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**Cohen-Gibson syndrome**
Cohen-Gibson syndrome:
Cohen-Gibson syndrome is a disorder linked to overgrowth and is characterized by dysmorphic facial features and variable intellectual disability. Scoliosis and other features could include hypotonia, difficulty walking due to skeletal anomalies and umbilical hernia.
Genetics:
In some cases, a de novo missense mutation in EED was associated with decreased levels of H3K27me3 in comparison to wild type. This decrease was linked to loss of PRC2 activity.
Diagnosis:
The individuals clinical history or their past health examinations, a current physical examination to check for any physical abnormalities, and a genetic screening of the patients genes and the genealogy of the family are done.
Epidemiology:
This is a rare disease and its prevalence and incidence are unknown. It affects males and females equally. It has been reported at least four times in different racial demographics, once in a Turkish, Hispanic, Japanese and Caucasian patient. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Asbestos**
Asbestos:
Asbestos ( ass-BEST-əs, az-, -oss) is a naturally occurring fibrous silicate mineral. There are six types, all of which are composed of long and thin fibrous crystals, each fibre (particulate with length substantially greater than width) being composed of many microscopic "fibrils" that can be released into the atmosphere by abrasion and other processes. Inhalation of asbestos fibres can lead to various dangerous lung conditions, including mesothelioma, asbestosis, and lung cancer. As a result of these health effects, asbestos is considered a serious health and safety hazard.Archaeological studies have found evidence of asbestos being used as far back as the Stone Age to strengthen ceramic pots, but large-scale mining began at the end of the 19th century when manufacturers and builders began using asbestos for its desirable physical properties. Asbestos is an excellent thermal and electrical insulator, and is highly fire resistant, so for much of the 20th century, it was very commonly used across the world as a building material, until its adverse effects on human health were more widely acknowledged in the 1970s. Many buildings constructed before the 1980s contain asbestos.The use of asbestos for construction and fireproofing has been made illegal in many countries. Despite this, at least 100,000 people are thought to die each year from diseases related to asbestos exposure. In part, this is because many older buildings still contain asbestos; in addition, the consequences of exposure can take decades to arise. The latency period (from exposure to the diagnosis of negative health effects) is typically 20 years. The most common diseases associated with chronic asbestos exposure are asbestosis (scarring of the lungs due to asbestos inhalation) and mesothelioma (a type of cancer).Many developing countries still support the use of asbestos as a building material, and mining of asbestos is ongoing, with the top producer, Russia, having an estimated production of 790,000 tonnes in 2020.
Etymology:
The word "asbestos", first used in the 1600s, ultimately derives from the Ancient Greek: ἄσβεστος, meaning "unquenchable" or "inextinguishable". The name reflects use of the substance for wicks that would never burn up.It was adopted into English via the Old French abestos, which in turn got the word from Greek via Latin, but in the original Greek, it actually referred to quicklime. It is said by the Oxford English Dictionary to have been wrongly used by Pliny for asbestos, who popularized the misnomer. Asbestos was referred to in Greek as amiantos, meaning "undefiled", because it was not marked when thrown into a fire. This is the source for the word for asbestos in many languages, such as the Portuguese amianto and the French amiante. It had also been called "amiant" in English in the early 15th century, but this usage was superseded by "asbestos". The word is pronounced or .
History:
People have used asbestos for thousands of years to create flexible objects that resist fire, including napkins, but, in the modern era, companies began producing consumer goods containing asbestos on an industrial scale. Today people recognize the health hazard that asbestos poses; the use of asbestos is completely banned in 66 countries and strictly regulated in many others.
History:
Early references and uses Asbestos use dates back at least 4,500 years, when the inhabitants of the Lake Juojärvi region in East Finland strengthened earthenware pots and cooking utensils with the asbestos mineral anthophyllite (see Asbestos-ceramic). One of the first descriptions of a material that may have been asbestos is in Theophrastus, On Stones, from around 300 BC, although this identification has been questioned. In both modern and ancient Greek, the usual name for the material known in English as "asbestos" is amiantos ("undefiled", "pure"), which was adapted into the French as amiante and into Spanish and Portuguese as amianto. In modern Greek, the word ἀσβεστος or ασβέστης stands consistently and solely for lime.
History:
The term asbestos is traceable to Roman naturalist Pliny the Elder's first-century manuscript Natural History and his use of the term asbestinon, meaning "unquenchable". While Pliny or his nephew Pliny the Younger is popularly credited with recognising the detrimental effects of asbestos on human beings, examination of the primary sources reveals no support for either claim.Athanasius in Alexandria, Egypt in about AD 318 wrote, "The natural property of fire is to burn. Suppose, then, that there was a substance such as the Indian asbestos is said to be, which had no fear of being burnt, but rather displayed the impotence of the fire by proving itself unburnable. If anyone doubted the truth of this, all he need do would be to wrap himself up in the substance in question and then touch the fire."Wealthy Persians amazed guests by cleaning a cloth by exposing it to fire. For example, according to Tabari, one of the curious items belonging to Khosrow II Parviz, the great Sassanian king (r. 590–628), was a napkin (Persian: منديل) that he cleaned simply by throwing it into fire. Such cloth is believed to have been made of asbestos imported over the Hindu Kush. According to Biruni in his book Gems, any cloths made of asbestos (Persian: آذرشست, āzarshost) were called shostakeh (Persian: شستكه). Some Persians believed the fiber was the fur of an animal called the samandar (Persian: سمندر), which lived in fire and died when exposed to water; this was where the former belief originated that the salamander could tolerate fire.Charlemagne, the first Holy Roman Emperor (800–814), is said to have had a tablecloth made of asbestos.Marco Polo recounts having been shown, in a place he calls Ghinghin talas, "a good vein from which the cloth which we call of salamander, which cannot be burnt if it is thrown into the fire, is made ..."Some archaeologists believe that ancients made shrouds of asbestos, wherein they burned the bodies of their kings to preserve only their ashes and to prevent the ashes being mixed with those of wood or other combustible materials commonly used in funeral pyres. Others assert that the ancients used asbestos to make perpetual wicks for sepulchral or other lamps. A famous example is the golden lamp asbestos lychnis, which the sculptor Callimachus made for the Erechtheion. In more recent centuries, asbestos was indeed used for this purpose.
History:
Industrial era The large-scale asbestos industry began in the mid-19th century. Early attempts at producing asbestos paper and cloth in Italy began in the 1850s but were unsuccessful in creating a market for such products. Canadian samples of asbestos were displayed in London in 1862, and the first companies were formed in England and Scotland to exploit this resource. Asbestos was first used in the manufacture of yarn, and German industrialist Louis Wertheim adopted this process in his factories in Germany.
History:
In 1871, the Patent Asbestos Manufacturing Company was established in Glasgow, and during the following decades, the Clydebank area became a centre for the nascent industry.
History:
Industrial-scale mining began in the Thetford hills, Quebec, from the 1870s. Sir William Edmond Logan was the first to notice the large deposits of chrysotile in the hills in his capacity as head of Geological Survey of Canada. Samples of the minerals from there were displayed in London and elicited much interest. With the opening of the Quebec Central Railway in 1876, mining entrepreneurs such as Andrew Stuart Johnson established the asbestos industry in the province. The 50-ton output of the mines in 1878 rose to over 10,000 tonnes in the 1890s with the adoption of machine technologies and expanded production. For a long time, the world's largest asbestos mine was the Jeffrey mine in the town of Asbestos, Quebec.
History:
Asbestos production began in the Urals of the Russian Empire in the 1880s, and the Alpine regions of Northern Italy with the formation in Turin of the Italo-English Pure Asbestos Company in 1876, although this was soon swamped by the greater production levels from the Canadian mines. Mining also took off in South Africa from 1893 under the aegis of the British businessman Francis Oates, the director of the De Beers company. It was in South Africa that the production of amosite began in 1910. The U.S. asbestos industry had an early start in 1858 when fibrous anthophyllite was mined for use as asbestos insulation by the Johns Company, a predecessor to the current Johns Manville, at a quarry at Ward's Hill on Staten Island, New York. US production began in earnest in 1899 with the discovery of large deposits in Belvidere Mountain.
History:
The use of asbestos became increasingly widespread toward the end of the 19th century when its diverse applications included fire-retardant coatings, concrete, bricks, pipes and fireplace cement, heat-, fire-, and acid-resistant gaskets, pipe insulation, ceiling insulation, fireproof drywall, flooring, roofing, lawn furniture, and drywall joint compound. In 2011, it was reported that over 50% of UK houses still contained asbestos, despite a ban on asbestos products some years earlier.In Japan, particularly after World War II, asbestos was used in the manufacture of ammonium sulfate for purposes of rice production, sprayed upon the ceilings, iron skeletons, and walls of railroad cars and buildings (during the 1960s), and used for energy efficiency reasons as well. Production of asbestos in Japan peaked in 1974 and went through ups and downs until about 1990 when production began to drop dramatically.
History:
Discovery of toxicity In 1899, H. Montague Murray noted the negative health effects of asbestos. The first documented death related to asbestos was in 1906.In the early 1900s, researchers began to notice a large number of early deaths and lung problems in asbestos-mining towns. The first such study was conducted by Murray at the Charing Cross Hospital, London, in 1900, in which a postmortem investigation discovered asbestos traces in the lungs of a young man who had died from pulmonary fibrosis after having worked for 14 years in an asbestos textile factory. Adelaide Anderson, the Inspector of Factories in Britain, included asbestos in a list of harmful industrial substances in 1902. Similar investigations were conducted in France in 1906 and Italy in 1908.
History:
The first diagnosis of asbestosis was made in the UK in 1924. Nellie Kershaw was employed at Turner Brothers Asbestos in Rochdale, Greater Manchester, England, from 1917, spinning raw asbestos fibre into yarn. Her death in 1924 led to a formal inquest. Pathologist William Edmund Cooke testified that his examination of the lungs indicated old scarring indicative of a previous, healed tuberculosis infection, and extensive fibrosis, in which were visible "particles of mineral matter ... of various shapes, but the large majority have sharp angles." Having compared these particles with samples of asbestos dust provided by S. A. Henry, His Majesty's Medical Inspector of Factories, Cooke concluded that they "originated from asbestos and were, beyond a reasonable doubt, the primary cause of the fibrosis of the lungs and therefore of death."As a result of Cooke's paper, Parliament commissioned an inquiry into the effects of asbestos dust by E. R. A. Merewether, Medical Inspector of Factories, and C. W. Price, a factory inspector and pioneer of dust monitoring and control. Their subsequent report, Occurrence of Pulmonary Fibrosis & Other Pulmonary Affections in Asbestos Workers, was presented to Parliament on 24 March 1930. It concluded that the development of asbestosis was irrefutably linked to the prolonged inhalation of asbestos dust, and included the first health study of asbestos workers, which found that 66% of those employed for 20 years or more suffered from asbestosis. The report led to the publication of the first asbestos industry regulations in 1931, which came into effect on 1 March 1932. These rules regulated ventilation and made asbestosis an excusable work-related disease. The term mesothelioma was first used in medical literature in 1931; its association with asbestos was first noted sometime in the 1940s. Similar legislation followed in the U.S. about ten years later.
History:
Approximately 100,000 people in the United States have died, or are terminally ill, from asbestos exposure related to shipbuilding. In the Hampton Roads area, a shipbuilding center, mesothelioma occurrence is seven times the national rate. Thousands of tons of asbestos were used in World War II ships to insulate piping, boilers, steam engines, and steam turbines. There were approximately 4.3 million shipyard workers in the United States during the war; for every 1,000 workers, about 14 died of mesothelioma and an unknown number died of asbestosis.The United States government and the asbestos industry have been criticized for not acting quickly enough to inform the public of dangers and to reduce public exposure. In the late 1970s, court documents proved that asbestos industry officials knew of asbestos dangers since the 1930s and had concealed them from the public.In Australia, asbestos was widely used in construction and other industries between 1946 and 1980. From the 1970s, there was increasing concern about the dangers of asbestos, and its use was phased out, with mining having ceased in 1983. The use of asbestos was phased out in 1989 and banned entirely in December 2003. The dangers of asbestos are now well known in Australia, and there is help and support for those suffering from asbestosis or mesothelioma.
History:
Use by industry and product type Serpentine group Serpentine minerals have a sheet or layered structure. Chrysotile (commonly known as white asbestos) is the only asbestos mineral in the serpentine group. In the United States, chrysotile has been the most commonly used type of asbestos. According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Asbestos Building Inspectors Manual, chrysotile accounts for approximately 95% of asbestos found in buildings in the United States. Chrysotile is often present in a wide variety of products and materials, including: Chlor Alkali diaphragm membranes used to make chlorine (currently in the US) Drywall and joint compound (including texture coats) Plaster Gas mask filters throughout World War II until the 1960s for most countries; Germany and the USSR's Civilian issued filters up until 1988 tested positive for asbestos Vinyl floor tiles, sheeting, adhesives Roofing tars, felts, siding, and shingles "Transite" panels, siding, countertops, and pipes Popcorn ceilings, also known as acoustic ceilings Fireproofing Caulk Industrial and marine gaskets Brake pads and shoes Stage curtains Fire blankets Interior fire doors Fireproof clothing for firefighters Thermal pipe insulation Filters for removing fine particulates from chemicals, liquids, and wine Dental cast linings HVAC flexible duct connectors Drilling fluid additivesIn the European Union and Australia, it has been banned as a potential health hazard and is no longer used at all.
History:
Amphibole group Amphiboles including amosite (brown asbestos) and crocidolite (blue asbestos) were formerly used in many products until the early 1980s. Tremolite asbestos constituted a contaminant of many if not all naturally occurring chrysotile deposits. The use of all types of asbestos in the amphibole group was banned in much of the Western world by the mid-1980s, and in Japan by 1995. Some products that included amphibole types of asbestos included the following: Low-density insulating board (often referred to as AIB or asbestos insulating board) and ceiling tiles; Asbestos cement sheets and pipes for construction, casing for water and electrical/telecommunication services; Thermal and chemical insulation (e.g., fire-rated doors, limpet spray, lagging, and gaskets).Cigarette manufacturer Lorillard (Kent's filtered cigarette) used crocidolite asbestos in its "Micronite" filter from 1952 to 1956.While mostly chrysotile asbestos fibers were once used in automobile brake pads, shoes, and clutch discs, contaminants of amphiboles were present. Since approximately the mid-1990s, brake pads, new or replacement, have been manufactured instead with linings made of ceramic, carbon, metallic, and aramid fiber (Twaron or Kevlar—the same material used in bulletproof vests).
History:
Artificial Christmas snow, known as flocking, was previously made with asbestos. It was used as an effect in films including The Wizard of Oz and department store window displays and it was marketed for use in private homes under brand names that included "Pure White", "Snow Drift" and "White Magic".
History:
Potential use in carbon sequestration The potential for use of asbestos to mitigate climate change has been raised. Although the adverse aspects of mining of minerals, including health effects, must be taken into account, exploration of the use of mineral wastes to sequester carbon is being studied. The use of mining waste materials from nickel, copper, diamond, and platinum mines have the potential as well, but asbestos may have the greatest potential and is the subject of research now in progress in an emerging field of scientific study to examine it. The most common type of asbestos, chrysotile, chemically reacts with CO2 to produce ecologically stable Magnesium Carbonate. Chrysotile, like all types of asbestos, has a large surface area that provides more places for chemical reactions to occur, compared to most other naturally occurring materials.
History:
Construction Developed countries The use of asbestos in new construction projects has been banned for health and safety reasons in many developed countries or regions, including the European Union, the United Kingdom, Australia, Hong Kong, Japan, and New Zealand. A notable exception is the United States, where asbestos continues to be used in construction such as cement asbestos pipes. The 5th Circuit Court prevented the EPA from banning asbestos in 1991 because EPA research showed the ban would cost between US$450 and 800 million while only saving around 200 lives in a 13-year timeframe, and that the EPA did not provide adequate evidence for the safety of alternative products. Until the mid-1980s, small amounts of white asbestos were used in the manufacture of Artex, a decorative stipple finish, however, some of the lesser-known suppliers of Artex-type materials were still adding white asbestos until 1999.Before the ban, asbestos was widely used in the construction industry in thousands of materials. Some are judged to be more dangerous than others due to the amount of asbestos and the material's friable nature. Sprayed coatings, pipe insulation, and Asbestos Insulating Board (AIB) are thought to be the most dangerous due to their high content of asbestos and friable nature. Many older buildings built before the late 1990s contain asbestos. In the United States, there is a minimum standard for asbestos surveys as described by ASTM standard E 2356–18. In the UK, the Health and Safety Executive have issued guidance called HSG264 describing how surveys should be completed although other methods can be used if they can demonstrate they have met the regulations by other means. The EPA includes some, but not all, asbestos-contaminated facilities on the Superfund National Priorities List (NPL). Renovation and demolition of asbestos-contaminated buildings are subject to EPA NESHAP and OSHA Regulations. Asbestos is not a material covered under CERCLA's innocent purchaser defense. In the UK, the removal and disposal of asbestos and substances containing it are covered by the Control of Asbestos Regulations 2006.U.S. asbestos consumption hit a peak of 804,000 tons in 1973; world asbestos demand peaked around 1977, with 25 countries producing nearly 4.8 million metric tons annually.In older buildings (e.g. those built before 1999 in the UK, before white asbestos was banned), asbestos may still be present in some areas. Being aware of asbestos locations reduces the risk of disturbing asbestos.Removal of asbestos building components can also remove the fire protection they provide, therefore fire protection substitutes are required for proper fire protection that the asbestos originally provided.
History:
Outside Europe and North America Some countries, such as India, Indonesia, China, Russia, and Brazil, have continued widespread use of asbestos. The most common is corrugated asbestos-cement sheets or "A/C sheets" for roofing and sidewalls. Millions of homes, factories, schools or sheds, and shelters continue to use asbestos. Cutting these sheets to size and drilling holes to receive 'J' bolts to help secure the sheets to roof framing is done on-site. There has been no significant change in production and use of A/C sheets in developing countries following the widespread restrictions in developed nations.
History:
September 11 attacks As New York City's World Trade Center collapsed following the September 11 attacks, Lower Manhattan was blanketed in a mixture of building debris and combustible materials. This complex mixture gave rise to the concern that thousands of residents and workers in the area would be exposed to known hazards in the air and dust, such as asbestos, lead, glass fibers, and pulverized concrete. More than 1,000 tons of asbestos are thought to have been released into the air following the buildings' destruction. Inhalation of a mixture of asbestos and other toxicants is thought to be linked to the unusually high death rate from cancer of emergency service workers since the disaster. Thousands more are now thought to be at risk of developing cancer due to this exposure with those who have died so far being only the "tip of the iceberg".In May 2002, after numerous cleanup, dust collection, and air monitoring activities were conducted outdoors by EPA, other federal agencies, New York City, and the state of New York, New York City formally requested federal assistance to clean and test residences in the vicinity of the World Trade Center site for airborne asbestos.
History:
Asbestos contaminants in other products Vermiculite Vermiculite is a hydrated laminar magnesium-aluminum-iron silicate that resembles mica. It can be used for many industrial applications and has been used as insulation. Some deposits of vermiculite are contaminated with small amounts of asbestos.One vermiculite mine operated by W. R. Grace and Company in Libby, Montana exposed workers and community residents to danger by mining vermiculite contaminated with asbestos, typically richterite, winchite, actinolite or tremolite. Vermiculite contaminated with asbestos from the Libby mine was used as insulation in residential and commercial buildings through Canada and the United States. W. R. Grace and Company's loose-fill vermiculite was marketed as Zonolite but was also used in sprayed-on products such as Monokote.
History:
In 1999, the EPA began cleanup efforts in Libby and now the area is a Superfund cleanup area. The EPA has determined that harmful asbestos is released from the mine as well as through other activities that disturb soil in the area.
History:
Talc Talc can sometimes be contaminated with asbestos due to the proximity of asbestos ore (usually tremolite) in underground talc deposits. By 1973, US federal law required all talc products to be asbestos-free, and today there is strict quality control in the production of talc products. Separating cosmetic-grade talc (e.g. talcum powder) from industrial-grade talc (often used in friction products) has largely eliminated this issue for consumers.In 2000, tests in a certified asbestos-testing laboratory found the tremolite form of amphibole asbestos used to be found in three out of eight popular brands of children's crayons that were made partly from talc: Crayola, Prang, and RoseArt. In Crayola crayons, the tests found asbestos levels around 0.05% in Carnation Pink and 2.86% in Orchid; in Prang crayons, the range was from 0.3% in Periwinkle to 0.54% in Yellow; in Rose Art crayons, it was from 0.03% in Brown to 1.20% in Orange. Overall, 32 different types of crayons from these brands used to contain more than trace amounts of asbestos, and eight others contained trace amounts. The Art and Creative Materials Institute, a trade association which tested the safety of crayons on behalf of the makers, initially insisted the test results must have been incorrect, although they later said they do not test for asbestos. In May 2000, Crayola said tests by Richard Lee, a materials analyst whose testimony on behalf of the asbestos industry has been accepted in lawsuits over 250 times, found its crayons tested negative for asbestos. In spite of that, in June 2000 Binney & Smith, the maker of Crayola, and the other makers agreed to stop using talc in their products, and changed their product formulations in the United States.The mining company R T Vanderbilt Co of Gouverneur, New York, which supplied the talc to the crayon makers, states that "to the best of our knowledge and belief" there had never been any asbestos-related disease among the company's workers. However media reports claim that the United States Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) had found asbestos in four talc samples tested in 2000. The Assistant Secretary for Mine Safety and Health subsequently wrote to the news reporter, stating that "In fact, the abbreviation ND (non-detect) in the laboratory report – indicates no asbestos fibers actually were found in the samples." Multiple studies by mineral chemists, cell biologists, and toxicologists between 1970 and 2000 found neither samples of asbestos in talc products nor symptoms of asbestos exposure among workers dealing with talc, but more recent work has rejected these conclusions in favor of "same as" asbestos risk.On 12 July 2018, a Missouri jury ordered Johnson & Johnson to pay a record $4.69 billion to 22 women who alleged the company's talc-based products, including its baby powder, contain asbestos and caused them to develop ovarian cancer.
Types and associated fibers:
Six mineral types are defined by the EPA as "asbestos" including those belonging to the serpentine class and those belonging to the amphibole class. All six asbestos mineral types are known to be human carcinogens. The visible fibers are themselves each composed of millions of microscopic "fibrils" that can be released by abrasion and other processes.
Serpentine Serpentine class fibers are curly. Chrysotile, CAS No. 12001-29-5 , is the only asbestos classed as a serpentine fiber. It is obtained from serpentinite rocks which are common throughout the world. Its idealized chemical formula is Mg3(Si2O5)(OH)4. Chrysotile appears under the microscope as a white fiber.
Types and associated fibers:
Chrysotile has been used more than any other type and accounts for about 95% of the asbestos found in buildings in America. Chrysotile is more flexible than amphibole types of asbestos and can be spun and woven into fabric. The most common use was corrugated asbestos cement roofing primarily for outbuildings, warehouses, and garages. It may also be found in sheets or panels used for ceilings and sometimes for walls and floors. Chrysotile has been a component in joint compound and some plasters. Numerous other items have been made containing chrysotile including brake linings, fire barriers in fuseboxes, pipe insulation, floor tiles, residential shingles, and gaskets for high-temperature equipment.
Types and associated fibers:
Amphibole Amphibole class fibers are needle-like. Amosite, crocidolite, tremolite, anthophyllite and actinolite are members of the amphibole class.
Types and associated fibers:
Amosite Amosite, CAS No. 12172-73-5 , often referred to as brown asbestos, is a trade name for the amphiboles belonging to the cummingtonite-grunerite solid solution series, commonly from South Africa, named as a partial acronym for "Asbestos Mines of South Africa". One formula given for amosite is Fe7Si8O22(OH)2. Amosite is seen under a microscope as a grey-white vitreous fiber. It is found most frequently as a fire retardant in thermal insulation products, asbestos insulating board and ceiling tiles.
Types and associated fibers:
Crocidolite Crocidolite, CAS No. 12001-28-4 , commonly known as blue asbestos, is the fibrous form of the amphibole riebeckite, found primarily in southern Africa, but also in Australia and Bolivia. One formula given for crocidolite is Na2FeII3FeIII2Si8O22(OH)2. Crocidolite is seen under a microscope as a blue fiber.
Types and associated fibers:
Crocidolite commonly occurs as soft friable fibers. Asbestiform amphibole may also occur as soft friable fibers but some varieties such as amosite are commonly straighter. All forms of asbestos are fibrillar in that they are composed of fibers with breadths less than 1 micrometer in bundles of very great widths. Asbestos with particularly fine fibers is also referred to as "amianthus".
Types and associated fibers:
Other materials Other regulated asbestos minerals, such as tremolite asbestos, CAS No. 77536-68-6 , Ca2Mg5Si8O22(OH)2; actinolite asbestos, CAS No. 77536-66-4, Ca2(Mg,FeII)5(Si8O22)(OH)2; and anthophyllite asbestos, CAS No. 77536-67-5 , (Mg,FeII)7Si8O22(OH)2; are less commonly used industrially but can still be found in a variety of construction materials and insulation materials and have been used in a few consumer products.
Types and associated fibers:
Other natural asbestiform minerals, such as richterite, Na(CaNa)(Mg,FeII)5(Si8O22)(OH)2, and winchite, (CaNa)Mg4(Al,FeIII)(Si8O22)(OH)2, though not regulated, are said by some to be no less harmful than tremolite, amosite, or crocidolite. They are termed "asbestiform" rather than asbestos. Although the U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has not included them in the asbestos standard, NIOSH and the American Thoracic Society have recommended them for inclusion as regulated materials because they may also be hazardous to health."Mountain leather" is an old-fashioned term for flexible, sheet-like natural formations of asbestiform minerals which resemble leather. Asbestos-containing minerals known to form mountain leather include: actinolite, sepiolite, and tremolite.
Production:
In 2017, 1.3 million tonnes of asbestos were mined worldwide. Russia was the largest producer with 53% of the world total, followed by Kazakhstan (16%), China (15%), and Brazil (11.5%). Asia consumes some 70% of the asbestos produced in the world with China, India and Indonesia the largest consumers.In 2009, about 9% of the world's asbestos production was mined in Canada. In late 2011, Canada's remaining two asbestos mines, both located in Quebec, halted operations. In September 2012, the Quebec government halted asbestos mining.
