicity in animals typically appear within 30 to 120 minutes following ingestion of a large enough dose, and include initial excitability and tachycardia, ataxia, depression, and bradycardia, although severe toxicity can develop into collapse and convulsions.A review of unpublished short-term rabbit-feeding studies reported severe toxicity effects at 150 mg/kg/day and "no observed adverse effect level" doses ranging from 50 to 200 mg/kg/day. Glyphosate can have carcinogenic effects in nonhuman mammals. These include the induction of positive trends in the incidence of renal tubule carcinoma and haemangiosarcoma in male mice, and increased pancreatic islet-cell adenoma in male rats. In reproductive toxicity studies performed in rats and rabbits, no adverse maternal or offspring effects were seen at doses below 175–293 mg/kg/day.Glyphosate-based herbicides may cause life-threatening arrhythmias in mammals. Evidence also shows that such herbicides cause direct electrophysiological changes in the cardiovascular systems of rats and rabbits.
Toxicity:
Aquatic fauna In many freshwater invertebrates, glyphosate has a 48-hour LC50 ranging from 55 to 780 ppm. The 96-hour LC50 is 281 ppm for grass shrimp (Palaemonetas vulgaris) and 934 ppm for fiddler crabs (Uca pagilator). These values make glyphosate "slightly toxic to practically non-toxic".
Toxicity:
Antimicrobial activity The antimicrobial activity of glyphosate has been described in the microbiology literature since its discovery in 1970 and the description of glyphosate's mechanism of action in 1972. Efficacy was described for numerous bacteria and fungi. Glyphosate can control the growth of apicomplexan parasites, such as Toxoplasma gondii, Plasmodium falciparum (malaria), and Cryptosporidium parvum, and has been considered an antimicrobial agent in mammals. Inhibition can occur with some Rhizobium species important for soybean nitrogen fixation, especially under moisture stress.
Toxicity:
Soil biota When glyphosate comes into contact with the soil, it can be bound to soil particles, thereby slowing its degradation. Glyphosate and its degradation product, aminomethylphosphonic acid are considered to be much more benign toxicologically and environmentally than most of the herbicides replaced by glyphosate. A 2016 meta-analysis concluded that at typical application rates glyphosate had no effect on soil microbial biomass or respiration. A 2016 review noted that contrasting effects of glyphosate on earthworms have been found in different experiments with some species unaffected, but others losing weight or avoiding treated soil. Further research is required to determine the impact of glyphosate on earthworms in complex ecosystems.
Toxicity:
Endocrine disruption In 2007, the EPA selected glyphosate for further screening through its Endocrine Disruptor Screening Program (EDSP). Selection for this program is based on a compound's prevalence of use and does not imply particular suspicion of endocrine activity. On June 29, 2015, the EPA released the Weight of Evidence Conclusions of the EDSP Tier 1 screening for glyphosate, recommending that glyphosate not be considered for Tier 2 testing. The Weight of Evidence conclusion stated "...there was no convincing evidence of potential interaction with the estrogen, androgen or thyroid pathways." A review of the evidence by the European Food Safety Authority published in September 2017 showed conclusions similar to those of the EPA report.
Toxicity:
Effect on plant health Some studies have found causal relationships between glyphosate and increased or decreased disease resistance. Exposure to glyphosate has been shown to change the species composition of endophytic bacteria in plant hosts, which is highly variable.
Toxicity:
Glyphosate-based formulations Glyphosate-based formulations may contain a number of adjuvants, the identities of which may be proprietary. Surfactants are used in herbicide formulations as wetting agents, to maximize coverage and aid penetration of the herbicide(s) through plant leaves. As agricultural spray adjuvants, surfactants may be pre-mixed into commercial formulations or they may be purchased separately and mixed on-site.Polyethoxylated tallow amine (POEA) is a surfactant used in the original Roundup formulation and was commonly used in 2015. Different versions of Roundup have included different percentages of POEA. A 1997 US government report said that Roundup is 15% POEA while Roundup Pro is 14.5%. Since POEA is more toxic to fish and amphibians than glyphosate alone, POEA is not allowed in aquatic formulations. A 2000 review of the ecotoxicological data on Roundup shows at least 58 studies exist on the effects of Roundup on a range of organisms. This review concluded that "...for terrestrial uses of Roundup minimal acute and chronic risk was predicted for potentially exposed non-target organisms".
Toxicity:
Human Acute toxicity and chronic toxicity are dose-related. Skin exposure to ready-to-use concentrated glyphosate formulations can cause irritation, and photocontact dermatitis has been occasionally reported. These effects are probably due to the preservative benzisothiazolin-3-one. Severe skin burns are very rare. Inhalation is a minor route of exposure, but spray mist may cause oral or nasal discomfort, an unpleasant taste in the mouth, or tingling and irritation in the throat. Eye exposure may lead to mild conjunctivitis. Superficial corneal injury is possible if irrigation is delayed or inadequate. Death has been reported after deliberate overdose. Ingestion of Roundup ranging from 85 to 200 ml (of 41% solution) has resulted in death within hours of ingestion, although it has also been ingested in quantities as large as 500 ml with only mild or moderate symptoms. Adult consumption of more than 85 ml of concentrated product can lead to corrosive esophageal burns and kidney or liver damage. More severe cases cause "respiratory distress, impaired consciousness, pulmonary edema, infiltration on chest X-ray, shock, arrhythmias, renal failure requiring haemodialysis, metabolic acidosis, and hyperkalaemia" and death is often preceded by bradycardia and ventricular arrhythmias. While the surfactants in formulations generally do not increase the toxicity of glyphosate itself, it is likely that they contribute to its acute toxicity.A 2000 review concluded that "under present and expected conditions of new use, there is no potential for Roundup herbicide to pose a health risk to humans". A 2012 meta-analysis of epidemiological studies (seven cohort studies and fourteen case-control studies) of exposure to glyphosate formulations found no correlation with any kind of cancer. The 2013 systematic review by the German Institute for Risk Assessment of epidemiological studies of workers who use pesticides, and were exposed to glyphosate formulations found no significant risk, stating that "the available data are contradictory and far from being convincing".: vol. 1, 64–66 However, a 2014 meta-analysis of the same studies found a correlation between occupational exposure to glyphosate formulations and increased risk of B cell lymphoma, the most common kind of non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Workers exposed to glyphosate were about twice as likely to get B cell lymphoma.A 2016 systematic review and meta-analysis found no causal relationship between glyphosate exposure and risk of any type of lymphohematopoietic cancer including non-Hodgkin lymphoma and multiple myeloma. The same review noted that the positive associations found may be due to bias and confounding. The Natural Resources Defense Council has criticized that review, noting that it was funded by Monsanto.A 2015 systematic review of 10 observational studies found that except for an excess of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder among children born to glyphosate appliers, there was no evidence that glyphosate exposure among pregnant mothers caused adverse developmental outcomes in their children. Noting the limited size and scope of the review articles available, the authors noted that "these negative findings cannot be taken as definitive evidence that GLY, at current levels of occupational and environmental exposures, brings no risk for human development and reproduction." Aquatic fauna Glyphosate products for aquatic use generally do not use surfactants, and aquatic formulations do not use POEA due to aquatic organism toxicity. Due to the presence of POEA, such glyphosate formulations only allowed for terrestrial use are more toxic for amphibians and fish than glyphosate alone. The half-life of POEA (21–42 days) is longer than that for glyphosate (7–14 days) in aquatic environments. Aquatic organism exposure risk to terrestrial formulations with POEA is limited to drift or temporary water pockets where concentrations would be much lower than label rates.Some researchers have suggested the toxicity effects of pesticides on amphibians may be different from those of other aquatic fauna because of their lifestyle; amphibians may be more susceptible to the toxic effects of pesticides because they often prefer to breed in shallow, lentic, or ephemeral pools. These habitats do not necessarily constitute formal water-bodies and can contain higher concentrations of pesticide compared to larger water-bodies. Studies in a variety of amphibians have shown the toxicity of GBFs containing POEA to amphibian larvae. These effects include interference with gill morphology and mortality from either the loss of osmotic stability or asphyxiation. At sub-lethal concentrations, exposure to POEA or glyphosate/POEA formulations have been associated with delayed development, accelerated development, reduced size at metamorphosis, developmental malformations of the tail, mouth, eye and head, histological indications of intersex and symptoms of oxidative stress. Glyphosate-based formulations can cause oxidative stress in bullfrog tadpoles.A 2003 study of various formulations of glyphosate found, "[the] risk assessments based on estimated and measured concentrations of glyphosate that would result from its use for the control of undesirable plants in wetlands and over-water situations showed that the risk to aquatic organisms is negligible or small at application rates less than 4 kg/ha and only slightly greater at application rates of 8 kg/ha."A 2013 meta-analysis reviewed the available data related to potential impacts of glyphosate-based herbicides on amphibians. According to the authors, the use of glyphosate-based pesticides cannot be considered the major cause of amphibian decline, the bulk of which occurred prior to the widespread use of glyphosate or in pristine tropical areas with minimal glyphosate exposure. The authors recommended further study of per-species and per-development-stage chronic toxicity, of environmental glyphosate levels, and ongoing analysis of data relevant to determining what if any role glyphosate might be playing in worldwide amphibian decline, and suggest including amphibians in standardized test batteries.
Toxicity:
Genetic damage Several studies have not found mutagenic effects, so glyphosate has not been listed in the United States Environmental Protection Agency or the International Agency for Research on Cancer databases. Various other studies suggest glyphosate may be mutagenic. The IARC monograph noted that glyphosate-based formulations can cause DNA strand breaks in various taxa of animals in vitro.
Toxicity:
Government and organization positions European Food Safety Authority A 2013 systematic review by the German Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR) examined more than 1000 epidemiological studies, animal studies, and in vitro studies. It found that "no classification and labelling for carcinogenicity is warranted" and did not recommend a carcinogen classification of either 1A or 1B.: 34–37, 139 It provided the review to EFSA in January 2014 which published it in December 2014.
Toxicity:
In November 2015, EFSA published its conclusion in the Renewal Assessment Report (RAR), stating it was "unlikely to pose a carcinogenic hazard to humans". The EU was largely informed by this report when it made its decision on the use of glyphosate in November 2017.EFSA's decision and the BfR report were criticized in an open letter published by 96 scientists in November 2015 saying that the BfR report failed to adhere to accepted scientific principles of open and transparent procedures. The BfR report included unpublished data, lacked authorship, omitted references, and did not disclose conflict-of-interest information.In July 2023, EFSA re-evaluated after three years of assessment the putative impact of glyphosate on the health of humans, animals and the environment. As a result, no critical areas of concern were identified that would otherwise prevent glyphosate's registration renewal in the EU.
Toxicity:
US Environmental Protection Agency In a 1993 review, the EPA, considered glyphosate to be noncarcinogenic and relatively low in dermal and oral acute toxicity. The EPA considered a "worst case" dietary risk model of an individual eating a lifetime of food derived entirely from glyphosate-sprayed fields with residues at their maximum levels. This model indicated that no adverse health effects would be expected under such conditions. In 2015, the EPA initiated a review of glyphosate's toxicity and in 2016 reported that glyphosate is likely not carcinogenic. In August 2019, the EPA announced that it no longer allowed labels claiming glyphosate is a carcinogen, as those claims would "not meet the labeling requirements of the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act" and misinform the public.In 2017, evidence collected in a lawsuit brought against Monsanto by cancer patients revealed company emails which appeared to show a friendly relationship with a senior EPA official.
Toxicity:
International Agency for Research on Cancer In March 2015, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), an intergovernmental agency forming part of the World Health Organization of the United Nations, published a summary of their forthcoming monograph on glyphosate, and classified glyphosate as "probably carcinogenic in humans" (category 2A) based on epidemiological studies, animal studies, and in vitro studies. It noted that there was "limited evidence" of carcinogenicity in humans for non-Hodgkin lymphoma. The IARC classifies substances for their carcinogenic potential, and "a few positive findings can be enough to declare a hazard, even if there are negative studies, as well." Unlike the BfR, it does not conduct a risk assessment, weighing benefits against risk.The BfR responded that IARC reviewed only a selection of what they had reviewed earlier, and argued that other studies, including a cohort study called Agricultural Health Study, do not support the classification. The IARC report did not include unpublished studies, including one completed by the IARC panel leader. The agency's international protocol dictates that only published studies be used in classifications of carcinogenicity, since national regulatory agencies including the EPA have allowed agrochemical corporations to conduct their own unpublished research, which may be biased in support of their profit motives.
Toxicity:
Monsanto response and campaign Monsanto called the IARC report biased and said it wanted the report to be retracted. In 2017, internal documents from Monsanto were made public by lawyers pursuing litigation against the company, who used the term "Monsanto papers" to describe the documents. This term was later used also by Leemon McHenry and others. The documents indicated Monsanto had planned a public relations effort to discredit the IARC report, and had engaged Henry Miller to write a 2015 opinion piece in Forbes Magazine challenging the report. Miller did not reveal the connection to Forbes, and according to the New York Times, when Monsanto asked him if he was interested in writing such an article, he replied "I would be if I could start from a high-quality draft" provided by the company. Once this became public, Forbes removed his blog from their site.
Toxicity:
Two journalists from Le Monde won the 2018 European Press Prize for a series of articles on the documents, also titled Monsanto Papers. Their reporting described, among other things, Monsanto's lawyers' letters demanding that IARC scientists turn over documents relating to Monograph 112, which contained the IARC finding that glyphosate was a "probable carcinogen"; several of the scientists condemned these letters as intimidating.
Toxicity:
Reviews of the EFSA and IARC reports A 2017 review done by personnel from EFSA and BfR argued that the differences between the IARC's and EFSA's conclusions regarding glyphosate and cancer were due to differences in their evaluation of the available evidence. The review concluded that "Two complementary exposure assessments ... suggests that actual exposure levels are below" the reference values identified by the EFSA "and do not represent a public concern."In contrast, a 2016 analysis by Christopher Portier, a scientist advising the IARC in the assessment of glyphosate and advocate for its classification as possibly carcinogenic, concluded that in the EFSA's Renewal Assessment Report, "almost no weight is given to studies from the published literature and there is an over-reliance on non-publicly available industry-provided studies using a limited set of assays that define the minimum data necessary for the marketing of a pesticide", arguing that the IARC's evaluation of probably carcinogenic to humans "accurately reflects the results of published scientific literature on glyphosate".In October 2017, an article in The Times revealed that Portier had received consulting contracts with two law firm associations representing alleged glyphosate cancer victims that included a payment of US$160,000 to Portier. The IARC final report was also found to have changed compared to an interim report, through the removal of text saying certain studies had found glyphosate was not carcinogenic in that study's context, and through strengthening a conclusion of "limited evidence of animal carcinogenicity," to "sufficient evidence of animal carcinogenicity".
Toxicity:
California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment In March 2015, the California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment (OEHHA) announced plans to have glyphosate listed as a known carcinogen based on the IARC assessment. In 2016, Monsanto started a case against OEHHA and its acting director, Lauren Zeise, but lost the suit in March 2017.Glyphosate was listed as "known to the State of California to cause cancer" in 2017, requiring warning labels under Proposition 65. In February 2018, as part of an ongoing case, an injunction was issued prohibiting California from enforcing carcinogenicity labeling requirements for glyphosate until the case was resolved. The injunction stated that arguments by a US District Court Judge for the Eastern District of California "[do] not change the fact that the overwhelming majority of agencies that that have examined glyphosate have determined it is not a cancer risk." In August 2019, the EPA also said it no longer allowed labels claiming glyphosate is a carcinogen, as those claims would "not meet the labeling requirements of the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act" and misinform the public.
Toxicity:
European Chemicals Agency On March 15, 2017 the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) announced recommendations proceeding from a risk assessment of glyphosate performed by ECHA's Committee for Risk Assessment (RAC). Their recommendations maintained the current classification of glyphosate as a substance causing serious eye damage and as a substance toxic to aquatic life. However, the RAC did not find evidence implicating glyphosate to be a carcinogen, a mutagen, toxic to reproduction, nor toxic to specific organs. In 2022, the agency reiterated these findings in a later review and stated on cancer risk that, "Based on a wide-ranging review of scientific evidence, the committee again concludes that classifying glyphosate as a carcinogen is not justified."
Effects of use:
Emergence of resistant weeds In the 1990s, no glyphosate-resistant weeds were known to exist. In 2005 a slow upward trend began, resistant weeds appearing rarely around the world. Another inflection point occurred in 2011 and resistance accelerated globally. By 2014, glyphosate-resistant weeds dominated herbicide-resistance research. At that time, 23 glyphosate-resistant species were found in 18 countries. "Resistance evolves after a weed population has been subjected to intense selection pressure in the form of repeated use of a single herbicide."According to Ian Heap, a weed specialist, who completed his PhD on resistance to multiple herbicides in annual ryegrass (Lolium rigidum) in 1988 – the first case of an herbicide-resistant weed in Australia – by 2014 Lolium rigidum was the "world’s worst herbicide-resistant weed" with instances in "12 countries, 11 sites of action, 9 cropping regimens" and affecting "over 2 million hectares." Annual ryegrass has been known to be resistant to herbicides since 1982. The first documented case of glyphosate-resistant L. rigidum was reported in Australia in 1996 near Orange, New South Wales. In 2006, farmers associations were reporting 107 biotypes of weeds within 63 weed species with herbicide resistance. In 2009, Canada identified its first resistant weed, giant ragweed, and at that time 15 weed species had been confirmed as resistant to glyphosate. As of 2010, in the United States 7 to 10 million acres (2.8 to 4.0 million hectares) of soil were afflicted by herbicide-resistant weeds, or about 5% of the 170 million acres planted with corn, soybeans, and cotton, the crops most affected, in 22 states. In 2012, Charles Benbrook reported that the Weed Science Society of America listed 22 herbicide-resistant species in the U.S., with over 5.7×10^6 ha (14×10^6 acres) infested by GR weeds and that Dow AgroSciences had carried out a survey and reported a figure of around 40×10^6 ha (100×10^6 acres). The International Survey of Herbicide Resistant Weeds database lists species that are resistant to glyphosate.In response to resistant weeds, farmers are hand-weeding, using tractors to turn over soil between crops, and using other herbicides in addition to glyphosate.
Effects of use:
Monsanto scientists have found that some resistant weeds have as many as 160 extra copies of a gene called EPSPS, the enzyme glyphosate disrupts.
Effects of use:
Palmer amaranth In 2004, a glyphosate-resistant variation of Palmer amaranth was found in the U.S. state of Georgia and confirmed by a 2005 study. In 2005, resistance was also found in North Carolina. The species can quickly become resistant to multiple herbicides and has developed multiple mechanisms for glyphosate resistance due to selection pressure. The glyphosate-resistant weed variant is now widespread in the southeastern United States. Cases have also been reported in Texas and Virginia.
Effects of use:
Conyza species Conyza bonariensis (also known as hairy fleabane and buva) and C. canadensis (known as horseweed or marestail) are other weed species that have lately developed glyphosate resistance. A 2008 study on the current situation of glyphosate resistance in South America concluded "resistance evolution followed intense glyphosate use" and the use of glyphosate-resistant soybean crops is a factor encouraging increases in glyphosate use. In the 2015 growing season, glyphosate-resistant marestail proved to be especially problematic to control in Nebraska production fields.
Effects of use:
Ryegrass Glyphosate-resistant ryegrass (Lolium) has occurred in most of the Australian agricultural areas and other areas of the world. All cases of evolution of resistance to glyphosate in Australia were characterized by intensive use of the herbicide while no other effective weed control practices were used. Studies indicate resistant ryegrass does not compete well against nonresistant plants and their numbers decrease when not grown under conditions of glyphosate application.
Effects of use:
Johnson grass Glyphosate-resistant Johnson grass (Sorghum halepense) has been found in Argentina as well as Arkansas, Louisiana, and Mississippi.
Effects of use:
Monarch butterfly populations Use of glyphosate and other herbicides like 2-4 D to clear milkweed along roads and fields may have contributed to a decline in monarch butterfly populations in the Midwestern United States. Along with deforestation and adverse weather conditions, the decrease in milkweed contributed to an 81% decline in monarchs. The Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) filed a suit against the EPA in 2015, in which it argued that the agency ignored warnings about the potentially dangerous impacts of glyphosate usage on monarchs.