Health impact:
The most common diseases associated with chronic asbestos exposure are asbestosis (scarring of the lungs due to asbestos inhalation) and mesothelioma (cancer associated with asbestos). Mesothelioma is an aggressive form of cancer and often leads to a life expectancy of less than 12 months after diagnosis.All types of asbestos fibers are known to cause serious health hazards in humans and animals. Amosite and crocidolite are considered the most hazardous asbestos fiber types; however, chrysotile asbestos has also produced tumors in animals and is a recognized cause of asbestosis and malignant mesothelioma in humans, and mesothelioma has been observed in people who were occupationally exposed to chrysotile, family members of the occupationally exposed, and residents who lived close to asbestos factories and mines.During the 1980s and again in the 1990s, the asbestos industry suggested at times that the process of making asbestos cement could "neutralize" the asbestos, either via chemical processes or by causing the cement to attach to the fibers and changing their physical size; subsequent studies showed that this was untrue and that decades-old asbestos cement, when broken, releases asbestos fibers identical to those found in nature, with no detectable alteration.Exposure to asbestos in the form of fibers is always considered dangerous. Working with, or exposure to, material that is friable, or materials or works that could cause the release of loose asbestos fibers, is considered high risk. In general, people who become ill from inhaling asbestos have been regularly exposed in a job where they worked directly with the material.The US Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has standards to protect workers from the hazards of exposure to asbestos in the workplace. The permissible exposure limit for asbestos is 0.1 fiber per cubic centimeter of air as an eight-hour time-weighted average, with an excursion limit of 1.0 asbestos fibers per cubic centimeter over a 30-minute period.
Regulation:
Complete bans on asbestos Worldwide, 66 countries and territories (including all those in the European Union) have banned the use of asbestos. Exemptions for minor uses are permitted in some countries listed; however, all countries listed must have banned the use of all types of asbestos.
Regulation:
Australia The use of crocidolite (blue asbestos) was banned in 1967, while the use of amosite (brown asbestos) continued in the construction industry until the mid-1980s. It was finally banned from building products in 1989, though it remained in gaskets and brake linings until 31 December 2003, and cannot be imported, used, or recycled.Asbestos continues to be a problem in Australia. Two out of three homes in Australia built between World War II and the early 1980s still contain asbestos.The union that represents workers tasked with modifying electrical meter boxes at residences stated that workers should refuse to do this work until the boxes have been inspected for asbestos, and the head of the Australian Council of Trade Unions (ACTU) has called on the government to protect its citizens by ridding the country of asbestos by 2030.Handlers of asbestos materials must have a B-Class license for bonded asbestos and an A-Class license for friable asbestos.
Regulation:
The town of Wittenoom, in Western Australia, was built around a (blue) asbestos mine. The entire town continues to be contaminated and has been disincorporated, allowing local authorities to remove references to Wittenoom from maps and road signs.
Canada As of December 31st 2018, it is illegal to import, manufacture, sell, trade, or use products made from asbestos. There are exemptions for its use in the chloralkali industry, the military, nuclear facilities, and for magnesium extraction from asbestos mining residues.
Regulation:
Japan Revelations that hundreds of workers had died in Japan over the previous few decades from diseases related to asbestos sparked a scandal in mid-2005. Tokyo had, in 1971, ordered companies handling asbestos to install ventilators and check health regularly; however, the Japanese government did not ban crocidolite and amosite until 1995, and a near-complete ban with a few exceptions on asbestos was implemented in 2006, with the remaining exceptions being removed in March 2012 for a full-fledged ban.
Regulation:
New Zealand In 1984, the import of raw amphibole (blue and brown) asbestos into New Zealand was banned. In 2002 the import of chrysotile (white) asbestos was also banned. In 2015 the government announced that the importation of asbestos would be completely banned with very limited exceptions (expected to be applied to replacement parts for older machines) that would be reviewed on a case-by-case basis.North-west of Nelson, in the Upper Takaka Valley, is New Zealand's only commercially harvested asbestos mine. A low-grade Chrysotile was mined here from 1908 to 1917 but only 100 tons were washed and taken out by packhorse. A new power scheme enabled work to renew and between 1940 and 1949, 40 tons a month was mined by the Hume Company. This continued to 1964, when, due to the short length of its fibre, the limited commercial viability forced mining to cease.
Regulation:
South Korea In May 1997, the manufacture and use of crocidolite and amosite, commonly known as blue and brown asbestos, were fully banned in South Korea. In January 2009, a full-fledged ban on all types of asbestos occurred when the government banned the manufacture, import, sale, storage, transport or use of asbestos or any substance containing more than 0.1% of asbestos. In 2011, South Korea became the world's sixth country to enact an asbestos harm aid act, which entitles any Korean citizen to free lifetime medical care as well as monthly income from the government if he or she is diagnosed with an asbestos-related disease.
Regulation:
United Kingdom In the United Kingdom, blue and brown asbestos materials were banned outright in 1985 while the import, sale, and secondhand reuse of white asbestos was outlawed in 1999. The 2012 Control of Asbestos Regulations, updating and replacing the previous 2006 law, state that owners of non-domestic buildings (e.g., factories and offices) have a "duty to manage" asbestos on the premises by making themselves aware of its presence and ensuring the material does not deteriorate, removing it if necessary. Employers, e.g. construction companies, whose operatives may come into contact with asbestos must also provide annual asbestos training to their workers.
Regulation:
Countries where asbestos is legal United States The United States remains one of the few developed countries to not completely ban asbestos. Some American workers at chlorine plants frequently come in contact with the substance, and OSHA exempts these plants from random inspections through the Voluntary Protection Program.In 1989 the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) issued the Asbestos Ban and Phase-Out Rule but in 1991, asbestos industry supporters challenged and overturned the ban in a landmark lawsuit: Corrosion Proof Fittings v. the Environmental Protection Agency. Although the case resulted in several small victories for asbestos regulation, the EPA ultimately did not put an end to asbestos use. The ruling left many consumer products that can still legally contain trace amounts of asbestos. Six categories of asbestos-containing products are however banned: corrugated paper, rollboard, commercial paper, specialty paper, flooring felt and any new uses of asbestos. The Clean Air Act also bans asbestos pipe insulation and asbestos block insulation on components such as boilers and hot water tanks, and spray-applied surfacing asbestos-containing materials. The Consumer Product Safety Act bans asbestos in artificial fireplace embers and wall patching compounds. The Food and Drug Administration bans asbestos-containing filters in pharmaceutical manufacturing, processing, and packing.Starting in 2014, Washington State has banned asbestos in automotive brakes.
Regulation:
Mexico Since 1970, as a result of increased regulation of asbestos in Europe and in the United States, there was a massive transfer of asbestos-processing enterprises to Mexico. Asbestos is used in many products – roofing, boilers, pipes, brakes, and wires, produced by over 2,000 Mexican companies, many of them subsidiaries or subcontractors of US companies, and sold throughout the Americas. In 2000, 58% of Mexican asbestos-containing exports went to the United States, and 40% to Central American countries and Cuba.
Regulation:
Vietnam In Vietnam, chrysotile asbestos is not banned and is still widely used. Amphibole asbestos is banned from trade and use. Vietnam is one of the top 10 asbestos users in the world, with an annual import volume of about 65,000–70,000 tons of chrysotile. About 90% of the imported asbestos is used to produce about 100 million m2 of cement roofing sheets (asbestos-cement). According to one study, among 300 families in Yen Bai, Thanh Hoa, 85% of households use asbestos roofing sheets, but only 5% know about the negative health effects.However, the master plan (for construction materials development to 2020 with orientation to 2030 submitted by the Ministry of Construction to the Government in January 2014) still suggests continued use of chrysotile for a long time.
Substitutes for asbestos in construction:
Fiberglass insulation was invented in 1938 and is now the most commonly used type of insulation material. The safety of this material has also been called into question due to similarities in material structure. However, the International Agency for Research on Cancer removed fiberglass from its list of possible human carcinogens in 2001. A scientific review article from 2011 claimed epidemiology data was inconsistent and concluded that the IARC's decision to downgrade the carcinogenic potential of fiberglass was valid, although this study was funded by a sponsored research contract from the North American Insulation Manufacturer's Association.In 1978, a highly texturized fiberglass fabric was invented by Bal Dixit, called Zetex. This fabric is lighter than asbestos but offers the same bulk, thickness, hand, feel, and abrasion resistance as asbestos. The fiberglass was texturized to eliminate some of the problems that arise with fiberglass, such as poor abrasion resistance and poor seam strength.In Europe, mineral wool and glass wool are the main insulators in houses.
Substitutes for asbestos in construction:
Many companies that produced asbestos-cement products that were reinforced with asbestos fibers have developed products incorporating organic fibers. One such product was known as "Eternit" and another "Everite" now use "Nutec" fibers which consist of organic fibers, portland cement and silica. Cement-bonded wood fiber is another substitute. Stone fibers are used in gaskets and friction materials.
Another potential fiber is polybenzimidazole or PBI fiber. Polybenzimidazole fiber is a synthetic fiber with a high melting point of 760 °C (1,400 °F) that also does not ignite. Because of its exceptional thermal and chemical stability, it is often used by fire departments and space agencies.
Recycling and disposal:
In most developed countries, asbestos is typically disposed of as hazardous waste in designated landfill sites.
Recycling and disposal:
The demolition of buildings containing large amounts of asbestos-based materials pose particular problems for builders and property developers – such buildings often have to be deconstructed piece by piece, or the asbestos has to be painstakingly removed before the structure can be razed by mechanical or explosive means. One such example is the Red Road Flats in Glasgow, Scotland which used huge amounts of asbestos cement board for wall panelling – British health and safety regulations stipulate that asbestos material has to be removed in specially adapted vehicles and taken to a landfill site with an appropriate permit to accept asbestos, via an approved route, at certain times of the day.
Recycling and disposal:
In the United States, the EPA governs the removal and disposal of asbestos strictly. Companies that remove asbestos must comply with EPA licensing. These companies are called EPA licensed asbestos contractors. Anytime one of these asbestos contractors performs work a test consultant has to conduct strict testing to ensure the asbestos is completely removed.
Recycling and disposal:
Asbestos can be destroyed by ultra-high-temperature incineration and plasma melting process. A process of thermal decomposition at 1,000–1,250 °C (1,800–2,300 °F) produces a mixture of non-hazardous silicon-based wastes, and at temperatures above 1,250 °C (2,300 °F) it produces silicate glass. Microwave thermal treatment can be used in an industrial manufacturing process to transform asbestos and asbestos-containing waste into porcelain stoneware tiles, porous single-fired wall tiles, and ceramic bricks.The combination of oxalic acid with ultrasound fully degrades chrysotile asbestos fibers.
Abbreviations associated with asbestos:
ACM: Asbestos-containing material (technically, material containing more than 1% asbestos) AIB: Asbestos insulating board (AIB) | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**QRICH2**
QRICH2:
Glutamine-rich protein 2 is a protein that in humans is decoded by the QRICH2 gene on human chromosome 17. The function of QRICH2 protein is mostly unknown, but it has been shown that QRICH2 gene contains a high molecular weight Glutenin domain and an ATPase involved domain. QRICH2 gene is highly expressed in testis, and the subcellular location of QRICH2 protein is in the nucleus.
Gene:
QRICH2 mRNA is 5411 bp long, and its chromosomal location in human is 17q25.1. QRICH2 mRNA has 19 exons and it contains two main function domains: a high molecular weight Glutenin domain (amino acid 446-979) and an ATPase involved domain (amino acid 1036-1413). QRICH2 locates between UBAL D2 gene and PRPSAP1 gene on chromosome 17. There is no predicted stem loop structure on QRICH2 mRNA because there isn't any complementary RNA sequences.
Protein:
QRICH2 protein is 1663 amino acids long, and 10.9% of the amino acids are Glutamine (Q). 38% of the QRICH2 protein secondary structure is alpha-helix, 39% is beta-sheet and 13% is turning. The human tissue type with the highest level of QRICH2 expression is testis, and this result is confirmed by the Gene Expression Profile for mouse and dog too. The subcellular location of QRICH2 protein is in the nucleus. QRICH2 is a soluble protein, its average hydrophobicity is -0.5995. QRICH2 protein interact with a number of other proteins including SSSCA1, TSSC1, GAPDH, NUP98 and SNAI1.
Homology:
paralogs FLJ25737 mRNA sequences perfectly match with two regions on the QRICH2 mRNA (bp 3157-4302 on QRICH2 match with bp 1-1146 on FLJ25737, bp 4998-5307 on QRICH2 match with bp 1140-1499 on FLJ25737). However, FLJ25737 locates on chromosome 7 and QRICH2 locates on chromosome 17.
Orthologs QRICH2 protein has well conserved orthologs in many species. The orthologous protein sequences match very well at the region where the high molecular weight Glutenin domain and ATPase involved domain is.
Function:
The function of QRICH2 protein is mostly unknown. QRICH2 has been shown to belong to the common expression groups on human chromosome 17. The following genes belonged to the common expression groups on chromosome 17: NCOR1, GFAP, QRICH2, ANAPC11 and PER1. QRICH2 may also be an up-regulated gene involved in cell adhesion and cellular morphogenesis. The high expression of QRICH2 gene in testis may suggest that QRICH2 protein has some functions related to hormone production in males. QRICH2 protein has some sequence similarities with the spermidine/spermine N(1)-acetyl-like protein 1 in several species. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Serum response factor**
Serum response factor:
Serum response factor, also known as SRF, is a transcription factor protein.
Function:
Serum response factor is a member of the MADS (MCM1, Agamous, Deficiens, and SRF) box superfamily of transcription factors. This protein binds to the serum response element (SRE) in the promoter region of target genes. This protein regulates the activity of many immediate early genes, for example c-fos, and thereby participates in cell cycle regulation, apoptosis, cell growth, and cell differentiation. This gene is the downstream target of many pathways; for example, the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway (MAPK) that acts through the ternary complex factors (TCFs).SRF is important during the development of the embryo, as it has been linked to the formation of mesoderm. In the fully developed mammal, SRF is crucial for the growth of skeletal muscle. Interaction of SRF with other proteins, such as steroid hormone receptors, may contribute to regulation of muscle growth by steroids. Interaction of SRF with other proteins such as myocardin or Elk-1 may enhance or suppress expression of genes important for growth of vascular smooth muscle.
Clinical significance:
Lack of skin SRF is associated with psoriasis and other skin diseases.
Interactions:
Serum response factor has been shown to interact with: | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Portal chess**
Portal chess:
Portal chess is a chess variant which uses at least two fairy pieces called portals (or less commonly portholes). These pieces can be easily added by using poker chips, coins or other suitably sized objects. The game seeks to incorporate portals to allow pieces to teleport around the board. Apart from the portals and their ruleset, the game often plays like ordinary chess, including the en passant capture, castling, and promotion.
Versions:
There are three versions of portal chess, created seemingly independently by three different people: David Howe in 1997, Mike Hidden some time before 2008, and Ian Buckley around 2012. They all, however, contain the core dynamic of teleportation and special squares/pieces for this, as opposed to other variants which allow transportation at any point and/or any time.
Throughout the article, the symbol "→" will be used to denote teleportation from one square to another.
David Howe version In this version, there are two distinct playing areas linked by fixed portals. These areas can be either two separate boards or one board split down the middle (between the d- and e-files).
Versions:
The rules that are different for this variant are: Players alternate play between area A and area B. So play might go 1:Ae4 Ba5 2:Bh4 Ae5 If a player's piece is on a portal square when the player is playing in that board, he can declare an intent to teleport. He moves no other piece, and waits for his turn on the other board. He then teleports his piece but makes no other move, e.g. 20: 'Intends to teleport' qBe7 21: qAa4→Ba4 ...
Versions:
Teleportation is always between areas, and also between corresponding squares (as close to the original coordinates as you can get).
If an opponent's piece occupies the target square when teleporting, it is captured normally. (qAa4→xBa4) If a friendly piece is on the receiving teleporter when 'Intent' is declared, the move is still lost but with no teleportation. This could be used as a pass function. e.g. 20: 'Intends to teleport' qBe7 21: (no move, piece in way) Aa6 ...
Versions:
If both players declare 'intent' in the same move, the teleportations are considered simultaneous. Thus no capture would occur between two pieces transporting together if they had just swapped places. e.g. 20: 'intent' 'intent' 21: Aa4→Ba4 Ba4→Aa4 A king can be left in check so long as the player can move it before it could be captured. Thus discovered checks from teleportations are allowed as the player can move their king away before their opponent next plays that Area.
Versions:
All other rules are the same.
Mark Hidden version The portals in this game are neutral yet mobile.
The number and starting location of these portals can be different when the game begins, but the image shows the standard set-up.
In this game the portal pieces move around by very specific rules.
A piece can only land on a portal square by attacking it. This means pawns move diagonally onto them, and knights must land directly on them.
A piece can not jump over a portal, except for the knight.
When a piece moves onto a portal, it must move to another portal. If no portals are free to do this, moving onto the portal is not allowed.
When a piece has moved through a portal, the portal it attacked moves to where the piece used to be. So the early move 2: f3xg4→c4 moves the portal from g4 to f3.
This also means portals may stack, and may be unstacked, but it is invalid to claim you have teleported from one stacked portal to another stacked portal (either where you have landed or elsewhere on the board).
Pawns must move normally onto the back rank to promote. So a pawn that has teleported there does not promote, as he is stuck in the portal.
Castling cannot occur if a portal is in the way, as the pieces cannot jump over it.
All other ordinary rules apply.
Ian Buckley version This version of the game has player-controlled portals, which are linked to each other.
The rules for these portals are worked out as though they make the squares they cover into one square. In the set up to the right, a5 and e4 can be conceptualized as the same square.
The specific rules for portal use are as follows: The aim of portal chess is the same as ordinary chess.
Players place their portals anywhere on the fourth row from the players side before commencing a game.
You can only move your colored portal.
A piece passes through portal unless the portal is blocked.
A piece can be blocked from entering a portal if a piece of the same color is on the other side.
A piece can take pieces by traveling through a portal.
Both portals cannot be occupied at the same time.
A piece can check/checkmate players using the portal.
A piece must exit the portal in the direction it traveled into the portal.
A portal can be moved onto a piece causing it to teleport, unless the other portal is occupied by any piece.
A player has a choice to move a chess piece or the portal piece in one turn, not both.
If your own chess piece is occupying a portal, you cannot pass through or rest on the other unoccupied portal with another one of your own pieces.
A piece can enter either portal regardless of color.
If both portals occupy the same square, it creates a black hole, which will remove any pieces in the eight squares around it from the game, as well as any piece on the black hole. This also locks both the portals in place so they can no longer be moved.
A portal can be moved regardless of whether it is occupied or not, the occupying piece does not move with the portal.
If a piece occupies one portal and a whole turn phase end without the piece moving from the teleporter it does not teleport.
A knight can jump over a portal piece.
A pawn can become a queen by using a portal, thus the move ...→h8=Q is valid. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Bionix Radiation Therapy**
Bionix Radiation Therapy:
Bionix Radiation Therapy, LLC is an American medical device company known for manufacturing radiation oncology device.
History:
Headquartered in Toledo, Ohio, USA, Bionix Radiation Therapy was founded in 1984 as Bionix Development Corporation by Doctor Andrew Milligan and Doctor James Huttner. In 2016, the companies split to become Bionix Radiation Therapy, LLC and Bionix Development Corporation.
Products and services:
Bionix Radiation Therapy, LLC offers medical devices including patient immobilization devices for treating cancer using external beam. The company supplies such devices for cancer clinics, radiotherapy centers and medical oncology practices. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**In-Betweener**
In-Betweener:
The In-Betweener is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics.
Publication history:
The character first appeared in Warlock #10 (Dec. 1975) and was created by Jim Starlin.
Fictional character biography:
By the In-Betweener's own admission, he represents duality itself, specifically in respect to concepts such as good and evil, reason and emotion, truth and illusion, and life and death. The In-Betweener is also an agent of the conceptual beings Master Order and Lord Chaos, although his loyalty is usually to himself rather than to them. In addition to being an incarnation of balance and duality, the In-Betweener is possibly a metaphysical counterpart of Galactus.The hero Adam Warlock is the first Terran meta-human to encounter the In-Betweener, and the entity reveals that it is destined to force Warlock to transform into his villainous future self the Magus. Warlock, however, was able to escape this fate with help from the Titan Thanos.The In-Betweener then claims to be the power behind the plan to alter the fabric of reality orchestrated by the group of sorcerers known as the Creators, but secretly seeks to impose his own concept of balance upon the universe. After an encounter with the sorcerer Doctor Strange, the In-Betweener is imprisoned as punishment for rebelling against his masters.The In-Betweener later attempts to supplant Galactus' role in the universe and allies with the Elders of the Universe in their plan against Galactus. However, the In-Betweener betrays the Elders during a confrontation with the entity Death and compels Death to wipe three of the Elders from existence. Soon after this, the In-Betweener also battles Galactus and his robotic servant the Punisher, but the stalemated battle is interrupted by his masters, who subsequently imprison him.He is later freed by Thanos, who secretly desires the Soul Gem the In-Betweener wears, as it is one of the six Infinity Gems. Thanos then steals the gem and abandons the In-Betweener to face the wrath of Master Order and Lord Chaos, who discover he has escaped his prison.The In-Betweener later appeared as a pawn of the villain Scorpio, who is a member of the criminal organization Zodiac. Scorpio, however, was stopped by the superhero team the Avengers and the In-Betweener was subsequently freed.The In-Betweener also appeared in an alternate dimension of Earth-957.During the Time Runs Out storyline, the Beyonders are revealed to have killed Master Order, Lord Chaos and the In-Betweener as part of destroying abstract entities in each reality across the multiverse. However, the In-Betweener was later revealed to be the mastermind behind Libra's attempt at destroying Earth, and more specifically, Starbrand.Not long after the universe was restored, Master Order and Lord Chaos took advantage of the fact that the cosmic hierarchy was not set anew and apparently kill the Living Tribunal. After committing the murder, they approached the In-Betweener and forced him to become the binding force that combined Master Order and Lord Chaos into a new cosmic being named Logos in order to take the Living Tribunal's place as the personification of multiversal law.
Powers and abilities:
As the physical embodiment of the cosmic balance between Order and Chaos, the In-Betweener is able to manipulate cosmic energy to alter reality to achieve nearly any effect or ability within his influence as the synthesis of duality. He is, however, under the absolute control of Master Order and Lord Chaos as his creators. The In-Betweener's other major (and unique) ability is to analyze a target and then direct energy towards it in a "polar opposite" form, which is instantly fatal.Alternatively, if he cannot personally synthesize the "opposite energy" necessary to eliminate an opponent, he can directly summon that enemy's opposite being, and eliminate them that way; using the power granted to him in his station as a cosmic force, he once even summoned and forced Death itself to destroy the Elders of the Universe, even though it had, at an earlier point, refused to ever let them die again as a punishment. The In-Betweener finds that he is unable to use either of his special abilities on Galactus, however, and he believes that this is because he is Galactus's metaphysical counterpart and opposite. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Digital Data Storage**
Digital Data Storage:
Digital Data Storage (DDS) is a computer data storage technology that is based upon the Digital Audio Tape (DAT) format that was developed during the 1980s. DDS is primarily intended for use as off-line storage, especially for generating backup copies of working data.
Design:
A DDS cartridge uses tape with a width of 3.81mm, with the exception of the latest formats, DAT-160 and DAT-320, both which use 8mm wide tape. Initially, the tape was 60 meters (197 feet) or 90 meters (295 ft.) in length. Advancements in materials technology have allowed the length to be increased significantly in successive versions. A DDS tape drive uses helical scan recording, the same process used by a video cassette recorder (VCR).
Design:
Backward compatibility between newer drives and older cartridges is not assured; the compatibility matrices provided by manufacturers will need to be consulted. Typically drives can read and write tapes in the prior generation format, with most (but not all) also able to read and write tapes from two generations prior. Notice in HP's article that newer tape standards do not simply consist of longer tapes; with DDS-2, for example, the track was narrower than with DDS-1.
Design:
At one time, DDS competed against the Linear Tape-Open (LTO), Advanced Intelligent Tape (AIT), VXA, and Travan formats. However, AIT, Travan and VXA are no longer mainstream, and the capacity of LTO has far exceeded that of the most recent DDS standard, DDS-320.
History:
DDS-1 Stores up to 1.3 GB uncompressed (2.6 GB compressed) on a 60 m cartridge or 2 GB uncompressed (4 GB compressed) on a 90 m cartridge. The DDS-1 cartridge often does not have the -1 designation, as initially it was the only format, though cartridges produced since the introduction of DDS-2 may carry a -1 designation to distinguish the format from newer formats. A media recognition system was introduced with DDS-2 drives and cartridges to detect the medium type and prevent the loading of an improper medium. From 1993, DDS-1 tapes included the media recognition system marks on the leader tape—a feature indicated by the presence of four vertical bars after the DDS logo.
History:
DDS-2 Stores up to 4 GB uncompressed (8 GB compressed) on a 120 m cartridge.
DDS-3 Stores up to 12 GB uncompressed (24 GB compressed) on a 125 m cartridge. DDS-3 uses PRML (Partial Response Maximum Likelihood) to minimize electronic noise for a cleaner data recording.
DDS-4 DDS-4 stores up to 20 GB uncompressed (40 GB compressed) on a 150 m cartridge. This format is also called DAT 40.
DAT 72 DAT 72 stores up to 36 GB uncompressed (72 GB compressed) on a 170 m cartridge. The DAT 72 standard was developed by HP and Certance. It has the same form-factor as DDS-3 and -4 and is sometimes referred to as DDS-5.
History:
DAT 160 DAT 160 was launched in June 2007 by HP, stores up to 80 GB uncompressed (160 GB compressed). A major change from the previous generations is the width of the tape. DAT 160 uses 8 mm wide tape in a slightly thicker cartridge while all prior versions use 3.81 mm wide tape. Despite the difference in tape widths, DAT 160 drives can load DAT-72 and DAT-40 (DDS-4) cartridges. Native capacity is 80 GB and native transfer rate was raised to 6.9 MB/s, mostly due to prolonging head/tape contact to 180° (compared to 90° previously). Launch interfaces were Parallel SCSI and USB, with SAS interface released later.
History:
DAT 320 In November 2009 HP announced the DAT-320 standard, which stores up to 160 GB uncompressed (marketed as 320 GB assuming 2:1 compression) per cartridge. Native transfer rate was raised to 12 MB/s.
Generations Future The next format, Gen 8, was canceled. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Saturation (graph theory)**
Saturation (graph theory):
Given a graph H , another graph G is H -saturated if G does not contain a (not necessarily induced) copy of H , but adding any edge to G it does. The function sat(n,H) is the minimum number of edges an H -saturated graph G on n vertices can have.
In matching theory, there is a different definition.
Let G(V,E) be a graph and M a matching in G . A vertex v∈V(G) is said to be saturated by M if there is an edge in M incident to v . A vertex v∈V(G) with no such edge is said to be unsaturated by M . We also say that M saturates v | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Merkle–Damgård construction**
Merkle–Damgård construction:
In cryptography, the Merkle–Damgård construction or Merkle–Damgård hash function is a method of building collision-resistant cryptographic hash functions from collision-resistant one-way compression functions.: 145 This construction was used in the design of many popular hash algorithms such as MD5, SHA-1 and SHA-2.
Merkle–Damgård construction:
The Merkle–Damgård construction was described in Ralph Merkle's Ph.D. thesis in 1979. Ralph Merkle and Ivan Damgård independently proved that the structure is sound: that is, if an appropriate padding scheme is used and the compression function is collision-resistant, then the hash function will also be collision-resistant.The Merkle–Damgård hash function first applies an MD-compliant padding function to create an input whose size is a multiple of a fixed number (e.g. 512 or 1024) — this is because compression functions cannot handle inputs of arbitrary size. The hash function then breaks the result into blocks of fixed size, and processes them one at a time with the compression function, each time combining a block of the input with the output of the previous round.: 146 In order to make the construction secure, Merkle and Damgård proposed that messages be padded with a padding that encodes the length of the original message. This is called length padding or Merkle–Damgård strengthening.