Legal status:
Glyphosate was first approved for use in the 1970s, and as of 2010 was labelled for use in 130 countries.: 2 In 2017 Vandenberg et al. cited a 100-fold increase in the use of glyphosate-based herbicides from 1974 to 2014, the possibility that herbicide mixtures likely have effects that are not predicted by studying glyphosate alone, and reliance of current safety assessments on studies done over 30 years ago. They recommended that current safety standards be updated, writing that the current standards "may fail to protect public health or the environment." European Union In April 2014, the legislature of the Netherlands passed legislation prohibiting sale of glyphosate to individuals for use at home; commercial sales were not affected.In June 2015, the French Ecology Minister asked nurseries and garden centers to halt over-the-counter sales of glyphosate in the form of Monsanto's Roundup. This was a nonbinding request and all sales of glyphosate remain legal in France until 2022, when it was planned to ban the substance for home gardening. However, more recently the French parliament decided to not to impose a definitive date for such a ban. In January 2019, "the sale, distribution, and use of Roundup 360 [wa]s banned" in France. Exemptions for many farmers were later implemented, and a curb of its use by 80% for 2021 is projected.A vote on the relicensing of glyphosate in the EU stalled in March 2016. Member states France, Sweden, and the Netherlands objected to the renewal. A vote to reauthorize on a temporary basis failed in June 2016 but at the last minute the license was extended for 18 months until the end of 2017.On 27 November 2017, in the EU Council a majority of eighteen member states voted in favor of permitting the use of glyphosate for five more years. A qualified majority of sixteen states representing 65% of EU citizens was required to pass the law. The German Minister of Agriculture, Christian Schmidt, unexpectedly voted in favor while the German coalition government was internally divided on the issue which usually results in Germany abstaining.In December 2018, attempts were made to reopen the decision to license the weed-killer. These were condemned by Conservative MEPs, who said the proposal was politically motivated and flew in the face of scientific evidence.In March 2019, the European Court of Justice (ECJ) ordered the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) to release all carcinogenicity and toxicity pesticide industry studies on glyphosate to the general public.In March 2019, the Austrian state of Carinthia outlawed the private use of glyphosate in residential areas while the commercial application of the herbicide is still permitted for farmers. The use of glyphosate by public authorities and road maintenance crews was already halted a number of years prior to the current ban by local authorities.In June 2019, Deutsche Bahn and Swiss Federal Railways announced that glyphosate and other commonly used herbicides for weed eradication along railway tracks will be phased out by 2025, while more environmentally sound methods for vegetation control are implemented.In July 2019, the Austrian parliament voted to ban glyphosate in Austria.In September 2019, the German Environment Ministry announced that the use of glyphosate will be banned from the end of 2023. The use of glyphosate-based herbicides will be reduced starting from 2020.The assessment process for an approval of glyphosate in the European Union will begin in December 2019. France, Hungary, the Netherlands and Sweden will jointly assess the application dossiers of the producers. The draft report of the assessment group will then be peer-reviewed by the EFSA before the current approval expires in December 2022.The date has since been pushed back, partially due to very high interest and input in the participation process, with the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) even calling it an “unprecedented number”. Because the EFSA has to review all these 2400 comments and almost 400 responses, the process is expected to take longer. The created document is under extra review by the specially formed Glyphosate Renewal Group (GRG) and the Assessment Group on Glyphosate (AGG), the panel consisting of the four mentioned member states. With their responses now being scheduled for September 2022, the consultations with member states are supposed to be held by the very end of 2022. This would allow to finish the final assessment by mid-2023 and pass it on to further legislature to decide.
Legal status:
Other countries In September 2013, the Legislative Assembly of El Salvador approved legislation to ban 53 agrochemicals, including glyphosate; the ban on glyphosate was set to begin in 2015.In the United States, the state of Minnesota preempts local laws that attempt to ban glyphosate. In 2015 there was an attempt to pass legislation at the state level that would repeal that preemption.In May 2015, the President of Sri Lanka banned the use and import of glyphosate, effective immediately. However, in May 2018 the Sri Lankan government decided to re-authorize its use in the plantation sector.In May 2015, Bermuda blocked importation on all new orders of glyphosate-based herbicides for a temporary suspension awaiting outcomes of research.In May 2015, Colombia announced that it would stop using glyphosate by October 2015 in the destruction of illegal plantations of coca, the raw ingredient for cocaine. Farmers have complained that the aerial fumigation has destroyed entire fields of coffee and other legal produce.In April 2019, Vietnam's Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development banned the use of glyphosate throughout the country.In August 2020, Mexican President Andrés Manuel López Obrador announced that glyphosate will be gradually phased out of use in Mexico by late 2024.Thailand's National Hazardous Substances Committee decided to ban the use of glyphosate in October 2019 but reversed the decision in November 2019.After a court-ruling in 2018, glyphosate was temporarily banned in Brazil. This decision was later overturned, causing major criticism by the federal agency of health (Anvisa). This comes, as the latest evaluations declared glyphosate as noncarcinogenic. Since all carcinogenic agrichemicals are automatically banned in the country, this allowed the continuous use.In New Zealand, glyphosate is an approved herbicide for killing weeds, with the most popular brand being Roundup. Genetically modified crops designed to resist glyphosate are absent in New Zealand. Crops applied with glyphosate must be regulated under the HSNO Act 1996 and ACVM Act 1997. Legal status for glyphosate use in New Zealand is approved for commercial and personal use. In 2021, exports of New Zealand honey were found to contain traces of glyphosate, causing some concern to Japanese importers.
Legal cases:
Lawsuits claiming liability for cancer In June 2018, in the court case Johnson v. Monsanto Co., Dewayne Johnson, a 46-year-old former California school groundskeeper who is dying of non-Hodgkin lymphoma, took Monsanto (which had been acquired by Bayer earlier that month) to trial in San Francisco County superior court, alleging that it has spent decades hiding the cancer-causing dangers of its Roundup herbicides. The judge ordered that jurors be allowed to consider both scientific evidence related to the cause of Johnson's cancer and allegations that Monsanto suppressed evidence of the risks, with possible punitive damages. In August 2018, the jury awarded Johnson US$289 million in damages. Monsanto said they would appeal, saying they were confident that glyphosate does not cause cancer when used appropriately. On appeal, the award was reduced to $78.5 million in November 2018, and subsequently further reduced to $21.5 million in July 2020.In August 2018, the potential for additional cases was estimated at up to 4,000. Bayer announced in April 2019 that over 13,000 lawsuits related to Roundup had been launched in the US.
Legal cases:
In March 2019, a man was awarded $80 million in a lawsuit claiming Roundup was a substantial factor in his cancer, resulting in Costco stores discontinuing sales. In July 2019, U.S. District Judge Vince Chhabria reduced the judgment to $26 million. Chhabria stated that a punitive award was appropriate because the evidence "easily supported a conclusion that Monsanto was more concerned with tamping down safety inquiries and manipulating public opinion than it was with ensuring its product is safe." Chhabria stated that there is evidence on both sides concerning whether glyphosate causes cancer and that the behavior of Monsanto showed "a lack of concern about the risk that its product might be carcinogenic."On 13 May 2019 a jury in California ordered Bayer to pay a couple $2 billion in damages after finding that the company had failed to adequately inform consumers of the possible carcinogenicity of Roundup. On July 26, 2019, an Alameda County judge cut the judgment to $86.7 million, stating that the judgement by the jury exceeded legal precedent.Using litigation discovery emails it was later revealed that in 2015 when Monsanto was discussing papers they wanted to see published to counter the expected IARC glyphosate results they wrote in an email, "An option would be to add Greim and Kier or Kirkland to have their names on the publication, but we would be keeping the cost down by us doing the writing and they would just edit & sign their names so to speak. Recall that is how we handled Williams Kroes & Munro, 2000."In June 2020 Bayer, which acquired Monsanto in 2018, agreed to a $10 billion settlement as a result of a number of class-action lawsuits alleging that Roundup had caused cancer.
Legal cases:
Advertising controversies The New York Times reported that in 1996: Dennis C. Vacco, the Attorney General of New York, ordered the company Monsanto to pull ads that said Roundup was "safer than table salt" and "practically nontoxic" to mammals, birds and fish. The company withdrew the spots, but also said that the phrase in question was permissible under E.P.A. guidelines.
Legal cases:
In 2001, French environmental and consumer rights campaigners brought a case against Monsanto for misleading the public about the environmental impact of its herbicide Roundup, on the basis that glyphosate, Roundup's main component, is classed as "dangerous for the environment" and "toxic for aquatic organisms" by the European Union. Monsanto's advertising for Roundup had presented it as biodegradable and as leaving the soil clean after use. In 2007, Monsanto was convicted of false advertising and was fined 15,000 euros. Monsanto's French distributor Scotts France was also fined 15,000 euros. Both defendants were ordered to pay damages of 5,000 euros to the Brittany Water and Rivers Association and 3,000 euros to the Consommation Logement Cadre de vie, one of the two main general consumer associations in France. Monsanto appealed and the court upheld the verdict; Monsanto appealed again to the French Supreme Court, and in 2009 it also upheld the verdict.In 2016, a lawsuit was filed against Quaker Oats in the Federal district courts of both New York and California after trace amounts of glyphosate were found in oatmeal. The lawsuit alleged that the claim of "100% natural" was false advertising. That same year General Mills dropped the label "Made with 100% Natural Whole Grain Oats" from their Nature Valley granola bars after a lawsuit was filed that claimed the oats contained trace amounts of glyphosate.
Legal cases:
Trade dumping allegations United States companies have cited trade issues with glyphosate being dumped into the western world market areas by Chinese companies and a formal dispute was filed in 2010. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Lyceum**
Lyceum:
The lyceum is a category of educational institution defined within the education system of many countries, mainly in Europe. The definition varies among countries; usually it is a type of secondary school. Generally in that type of school the things that are taught are basic science and also in some part of that type of schools, some introduction to specific kind of jobs also may be done.
History:
Lyceum is a Latin rendering of the Ancient Greek Λύκειον (lykeion), the name of a gymnasium in Classical Athens dedicated to Apollo Lyceus. This original lyceum is remembered as the location of the peripatetic school of Aristotle. Some countries derive the name for their modern schools from the Latin but use the Greek name for the ancient school: for example, Dutch has lykeion (ancient) and lyceum (modern), both rendered lyceum in English (note that in classical Latin the C in lyceum was always pronounced as a K, not a soft C, as in modern English).
History:
The name lycée was retrieved and utilized by Napoleon in 1802 to name the main secondary education establishments. From France the name spread in many countries influenced by French culture.
By country:
Asia India The Goa Lyceum (Portuguese: Liceu de Goa) in Panaji, Goa – established in 1854, following the Portuguese model – was the first public secondary school in the state, then a Portuguese territory. Later, the Goa Lyceum received the official title of Liceu Nacional Afonso de Albuquerque (Afonso de Albuquerque National Lyceum).
By country:
Philippines The Philippines follows its version of the K-12 system, where the term junior high school might be used instead of lyceum. However, there are schools that appropriate the word lyceum in their name. The Lyceum of the Philippines University (LPU) is a university in Manila established by former wartime president José P. Laurel. Among its notable alumni are former president Rodrigo Duterte, popular author Rene Villanueva, and actor Cesar Montano. LPU has campuses in Makati, Batangas, Laguna, Cavite, and Davao.The Filipino word for lyceum is liseo from Spanish liceo which can be found in some names of various universities and educational institutions which are unaffiliated with LPU.
By country:
Uzbekistan and Tajikistan Lyceums also emerged in the former Soviet Union countries after they became independent. One typical example is Uzbekistan, where all high schools were replaced with lyceums (litsey is the Russian term, derived from French lycée), offering a three-year educational program with a certain major in a certain direction. Unlike Turkey, Uzbek lyceums do not hold university entrance examinations, which gives students the right to enter a university, but they hold a kind of mock examination which is designed to test their eligibility for a certain university.
By country:
Europe Albania The Albanian National Lyceum was a high school in the city of Korçë, Albania, that emphasized French culture and European values. The school fully functioned with a French cultural emphasis from 1917 to 1939. The school was continued post World War II as the Raqi Qirinxhi High School.
By country:
Belarus The Belarusian Humanities Lyceum is a private secondary school founded shortly after Belarus' independence from the USSR by intellectuals, such as Vincuk Viacorka and Uladzimir Kolas, with the stated aims of preserving and promoting native Belarusian culture, and raising a new Belarusian elite. It was shut down in 2003 by the Ministry of Education of Belarus allegedly for promoting enmity within Belarusian society and using the classroom as a political soapbox, indoctrinating students with biased views on history, ideology, politics, morality and values. The lyceum eventually switched to homeschooling with a limited number of underground homeschoolers.
By country:
Czech Republic The term lyceum refers to a type of secondary education consisting of anywhere from four years ended by graduation. It is a type of schooling between grammar school and a technical high school. For example, the famous scientist Gerty Cori went to a lyceum school.
By country:
Finland The concept and name lyceum (in Swedish, lyseo in Finnish) entered Finland through Sweden. Traditionally, lycea were schools to prepare students to enter universities, as opposed to the typical, more general education. Some old schools continue to use the name lyceum, though their operations today vary. For example, Helsinki Normal Lyceum educates students in grades 7–12, while Oulu Lyceum enrolls students only in grades 10–12. The more commonly used term for upper secondary school in Finland is lukio in Finnish and gymnasium in Swedish.
By country:
France The French word for an upper secondary school, lycée, derives from Lyceum. (see Secondary education in France.) Germany The lyceum in Germany was known as an old term for a Gymnasium for girls. In Bavaria it was also a Hochschule to study theology and philosophy.
By country:
Greece In Greece, Λύκειο refers to a type of upper secondary education school for students aged 15 to 18 or 20. The lyceum school first grade admitted students can have a maximum age up to 20 years old. Evening lyceum (Εσπερινό) is both for adult and underage working students, and lasts three years as of the 2020–2021 academic year, per Law 4547/2018. The lyceum awards the Απολυτήριο, apolytirio or apolyterio, which is the upper secondary education leaving certificate.
By country:
Upper secondary school (lyceum) Ειδικό Λύκειο (eidiko lykeio; special lyceum) Πρότυπο Λύκειο (protipo lykeio; model lyceum; 2015–present) Μουσικό Λύκειο (mousiko lykeio; musical lyceum; 3 years, 1998–present) Καλλιτεχνικό Λύκειο (kalitexniko lykeio; art lyceum; 3 years, 2003–present) Πειραματικό Λύκειο (peiramtiko lykeio; experimental lyceum; 3 years, 2015–present) Γενικό Λύκειο (ΓΕΛ; geniko lykeio; general lyceum; 3 years, 1976–1996, 2006–present) Γενικό Λύκειο Διαπολιτισμικής Εκπαίδευσης (ΓΕΛΔΕ ; i.e. comprehensive lyceum; diapolitismiko lykeio, general lyceum of cross-cultural education; 3 years, 2018–present) Eπαγγελματικό Λύκειο (ΕΠΑΛ; epagelmatiko lykeio; vocational lyceum; EPAL; 3 years, 2006–present) Εσπερινό Γενικό Λύκειο (esperino geniko lykeio; evening general lyceum; 3 years, 1976–present) Εσπερινό Επαγγελματικό Λύκειο (esperino epagelmatiko lykeio; evening vocational lyceum; 3 years) Ενιαίο Ειδικό Επαγγελματικό Γυμνάσιο-Λύκειο (integrated special vocational gymnasium-lyceum; ΕΝ.Ε.Ε.ΓΥ-Λ) Γενικό Εκκλησιαστικό Λύκειο (ΓΕΕΛ; ekklisiastiko lykeio; ecclesiastical general lyceum; 3 years, 2006–present) Defunct upper secondary school (lyceum) Αθλητικό Λύκειο (athlitiko lykeio; athletic lyceum; 3 years) Ενιαίο Λύκειο (eniaio lykeio; integrated lyceum; 3 years, 1997–2006) Τεχνικό Λύκειο (techniko lykeio; technical lyceum; 3 years, 1977–1985) Επαγγελματικό Λύκειο (epagelmatiko lykeio; vocational lyceum; 3 years; Law 576/1977; 1977–1985) Γυμνάσιο (gymnasium; integrated 3-year lower and 3-year upper secondary school) Ενιαίο Πολυκλαδικό Λύκειο (ΕΠΛ; eniaio polykladiko lykeio; integrated multifarious lyceum; 3 years, 1985–1997) Τεχνικό Επαγγελματικό Λύκειο (ΤΕΛ; techniko epagelmatiko lykeio; technical vocational lyceum; 3 years, 1985–1998) Τεχνικό Επαγγελματικό Εκπαιδευτήριο (ΤΕΕ; techniko epagelmatiko ekpaideftirio; technical vocational training centre; 3 years, 1998–2006) Hungary Before World War I, secondary education institutes with a primary goal of preparing for higher studies were often referred to by the word líceum.
By country:
In contemporary Hungarian, the most ubiquitous word for these institutions is gimnázium, but líceum lives on as an archaizing word referring to schools of high prestige and revered traditions, most notably Calvinist boarding schools.
Italy The lyceum is considered by most the hardest and most prestigious kind of secondary school in Italy.
The term liceo refers to a number of upper secondary school, which last five years (from 14 to 19 years of age) and are specialized in teaching philosophy, ancient Greek (in the sole liceo classico) and Latin, but also maths, physics, trigonometry, biology and chemistry. It gives preparation for university.
It is divided into five different branches, each one specialized in certain subjects: Liceo classico (classical lyceum) is the most various between them but is known for focusing on history, ancient Greek and Latin.
Liceo scientifico (scientific lyceum) focuses on maths, physics, biology and chemistry.
Liceo linguistico (linguistic lyceum) focuses almost entirely on a certain number of languages. Each school can decide which language to teach, but Italian and English are always present.
Liceo artistico (arts lyceum) focuses on arts history and practical arts (varying from drawing to painting to sculpturing) Liceo delle scienze umane (lyceum of human sciences) focuses on human sciences such as psychology, anthropology, sociology and pedagogy.Maths and natural sciences are also present.
Liceo musicale (music lyceum) focuses on musical performance.
Latvia The first Lyceum in Riga was founded in 1675 by the king Charles XI of Sweden (in Latin, Schola Carolina), and was renamed to the Imperial Lyceum of Riga (in German, Kaiserliches Lyceum zu Riga) in 1733. In September 1921, the Riga French Lycée, an upper secondary school supported by the Government of France was founded in Riga.
In 1989, during the Latvian National Awakening, the Pushkin Lyceum of Riga (Puškina licejs) with education programs in Russian was established. In 2002, another Russian lyceum was established in Daugavpils (Daugavpils Krievu vidusskola - licejs), renamed to Daugavpils High School of Technologies (Daugavpils Tehnoloģiju vidusskola - licejs) in 2020.
Lithuania Some gymnasiums are called licėjus, e.g. Vilnius Lyceum.
Malta Junior lyceums refer to secondary education state owned schools.
By country:
Republic of Moldova Until recently, in the Republic of Moldova the lyceum – called liceu – was an educational institution where students studied from the first to the twelfth grade and would obtain the baccalaureate degree upon completion. In most cases, the lyceums were specialized in a particular domain (fine art, theatre, language) that was relevant to the personality whose name the institution bore. In other respects, it was little different from any regular school, with the exception of slightly higher education standards and supposedly being more prestigious. After 2010, regular schools were all formally reformed into lyceums, although their quality remained of the same level as before and most did not get any particular specialization, thereby being dubbed 'theory lyceums' (liceu teoretic). One reason for the 2010 reform was to reduce the influence of the Soviet/Russian educational system and/or mentality in Moldova.
By country:
Netherlands In the Netherlands, a lyceum is a selective secondary school for children aged 12–18 that offers "voorbereidend wetenschappelijk onderwijs" (vwo) and "hoger algemeen voortgezet onderwijs" (havo), the top and high levels of secondary education available in that country. Successful completion allows vwo students admission to university and havo students to hogeschool, comparable to vocational university. The term lyceum is also sometimes used for other vocational schools such as the Grafisch Lyceum, or Muzieklyceum Amsterdam, which grew into the Conservatorium van Amsterdam.
By country:
Poland The liceum is the Polish secondary-education school. Polish liceums are attended by students aged 15 to 19–20 (see list below). Before graduating, pupils are subject to a final examination, the matura.
By country:
Polish liceums are of several types: general lyceum (15–19) specialised lyceum (15–19) complementary lyceum (17-20) Portugal From 1836 until 1978, in the Portuguese educational system, the lyceum (Portuguese: liceu), or national lyceum (liceu nacional), was a high school that prepared students to enter universities or more general education. On the other hand, the technical school (escola técnica) was a technical-oriented school.
By country:
After several education reforms, all these schools merged into a single system of "3rd cycle basic" and secondary schools (escolas básicas do 3.º ciclo e secundárias), offering grades 7 to 12.
By country:
Romania The Romanian word for lyceum is liceu. It represents a post-secondary form of education. In order for a student to graduate the lyceum and obtain a baccalaureate diploma, they must pass the bac. The lyceum consists of four school years (ages 15–19). Although the lyceum is a pre-university educational institution, it can be enough for the graduates to find a job, mainly in office work.