Merkle–Damgård construction:
In the diagram, the one-way compression function is denoted by f, and transforms two fixed length inputs to an output of the same size as one of the inputs. The algorithm starts with an initial value, the initialization vector (IV). The IV is a fixed value (algorithm or implementation specific). For each message block, the compression (or compacting) function f takes the result so far, combines it with the message block, and produces an intermediate result. The last block is padded with zeros as needed and bits representing the length of the entire message are appended. (See below for a detailed length padding example.) To harden the hash further, the last result is then sometimes fed through a finalisation function. The finalisation function can have several purposes such as compressing a bigger internal state (the last result) into a smaller output hash size or to guarantee a better mixing and avalanche effect on the bits in the hash sum. The finalisation function is often built by using the compression function. (Note that in some documents a different terminology is used: the act of length padding is called "finalisation".)
Security characteristics:
The popularity of this construction is due to the fact, proven by Merkle and Damgård, that if the one-way compression function f is collision resistant, then so is the hash function constructed using it. Unfortunately, this construction also has several undesirable properties: Second preimage attacks against long messages are always much more efficient than brute force.
Multicollisions (many messages with the same hash) can be found with only a little more work than collisions.
"Herding attacks", which combines the cascaded construction for multicollision finding (similar to the above) with collisions found for a given prefix (chosen-prefix collisions). This allows for constructing highly specific colliding documents, and it can be done for more work than finding a collision, but much less than would be expected to do this for a random oracle.
Security characteristics:
Length extension: Given the hash H(X) of an unknown input X, it is easy to find the value of H(Pad(X)‖Y) , where pad is the padding function of the hash. That is, it is possible to find hashes of inputs related to X even though X remains unknown. Length extension attacks were actually used to attack a number of commercial web message authentication schemes such as one used by Flickr.
Wide pipe construction:
Due to several structural weaknesses of Merkle–Damgård construction, especially the length extension problem and multicollision attacks, Stefan Lucks proposed the use of the wide-pipe hash instead of Merkle–Damgård construction. The wide-pipe hash is very similar to the Merkle–Damgård construction but has a larger internal state size, meaning that the bit-length that is internally used is larger than the output bit-length. If a hash of n bits is desired, the compression function f takes 2n bits of chaining value and m bits of the message and compresses this to an output of 2n bits.
Wide pipe construction:
Therefore, in a final step a second compression function compresses the last internal hash value (2n bit) to the final hash value (n bit). This can be done as simply as discarding half of the last 2n-bit-output. SHA-512/224 and SHA-512/256 take this form since they are derived from a variant of SHA-512. SHA-384 and SHA-224 are similarly derived from SHA-512 and SHA-256, respectively, but the width of their pipe is much less than 2n.
Fast wide pipe construction:
It has been demonstrated by Mridul Nandi and Souradyuti Paul that the Widepipe hash function can be made approximately twice as fast if the widepipe state can be divided in half in the following manner: one half is input to the succeeding compression function while the other half is combined with the output of that compression function.The main idea of the hash construction is to forward half of the previous chaining value forward to XOR it to the output of the compression function. In so doing the construction takes in longer message blocks every iteration than the original widepipe. Using the same function f as before, it takes n bit chaining values and n+m bits of the message. However, the price to pay is the extra memory used in the construction for feed-forward.
MD-compliant padding:
As mentioned in the introduction, the padding scheme used in the Merkle–Damgård construction must be chosen carefully to ensure the security of the scheme. Mihir Bellare gives sufficient conditions for a padding scheme to possess to ensure that the MD construction is secure: it suffices that the scheme be "MD-compliant" (the original length-padding scheme used by Merkle is an example of MD-compliant padding).: 145 Conditions: M is a prefix of Pad(M).
MD-compliant padding:
If |M1|=|M2| then |Pad(M1)|=|Pad(M2)|.
If |M1|≠|M2| then the last block of Pad(M1) is different from the last block of Pad(M2).
Where |X| denotes the length of X . With these conditions in place, we find a collision in the MD hash function exactly when we find a collision in the underlying compression function. Therefore, the Merkle–Damgård construction is provably secure when the underlying compression function is secure.: 147
Length padding example:
To be able to feed the message to the compression function, the last block needs to be padded with constant data (generally with zeroes) to a full block. For example, suppose the message to be hashed is "HashInput" (9 octet string, 0x48617368496e707574 in ASCII) and the block size of the compression function is 8 bytes (64 bits). We get two blocks (the padding octets shown with lightblue background color): 48 61 73 68 49 6e 70 75, 74 00 00 00 00 00 00 00This implies that other messages having the same content but ending with additional zeros at the end will result in the same hash value. In the above example, another almost identical message (0x48617368496e7075 7400) will generate the same hash value as the original message "HashInput" above. In other words, any message having extra zeros at the end makes it indistinguishable from the one without them. To prevent this situation, the first bit of the first padding octet is changed to "1" (0x80), yielding: 48 61 73 68 49 6e 70 75, 74 80 00 00 00 00 00 00To make it resistant against the length extension attack, the message length is added in an extra block at the end (shown with yellow background color): 48 61 73 68 49 6e 70 75, 74 80 00 00 00 00 00 00, 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 09However, most common implementations use a fixed bit-size (generally 64 or 128 bits in modern algorithms) at a fixed position at the end of the last block for inserting the message length value (see SHA-1 pseudocode). Further improvement can be made by inserting the length value in the last block if there is enough space. Doing so avoids having an extra block for the message length. If we assume the length value is encoded on 5 bytes (40 bits), the message becomes: 48 61 73 68 49 6e 70 75, 74 80 00 00 00 00 00 09Note that storing the message length out-of-band in metadata, or otherwise embedded at the start of the message is an effective mitigation of the length extension attack, as long as invalidation of either the message length and checksum are both considered failure of integrity checking. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Game art design**
Game art design:
Game art design is a subset of game development involving the process of creating the artistic aspects of video games. Video game art design begins in the pre-production phase of creating a video game. Video game artists are visual artists involved from the conception of the game who make rough sketches of the characters, setting, objects, etc. These starting concept designs can also be created by the game designers before the game is moved into actualization. Sometimes, these concept designs are called "programmer art". After the rough sketches are completed and the game is ready to be moved forward, those artists or more artists are brought in to develop graphic designs based on the sketches.
Game art design:
The art design of a game can involve anywhere from two people and up. Small gaming companies tend to not have as many artists on the team, meaning that their artist must be skilled in several types of art development, whereas the larger the company, although an artist can be skilled in several types of development, the roles each artist plays becomes more specialized.
Overview:
A game's artwork included in media, such as demos and screenshots, has a significant impact on customers, because artwork can be judged from previews, while gameplay cannot.Artists work closely with designers on what is needed for the game.Tools used for art design and production are known as art tools. These can range from pen and paper to full software packages for both 2D and 3D art. A developer may employ a tools team responsible for art production applications. This includes using existing software packages and creating custom exporters and plug-ins for them.
History:
Video game art development began when video games started to be created. When game development started, the game artists were also the programmers, which is often why very old games like Pong lack any sort of creativity and were very minimalistic. It was not until the early 1980s that art began to become more developmentally intricate. One of the first video game artists who contributed more shape and two-dimensional characters was Shigeru Miyamoto, who created Mario and Donkey Kong.Starting in the early 1990s, art requirements in video games were allowed to increase greatly because there was more room in the budget for art. Video game art began to be in 3D around 1994, before which it had mainly been 2D art design. This required the artist and programmer to work in congruence very carefully, in the beginning, due to the foreign nature of 3D in video games.As the hardware of video games and technology on a whole advances, the ability to develop art for video games increases exponentially. In more recent years many games have developed a much more realistic art design where some artists choose to have a more stylistic approach to the game. There are some games that aim for realism, modelling characters after real actors and using real film to create the back-up the artistry to make it as real as possible, like in Until Dawn.
Video game artist:
There are several roles under the art development umbrella. Each role plays an important part in creating the art for the video game. Depending on the size of the game production company, there may be anywhere from two people and up working on the game. The fewer people working on art design, the more jobs people will have to create the different facets of the game. The number of artists working on a game can also be dependent on the type of game being created. For most games there are many roles that must be filled to create characters, objects, setting, animation, and texturizing the game.Video game artists must use the same design principles that any other kind of artists use. This adds to the aesthetic value of the art created for video games. The greater understanding of these techniques adds to games to make them have a unique experience.
Video game artist:
Lead artist / art director The art director/lead artist is a person who monitor the progress of the other artists to make sure that the art for the game is staying on track. The art director is there to ensure that all the art created works cohesively. They manage their team of artists and distribute projects. The art director often works with other departments in the game and is involved from the conception of the game until the game is finished.
Video game artist:
2D artists Concept artist: A video game artist who works with game designers to produce concept art (such as character and environment sketches) and shape the "look of the game". A concept artist's job is to follow the art director's vision. The produced art may be in traditional media, such as drawings or clay molds, or 2D software, such as Adobe Photoshop. Concept art produced in the beginning of the production serves as a guide for the rest of development. Concept art is used for demonstration to the art director, producers and stakeholders.Storyboard artist (or storyboarder): A concept artist who designs and articulates scene sequences for review before main art production. They work with the concept artists and designers of the game from conception, to create an outline for the rest of the artists to follow. Sometimes this is passed on to other departments, like game writers and programmers, for a base of their work. They develop the cinematics of the game. The storyboards that are created breakdown scenes and how the camera will move.
Video game artist:
Texture artist: A video game artist who creates and applies textures (skins) to the work that has been created by the 3D modellers (polygon meshes). Often 2D/texture artists are the same people as the 3D modellers. The texture artist gives depth to the art in a video game, applying shading, gradients, and other classic art techniques through art development software.
Video game artist:
Sprite artist: A video game artist who creates non-static characters and objects or sprites for 2D games. Each sprite may consist of several frames used for animation.
Map artist (or background modeller): A video game artist who creates static art assets for game levels and maps, such as environmental backdrops or terrain images for 2D games.
interface artist: A video game artist who works with the interface programmer and designer to produce game interface, such as game menus, HUDs, etc.
Video game artist:
3D artists 3D modeller: A video game artist who uses digital software (e.g. Maya, 3ds Max, Blender) to create characters, environments (such as buildings), and objects such as weapons an vehicles. Any 3D component of a game is done by a 3D modeller.Environmental artist: A 3D modeller who works specifically to model the environment of a game. They also work with texturing and colours. They create the terrain that is featured in a video game. Environmental artists build the world, the layout, and the landscapes of the video game.
Video game artist:
The animator: A video game artist responsible for bringing life to the characters, the environment, and anything that moves in a game. They use 3D programs to animate these components to make the game as real as possible. The animators often work with technical artists who aid in making the characters able to move in a realistic way.
Video game artist:
Lighting artist: A video game artist who works on the light dynamics of a video game. Lighting artists adjust colours and brightness to add mood to the game. The lighting changes made in a video game depends on the type of game being created. The goal of the lighting artist is to create a mood that suits the scene and the game.
Compensation:
In 2010 an artist or animator with less than three years of experience on average earned US$45k a year. Artists with three to six years of experience earned US$61k. An artist with more than six years of experience earned $90k.A lead artist or technical artist earned $66k with three to six years of experience; and $97k with more than six years of experience and an art director with six and more years of experience earned on average, $105k a year. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Aspergillus sojae**
Aspergillus sojae:
Aspergillus sojae is a species of fungus in the genus Aspergillus.
In Japan, it is used to make the ferment (kōji) of soy sauce, miso, mirin, and other lacto-fermented condiments such as tsukemono. Soy sauce condiment is produced by fermenting soybeans with A. sojae, along with water and salt.
Aspergillus sojae:
Glyceollins, molecules belonging to the pterocarpans, are found in the soybean (Glycine max) and have been found to have an antifungal activity against A. sojae.Aspergillus sojae contains 10 glutaminase genes. The glutaminase enzyme in A. sojae is important to the taste of the soy sauce that it produces.An experiment was conducted using the genome sequencing of A. sojae. Strain NBRC 4239 had been isolated from the koji used to prepare Japanese soy sauce. The sequencing technology was used to investigate the genome with respect to enzymes and secondary metabolites in comparison with other Aspergillus species sequenced. The A. sojae NBRC4239 genome data will be useful to characterize functional features of the koji molds used in Japanese industries. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Funnel cloud**
Funnel cloud:
A funnel cloud is a funnel-shaped cloud of condensed water droplets, associated with a rotating column of wind and extending from the base of a cloud (usually a cumulonimbus or towering cumulus cloud) but not reaching the ground or a water surface. A funnel cloud is usually visible as a cone-shaped or needle like protuberance from the main cloud base. Funnel clouds form most frequently in association with supercell thunderstorms, and are often, but not always, a visual precursor to tornadoes. Funnel clouds are visual phenomena, these are not the vortex of wind itself.
"Classic" funnel clouds:
If a funnel cloud touches the surface the feature is considered a tornado, although ground level circulations begin before the visible condensation cloud appears. Most tornadoes begin as funnel clouds, but some funnel clouds do not make surface contact and these cannot be counted as tornadoes from the perspective of a naked eye observer, even as tornadic circulations of some intensity almost always are detectable when low-level radar observations are available. Also, tornadoes occur with some frequency without an associated condensation funnel. The term condensation funnel may refer to either a tornadic cloud or a funnel cloud aloft, but the term funnel cloud exclusively refers to a rotating condensation funnel not reaching the surface. If strong cyclonic winds are occurring at the surface and are connected to a cloud base, regardless of condensation, then the feature is a tornado.Debris swirls are usually evident prior to the condensation funnel reaching the surface. Some tornadoes may appear only as a debris swirl, with no obvious funnel cloud extending below the rotating cloud base at any time during the tornadic life cycle. The surface level vortex tends to strengthen over time following initial formation, making the debris swirls and the condensation more apparent.In cloud nomenclature, any funnel- or inverted-funnel-shaped cloud descending from cumulus or cumulonimbus clouds is technically described as an accessory feature called tuba. The terms tuba and funnel cloud are nearly but not exactly synonymous; a wall cloud, for example, is also a form of tuba. Funnel clouds associated with supercells usually form within and under wall clouds.
Cold-air funnel clouds:
Cold-air funnel clouds (vortices) are generally much weaker than the vortices produced by supercells. Although cold-air funnels rarely make ground contact, surface level vortices sometimes become strong enough for condensation cloud to "touch down" briefly, becoming visible as weak tornadoes or waterspouts. Unlike the related phenomenon associated with severe thunderstorms, cold-air funnels are generally associated with partly cloudy skies in the wake of cold fronts, especially associated with certain low pressure systems, or in association with atmospheric boundaries such as lake and sea breezes or outflow boundaries.
Cold-air funnel clouds:
The larger scale weather conditions are characterized by particularly cold air aloft over relatively warmer low level air, leading to high lapse rates, and often by high environmental vorticity yet relatively meager vertical wind shear. The funnels develop where atmospheric instability and moisture are sufficient to support towering cumulus clouds but typically limited to no or to little precipitation. Cold-air funnels, although weak, may persist for several minutes, and areas of intermittently forming funnel clouds may occur for tens of minutes.Multiple such areas of activity may form within the same region during afternoon heating. Cold-air funnels appears to be a diurnal phenomenon, weakening and eventually dissipating with loss of solar heating. When precipitation does develop, the associated downdraft tends to cause rapid demise of the cold-air funnels. The mixing of cooler air in the lower troposphere with air flowing in a different direction in the middle troposphere causes the rotation on a horizontal axis, which, when deflected and tightened vertically by convective updrafts, forms a vertical rotation that can cause condensation to form a funnel cloud.Cold-air funnel clouds are a common sight along the Pacific Coast of the United States, particularly in the spring or fall.On July 29, 2013, a cold-core funnel cloud touched down as an EF0 tornado in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, causing extensive damage in the form of downed trees on a golf course. No advance weather watches or warnings were issued by Environment Canada, and the tornado was spawned from one of the few non-severe storm clouds moving through the area.
Other funnel clouds:
Other funnel clouds include shear or "high based" funnels, which are ephemeral, small, and weak funnels associated with small cumulus clouds, often even those rooted aloft above the boundary or surface layer, and in "fair weather" conditions. Small funnel clouds, such as some occurring within vicinity of mountains, occur by unknown processes.Shear funnels might also occur with weak transient circulations at the cloud base of thunderstorms. Mesoanticyclones, which accompany mesocyclones, often exhibit these funnel clouds. Brief funnels also are observed with some rear flank downdrafts (RFDs) (within inflow or outflow areas, and especially within inflow-outflow interchange areas as RFDs interact with mesocyclones or flanking line updrafts) and streamwise vorticity currents (SVCs) feeding into mesocyclones.
Other funnel clouds:
Although not considered a separate kind of funnel cloud, some funnel clouds form with mesovortices associated with squall lines, which also can become tornadoes but are often not visible as funnel clouds or tornadoes because they usually occur within obscuring precipitation. Other "fair weather" funnel clouds include horseshoe clouds which are a very transient phenomena associated with extremely weak vortices. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Radioallergosorbent test**
Radioallergosorbent test:
A radioallergosorbent test (RAST) is a blood test using radioimmunoassay test to detect specific IgE antibodies in order to determine the substances a subject is allergic to. This is different from a skin allergy test, which determines allergy by the reaction of a person's skin to different substances.
Medical uses:
The two most commonly used methods of confirming allergen sensitization are skin testing and allergy blood testing. Both methods are recommended by the NIH guidelines and have similar diagnostic value in terms of sensitivity and specificity.Advantages of the allergy blood test range from: excellent reproducibility across the full measuring range of the calibration curve, it has very high specificity as it binds to allergen specific IgE, and extremely sensitive too, when compared with skin prick testing. In general, this method of blood testing (in-vitro, out of body) vs skin-prick testing (in-vivo, in body) has a major advantage: it is not always necessary to remove the patient from an antihistamine medication regimen, and if the skin conditions (such as eczema) are so widespread that allergy skin testing cannot be done. Allergy blood tests, such as ImmunoCAP, are performed without procedure variations, and the results are of excellent standardization.Adults and children of any age can take an allergy blood test. For babies and very young children, a single needle stick for allergy blood testing is often more gentle than several skin tests. However, skin testing techniques have improved. Most skin testing does not involve needles and typically skin testing results in minimal patient discomfort.Drawbacks to RAST and ImmunoCAP techniques do exist. Compared to skin testing, ImmunoCAP and other RAST techniques take longer to perform and are less cost effective. Several studies have also found these tests to be less sensitive than skin testing for the detection of clinically relevant allergies. False positive results may be obtained due to cross-reactivity of homologous proteins or by cross-reactive carbohydrate determinants (CCDs).In the NIH food guidelines issued in December 2010 it was stated that "The predictive values associated with clinical evidence of allergy for ImmunoCAP cannot be applied to other test methods." With over 4000 scientific articles using ImmunoCAP and showing its clinical value, ImmunoCAP is perceived as "Gold standard" for in vitro IgE testing
Method:
The RAST is a radioimmunoassay test to detect specific IgE antibodies to suspected or known allergens for the purpose of guiding a diagnosis about allergy. IgE is the antibody associated with Type I allergic response: for example, if a person exhibits a high level of IgE directed against pollen, the test may indicate the person is allergic to pollen (or pollen-like) proteins. A person who has outgrown an allergy may still have a positive IgE years after exposure.The suspected allergen is bound to an insoluble material and the patient's serum is added. If the serum contains antibodies to the allergen, those antibodies will bind to the allergen. Radiolabeled anti-human IgE antibody is added where it binds to those IgE antibodies already bound to the insoluble material. The unbound anti-human IgE antibodies are washed away. The amount of radioactivity is proportional to the serum IgE for the allergen.RASTs are often used to test for allergies when: a physician advises against the discontinuation of medications that can interfere with test results or cause medical complications; a patient has severe skin conditions such as widespread eczema or a patient has such a high sensitivity level to suspected allergens that any administration of those allergens might result in potentially serious side effects.
Scale:
The RAST is scored on a scale from 0 to 6:
History:
The market-leading RAST methodology was invented and marketed in 1974 by Pharmacia Diagnostics AB, Uppsala, Sweden, and the acronym RAST is actually a brand name. In 1989, Pharmacia Diagnostics AB replaced it with a superior test named the ImmunoCAP Specific IgE blood test, which literature may also describe as: CAP RAST, CAP FEIA (fluorenzymeimmunoassay), and Pharmacia CAP. A review of applicable quality assessment programs shows that this new test has replaced the original RAST in approximately 80% of the world's commercial clinical laboratories, where specific IgE testing is performed. The newest version, the ImmunoCAP Specific IgE 0–100, is the only specific IgE assay to receive FDA approval to quantitatively report to its detection limit of 0.1kU/L. This clearance is based on the CLSI/NCCLS-17A Limits of Detection and Limits of Quantitation, October 2004 guideline.The guidelines for diagnosis and management of food allergy issues by the National Institute of Health state that: In 2010 the United States National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases recommended that the RAST measurements of specific immunoglobulin E for the diagnosis of allergy be abandoned in favor of testing with more sensitive fluorescence enzyme-labeled assays. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**High-molecular-weight kininogen**
High-molecular-weight kininogen:
High-molecular-weight kininogen (HMWK or HK) is a circulating plasma protein which participates in the initiation of blood coagulation, and in the generation of the vasodilator bradykinin via the kallikrein-kinin system. HMWK is inactive until it either adheres to binding proteins beneath an endothelium disrupted by injury, thereby initiating coagulation; or it binds to intact endothelial cells or platelets for functions other than coagulation.
Other names:
In the past, HMWK has been called HMWK-kallikrein factor, Flaujeac factor (1975), Fitzgerald factor (1975), and Williams-Fitzgerald-Flaujeac factor, - the eponyms being for people first reported to have HMWK deficiency. Its current accepted name is to contrast it with low-molecular-weight kininogen (LMWK) which has a similar function to HMWK in the tissue (as opposed to serum) kinin-kallikrein system.
Structure and function:
HMWK is an alpha-globulin with six functional domains. It circulates as a single-chain 626 amino acid polypeptide . The heavy chain contains domains 1, 2, and 3; the light chain, domains 5 and 6. Domain 4 links the heavy and light chains.
Structure and function:
The domains contain the following functional sites: Domain 1 - calcium binding Domain 2 - cysteine protease inhibition Domain 3 - cysteine protease inhibition; platelet and endothelial cell binding Domain 4 - bradykinin generation Domain 5 - heparin and cell binding; antiangiogenic properties; binding to negatively charged surfaces Domain 6 - prekallikrein and factor XI binding (amino acids 420 to 510)(histidine rich)HMWK is one of four proteins which interact to initiate the contact activation pathway (also called the intrinsic pathway) of coagulation: the other three are Factor XII, Factor XI and prekallikrein. HMWK is not enzymatically active, and functions only as a cofactor for the activation of kallikrein and factor XII. It is also necessary for the activation of factor XI by factor XIIa.
Structure and function:
HMWK is also a precursor of bradykinin; this vasodilator is released through positive feedback by kallikrein.
HMWK is a strong inhibitor of cysteine proteinases. Responsible for this activity are domains 2 and 3 on its heavy chain.
Genetics:
The gene for both LMWK and HMWK is located on the 3rd chromosome (3q26).
Measurement:
Measurement of HMWK is usually done with mixing studies, in which plasma deficient in HMWK is mixed with the patient's sample and a partial thromboplastin time (PTT) is determined. Results are expressed in % of normal - a value under 60% indicates a deficiency.
Clinical features:
The existence of HMWK was hypothesised in 1975 when several patients were described with a deficiency of a class of plasma protein and a prolonged bleeding time and PTT. There is no increased risk of bleeding or any other symptoms, so the deficiency is a trait, not a disease. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Themed walk**
Themed walk:
A themed walk is a type of informal learning and often is defined by a walk along which there are information boards or other identifying codes (e.g. QR codes) covering a specific topic or theme such as history, geology or forestry. An academic discipline or school subject can define a theme. A walk can consist of one or more themes. Whilst themed walks are often designed to encourage walking, educational paths and nature trail tend to be aimed more at educating or training.
Themes:
For nature-based themes, paths may be several kilometres long and may be used both for educational purposes and recreation. They may connect places, buildings or natural features that have a particular theme in common by a signed route, but may also have specifically positioned exhibits.
For science themes, informal learning provides ways to engage in diverse settings. For themes related to the nature, features of nature (e.g. raised bogs or biotopes) or of geology may be laid out as special educational paths.
For themes related to mathematics or physics, these walks provide objective interpretation of physical objects encountered en route.
Management:
Municipal authorities or local societies may be responsible for their establishment and maintenance. Other walks are managed by individuals who are highly knowledgeable in a theme, and host theme-based tours.
Examples:
In Austria there are more than 300 themed walks. These paths are intended to give summer tourism in the Alps a new impulse, but are also helping to improve the network of footpaths. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Cathepsin W**
Cathepsin W:
Cathepsin W is a protein that in humans is encoded by the CTSW gene.The protein encoded by this gene, a member of the peptidase C1 family of cysteine cathepsins, is a cysteine protease cathepsin that may have a specific function in the mechanism or regulation of T-cell cytolytic activity. The encoded protein is found associated with the cell membrane inside the endoplasmic reticulum of natural killer and cytotoxic T-cells. Expression of this gene is up-regulated by interleukin-2. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Modes de jeu**
Modes de jeu:
The modes de jeu (modes of playing) are specific musical techniques developed to enrich the timbre capabilities of musical instruments. Used in contemporary classical music, the first composers to have used them as such are certainly Béla Bartók (Pizz Bartok, Jeux ponticello de cordes), Richard Strauss, who asked the horn player to sing in his instrument (Ein Heldenleben, 1899), Henry Cowell and his clusters (1911), and Edgar Varèse, who in Density 21.5 (1936) ordered the flutist to hit the keys. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**NAN-190**
NAN-190:
NAN-190 is a drug and research chemical widely used in scientific studies. It was previously believed to act as a selective 5-HT1A receptor antagonist, but a subsequent discovery showed that it also potently blocks the α2-adrenergic receptor. The new finding has raised significant concerns about studies using NAN-190 as a specific serotonin receptor antagonist. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Quorum sensing**
Quorum sensing:
In biology, quorum sensing or quorum signaling (QS) is the ability to detect and respond to cell population density by gene regulation. Quorum sensing is a type of cellular signaling, and more specifically can be considered a type of paracrine signaling. However, it also contains traits of both autocrine signaling: a cell produces both the autoinducer molecule and the receptor for the autoinducer. As one example, QS enables bacteria to restrict the expression of specific genes to the high cell densities at which the resulting phenotypes will be most beneficial, especially for phenotypes that would be ineffective at low cell densities and therefore too energetically costly to express. Many species of bacteria use quorum sensing to coordinate gene expression according to the density of their local population. In a similar fashion, some social insects use quorum sensing to determine where to nest. Quorum sensing in pathogenic bacteria activates host immune signaling and prolongs host survival, by limiting the bacterial intake of nutrients, such as tryptophan, which further is converted to serotonin. As such, quorum sensing allows a commensal interaction between host and pathogenic bacteria. Quorum sensing may also be useful for cancer cell communications.In addition to its function in biological systems, quorum sensing has several useful applications for computing and robotics. In general, quorum sensing can function as a decision-making process in any decentralized system in which the components have: (a) a means of assessing the number of other components they interact with and (b) a standard response once a threshold number of components is detected.