By country:
Russia In Imperial Russia, a lyceum was one of the following higher educational facilities: Demidov Lyceum of Law in Yaroslavl (1803), Alexander Lyceum in Tsarskoye Selo (1810), Richelieu Lyceum in Odessa (1817), and Imperial Katkov Lyceum in Moscow (1867).
By country:
The Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum was opened on October 19, 1811, in the neoclassical building designed by Vasily Stasov and situated next to the Catherine Palace. The first graduates included Aleksandr Pushkin and Alexander Gorchakov. The opening date was celebrated each year with carousals and revels, and Pushkin composed new verses for each of those occasions. In January 1844 the Lyceum was moved to Saint Petersburg.
By country:
During 33 years of the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum's existence, there were 286 graduates. The most famous of these were Anton Delwig, Wilhelm Küchelbecher, Nicholas de Giers, Dmitry Tolstoy, Yakov Karlovich Grot, Nikolay Yakovlevich Danilevsky, Alexei Lobanov-Rostovsky and Mikhail Saltykov-Shchedrin.
Since the 1990s there are lyceums (special secondary schools) with in-depth study of humanitarian or natural science disciplines. As a rule, university professors teach in lyceums, and the educational system resembles that of a university. Later, the lyceums were renamed special general secondary schools.
By country:
Serbia The Lyceum of the Principality of Serbia was the first higher education school in Serbia in which education was taught in Serbian. It was founded in 1838 on the initiative of Prince Miloš Obrenović in 1838 in Kragujevac, then the capital of Serbia. When Belgrade became the Serbian capital in 1841, the Serbian Lyceum opened there. In 1863 it became known as the Grandes écoles until 1905 when it officially changed its name to the University of Belgrade.
By country:
Turkey The Turkish word for the latest part of pre-university education is lise which is derived from the French word lycée and corresponds to high school in English. It lasts four to five years with respect to the type of the high school. At the end of their lise education, students take the TYT/AYT test, i.e. university entrance examination, to get the right to enroll in a public university or a private university.
By country:
Ukraine According to the Law of Ukraine "On Education", the lyceum is a level III secondary institution of education (or a structural unit of another institution of education) that provides field-specific secondary education. As it is planned, since 2017 a three-year senior school will be a lyceum of academic or vocational training. In vocational school, a student will master his/her first profession, whereas in an academic lyceum he/she will deepen personal knowledge of specific subjects that will be studied further at a higher education establishment. Graduates of academic lyceums will be able to obtain a bachelor's degree in three years (in most specialties) instead of four.Other types of lyceums in Ukraine include military lyceums and lyceums with intensive military and physical training.
By country:
North America United States See lyceum movement and comparison of US and UK secondary school years (except Scotland).
South America Chile It is not uncommon in Chile to use the word liceo when referring to a high school. Another term is enseñanza media (secondary education); however, liceo is the most common term due to Chile's extensive European influence.
Uruguay Liceo is commonly used to refer to secondary education. It was adopted from the French immigrants of the 19th century. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Plasterer**
Plasterer:
A plasterer is a tradesman or tradesperson who works with plaster, such as forming a layer of plaster on an interior wall or plaster decorative moldings on ceilings or walls. The process of creating plasterwork, called plastering, has been used in building construction for centuries. A plasterer is someone who does a full 4 or 2 years apprenticeship to be fully qualified
History:
Plasterwork is one of the most ancient of handicrafts employed in connection with building operations, the earliest evidence showing that the dwellings of primitive man were erected in a simple fashion with sticks and plastered with mud. Soon a more lasting and sightly material was found and employed to take the place of mud or slime, and that perfection in the compounding of plastering materials was approached at a very remote period is made evident by the fact that some of the earliest plastering which has remained undisturbed excels in its scientific composition that which we use at the present day.
History:
The pyramids in Egypt contain plasterwork executed at least four thousand years ago, probably much earlier, and yet existing, hard and durable, at the present time. From recent discoveries it has been ascertained that the principal tools of the plasterer of that time were practically identical in design, shape and purpose with those used today. For their finest work the Egyptians used a plaster made from calcined gypsum just like plaster of Paris of the present time, and their methods of plastering on reeds resemble in every way our lath, plaster, float and set work. Hair was introduced to strengthen the stuff, and the whole finished somewhat under an inch thick.
History:
Very early in the history of Greek architecture we find the use of plaster of a fine white lime stucco, such has been found at Mycenae. The art had reached perfection in Greece more than five centuries before Christ, and plaster was frequently used to cover temples externally and internally, in some cases even where the building was of marble. It formed a splendid ground for decorative painting, which at this period of Grecian history had reached a very high degree of beauty. Also known as Gyporockers.
Tools and materials:
In the more common operations of plastering, comparatively few tools and few materials are required, but the workman efficient in all branches of the craft will possess a very large variety of implements. The materials of the workman are laths, lath nails, lime, sand, hair, plaster of Paris, and a variety of cements, together with various ingredients to form coloring washes, et cetera.
Tools and materials:
Laths Wood laths are narrow strips of some straight-grained wood, generally Baltic or American fir, in lengths of from two to four or five feet to suit the distances at which the timbers of a floor or partition are set. Laths are about an inch Lathing-wide, and are made in three thicknesses; single (1/8 to 3/16 inch thick), lath and a half (1/4 inch thick), and double (3/8–1/2 inch thick). The thicker laths should be used in ceilings, to stand the extra strain, and the thinner variety in vertical work such as partitions, except where the latter will be subjected to rough usage, in which case thicker laths become necessary. Laths are usually nailed with a space of about 3/8 of an inch between them to form a plaster key. Laths were formerly all made by hand. A large quantity, however, are now made by machinery and are known as sawn laths, those made by hand being called rent or riven laths. Rent (riven) laths give the best results, as they split in a line with the grain of the wood, and are stronger and not so liable to twist as machine-made laths, some of the fibers of which are usually cut in the process of sawing.
Tools and materials:
Care should be taken to check the PH value of the wood; oak contains tannic acid which attacks the lime, this can compromise bond strength.
Tools and materials:
Laths must be nailed so as to break joint in bays three or four feet wide with ends butted one against the other. By breaking the joints of the lathing in this way, the tendency for the plaster to crack along the line of joints is diminished and a better key is obtained and it provides restraint for the timber frame. Every lath should be nailed at each end and wherever it crosses a joist or stud. All timbers over three inches (76 mm) wide should be counter-lathed, that is, have a fillet or double lath nailed along the centre upon which the laths are then nailed. This is done to preserve a good key for the plaster. Walls liable to damp are sometimes battened and lathed in order to form an air cavity between the damp wall and the plastering.
Tools and materials:
Lathing of metal, either of wire or in the form of perforated sheets, is now extensively used on account of its fireproof and lasting quality. There are very many kinds of this material Metal made in different designs under various patents, the best known in England being the Jhilmil, the Bostwick, Lathing, and the Expanded Metal lathing. The two last-named are also widely used in America. Lathing nails are usually of iron, cut, wrought or cast, and in the better class of work they are galvanized to prevent rusting. Zinc nails are sometimes used, but are costly.
Tools and materials:
Lime The lime principally used for internal plastering is that calcined from chalk, oyster shells or other nearly pure limestone, and is known as fat, pure, chalk or rich lime. Hydraulic limes are also used by the plasterer, chiefly for external work. Perfect slaking of the calcined lime before being used is very important as, if used in a partially slaked condition, it will "blow" when in position and blister the work. Lime should therefore be run as soon as the building is begun, and at least three weeks should elapse between the operation of running the lime and its use. Due to time constraints Hydrated Lime mixed with plaster is normally used for modern construction. Slaking is not required if more time is allowed for finishing the surface after application which is a common practice where a quality finish is required, however in the housing industry it is often run for three days, the time it takes to prepare an average house for plastering, to achieve a lower quality cost effective finish.
Tools and materials:
Hair Hair is used in plaster as a binding medium, and gives tenacity to the material. Traditionally horsehair was the most commonly used binder, as it was easily available before the development of the motor-car. Hair functions in much the same way as the strands in fiberglass resin, by controlling and containing any small cracks within the mortar while it dries or when it is subject to flexing.
Tools and materials:
Ox-hair, which is sold in three qualities, is now the kind usually specified; but horsehair, which is shorter, is sometimes substituted or mixed with the ox-hair in the lower qualities. Good hair should be long (In the UK cow and horse hair of short and long lengths is used), and left greasey (lanolin grease) because this protects against some degradation when introduced into the very high alkaline plaster[1]. Before use it must be well beaten, or teased, to separate the lumps. In America, goats' hair is frequently used, though it is not so strong as ox-hair. The quantity used in good work is one pound of hair to two or three cubic feet of coarse stuff (in the UK up to 12 kg per metric cube). Hair reinforcement in lime plaster is common, and many types of hair and other organic fibres can be found in historic plasters [4]. However, organic material in lime will degrade in damp environments, particularly on damp external renders.[5] This problem has given rise to the use of polyprolene fibres in new lime renders [6]. Research presented at the UK Building Limes Forum 2012 looked at the potential for hair degradation in lime plasters.Manila hemp fiber has been used as a substitute for hair. Plaster for hair slabs made with manila hemp fiber broke at 195 pounds (88 kg), plaster mixed with sisal hemp at 150 pounds (68 kg), jute at 145 pounds (66 kg), and goats' hair at 144 pounds (65 kg). Another test was made in the following manner. Two barrels of mortar were made up of equal proportions of lime and sand, one containing the usual quantity of goats' hair, and the other Manila fiber. After remaining in a dry cellar for nine months the barrels were opened. It was found that the hair had been almost entirely eaten away by the action of the lime, and the mortar consequently broke up and crumbled quite easily. The mortar containing the Manila hemp, on the other hand, showed great cohesion, and required some effort to pull it apart, the hemp fiber being undamaged.
Methods:
For fine plasterer's sand-work, special sands, not hitherto referred to, are used, such as silver sand or fine foundry sand, which is used when a light color and fine texture are required. In medical centres one part Barium is added to two parts cement and five of sand where the walls need to block X-rays. When coating or rendering concrete surfaces a "splash" coat of one part cement to one of sand in liquid form is either thrown with a trowel or sprayed on the surface. This not only provides a better key for the render but prevents the porous concrete from sucking the water from it. For external work Portland cement is undoubtedly the best material on account of its strength, durability, and weather resisting External properties. If the plaster coat needs to be particularly strong and resistant to cracking, such as the walls of a squash court, Sizing is mixed with the plaster before application to increase both the surface bond strength and flexibility.
Methods:
The first coat of render is from 1/2 to 3/4 inches thick, and is mixed, dependant on the surface to be covered, in the proportions of from one part of cement to two of sand to one part to six of sand. A ½ shovel of Lime is often added to make the mix more pliable. After dampening the surface to be coated, two horizontal bands of render called "screeds" are applied, one at around head height and the other just above floor level, these are then marked for vertical/horizontal alignment, finished, then allowed to partially dry. In a process similar to laying concrete, the wall is then rendered to a slightly higher level than the screeds, and using a "straight edge" (screed), the Plasterer uses the screeds as guides removing the excess render and leaving a rough flat surface. For a lower cost finish or if a rough surface is specified the screeds can be dispensed with. The render is then finished with a float (a smooth flat wooden tool with handle) to fill or remove larger imperfections. For some applications where a stronger key is required the surface is scored by later use of a float with nails protruding from the base. If the render is to be the finished surface then a float with a sponge attached to the base is then used on the wall until the surface is blemish free.
Methods:
For quality work, or where the wall is out of plumb requiring a large variation in render thickness, a thin "scratch" render coat is first applied then a second coat finished as described above. After around 24 hours the render has dried but before the final plaster coat is applied a trowel is used to scrape loose sand grains from the surface which would otherwise spoil the plaster finish.
Methods:
The finishing or setting plaster coat which is about 3/16 inches thick is worked with a hand trowel on the surface of the rendering, which must first be well wetted. The plaster is applied in two coats to slow the drying speed of the second coat and after drying must still be wetted and worked for a time to produce a thin film of watery plaster which has the effect of "Polishing" the finished surface. This finishing plaster is normally trowelled on two or three passes to achieve this.
In popular culture:
Harry Enfield's character Loadsamoney worked as a plasterer. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Rusticyanin**
Rusticyanin:
Rusticyanin (RCN) is a copper protein with a type I copper center that plays an integral role in electron transfer. It can be extracted from the periplasm of the gram-negative bacterium Thiobacillus ferrooxidans (T. ferrooxidans), also known as Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans (At. ferrooxidans). Rusticyanin is also found in the membrane-bound form in the surface of T. ferrooxidans. It is a part of an electron transfer chain for Fe(II) oxidation.
Function:
As T. ferrooxidans can grow aerobically at pH values of 1.6 to 3.5, it obtains its energy for chemolithotrophic growth on soluble ferrous ions. Rusticyanin is involved in the respiratory oxidation of ferrous ions to ferric ions, producing three protons for every ferrous ion oxidized. The mechanism of electron transfer in the respiratory oxidation pathway of Fe2+ in T. ferrooxidans is still unclear despite decades of research in this area. However, the involvement of rusticyanin in shuttling electrons from a cytochrome c2 to another cytochrome c4 during the oxidation of ferrous to ferric ions is experimentally shown. Rusticyanin is thought to shuttle electrons from high molecular weight cytochrome via cytochrome c552 to cytochrome oxidase. Predicted functional partners include coxD (cytochrome c oxidase, aa3-type, subunit IV, 64 amino acids), coxC (cytochrome c oxidase, aa3-type, subunit III, 184 amino acids), ctaB (protoheme IX farnesyltransferase), Cyc2 (cytochrome c, 485 amino acids), AFE_3142 (major facilitator family transporter, 397 amino acids), coxA (cytochrome c oxidase, aa3-type, subunit I, 627 amino acids), Cyc1 (cytochrome c552, 230 amino acids), and AFE_3141 (rrf2 family protein, 146 amino acids).
Reactions:
Fe(II) redox of cytochrome c552 and rusticyanin occurs with the following:Fe2+[membrane] + an oxidized rusticyanin[membrane] → Fe3+[membrane] + a reduced rusticyanin[membrane]; a reduced rusticyanin[membrane] + an oxidized cytochrome c552[membrane] → an oxidized rusticyanin[membrane] + a reduced cytochrome c552[membrane]; a reduced rusticyanin[outside cell] + an oxidized CycA1 cytochrome[outside cell] → a reduced CycA1 cytochrome[outside cell] + an oxidized rusticyanin[outside cell] | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Multiple abstract variance analysis**
Multiple abstract variance analysis:
Multiple abstract variance analysis (MAVA), is a statistical technique used to estimate the proportion of variance in a phenotypic trait due to genetic and environmental factors. It was developed by psychologist Raymond B. Cattell in order to enable the analysis of data from multiple independent sources to estimate the causes of trait variation. Cattell originally described the technique in a 1960 paper. MAVA aims to estimate the relative genetic and environmental contributions to trait variation by comparing variances between families to those within families on the trait under study. As such, it is considered a "more systematic and comprehensive approach" than the classical correlation method of heritability estimation. MAVA later formed the basis of Cattell's 16PF Questionnaire.MAVA has been criticized for inconsistencies between some of the mathematical equations used in the method, and for introducing "...numerous new theoretical constructs without any clear empirical basis". Critics of the method have also noted that it requires the introduction of additional parameters whenever a new type of genetic relationship is considered, which precludes a complete analysis of the causes of trait variation. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Eyelash yarn**
Eyelash yarn:
Eyelash yarn is a type of novelty yarn. It has a thread base, with several long strands spaced at even intervals that jut out at an angle from the main strand. The long strands, or hair, can be metallic, opalescent, matte, or a combination of types. The hair can be curly or straight and can be two different lengths. Prominent types are composed of 100% polyester with a straight and relatively short hair. Because of its thinness, eyelash is normally carried along with another, plainer yarn to add visual interest to the primary yarn. There are many variations in the texture and composition of eyelash yarns, such as pigtail or ponytail, which have a thicker base and what appear to be flags tied onto the base strand at even intervals, or fur, in which the base has a more frequently occurring or thicker grouping of hairlike strands which, in the finished fabric, will be hairy and have the general aspect of faux fur. Drawbacks of eyelash yarns include poor stitch definition, because the hairs obscure the appearance of the base, and that they add bulk to a garment. Because of this, they are mostly used for accessories, such as scarves, or as garment trim.
Eyelash yarn:
Some types of eyelash yarn can be used for decorative purposes. These types combine metal-look lurex with a polyester core which mimics a tinsel effect but is more durable than typical tinsel and be reused for annual celebrations. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Arenium ion**
Arenium ion:
An arenium ion in organic chemistry is a cyclohexadienyl cation that appears as a reactive intermediate in electrophilic aromatic substitution.
For historic reasons this complex is also called a Wheland intermediate, after American chemist George Willard Wheland (1907–1976). They are also called sigma complexes. The smallest arenium ion is the benzenium ion (C6H+7), which is protonated benzene.
Arenium ion:
Two hydrogen atoms bonded to one carbon lie in a plane perpendicular to the benzene ring. The arenium ion is no longer an aromatic species; however it is relatively stable due to delocalization: the positive charge is delocalized over 3 carbon atoms by the pi system, as depicted on the following resonance structures: A complexed electrophile can contribute to the stability of arenium ions. Salts of benzenium ion can be isolated when benzene is protonated by the carborane superacid H(CB11H(CH3)5Br6). The benzenium salt is crystalline with thermal stability up to 150 °C. Bond lengths deduced from X-ray crystallography are consistent with a cyclohexadienyl cation structure.
Arenium ion:
In one study a methylene arenium ion is stabilized by metal complexation: In this reaction sequence the R–Pd(II)–Br starting complex 1 stabilized by TMEDA is converted through dppe to metal complex 2. Electrophilic attack of methyl triflate forms methylene arenium ion 3 with (based on X-ray crystallography) positive charge located in aromatic para position and with the methylene group 6° out of the plane of the ring. Reaction first with water and then with triethylamine hydrolyzes the ether group.
Some historic references:
Olah, G. A. (1972). "Stable carbocations. CXVIII. General concept and structure of carbocations based on differentiation of trivalent (classical) carbenium ions from three-center bound penta- or tetracoordinated (nonclassical) carbonium ions. Role of carbocations in electrophilic reactions". J. Am. Chem. Soc. 94 (3): 808–820. doi:10.1021/ja00758a020.
Wheland, G. W. (1942). "A Quantum Mechanical Investigation of the Orientation of Substituents in Aromatic Molecules". J. Am. Chem. Soc. 64 (4): 900–908. doi:10.1021/ja01256a047. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Drug class**
Drug class:
A drug class is a group of medications and other compounds that have similar chemical structures, the same mechanism of action (i.e. binding to the same biological target), similar modes of action, and/or are used to treat the similar diseases.In several dominant drug classification systems, these four types of classifications form a hierarchy. For example, the fibrates are a chemical class of drugs (amphipathic carboxylic acids) that share the same mechanism of action (PPAR agonist) and mode of action (reducing blood triglycerides), and that are used to prevent and treat the same disease (atherosclerosis). Conversely, not all PPAR agonists are fibrates, not all triglyceride lowering agents are PPAR agonists, and not all drugs used to treat atherosclerosis are triglyceride-lowering agents.
Drug class:
A drug class is typically defined by a prototype drug, the most important, and typically the first developed drug within the class, used as a reference for comparison.
Comprehensive systems:
Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System (ATC) – most widely used. Combines classification by organ system and therapeutic, pharmacological, and chemical properties.
Systematized Nomenclature of Medicine (SNOMED) – includes a section devoted to drug classification
Chemical class:
This type of categorisation of drugs is from a chemical perspective and categorises them by their chemical structure. Examples of drug classes that are based on chemical structures include:
Mechanism of action:
This type of categorisation is from a pharmacological perspective and categorises them by their biological target. Drug classes that share a common molecular mechanism of action modulate the activity of a specific biological target. The definition of a mechanism of action also includes the type of activity at that biological target. For receptors, these activities include agonist, antagonist, inverse agonist, or modulator. Enzyme target mechanisms include activator or inhibitor. Ion channel modulators include opener or blocker. The following are specific examples of drug classes whose definition is based on a specific mechanism of action:
Mode of action:
This type of categorisation of drugs is from a biological perspective and categorises them by the anatomical or functional change they induce. Drug classes that are defined by common modes of action (i.e. the functional or anatomical change they induce) include:
Therapeutic class:
This type of categorisation of drugs is from a medical perspective and categorises them by the pathology they are used to treat. Drug classes that are defined by their therapeutic use (the pathology they are intended to treat) include:
Amalgamated classes:
Some drug classes have been amalgamated from these three principles to meet practical needs. The class of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) is one such example. Strictly speaking, and also historically, the wider class of anti-inflammatory drugs also comprises steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. These drugs were in fact the predominant anti-inflammatories during the decade leading up to the introduction of the term "nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs." Because of the disastrous reputation that the corticosteroids had got in the 1950s, the new term, which offered to signal that an anti-inflammatory drug was not a steroid, rapidly gained currency. The drug class of "nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs" (NSAIDs) is thus composed by one element ("anti-inflammatory") that designates the mechanism of action, and one element ("nonsteroidal") that separates it from other drugs with that same mechanism of action. Similarly, one might argue that the class of disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs (DMARD) is composed by one element ("disease-modifying") that albeit vaguely designates a mechanism of action, and one element ("anti-rheumatic drug") that indicates its therapeutic use.