Discovery:
Quorum sensing was first reported in 1970, by Kenneth Nealson, Terry Platt, and J. Woodland Hastings, who observed what they described as a conditioning of the medium in which they had grown the bioluminescent marine bacterium Aliivibrio fischeri. These bacteria did not synthesize luciferase—and therefore did not luminesce—in freshly inoculated culture but only after the bacterial population had increased significantly. Because they attributed this conditioning of the medium to the growing population of cells itself, they referred to the phenomenon as autoinduction.
Bacteria:
Some of the best-known examples of quorum sensing come from studies of bacteria. Bacteria use quorum sensing to regulate certain phenotype expressions, which in turn, coordinate their behaviours. Some common phenotypes include biofilm formation, virulence factor expression, and motility. Certain bacteria are able to use quorum sensing to regulate bioluminescence, nitrogen fixation and sporulation.The quorum-sensing function is based on the local density of the bacterial population in the immediate environment. It can occur within a single bacterial species, as well as between diverse species. Both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria use quorum sensing, but there are some major differences in their mechanisms.
Bacteria:
Mechanism For the bacteria to use quorum sensing constitutively, they must possess three abilities: secretion of a signaling molecule, secretion of an autoinducer (to detect the change in concentration of signaling molecules), and regulation of gene transcription as a response. This process is highly dependent on the diffusion mechanism of the signaling molecules. QS signaling molecules are usually secreted at a low level by individual bacteria. At low cell density, the molecules may just diffuse away. At high cell density, the local concentration of signaling molecules may exceed its threshold level, and trigger changes in gene expression.
Bacteria:
Gram-positive bacteria Gram-positive bacteria use autoinducing peptides (AIP) as their autoinducers.When gram-positive bacteria detect high concentration of AIPs in their environment, that happens by way of AIPs binding to a receptor to activate a kinase. The kinase phosphorylates a transcription factor, which regulates gene transcription. This is called a two-component system.
Another possible mechanism is that AIP is transported into the cytosol, and binds directly to a transcription factor to initiate or inhibit transcription.
Gram-negative bacteria Gram-negative bacteria produce N-acyl homoserine lactones (AHL) as their signaling molecule. Usually AHLs do not need additional processing, and bind directly to transcription factors to regulate gene expression.Some gram-negative bacteria may use the two-component system as well.
Bacteria:
Examples Aliivibrio fischeri The bioluminescent bacterium A. fischeri is the first organism in which QS was observed. It lives as a mutualistic symbiont in the photophore (or light-producing organ) of the Hawaiian bobtail squid. When A. fischeri cells are free-living (or planktonic), the autoinducer is at low concentration, and, thus, cells do not show luminescence. However, when the population reaches the threshold in the photophore (about 1011 cells/ml), transcription of luciferase is induced, leading to bioluminescence.
Bacteria:
In A. fischeri bioluminescence is regulated by AHLs (N-acyl-homoserine lactones) which is a product of the LuxI gene whose transcription is regulated by the LuxR activator. LuxR works only when AHLs binds to the LuxR.
Curvibacter sp.
Bacteria:
Curvibacter sp. is a gram-negative curved rod-formed bacterium which is the main colonizer of the epithelial cell surfaces of the early branching metazoan Hydra vulgaris. Sequencing the complete genome uncovered a circular chromosome (4.37 Mb), a plasmid (16.5 kb), and two operons coding each for an AHL (N-acyl-homoserine lactone) synthase (curI1 and curI2) and an AHL receptor (curR1 and curR2). Moreover, a study showed that these host associated Curvibacter bacteria produce a broad spectrum of AHL, explaining the presence of those operons. As mentioned before, AHL are the quorum sensing molecules of gram-negative bacteria, which means Curvibacter has a quorum sensing activity.
Bacteria:
Even though their function in host-microbe interaction is largely unknown, Curvibacter quorum-sensing signals are relevant for host-microbe interactions. Indeed, due to the oxidoreductase activity of Hydra, there is a modification of AHL signalling molecules (3-oxo-homoserine lactone into 3-hydroxy-homoserine lactone) which leads to a different host-microbe interaction. On one hand, a phenotypic switch of the colonizer Curvibacter takes place. The most likely explanation is that the binding of 3-oxo-HSL and 3-hydroxy-HSL causes different conformational changes in the AHL receptors curR1 and curR2. As a result, there is a different DNA-binding motif affinity and thereby different target genes are activated. On the other hand, this switch modifies its ability to colonize the epithelial cell surfaces of Hydra vulgaris. Indeed, one explanation is that with a 3-oxo-HSL quorum-sensing signal, there is an up-regulation of flagellar assembly. Yet, flagellin, the main protein component of flagella, can act as an immunomodulator and activate the innate immune response in Hydra. Therefore, bacteria have less chance to evade the immune system and to colonize host tissues. Another explanation is that 3-hydroxy-HSL induces carbon metabolism and fatty acid degradation genes in Hydra. This allows the bacterial metabolism to adjust itself to the host growth conditions, which is essential for the colonization of the ectodermal mucus layer of Hydrae.
Bacteria:
Escherichia coli In the gram-negative bacterium Escherichia coli (E. coli), cell division may be partially regulated by AI-2-mediated quorum sensing. This species uses AI-2, which is produced and processed by the lsr operon. Part of it encodes an ABC transporter, which imports AI-2 into the cells during the early stationery (latent) phase of growth. AI-2 is then phosphorylated by the LsrK kinase, and the newly produced phospho-AI-2 can be either internalized or used to suppress LsrR, a repressor of the lsr operon (thereby activating the operon). Transcription of the lsr operon is also thought to be inhibited by dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) through its competitive binding to LsrR. Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate has also been shown to inhibit the lsr operon through cAMP-CAPK-mediated inhibition. This explains why, when grown with glucose, E. coli will lose the ability to internalize AI-2 (because of catabolite repression). When grown normally, AI-2 presence is transient.
Bacteria:
E. coli and Salmonella enterica do not produce AHL signals commonly found in other gram-negative bacteria. However, they have a receptor that detects AHLs from other bacteria and change their gene expression in accordance with the presence of other "quorate" populations of gram-negative bacteria.
Bacteria:
Salmonella enterica Salmonella encodes a LuxR homolog, SdiA, but does not encode an AHL synthase. SdiA detects AHLs produced by other species of bacteria including Aeromonas hydrophila, Hafnia alvei, and Yersinia enterocolitica. When AHL is detected, SdiA regulates the rck operon on the Salmonella virulence plasmid (pefI-srgD-srgA-srgB-rck-srgC) and a single gene horizontal acquisition in the chromosome srgE. Salmonella does not detect AHL when passing through the gastrointestinal tracts of several animal species, suggesting that the normal microbiota does not produce AHLs. However, SdiA does become activated when Salmonella transits through turtles colonized with Aeromonas hydrophila or mice infected with Yersinia enterocolitica. Therefore, Salmonella appears to use SdiA to detect the AHL production of other pathogens rather than the normal gut flora.
Bacteria:
Pseudomonas aeruginosa The opportunistic pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa uses quorum sensing to coordinate the formation of biofilm, swarming motility, exopolysaccharide production, virulence, and cell aggregation. These bacteria can grow within a host without harming it until they reach a threshold concentration. Then they become aggressive, developing to the point at which their numbers are sufficient to overcome the host's immune system, and form a biofilm, leading to disease within the host as the biofilm is a protective layer encasing the bacterial population. Another form of gene regulation that allows the bacteria to rapidly adapt to surrounding changes is through environmental signaling. Recent studies have discovered that anaerobiosis can significantly impact the major regulatory circuit of quorum sensing. This important link between quorum sensing and anaerobiosis has a significant impact on the production of virulence factors of this organism. There is hope among some humans that the therapeutic enzymatic degradation of the signaling molecules will be possible when treating illness caused by biofilms, and prevent the formation of such biofilms and possibly weaken established biofilms. Disrupting the signaling process in this way is called quorum sensing inhibition.
Bacteria:
Acinetobacter sp.
It has recently been found that Acinetobacter sp. also show quorum sensing activity. This bacterium, an emerging pathogen, produces AHLs. Acinetobacter sp. shows both quorum sensing and quorum quenching activity. It produces AHLs and also, it can degrade the AHL molecules as well.
Aeromonas sp.
Bacteria:
This bacterium was previously considered a fish pathogen, but it has recently emerged as a human pathogen. Aeromonas sp. have been isolated from various infected sites from patients (bile, blood, peritoneal fluid, pus, stool and urine). All isolates produced the two principal AHLs, N-butanoylhomoserine lactone (C4-HSL) and N-hexanoyl homoserine lactone (C6-HSL). It has been documented that Aeromonas sobria has produced C6-HSL and two additional AHLs with N-acyl side chain longer than C6.
Bacteria:
Yersinia The YenR and YenI proteins produced by the gammaproteobacterium Yersinia enterocolitica are similar to Aliivibrio fischeri LuxR and LuxI. YenR activates the expression of a small non-coding RNA, YenS. YenS inhibits YenI expression and acylhomoserine lactone production. YenR/YenI/YenS are involved in the control of swimming and swarming motility.
Bacteria:
Molecules involved Three-dimensional structures of proteins involved in quorum sensing were first published in 2001, when the crystal structures of three LuxS orthologs were determined by X-ray crystallography. In 2002, the crystal structure of the receptor LuxP of Vibrio harveyi with its inducer AI-2 (which is one of the few biomolecules containing boron) bound to it was also determined. Many bacterial species, including E. coli, an enteric bacterium and model organism for gram-negative bacteria, produce AI-2. A comparative genomic and phylogenetic analysis of 138 genomes of bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes found that "the LuxS enzyme required for AI-2 synthesis is widespread in bacteria, while the periplasmic binding protein LuxP is present only in Vibrio strains," leading to the conclusion that either "other organisms may use components different from the AI-2 signal transduction system of Vibrio strains to sense the signal of AI-2 or they do not have such a quorum sensing system at all." Vibrio species utilize Qrr RNAs, small non-coding RNAs, that are activated by these autoinducers to target cell density master regulators. Farnesol is used by the fungus Candida albicans as a quorum sensing molecule that inhibits filamentation.A database of quorum-sensing peptides is available under the name Quorumpeps.Certain bacteria can produce enzymes called lactonases that can target and inactivate AHLs.
Bacteria:
Researchers have developed novel molecules which block the signalling receptors of bacteria ("Quorum quenching"). mBTL is a compound that has been shown to inhibit quorum sensing and decrease the amount of cell death by a significant amount. Additionally, researchers are also examining the role of natural compounds (such as caffeine) as potential quorum sensing inhibitors. Research in this area has been promising and could lead to the development of natural compounds as effective therapeutics.
Bacteria:
Evolution Sequence analysis The majority of quorum sensing systems that fall under the "two-gene" (an autoinducer synthase coupled with a receptor molecule) paradigm as defined by the Vibrio fischeri system occur in the gram-negative Pseudomonadota. A comparison between the Pseudomonadota phylogeny as generated by 16S ribosomal RNA sequences and phylogenies of LuxI-, LuxR-, or LuxS-homologs shows a notably high level of global similarity. Overall, the quorum sensing genes seem to have diverged along with the Pseudomonadota phylum as a whole. This indicates that these quorum sensing systems are quite ancient, and arose very early in the Pseudomonadota lineage.Although examples of horizontal gene transfer are apparent in LuxI, LuxR, and LuxS phylogenies, they are relatively rare. This result is in line with the observation that quorum sensing genes tend to control the expression of a wide array of genes scattered throughout the bacterial chromosome. A recent acquisition by horizontal gene transfer would be unlikely to have integrated itself to this degree. Given that the majority of autoinducer–synthase/receptor pairs occur in tandem in bacterial genomes, it is also rare that they switch partners and so pairs tend to co-evolve.In quorum sensing genes of Gammaproteobacteria, which includes Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Escherichia coli, the LuxI/LuxR genes form a functional pair, with LuxI as the auto-inducer synthase and LuxR as the receptor. Gammaproteobacteria are unique in possessing quorum sensing genes, which, although functionally similar to the LuxI/LuxR genes, have a markedly divergent sequence. This family of quorum-sensing homologs may have arisen in the Gammaproteobacteria ancestor, although the cause of their extreme sequence divergence yet maintenance of functional similarity has yet to be explained. In addition, species that employ multiple discrete quorum sensing systems are almost all members of the Gammaproteobacteria, and evidence of horizontal transfer of quorum sensing genes is most evident in this class.
Bacteria:
Interaction of quorum-sensing molecules with mammalian cells and its medical applications Next to the potential antimicrobial functionality, quorum-sensing derived molecules, especially the peptides, are being investigated for their use in other therapeutic domains as well, including immunology, central nervous system disorders and oncology. Quorum-sensing peptides have been demonstrated to interact with cancer cells, as well as to permeate the blood–brain barrier reaching the brain parenchyma.
Bacteria:
Role of quorum sensing in biofilm development When aggregated in high enough densities, some bacteria may form biofilms to protect themselves from biotic or abiotic threats. Biofilms may also serve to transport nutrients into the microbial community or transport toxins out by means of channels that permeate the extracellular polymeric matrix (like cellulose) that holds the cells together. Finally, biofilms are an ideal environment for horizontal gene transfer through either conjugation or environmental DNA (eDNA) that exists in the biofilm matrix.The process of biofilm development is often triggered by environmental signals, and bacteria are proven to require flagella to successfully approach a surface, adhere to it, and form the biofilm. As cells either replicate or aggregate in a location, the concentration of autoinducers outside of the cells increases until a critical mass threshold is reached. At this point, it is energetically unfavorable for intracellular autoinducers to leave the cell and they bind to receptors and trigger a signaling cascade to initiate gene expression and begin secreting an extracellular polysaccharide to encase themselves inside.
Archaea:
Examples Methanosaeta harundinacea 6Ac Methanosaeta harundinacea 6Ac, a methanogenic archaeon, produces carboxylated acyl homoserine lactone compounds that facilitate the transition from growth as short cells to growth as filaments.
Viruses:
A mechanism involving arbitrium has recently been described in bacteriophages infecting several Bacillus species. The viruses communicate with each other to ascertain their own density compared to potential hosts. They use this information to decide whether to enter a lytic or lysogenic life-cycle.
Plants:
QS is important to plant-pathogen interactions, and their study has also contributed to the QS field more generally. The first X-ray crystallography results for some of the key proteins were those of Pantoea stewartii subsp. stewartii in maize/corn and Agrobacterium tumefaciens, a crop pathogen with a wider range of hosts. These interactions are facilitated by quorum-sensing molecules and play a major role in maintaining the pathogenicity of bacteria towards other hosts, such as humans. This mechanism can be understood by looking at the effects of N-Acyl homoserine lactone (AHL), one of the quorum sensing-signaling molecules in gram-negative bacteria, on plants. The model organism used is Arabidopsis thaliana.The role of AHLs having long carbon-chains (C12, C14), which have an unknown receptor mechanism, is less well understood than AHLs having short carbon-chains (C4, C6, C8), which are perceived by the G protein-coupled receptor. A phenomenon called "AHL priming", which is a dependent signalling pathway, enhanced our knowledge of long-chain AHLs. The role of quorum-sensing molecules was better explained according to three categories: host physiology–based impact of quorum sensing molecules; ecological effects; and cellular signaling. Calcium signalling and calmodulin have a large role in short-chain AHLs' response in Arabidopsis. Research was also conducted on barley and the crop called yam bean (Pachyrhizus erosus) that reveals the AHLs determining the detoxification enzymes called GST were found less in yam bean.Quorum sensing-based regulatory systems are necessary to plant-disease-causing bacteria. Looking towards developing new strategies based on plant-associated microbiomes, the aim of further study is to improve the quantity and quality of the food supply. Further research into this inter-kingdom communication also enhances the possibility of learning about quorum sensing in humans.
Quorum quenching:
Quorum quenching is the process of preventing quorum sensing by disrupting signalling. This is achieved by inactivating signalling enzymes, by introducing molecules that mimic signalling molecules and block their receptors, by degrading signalling molecules themselves, or by a modification of the quorum sensing signals due to an enzyme activity.
Inhibition Closantel and triclosan are known inhibitors of quorum sensing enzymes. Closantel induces aggregation of the histidine kinase sensor in two-component signalling. The latter disrupts the synthesis of a class of signalling molecules known as N-acyl homoserine lactones (AHLs) by blocking the enoyl-acyl carrier protein (ACP) reductase.
Quorum quenching:
Mimicry Two groups of well-known mimicking molecules include halogenated furanones, which mimic AHL molecules, and synthetic Al peptides (AIPs), which mimic naturally occurring AIPs. These groups inhibit receptors from binding substrate or decrease the concentration of receptors in the cell. Furanones have also been found to act on AHL-dependant transcriptional activity, whereby the half life of the autoinducer-binding LuxR protein is significantly shortened.
Quorum quenching:
Degradation Recently, a well-studied quorum quenching bacterial strain (KM1S) was isolated and its AHL degradation kinetics were studied using rapid resolution liquid chromatography (RRLC). RRLC efficiently separates components of a mixture to a high degree of sensitivity, based on their affinities for different liquid phases. It was found that the genome of this strain encoded an inactivation enzyme with distinct motifs targeting the degradation of AHLs.
Quorum quenching:
Modifications As mentioned before, N-acyl-homoserine lactones (AHL) are the quorum sensing signaling molecules of the gram-negative bacteria. However, these molecules may have different functional groups on their acyl chain, and also a different length of acyl chain. Therefore, there exist many different AHL signaling molecules, for example, 3-oxododecanoyl-L-homoserine lactone (3OC12-HSL) or 3-hydroxydodecanoyl-L-homoserine lactone (3OHC12-HSL). The modification of those quorum sensing (QS) signaling molecules is another sort of quorum quenching. This can be carried out by an oxidoreductase activity. As an example, we will discuss the interaction between a host, Hydra vulgaris, and the main colonizer of its epithelial cell surfaces, Curvibacter spp. Those bacteria produce 3-oxo-HSL quorum sensing molecules. However, the oxidoreductase activity of the polyp Hydra is able to modify the 3-oxo-HSL into their 3-hydroxy-HSL counterparts. We can characterize this as quorum quenching since there is an interference with quorum sensing molecules. In this case, the outcomes differ from simple QS inactivation: the host modification results in a phenotypic switch of Curvibacter, which modifies its ability to colonize the epithelial cell surfaces of H. vulgaris.
Quorum quenching:
Applications Applications of quorum quenching that have been exploited by humans include the use of AHL-degrading bacteria in aquacultures to limit the spread of diseases in aquatic populations of fish, mollusks and crustaceans. This technique has also been translated to agriculture, to restrict the spread of pathogenic bacteria that use quorum sensing in plants. Anti-biofouling is another process that exploits quorum quenching bacteria to mediate the dissociation of unwanted biofilms aggregating on wet surfaces, such as medical devices, transportation infrastructure and water systems. Quorum quenching is recently studied for the control of fouling and emerging contaminants in electro membrane bioreactors (eMBRs) for the advanced treatment of wastewater. Extracts of several traditional medicinal herbs display quorum quenching acivity, and have potential antibacterial applications.
Social insects:
Social insect colonies are an excellent example of a decentralized system, because no individual is in charge of directing or making decisions for the colony. Several groups of social insects have been shown to use quorum sensing in a process that resembles collective decision-making.
Social insects:
Examples Ants Colonies of the ant Temnothorax albipennis nest in small crevices between rocks. When the rocks shift and the nest is broken up, these ants must quickly choose a new nest to move into. During the first phase of the decision-making process, a small portion of the workers leave the destroyed nest and search for new crevices. When one of these scout ants finds a potential nest, she assesses the quality of the crevice based on a variety of factors including the size of the interior, the number of openings (based on light level), and the presence or absence of dead ants. The worker then returns to the destroyed nest, where she waits for a short period before recruiting other workers to follow her to the nest that she has found, using a process called tandem running. The waiting period is inversely related to the quality of the site; for instance, a worker that has found a poor site will wait longer than a worker that encountered a good site. As the new recruits visit the potential nest site and make their own assessment of its quality, the number of ants visiting the crevice increases. During this stage, ants may be visiting many different potential nests. However, because of the differences in the waiting period, the number of ants in the best nest will tend to increase at the greatest rate. Eventually, the ants in this nest will sense that the rate at which they encounter other ants has exceeded a particular threshold, indicating that the quorum number has been reached. Once the ants sense a quorum, they return to the destroyed nest and begin rapidly carrying the brood, queen, and fellow workers to the new nest. Scouts that are still tandem-running to other potential sites are also recruited to the new nest, and the entire colony moves. Thus, although no single worker may have visited and compared all of the available options, quorum sensing enables the colony as a whole to quickly make good decisions about where to move.
Social insects:
Honey bees Honey bees (Apis mellifera) also use quorum sensing to make decisions about new nest sites. Large colonies reproduce through a process called swarming, in which the queen leaves the hive with a portion of the workers to form a new nest elsewhere. After leaving the nest, the workers form a swarm that hangs from a branch or overhanging structure. This swarm persists during the decision-making phase until a new nest site is chosen.
Social insects:
The quorum sensing process in honey bees is similar to the method used by Temnothorax ants in several ways. A small portion of the workers leave the swarm to search out new nest sites, and each worker assesses the quality of the cavity it finds. The worker then returns to the swarm and recruits other workers to her cavity using the honey bee waggle dance. However, instead of using a time delay, the number of dance repetitions the worker performs is dependent on the quality of the site. Workers that found poor nests stop dancing sooner, and can, therefore, be recruited to the better sites. Once the visitors to a new site sense that a quorum number (usually 10–20 bees) has been reached, they return to the swarm and begin using a new recruitment method called piping. This vibration signal causes the swarm to take off and fly to the new nest location. In an experimental test, this decision-making process enabled honey bee swarms to choose the best nest site in four out of five trials.
Synthetic biology:
Quorum sensing has been engineered using synthetic biological circuits in different systems. Examples include rewiring the AHL components to toxic genes to control population size in bacteria; and constructing an auxin-based system to control population density in mammalian cells. Synthetic quorum sensing circuits have been proposed to enable applications like controlling biofilms or enabling drug delivery. Quorum sensing based genetic circuits have been used to convert AI-2 signals to AI-1 and then subsequently use the AI-1 signal to alter bacterial growth rate, thereby changing the composition of a consortium.
Computing and robotics:
Quorum sensing can be a useful tool for improving the function of self-organizing networks such as the SECOAS (Self-Organizing Collegiate Sensor) environmental monitoring system. In this system, individual nodes sense that there is a population of other nodes with similar data to report. The population then nominates just one node to report the data, resulting in power savings. Ad hoc wireless networks can also benefit from quorum sensing, by allowing the system to detect and respond to network conditions.Quorum sensing can also be used to coordinate the behavior of autonomous robot swarms. Using a process similar to that used by Temnothorax ants, robots can make rapid group decisions without the direction of a controller. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Grass skirt**
Grass skirt:
A grass skirt is a costume and garment made with layers of plant fibres such as grasses and leaves that is fastened at the waistline.
Pacific:
Grass skirts were introduced to Hawaii by immigrants from the Gilbert Islands around the 1870s to 1880s although their origins are attributed to Samoa as well.
Pacific:
According to DeSoto Brown, a historian at the Bishop Museum in Honolulu, it is likely Hawaiian dancers began wearing them during their performances on the vaudeville circuit of the United States mainland. Traditional Hawaiian skirts were often made with fresh ti leaves, which were not available in the United States. By the turn of the century, Hawaiian dancers in both Hawaii and the US were wearing grass skirts. Some Hawaiian-style hula dancers still wear them. The traditional costume of Hawaiian hula kahiko includes kapa cloth skirts and men in malo (loincloth) however, during the 1880s hula ‘auana was developed from western influences. It is during this period that the grass skirt began to be seen everywhere although hula ‘auana costumes usually included more western looking clothing with fabric-topped dresses for women and pants for men. The use of the grass skirt was present in the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago where Hawaiian hula dancers played into American stereotypes by wearing the costume.From the late 19th-century to World War II, grass skirts in Polynesia became a "powerful symbol of South Sea sexuality". In the Pacific theater, grass skirts were sought after souvenirs by servicemen abroad. The end of the war saw many sailors returning from their duties in the Pacific. Polynesian culture had begun to take root in the US through such things as James A. Michener's Tales of the South Pacific and its subsequent musical and film adaption, as well as Don the Beachcomber opening in Hollywood. The war had helped to create a national interest in Polynesian food and décor. The tiki culture continued, spurred on by Hawaii's statehood in 1959 and Disney's opening of the Enchanted Tiki Room in 1963 as well as popular film and television shows like "Hawaiian Eye" in 1959 and Elvis Presley's Blue Hawaii in 1961.In Fijian culture, both women and men traditionally wore skirts called the liku made from hibiscus or root fibers and grass. In Maori culture there is a skirt-like garment made up of numerous strands of prepared flax fibres, woven or plaited, known as a piupiu which is worn during Māori cultural dance. In Nauru culture the native dress of both sexes consists of a ridi, a bushy skirt composed of thin strips of pandanus palm-leaf that can be both short, knee- and foot-long. In Tonga, the grass skirt was known as a sisi pueka and was worn in dance performances.
Africa:
The Sotho people traditionally wore grass skirts called the mosotho.
Sources:
Brawley, S.; Dixon, C. (2012), Hollywood's South Seas and the Pacific War: Searching for Dorothy Lamour, Palgrave Macmillan US, p. 114, ISBN 978-1-137-09067-6 Hix, Lisa (2017), "How America's Obsession With Hula Girls Almost Wrecked Hawaiʻi", Collectors Weekly, retrieved May 18, 2017 Lukas, Scott A. (2016), A Reader In Themed and Immersive Spaces, Lulu.com, ISBN 978-1-365-38774-6, OCLC 1004748897 Oxford University, Press (11 July 2011), Complete Oxford Dictionary 11: Complete Oxford Dictionary 11, Oxford University Press, p. 1342, GGKEY:3XX5FQGNP71 Picken, Mary Brooks (24 July 2013), A Dictionary of Costume and Fashion: Historic and Modern, Courier Corporation, p. 153, ISBN 978-0-486-14160-2 Starr, Kevin (2011), Golden Dreams: California in an Age of Abundance, 1950–1963, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-992430-1, OCLC 261177770 | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Floor broker**
Floor broker:
A floor broker also known as a "Pit broker" is an independent member of an exchange who can act as a broker on the trading floor. They would act on behalf of floor traders or large clients such as financial firms, as an agent on the floor of the exchange. With the advent of electronic trading in the 1990s and the closing of physical trading floors, this role has largely disappeared.
Floor broker:
The floor broker used to receive an order via Teletype machine from their firm's trading department and then proceeds to the appropriate trading post on the exchange floor. There he would join other brokers and the specialist in the security being bought or sold and executes the trade at the best competitive price available using open outcry. On completion of the transaction the customer is notified through his registered representative back at the firm and the trade is printed on the consolidated ticker tape which is displayed electronically around the country. A floor broker should not be confused with a floor trader who trades as a principal for his or her own account, rather than as a broker.
Floor broker:
Commission brokers were employees of a member firm. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Piston-cylinder apparatus**
Piston-cylinder apparatus:
The piston-cylinder apparatus is a solid media device, used in Geosciences and Material Sciences, for generating simultaneously high pressure (up to 6 GPa) and temperature (up to 1700 °C). Modifications of the normal set-up can push these limits to even higher pressures and temperatures. A particular type of piston-cylinder, called Griggs apparatus, is also able to add a deviatoric stress on the sample.
Piston-cylinder apparatus:
The principle of the instrument is to generate pressure by compressing a sample assembly, which includes a resistance furnace, inside a pressure vessel. Controlled high temperature is generated by applying a regulated voltage to the furnace and monitoring the temperature with a thermocouple. The pressure vessel is a cylinder that is closed at one end by a rigid plate with a small hole for the thermocouple to pass through. A piston is advanced into the cylinder at the other hand.
History:
Sir Charles Parsons was the first to attack the problem of generating high pressure simultaneously with high temperature. His pressure apparatus consisted of piston-cylinder devices that used internal electrical resistance heating. He used a solid pressure transmitting material, which also served as thermal and electrical insulation. His cylindrical chambers ranged in diameter from 1 to 15 cm. The maximum pressure at the temperature he reported was of the order of 15000 atm (corresponding to ~1.5 GPa) at 3000 °C.
History:
Loring L. Coes, Jr., of the Norton Co., was the first person to develop a piston-cylinder device with capabilities substantially beyond those of the Parsons device. He did not personally publish a description of this equipment until 1962. The key feature of this device is the use of a hot, molded alumina liner or cylinder. The apparatus is double ended, pressure being generated by pushing a tungsten carbide piston into each end of the alumina cylinder. Because the alumina cylinder is electrically insulating, heating is accomplished, very simply, by passing an electric current from one piston through a sample heating tube and out through the opposite piston. The apparatus was used at pressures as high as 45000 atm (corresponding to ~4.5 GPa) simultaneously with a temperature of 800 °C. Temperature was measured by means of a thermocouple located in a well. At these temperature and pressure conditions, only one run is obtained in this device, the pistons and the alumina cylinder both being expendable. Even at 30000 atm (corresponding to ~3.0 GPa) the alumina cylinder is only useful for a few runs, as is also the case for the tungsten carbide pistons. The expense of using such a device is great.
History:
Nowadays both the piston and the cylinder are constructed of cemented tungsten carbide and electrical insulation is provided in a different manner than in the device of Coes. In particular, the basis for the modern piston-cylinder apparatus is given by the design described by Boyd and England in 1960, which has been the first machine that allowed experiments under upper mantle conditions to be routinely carried out in a laboratory.
History:
Geologist Bernard Wood has made multiple important contributions to science using piston-cylinder experiments and has consequently become a prominent figure in experimental petrology. Along with Fred Wheeler, a workshop worker at the University of Bristol, he has designed a model of piston-cylinder that is known for its simplicity and blue features. Several units of this model have been made at the University of Oxford.
Theory:
The piston-cylinder apparatus is based on the same simple relationship of other high-pressure devices (e.g. Multi-anvil press and Diamond Anvil Cell): P=FA where P is the pressure, F the applied force and A the area.
It achieves high pressures using the principle of pressure amplification: converting a small load on a large piston to a relatively large load on a small piston. The uniaxial pressure is then distributed (quasi-hydrostatically) over the sample through deformation of the assembly materials.
Components:
The main components of the piston-cylinder apparatus are the pressure generating system, the pressure vessel, and the assembly parts within the vessel. There are two types of piston-cylinder apparatus: non end-loaded and end-loaded, which involve, respectively, one or two hydraulic rams. In the end-loaded type the second hydraulic ram is used to vertically load and strengthen the pressure vessel. The non end-loaded type is smaller, more compact and cheaper, and is operable only to approximately 4 GPa.
Components:
Pressure is applied to the sample by pressing a piston into the sample volume of the pressure vessel. The sample assembly consists of a solid pressure medium, a resistance heater and a small central volume for the sample. Three common configurations are used: 12 ”, 34 ” and 1”, which are the diameters of the piston and thus the sample assembly. According to the pressure amplification concept, the choice of the piston depends on the pressure you need to achieve.
Components:
During the experiment, water circulates around the pressure vessel, the bridge and the upper plates to cool the system.
Sample assemblies The purposes of the sample assembly are to transmit hydrostatic pressure to the sample from the compressing piston, to provide controlled heating of the sample and to provide, via the capsule, a suitable volatile and oxygen fugacity environment for the experiment. Therefore, it includes a component for each of these purposes.
Components:
The outer cylinder is a pressure transmitting, electrically insulating cylinder made from NaCl, talc, BaCO3, KBr, CaF2, or even borosilicate glass. The next components are, in order, an electrically insulating borosilicate glass cylinder and a graphite cylinder, which acts as the “furnace”. To locate the sample exactly in the centre of the furnace and to grip the thermocouple, a support rod usually made of crushable ceramics is used. The final component is a conductive steel base plug, located at the top of the sample assembly.
Components:
The final part of the assembly is the thermocouple itself, whose wires are insulated from one another and from the material of the assembly by a tube made of mullite.
Components:
Capsules The sample capsule must contain the sample and prevent reaction between the sample and the other materials of the sample assembly and not, itself, react with the sample. It must also be weak so as not to interfere with pressure transmission during the run. For this purpose, the materials most used are: Au, Pt, AgPd alloys, Ni and graphite.
Components:
Sample volumes are typically 200 mm3, which translates to ~500 mg of starting material, but with larger assemblies the volume can be up to 750 mm3.
Pressure control:
The nominal pressure in an experiment can be calculated from the amplification of the oil pressure through the reduction in area over which it is applied, but every component has a characteristic yield stress, consequently the nominal pressure is different from the effective one. Thus, it must be adjusted taking into account the friction: Peffective = Pnominal + Pcorrection In order to determine the effective pressure, calibration experiments can be done using either static or dynamic methods, and usually make use of known phase transitions or reactions, melting curves or measured water solubility in melts.
Pressure control:
Since frictional effects also depend on whether the press is in compression or in decompression, it is good practice to perform the experiments in the same way as the calibration runs.
Temperature control:
Temperature can be measured using a thermocouple within an accuracy of ± 1 °C. The accuracy of the temperature is influenced by both random and systematic errors, and is smaller at higher temperature and pressure conditions. Such errors can arise from temperature gradients, differential pressures in the assembly, contamination during the experiment and the effect of pressure on thermocouple electromotive force. These errors can be cushioned choosing the appropriate thermocouple type for the experimental conditions. Temperature gradients, on the other hand, can be minimised using a tapered furnace.
Applications:
The main advantages of the piston-cylinder press are the relatively large volume of the assembly, fast heating and quenching rates, and the stability of the equipment over long run durations.
These aspects, together with the ease and safety of procedure make this device suitable for geochemical studies and in-situ measurements of the physical properties of materials.
Some applications, especially in Geosciences, are: synthesis of high-pressure and temperature materials, hot pressing and investigation of partial melting of rocks. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Frede Blaabjerg**
Frede Blaabjerg:
Frede Blaabjerg is a Danish professor at Aalborg University. At Aalborg, he works in the section of Power Electronic Systems of the department of Energy Technology. Blaabjerg's research concerns the applications of power electronics, including adjustable-speed drives, microgrids, photovoltaic systems, and wind turbines. By the number of citations, he is the most cited author of several IEEE journals: IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, IEEE Journal of Emerging and Selected Topics in Power Electronics.
Education and career:
Frede Blaabjerg graduated at Nykøbing Mors Gymnasium in 1982, and in 1987 he became M.Sc. in System construction. From 1987 to 1988 he worked as a project engineer for ASCAN Scandia, Randers. In 1992 to 1996, he was assistant professor at Department of Energy Technology at Aalborg. He received his Ph.D. at Aalborg University in 1995 with the thesis "Modelling Power Electronic Components and Circuits" (ISBN 87-89179-10-2). In 1996–1998, Frede Blaabjerg was an Associate professor until 1998, where he became a full professor in Power Electronics and Drives in the department of Energy Technology at Aalborg University. He had this position until 2006 where he became the Dean of the Faculty of Engineering, Science, and Medicine. In 2010, he returned to his position as Professor in Power Electronics and Drives at Institute of Energy Technology at Aalborg University. Beside his positions at Aalborg University, Frede Blaabjerg is Visiting professor. Currently he is visiting professor at Shandong University, China, 2014-, Harbin University of Technology, China, 2014- , Shanghai Maritime University, China, 2013- and Zhejiang University, China, 2009- . Earlier he had positions as visiting professor at University of Padova, Italy, 2000 and Curtin University of Technology, Perth, Australia, 2002. Frede Blaabjerg was Programme Research Leader of Electrical Design and Control at Research Center Risoe from 2000 to 2002 too. Today he is head of the center of Reliable Power Electronics (Corpe). Additionally, he has taken part in numerous scientific societies/boards such as member of Engitech, Science Europe, 2013- , Member of Strategic Programme Committee Odysseus, Belgium in 2007–2009, Member of the Board of Danish National Advanced Technology Foundation, DK from 2007 to 2014 or Chairman of the Danish Technical Research Council, DK, 2000–2003.
Education and career:
Through Frede Blaabjergs career he has supervised more than 70 Ph.D. students and given over 500 national and international lectures. Today most of the lectures are only for special invited, because of the great interest. Frede Blaabjerg has published more than 1400 scientific papers, 380 (800) publications registered in Web of Science (incl. conference-papers), 130 additional papers for journals, 520 conference papers published and presented and four edited books in power electronics. Frede Blaabjerg has had several institutional responsibilities. In 2005 he was Head of the International Doctoral School at Aalborg University and he has been chairman of IEEE EPE'2007 in 2007 with 1000 participants, of the IEEE PEDG'2012 with 250 participants and member of the Board of Morsoe and Aalborghus High Schools from 2007 -.
Awards:
IEEE Edison Medal, 2020 Global Energy Prize, 2019 IEEE William E. Newell Power Electronics Award, 2014 Villum Kann Rasmussen Research Award, 2014 Fellow, IEEE, 2003 IEEE Power Electronics Society Distinguished Service Award, 2009 Grundfos Prize 2004 "Polish Ministry of Education Award for the Best Books and Monographs" published in the year 2002 (Control in Power Electronics) Statoil-Prize 2003 C.Y. O'Connor Fellowship, 2002, Perth, Australia Outstanding Young Power Electronics Engineer Award in 1998 by IEEE Power Electronics Society A.R. Angelos Fellowship Award in 1995 for contribution in modulation and drives
Selected books:
M. P. Kazmierkowski, R. Krishnan, & F. Blaabjerg (Eds.). (2002). Control in power electronics: selected problems. M. P. Kazmierkowski, R. Krishnan, & F. Blaabjerg (Eds.). Academic press.
T. Orłowska-Kowalska, F. Blaabjerg, J. Rodríguez, (Eds.) (2014). Advanced and Intelligent Control in Power Electronics and Drives. Imprint: Springer.
Henry Shu-hung Chung, Huai Wang, Frede Blaabjerg and Michael Pecht (Eds.) (2015); Reliability of Power Electronic Converter Systems, IET Publisher, ISBN 978-1-84919-901-8 Yushan Liu, Haitham Abu-Rub, Baoming Ge, Frede Blaabjerg, Omar Ellabban, Poh Chiang Loh; Impedance Source Power Electronic Converters; October 2016, Wiley-IEEE Press; ISBN 978-1-119-03707-1
Selected publications:
M. Forouzesh, Y. P. Siwakoti, S. A. Gorji, F. Blaabjerg and B. Lehman, "Step-Up DC–DC Converters: A Comprehensive Review of Voltage-Boosting Techniques, Topologies, and Applications," in IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, vol. 32, no. 12, pp. 9143–9178, Dec. 2017.
O. N. Almasi, V. Fereshtehpoor, M. H. Khooban, and F. Blaabjerg, "Analysis, control and design of a non-inverting buck-boost converter: A bump-less two-level T–S fuzzy PI control," in ISA transactions, vol. 67, pp. 515–527, Mar. 2017.
K. Ma, N. He, M. Liserre and F. Blaabjerg, "Frequency-Domain Thermal Modeling and Characterization of Power Semiconductor Devices," in IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, vol. 31, no. 10, pp. 7183–7193, Oct. 2016.
A. Chub, D. Vinnikov, F. Blaabjerg and F. Z. Peng, "A Review of Galvanically Isolated Impedance-Source DC–DC Converters," in IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, vol. 31, no. 4, pp. 2808–2828, April 2016.
X. Wang, Y. W. Li, F. Blaabjerg and P. C. Loh, "Virtual-Impedance-Based Control for Voltage-Source and Current-Source Converters," in IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, vol. 30, no. 12, pp. 7019–7037, Dec. 2015.
Y. P. Siwakoti, F. Z. Peng, F. Blaabjerg, P. C. Loh and G. E. Town, "Impedance-Source Networks for Electric Power Conversion Part I: A Topological Review," in IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, vol. 30, no. 2, pp. 699–716, Feb. 2015.
N. C. Sintamarean, F. Blaabjerg, H. Wang, F. Iannuzzo, P. De Place Rimmen,"Reliability Oriented Design Tool For the New Generation of Grid Connected PV-Inverters", IEEE Trans. on Power Electronics, Vol. 30, No. 5, 2015, pp. 2635–2644.
O Ellabban, H Abu-Rub, F Blaabjerg,"Renewable energy resources: Current status, future prospects and their enabling technology" Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Vol. 39, 2014, pp. 748–764.
H. Wang, M. Liserre, F. Blaabjerg, P. de Place Rimmen, J. B. Jacobsen, T. Kvisgaard, J. Landkildehus, "Transitioning to Physics-of-Failure as a Reliability Driver in Power Electronics," IEEE Journal of Emerging and Selected Topics in Power Electronics, vol.2, no.1, pp. 97–114, March 2014.
Selected publications:
D. Meneses, F. Blaabjerg, Ó García and J. A. Cobos, "Review and Comparison of Step-Up Transformerless Topologies for Photovoltaic AC-Module Application," in IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, vol. 28, no. 6, pp. 2649–2663, June 2013 F. Blaabjerg and K. Ma, "Future on Power Electronics for Wind Turbine Systems," in IEEE Journal of Emerging and Selected Topics in Power Electronics, vol. 1, no. 3, pp. 139–152, Sept. 2013.
Selected publications:
F. Blaabjerg, M. Liserre and K. Ma, "Power Electronics Converters for Wind Turbine Systems," in IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, vol. 48, no. 2, pp. 708–719, March–April 2012.
J. Rocabert, A. Luna, F. Blaabjerg, P. Rodríguez, "Control of power converters in AC microgrids", IEEE Trans. on Power Electronics, Vol. 27, No.11, 2012, pp. 4734–4749.
Z. Chen, J. M. Guerrero and F. Blaabjerg, "A Review of the State of the Art of Power Electronics for Wind Turbines," in IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, vol. 24, no. 8, pp. 1859–1875, Aug. 2009.
Selected publications:
R. Teodorescu, F. Blaabjerg, M. Liserre, P.C. Loh – "Proportional-Resonant Controllers and Filters for Grid-Connected Voltage Source Converters", IEE Proceedings on Power Applications, Vol. 153, No. 5, Sep. 2006, pp. 750 – 762 E. Koutroulis, F. Blaabjerg, "Design Optimization of Transformerless Grid-Connected PV Inverters Including Reliability," IEEE Trans. on Power Electronics, vol.28, no.1, pp. 325–335, Jan. 2013 F. Blaabjerg, R. Teodorescu, M. Liserre, A. V. Timbus, "Overview of Control and Synchronization of Three Phase Distributed Power Generation Systems", IEEE Trans. on Industrial Electronics, Vol. 53, No. 5, 2006, pp. 1398 – 1409.
Selected publications:
M. Liserre, R. Teodorescu and F. Blaabjerg, "Stability of photovoltaic and wind turbine grid-connected inverters for a large set of grid impedance values," in IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, vol. 21, no. 1, pp. 263–272, Jan. 2006.
S.B. Kjaer, J.K. Pedersen, F. Blaabjerg, "A review of single-phase grid-connected inverters for photovoltaic modules," IEEE Trans. on Industry Applications, vol.41, no.5, pp. 1292– 1306, Sept.-Oct. 2005.
M. Liserre, F. Blaabjerg, S. Hansen, "Design and control of an LCL-filter-based three-phase active rectifier," IEEE Trans. on Industry Applications, Vol. 41, No. 5, 2005, pp. 1281–1291.
F. Blaabjerg, Zhe Chen and S. B. Kjaer, "Power electronics as efficient interface in dispersed power generation systems," in IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, vol. 19, no. 5, pp. 1184–1194, Sept. 2004.
C. Klumpner, P. Nielsen, I. Boldea, F. Blaabjerg, "A new matrix converter motor (MCM) for industry applications," IEEE Trans. on Industrial Electronics, vol.49, no.2, pp. 325–335, Apr 2002.
U. Borup, F. Blaabjerg, P. N. Enjeti, "Sharing of nonlinear load in parallel-connected three-phase converters", IEEE Trans. on Industry Applications, Vol. 37, No. 6, 2001, pp. 1817–1823.
M. Malinowski, M. P. Kazmierkowski, S. Hansen, F. Blaabjerg and G. D. Marques, "Virtual-flux-based direct power control of three-phase PWM rectifiers," in IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, vol. 37, no. 4, pp. 1019–1027, Jul/Aug 2001.
C. Lascu, I. Boldea and F. Blaabjerg, "A modified direct torque control for induction motor sensorless drive," in IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, vol. 36, no. 1, pp. 122–130, Jan/Feb 2000. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Logical harmony**
Logical harmony:
Logical harmony, a name coined by Michael Dummett, is a supposed constraint on the rules of inference that can be used in a given logical system.
Overview:
The logician Gerhard Gentzen proposed that the meanings of logical connectives could be given by the rules for introducing them into discourse. For example, if one believes that the sky is blue and one also believes that grass is green, then one can introduce the connective and as follows: The sky is blue AND grass is green. Gentzen's idea was that having rules like this is what gives meaning to one's words, or at least to certain words. The idea has also been associated with the Wittgensteinian notion that in many cases we can say, meaning is use. Most contemporary logicians prefer to think that the introduction rules and the elimination rules for an expression are equally important. In this case, and is characterized by the following rules: An apparent problem with this was pointed out by Arthur Prior: Why can't we have an expression (call it "tonk") whose introduction rule is that of OR (from "p" to "p tonk q") but whose elimination rule is that of AND (from "p tonk q" to "q")? This lets us deduce anything at all from any starting point. Prior suggested that this meant that inferential rules could not determine meaning. He was answered by Nuel Belnap, that even though introduction and elimination rules can constitute meaning, not just any pair of such rules will determine a meaningful expression—they must meet certain constraints, such as not allowing us to deduce any new truths in the old vocabulary. These constraints are what Dummett was referring to.
Overview:
Harmony, then, refers to certain constraints that a proof system must let hold between introduction and elimination rules for it to be meaningful, or in other words, for its inference rules to be meaning-constituting.
The application of harmony to logic may be considered a special case; it makes sense to talk of harmony with respect to not only inferential systems, but also conceptual systems in human cognition, and to type systems in programming languages.
Semantics of this form has not provided a very great challenge to that sketched in Tarski's semantic theory of truth, but many philosophers interested in reconstituting the semantics of logic in a way that respects Ludwig Wittgenstein's meaning is use have felt that harmony holds the key. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Video Graphics Array**
Video Graphics Array:
Video Graphics Array (VGA) is a video display controller and accompanying de facto graphics standard, first introduced with the IBM PS/2 line of computers in 1987, which became ubiquitous in the IBM PC compatible industry within three years. The term can now refer to the computer display standard, the 15-pin D-subminiature VGA connector, or the 640 × 480 resolution characteristic of the VGA hardware.VGA was the last IBM graphics standard to which the majority of IBM PC compatible computer manufacturers conformed, making it the lowest common denominator that virtually all post-1990 PC graphics hardware can be expected to implement.IBM intended to supersede VGA with the Extended Graphics Array (XGA) standard, but failed. Instead, VGA was adapted into many extended forms by third parties, collectively known as Super VGA, then gave way to custom graphics processing units which, in addition to their proprietary interfaces and capabilities, continue to implement common VGA graphics modes and interfaces to the present day.
Video Graphics Array:
The VGA analog interface standard has been extended to support resolutions of up to 2048 × 1536 and even higher in special applications.
Hardware design:
The color palette random access memory (RAM) and its corresponding digital-to-analog converter (DAC) were integrated into one chip (the RAMDAC) and the cathode-ray tube controller (CRTC) was integrated into a main VGA chip, which eliminated several other chips in previous graphics adapters, so VGA only additionally required external video RAM and timing crystals.This small part count allowed IBM to include VGA directly on the PS/2 motherboard, in contrast to prior IBM PC models – PC, PC/XT, and PC AT – which required a separate display adapter installed in a slot in order to connect a monitor. The term "array" rather than "adapter" in the name denoted that it was not a complete independent expansion device, but a single component that could be integrated into a system.Unlike the graphics adapters that preceded it (MDA, CGA, EGA and many third-party options) there was initially no discrete VGA card released by IBM. The first commercial implementation of VGA was a built-in component of the IBM PS/2, in which it was accompanied by 256KB of video RAM, and a new DE-15 connector replacing the DE-9 used by previous graphics adapters. IBM later released the standalone IBM PS/2 Display Adapter, which utilized the VGA but could be added to machines that did not have it built in.
Capabilities:
The VGA supports all graphics modes supported by the MDA, CGA and EGA cards, as well as multiple new modes.
Capabilities:
Standard graphics modes 640 × 480 in 16 colors or monochrome 640 × 350 or 640 × 200 in 16 colors or monochrome (EGA/CGA compatibility) 320 × 200 in 256 colors (Mode 13h) 320 × 200 in 4 or 16 colors (CGA compatibility)The 640 × 480 16-color and 320 × 200 256-color modes had fully redefinable palettes, with each entry selected from an 18-bit (262,144-color) gamut.The other modes defaulted to standard EGA or CGA compatible palettes and instructions, but still permitted remapping of the palette with VGA-specific commands.
Capabilities:
640 × 480 graphics mode As the VGA began to be cloned in great quantities by manufacturers who added ever-increasing capabilities, its 640 × 480, 16-color mode became the de facto lowest common denominator of graphics cards. By the mid 1990s, a 640 × 480×16 graphics mode using the VGA memory and register specifications was expected by operating systems such as Windows 95 and OS/2 Warp 3.0, which provided no support for lower resolutions or bit depths, or support for other memory or register layouts without additional drivers. Well into the 2000s, even after the VESA standard for graphics cards became commonplace, the "VGA" graphics mode remained a compatibility option for PC operating systems.
Capabilities:
Other graphics modes Nonstandard display modes can be implemented, with horizontal resolutions of: 512 to 800 pixels wide, in 16 colors 256 to 400 pixels wide, in 256 colorsAnd heights of: 200, or 350 to 410 lines (including 400-line) at 70 Hz refresh rate, or 224 to 256, or 448 to 512 lines (including 240 or 480-line) at 60 Hz refresh rate 512 to 600 lines at reduced vertical refresh rates (down to 50 Hz, and including e.g. 528, 544, 552, 560, 576-line), depending on individual monitor compatibility.For example, high resolution modes with square pixels are available at 768 × 576 or 704 × 528 in 16 colors, or medium-low resolution at 320 × 240 with 256 colors. Alternatively, extended resolution is available with "fat" pixels and 256 colors using, e.g. 400 × 600 (50 Hz) or 360 × 480 (60 Hz), and "thin" pixels, 16 colors and the 70 Hz refresh rate with e.g. 736 × 410 mode.
Capabilities:
"Narrow" modes such as 256 × 224 tend to preserve the same pixel ratio as in e.g. 320 × 240 mode unless the monitor is adjusted to stretch the image out to fill the screen, as they are derived simply by masking down the wider mode instead of altering pixel or line timings, but can be useful for reducing memory requirements and pixel addressing calculations for arcade game conversions or console emulators.
Capabilities:
The PC version of Pinball Fantasies has the option to use non-standard modes "high res" modes, such as 640 × 350, allowing it to display a larger portion of the pinball table on screen.
Capabilities:
Standard text modes VGA also implements several text modes: 80 × 25, rendered with a 9 × 16 pixel font, with an effective resolution of 720 × 400 40 × 25, with a 9 × 16 font, with an effective resolution of 360 × 400 80 × 43 or 80 × 50, with an 8 × 8 font grid, with an effective resolution of 640 × 344 or 640 × 400 pixels.As with the pixel-based graphics modes, additional text modes are possible by programming the VGA correctly, with an overall maximum of about 100 × 80 cells and an active area spanning about 88 × 64 cells.
Capabilities:
One variant that is sometimes seen is 80 × 30 or 80 × 60, using an 8 × 16 or 8 × 8 font and an effective 640 × 480 pixel display, which trades use of the more flickery 60 Hz mode for an additional 5 or 10 lines of text and square character blocks (or, at 80 × 30, square half-blocks).
Technical details:
Unlike the cards that preceded it, which used binary TTL signals to interface with a monitor (and also composite, in the case of the CGA), the VGA introduced a video interface using pure analog RGB signals, with a range of 0.7 volts peak-to-peak max. In conjunction with a 18-bit RAMDAC (6-bit per RGB channel), this produced a color gamut of 262,144 colors.The original VGA specifications follow: Selectable 25.175 MHz or 28.322 MHz master pixel clock Maximum of 640 horizontal pixels in graphics mode, and 720 pixels in text mode Maximum of 480 lines Refresh rates at 60 or 70 Hz Vertical blank interrupt (Not all clone cards support this.) Planar mode: up to 16 colors (4 bit planes) Packed-pixel mode: 256 colors (Mode 13h) Hardware smooth scrolling support No Blitter Supports fast data transfers via "VGA latch" registers Barrel shifter Split screen support Signal timings The intended standard value for the horizontal frequency of VGA's 640 × 480 mode is exactly double the value used in the NTSC-M video system, as this made it much easier to offer optional TV-out solutions or external VGA-to-TV converter boxes at the time of VGA's development. It is also at least nominally twice that of CGA, which also supported composite monitors.
Technical details:
All derived VGA timings (i.e. those which use the master 25.175 and 28.322 MHz crystals and, to a lesser extent, the nominal 31.469 kHz line rate) can be varied by software that bypasses the VGA firmware interface and communicates directly with the VGA hardware, as many MS-DOS based games did. However, only the standard modes, or modes that at least use almost exactly the same H-sync and V-sync timings as one of the standard modes, can be expected to work with the original late-1980s and early-1990s VGA monitors. The use of other timings may in fact damage such monitors and thus was usually avoided by software publishers.