Amalgamated classes:
Disease-modifying antirheumatic drug (DMARD) Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID)
Other systems of classification:
Other systems of drug classification exist, for example the Biopharmaceutics Classification System which determines a drugs' attributes by solubility and intestinal permeability.
Legal classification:
For the Canadian legal classification, see Controlled Drugs and Substances Act For the UK legal classification, see Drugs controlled by the UK Misuse of Drugs Act For the US legal classification, see Controlled Substances Act § Schedules of controlled substances Pregnancy category is defined using a variety of systems by different jurisdictions | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Grey column**
Grey column:
The grey column refers to a somewhat ridge-shaped mass of grey matter in the spinal cord. This presents as three columns: the anterior grey column, the posterior grey column, and the lateral grey column, all of which are visible in cross-section of the spinal cord.
Grey column:
The anterior grey column is made up of alpha motor neurons, gamma motor neurons, and small neurons thought to be interneurons. The posterior grey column is divided into several of the Rexed laminae. The lateral grey column is only present in the thoracic region and upper lumbar segments (T1-L2). The lateral grey column contains preganglionic cell bodies of the autonomic nervous system and sensory relay neurons.
Structure:
Anterior grey column The anterior grey column, also known as the anterior horn of spinal cord, comprises three different types of neurons: large alpha motor neurons, medium gamma motor neurons, and small neurons thought to be interneurons. These neurons differ in both their morphology and in their patterns of connectivity. They are organized in the same manner as the muscles they innervate.
Structure:
Alpha motor neurons Alpha motor neurons innervate extrafusal muscle fibers that generate force at neuromuscular junctions at the start of muscle contraction. They have large cell bodies and receive proprioceptive input. They have been shown to reduce in population, but not in size with age. Damage to these cell bodies can lead to severe muscle weakness and loss of reflexes.
Structure:
Gamma motor neurons Gamma motor neurons innervate intrafusal muscle fibers that control the sensitivity of muscle spindles to stretch. They have smaller cell bodies than alpha motor neurons and do not receive proprioceptive input. They have been shown to reduce in numbers but not size with age.
Small neurons The physiology of the small neurons in the anterior column is not well understood. Their effects can be both excitatory and inhibitory. They are suspected to be interneurons and have been shown to reduce in size but not numbers with age.
Structure:
Posterior grey column The posterior grey column, also known as the posterior (or dorsal) horn of spinal cord, is divided into several laminae, based on the type of sensory information sent to each section. Laminae I and II are sent information from afferent neurons that sense nociception, temperature, and itching, laminae III and IV are sent information from neurons that sense mechanical pressure, and laminae V and VI are sent information from proprioceptors. It is known to be the primary relay point for haptic and nociceptive messages. The posterior horn is also known as a partially layered structure because only laminae I and II are well defined.
Structure:
The column can also be separated by nociceptive and non-nociceptive senses. Laminae I and II are important in nociception, laminae III and IV are not involved nociception, and lamina V is involved in both nociception and non-nociception.
Structure:
Lamina I Lamina I is also known as the marginal nucleus of spinal cord. The majority of posterior column projection neurons are located in lamina I, however most neurons in this layer are interneurons. The main areas these neurons innervate are the caudal ventrolateral medulla (CVLM), the nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS), the lateral parabrachial area (LPb), the periaqueductal grey matter (PAG), and certain regions in the thalamus. The CVLM receives nociceptive and cardiovascular responses. The NTS receives cardio-respiratory inputs and affects reflex tachycardia from noxious stimulation. The LPb projects to the amygdala and hypothalamus and is involved in the emotional response to pain. The PAG develops ways to deal with pain and is a main target of analgesics. It projects to other parts of the brainstem. The nuclei of the thalamus affect sensory and motivational aspects of pain. The neurons of this lamina can be distinguished by their morphology as pyramidal, spindle, or multipolar.
Structure:
Lamina II This layer is also known as the substantia gelatinosa of Rolando and has the highest density of neurons. These neurons mediate the activity of nociceptive and temperature afferent fibers. It is almost entirely made up of interneurons which can be further divided by their morphology. The four main morphological classes, based on the shape of their dendritic structure, are islet, central, vertical, and radial cells. The interneurons can also be divided by their function: excitatory or inhibitory. The excitatory interneurons release glutamate as their main neurotransmitter and the inhibitory interneurons use GABA and/or glycine as their main neurotransmitter. The neurons of this layer are only C fibers and contain almost no myelin.
Structure:
Laminae III and IV These laminae are also known as the nucleus proprius and contain a much smaller density of neurons than lamina II. There are projection neurons scattered throughout these layers. Mechanosensitive A beta fibers terminate in these layers. The layers receive input from lamina II and also control pain, temperature, and crude touch. C fibers that control nociception and temperature and sensory information from mechanoreceptors are relayed here.
Structure:
Lamina V This lamina is also known as the neck of the posterior column and receives information from mechanoreceptors and danger information from nociceptors. It has different neurons in different regions. In the medial region it contains medium-sized triangular neurons and the lateral region contains medium-sized multipolar neurons.
Lamina VI This lamina is only found in the cervical and lumbar regions of the spinal cord. It receives afferent input from muscle fibers and joints.
Structure:
Lateral grey column The lateral grey column, or the lateral horn of spinal cord, is part of the sympathetic nervous system and receives input from brain stem, organs, and hypothalamus. The lateral column is only present in the thoracic region and upper lumbar segments. The lateral grey column contains preganglionic cell bodies of the autonomic nervous system and sensory relay neurons.
Clinical significance:
Neurons in the anterior column have been shown to be affected by amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). The number of large alpha motor neurons and medium gamma motor neurons was greatly reduced and the number of small neurons was either slightly or greatly reduced depending on the type of ALS.Muscular atrophy has also been shown to have an effect on neurons of the anterior column. A large loss of large alpha motor neurons, medium gamma motor neurons, and small neurons was recorded in cases of muscular atrophy.Damage to the lateral column can result in Horner's syndrome.
Clinical significance:
Multiple system atrophy (MSA), has also been linked to the lateral grey column. MSA has been shown to reduce the cell count in the lateral column by over 50%.
Clinical significance:
The posterior column has a prominent role in the pain system, it is the first central relay in the nociceptive pathway. The first-order afferent neuron carries sensory information to the second order neuron in the dorsal horn. The axon of the second order neuron, if it is a projection neuron and not an interneuron, then goes to the third order neuron in the thalamus. The thalamus is known as the "gateway to the cortex". The third order neuron then goes to the cerebral cortex. The afferent neurons are either A fibers or C fibers. A fibers are myelinated allowing for faster signal conduction. Among these there are A beta fibers which are faster and carry information about non-painful touch and A delta fibers which are slower and thinner than the A beta fibers. The C fibers are not myelinated and therefore slower. C fibers that carry nociceptive signals can be divided into two types: fibers that contain neuropeptides, like substance P, and fibers that do not contain neuropeptides. The two types terminate in very different areas. Non-peptidergic C fibers are linked to the skin, where they innervate the epidermis while peptidergic C fibers innervate other tissues and deeper parts of the skin.There are two main types of nociceptive signals: sensory and affective.
Clinical significance:
Sensory Sensory nociceptive signals provide information about what kind of stimulus (heat, mechanical, etc.) is affecting the body and also indicates where on the body the stimulus is. Sensory nociceptive neurons have a small receptive field to help pinpoint the exact location of a stimulus.
Affective Affective nociceptive signals affect emotions. These signals go to the limbic system and tell the body to react to the danger stimulus (i.e. removing a hand from a hot stove). These neurons have larger receptive fields because the emotional reaction to most pain stimuli is similar. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Myotubularin 1**
Myotubularin 1:
Myotubularin is a protein that in humans is encoded by the MTM1 gene.This gene is a member of a gene family that encodes lipid phosphatases. Myotubularin is required for muscle cell differentiation and mutations in this gene have been identified as being responsible for X-linked myotubular myopathy. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Dynamic Data Driven Applications Systems**
Dynamic Data Driven Applications Systems:
Dynamic Data Driven Applications Systems (DDDAS) is a new paradigm whereby the computation and instrumentation aspects of an application system are dynamically integrated in a feed-back control loop, in the sense that instrumentation data can be dynamically incorporated into the executing model of the application, and in reverse the executing model can control the instrumentation. Such approaches have been shown that can enable more accurate and faster modeling and analysis of the characteristics and behaviors of a system and can exploit data in intelligent ways to convert them to new capabilities, including decision support systems with the accuracy of full scale modeling, efficient data collection, management, and data mining. The DDDAS concept - and the term - was proposed by Frederica Darema for the National Science Foundation (NSF) workshop in March 2000.
Dynamic Data Driven Applications Systems:
There are several affiliated annual meetings and conferences, including: DDDAS workshop at ICCS (since 2003) DyDESS conference and workshop at MIT organized by Sai Ravela and Adrian Sandu DDDAS special session at the ACC organized by Puneet Singla and Dennis Bernstein and Sai Ravela DDDAS Special Session Information Fusion DDDAS 2016 at Hartford, the first full-fledged conference hosted and sponsored by MIT and some support from UTRC.
Dynamic Data Driven Applications Systems:
DDDAS 2017 at MIT, the second conference hosted and managed by MIT.
DDDAS 2020 Online, the third conference hosted by MIT.
Dynamic Data Driven Applications Systems:
DDDAS 2022 at MIT, the fourth conference hosted by MIT together with CLEPS22.As time progressed, it was suggested by Dr. Ravela that DDDAS grow into its own conference, adding workshops to special subjects. The first full-fledged but environmentally-focussed DDDAS conference was DyDESS, held at MIT, and the community has since not looked back. MIT sponsored and setup the DyDESS conference, and continues to be the host and event organizer through its Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences department. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Set constraint**
Set constraint:
In mathematics and theoretical computer science, a set constraint is an equation or an inequation between sets of terms.
Similar to systems of (in)equations between numbers, methods are studied for solving systems of set constraints. Different approaches admit different operators (like "∪", "∩", "\", and function application) on sets and different (in)equation relations (like "=", "⊆", and "⊈") between set expressions.
Systems of set constraints are useful to describe (in particular infinite) sets of ground terms.
They arise in program analysis, abstract interpretation, and type inference.
Relation to regular tree grammars:
Each regular tree grammar can be systematically transformed into a system of set inclusions such that its minimal solution corresponds to the tree language of the grammar.
Relation to regular tree grammars:
For example, the grammar (terminal and nonterminal symbols indicated by lower and upper case initials, respectively) with the rules is transformed to the set inclusion system (constants and variables indicated by lower and upper case initials, respectively): This system has a minimal solution, viz. ("L(N)" denoting the tree language corresponding to the nonterminal N in the above tree grammar): The maximal solution of the system is trivial; it assigns the set of all terms to every variable.
Literature:
Aiken, A. (1995). Set Constraints: Results, Applications and Future Directions (Technical report). Univ. Berkeley.
Literature:
Aiken, A., Kozen, D., Vardi, M., Wimmers, E.L. (May 1993). The Complexity of Set Constraints (Technical report). Computer Science Department, Cornell University. 93–1352.{{cite tech report}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Aiken, A., Kozen, D., Vardi, M., Wimmers, E.L. (1994). "The Complexity of Set Constraints". Computer Science Logic'93. LNCS. Vol. 832. Springer. pp. 1–17.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Aiken, A., Wimmers, E.L. (1992). "Solving Systems of Set Constraints (Extended Abstract)". Seventh Annual IEEE Symposium on Logic in Computer Science. pp. 329–340.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Bachmair, Leo, Ganzinger, Harald, Waldmann, Uwe (1992). Set Constraints are the Monadic Class (Technical report). Max-Planck-Institut für Informatik. p. 13. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.32.3739. MPI-I-92-240.{{cite tech report}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Bachmair, Leo, Ganzinger, Harald, Waldmann, Uwe (1993). "Set Constraints are the Monadic Class". Eight Annual IEEE Symposium on Logic in Computer Science. pp. 75–83.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Charatonik, W. (Sep 1994). "Set Constraints in Some Equational Theories". Proc. 1st Int. Conf. on Constraints in Computational Logics (CCL). LNCS. Vol. 845. Springer. pp. 304–319.
Literature:
Charatonik, Witold; Podelski, Andreas (2002). "Set Constraints with Intersection". Information and Computation. 179 (2): 213–229. doi:10.1006/inco.2001.2952.
Literature:
Charatonik, W., Podelski, A. (1998). Tobias Nipkow (ed.). Co-definite Set Constraints. LNCS 1379. Springer-Verlag. pp. 211–225.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Charatonik, W., Talbot, J.-M. (2002). Tison, S. (ed.). Atomic Set Constraints with Projection. LNCS 2378. Springer. pp. 311–325.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Gilleron, R., Tison, S., Tommasi, M. (1993). "Solving Systems of Set Constraints using Tree Automata". 10th Annual Symposium on Theoretical Aspects of Computer Science. LNCS. Vol. 665. Springer. pp. 505–514.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Heintze, N., Jaffar, J. (1990). "A Decision Procedure for a Class of Set Constraints (Extended Abstract)". Fifth Annual IEEE Symposium on Logic in Computer Science. pp. 42–51.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Heintze, N., Jaffar, J. (Feb 1991). A Decision Procedure for a Class of Set Constraints (Technical report). School of Computer Science, Carnegie Mellon University.{{cite tech report}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Kozen, D. (1993). "Logical Aspects of Set Constraints" (PDF). Computer Science Logic'93. LNCS. Vol. 832. pp. 175–188.
Literature:
Kozen, D. (1994). "Set Constraints and Logic Programming". CCL. LNCS. Vol. 845.
Dexter Kozen (1998). "Set Constraints and Logic Programming". Information and Computation. 142: 2–25. doi:10.1006/inco.1997.2694.
Uribe, T.E. (1992). "Sorted Unification Using Set Constraints". Proc. CADE–11. LNCS. Vol. 607. pp. 163–177.
Literature:
Literature on negative constraints Aiken, A., Kozen, D., Wimmers, E.L. (Jun 1993). Decidability of Systems of Set Constraints with Negative Constraints (Technical report). Computer Science Department, Cornell University. 93–1362.{{cite tech report}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Charatonik, W., Pacholski, L. (Jul 1994). "Negative Set Constraints with Equality". Ninth Annual IEEE Symposium on Logic in Computer Science. pp. 128–136.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) R. Gilleron; S. Tison; M. Tommasi (1993). "Solving Systems of Set Constraints with Negated Subset Relationships". Proceedings of the 34th Symp. on Foundations of Computer Science. pp. 372–380.
Literature:
Gilleron, R., Tison, S., Tommasi, M. (1993). Solving Systems of Set Constraints with Negated Subset Relationships (Technical report). Laboratoire d'Informatique Fondamentale de Lille. IT 247.{{cite tech report}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Stefansson, K. (Aug 1993). Systems of Set Constraints with Negative Constraints are NEXPTIME-Complete (Technical report). Computer Science Department, Cornell University. 93–1380.
Stefansson, K. (1994). "Systems of Set Constraints with Negative Constraints are NEXPTIME-Complete". Ninth Annual IEEE Symposium on Logic in Computer Science. pp. 137–141. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Korg PadKontrol**
Korg PadKontrol:
The Korg PadKontrol was a USB MIDI controller manufactured by Korg. The PadKontrol was released in 2005 as a competitor to the Akai MPD and the M-Audio Triggerfinger. The PadKontrol has sixteen assignable, velocity sensitive pads, with sixteen "scenes" which allow the user to toggle between various pad configurations, and an assignable X-Y pad for drum rolls, flams, or controller input inside a VSTi or a MIDI sequencer.
Use:
The PadKontrol is commonly used for controlling virtual drum instruments in a MIDI sequencer (such as ezdrummer or BFD). Additionally, the PadKontrol can be used to control a software sampler Kontakt, for example) or can be used to control values within a MIDI sequencer.
Native Mode When the PadKontrol is placed in native mode, the user has control over every button and light on the unit (including the LED display) and can use software on the computer to send MIDI data to the PadKontrol, giving programmers a means by which to write their own software for the PadKontrol. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Dead letter queue**
Dead letter queue:
In message queueing a dead letter queue (DLQ) is a service implementation to store messages that the messaging system cannot or should not deliver. Although implementation-specific, messages can be routed to the DLQ for the following reasons: The message is sent to a queue that does not exist.
The maximum queue length is exceeded.
The message exceeds the size limit.
The message expires because it reached the TTL (time to live) The message is rejected by another queue exchange.
The message has been read and rejected too many times.Routing these messages to a dead letter queue enables analysis of common fault patterns and potential software problems. If a message consumer receives a message that it considers invalid, it can instead forward it an Invalid Message Channel, allowing a separation between application-level faults and delivery failures.
Queueing systems that incorporate dead letter queues include Amazon EventBridge, Amazon Simple Queue Service, Apache ActiveMQ, Google Cloud Pub/Sub, HornetQ, Microsoft Message Queuing, Microsoft Azure Event Grid and Azure Service Bus, WebSphere MQ, Solace PubSub+, Rabbit MQ, Apache Kafka and Apache Pulsar. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**SCH-23390**
SCH-23390:
SCH-23390 also known as halobenzazepine, is a synthetic compound that acts as a D1 receptor antagonist and has either minimal or negligible effects on the D2 receptor.
SCH-23390:
In a 1990 study in rats SCH-23390 offered significant protection from death in dextroamphetamine overdosage, without providing protection from death by methamphetamine overdose. The compound provided significant protection from cocaine overdose in rats only at the lowest dose tested in the measurement series. This suggested that D-amphetamine and methamphetamine at high (lethal) doses have different mechanisms of toxicity in rats. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Thermal Science**
Thermal Science:
Thermal Science is a peer-reviewed open-access scientific journal orientated to the basic research results in the fields of physics and chemistry. The journal was founded in 1997 year by the former Yugoslav Society of Heat Transfer Engineers (today Society of Thermal Engineers of Serbia) and it is published by Vinča Institute of Nuclear Sciences. The language of journal in English and publishing frequency is five issues per year.
Thermal Science:
The specific goal of this journal is to acquaint international scientists about recent scientific results accomplished in Serbia particularly and the whole Southeast Europe, and as well, to give information to the scientific community from Southeast Europe about recent results from basic research and applied science in developed countries.The editor-in-chief is Vukman Bakić (Vinča Institute of Nuclear Sciences, Serbia) and Editor-In-Chief Emeritus is Prof Simeon Oka (University of Belgrade, Serbia).
Thermal Science:
Since beginning of 2021 year, authors need to pay article processing charges, and they retain unrestricted copyrights and publishing rights.
Abstracting and indexing:
Since 2007 year, the journal is abstracted and indexed in Scopus, and the Science Citation Index Expanded. According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2021 impact factor of 1.971. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Photoperiodism**
Photoperiodism:
Photoperiodism is the physiological reaction of organisms to the length of night or a dark period. It occurs in plants and animals. Plant photoperiodism can also be defined as the developmental responses of plants to the relative lengths of light and dark periods. They are classified under three groups according to the photoperiods: short-day plants, long-day plants, and day-neutral plants.
Plants:
Many flowering plants (angiosperms) use a photoreceptor protein, such as phytochrome or cryptochrome, to sense seasonal changes in night length, or photoperiod, which they take as signals to flower. In a further subdivision, obligate photoperiodic plants absolutely require a long or short enough night before flowering, whereas facultative photoperiodic plants are more likely to flower under one condition.
Plants:
Phytochrome comes in two forms: Pr and Pfr. Red light (which is present during the day) converts phytochrome to its active form (Pfr) which then stimulates various processes such as germination, flowering or branching. In comparison, plants receive more far-red in the shade, and this converts phytochrome from Pfr to its inactive form, Pr, inhibiting germination. This system of Pfr to Pr conversion allows the plant to sense when it is night and when it is day. Pfr can also be converted back to Pr by a process known as dark reversion, where long periods of darkness trigger the conversion of Pfr. This is important in regards to plant flowering. Experiments by Halliday et al. showed that manipulations of the red-to far-red ratio in Arabidopsis can alter flowering. They discovered that plants tend to flower later when exposed to more red light, proving that red light is inhibitory to flowering. Other experiments have proven this by exposing plants to extra red-light in the middle of the night. A short-day plant will not flower if light is turned on for a few minutes in the middle of the night and a long-day plant can flower if exposed to more red-light in the middle of the night.Cryptochromes are another type of photoreceptor that is important in photoperiodism. Cryptochromes absorb blue light and UV-A. Cryptochromes entrain the circadian clock to light. It has been found that both cryptochrome and phytochrome abundance relies on light and the amount of cryptochrome can change depending on day-length. This shows how important both of the photoreceptors are in regards to determining day-length.In 1920, W. W. Garner and H. A. Allard published their discoveries on photoperiodism and felt it was the length of daylight that was critical, but it was later discovered that the length of the night was the controlling factor. Photoperiodic flowering plants are classified as long-day plants or short-day plants even though night is the critical factor because of the initial misunderstanding about daylight being the controlling factor. Along with long-day plants and short-day plants, there are plants that fall into a "dual-day length category". These plants are either long-short-day plants (LSDP) or short-long-day plants (SLDP). LSDPs flower after a series of long days followed by short days whereas SLDPs flower after a series of short days followed by long days. Each plant has a different length critical photoperiod, or critical night length.Modern biologists believe that it is the coincidence of the active forms of phytochrome or cryptochrome, created by light during the daytime, with the rhythms of the circadian clock that allows plants to measure the length of the night. Other than flowering, photoperiodism in plants includes the growth of stems or roots during certain seasons and the loss of leaves. Artificial lighting can be used to induce extra-long days.
Plants:
Long-day plants Long-day plants flower when the night length falls below their critical photoperiod. These plants typically flower during late spring or early summer as days are getting longer. In the northern hemisphere, the longest day of the year (summer solstice) is on or about 21 June. After that date, days grow shorter (i.e. nights grow longer) until 21 December (the winter solstice). This situation is reversed in the southern hemisphere (i.e., longest day is 21 December and shortest day is 21 June).Some long-day obligate plants are: Carnation (Dianthus) Henbane (Hyoscyamus) Oat (Avena)Some long-day facultative plants are: Pea (Pisum sativum) Barley (Hordeum vulgare) Lettuce (Lactuca sativa) Wheat (Triticum aestivum) Short-day plants Short-day plants flower when the night lengths exceed their critical photoperiod. They cannot flower under short nights or if a pulse of artificial light is shone on the plant for several minutes during the night; they require a continuous period of darkness before floral development can begin. Natural nighttime light, such as moonlight or lightning, is not of sufficient brightness or duration to interrupt flowering.In general, short-day (i.e. long-night) plants flower as days grow shorter (and nights grow longer) after 21 June in the northern hemisphere, which is during summer or fall. The length of the dark period required to induce flowering differs among species and varieties of a species.
Plants:
Photoperiodism affects flowering by inducing the shoot to produce floral buds instead of leaves and lateral buds.
Plants:
Some short-day facultative plants are: Kenaf ( Hibiscus cannabinus) Marijuana (Cannabis) Cotton (Gossypium) Rice (Oryza) Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) Green gram (Mung bean, Vigna radiata) Soybeans (Glycine max) Day-neutral plants Day-neutral plants, such as cucumbers, roses, tomatoes, and Ruderalis (autoflowering cannabis) do not initiate flowering based on photoperiodism. Instead, they may initiate flowering after attaining a certain overall developmental stage or age, or in response to alternative environmental stimuli, such as vernalisation (a period of low temperature).
Animals:
Daylength, and thus knowledge of the season of the year, is vital to many animals. A number of biological and behavioural changes are dependent on this knowledge. Together with temperature changes, photoperiod provokes changes in the color of fur and feathers, migration, entry into hibernation, sexual behaviour, and even the resizing of sexual organs.
Animals:
In insects, sensitivity to photoperiod has been proven to be initiated by photoreceptors located in the brain. Photoperiod can affect insects at different life stages, serving as an environmental cue for physiological processes such as diapause induction and termination, and seasonal morphs. In the water strider Aquarius paludum, for instance, photoperiod conditions during nymphal development have been shown to trigger seasonal changes in wing frequency and also induce diapause, although the threshold critical day lengths for the determination of both traits diverged by about an hour. In Gerris buenoi, another water strider species, photoperiod has also been shown to be the cause of wing polyphenism, although the specific daylengths changed between species, suggesting that phenotypic plasticity in response to photoperiod has evolved even between relatively closely related species.
Animals:
The singing frequency of birds such as the canary depends on the photoperiod. In the spring, when the photoperiod increases (more daylight), the male canary's testes grow. As the testes grow, more androgens are secreted and song frequency increases. During autumn, when the photoperiod decreases (less daylight), the male canary's testes regress and androgen levels drop dramatically, resulting in decreased singing frequency. Not only is singing frequency dependent on the photoperiod but the song repertoire is also. The long photoperiod of spring results in a greater song repertoire. Autumn's shorter photoperiod results in a reduction in song repertoire. These behavioral photoperiod changes in male canaries are caused by changes in the song center of the brain. As the photoperiod increases, the high vocal center (HVC) and the robust nucleus of the archistriatum (RA) increase in size. When the photoperiod decreases, these areas of the brain regress.In mammals, daylength is registered in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), which is informed by retinal light-sensitive ganglion cells, which are not involved in vision. The information travels through the retinohypothalamic tract (RHT). Some mammals are highly seasonal, while humans' seasonality is largely believed to be evolutionary baggage. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Rim lock**
Rim lock:
A rim lock is a locking device that attaches to the surface of a door.It is the oldest type of lock used in the United Kingdom and Ireland. It is of a basic design using (usually) a single lever and a sliding bolt. Wards can be used for additional security. They are not used where high security is required. Most older locks were large, some as big as 40 by 25 centimetres (15.7 by 9.8 in).
Rim lock:
Most rimlocks used today on exterior doors in the British Isles are night latches.
Rim lock:
In the United States, rim locks and rim latches are often used on wooden screen doors. A rim lock may also be seen on an antique pantry, pie safe, and other cabinets. Some rim lock and latch sets have a shallower backset than does a modern bored cylindrical lock or mortise lock, allowing their use on doors with narrow rails. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Sethoxydim**
Sethoxydim:
Sethoxydim is a postemergent herbicide for control of grass weeds in a wide variety of horticultural crops.Sethoxydim is sold under brand names including Poast, Torpedo, Ultima, Vantage, Conclude, and Rezult. It is manufactured by BASF, TopPro, and Monterey Lawn and Garden.
Mode of Action:
Sethoxydim is a substituted 1,3-cyclohexanedione DIM herbicide, a type of Acetyl-CoA carboxylase inhibitor (ACCase herbicide), WSSA/HRAC Group 1 (formerly in HRAC A).
Resistant crops:
Maize (corn) resistant to ACCase inhibitors has been produced by selection under sethoxydim application. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Induction cooking**
Induction cooking:
Induction cooking is performed using direct electrical induction heating of cooking vessels, rather than relying on indirect radiation, convection, or thermal conduction. Induction cooking allows high power and very rapid increases in temperature to be achieved: changes in heat settings are instantaneous.Cooking vessels with a suitable base are placed on an induction electric stove (also "induction hob" or "induction cooktop") which generally has a heat-proof glass-ceramic surface above a coil of copper wire with a low radio frequency alternating electric current passing through it. The resulting oscillating magnetic field induces an electrical current in the vessel. This large eddy current flowing through the resistance of a thin layer of metal in the base of the vessel results in resistive heating.
Induction cooking:
For nearly all models of induction cooktops, a cooking vessel must be made of, or contain, a ferrous metal such as cast iron or some stainless steels. The iron in the pot concentrates the current to produce heat in the metal. If the metal is too thin, or does not provide enough resistance to current flow, heating will not be effective. Induction tops typically will not heat copper or aluminum vessels because the electromagnetic field cannot produce a concentrated current, but cast iron, enameled, carbon steel and stainless steel pans usually work. Any vessel can be used if placed on a suitable metal disk which functions as a conventional hotplate.
Induction cooking:
Induction cooking has good electromagnetic coupling between the pan and the coil and is thus quite efficient, which means it puts out less waste heat and it can be quickly turned on and off. Induction has safety advantages compared to gas stoves and outputs no air pollution into the kitchen. Cooktops are also usually easy to clean, because the cooktop itself has a smooth surface and does not get very hot.
Design:
Principles An induction cooker transfers electrical energy by induction from a coil of wire into a metal vessel. The coil is mounted under the cooking surface, and a low radio frequency (typ. ~25-50 kHz) alternating current is passed through it. The current in the coil creates a dynamic electromagnetic field. When a suitable electrically conductive pot is brought close to the cooking surface, the electromagnetic field induces large eddy currents in the pot. The coil has many turns, while the bottom of the pot effectively forms a single shorted turn. This forms a transformer that steps down the voltage and steps up the current. This large current flowing through the base of the pot produces heat through Joule heating; the hot pot then in turn heats its contents by heat conduction.
Design:
For high efficiency there should be as little electrical resistance in the coil and as much as possible in the pan so that most of the heat is developed in the pan.
Design:
At the frequencies typically used in induction cooking, currents flow mostly on the outside of conductors (the skin effect). Reducing the skin effect in the coil reduces its resistance and the heat wasted in the coil. Therefore, the coil is made from litz wire, which is a bundle of many smaller insulated wires woven together in parallel. Litz wire reduces skin effect, and coil resistance, so that the coil stays cool.
Design:
Materials For induction cooking, the base of a suitable vessel is typically made of a steel or iron. These ferromagnetic materials have a high magnetic permeability which greatly decreases the skin depth, concentrating the current in a very thin layer at the surface of the metal bottom of the pan. This makes the electrical resistance in the pan relatively high, efficiently heating the pan. However, for non ferrous metals, such as aluminum, the skin depth in the pans with typical induction cooktops is too large, and thus efficiency with a standard induction cooker is poor: the resistive heating in the coil and pan are similar. This could damage the cooktop, which detects it and rejects the pan.
Design:
The heat that can be produced in a pot is a function of the surface resistance. A higher surface resistance produces more heat for similar currents. This is a “figure of merit” that can be used to rank the suitability of a material for induction heating. The surface resistance in a thick metal conductor is proportional to the resistivity divided by the skin depth. Where the thickness is less than the skin depth, the actual thickness can be used to calculate surface resistance.
Design:
For some materials, the thickness of a cooking pot can be less than the skin depth, increasing efficiency. For example, typical titanium camping cookware has a thickness (typically around 0.5 mm) around 4 times less than its skin depth at 24 kHz, increasing its efficiency by that factor compared to thick titanium. Less practically, a piece of aluminium foil is typically around 35 times thinner than aluminium's skin depth, so will heat efficiently (and melt quickly).
Design:
To get the same surface resistance with copper as with carbon steel would require the metal to be thinner than is practical for a cooking vessel; at 24 kHz a copper vessel bottom would need to be 1/56th the skin depth of carbon steel. Since the skin depth is inversely proportional to the square root of the frequency, this suggests that much higher frequencies would be required to obtain equivalent heating in a copper pot as in an iron pot at 24 kHz. Such high frequencies are not feasible with inexpensive power semiconductors. In 1973 the silicon-controlled rectifiers used were limited to no more than 40 kHz. Even a thin layer of copper on the bottom of a steel cooking vessel will shield the steel from the magnetic field and make it unusable for an induction top. In ferrous materials some additional heat is created by hysteresis losses, but this creates less than ten percent of the total heat generated.New types of power semiconductors and low-loss coil designs have made an all-metal cooker possible which can be used with any metal pot or pan even if not designed for induction. Panasonic in 2009 developed a consumer induction cooker that uses a higher-frequency magnetic field of 60 kHz or higher, and a different oscillator circuit design, to allow use with non-ferrous metals as well, including aluminum, multilayer and copper pots and pans. In 2017 Panasonic released a single-burner counter top "all metal" unit, using their trade name "Met-All", aimed at commercial kitchens.
Cooking properties:
Power and control Induction cooking provides fast heating, improved thermal efficiency, and more consistent heating than cooking by thermal conduction. Generally, the higher the power rating, the faster the cooking time. Induction cooktop power ratings are generally quoted for power delivered to the pan, whereas gas ratings are specified in terms of gas use, but gas is much less efficient. In practice, induction cook zones commonly have heating performance more comparable to a commercial gas burner than domestic burners.
Cooking properties:
Often a thermostat is present to measure the temperature of the pan. This helps prevent the pan from severely overheating if accidentally heated empty or boiled dry, but some models can allow the induction cooker to maintain a target temperature.
Safety The pan is insulated by the cooking surface, and voltages generated in the pan are far too low to represent a shock hazard.
The cooktop can detect whether cookware is present by monitoring power delivered. As with other electric ceramic cooking surfaces, a maximum pan size may be specified by the manufacturer, and a minimum size is also stated.
The control system shuts down the element if a pot is not present or not large enough. If a pan boils dry it can get extremely hot – a thermostat in the surface will turn off the power if it senses overheating to prevent cooker failures and potential fires.
Cooking properties:
Cooker surface Induction cooker tops are generally a low-thermal expansion glass-ceramic. The surface of the cooker is heated only by the pot and so does not usually reach a high temperature. The thermal conductivity of glass ceramics is poor so the heat does not spread far. Induction cookers are easy to clean because the cooking surface is flat and smooth and does not usually get hot enough to make spilled food burn and stick.
Cooking properties:
The surface is brittle and can be damaged by sufficient impact although they must meet specified impact standards. Aluminum foil can melt onto the top and cause permanent damage or cracking of the top. Surfaces can be scratched by sliding pans across the cooking surface.
Cooking properties:
Noise Noise is generated by an internal cooling fan. Also, audible electromagnetically induced acoustic noise (a high-pitched hum or buzz) may be produced, especially at high power, if the cookware has loose parts or if the layers of the pot are not well bonded to each other; cookware with welded-in cladding layers and solid riveting is less likely to produce this type of noise. Some users are more capable of hearing (or more sensitive to) this high-frequency sound.
Cooking properties:
Other considerations Some cooking techniques available when cooking over a flame are not applicable. Persons with implanted cardiac pacemakers or other electronic medical implants are usually instructed to avoid sources of magnetic fields; the medical literature seems to suggest that proximity to induction cooking surfaces is safe, but individuals with such implants should check with their cardiologists. Radio receivers near the induction-cooking unit may pick up some electromagnetic interference.
Cooking properties:
Because the cooktop is shallow compared to a gas-fired or electrical coil cooking surface, wheelchair access can be improved; the user's legs can fit below the counter height while the user's arms reach over the top.
Cooking properties:
Efficiency The 2014 ACEEE Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Buildings concluded that "induction cooking is not always the most efficient method of cooking. When tested with a large cooking vessel, the efficiency of conventional electric technology was measured to be higher (83%) than that of induction cooking (77%). Yet the efficiency of conventional cooking appliances was shown to be highly dependent on the size of the cooking vessel." Cooking methods that use flames or hot heating elements have a significantly higher loss to the ambient environment; induction heating directly heats the pot. Because the induction effect does not directly heat the air around the vessel, induction cooking results in further energy efficiencies. Cooling air is blown through the electronics beneath the surface but it is only slightly warm.
Cooking properties:
The purpose of a cooktop is to prepare food; for example, long periods of simmering may be required. Published energy efficiency measurements concentrate on the ability of a cooktop to transfer energy to a metal test block, which is easier to repeatably measure.
Energy transfer efficiency, as defined by U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), is the percentage of the energy consumed by a cooker that, at the end of a simulated cooking cycle has been transferred as heat to a standardized aluminum test block.
Cooking properties:
The DOE test cycle starts with both the block and the cooktop at 77 °F ± 9 °F (25 °C ± 5 °C). The cooktop is then switched to maximum heating power. When the test block temperature reaches 144 °F (80 °C) above the initial room temperature, the cooktop power is immediately reduced to 25% ± 5% of its maximum power. After 15 minutes of operation at this lower power setting, the cooktop is turned off and the heat energy in the test block is measured. Efficiency is given by the ratio between energy in the block and input (electric) energy.
Cooking properties:
Such a test, using two power levels, is intended to mimic real life use. Wasted energy terms such as residual unused heat (retained by solid hot-plates, ceramic or coil at the end of the test), and losses from convection and radiation by hot surfaces (including the ones of the block itself) are disregarded.
Cooking properties:
In typical cooking, the energy delivered by the cooker is only partly used to heat the food; once that has occurred, all the subsequent energy input is delivered to the air as loss through steam or convection and radiation. Without an increase in food temperature, the DOE test procedure would find the efficiency to be zero. Cooking procedures such as reduction of a sauce, braising meat, simmering, and so on are significant uses of a cooker, but efficiency of these practices is not modelled by the procedure.
Cooking properties:
In 2013 and 2014 DOE developed and proposed new test procedures to allow direct comparison of energy transfer efficiency among induction, electric resistance, and gas cooking tops and ranges. The procedures use a new hybrid test block made of aluminum and stainless steel. The proposed rule lists results of real lab tests conducted with the hybrid block. For comparable (large) cooking elements the following efficiencies were measured with ±0.5% repeatability: 70.7% - 73.6% for induction, 71.9% for electric coil, 43.9% for gas. DOE affirmed that "induction units have an average efficiency of 72.2%, not significantly higher than the 69.9% efficiency of smooth—electric resistance units, or the 71.2% of electric coil units". DOE noted that the 84% induction efficiency, cited in previous Technical Support Documents, was not measured by DOE laboratories, but just "referenced from an external test study" performed in 1992.Independent manufacturers tests and other subjects seem to demonstrate that actual induction cooking efficiencies usually stay between 74% and 77% and occasionally reach 81% (although these tests may follow different procedures). These clues indicate that the 84% induction average efficiency reference value should be taken with caution.
Cooking properties:
For comparison and in agreement with DOE findings, cooking with gas has an average energy efficiency of about 40%. It can be raised only by using special pots with fins.When comparing with gas, the relative cost of electrical and gas energy, and the efficiency of electricity generation affect overall environmental efficiency and user cost.
Cooking properties:
Ventilation Energy lost from gas cooking heats the kitchen, whereas with induction cooking, energy losses are much lower. This results in less heating of the kitchen and reduces the required amount of ventilation. Gas stoves are a significant source of indoor air pollution.Gas cooking efficiencies are lower once waste heat generation is taken into account. Especially in restaurants, gas cooking can significantly increase air temperature in localized areas. Extra cooling and zoned venting may be needed to adequately condition hot areas without overcooling other areas.
Cooking properties:
In a commercial setting, induction cookers do not require safety interlocks between the fuel source and the ventilation, as may be required with gas systems.
Cooking properties:
Applications Induction equipment may be a built-in surface, part of a range, or a standalone surface unit. Built-in and rangetop units typically have multiple elements, the equivalent of multiple burners on a gas-fueled range. Stand-alone induction modules are typically single-or dual-element. All such elements share an electromagnet sealed beneath a heat-resisting glass-ceramic sheet. The pot is placed on the ceramic glass surface and heats its contents.
Cooking properties:
Asian manufacturers have taken the lead in producing inexpensive single-induction-zone surfaces. In Japan, some models of rice cookers are powered by induction. Induction cookers are less frequently used in other parts of the world.
Induction ranges may be applicable in commercial restaurant kitchens, with lower installation, ventilation and fire suppression equipment costs. Drawbacks for commercial use include possible breakages of the glass cook-top, higher initial cost and the requirement for magnetic cookware.
Controls Some units have touch-sensitive controls. Some have a memory setting, one per element, to control the time that heat is applied. At least one manufacturer makes a "zoneless" induction cooking surface with multiple induction coils. This allows up to five pots to be used at once anywhere on the cooking surface, rather than in pre-defined spots.
Cooking properties:
Cookware Cookware must be compatible with induction heating; generally, only ferrous metal can be heated. Cookware should have a flat bottom since the magnetic field strength (heating power) drops rapidly with distance from the surface. (Wok-shaped cooktops are available for use with round-bottom woks.) Induction disks are metal plates that are heated by induction and heat non-ferrous pots by thermal contact, but these are much less efficient than ferrous cooking vessels.
Cooking properties:
Induction-compatible cookware can nearly always be used on other stoves. Some cookware or packaging is marked with symbols to indicate compatibility with induction, gas, or electric heat. Induction cooking surfaces work well with any pans with a high ferrous metal content at the base. Cast iron pans and any black metal or iron pans are compatible. Stainless steel pans are compatible if the base of the pan is a magnetic grade of stainless steel. If a magnet sticks well to the bottom of the pan, it is compatible. Non-ferrous cookware is compatible with "all-metal" cookers.