Technical details:
Third-party "multisync" CRT monitors were more flexible, and in combination with "super EGA", VGA, and later SVGA graphics cards using extended modes, could display a much wider range of resolutions and refresh rates at arbitrary sync frequencies and pixel clock rates.
For the most common VGA mode (640 × 480, 60 Hz, non-interlaced), the horizontal timings can be found in the HP Super VGA Display Installation Guide and in other places.
Typical uses of selected modes 640 × 400 @ 70 Hz is traditionally the video mode used for booting VGA-compatible x86 personal computers that show a graphical boot screen, while text-mode boot uses 720 × 400 @ 70 Hz.
This convention has been eroded in recent years, however, with POST and BIOS screens moving to higher resolutions, taking advantage of EDID data to match the resolution to a connected monitor.
Technical details:
640 × 480 @ 60 Hz is the default Windows graphics mode (usually with 16 colors), up to Windows 2000. It remains an option in XP and later versions via the boot menu "low resolution video" option and per-application compatibility mode settings, despite newer versions of Windows now defaulting to 1024 × 768 and generally not allowing any resolution below 800 × 600 to be set.
Technical details:
The need for such a low-quality, universally compatible fallback has diminished since the turn of the millennium, as VGA-signalling-standard screens or adaptors unable to show anything beyond the original resolutions have become increasingly rare.
320 × 200 at 70 Hz was the most common mode for VGA-era PC games, with pixel-doubling and line-doubling performed in hardware to present a 640 × 400 at 70 Hz signal to the monitor.
Technical details:
The Windows 95/98/Me LOGO.SYS boot-up image was 320 × 400 resolution, displayed with pixel-doubling to present a 640 × 400 at 70 Hz signal to the monitor. The 400-line signal was the same as the standard 80 × 25 text mode, which meant that pressing Esc to return to text mode didn't change the frequency of the video signal, and thus the monitor did not have to resynchronize (which could otherwise have taken several seconds).
Connector:
The standard VGA monitor interface is a 15-pin D-subminiature connector in the "E" shell, variously referred to as "DE-15", "HD-15" and erroneously "DB-15(HD)".
Because VGA uses low-voltage analog signals, signal degradation becomes a factor with low-quality or overly long cables. Solutions include shielded cables, cables that include a separate internal coaxial cable for each color signal, and "broken out" cables utilizing a separate coaxial cable with a BNC connector for each color signal.
BNC breakout cables typically use five connectors, one each for Red, Green, Blue, Horizontal Sync, and Vertical Sync, and do not include the other signal lines of the VGA interface. With BNC, the coaxial wires are fully shielded end-to-end and through the interconnect so that virtually no crosstalk and very little external interference can occur.
Color palette:
The VGA color system uses register-based palettes to map colors in various bit depths to its 18-bit output gamut. It is backward compatible with the EGA and CGA adapters, but supports extra bit depth for the palette when in these modes.
For instance, when in EGA 16-color modes, VGA offers 16 palette registers, and in 256-color modes, it offers 256 registers. Each palette register contain a 3×6 bit RGB value, selecting a color from the 18-bit gamut of the DAC.
Color palette:
These color registers are initialized to default values IBM expected to be most useful for each mode. For instance, EGA 16-color modes initialize to the default CGA 16-color palette, and the 256-color mode initializes to a palette consisting of 16 CGA colors, 16 grey shades, and then 216 colors chosen by IBM to fit expected use cases. After initialization they can be redefined at any time without altering the contents of video RAM, permitting palette cycling.
Color palette:
In the 256-color modes, the DAC is set to combine four 2-bit color values, one from each plane, into an 8-bit-value representing an index into the 256-color palette. The CPU interface combines the 4 planes in the same way, a feature called "chain-4", so that each the pixel appears to the CPU as a packed 8-bit value representing the palette index.
Use:
The video memory of the VGA is mapped to the PC's memory via a window in the range between segments 0xA0000 and 0xBFFFF in the PC's real mode address space (A000:0000 and B000:FFFF in segment:offset notation). Typically, these starting segments are: 0xA0000 for EGA/VGA graphics modes (64 KB) 0xB0000 for monochrome text mode (32 KB) 0xB8000 for color text mode and CGA-compatible graphics modes (32 KB)Due to the use of different address mappings for different modes, it is possible to have a monochrome adapter (i.e. MDA or Hercules) and a color adapter such as the VGA, EGA, or CGA installed in the same machine.
Use:
At the beginning of the 1980s, this was typically used to display Lotus 1-2-3 spreadsheets in high-resolution text on a monochrome display and associated graphics on a low-resolution CGA display simultaneously. Many programmers also used such a setup with the monochrome card displaying debugging information while a program ran in graphics mode on the other card. Several debuggers, like Borland's Turbo Debugger, D86 and Microsoft's CodeView could work in a dual monitor setup. Either Turbo Debugger or CodeView could be used to debug Windows.
Use:
There were also device drivers such as ox.sys, which implemented a serial interface simulation on the monochrome display and, for example, allowed the user to receive crash messages from debugging versions of Windows without using an actual serial terminal.
It is also possible to use the "MODE MONO" command at the command prompt to redirect the output to the monochrome display. When a monochrome adapter was not present, it was possible to use the 0xB000–0xB7FF address space as additional memory for other programs.
Use:
Programming "Unchaining" the 256 KB VGA memory into four separate "planes" makes VGA's 256 KB of RAM available in 256-color modes. There is a trade-off for extra complexity and performance loss in some types of graphics operations, but this is mitigated by other operations becoming faster in certain situations: Single-color polygon filling could be accelerated due to the ability to set four pixels with a single write to the hardware.
Use:
The video adapter could assist in copying video RAM regions, which was sometimes faster than doing this with the relatively slow CPU-to-VGA interface.
The use of multiple video pages in hardware allowed double buffering, triple buffering or split screens, which, while available in VGA's 320 × 200 16-color mode, was not possible using stock Mode 13h.
Use:
Most particularly, several higher, arbitrary-resolution display modes were possible, all the way up to the programmable limit of 800 × 600 with 16 colors (or 400 × 600 with 256 colors), as well as other custom modes using unusual combinations of horizontal and vertical pixel counts in either color mode.Software such as Fractint, Xlib and ColoRIX also supported tweaked 256-color modes on standard adaptors using freely-combinable widths of 256, 320, and 360 pixels and heights of 200, 240 and 256 (or 400, 480 and 512) lines, extending still further to 384 or 400 pixel columns and 576 or 600 (or 288, 300). However, 320 × 240 was the best known and most frequently used, as it offered a standard 40-column resolution and 4:3 aspect ratio with square pixels. "320 × 240 × 8" resolution was commonly called Mode X, the name used by Michael Abrash when he presented the resolution in Dr. Dobb's Journal.
Use:
The highest resolution modes were only used in special, opt-in cases rather than as standard, especially where high line counts were involved. Standard VGA monitors had a fixed line scan (H-scan) rate – "multisync" monitors being, at the time, expensive rarities – and so the vertical/frame (V-scan) refresh rate had to be reduced in order to accommodate them, which increased visible flicker and thus eye strain. For example, the highest 800 × 600 mode, being otherwise based on the matching SVGA resolution (with 628 total lines), reduced the refresh rate from 60 Hz to about 50 Hz (and 832 × 624, the theoretical maximum resolution achievable with 256kb at 16 colors, would have reduced it to about 48 Hz, barely higher than the rate at which XGA monitors employed a double-frequency interlacing technique to mitigate full-frame flicker).
Use:
These modes were also outright incompatible with some monitors, producing display problems such as picture detail disappearing into overscan (especially in the horizontal dimension), vertical roll, poor horizontal sync or even a complete lack of picture depending on the exact mode attempted. Due to these potential issues, most VGA tweaks used in commercial products were limited to more standards-compliant, "monitor-safe" combinations, such as 320 × 240 (square pixels, three video pages, 60 Hz), 320 × 400 (double resolution, two video pages, 70 Hz), and 360 × 480 (highest resolution compatible with both standard VGA monitors and cards, one video page, 60 Hz) in 256 colors, or double the horizontal resolution in 16-color mode.
Hardware manufacturers:
Several companies produced VGA compatible graphic board models.
Hardware manufacturers:
ATI: Graphics Solution Plus, Wonder series, Mach series S3 Graphics: S3 911, 911A, 924, 801, 805, 805i, 928, 805p, 928p, S3 Vision series, S3 Trio series Matrox: MAGIC RGB Plantronics: Colorplus Paradise Systems: PEGA 1, PEGA 1a, PEGA 2a Tseng Labs: ET3000, ET4000, ET6000 Cirrus Logic: CL-GD400, CL-GD500 and CL-GD5000 series Trident Microsystems: TVGA 8000 series, TVGA 9000 series, TGUI9000 series IIT NEC Chips and Technologies SiS Tamerack Realtek Oak Technology LSI Hualon Cornerstone Imaging Winbond AMD Western Digital Intergraph Texas Instruments Gemini (defunct) Genoa Systems (defunct)
Successors:
Super VGA (SVGA) Super VGA (SVGA) is a display standard developed in 1988, when NEC Home Electronics announced its creation of the Video Electronics Standards Association (VESA). The development of SVGA was led by NEC, along with other VESA members including ATI Technologies and Western Digital. SVGA enabled graphics display resolutions up to 800 × 600 pixels, 36% more than VGA's maximum resolution of 640 × 480 pixels.
Successors:
Extended Graphics Array (XGA) Extended Graphics Array (XGA) is an IBM display standard introduced in 1990. Later it became the most common appellation of the 1024 × 768 pixels display resolution. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Lymphoid leucosis**
Lymphoid leucosis:
Lymphoid leucosis is a disease that affects chickens, caused by the retrovirus Avian leukosis virus.
It is a neoplastic disease caused by a virus, which may take the form of a tumor of the bursa of Fabricius and may metastasize to other tissues of the chicken and cause enlargement and swelling of the abdomen.
Symptoms:
Symptoms include enlargement of abdomen, bursa, weight loss, weakness and emaciation, and depression. The disease is more likely to affect chicken around five to eight months of age who are more vulnerable. Green diarrhea tends to develops at the terminal stage. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Rifle approach**
Rifle approach:
It is a marketing strategy defined area or subject in order to achieve (hit) a clearly defined objective or target. The idea is to fire once, identifying the best market area to enter and the marketing efforts on customers there, like aiming a rifle to hit the bull's red eye.
One to One Marketing:
One to one marketing is targeting a specific group of audience and then carrying out our marketing strategies. Four trends will support the ongoing growth of one to one marketing.
The one-size-fits-all marketing of the yesteryear is no longer relevant. Customers do not want to be treated like masses; they need to be treated like individuals as they are, with their own unique sets of needs and wants. By its personalized nature, one-to-one marketing can fulfill this desire.
More direct and personal marketing will continue growing to meet the needs of the customers who no longer have time to spend in shopping and making purchase decisions. With the personal and targeted nature of one-to-one marketing, consumers can spend less time making purchase decisions.
Consumers will be loyal only to those companies and brands that earn their loyalty and reinforce it at every purchase occasion. One-to-one marketing techniques focus on finding a firm's best customers, rewarding them for their loyalty, and thanking them for their business.
One to One Marketing:
Mass-media approaches will decline as advances in market research and database technology enable marketers to collect detailed information on their customers, not just the approximation offered by demographics but the specific names and addresses. New technology offers one-to-one marketers a more cost-effective way to reach customers and enables businesses to personalize their messages. For example, MyYahoo.com greets each user by name and offers information in which the user has expressed interest.
Benefits of Rifle Approach (Market Segmentation):
Rifle marketing first identifies the target customers within a market and has its benefits like : By tailoring programs to individual segments, marketers can make efficient use of marketing resources. They are not wasting resources chasing customers whose needs would not be satisfied.
A small firm with limited resources can compete very effectively in one or two market segments, whereas the firm would be stretched very thinly if it tries to cater to the entire market.
By using product segmentation, companies can design products that closely match the needs of particular groups.
Advertising media can be more effectively used because promotional messages and the media chosen to present them can be specifically aimed towards each segment of the market. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**TechArt 997 Carrera**
TechArt 997 Carrera:
The TECHART 997 Carrera, known also as the TECHART Coupe and TECHART Cabrio, depending on the body style, is a tuning program for Porsche 997 models including the Carrera, Carrera Cabriolet, Carrera 4, Carrera 4 Cabriolet, Carrera S, Carrera S Cabriolet, Carrera 4S, and Carrera 4S Cabriolet. As with other TechArt products, the kit includes the customer's choice of options, including a body kit, engine upgrades, interior refitment, and custom wheels.
Design and features:
The TECHART Coupe/Cabriolet features a bodykit with high-downforce front and rear spoilers, a rear diffuser, side skirts, and mirror and headlight housings. The car is fitted with TECHART Formula alloy wheels ranging from 18 to 20 inches, and ContiSportContact 2 VMax tires. A full range of interior customizations are available and tailored to customer taste. To aid the car's performance, a range of suspension kits, depending on the wheel and tire combinations, can be installed. The basic kit lowers the car by 25 millimetres (1.0 in), while the most advanced kit, the TechArt Vario sport suspension, uses Bilstein adjustable rebound shock absorbers and variable ride height control which can lower the car up to 35 millimetres (1.4 in). The engine upgrades utilize custom exhaust, reprogrammed ECU chips, and performance air cleaners to add 15 horsepower (11 kW) to either the basic 3.6L Carrera engine or the larger 3.8L Carrera S engine, resulting in final outputs of 340 horsepower (254 kW) and 370 horsepower (276 kW), respectively.
Police car:
It was based on 911 Carrera S.
The vehicle was unveiled in 2005 TUNE IT! SAFE!. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Oxybismuthides**
Oxybismuthides:
Oxybismuthides or bismuthide oxides are chemical compounds formally containing the group BiO, with one bismuth and one oxygen atom. The bismuth and oxygen are not bound together as in bismuthates, instead they make a separate presence bound to the cations (metals), and could be considered as a mixed bismuthide-oxide compound. So a compound with OmBin requires cations to balance a negative charge of 2m+3n. The cations will have charges of +2 or +3. The trications are often rare earth elements or actinides. They are in the category of oxypnictide compounds.
Oxybismuthides:
Many of the bismuthide oxides have bismuth in an unusual -2 oxidation state. The ones with Ln2BiO2 have the anti-ThCr2Si2 structure. They include alternating layers of LnO (anti-fluorite-type) and LnBiO. The Eu4Bi2O has an anti-K2NiF4 structure, the same as for Na2Ti2As2O. Some other compounds contain calcium and a rare earth CaRE3BiO4, and Ca2RE8Bi3O10.Some of these compounds are superconductors at very low temperatures and many are semiconductors at standard conditions. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Matrotrophy**
Matrotrophy:
Matrotrophy is a form of maternal care during organism development, associated with live birth (viviparity), in which the embryo of an animal or flowering plant is supplied with additional nutrition from the mother (e.g. through a placenta). This can be contrasted with lecithotrophy, in which the only source of nutrition for the embryo is yolk originally contained within its egg.
Vegetal matrotrophy:
In plants, matrotrophy is considered a critical evolutionary development preceding the origin of embryophytes and therefore essential to the evolution of land plants. Matrotrophy is facilitated by cytological and ultrastructural modifications on one or both sides of the generational junction, a region called the placenta. Specialization of the placental cells pertains further to their cytological and ultrastructural characteristics: the cytoplasm is often dense and rich in lipids, the vacuole is typically reduced but large in Sphagnum, the endoplasmic reticulum extensive, mitochondria numerous and large, chloroplasts numerous, often less differentiated, rich in lipid-filled globuli and sometimes filled with starch.
Animal matrotrophy:
While commonly associated with vertebrates and especially mammals, matrotrophy is found in 21 of 34 animal phyla, and is fairly common in 11 of those. It has arisen independently in more than 150 clades within Chordata and in more than 140 clades amongst invertebrates. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Finitary relation**
Finitary relation:
In mathematics, a finitary relation over sets X1, ..., Xn is a subset of the Cartesian product X1 × ⋯ × Xn; that is, it is a set of n-tuples (x1, ..., xn) consisting of elements xi in Xi. Typically, the relation describes a possible connection between the elements of an n-tuple. For example, the relation "x is divisible by y and z" consists of the set of 3-tuples such that when substituted to x, y and z, respectively, make the sentence true.
Finitary relation:
The non-negative integer n giving the number of "places" in the relation is called the arity, adicity or degree of the relation. A relation with n "places" is variously called an n-ary relation, an n-adic relation or a relation of degree n. Relations with a finite number of places are called finitary relations (or simply relations if the context is clear). It is also possible to generalize the concept to infinitary relations with infinite sequences.An n-ary relation over sets X1, ..., Xn is an element of the power set of X1 × ⋯ × Xn.
Finitary relation:
0-ary relations count only two members: the one that always holds, and the one that never holds. This is because there is only one 0-tuple, the empty tuple (). They are sometimes useful for constructing the base case of an induction argument.
Unary relations can be viewed as a collection of members (such as the collection of Nobel laureates) having some property (such as that of having been awarded the Nobel prize).
Finitary relation:
Binary relations are the most commonly studied form of finitary relations. When X1 = X2 it is called a homogeneous relation, for example: Equality and inequality, denoted by signs such as = and < in statements such as "5 < 12", or Divisibility, denoted by the sign | in statements such as "13|143".Otherwise it is a heterogeneous relation, for example: Set membership, denoted by the sign ∈ in statements such as "1 ∈ N".
Example:
Consider the ternary relation R "x thinks that y likes z" over the set of people P = {Alice, Bob, Charles, Denise}, defined by: R = {(Alice, Bob, Denise), (Charles, Alice, Bob), (Charles, Charles, Alice), (Denise, Denise, Denise)}.R can be represented equivalently by the following table: Here, each row represents a triple of R, that is it makes a statement of the form "x thinks that y likes z". For instance, the first row states that "Alice thinks that Bob likes Denise". All rows are distinct. The ordering of rows is insignificant but the ordering of columns is significant.The above table is also a simple example of a relational database, a field with theory rooted in relational algebra and applications in data management. Computer scientists, logicians, and mathematicians, however, tend to have different conceptions what a general relation is, and what it is consisted of. For example, databases are designed to deal with empirical data, which is by definition finite, whereas in mathematics, relations with infinite arity (i.e., infinitary relation) are also considered.
Definitions:
When two objects, qualities, classes, or attributes, viewed together by the mind, are seen under some connexion, that connexion is called a relation.
Definitions:
The first definition of relations encountered in mathematics is: Definition 1 An n-ary relation R over sets X1, ⋯, Xn is a subset of the Cartesian product X1 × ⋯ × Xn.The second definition of relations makes use of an idiom that is common in mathematics, stipulating that "such and such is an n-tuple" in order to ensure that such and such a mathematical object is determined by the specification of mathematical objects with n elements. In the case of a relation R over n sets, there are n + 1 things to specify, namely, the n sets plus a subset of their Cartesian product. In the idiom, this is expressed by saying that R is a (n + 1)-tuple.
Definitions:
Definition 2 An n-ary relation R over sets X1, ⋯, Xn is an (n + 1)-tuple (X1, ⋯, Xn, G) where G is a subset of the Cartesian product X1 × ⋯ × Xn called the graph of R.As a rule, whatever definition best fits the application at hand will be chosen for that purpose, and if it ever becomes necessary to distinguish between the two definitions, then an entity satisfying the second definition may be called an embedded or included relation.
Definitions:
Both statements (x1, ⋯, xn) ∈ R (under the first definition) and (x1, ⋯, xn) ∈ G (under the second definition) read "x1, ⋯, xn are R-related" and are denoted using prefix notation by Rx1⋯xn and using postfix notation by x1⋯xnR. In the case where R is a binary relation, those statements are also denoted using infix notation by x1Rx2.
Definitions:
The following considerations apply under either definition: The set Xi is called the ith domain of R. Under the first definition, the relation does not uniquely determine a given sequence of domains. In the case where R is a binary relation, X1 is also called simply the domain or set of departure of R, and X2 is also called the codomain or set of destination of R.
Definitions:
When the elements of Xi are relations, Xi is called a nonsimple domain of R.
Definitions:
The set of ∀xi ∈ Xi for which there exists (x1, ⋯, xi − 1, xi + 1, ⋯, xn) ∈ X1 × ⋯ × Xi − 1 × Xi + 1 × ⋯ × Xn such that Rx1⋯xi − 1xixi + 1⋯xn is called the ith domain of definition or active domain of R. In the case where R is a binary relation, its first domain of definition is also called simply the domain of definition or active domain of R, and its second domain of definition is also called the codomain of definition or active codomain of R.
Definitions:
When the ith domain of definition of R is equal to Xi, R is said to be total on Xi. In the case where R is a binary relation, when R is total on X1, it is also said to be left-total or serial, and when R is total on X2, it is also said to be right-total or surjective.
Definitions:
When ∀x ∀y ∈ Xi. ∀z ∈ Xj. xRijz ∧ yRijz ⇒ x = y, where i ∈ I, j ∈ J, Rij = πij R, and {I, J} is a partition of {1, ..., n}, R is said to be unique on {Xi}i ∈ I, and {Xi}i ∈ J is called a primary key of R. In the case where R is a binary relation, when R is unique on {X1}, it is also said to be left-unique or injective, and when R is unique on {X2}, it is also said to be right-unique or functional.
Definitions:
When all Xi are the same set X, it is simpler to refer to R as an n-ary relation over X, called a homogeneous relation. Otherwise R is called a heterogeneous relation.
Definitions:
When any of Xi is empty, the defining Cartesian product is empty, and the only relation over such a sequence of domains is the empty relation R = ∅. Hence it is commonly stipulated that all of the domains be nonempty.Let a Boolean domain B be a two-element set, say, B = {0, 1}, whose elements can be interpreted as logical values, typically 0 = false and 1 = true. The characteristic function of R, denoted by χR, is the Boolean-valued function χR: X1 × ⋯ × Xn → B, defined by χR((x1, ⋯, xn)) = 1 if Rx1⋯xn and χR((x1, ⋯, xn)) = 0 otherwise.
Definitions:
In applied mathematics, computer science and statistics, it is common to refer to a Boolean-valued function as an n-ary predicate. From the more abstract viewpoint of formal logic and model theory, the relation R constitutes a logical model or a relational structure, that serves as one of many possible interpretations of some n-ary predicate symbol.
Definitions:
Because relations arise in many scientific disciplines, as well as in many branches of mathematics and logic, there is considerable variation in terminology. Aside from the set-theoretic extension of a relational concept or term, the term "relation" can also be used to refer to the corresponding logical entity, either the logical comprehension, which is the totality of intensions or abstract properties shared by all elements in the relation, or else the symbols denoting these elements and intensions. Further, some writers of the latter persuasion introduce terms with more concrete connotations (such as "relational structure" for the set-theoretic extension of a given relational concept).
History:
The logician Augustus De Morgan, in work published around 1860, was the first to articulate the notion of relation in anything like its present sense. He also stated the first formal results in the theory of relations (on De Morgan and relations, see Merrill 1990).
Charles Peirce, Gottlob Frege, Georg Cantor, Richard Dedekind and others advanced the theory of relations. Many of their ideas, especially on relations called orders, were summarized in The Principles of Mathematics (1903) where Bertrand Russell made free use of these results.
In 1970, Edgar Codd proposed a relational model for databases, thus anticipating the development of data base management systems. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Inflatable bathtub**
Inflatable bathtub:
Inflatable bathtub is a specialized bathtub that is portable, and can be used both indoors and outdoors. They are especially well-suited for bathrooms that have shower, but don't have built-in bathtubs. They are also inexpensive and save room space. Some models have built-in accessories such as pillows, backrests and/or armrests, which are all air-inflated, with some models even having cup-holders installed in them. Inflatable bathtubs usually consist of many smaller inflatable parts, together forming a bathtub. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Document mode**
Document mode:
In a wiki, document mode is the conventional mode of editing, in which the current version of the page is a coherent and self-contained whole, reflecting only the result of the last update and not any history. The page is simply the current version of the document, hence the name document mode.
In document mode, maintenance of the history is left entirely to the wiki software, as opposed to thread mode, where the history of a discussion is also reflected in the current page.
MediaWiki provides the even-numbered namespaces for document mode, often used for articles and other pages such as policy documents, and for each an odd-numbered namespace for discussion, in thread mode. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Lisa Giocomo**
Lisa Giocomo:
Lisa Giocomo is an American neuroscientist who is associate professor in the Department of Neurobiology at Stanford University School of Medicine. Giocomo probes the molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying cortical neural circuits involved in spatial navigation and memory.
Early life and education:
Giocomo grew up in Highlands Ranch, Colorado where she spent a lot of time outdoors. She attributed her early interest in science to her outdoor exploration as a child and thought that pursuing a career in medicine would satisfy her interest in science. Giocomo went on to pursue pre-medical training as an undergraduate student at Baylor University supported by an academic scholarship. Motivated to go into medicine, Giocomo worked as a mental health counsellor at a local clinic as well as at the Veterans Affairs Hospital where she also conducted research on psychiatric illnesses. These research experiences and the experiments she was doing in her psychology class inspired her to major in Psychology. As she began to realize the lack of available treatment options for mental illnesses, she became inspired by her psychology and statistics professor, Dr. Roger Kirk, and changed her path to pursue a deeper understanding of neurobiology instead of medicine.Giocomo completed her bachelor's degree at Baylor in 2002, graduating with a degree in Psychology and then pursued a master's degree in Psychology at Boston University. Giocomo worked with Dr. Michael Hasselmo to understand how different neuromodulators impact memory processing. She stayed at Boston University to complete her PhD in neuroscience under the mentorship of Hasselmo. During her PhD, Giocomo published a first author paper in 2005 showing that application of nicotine to hippocampal slices modulates glutamatergic synaptic transmission leading to a longer period of enhanced synaptic transmission. These results might provide insight into the mechanisms through which nicotine has memory-enhancing effects.After exploring the effects of cholinergic modulation on cortical function as well as the differences between metabotropic glutamate receptor modulatory effects on synaptic transmission, Giocomo began to study grid cells. Grid cells are cells in the cortex that exhibit spatially modulated firing fields that are repeated across the environment to continually update the animal of its position in space. In a first author paper published in Science, Giocomo found that grid cells exhibit differences in frequency of subthreshold membrane potential oscillations in the entorhinal cortex across the dorsal to ventral axis. These findings are in line with the Burgess and O’Keefe Model such that differences in the frequency of subthreshold somatic oscillations results in differences in spatial frequency of grid cell fields. Giocomo further explored the differences in intrinsic properties of medial entorhinal cortical grid cells across the dorsal to ventral axis and, in 2008, published another first author paper outlining how experimental data regarding the physiology of grid cells can be understood in the framework of two possible computational models of grid cells. She concluded that, taking into account the experimental data, both the attractor dynamics and oscillatory interference models help to explain the properties of grid cell firing in the entorhinal cortex.Giocomo completed her PhD in 2008 and decided to pursue her postdoctoral studies in the Moser Lab where she could test her cellular and computational work from her graduate studies in animals and under the mentorship of the scientists that discovered grid cells. The lab was located at the Center for Neural Computation at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology, so she moved to Norway with her husband for her postdoctoral work. She spent four years in Norway working with the Mosers and published many influential papers that greatly impacted the grid cell field. In 2011, she found that knocking out specific channels in the entorhinal cortex, hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated channels (HCN), caused the size and spacing of grid fields to expand but the dorsal-ventral gradient of the grid pattern was maintained. In addition to looking at other computational models of grid cells, Giocomo described the function of head direction cells in the entorhinal cortex in a first author paper in Cell. She found that head direction cells are organized topographically. Specifically, the tuning gradient of these cells decreases along the dorsal to ventral axis and the dorsoventral tuning gradient is only expressed in layer III of the entorhinal cortex. Overall, this paper highlighted the fundamental nature of dorsoventral gradients in entorhinal cortex circuits.