Cooking properties:
Aluminum and copper are desirable in cookware, since they conduct heat better. Because of this, 'tri-ply' pans often have an induction-compatible skin of stainless steel containing a layer of thermally conductive aluminum.
Cooking properties:
For frying, a pan base must be a good heat conductor to spread heat quickly and evenly. The sole of the pan will be either a steel plate pressed into aluminum, or a layer of stainless steel over the aluminum. Aluminum's high thermal conductivity makes the temperature more uniform across the pan. Stainless frying pans with an aluminum base do not have the same temperature at their sides as an aluminum sided pan. Cast iron frying pans work well with induction cooking surfaces, although the material is not as good a thermal conductor as aluminum.
Cooking properties:
When boiling water, the water circulates, spreading the heat and preventing hot spots. For products such as sauces, it is important that at least the base of the pan incorporates a good heat conducting material to spread the heat evenly. For delicate products such as thick sauces, a pan with aluminum throughout is better, since the heat flows up the sides through the aluminum, evenly heating the sauce.
History:
The first patents were issued in the early 1900s. Demonstration stoves were shown by the Frigidaire division of General Motors in the mid-1950s on a touring showcase. The induction cooker was shown heating a pot of water with a newspaper placed between the stove and the pot, to demonstrate the convenience and safety. This unit was never put into production.
History:
Modern implementations came in the early 1970s, with work done at the Research & Development Center of Westinghouse Electric Corporation. That work was first put on display at the 1971 National Association of Home Builders convention in Houston, Texas, as part of the Westinghouse Consumer Products Division display. The stand-alone single-burner range was named the Cool Top Induction Range. It used parallel Delco Electronics transistors developed for automotive electronic ignition systems to drive the 25 kHz current.
History:
Westinghouse decided to make a few hundred production units to develop the market. Those were named Cool Top 2 (CT2) Induction ranges. The development work was done by a team led by Bill Moreland and Terry Malarkey. The ranges were priced at $1,500 ($8,260 in 2017 dollars), including a set of high quality cookware made of Quadraply, a new laminate of stainless steel, carbon steel, aluminum and another layer of stainless steel (outside to inside). Production began in 1973 and stopped in 1975.
History:
CT2 had four "burners" of about 1,600 watts each. The surface was a Pyroceram ceramic sheet surrounded by a stainless-steel bezel, upon which four magnetic sliders adjusted four corresponding potentiometers below. That design, using no through-holes, made the range impervious to spills. The electronics section was made of four identical modules cooled by a single quiet, low-speed, high-torque fan.
History:
In each of the electronics modules, the 240 V, 60 Hz domestic line power was converted to between 20 V to 200 V of continuously variable DC by a phase-controlled rectifier. That DC power was in turn converted to 27 kHz 30 A (peak) AC by two arrays of six paralleled Motorola automotive-ignition transistors in a half-bridge configuration driving a series-resonant LC oscillator, of which the inductor component was the induction-heating coil and its load, the cooking pan. The circuit design, largely by Ray Mackenzie, successfully dealt with overload problems.
History:
Control electronics included functions such as protection against over-heated cook-pans and overloads. Provision was made to reduce radiated electrical and magnetic fields. Magnetic pan detection was provided.CT2 was UL Listed and received Federal Communications Commission (FCC) approval, both firsts. Numerous patents were issued. CT2 won several awards, including Industrial Research Magazine's IR-100 1972 best-product award and a citation from the United States Steel Association. Raymond Baxter demonstrated the CT2 on the BBC series Tomorrow's World. He showed how the CT2 could cook through a slab of ice.
History:
Sears Kenmore sold a free-standing oven/stove with four induction-cooking surfaces in the mid-1980s (Model Number 103.9647910). The unit also featured a self-cleaning oven, solid-state kitchen timer and capacitive-touch control buttons (advanced for its time). The units were more expensive than standard cooking surfaces.
In 2009 Panasonic developed an all-metal induction cooker that used frequencies up to 120 kHz, three to five times higher than other cooktops, to work with non-ferrous metal cookware.
Vendors The market for induction stoves is dominated by German manufacturers.Single ring portable hobs became popular in the UK, with prices as low as £30.The European induction cooking market for hotels, restaurants and other caterers is primarily satisfied by smaller specialist commercial induction catering equipment manufacturers.
Taiwanese and Japanese electronics companies are the dominant players in induction cooking for East Asia. After aggressive promotions by utilities in HK, many local brands emerged. Their power and ratings are more than 2,800 watts. Some of these companies market in the West.
History:
In the United States, as of early 2013 over five dozen brands offered induction-cooking equipment, including both built-in and countertop residential equipment and commercial-grade equipment. Over two dozen brands offer built-in residential-use units; residential countertop units are offered by two-dozen-plus brands.The National Association of Home Builders in 2012 estimated that, in the United States, induction cooktops represented only 4% of sales, compared to gas and other electric cooktops. The global induction cooktops market was estimated at $9.16 billion in value during 2015.In April 2010, The New York Times reported that "In an independent survey [in 2009] by the market research company Mintel of 2,000 Internet users who own appliances, only 5 percent of respondents said they had an induction range or cooktop. Still, 22 percent of the people Mintel surveyed in connection to their study [in 2009] said their next range or cooktop would be induction." | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**S10 (UPU standard)**
S10 (UPU standard):
The UPU S10 standard defines a system for assigning 13-character identifiers to international postal items for the purpose of tracking and tracing them during shipping.
S10 (UPU standard):
With increased liberalization and the possibility of multiple postal services operating in the same country, the use of country codes to designate the postal service is a problem. To solve this, each country has a designated postal service that controls all S10 identifiers from that country; any competing postal services will have to cooperate with the designated owner. The organization assigned by the UPU member country shall manage the issue and use of S10 identifiers, among all the operators under the authority of that UPU member country, in such a way as to ensure that no S10 identifier is reused within a period of 12 calendar months. A period of 24 calendar months, or longer, is recommended.
Format:
The identifiers consist of a two letter service indicator code, an eight digit serial number (in the range 00000000 to 99999999), a single check-digit, and a two-letter ISO country code—the latter identifying the issuing postal administration's country.
Service indicator codes Service codes are generally assigned and administered within each issuing country, but certain types of service and code ranges are used for all countries as listed here.
Check-digit calculation Ignore the Service Indicator Code and Country Code Assign the weights 8, 6, 4, 2, 3, 5, 9, 7 to the 8 digits, from left to right Calculate S, the sum of each digit multiplied by its weight.
Format:
For example, for the number 47312482, S = 4*8 + 7*6 + 3*4 + 1*2 + 2*3 + 4*5 + 8*9 + 2*7 = 200 Calculate the check digit, C, from C = 11 - (S mod 11) If C = 10, change to C = 0 If C = 11, change to C = 5 For the example 47312482 C = 11 - (200 mod 11) = 11 - 2 = 9.
Format:
Python code for check-digit calculation For Python 3.6 or later: JavaScript code for check-digit calculation Haskell code for check-digit calculation | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Demand-responsive transport**
Demand-responsive transport:
Demand-responsive transport (DRT), also known as demand-responsive transit, demand-responsive service, Dial-a-Ride transit (sometimes DART), flexible transport services, Microtransit or Non-Emergency Medical Transport (NEMT) is a form of shared private or quasi-public transport for groups traveling where vehicles alter their routes each journey based on particular transport demand without using a fixed route or timetabled journeys. These vehicles typically pick-up and drop-off passengers in locations according to passengers needs and can include taxis, buses or other vehicles. Passengers can typically summon the service with a mobile phone app or by telephone; telephone is particularly relevant to older users who may not be conversant with technology.One of the most widespread types of demand-responsive transport (DRT) is to provide a public transport service in areas of low passenger demand where a regular bus service is not considered to be financially viable, such as rural and peri-urban areas. Services may also be provided for particular types of passengers. One example is the paratransit programs for people with a disability. The provision of public transport in this manner emphasises one of its functions as a social service rather than creating a viable movement network.
Definition:
DRT can be used to refer to many different types of transport. When taxicabs were first introduced to many cities, they were hailed as an innovative form of DRT. They are still referred to as DRT in some jurisdictions around the world as their very nature is to take people from point-to-point based on their needs.More recently, DRT generally refers to a type of public transport. They are distinct from fixed-route services as they do not always operate to a specific timetable or route. While specific operations vary widely, generally a particular area is designated for service by DRT. Once a certain number of people have requested a trip, the most efficient route will then be calculated depending on the origins and destinations of passengers.
Definition:
Share taxis are another form of DRT. They are usually operated on an ad hoc basis but also do not have fixed routes or times and change their route and frequency depending on demand.Some DRT systems operate as a service that can deviate from a fixed route. These operate along a fixed alignment or path at specific times but may deviate to collect or drop off passengers who have requested the deviation.
Comparison of demand-responsiveness by type:
Fully flexible route, fully flexible schedule, no booking – car, bike, foot Shared vehicle Fully flexible route, fully flexible schedule, booking – taxi Fully flexible route, fully flexible schedule, no booking – hackney carriage taxi Shared journey highly flexible route, highly flexible schedule, mobile booking – microtransit some degree of flexible route or schedule, no booking – share taxi/taxibus some degree of flexible route or schedule, booking – paratransit fixed route and fixed schedule, no booking – public transport
Operation:
DRT services are restricted to a defined operating zone, within which journeys must start and finish. Journeys may be completely free form, or following skeleton routes and schedules, varied as required, with users given a specified pick-up point and a time window for collection. Some DRT systems may have defined termini, at one or both ends of a route, such as an urban centre, airport or transport interchange, for onward connections.
Operation:
DRT systems require passengers to request a journey in advance. They may do this by booking with a central dispatcher who determines the journey options available given the user's location and destination. Increasingly, the booking is via an app, which provides the interface to software that creates a schedule in real time; adjusting the schedule to accept (or reject) bookings as they come in. This provides an instant decision for the potential user, but at the cost of efficiency: each individual travel need is considered individually, potentially resulting in higher levels of idle time (when the schedule has gaps that are too short to allow an additional journey to be added) and "dead mileage" (driving empty between one drop-off and the next pickup) than might be expected from a schedule built by an experienced human operator.
Operation:
DRT systems take advantage of fleet telematics technology in the form of vehicle location systems, scheduling and dispatching software and hand-held/in vehicle computing.Vehicles used for DRT services are typically small minibuses sufficient for low ridership, which allow the service to provide as near a door-to-door service as practical by using narrower residential streets. In some cases taxicabs are hired by the DRT provider to serve their routes on request.
Operation:
DRT schemes may be fully or partially funded by the local transit authority, with operators selected by public tendering or other methods. Other schemes may be partially or fully self-funded as community centred not for profit social enterprises (such as a community interest company in the UK). They may also be provided by private companies for commercial reasons; some conventional bus operating companies have set up DRT-style airport bus services, which compete with larger private hire airport shuttle companies.
Health and environmental effects:
DRT can potentially reduce the number of vehicles on the road, and hence pollution and congestion, if many people are persuaded to use it instead of private cars or taxis.For a model of a hypothetical large-scale demand-responsive public transport system for the Helsinki metropolitan area, simulation results published in 2005 demonstrated that "in an urban area with one million inhabitants, trip aggregation could reduce the health, environmental, and other detrimental impacts of car traffic typically by 50–70%, and if implemented could attract about half of the car passengers, and within a broad operational range would require no public subsidies".
Licensing:
DRT schemes may require new or amended legislation, or special dispensation, to operate, as they do not meet the traditional licensing model of authorised bus transport providers or licensed taxicab operators. The status has caused controversy between bus and taxi operators when the DRT service picks up passengers without pre-booking, due to the licensing issues. Issues may also arise surrounding tax and fuel subsidy for DRT services.
Effectiveness:
Ridership on DRT services is usually quite low (less than ten passengers per hour), but DRT can provide coverage effectively.Analysis of the Yorbus DRT scheme in a rural area of the UK showed very little combination of individual travel needs. Of the 35% of operating hours when the vehicles were carrying passengers, there was just one passenger (or a couple travelling together) for 74% of the time, and two passengers (or couples travelling together) for a further 20% of the time. The 15-seat minibuses could have been replaced by small taxis without capacity problems for 97% of the operating hours.
List of current DRT systems by country:
Since the mid-2010s several DRT projects started up but failed.
List of current DRT systems by country:
In the US several DRT operators appeared and promptly failed, due to either lack of customers or health and safety issues. 2019 trials in London found that "satisfaction was really high"; users scored the service at 4.8/5 and praised ease of use, safety, cleanliness and accessibility. But low take-up, misunderstandings about who the service was for, and safety concerns about unlit stops—together with problems due to the covid pandemic from 2020—caused the trials to fail.Lukas Foljanty, a shared-mobility enthusiast and market expert, keeps track of the different DRT schemes around the world and thinks a tipping point may have been reached in 2022. There were at least 450 schemes around the world, and in 2021 fifty-four new projects started within a three-month period.David Carnero of Europe-wide DRT technology company Padam said that successful DRT requires subsidies, must be delivered at scale, and must be part of an integrated, rather than competitive, transport policy.
List of current DRT systems by country:
Australia CoastConnect, first-mile / last-mile demand-responsive transport service in Woy Woy, New South Wales, operated by Community Transport Central Coast Limited and Liftango Kan-go, demand-responsive transport service in Hervey Bay, Queensland and Toowoomba, Queensland SmartLink, demand-responsive transport service in Blue Mountains.
Skybus hotel transfer service in Melbourne, Victoria.
Telebus in Melbourne, Victoria providing demand-responsive bus services to some outer suburbs of the metropolitan area since the 1970s.
List of current DRT systems by country:
Flexiride in Melbourne, Victoria replaced Telebus services in 2021 Austria RufbusLinie 326 Leopoldschlag – Summerau – Freistadt W3 Shuttle Belgium Belbus — has been working since 1991 in the Flemish Region Canada Belleville, Ontario – BT Let's Go, operated by Belleville Transit, replaces fixed route night bus services with an on-demand transit service. This provides stop-to-stop scheduled pick-ups and drop-offs requested by riders through a web-based application. Buses are dynamically routed to riders in real-time by an autonomous algorithm.
List of current DRT systems by country:
Cobourg, Ontario – operated by Cobourg Transit, it plans to be a complete replacement of fixed route bus transit service, and will require residents to book a stop in advance. It is undergoing a pilot right now, and is scheduled to be fully implemented with the town's WHEELS transit service and replace fixed route transit on June 14, 2021.
Edmonton, Alberta – Edmonton Transit Service offers On Demand Transit in designated areas not served by scheduled routes.
Guelph, Ontario – Works in addition to fixed route service.
Niagara Falls, Ontario – TransCab Service, operated by Niagara Falls Transit, provides service to the Montrose Junction section of the city during the daytime and early evening.
Toronto, Ontario — Wheel-Trans Winnipeg, Manitoba – WT On-Request, operated by Winnipeg Transit, replaces regular fixed transit route service in three neighbourhoods during low-use hours and provides door-to-door transit service in one inner-city neighbourhood during daytime hours.
Czech Republic Radiobus – has operated across the country since 2004. Since 2011, it has been part of the general public transport system to supplement the existing system during times of low demand. It uses fixed timetables, but vehicles only operate when called by passenger.
DHD – has operated since 2003. Its primary purpose was for collecting workers from sparsely-populated rural areas. DHD provides bookings and administrative support; however, the buses themselves are operated by several local transport companies.
List of current DRT systems by country:
Denmark Fynbus — provides door-to-door DRT service on the island of Funen Finland Akaa – Akaakyyti Inkoo – Inkyyti Jakobstad – Vippari Porvoo – Kyläkyyti Riihimäki – R-kyyti Germany Berlin – Allygator Shuttle, Clevershuttle, BerlKönig Braunschweig, Lower Saxony – Anruflinien-Taxi (ALT) and Anruflinien-Bus (ALB) Cologne – AnrufLinienFahrt (ALF), an on-demand minibus service that operates in predominantly rural areas of the city.
List of current DRT systems by country:
Dresden – Anruf-Linien-Bus Verkehrsgesellschaft Meißen Duisburg – myBUS Elbe-Elster – Anruf-Linienbus, a DRT bus service operated by the regional public transport authority in Herzberg, Sonnewalde, Umland and Finsterwalde Freyung, Bavaria – FreyFahrt Hamburg – MOIA (Volkswagen AG#Mobilitätsdienstleistungen) Munich – IsarTiger Rostock – REBUS = Regional Bus Rostock Districts of Tirschenreuth, Neustadt an der Waldnaab and Schwandorf – Baxi, a mix between taxis and buses taking passengers from stops to any destination within the districts.
List of current DRT systems by country:
Hong Kong Red minibuses which serve non-franchised routes across the country, depending on routes, allow passengers to reserve their seats by phone such that operators and drivers are able to know where passengers are and how many there are in deploying their vehicles.
Iceland Public transport authority in the Icelandic capital of Reykjavik and the surrounding municipalities. Manages public bus transport and disabled transport, but does not have its own vehicles. About 1,300 enquiries and thousand trips a day. Uses 60 vehicles and 10–20 more for school transport for children with special needs.
List of current DRT systems by country:
Ireland A network of over 1,000 demand responsive transport routes are provided across rural Ireland under the TFI Local Link brand. Many of these routes are once a week services which operate a door-to-door pickup from a rural area into a nearby large town, where people can access shopping and other services, followed by a return service a few hours later with a door-to-door drop off back to the same rural area. Other routes include daily return services to/from colleges or employment centres, weekend evening services to/from a night-time activity centre, weekly services to attend Mass, feeder services to connect with scheduled bus and train services, and services on off-shore islands to connect with ferry departures and arrivals.Services are managed by 15 regional TFI Local Link offices across the country on behalf of the National Transport Authority (NTA), and usually require prebooking by phoning the relevant office in advance. As of June 2023, there are no real-time app-based demand responsive transport services operating in Ireland, but in April 2023 the NTA informed suppliers that they intended "to procure a trial of and, if successful a roll out of, Smart Demand Responsive Transport services (SDRT), using app based products to secure services and routing algorithms to match vehicles with capacity to users".
List of current DRT systems by country:
Italy Following some pioneering DRT schemes implemented in the 1980s, a second wave of systems were launched from the mid-1990s. There are now DRT schemes in urban and peri-urban areas as well as in rural communities. Operated by both public transport companies and private service providers, the DRT schemes are offered either as intermediate collective transport services for generic users or as schemes for specific user groups. DRT schemes operate in major cities including Rome, Milan, Genoa, Florence, and in several mid- to small-size towns including Alessandria, Aosta, Cremona, Livorno, Mantova, Parma, Empoli, Siena, and Sarzana.
List of current DRT systems by country:
AllôBus and AllôNuit, demand-responsive transport service in Aosta/Aoste DrinBus, demand-responsive transport service in Genoa PersonalBus, demand-responsive transport service in Florence ProntoBus, demand-responsive transport service in Livorno and Sarzana EccoBus, demand-responsive transport service in Alessandria StradiBus, demand-responsive transport service in Cremona Radiobus, demand-responsive transport service in Milan Japan More than 200 of the 1,700 local governments in Japan have introduced DRT public transport services.
List of current DRT systems by country:
Luxembourg Flexibus – several Flexibus services operate in different parts of the country. The system operates on the basis of passengers calling a central point from which optimal routes for the vehicles are calculated.
Kussbus – private door-to-door bus service primarily for commuter purposes.
New Zealand MyWay in Timaru, a replacement of the usual bus service with demand-responsive transport service.
Poland The first ever demand-responsive transport scheme in Poland – called Tele-Bus – has been operated since 2007 in Krakow by MPK, the local public transport company (see also Tramways in Krakow).
List of current DRT systems by country:
Russia "Po puti", or "On the Way", is the first-ever demand-responsive transport scheme in Russia. Launched on October 1, 2021 and operated by Mosgortrans, it serves two zones in NAO and TAO, Moscow (both often referred to as "ТиНАО" in Russian). Zone 1 includes Filimonkovskoye, Sosenskoye, Desyonovskoye and Voskresenskoye Settlements with the Prokshino metro station. Zone 2a, introduced on November 1, 2021, includes Ryazanovskoye Settlement with the Silikatnaya railway station, Line D2. Starting from December 24, 2021, the Shcherbinka railway station, also D2, was added to zone 2a, whereas zone 1 was expanded by adding more blocks of Filimonkovskoye Settlement and southern areas of Desyonovskoye Settlement. Further enlargement is announced.
List of current DRT systems by country:
Sweden Regional transport authority in Västra Götaland in southwestern Sweden is responsible for all public transport and for transport offers to citizens with special needs. This is an example of DRT used for people with special needs (paratransit).
Switzerland DRT services have operated in some sparsely populated areas (under 100 p/km2) since 1995. PostBus Switzerland Ltd, the national post company, has operated a DRT service called PubliCar, formerly also Casa Car.
List of current DRT systems by country:
United Kingdom Some DRT schemes were operating under the UK bus-operating regulations of 1986, allowed by having core start and finish points and a published schedule. Regulations concerning bus service registration and application of bus-operating grants for England and Wales were amended in 2004 to allow registration of fully flexible pre-booked DRT services. Some services, such as LinkUp, only pick up passengers at 'meeting points', but can set down at the passenger's destination.
List of current DRT systems by country:
The Greenwich Association of the Disabled had earlier developed a prototype service, GAD-About, which offered pre-booked door-to-door transport for its members, inspired by similar minibus usage in church and youth clubs. That was then cloned as an easily scalable module, under the aegis of London Transport, to become the Dial-a-Ride service launched as part the general services of Transport for London (TfL), rather than as a bus service.
List of current DRT systems by country:
Examples of UK schemes include: WESTlink, a service in Bristol, Bath, South Gloucestershire and Somerset operated by the West of England Combined Authority [1] ArrivaClick (Kent, Watford and Speke) Connect2Wiltshire (Wiltshire) Fflecsi, (Wales), DRT services implemented during the COVID-19 pandemic with app provided by ViaVan, and co-ordinated by Transport for Wales.
CallConnect (Lincolnshire) LinkUp (Tyne & Wear) (Closed 2011) London Dial-a-Ride Nippy Bus (Somerset) United States The large majority of 1,500 rural systems in the US provide demand-response service; there are also about 400 urban DRT systems.
List of current DRT systems by country:
California Demand-Responsive Van Service, Demand-Response Shuttle, Don Edwards San Francisco Bay National Wildlife Refuge Demand-Responsive Transit, Redwood National and State Parks Colorado Call-n-Ride service, Regional Transportation District, Denver Florida Flex Service, Votran, New Smyrna Beach NeighborLink, Lynx, Central Florida SNAP, UF Transportation and Parking Services, Gainesville Illinois Call-n-Ride, Pace Bus, Chicago metropolitan area Safe Rides, Champaign-Urbana Mass Transit District, Champaign-Urbana metropolitan area (evening and overnight service only) Maryland Ride On Flex, Ride On, Montgomery County New York Access-A-Ride, Metropolitan Transportation Authority, New York City Bee-Line Paratransit, Bee-Line Bus System, Westchester County North Carolina Dial-A-Ride, GWTA, Goldsboro Flex Service, Greenway Transit, Taylorsville & Burke County. Hybrid of fixed & on-demand.
List of current DRT systems by country:
Night Shuttle, Tar River Transit, Rocky Mount Qualla Community Resident Transportation, Cherokee Transit, Jackson County. Hybrid of fixed & on-demand.
Rural General Public Service, MTS, Charlotte metropolitan area Trailblazer Routes, BCMM, Asheville metropolitan area. Hybrid of fixed & on-demand.
Pennsylvania Flex Connect, Ponono Pony, Monroe County. Only designated stops.
List of current DRT systems by country:
South Carolina Tel-A-Ride, CARTA, Charleston Tennessee Ready!, MATA, Memphis Groove, Memphis Texas GoLink, DART, Dallas area Utah UTA On Demand, UTA, Salt Lake County, Davis County, and Tooele County Virginia Care and Care Plus, GRTC, Greater Richmond Region Washington State Zone Service and Flex Service, Whatcom Transportation Authority, Whatcom County Dial-a-Ride Transit, Community Transit, Snohomish County Metro Access, King County Metro, King County Finley Service, Ben Franklin Transit, Tri-Cities, Washington Washington, DC MetroAccess, WMATA, Washington, DC | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Terbutaline**
Terbutaline:
Terbutaline, sold under the brand names Bricanyl and Marex among others, is a β2 adrenergic receptor agonist, used as a "reliever" inhaler in the management of asthma symptoms and as a tocolytic (anti-contraction medication) to delay preterm labor for up to 48 hours. This time can then be used to administer steroid injections to the mother which help fetal lung maturity and reduce complications of prematurity. It should not be used to prevent preterm labor or delay labor more than 48–72 hours. In February 2011, the Food and Drug Administration began requiring a black box warning on the drug's label. Pregnant women should not be given injections of the drug terbutaline for the prevention of preterm labor or for long-term (beyond 48–72 hours) management of preterm labor, and should not be given oral terbutaline for any type of prevention or treatment of preterm labor "due to the potential for serious maternal heart problems and death."It was patented in 1966 and came into medical use in 1970. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.
Medical uses:
Terbutaline is used as a fast-acting bronchodilator (often used as a short-term asthma treatment) and as a tocolytic to delay premature labor.
As an asthma treatment, the inhaled form of terbutaline, starts working within 15 minutes and can last up to 6 hours. It is also sold as an injectable solution, an oral tablet, and as a syrup (in combination with guaifenesin).
Medical uses:
Terbutaline is a pregnancy category C medication and is prescribed to stop contractions. After successful intravenous tocolysis, little evidence exists that oral terbutaline is effective. Terbutaline as a treatment for premature labor is an off-label use not approved by the US FDA, who have warned that oral terbutaline is not effective and can cause severe heart problems or death, and while injectable terbutaline can be used for premature labor in emergency situations in a hospital setting, it should only be used for short periods of time.
Side effects:
Adult — tachycardia, anxiety, nervousness, tremors, headache, hyperglycemia, hypokalemia, hypotension and, rarely, pulmonary edema.
Fetal — tachycardia and hypoglycemia.
Pharmacology:
The tertiary butyl group in terbutaline makes it more selective for β2 receptors. Since there is no hydroxy group on position 4 of the benzene ring, the molecule is less susceptible to metabolism by the enzyme catechol-O-methyl transferase.
Chemistry:
Terbutaline is synthesized by brominating 3,5-dibenzyloxyacetophenone into 3,5-dibenzyloxybromoacetophenone, which is reacted with N-benzyl-N-tert-butylamine, giving a ketone intermediate. Reduction of this product with H₂ over Pd/C leads to terbutaline.
Stereochemistry Terbutaline contains a stereocenter and consists of two enantiomers. This is a racemate, ie a 1: 1 mixture of (R) - and the (S) - form:
Society and culture:
Athletics As with all β2-adrenergic receptor agonists, terbutaline is on the World Anti-Doping Agency's list of prohibited drugs, except when administered by inhalation and a Therapeutic Use Exemption (TUE) has been obtained in advance.
Brand names Brand names include Bronclyn, Brethine, Bricanyl, Brethaire, Marex, and Terbulin. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Hough transform**
Hough transform:
The Hough transform is a feature extraction technique used in image analysis, computer vision, and digital image processing. The purpose of the technique is to find imperfect instances of objects within a certain class of shapes by a voting procedure. This voting procedure is carried out in a parameter space, from which object candidates are obtained as local maxima in a so-called accumulator space that is explicitly constructed by the algorithm for computing the Hough transform.
Hough transform:
The classical Hough transform was concerned with the identification of lines in the image, but later the Hough transform has been extended to identifying positions of arbitrary shapes, most commonly circles or ellipses. The Hough transform as it is universally used today was invented by Richard Duda and Peter Hart in 1972, who called it a "generalized Hough transform" after the related 1962 patent of Paul Hough. The transform was popularized in the computer vision community by Dana H. Ballard through a 1981 journal article titled "Generalizing the Hough transform to detect arbitrary shapes".
History:
It was initially invented for machine analysis of bubble chamber photographs (Hough, 1959).
The Hough transform was patented as U.S. Patent 3,069,654 in 1962 and assigned to the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission with the name "Method and Means for Recognizing Complex Patterns". This patent uses a slope-intercept parametrization for straight lines, which awkwardly leads to an unbounded transform space since the slope can go to infinity.
The rho-theta parametrization universally used today was first described in Duda, R.O.; Hart, P. E. (January 1972). "Use of the Hough Transformation to Detect Lines and Curves in Pictures". Comm. ACM. 15: 11–15. doi:10.1145/361237.361242. S2CID 1105637.although it was already standard for the Radon transform since at least the 1930s.
History:
O'Gorman and Clowes' variation is described in O'Gorman, Frank; Clowes, MB (1976). "Finding Picture Edges Through Collinearity of Feature Points". IEEE Trans. Comput. 25 (4): 449–456. doi:10.1109/TC.1976.1674627. S2CID 10851078.The story of how the modern form of the Hough transform was invented is given in Hart, P. E. (November 2009). "How the Hough Transform was Invented" (PDF). IEEE Signal Processing Magazine. 26 (6): 18–22. doi:10.1109/msp.2009.934181. S2CID 16245096. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-05-16.
Theory:
In automated analysis of digital images, a subproblem often arises of detecting simple shapes, such as straight lines, circles or ellipses. In many cases an edge detector can be used as a pre-processing stage to obtain image points or image pixels that are on the desired curve in the image space. Due to imperfections in either the image data or the edge detector, however, there may be missing points or pixels on the desired curves as well as spatial deviations between the ideal line/circle/ellipse and the noisy edge points as they are obtained from the edge detector. For these reasons, it is often non-trivial to group the extracted edge features to an appropriate set of lines, circles or ellipses. The purpose of the Hough transform is to address this problem by making it possible to perform groupings of edge points into object candidates by performing an explicit voting procedure over a set of parameterized image objects (Shapiro and Stockman, 304).
Theory:
Detecting lines The simplest case of Hough transform is detecting straight lines. In general, the straight line y = mx + b can be represented as a point (b, m) in the parameter space. However, vertical lines pose a problem. They would give rise to unbounded values of the slope parameter m. Thus, for computational reasons, Duda and Hart proposed the use of the Hesse normal form cos sin θ, where r is the distance from the origin to the closest point on the straight line, and θ is the angle between the x axis and the line connecting the origin with that closest point.
Theory:
The intuition for this form, similarly to the plane equation, is that every vector on the line must be perpendicular (orthogonal) to the straight line of length r that comes from the origin. It is can be seen that the intersection point of the function line and the perpendicular line that comes from the origin is at cos sin θ) . So, for any point P on the line, the vector P−P0 must be orthogonal to the vector P0−0=P0 . Therefore, we get that for any point P=(x,y) on the function line, the equation (P−P0)⋅P0=0 must be satisfied. Therefore, P⋅P0=P0⋅P0 . Since P=(x,y) and cos sin θ) , we get cos sin cos sin 2θ) . Since cos sin 2θ=1 , we get the final form of cos sin θ=r It is therefore possible to associate with each line of the image a pair (r,θ) . The (r,θ) plane is sometimes referred to as Hough space for the set of straight lines in two dimensions. This representation makes the Hough transform conceptually very close to the two-dimensional Radon transform. In fact, the Hough transform is mathematically equivalent to the Radon transform, but the two transformations have different computational interpretations traditionally associated with them.Given a single point in the plane, the set of all straight lines going through that point corresponds to a sinusoidal curve in the (r, θ) plane, which is unique to that point. A set of two or more points that form a straight line will produce sinusoids crossing at the (r, θ) for that line. Thus, the problem of detecting collinear points can be converted to the problem of finding concurrent curves.
Theory:
Probabilistic interpretation Given a shape parametrized by (a1,...,at) , taking values in the set S called the shape space, one can interpret the Hough transform as the inverse transform of a probability distribution on the image space to the shape space S , and interpret shape detection as maximum likelihood estimation.
Theory:
Explicitly, the Hough transform performs an approximate naive Bayes inference. We start with a uniform prior on the shape space. We consider only the positive evidence, and ignore all negative evidence, so that we can detect partially occluded shapes. We add up the log-likelihood in the shape space up to an additive constant. The assumption of naive Bayes means that all pixels in the image space provide independent evidence, so that their likelihoods multiply, that is, their log-likelihoods add. The freedom in additive constant allows us to perform no operation on the "background pixels" in shape space.
Theory:
Finally, we perform maximum likelihood estimation by picking out the peaks in the log-likelihood on the shape space.
Implementation:
The linear Hough transform algorithm estimates the two parameters that define a straight line. The transform space has two dimensions, and every point in the transform space is used as an accumulator to detect or identify a line described by cos sin θ . Every point in the detected edges in the image contributes to the accumulators.
Implementation:
The dimension of the accumulator equals the number of unknown parameters, i.e., two, considering quantized values of r and θ in the pair (r,θ) . For each pixel at (x,y) and its neighborhood, the Hough transform algorithm determines whether there is enough evidence of a straight line at that pixel. If so, it will calculate the parameters (r,θ) of that line, then look for the accumulator's bin that the parameters fall into, and increment the value of that bin.
Implementation:
By finding the bins with the highest values, typically by looking for local maxima in the accumulator space, the most likely lines can be extracted, and their (approximate) geometric definitions read off (Shapiro and Stockman, 304). The simplest way of finding these peaks is by applying some form of threshold, but other techniques may yield better results in different circumstances – determining which lines are found, as well as how many. Since the lines returned do not contain any length information, it is often necessary, in the next step, to find which parts of the image match up with which lines. Moreover, due to imperfection errors in the edge-detection step, there will usually be errors in the accumulator space, which may make it non-trivial to find the appropriate peaks, and thus the appropriate lines.
Implementation:
The final result of the linear Hough transform is a two-dimensional array (matrix) similar to the accumulator—one dimension of this matrix is the quantized angle θ , and the other dimension is the quantized distance r . Each element of the matrix has a value equal to the sum of the points or pixels that are positioned on the line represented by quantized parameters (r,θ) . So the element with the highest value indicates the straight line that is most represented in the input image.
Examples:
Example 1 Consider three data points, shown here as black dots.
For each data point, a number of lines are plotted going through it, all at different angles. These are shown here in different colours.
The Hough transform accumulates contributions from all pixels in the detected edge. To each line, a support line exists which is perpendicular to it and which intersects the origin. In each case, one of these is shown as an arrow.
The length (i.e. perpendicular distance to the origin) and angle of each support line is calculated. Lengths and angles are tabulated below the diagrams.From the calculations, it can be seen that in either case the support line at 60° has a similar length.
Hence, it is understood that the corresponding lines (the blue ones in the above picture) are very similar.
One can thus assume that all points lie close to the blue line.
Example 2 The following is a different example showing the results of a Hough transform on a raster image containing two thick lines.
Examples:
The results of this transform were stored in a matrix. Cell value represents the number of curves through any point. Higher cell values are rendered brighter. The two distinctly bright spots are the Hough parameters of the two lines. From these spots' positions, angle and distance from image center of the two lines in the input image can be determined.
Variations and extensions:
Using the gradient direction to reduce the number of votes An improvement suggested by O'Gorman and Clowes can be used to detect lines if one takes into account that the local gradient of the image intensity will necessarily be orthogonal to the edge. Since edge detection generally involves computing the intensity gradient magnitude, the gradient direction is often found as a side effect. If a given point of coordinates (x,y) happens to indeed be on a line, then the local direction of the gradient gives the θ parameter corresponding to said line, and the r parameter is then immediately obtained. (Shapiro and Stockman, 305) The gradient direction can be estimated to within 20°, which shortens the sinusoid trace from the full 180° to roughly 45°. This reduces the computation time and has the interesting effect of reducing the number of useless votes, thus enhancing the visibility of the spikes corresponding to real lines in the image.
Variations and extensions:
Kernel-based Hough transform (KHT) Fernandes and Oliveira suggested an improved voting scheme for the Hough transform that allows a software implementation to achieve real-time performance even on relatively large images (e.g., 1280×960). The Kernel-based Hough transform uses the same (r,θ) parameterization proposed by Duda and Hart but operates on clusters of approximately collinear pixels. For each cluster, votes are cast using an oriented elliptical-Gaussian kernel that models the uncertainty associated with the best-fitting line with respect to the corresponding cluster. The approach not only significantly improves the performance of the voting scheme, but also produces a much cleaner accumulator and makes the transform more robust to the detection of spurious lines.
Variations and extensions:
3-D kernel-based Hough transform for plane detection (3DKHT) Limberger and Oliveira suggested a deterministic technique for plane detection in unorganized point clouds whose cost is log (n) in the number of samples, achieving real-time performance for relatively large datasets (up to 10 5 points on a 3.4 GHz CPU). It is based on a fast Hough-transform voting strategy for planar regions, inspired by the Kernel-based Hough transform (KHT). This 3D kernel-based Hough transform (3DKHT) uses a fast and robust algorithm to segment clusters of approximately co-planar samples, and casts votes for individual clusters (instead of for individual samples) on a ( θ,ϕ,ρ ) spherical accumulator using a trivariate Gaussian kernel. The approach is several orders of magnitude faster than existing (non-deterministic) techniques for plane detection in point clouds, such as RHT and RANSAC, and scales better with the size of the datasets. It can be used with any application that requires fast detection of planar features on large datasets.
Variations and extensions:
Hough transform of curves, and its generalization for analytical and non-analytical shapes Although the version of the transform described above applies only to finding straight lines, a similar transform can be used for finding any shape which can be represented by a set of parameters. A circle, for instance, can be transformed into a set of three parameters, representing its center and radius, so that the Hough space becomes three dimensional. Arbitrary ellipses and curves can also be found this way, as can any shape easily expressed as a set of parameters.
Variations and extensions:
The generalization of the Hough transform for detecting analytical shapes in spaces having any dimensionality was proposed by Fernandes and Oliveira. In contrast to other Hough transform-based approaches for analytical shapes, Fernandes' technique does not depend on the shape one wants to detect nor on the input data type. The detection can be driven to a type of analytical shape by changing the assumed model of geometry where data have been encoded (e.g., euclidean space, projective space, conformal geometry, and so on), while the proposed formulation remains unchanged. Also, it guarantees that the intended shapes are represented with the smallest possible number of parameters, and it allows the concurrent detection of different kinds of shapes that best fit an input set of entries with different dimensionalities and different geometric definitions (e.g., the concurrent detection of planes and spheres that best fit a set of points, straight lines and circles).
Variations and extensions:
For more complicated shapes in the plane (i.e., shapes that cannot be represented analytically in some 2D space), the Generalised Hough transform is used, which allows a feature to vote for a particular position, orientation and/or scaling of the shape using a predefined look-up table.The Hough transform accumulates contributions from all pixels in the detected edge.
Circle detection process Altering the algorithm to detect circular shapes instead of lines is relatively straightforward.
First, we create the accumulator space, which is made up of a cell for each pixel. Initially each cell is set to 0.
For each edge point (i, j) in the image, increment all cells which according to the equation of a circle (i−a)2+(j−b)2=r2 could be the center of a circle. These cells are represented by the letter a in the equation.
For each possible value of a found in the previous step, find all possible values of b which satisfy the equation.
Search for local maxima in the accumulator space. These cells represent circles that were detected by the algorithm.If we do not know the radius of the circle we are trying to locate beforehand, we can use a three-dimensional accumulator space to search for circles with an arbitrary radius. Naturally, this is more computationally expensive.
This method can also detect circles that are partially outside of the accumulator space, as long as enough of the circle's area is still present within it.
Variations and extensions:
Detection of 3D objects (planes and cylinders) Hough transform can also be used for the detection of 3D objects in range data or 3D point clouds. The extension of classical Hough transform for plane detection is quite straightforward. A plane is represented by its explicit equation z=axx+ayy+d for which we can use a 3D Hough space corresponding to ax , ay and d . This extension suffers from the same problems as its 2D counterpart i.e., near horizontal planes can be reliably detected, while the performance deteriorates as planar direction becomes vertical (big values of ax and ay amplify the noise in the data). This formulation of the plane has been used for the detection of planes in the point clouds acquired from airborne laser scanning and works very well because in that domain all planes are nearly horizontal.
Variations and extensions:
For generalized plane detection using Hough transform, the plane can be parametrized by its normal vector n (using spherical coordinates) and its distance from the origin ρ resulting in a three dimensional Hough space. This results in each point in the input data voting for a sinusoidal surface in the Hough space. The intersection of these sinusoidal surfaces indicates presence of a plane. A more general approach for more than 3 dimensions requires search heuristics to remain feasible.Hough transform has also been used to find cylindrical objects in point clouds using a two step approach. The first step finds the orientation of the cylinder and the second step finds the position and radius.
Variations and extensions:
Using weighted features One common variation detail. That is, finding the bins with the highest count in one stage can be used to constrain the range of values searched in the next.