Career and research:
From 2011 to 2012, Giocomo held the title of Group Leader at the Kavli Institute for Systems Neuroscience at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology. Giocomo was then recruited to Stanford University in 2013 where she held the title of Assistant Professor of Neurobiology until 2018. The Giocomo Lab focuses on the neurobiology of functionally defined cell types in the entorhinal cortex. Studying grid cells, head direction cells and border cells allows Giocomo to perform specific manipulations in a system that offers measurable outputs.In 2015, Giocomo and her lab discovered novel error correction mechanisms in grid cells. Since grid cells use path integrating in computing the neural representation of an animals location in space, Giocomo and her lab hypothesized that there must be a sort of error-correction mechanism in place in the brain otherwise the error would accumulate and animals would be unable to navigate their environments. They found that grid cells accumulate error relative to time and distance travelled, the error reflects coherent drift in the grid pattern, and lastly that border cells might serve as a neural substrate for error correction. Overall, these findings indicate that landmarks in an animals’ environment are crucial to grid stability. In 2018, Giocomo and her lab explored the impact of grid scale on place scale by knocking out the HCN1 channels to expand the grid scale. They observed that place scale also expanded in areas far from environmental boundaries, and that place field stability was reduced and spatial learning was impaired. These findings highlight the important biological connections between grid cells and place cells in place coding and spatial memory. In 2019, Giocomo's lab explored the malleability of entorhinal spatial maps. They found that the entorhinal maps restructure to incorporate learned reward locations and this restructuring improved positional decoding when the animal was in close proximity to the reward location.Another goal of the Giocomo Lab's research program is to explore the ontogenesis of medial entorhinal cortex topography to understand how gradients in ion channels develop to give rise to spatial mapping and neural representations of space.In 2019, Giocomo was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurobiology at Stanford University.
Awards and honors:
2019 Vallee Scholar Award 2018 Office of Naval Research Young Investigator Award, Office of Naval Research 2018 Young Investigator Award, Society for Neuroscience 2016 James S McDonnell Foundation Scholar, James S McDonnell Foundation Scholar 2016 Medal of Service for Contributions to Research Baylor University 2015 Bio-X Affiliated Faculty, Scientific Leadership Council Member 2015 Robertson Neuroscience Investigator – New York Stem Cell Foundation, New York Stem Cell Foundation 2014 Klingenstein-Simons Fellowship Award in the Neurosciences, Klingenstein-Simons Foundation 2013 Sloan Fellow, Alfred P. Sloan Foundation 2012 Peter and Patricia Gruber International Research Award, The Gruber Foundation
Select publications:
Topography in the bursting dynamics of entorhinal neurons. Bant JS, Hardcastle K, Ocko SA, Giocomo LM. Cell Reports. 2020;20:2349-2359 Entorhinal velocity signals reflect environmental geometry. Munn RGK, Mallory CS, Hardcastle K, Chetkovich DM, Giocomo LM. Nature Neuroscience. 2020;23:239-251 Remembered reward locations restructure entorhinal spatial maps. Butler WN*, Hardcastle K*, Giocomo LM. Science. 2019;363:1447-1452 How a fly's neural compass adapts to an ever-changing world. Campbell MG, Giocomo LM. Nature. 2019;576:42-43 The shifting sands of cortical divisions. Hardcastle K, Giocomo LM. Neuron. 2019;102:8-11 Emergent elasticity in the neural code for space. Ocko SA, Hardcastle K, Giocomo LM, Ganguli S. PNAS. 2018;E11798-E11806 Principles governing the integration of landmark and self-motion cues in entorhinal cortical codes for navigation. Campbell MG, Ocko SA, Mallory CS, Low IC, Ganguli S, Giocomo LM. Nature Neuroscience. 2018;21:1096-1106 A multiplexed, heterogeneous, and adaptive code for navigation in medial entorhinal cortex. Hardcastle K, Maheswaranathan N, Ganguli S, Giocomo LM. Neuron. 2017;94:375-387 Environmental boundaries as an error correction mechanism for grid cells. Hardcastle K, Ganguli S, Giocomo LM. Neuron. 2015;86:827–839 Environmental boundaries as a mechanism for correcting and anchoring spatial maps. Giocomo LM. Journal of Physiology. 2016;594:6501-6511.
Select publications:
Topography of head direction cells in medial entorhinal cortex. Giocomo LM, Stensola T, Bonnevie T, Van Cauter T, Moser MB, Moser EI. Current Biology. 2014;24(3):252-62.
Temporal frequency of subthreshold oscillations scales with entorhinal grid cell field spacing. Giocomo LM, Zilli EA, Frans_n E, Hasselmo ME. Science. 2007;315(5819):1719-22.
Nicotinic modulation of glutamatergic synaptic transmission in region CA3 of the hippocampus. Giocomo LM, Hasselmo ME. Eur J Neurosci. 2005;22(6):1349-56. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Virtual Router Redundancy Protocol**
Virtual Router Redundancy Protocol:
The Virtual Router Redundancy Protocol (VRRP) is a computer networking protocol that provides for automatic assignment of available Internet Protocol (IP) routers to participating hosts. This increases the availability and reliability of routing paths via automatic default gateway selections on an IP subnetwork.
Virtual Router Redundancy Protocol:
The protocol achieves this by the creation of virtual routers, which are an abstract representation of multiple routers, i.e. primary/active and secondary/Standby routers, acting as a group. The virtual router is assigned to act as a default gateway of participating hosts, instead of a physical router. If the physical router that is routing packets on behalf of the virtual router fails, another physical router is selected to automatically replace it. The physical router that is forwarding packets at any given time is called the primary/active router.
Virtual Router Redundancy Protocol:
VRRP provides information on the state of a router, not the routes processed and exchanged by that router. Each VRRP instance is limited, in scope, to a single subnet. It does not advertise IP routes beyond that subnet or affect the routing table in any way. VRRP can be used in Ethernet, MPLS and Token Ring networks with Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4), as well as IPv6.
Implementation:
A virtual router must use 00-00-5E-00-01-XX as its media access control (MAC) address. The last byte of the address (XX) is the virtual router identifier (VRID), which is different for each virtual router in the network. This address is used by only one physical router at a time, and it will reply with this MAC address when an ARP request is sent for the virtual router's IP address.
Implementation:
Physical routers within the virtual router must communicate within themselves using packets with multicast IP address 224.0.0.18 and IP protocol number 112.Routers backing up a virtual router have a priority between 1 and 254, and the router with the highest priority will become the primary/active. The default priority is 100; for the MAC address owner, the priority is always 255.
Elections of primary/active routers:
A failure to receive a multicast packet from the primary/active router for a period longer than three times the advertisement timer causes the secondary/standby routers to assume that the primary/active router is dead. The virtual router then transitions into an unsteady state and an election process is initiated to select the next primary/active router from the secondary/standby routers. This is fulfilled through the use of multicast packets.
Elections of primary/active routers:
Secondary/standby router(s) are only supposed to send multicast packets during an election process. One exception to this rule is when a physical router is configured with a higher priority than the current primary/active, which means that on connection to the network it will pre-empt the primary/active status. This allows a system administrator to force a physical router to the primary/active state immediately after booting, for example when that particular router is more powerful than others within the virtual router. The secondary/standby router with the highest priority becomes the primary/active router by raising its priority above that of the current primary/active. It will then take responsibility for routing packets sent to the virtual gateway's MAC address. In cases where secondary/standby routers all have the same priority, the secondary/standby router with the highest IP address becomes the primary/active router.
Elections of primary/active routers:
All physical routers acting as a virtual router must be in the same local area network (LAN) segment. Communication within the virtual router takes place periodically. This period can be adjusted by changing advertisement interval timers. The shorter the advertisement interval, the shorter the black hole period, though at the expense of more traffic in the network. Security is achieved by responding only to first hop packets, though other mechanisms are provided to reinforce this, particularly against local attacks. The election process is made orderly through the use of skew time, derived from a router's priority, and used to reduce the chance of the thundering herd problem occurring during the election. The skew time is given by the formula (256 − Priority)/256 (expressed in milliseconds).
Elections of primary/active routers:
Secondary/standby router utilization can be improved by load sharing.
History:
VRRP is described in Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) publication RFC 5798, which is an open standard, but Cisco claims that Hot Standby Router Protocol, a similar protocol with essentially the same facility, is patented and licensed; however, in 2001, in reply to a direct request, Robert Barr of Cisco replied that they will not assert any patent claims unless someone tried to assert a claim against Cisco. IBM also claims covering patents and their statement is readable on the IETF webpage. All patents in question have expired.
Derivatives:
Mellanox offers MAGP, a proprietary protocol based on VRRP that allows active-active operation.Foundry Networks developed VRRP-E(Extended), a proprietary version of VRRP that avoids a few limitations of RFC 3768[1] | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**LIBOX**
LIBOX:
LIBOX was a free platform that allowed users to access and share their high definition media collections, including video, photos and music, across various devices and with friends. LIBOX offered this service for free thanks to a patent pending combination of peer-to-peer, grid and distributed computing technologies. LIBOX consisted of a downloadable desktop application that works on both Windows PCs and Macs, and a web-based interface. The service was accessed by any Web browser and placed no limitations on the amount of media that can be added or the number of people with which it can be shared.
History:
LIBOX was founded in 2008 by Erez Pilosof, who previously founded Walla!, the first major web portal in Israel. Pilosof created LIBOX to allow users to manage and share media across all devices and keep its original high quality. He saw that as a consumer, trying to store your media on several different devices and in many different partial areas online was becoming an annoyance; it "seemed very limited and tedious and problematic” Pilosof created LIBOX as a way to provide a smooth and dependable way for people to enjoy his/her media anywhere.
History:
The company started working on the patent-pending technology to power LIBOX in the Fall of 2008, released an Alpha version in October 2009 and launched a Beta version on June 22, 2010. The company has received funding from investors such as Evergreen Venture Partners and Rhodium to help grow the platform.LIBOX closed down in 2011.
Technology:
The distributed LIBOX platform effectively creates private clouds that communicate between devices and Web browsers through a combination of algorithms, grids and peer-to-peer networking technologies. Files are not uploaded to an external server but streamed straight from the computer of the user that holds the file. The mixture of technologies allows LIBOX to never limit how much media can be added to the platform, while keeping the service free for users. The LIBOX platform uses a single interface rendered in HTML across desktop, web and mobile applications. The LIBOX mobile applications are expected to be made available in Summer 2010.
Functionality:
The platform allows users to “simply add a song to the Libox desktop application” making it “instantly available on a user’s smartphone and any other computer through a web browser.” When it introduces native mobile applications, LIBOX will allow you to take a photo or record a song on a mobile device and automatically add it to your LIBOX library, accessible across your devices. Ultimately, it syncs all of media regardless of “file formats, folders, settings” and allows users to not worry about "file quality loss or cloud storage capacity."LIBOX also allows users to share their media collection with other LIBOX users. The platform lets users create contact lists and instantly invite friends to enjoy their media. LIBOX uses the same technology to sync as it does to share it with friends. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Michael Schutz**
Michael Schutz:
Michael Schutz is Professor of Music Cognition and Percussion at McMaster University. He received his Master of Music in Music Technology and Percussion Performance for studying the role of visual stimuli in musical performance from Northwestern University in 2004. In 2007 he received a Master of Arts in Psychology and later (2009) a Ph.D. in Experimental Psychology from University of Virginia studying cross modal integration under the supervision of Dr. Michael Kubovy. His most recent research interests include auditory alarms and the emotional perception of music as Director of the MAPLE Lab. He has over 60 articles available on Google Scholar. His 2021 TEDx talk "Death By Beep" reviews one aspect of his ongoing research on applying musical insights into improving the design of medical device alert sounds.
Michael Schutz:
In 2019 Dr. Schutz was appointed the Secretary of the Society for Music Perception and Cognition. Other accolades include the Penn State School of Music Alumni Award, the McMaster University Scholar Award, and becoming an Elected Fellow of the Psychonomic Society. He has also made media appearances on The Nature of Things, Quirks and Quarks, CHCH, and in many written articles. His professional website contains more information. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**The God Equation**
The God Equation:
The God Equation: The Quest for a Theory of Everything is a popular science book by the futurist and physicist Michio Kaku. The book was initially published on April 6, 2021, by Doubleday.The book debuted at number six on The New York Times nonfiction best-seller list for the week ending April 10, 2021.
Overview:
Kaku explores the history of unification theories of physics starting with Newton's law of universal gravitation which unified our experience of gravity on Earth and the motions of the celestial bodies to Einstein's general relativity and quantum mechanics and the Standard Model. He dubs the final Grand Unified Theory of relativity and quantum gravity The God Equation with an 11-dimensional string theory as the only self-consistent theory that seems to fit the bill. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**False accusation**
False accusation:
A false accusation is a claim or allegation of wrongdoing that is untrue and/or otherwise unsupported by facts. False accusations are also known as groundless accusations or unfounded accusations or false allegations or false claims. They can occur in any of the following contexts: Informally in everyday life Quasi-judicially Judicially
Types:
When there is insufficient supporting evidence to determine whether it is true or false, an accusation is described as "unsubstantiated" or "unfounded". Accusations that are determined to be false based on corroborating evidence can be divided into three categories: A completely false allegation, in that the alleged events did not occur.
An allegation that describes events that did occur, but were perpetrated by an individual who is not accused, and in which the accused person is innocent.
Types:
An allegation that is false, in that it mixes descriptions of events that actually happened with other events that did not occur.A false allegation can occur as the result of intentional lying on the part of the accuser; or unintentionally, due to a confabulation, either arising spontaneously due to mental illness or resulting from deliberate or accidental suggestive questioning, or faulty interviewing techniques. In 1997, researchers Poole and Lindsay suggested that separate labels should be applied to the two concepts, proposing that the term "false allegations" be used specifically when the accuser is aware that they are lying, and "false suspicions" for the wider range of false accusations in which suggestive questioning may have been involved.When a person is suspected of a wrongdoing for which they are in fact responsible, "false accusation may be used to divert attention from one's own guilt". False accusation may also arise in part from the conduct of the accused, particularly where the accused engages in behaviors consistent with having committed the suspected wrongdoing, either unconsciously or for purposes of appearing guilty.Additionally, once a false accusation has been made – particularly an emotionally laden one – normal human emotional responses to being falsely accused (such as fear, anger, or denial of the accusation) may be misinterpreted as evidence of guilt.
Statistics:
In Japan in 2020, 33 people (21 males and 12 females) were arrested for false accusation.
Rape:
A false accusation of rape is the intentional reporting of a rape where no rape has occurred. It is difficult to assess the prevalence of false accusations because they are often conflated with non-prosecuted cases under the designation "unfounded". However, in the United States, the FBI Uniform Crime Report in 1996 and the United States Department of Justice in 1997 stated 8% of rape accusations in the United States were regarded as unfounded or false. Studies in other countries have reported their own rates at anywhere from 1.5% (Denmark) to 10% (Canada).: 140–142 Due to varying definitions of a "false accusation", the true percentage remains unknown.
Child abuse:
A false allegation of child sexual abuse is an accusation that a person committed one or more acts of child sexual abuse when in reality there was no perpetration of abuse by the accused person as alleged. Such accusations can be brought by the victim, or by another person on the alleged victim's behalf. Studies of child abuse allegations suggest that the overall rate of false accusation is under 10%, as approximated based on multiple studies. Of the allegations determined to be false, only a small portion originated with the child, the studies showed; most false allegations originated with an adult bringing the accusations on behalf of a child, and of those, a large majority occurred in the context of divorce and child-custody battles.
Workplace bullying:
According to a 2003 survey by the Workplace Bullying Institute, the most common bullying tactics included false attribution of "errors" to an employee, glaring or other hostile body language, dismissive comments, the "silent treatment", and/or making up arbitrary "rules" to ensure that a victim breaks them.
Workplace mobbing:
Workplace mobbing can be considered as a "virus" or a "cancer" that spreads throughout the workplace via gossip, rumour and unfounded accusations.
Münchausen syndrome by proxy:
The case has been made that diagnoses of Münchausen syndrome by proxy, that is harming someone else in order to gain attention for oneself, are often false or highly questionable.
Stalking:
In 1999, Pathe, Mullen, and Purcell wrote that popular interest in stalking was promoting false claims. In 2004, Sheridan and Blaauw said that they estimated that 11.5% of claims in a sample of 357 reported claims of stalking were false.
Murder:
In the mid 2000, LAPD arrested a young man Juan Catalan after a little girl was shot dead. Catalan was sentenced to death after a witness stated that he looked like the killer. Catalan turned out to be innocent; it was a television show (Curb Your Enthusiasm) which showed him seated at a baseball game, thus exonerating him. A documentary was later produced about the event. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**U-Force**
U-Force:
The U-Force is a game controller made by Broderbund for the Nintendo Entertainment System. It employs a pair of perpendicular consumer IR sensor panels to translate the user's hand movements into controller signals.
Reception:
The U-Force was ranked the eighth worst video game controller by IGN editor Craig Harris. MSN listed it as one of the top 10 worst game peripherals, writing "Second only to the Sega Activator in terms of all-out crappiness, the U-Force also used infrared sensors to create a truly nightmarish controller...'Don’t Touch' said the adverts for the device, in a rare example of an advertising campaign that got it spot on." | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**E-mu Emulator X**
E-mu Emulator X:
Emulator X is a software-based audio sampler that was produced by E-MU Systems from 2004 to 2009.
Emulator X software is compatible with PCs running the Microsoft Windows operating system. The sampler can operate as a stand-alone program or as a VST instrument and, as of Emulator X3, is available in both 32-bit and 64-bit versions.
For the software to run, one of several sound cards sold by E-MU was originally required. The sound card acted as a hardware dongle to prevent unauthorised use without the purchase of an E-MU branded device. This requirement was later dropped with the release of Emulator X3.
Versions:
Following E-MU's decision to end sales and production of its hardware sampler line in 2003, Emulator X was released as the company's first entry into the software sampler market in 2004. Emulator X2 was released in 2006, followed by the third and final incarnation, Emulator X3, in 2009. The product has since been discontinued and is no longer available to purchase from either E-MU or its parent company, Creative Technology.
Functionality:
Emulator X was largely based on E-MU's hardware sampler operating system, EOS. As such, it replicates or expands upon most of the design and features available in the final revision of the operating system, EOS 4.70. An example of this is the inclusion of E-MU's highly publicized "Z-Plane" filters, with Emulator X containing over 25 new filters not available in EOS.It is also capable of importing and exporting bank files in EOS format for compatibility with E-MU's legacy hardware samplers such as the Emulator IV and E4 Ultra series devices.It is the last software sampler produced that retains the ability to directly sample other sources, in contrast to current software samplers, which require existing samples and are therefore more akin to traditional ROMplers. Among the more noteworthy sampling features added in Emulator X2 is SynthSwipe, a tool which gives Emulator X the ability to sample from connected MIDI devices such as hardware synthesizers by sending a series of notes at differing velocities via MIDI and automatically recording the device's output to create a new fully mapped sample bank. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**HLA-DQ9**
HLA-DQ9:
HLA-DQ9 (DQ9) is a human leukocyte antigen serotype within the HLA-DQ (DQ) serotype group. DQ9 is a split antigen of the DQ3 broad antigen. DQ9 is determined by the antibody recognition of β9 and this generally detects the gene product of DQB1*0303.
Serology:
The serotyping efficiency of DQ9 is poor. The recognition of DQB1*0303 by DQ9 and or DQ3 is poorest, DQ2 which recognizes a different DQB1 subgroup recognizes DQB1*0303 as efficiently as DQ3. For this reason DQ9 serotyping is a poor method of typing for transplantation or disease association prediction or study.
DQB1*0303:
(DQ9) is associated with nasal polyps, gestational diabetes, microscopic polyangiitis (Japanese). Primary linkage is with DRB1*0901-DQB1*0303
Haplotypes and disease:
DQ9.2 DQA1*0201:DQB1*0303 is associated with type I psoriasis (vulgaris), DQ9.3 DQA1*0302:DQB1*0303 maybe associated with juvenile diabetes in the orient.
(Chinese) Primary linkage of vitiligo is with DQA1*03-DQB1*0303. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Mean-field theory**
Mean-field theory:
In physics and probability theory, Mean-field theory (MFT) or Self-consistent field theory studies the behavior of high-dimensional random (stochastic) models by studying a simpler model that approximates the original by averaging over degrees of freedom (the number of values in the final calculation of a statistic that are free to vary). Such models consider many individual components that interact with each other.
Mean-field theory:
The main idea of MFT is to replace all interactions to any one body with an average or effective interaction, sometimes called a molecular field. This reduces any many-body problem into an effective one-body problem. The ease of solving MFT problems means that some insight into the behavior of the system can be obtained at a lower computational cost.
MFT has since been applied to a wide range of fields outside of physics, including statistical inference, graphical models, neuroscience, artificial intelligence, epidemic models, queueing theory, computer-network performance and game theory, as in the quantal response equilibrium.
Origins:
The idea first appeared in physics (statistical mechanics) in the work of Pierre Curie and Pierre Weiss to describe phase transitions. MFT has been used in the Bragg–Williams approximation, models on Bethe lattice, Landau theory, Pierre–Weiss approximation, Flory–Huggins solution theory, and Scheutjens–Fleer theory.
Origins:
Systems with many (sometimes infinite) degrees of freedom are generally hard to solve exactly or compute in closed, analytic form, except for some simple cases (e.g. certain Gaussian random-field theories, the 1D Ising model). Often combinatorial problems arise that make things like computing the partition function of a system difficult. MFT is an approximation method that often makes the original solvable and open to calculation, and in some cases MFT may give very accurate approximations.
Origins:
In field theory, the Hamiltonian may be expanded in terms of the magnitude of fluctuations around the mean of the field. In this context, MFT can be viewed as the "zeroth-order" expansion of the Hamiltonian in fluctuations. Physically, this means that an MFT system has no fluctuations, but this coincides with the idea that one is replacing all interactions with a "mean-field”.
Origins:
Quite often, MFT provides a convenient launch point for studying higher-order fluctuations. For example, when computing the partition function, studying the combinatorics of the interaction terms in the Hamiltonian can sometimes at best produce perturbation results or Feynman diagrams that correct the mean-field approximation.
Validity:
In general, dimensionality plays an active role in determining whether a mean-field approach will work for any particular problem. There is sometimes a critical dimension above which MFT is valid and below which it is not. Heuristically, many interactions are replaced in MFT by one effective interaction. So if the field or particle exhibits many random interactions in the original system, they tend to cancel each other out, so the mean effective interaction and MFT will be more accurate. This is true in cases of high dimensionality, when the Hamiltonian includes long-range forces, or when the particles are extended (e.g. polymers). The Ginzburg criterion is the formal expression of how fluctuations render MFT a poor approximation, often depending upon the number of spatial dimensions in the system of interest.
Formal approach (Hamiltonian):
The formal basis for mean-field theory is the Bogoliubov inequality. This inequality states that the free energy of a system with Hamiltonian H=H0+ΔH has the following upper bound: F≤F0=def⟨H0⟩−TS0, where S0 is the entropy, and F and F0 are Helmholtz free energies. The average is taken over the equilibrium ensemble of the reference system with Hamiltonian H0 . In the special case that the reference Hamiltonian is that of a non-interacting system and can thus be written as H0=∑i=1Nhi(ξi), where ξi are the degrees of freedom of the individual components of our statistical system (atoms, spins and so forth), one can consider sharpening the upper bound by minimising the right side of the inequality. The minimising reference system is then the "best" approximation to the true system using non-correlated degrees of freedom and is known as the mean field approximation.
Formal approach (Hamiltonian):
For the most common case that the target Hamiltonian contains only pairwise interactions, i.e., H=∑(i,j)∈PVi,j(ξi,ξj), where P is the set of pairs that interact, the minimising procedure can be carried out formally. Define Tr if(ξi) as the generalized sum of the observable f over the degrees of freedom of the single component (sum for discrete variables, integrals for continuous ones). The approximating free energy is given by Tr Tr log P0(N)(ξ1,ξ2,…,ξN), where P0(N)(ξ1,ξ2,…,ξN) is the probability to find the reference system in the state specified by the variables (ξ1,ξ2,…,ξN) . This probability is given by the normalized Boltzmann factor P0(N)(ξ1,ξ2,…,ξN)=1Z0(N)e−βH0(ξ1,ξ2,…,ξN)=∏i=1N1Z0e−βhi(ξi)=def∏i=1NP0(i)(ξi), where Z0 is the partition function. Thus Tr Tr log P0(i)(ξi).
Formal approach (Hamiltonian):
In order to minimise, we take the derivative with respect to the single-degree-of-freedom probabilities P0(i) using a Lagrange multiplier to ensure proper normalization. The end result is the set of self-consistency equations P0(i)(ξi)=1Z0e−βhiMF(ξi),i=1,2,…,N, where the mean field is given by MF Tr jVi,j(ξi,ξj)P0(j)(ξj).
Applications:
Mean field theory can be applied to a number of physical systems so as to study phenomena such as phase transitions.
Applications:
Ising model Formal derivation The Bogoliubov inequality, shown above, can be used to find the dynamics of a mean field model of the two-dimensional Ising lattice. A magnetisation function can be calculated from the resultant approximate free energy. The first step is choosing a more tractable approximation of the true Hamiltonian. Using a non-interacting or effective field Hamiltonian, −m∑isi ,the variational free energy is FV=F0+⟨(−J∑sisj−h∑si)−(−m∑si)⟩0.
Applications:
By the Bogoliubov inequality, simplifying this quantity and calculating the magnetisation function that minimises the variational free energy yields the best approximation to the actual magnetisation. The minimiser is m=J∑⟨sj⟩0+h, which is the ensemble average of spin. This simplifies to tanh (zJβm)+h.
Equating the effective field felt by all spins to a mean spin value relates the variational approach to the suppression of fluctuations. The physical interpretation of the magnetisation function is then a field of mean values for individual spins.
Non-interacting spins approximation Consider the Ising model on a d -dimensional lattice. The Hamiltonian is given by H=−J∑⟨i,j⟩sisj−h∑isi, where the ∑⟨i,j⟩ indicates summation over the pair of nearest neighbors ⟨i,j⟩ , and si,sj=±1 are neighboring Ising spins.