Variations and extensions:
Carefully chosen parameter space A high-dimensional parameter space for the Hough transform is not only slow, but if implemented without forethought can easily overrun the available memory. Even if the programming environment allows the allocation of an array larger than the available memory space through virtual memory, the number of page swaps required for this will be very demanding because the accumulator array is used in a randomly accessed fashion, rarely stopping in contiguous memory as it skips from index to index.
Variations and extensions:
Consider the task of finding ellipses in an 800x600 image. Assuming that the radii of the ellipses are oriented along principal axes, the parameter space is four-dimensional. (x, y) defines the center of the ellipse, and a and b denote the two radii. Allowing the center to be anywhere in the image, adds the constraint 0<x<800 and 0<y<600. If the radii are given the same values as constraints, what is left is a sparsely filled accumulator array of more than 230 billion values.
Variations and extensions:
A program thus conceived is unlikely to be allowed to allocate sufficient memory. This doesn't mean that the problem can't be solved, but only that new ways to constrain the size of the accumulator array are to be found, which makes it feasible. For instance: If it is reasonable to assume that the ellipses are each contained entirely within the image, the range of the radii can be reduced. The largest the radii can be is if the center of the ellipse is in the center of the image, allowing the edges of the ellipse to stretch to the edges. In this extreme case, the radii can only each be half the magnitude of the image size oriented in the same direction. Reducing the range of a and b in this fashion reduces the accumulator array to 57 billion values.
Variations and extensions:
Trade accuracy for space in the estimation of the center: If the center is predicted to be off by 3 on both the x and y axis this reduces the size of the accumulator array to about 6 billion values.
Trade accuracy for space in the estimation of the radii: If the radii are estimated to each be off by 5 further reduction of the size of the accumulator array occurs, by about 256 million values.
Variations and extensions:
Crop the image to areas of interest. This is image dependent, and therefore unpredictable, but imagine a case where all of the edges of interest in an image are in the upper left quadrant of that image. The accumulator array can be reduced even further in this case by constraining all 4 parameters by a factor of 2, for a total reduction factor of 16.By applying just the first three of these constraints to the example stated about, the size of the accumulator array is reduced by almost a factor of 1000, bringing it down to a size that is much more likely to fit within a modern computer's memory.
Variations and extensions:
Efficient ellipse detection algorithm Yonghong Xie and Qiang Ji give an efficient way of implementing the Hough transform for ellipse detection by overcoming the memory issues. As discussed in the algorithm (on page 2 of the paper), this approach uses only a one-dimensional accumulator (for the minor axis) in order to detect ellipses in the image. The complexity is O(N3) in the number of non-zero points in the image.
Limitations:
The Hough transform is only efficient if a high number of votes fall in the right bin, so that the bin can be easily detected amid the background noise. This means that the bin must not be too small, or else some votes will fall in the neighboring bins, thus reducing the visibility of the main bin.Also, when the number of parameters is large (that is, when we are using the Hough transform with typically more than three parameters), the average number of votes cast in a single bin is very low, and those bins corresponding to a real figure in the image do not necessarily appear to have a much higher number of votes than their neighbors. The complexity increases at a rate of O(Am−2) with each additional parameter, where A is the size of the image space and m is the number of parameters. (Shapiro and Stockman, 310) Thus, the Hough transform must be used with great care to detect anything other than lines or circles.
Limitations:
Finally, much of the efficiency of the Hough transform is dependent on the quality of the input data: the edges must be detected well for the Hough transform to be efficient. Use of the Hough transform on noisy images is a very delicate matter and generally, a denoising stage must be used before. In the case where the image is corrupted by speckle, as is the case in radar images, the Radon transform is sometimes preferred to detect lines, because it attenuates the noise through summation. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Creamsicle (cocktail)**
Creamsicle (cocktail):
The Creamsicle is a cocktail made with vodka, cream, orange liquor, milk and simple syrup. It is a sweet, creamy cocktail that can be served as a shot or a float made with orange soda and ice cream. Modern variations of the cocktail may replace the milk with orange juice, and use a vanilla vodka or other dessert flavored vodka like whipped cream vodka. If orange juice is used, the cocktail is shaken.The Savoy Cocktail Book contains a recipe for a similar cocktail called a "Buds special", but omits the vodka. The three ingredient cocktail is made simply with Angostura bitters, sweet cream and Cointreau. This creamy cocktail is stirred, not shaken. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Mehrdad Nikoonahad**
Mehrdad Nikoonahad:
Dr. Mehrdad Nikoonahad is an Iranian-American electrical engineer, technologist, innovator and entrepreneur.
Background and education:
He received his B.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electronic Engineering from University College London (UCL), England, in 1979 and 1983, respectively. Here, he also completed two years of postdoctoral work. His Ph.D. and postdoctoral work were concerned with acoustic imaging and microscopy and were carried out under the supervision of Sir Eric Ash. He became a Senior Member of the IEEE by nomination in 1989. In 1997 he completed the Executive Program for Growing Companies at the Graduate School of Business of Stanford University.
Career and business interests:
He was former Founder and CEO at Partoe Inc., a privately held company located in Menlo Park, California and focused on distributed power electronics for photovoltaic(PV) solar markets. Prior to this he was Co-founder and CEO at Solar Notion, Inc., a privately held company in Silicon Valley, set out to achieve grid parity for PV electricity through a radically new silicon process technology.
Career and business interests:
Dr. Nikoonahad was involved with a number of start-up, private, and public companies at the executive level, all in the high technology arena. He was formerly Vice President of Technology for Strategic Business Development at KLA-Tencor (KT) Corporation. He joined Tencor Instruments in Mountain View, California in 1992 when he proposed and helped develop a platform for a high-speed, laser-based, wafer inspection system, which, then for the first time, addressed the inspection needs for 0.25 micrometre semiconductor device fabrication technology during high volume production. That platform was subsequently named Advanced Inspection Technology (AIT)and helped the chip fabrication industry in a significant way. He then managed development groups and extended that capability for smaller silicon geometries, using ultraviolet lasers. Subsequent to the AIT, he led numerous development teams for inspection and metrology products used in silicon manufacturing. Laser imaging, metals and dielectric thin film metrology, laser and spectral ellipsometry for dielectric film characterization, photothermal ellipsometry for implant measurement, chemical-mechanical planarization (CMP) end-point detection, optical CD (OCD), overlay characterization, and micro/macro defect inspection are among some the technologies that Dr. Nikoonahad and his teams have developed. He was Vice President of Technology for a new division of KT focused on integrated meteorology. He was also held an advisory role for the KT Venture Fund and was a member of the corporate Patent Review Committee. He was the winner of numerous innovation and patent awards while at KT.
Career and business interests:
Prior to KT he was at Philips research labs in Briarcliff Manor, New York where he served as Senior Member Technical Staff and led research on acoustic imaging, and medical ultrasound. Dr. Nikoonahad has been principal investigator on a number R&D projects for the US National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and the National Institutes of Health (NIH).
He has authored or coauthored over 50 scientific papers, including a book chapter and is a named inventor on over 100 US patents and patent applications.
Career and business interests:
In 2019 he was invited as visiting professor at the Department of Economics and Management of University of Trento, Italy where he was involved with teaching entrepreneurship at the Start-up Lab (an initiative offered by Clab Trento), a renowned international program selecting startup projects that have potential to scale worldwide. The program itself has been designed taking inspiration from the format inaugurated by Y Combinator. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Doo–Sabin subdivision surface**
Doo–Sabin subdivision surface:
In 3D computer graphics, a Doo–Sabin subdivision surface is a type of subdivision surface based on a generalization of bi-quadratic uniform B-splines, whereas Catmull-Clark was based on generalized bi-cubic uniform B-splines. The subdivision refinement algorithm was developed in 1978 by Daniel Doo and Malcolm Sabin.The Doo-Sabin process generates one new face at each original vertex, n new faces along each original edge, and n2 new faces at each original face. A primary characteristic of the Doo–Sabin subdivision method is the creation of four faces and four edges (valence 4) around every new vertex in the refined mesh. A drawback is that the faces created at the original vertices may be triangles or n-gons that are not necessarily coplanar.
Evaluation:
Doo–Sabin surfaces are defined recursively. Like all subdivision procedures, each refinement iteration, following the procedure given, replaces the current mesh with a "smoother", more refined mesh. After many iterations, the surface will gradually converge onto a smooth limit surface.
Just as for Catmull–Clark surfaces, Doo–Sabin limit surfaces can also be evaluated directly without any recursive refinement, by means of the technique of Jos Stam. The solution is, however, not as computationally efficient as for Catmull–Clark surfaces because the Doo–Sabin subdivision matrices are not (in general) diagonalizable. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Tornadogenesis**
Tornadogenesis:
Tornadogenesis is the process by which a tornado forms. There are many types of tornadoes and these vary in methods of formation. Despite ongoing scientific study and high-profile research projects such as VORTEX, tornadogenesis is a volatile process and the intricacies of many of the mechanisms of tornado formation are still poorly understood.A tornado is a violently rotating column of air in contact with the surface and a cumuliform cloud base. Tornado formation is caused by the stretching and aggregating/merging of environmental and/or storm-induced vorticity that tightens it into an intense vortex. There are various ways this may come about and thus various forms and sub-forms of tornadoes. Although each tornado is unique, most kinds of tornadoes go through a life cycle of formation, maturation, and dissipation. The process by which a tornado dissipates or decays, occasionally conjured as tornadolysis, is of particular interest for study as is tornadogenesis, longevity, and intensity.
Mesocyclones:
Classical tornadoes are supercellular tornadoes, which have a recognizable pattern of formation. The cycle begins when a strong thunderstorm develops a rotating mesocyclone a few miles up in the atmosphere. As rainfall in the storm increases, it drags with it an area of quickly descending air known as the rear flank downdraft (RFD). This downdraft accelerates as it approaches the ground, and drags the rotating mesocyclone towards the ground with it. Storm relative helicity (SRH) has been shown to play a role in tornado development and strength. SRH is horizontal vorticity that is parallel to the inflow of the storm and is tilted upwards when it is taken up by the updraft, thus creating vertical vorticity.
Mesocyclones:
As the mesocyclone lowers below the cloud base, it begins to take in cool, moist air from the downdraft region of the storm. This convergence of warm air in the updraft, and this cool air, causes a rotating wall cloud to form. The RFD also focuses the mesocyclone's base, causing it to siphon air from a smaller and smaller area on the ground. As the updraft intensifies, it creates an area of low pressure at the surface. This pulls the focused mesocyclone down, in the form of a visible condensation funnel. As the funnel descends, the RFD also reaches the ground, creating a gust front that can cause severe damage a good distance from the tornado. Usually, the funnel cloud begins causing damage on the ground (becoming a tornado) within a few minutes of the RFD reaching the ground.Field studies have shown that in order for a supercell to produce a tornado the RFD needs to be no more than a few Kelvin cooler than the updraft. Also the FFD (forward flank downdraft) seems to be warmer within tornadic supercells than in non-tornadic supercells.Although many envision a top-down process in which a mid-level mesocyclone first forms and couples with a low-level mesocyclone or tornadocyclone and a vortex then forms below the cloud base and becomes a concentrated vortex due to convergence upon reaching the surface, it has long been observed and there is now more rapidly growing evidence that many tornadoes form first near the surface or simultaneously from the surface to low and mid levels aloft.See the dynamics, thermodynamics and energy source.
Misocyclones:
Waterspouts Waterspouts are defined as tornadoes over water. However, while some waterspouts are supercellular (also known as "tornadic waterspouts"), forming in a process similar to that of their land-based counterparts, most are much weaker and caused by different processes of atmospheric dynamics. They normally develop in moisture-laden environments with little vertical wind shear in areas where wind comes together (convergence), such as land breezes, lake effect bands, lines of frictional convergence from nearby landmasses, or surface troughs. Waterspouts normally develop as their parent clouds are in the process of development. It is theorized that they spin upward as they move up the surface boundary from the horizontal shear near the surface, and then stretch upward to the cloud once the low level shear vortex aligns with a developing cumulus or thunderstorm. Their parent cloud can be as innocuous as a moderate cumulus, or as significant as a supercell.
Misocyclones:
Landspouts Landspouts are tornadoes that do not form from supercells and are similar in appearance and structure to fair-weather waterspouts with the exception that they form over land instead of water. They are thought to form in a manner similar to that of weaker waterspouts in that they form during the growth stage of convective clouds by the ingestion and tightening of boundary layer vorticity by the cumuliform tower's updraft.
Mesovortices:
QLCS Tornadoes sometimes form with mesovortices within squall lines (QLCS, quasi-linear convective systems), most often in middle latitudes regions. Mesocyclonic tornadoes may also form with embedded supercells within squall lines.
Tropical cyclones Mesovortices or mini-swirls within intense tropical cyclones, particularly within eyewalls, may lead to tornadoes. Embedded supercells may produce mesocyclonic tornadoes in the right front quadrant or particularly in certain situations with outer rainbands.
Fire whirls and pyro-tornadogenesis:
Most fire or volcanic eruption induced whirlwinds which are not tornadic vortices, however, on rare occasion circulations with large wildfires, conflagrations, or ejecta do reach an ambient cloud base, and in extremely rare cases pyrocumulonimbus with tornadic mesocyclones have been observed. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Curtis–Hedlund–Lyndon theorem**
Curtis–Hedlund–Lyndon theorem:
The Curtis–Hedlund–Lyndon theorem is a mathematical characterization of cellular automata in terms of their symbolic dynamics. It is named after Morton L. Curtis, Gustav A. Hedlund, and Roger Lyndon; in his 1969 paper stating the theorem, Hedlund credited Curtis and Lyndon as co-discoverers. It has been called "one of the fundamental results in symbolic dynamics".The theorem states that a function from a shift space to itself represents the transition function of a one-dimensional cellular automaton if and only if it is continuous (with respect to the Cantor topology) and equivariant (with respect to the shift map). More generally, it asserts that the morphisms between any two shift spaces (that is, continuous mappings that commute with the shift) are exactly those mappings which can be defined uniformly by a local rule.
Curtis–Hedlund–Lyndon theorem:
The version of the theorem in Hedlund's paper applied only to one-dimensional finite automata, but a generalization to higher dimensional integer lattices was soon afterwards published by Richardson (1972), and it can be even further generalized from lattices to discrete groups. One important consequence of the theorem is that, for reversible cellular automata, the reverse dynamics of the automaton can also be described by a cellular automaton.
Definitions:
An alphabet is any finite set of symbols, which may be thought of as the states of the cells in a cellular automaton. A configuration is a bi-infinite sequence of symbols from the alphabet: ..., x−2, x−1, x0, x1, x2, ....A position in a configuration is an integer, the index of one of the symbols in the sequence; the positions may be thought of as the cells of a cellular automaton. A pattern is a finite set of positions and an assignment of symbols to each of these positions.
Definitions:
The shift space is the set of all possible configurations over a given alphabet. It may be given the structure of a topological space according to the Cantor topology, in which the fundamental open sets are the sets of configurations that match any single pattern and the open sets are arbitrary unions of fundamental open sets. In this topology, a function f from configurations to configurations is continuous if, for any fixed pattern p defining a fundamental open set P, the set f−1(P) of configurations mapped by f into P can itself be described by a (possibly infinite) set S of patterns, with the property that a configuration belongs to f−1(P) if and only if it matches a pattern in S.
Definitions:
The shift map is a particular continuous function s on the shift space that transforms a configuration x into a new configuration y in which each symbol is shifted one position over from its previous position: that is, for every integer i, yi = xi − 1. A function f is equivariant under the shift map if the transformation on configurations described by f commutes with the shift map; that is, for every configuration x, it must be the case that f(s(x)) = s(f(x)). Intuitively, this means that every position of the configuration is updated by f using the same rule as every other position.
Definitions:
A cellular automaton is defined by a rule for computing the new value of each position in a configuration based only on the values of cells in a prior-fixed finite neighborhood surrounding the position, with all positions of the configuration being updated simultaneously based on the same update rule. That is, the new value of a position is a function only of the values of the cells in its neighborhood rather than depending more generally on an unbounded number of cells of the previous configuration. The function f that uses this rule to map a configuration of the cellular automaton into its successor configuration is necessarily equivariant with respect to the shift map, by the assumption that all positions use the same update rule. It is also necessarily continuous in the Cantor topology: if p is a fixed pattern, defining a fundamental open set P, then f−1(P) is defined by a finite set of patterns, the assignments to cells in the neighborhood of p that cause f to produce p. The Curtis–Hedlund–Lyndon theorem states that these two properties are sufficient to define cellular automata: every continuous equivariant function is the update rule of a cellular automaton.
Proof:
Ceccherini-Silberstein and Coornaert provide the following proof of the Curtis–Hedlund–Lyndon theorem.Suppose f is a continuous shift-equivariant function on the shift space. For each configuration x, let p be the pattern consisting of the single symbol that appears at position zero of f(x).
Proof:
By continuity of f, there must exist a finite pattern q in x such that, if the positions outside q are changed arbitrarily but the positions within q are fixed to their values in x, then the result of applying f remains the same at position zero. Equivalently, there must exist a fundamental open set Qx such that x belongs to Qx and such that for every configuration y in Qx, f(x) and f(y) have the same value at position zero. These fundamental open sets Qx (for all possible configurations x) form an open cover of the shift space. However, the shift space is a compact space: it is a product of finite topological spaces with the alphabet as their points, so compactness follows from Tychonoff's theorem. By compactness, every open cover has a finite subcover. The finite set of positions appearing in this finite subcover may be used as the neighborhood of position zero in a description of f as a cellular automaton rule.
Proof:
The same proof applies more generally when the set of integer positions is replaced by any discrete group G, the space of configurations is replaced by the set of functions from G to a finite alphabet, and shift-equivariance is replaced by equivariance under the action of G on itself. In particular, it applies to cellular automata defined on an integer grid of any dimension.
Counterexample for infinite alphabets:
Consider the space of bi-infinite sequences of integers, and define a function f from this space to itself according to the rule that, if f(x) = y, then for every position i, yi = xi + xi. This rule is the same for each position, so it is shift-equivariant. And it can be shown to be continuous according to the Cantor topology: for each finite pattern p in y, there is a pattern in x with at most twice as many positions that forces f to generate p, consisting of the cells in p together with the cells whose values are copied into p. However, despite being continuous and equivariant, f is not a cellular automaton rule, because the value of any cell can potentially depend on the value of any other cell rather than only depending on the cells in any prior-fixed finite neighborhood.
Application to reversible cellular automata:
A cellular automaton is said to be reversible when every configuration of the automaton has exactly one predecessor. It follows by a compactness argument that the function mapping each configuration to its predecessor is itself continuous in the shift space, and it is clearly also shift-invariant. Therefore, by the Curtis–Hedlund–Lyndon theorem, the time-reversed dynamics of the cellular automaton may itself be generated using a different cellular automaton rule. However, the neighborhood of a cell in the reverse automaton may be significantly larger than the neighborhood of the same cell in the forward automaton.
Generalization:
One can generalize the definition of cellular automaton to those maps that are defined by rules for computing the new value of each position in a configuration based on the values of cells in a finite but variable neighborhood surrounding the position. In this case, as in the classical definition, the local rule is the same for all cells, but the neighborhood is also a function of the configuration around the position.
Generalization:
The counterexample given above for a continuous and shift-equivariant map which is not a classical cellular automaton, is an example of a generalized cellular automaton. When the alphabet is finite, the definition of generalized cellular automata coincides with the classical definition of cellular automata due to the compactness of the shift space.
Generalized cellular automata were proposed by Sobottka & Gonçalves (2017) where it was proved they correspond to continuous shift-equivariant maps. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Solar eclipse of February 28, 2063**
Solar eclipse of February 28, 2063:
An annular solar eclipse will occur on February 28, 2063. A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun, thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. An annular solar eclipse occurs when the Moon's apparent diameter is smaller than the Sun's, blocking most of the Sun's light and causing the Sun to look like an annulus (ring). An annular eclipse appears as a partial eclipse over a region of the Earth thousands of kilometres wide.
Related eclipses:
Solar eclipses 2062–2065 This eclipse is a member of a semester series. An eclipse in a semester series of solar eclipses repeats approximately every 177 days and 4 hours (a semester) at alternating nodes of the Moon's orbit.
Related eclipses:
Saros 131 It is a part of Saros cycle 131, repeating every 18 years, 11 days, containing 70 events. The series started with partial solar eclipse on August 1, 1125. It contains total eclipses from March 27, 1522 through May 30, 1612 and hybrid eclipses from June 10, 1630 through July 24, 1702, and annular eclipses from August 4, 1720 through June 18, 2243. The series ends at member 70 as a partial eclipse on September 2, 2369. The longest duration of totality was only 58 seconds on May 30, 1612. All eclipses in this series occurs at the Moon’s ascending node. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
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