Applications:
Let us transform our spin variable by introducing the fluctuation from its mean value mi≡⟨si⟩ . We may rewrite the Hamiltonian as H=−J∑⟨i,j⟩(mi+δsi)(mj+δsj)−h∑isi, where we define δsi≡si−mi ; this is the fluctuation of the spin. If we expand the right side, we obtain one term that is entirely dependent on the mean values of the spins and independent of the spin configurations. This is the trivial term, which does not affect the statistical properties of the system. The next term is the one involving the product of the mean value of the spin and the fluctuation value. Finally, the last term involves a product of two fluctuation values.
Applications:
The mean field approximation consists of neglecting this second-order fluctuation term: MF ≡−J∑⟨i,j⟩(mimj+miδsj+mjδsi)−h∑isi.
These fluctuations are enhanced at low dimensions, making MFT a better approximation for high dimensions.
Again, the summand can be re-expanded. In addition, we expect that the mean value of each spin is site-independent, since the Ising chain is translationally invariant. This yields MF =−J∑⟨i,j⟩(m2+2m(si−m))−h∑isi.
The summation over neighboring spins can be rewritten as ∑⟨i,j⟩=12∑i∑j∈nn(i) , where nn(i) means "nearest neighbor of i ", and the 1/2 prefactor avoids double counting, since each bond participates in two spins. Simplifying leads to the final expression MF eff.
∑isi, where z is the coordination number. At this point, the Ising Hamiltonian has been decoupled into a sum of one-body Hamiltonians with an effective mean field eff.
=h+Jzm , which is the sum of the external field h and of the mean field induced by the neighboring spins. It is worth noting that this mean field directly depends on the number of nearest neighbors and thus on the dimension of the system (for instance, for a hypercubic lattice of dimension d , z=2d ).
Applications:
Substituting this Hamiltonian into the partition function and solving the effective 1D problem, we obtain cosh (h+mJzkBT)]N, where N is the number of lattice sites. This is a closed and exact expression for the partition function of the system. We may obtain the free energy of the system and calculate critical exponents. In particular, we can obtain the magnetization m as a function of eff.
Applications:
We thus have two equations between m and eff.
, allowing us to determine m as a function of temperature. This leads to the following observation: For temperatures greater than a certain value Tc , the only solution is m=0 . The system is paramagnetic.
For T<Tc , there are two non-zero solutions: m=±m0 . The system is ferromagnetic.
Tc is given by the following relation: Tc=JzkB This shows that MFT can account for the ferromagnetic phase transition.
Application to other systems Similarly, MFT can be applied to other types of Hamiltonian as in the following cases: To study the metal–superconductor transition. In this case, the analog of the magnetization is the superconducting gap Δ The molecular field of a liquid crystal that emerges when the Laplacian of the director field is non-zero.
To determine the optimal amino acid side chain packing given a fixed protein backbone in protein structure prediction (see Self-consistent mean field (biology)).
To determine the elastic properties of a composite material.Variationally minimisation like mean field theory can be also be used in statistical inference.
Extension to time-dependent mean fields:
In mean field theory, the mean field appearing in the single-site problem is a time-independent scalar or vector quantity. However, this isn't always the case: in a variant of mean field theory called dynamical mean field theory (DMFT), the mean field becomes a time-dependent quantity. For instance, DMFT can be applied to the Hubbard model to study the metal–Mott-insulator transition. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Flight instructor**
Flight instructor:
A flight instructor is a person who teaches others to operate aircraft. Specific privileges granted to holders of a flight instructor qualification vary from country to country, but very generally, a flight instructor serves to enhance or evaluate the knowledge and skill level of an aviator in pursuit of a higher pilot's license, certificate or rating.
United States:
Privileges A person who holds a flight instructor certificate (called a "certificated flight instructor" (CFI) is authorized to give training and endorsements required for and relating to: a student, private, commercial or other pilot certificate; the three hours of training with reference only to instruments in preparation for a private pilot certificate, note that this does not need to be a CFII.
United States:
an instrument rating, only if the CFI has an instrument instructor rating (CFII); This cannot be given by a "safety pilot". A safety pilot can only be used to help maintain instrument proficiency with an instrument-rated pilot by flying the required six instrument approaches-holding-intercepting and tracking courses, within the preceding six calendar months.
United States:
flight review, an endorsement previously called biennial flight review (currently referred to as flight review see 14 CFR part 61.56), or recency of experience requirement; preparation for a practical test (typically three hours within the preceding 60 days in preparation for a certificate or rating); or endorsement for a knowledge test (written examination)Certain limitations are placed on the instruction a flight instructor may give. For example, flight instructors wishing to train applicants for a flight instructor certificate must have held their own flight instructor certificate for at least 24 months and must have given at least 200 hours of instruction. Specific training programs have additional requirements or limitations. The occupational privileges of instructors employed by flight schools regulated under 14 CFR parts 141 and 142 are further restricted. Specific authorization is often required from the local controlling agency (Typically the flight standards district office) in order for instructors to conduct evaluations, for example.
United States:
Eligibility requirements Flight instructors in the United States must hold at least a commercial pilot certificate. Individuals wishing to give instruction in airplanes or powered-lift aircraft are additionally required to hold an instrument rating in the desired category and class. Holders of a sport pilot certificate (or higher) may obtain a flight instructor certificate with sport pilot rating, allowing them to give instruction for the sport pilot certificate in light-sport aircraft.
United States:
All individuals desiring flight instructor privileges must pass two additional written exams (fundamentals of instruction, or FOI; and a knowledge test specific to the category of aircraft in which instructional privileges are desired, such as fixed-wing) as well as a practical test.
Flight instructors must be at least 18 years of age to be eligible.
Those airmen who hold commercial privileges in lighter-than-air aircraft (balloons and airships) have flight instructor privileges in those category and classes they have on their pilot certificate. Lighter-than-air flight instructor privileges do not get placed on a flight instructor certificate.
United States:
Training requirements Normally when a CFI Applicant begins training, they are required to build a series of CFI Lesson Plans. These lesson plans use many of the principles that a CFI Applicant would learn during Fundamentals of Instruction (FOI) Training. The CFI will spend hundreds of hours compiling data from various sources that cover all of the FAA Required subject areas. Those subject areas are all listed below: Fundamentals of Instruction The Learning Process Human Behavior and Effective Communication The Teaching Process Teaching Methods Critique and Evaluation Flight Instructor Characteristics and Responsibilities Planning Instructional Activity Technical Subject Areas Aeromedical Factors Visual Scanning and Collision Avoidance Principles of Flight Airplane Flight Controls Airplane Weight and Balance Navigation and Flight Planning Night Operations High Altitude Operations Federal Aviation Regulations and Publications National Airspace System Navigation Systems and Radar Services Logbook Entries and Certificate Endorsements Preflight Preparation Certificates and Documents Weather Information Operation of Systems Performance and Limitations Airworthiness Requirements 3-46 Preflight Procedures Airport Operations Takeoff, Landings, and Go-Arounds Fundamentals of Flight Performance Maneuvers Ground Reference Maneuvers Slow Flight, Stalls, and Spins Basic Instrument Maneuvers Emergency Operations Professional organizations In the United States, two professional organizations represent flight instructors nationally: Society of Aviation and Flight Educators (SAFE) and The National Association of Flight Instructors (NAFI)
India:
In India there are 3 grades of flight instructors namely: Assistant Pilot Instructor (API), Pilot Instructor (PI) and Chief Flying Instructor (CFI).A Pilot Instructor In-Charge (PII) and Deputy CFI (Dep.CFI) are both variations of the PI and CFI ranks respectively but they essentially hold the same certificate / rating issued by Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA). Typically, an API, PI and PII wear 3 bar epaulets and a Dep.CFI and CFI wear 4 bar epaulets.
Europe:
In Europe under the European Union Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) regulatory system there are several different types of ratings for flight instruction. These instructor rating can be issued for different categories of aircraft: Airplane, Helicopter, Balloon or Sailplane, e.g. a helicopter flight instructor holds a FI(H).
This section only covers the aeroplane instructor ratings.
Flight Instructor (FI) teaches basic flight instruction towards a license (PPL or LAPL), and may instruct in 'difference training' for different types of add-on endorsements, e.g. tail wheel or retractable gear.
A FI may also hold the privileges from any other instructor rating such as IRI or CRI, as well as other instructor privileges such as CPL, Night or Aerobatics.
Instrument Rating Instructor (IRI) teaches instrument flying towards an instrument rating under a modular program.
Class Rating Instructor (CRI) instructs on a certain class of aircraft towards a class rating for those who already hold a license. Class ratings may include Single Engine Piston Land (SEPL), Multi Engine Piston Land (MEPL), Single or Multi Engine Piston Sea, or Single Engine Turboprop under a modular program.
Canada:
This section currently covers only the aeroplane flight instructor ratings.
Canada:
In Canada, the holder of a commercial pilot licence or airline transport pilot licence may have their licence endorsed with a flight instructor rating - aeroplane. Initially, the pilot is endorsed as a "Class 4" flight instructor. This allows the pilot to deliver flight training towards the issuance of a recreational pilot permit, private pilot licence, commercial pilot licence, night rating, and VFR over-the-top rating. The "Class 4" flight instructor may only conduct training while under the supervision of a "Class 2" or "Class 1" flight instructor.
Canada:
After satisfying certain requirements (satisfactory flight test records, experience requirements, written exams, and flight tests), an instructor can upgrade their rating to a Class 3, Class 2, and Class 1 instructor rating. The Class 3 flight instructor does not require the supervision of a Class 2 or Class 1 flight instructor. The Class 2 flight instructor may supervise Class 4 flight instructors and act as the chief flight instructor (CFI) of a flight training unit. The Class 1 flight instructor may give ground school and flight training towards the endorsement of a flight instructor rating.
Canada:
In order to give instruction towards the instrument rating, multi rating, type ratings, and class conversions (for example, land plane to sea plane), an instructor rating is not necessarily required. The requirements may be limited to holding a commercial or airline transport license and having met certain experience levels (such as time on type and in class). In the case of an instrument rating, the holder of a flight instructor rating can teach it even if they do not have the experience level required for non-flight instructors. Details are contained in the Canadian Aviation Regulations, parts 401 and 421.
New Zealand:
Flight instructors in New Zealand must have a Category A, B, C, D or E flight instructor rating.
The Category E rating is specifically for conducting agricultural (top dressing, etc.) flying instruction. Category D flight instructor may conduct type ratings for any aircraft for which they hold a type rating. Category C flight instructors cannot send students on their first solo, and must operate under the supervision of a Category A or B flight instructor.
The chief flying instructor (CFI) is the flying instructor responsible for all flight training at an organisation.
South Africa:
In South Africa, Grade III, II and I instructor categories exist. Ratings for aeroplanes and helicopters are obtained and revalidated separately.
A Grade III instructor rating is an entry-level qualification, allowed to provide basic instruction toward the issue of a Private Pilot Licence (PPL) under supervision of a Grade I or Grade II flight instructor. A Grade III instructor must hold at least a Commercial Pilot Licence (CPL) in the same category.
A Grade II instructor requires at least 200 hours of instruction experience, and can function without supervision in most types of training (instrument, night, commercial, multi-engine etc.). Grade II instructors have some examiner privileges, specifically for PPL initial and revalidation tests and can be appointed as Chief Flight Instructors.
A Grade I instructor requires at least 1500 hours of instruction experience, and can provide any type of training on classes and types of aircraft on which the instructor is rated. A Grade I instructor is also eligible for appointment as a Class 1 Designated Flight Examiner (DFE-I).
A DFE-I can issue and renew any licences and ratings that he or she is rated for. The appointment is renewed annually. Most DFE-Is are employed by major airlines.
There is also a parallel system, not in compliance with ICAO guidelines, for recreational pilots. This training takes place under Part 62 of the Civil Aviation Regulations. Such instructor ratings come in Category A, B and C, with A being the most senior. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Supertree**
Supertree:
A supertree is a single phylogenetic tree assembled from a combination of smaller phylogenetic trees, which may have been assembled using different datasets (e.g. morphological and molecular) or a different selection of taxa. Supertree algorithms can highlight areas where additional data would most usefully resolve any ambiguities. The input trees of a supertree should behave as samples from the larger tree.
Construction methods:
The construction of a supertree scales exponentially with the number of tax included; therefore for a tree of any reasonable size, it is not possible to examine every possible supertree and weigh its success at combining the input information. Heuristic methods are thus essential, although these methods may be unreliable; the result extracted is often biased or affected by irrelevant characteristics of the input data.The most well known method for supertree construction is Matrix Representation with Parsimony (MRP), in which the input source trees are represented by matrices with 0s, 1s, and ?s (i.e., each edge in each source tree defines a bipartition of the leafset into two disjoint parts, and the leaves on one side get 0, the leaves on the other side get 1, and the missing leaves get ?), and the matrices are concatenated and then analyzed using heuristics for maximum parsimony.
Construction methods:
Another approach for supertree construction include a maximum likelihood version of MRP called "MRL" (matrix representation with likelihood), which analyzes the same MRP matrix but uses heuristics for maximum likelihood instead of for maximum parsimony to construct the supertree.
Construction methods:
The Robinson-Foulds distance is the most popular of many ways of measuring how similar a supertree is to the input trees. It is a metric for the number of clades from the input trees that are retained in the supertree. Robinson-Foulds optimization methods search for a supertree that minimizes the total (summed) Robinson-Foulds differences between the (binary) supertree and each input tree. In this case the supertree can hence be view as the median of the input tree according to the Robinson-Foulds distance. Alternative approaches have been developped to infer median supertree based on different metrics, e.g relying on triplet or quartet decomposition of the trees.A recent innovation has been the construction of Maximum Likelihood supertrees and the use of "input-tree-wise" likelihood scores to perform tests of two supertrees.Additional methods include the Min Cut Supertree approach, Most Similar Supertree Analysis (MSSA), Distance Fit (DFIT) and Quartet Fit (QFIT), implemented in the software CLANN.
Application:
Supertrees have been applied to produce phylogenies of many groups, notably the angiosperms, eukaryotes and mammals. They have also been applied to larger-scale problems such as the origins of diversity, vulnerability to extinction, and evolutionary models of ecological structure. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Basis set (chemistry)**
Basis set (chemistry):
In theoretical and computational chemistry, a basis set is a set of functions (called basis functions) that is used to represent the electronic wave function in the Hartree–Fock method or density-functional theory in order to turn the partial differential equations of the model into algebraic equations suitable for efficient implementation on a computer.
Basis set (chemistry):
The use of basis sets is equivalent to the use of an approximate resolution of the identity: the orbitals |ψi⟩ are expanded within the basis set as a linear combination of the basis functions {\textstyle |\psi _{i}\rangle \approx \sum _{\mu }c_{\mu i}|\mu \rangle } , where the expansion coefficients cμi are given by {\textstyle c_{\mu i}=\sum _{\nu }\langle \mu |\nu \rangle ^{-1}\langle \nu |\psi _{i}\rangle } The basis set can either be composed of atomic orbitals (yielding the linear combination of atomic orbitals approach), which is the usual choice within the quantum chemistry community; plane waves which are typically used within the solid state community, or real-space approaches. Several types of atomic orbitals can be used: Gaussian-type orbitals, Slater-type orbitals, or numerical atomic orbitals. Out of the three, Gaussian-type orbitals are by far the most often used, as they allow efficient implementations of post-Hartree–Fock methods.
Introduction:
In modern computational chemistry, quantum chemical calculations are performed using a finite set of basis functions. When the finite basis is expanded towards an (infinite) complete set of functions, calculations using such a basis set are said to approach the complete basis set (CBS) limit. In this context, basis function and atomic orbital are sometimes used interchangeably, although the basis functions are usually not true atomic orbitals.
Introduction:
Within the basis set, the wavefunction is represented as a vector, the components of which correspond to coefficients of the basis functions in the linear expansion. In such a basis, one-electron operators correspond to matrices (a.k.a. rank two tensors), whereas two-electron operators are rank four tensors.
Introduction:
When molecular calculations are performed, it is common to use a basis composed of atomic orbitals, centered at each nucleus within the molecule (linear combination of atomic orbitals ansatz). The physically best motivated basis set are Slater-type orbitals (STOs), which are solutions to the Schrödinger equation of hydrogen-like atoms, and decay exponentially far away from the nucleus. It can be shown that the molecular orbitals of Hartree–Fock and density-functional theory also exhibit exponential decay. Furthermore, S-type STOs also satisfy Kato's cusp condition at the nucleus, meaning that they are able to accurately describe electron density near the nucleus. However, hydrogen-like atoms lack many-electron interactions, thus the orbitals do not accurately describe electron state correlations.
Introduction:
Unfortunately, calculating integrals with STOs is computationally difficult and it was later realized by Frank Boys that STOs could be approximated as linear combinations of Gaussian-type orbitals (GTOs) instead. Because the product of two GTOs can be written as a linear combination of GTOs, integrals with Gaussian basis functions can be written in closed form, which leads to huge computational savings (see John Pople).
Introduction:
Dozens of Gaussian-type orbital basis sets have been published in the literature. Basis sets typically come in hierarchies of increasing size, giving a controlled way to obtain more accurate solutions, however at a higher cost.
Introduction:
The smallest basis sets are called minimal basis sets. A minimal basis set is one in which, on each atom in the molecule, a single basis function is used for each orbital in a Hartree–Fock calculation on the free atom. For atoms such as lithium, basis functions of p type are also added to the basis functions that correspond to the 1s and 2s orbitals of the free atom, because lithium also has a 1s2p bound state. For example, each atom in the second period of the periodic system (Li – Ne) would have a basis set of five functions (two s functions and three p functions).
Introduction:
A minimal basis set may already be exact for the gas-phase atom at the self-consistent field level of theory. In the next level, additional functions are added to describe polarization of the electron density of the atom in molecules. These are called polarization functions. For example, while the minimal basis set for hydrogen is one function approximating the 1s atomic orbital, a simple polarized basis set typically has two s- and one p-function (which consists of three basis functions: px, py and pz). This adds flexibility to the basis set, effectively allowing molecular orbitals involving the hydrogen atom to be more asymmetric about the hydrogen nucleus. This is very important for modeling chemical bonding, because the bonds are often polarized. Similarly, d-type functions can be added to a basis set with valence p orbitals, and f-functions to a basis set with d-type orbitals, and so on.
Introduction:
Another common addition to basis sets is the addition of diffuse functions. These are extended Gaussian basis functions with a small exponent, which give flexibility to the "tail" portion of the atomic orbitals, far away from the nucleus. Diffuse basis functions are important for describing anions or dipole moments, but they can also be important for accurate modeling of intra- and inter-molecular bonding.
STO hierarchy:
The most common minimal basis set is STO-nG, where n is an integer. The STO-nG basis sets are derived from a minimal Slater-type orbital basis set, with n representing the number of Gaussian primitive functions used to represent each Slater-type orbital. Minimal basis sets typically give rough results that are insufficient for research-quality publication, but are much cheaper than their larger counterparts. Commonly used minimal basis sets of this type are: STO-3G STO-4G STO-6G STO-3G* – Polarized version of STO-3GThere are several other minimum basis sets that have been used such as the MidiX basis sets.
Split-valence basis sets:
During most molecular bonding, it is the valence electrons which principally take part in the bonding. In recognition of this fact, it is common to represent valence orbitals by more than one basis function (each of which can in turn be composed of a fixed linear combination of primitive Gaussian functions). Basis sets in which there are multiple basis functions corresponding to each valence atomic orbital are called valence double, triple, quadruple-zeta, and so on, basis sets (zeta, ζ, was commonly used to represent the exponent of an STO basis function). Since the different orbitals of the split have different spatial extents, the combination allows the electron density to adjust its spatial extent appropriate to the particular molecular environment. In contrast, minimal basis sets lack the flexibility to adjust to different molecular environments.
Split-valence basis sets:
Pople basis sets The notation for the split-valence basis sets arising from the group of John Pople is typically X-YZg. In this case, X represents the number of primitive Gaussians comprising each core atomic orbital basis function. The Y and Z indicate that the valence orbitals are composed of two basis functions each, the first one composed of a linear combination of Y primitive Gaussian functions, the other composed of a linear combination of Z primitive Gaussian functions. In this case, the presence of two numbers after the hyphens implies that this basis set is a split-valence double-zeta basis set. Split-valence triple- and quadruple-zeta basis sets are also used, denoted as X-YZWg, X-YZWVg, etc. Here is a list of commonly used split-valence basis sets of this type: 3-21G 3-21G* – Polarization functions on heavy atoms 3-21G** – Polarization functions on heavy atoms and hydrogen 3-21+G – Diffuse functions on heavy atoms 3-21++G – Diffuse functions on heavy atoms and hydrogen 3-21+G* – Polarization and diffuse functions on heavy atoms 3-21+G** – Polarization functions on heavy atoms and hydrogen, as well as diffuse functions on heavy atoms 4-21G 4-31G 6-21G 6-31G 6-31G* 6-31+G* 6-31G(3df, 3pd) 6-311G 6-311G* 6-311+G*The 6-31G* basis set (defined for the atoms H through Zn) is a valence double-zeta polarized basis set that adds to the 6-31G set five d-type Cartesian-Gaussian polarization functions on each of the atoms Li through Ca and ten f-type Cartesian Gaussian polarization functions on each of the atoms Sc through Zn.
Split-valence basis sets:
As compared to Pople basis sets, correlation-consistent or polarization-consistent basis sets are more appropriate for correlated wave function calculations. For Hartree–Fock or density functional theory, however, Pople basis sets are more efficient (per unit basis function) as compared to other alternatives, provided that the electronic structure program can take advantage of combined sp shells.
Correlation-consistent basis sets:
Some of the most widely used basis sets are those developed by Dunning and coworkers, since they are designed for converging post-Hartree–Fock calculations systematically to the complete basis set limit using empirical extrapolation techniques.
Correlation-consistent basis sets:
For first- and second-row atoms, the basis sets are cc-pVNZ where N = D,T,Q,5,6,... (D = double, T = triples, etc.). The 'cc-p', stands for 'correlation-consistent polarized' and the 'V' indicates they are valence-only basis sets. They include successively larger shells of polarization (correlating) functions (d, f, g, etc.). More recently these 'correlation-consistent polarized' basis sets have become widely used and are the current state of the art for correlated or post-Hartree–Fock calculations. Examples of these are: cc-pVDZ – Double-zeta cc-pVTZ – Triple-zeta cc-pVQZ – Quadruple-zeta cc-pV5Z – Quintuple-zeta, etc.
Correlation-consistent basis sets:
aug-cc-pVDZ, etc. – Augmented versions of the preceding basis sets with added diffuse functions.
cc-pCVDZ – Double-zeta with core correlationFor period-3 atoms (Al–Ar), additional functions have turned out to be necessary; these are the cc-pV(N+d)Z basis sets. Even larger atoms may employ pseudopotential basis sets, cc-pVNZ-PP, or relativistic-contracted Douglas-Kroll basis sets, cc-pVNZ-DK.
While the usual Dunning basis sets are for valence-only calculations, the sets can be augmented with further functions that describe core electron correlation. These core-valence sets (cc-pCVXZ) can be used to approach the exact solution to the all-electron problem, and they are necessary for accurate geometric and nuclear property calculations.
Weighted core-valence sets (cc-pwCVXZ) have also been recently suggested. The weighted sets aim to capture core-valence correlation, while neglecting most of core-core correlation, in order to yield accurate geometries with smaller cost than the cc-pCVXZ sets.
Correlation-consistent basis sets:
Diffuse functions can also be added for describing anions and long-range interactions such as Van der Waals forces, or to perform electronic excited-state calculations, electric field property calculations. A recipe for constructing additional augmented functions exists; as many as five augmented functions have been used in second hyperpolarizability calculations in the literature. Because of the rigorous construction of these basis sets, extrapolation can be done for almost any energetic property. However, care must be taken when extrapolating energy differences as the individual energy components converge at different rates: the Hartree–Fock energy converges exponentially, whereas the correlation energy converges only polynomially.
Correlation-consistent basis sets:
To understand how to get the number of functions take the cc-pVDZ basis set for H: There are two s (L = 0) orbitals and one p (L = 1) orbital that has 3 components along the z-axis (mL = −1,0,1) corresponding to px, py and pz. Thus, five spatial orbitals in total. Note that each orbital can hold two electrons of opposite spin.
Correlation-consistent basis sets:
For example, Ar [1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p] has 3 s orbitals (L = 0) and 2 sets of p orbitals (L = 1). Using cc-pVDZ, orbitals are [1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3s, 3p, 3p, 3d'] (where ' represents the added in polarisation orbitals), with 4 s orbitals (4 basis functions), 3 sets of p orbitals (3 × 3 = 9 basis functions), and 1 set of d orbitals (5 basis functions). Adding up the basis functions gives a total of 18 functions for Ar with the cc-pVDZ basis-set.
Polarization-consistent basis sets:
Density-functional theory has recently become widely used in computational chemistry. However, the correlation-consistent basis sets described above are suboptimal for density-functional theory, because the correlation-consistent sets have been designed for post-Hartree–Fock, while density-functional theory exhibits much more rapid basis set convergence than wave function methods.
Adopting a similar methodology to the correlation-consistent series, Frank Jensen introduced polarization-consistent (pc-n) basis sets as a way to quickly converge density functional theory calculations to the complete basis set limit. Like the Dunning sets, the pc-n sets can be combined with basis set extrapolation techniques to obtain CBS values.
The pc-n sets can be augmented with diffuse functions to obtain augpc-n sets.
Karlsruhe basis sets:
Some of the various valence adaptations of Karlsruhe basis sets are briefly described below.
Karlsruhe basis sets:
def2-SV(P) – Split valence with polarization functions on heavy atoms (not hydrogen) def2-SVP – Split valence polarization def2-SVPD – Split valence polarization with diffuse functions def2-TZVP – Valence triple-zeta polarization def2-TZVPD – Valence triple-zeta polarization with diffuse functions def2-TZVPP – Valence triple-zeta with two sets of polarization functions def2-TZVPPD – Valence triple-zeta with two sets of polarization functions and a set of diffuse functions def2-QZVP – Valence quadruple-zeta polarization def2-QZVPD – Valence quadruple-zeta polarization with diffuse functions def2-QZVPP – Valence quadruple-zeta with two sets of polarization functions def2-QZVPPD – Valence quadruple-zeta with two sets of polarization functions and a set of diffuse functions
Completeness-optimized basis sets:
Gaussian-type orbital basis sets are typically optimized to reproduce the lowest possible energy for the systems used to train the basis set. However, the convergence of the energy does not imply convergence of other properties, such as nuclear magnetic shieldings, the dipole moment, or the electron momentum density, which probe different aspects of the electronic wave function.
Completeness-optimized basis sets:
Manninen and Vaara have proposed completeness-optimized basis sets, where the exponents are obtained by maximization of the one-electron completeness profile instead of minimization of the energy. Completeness-optimized basis sets are a way to easily approach the complete basis set limit of any property at any level of theory, and the procedure is simple to automatize.Completeness-optimized basis sets are tailored to a specific property. This way, the flexibility of the basis set can be focused on the computational demands of the chosen property, typically yielding much faster convergence to the complete basis set limit than is achievable with energy-optimized basis sets.
Even-tempered basis sets:
In 1974 Bardo and Ruedenberg proposed a simple scheme to generate the exponents of a basis set that spans the Hilbert space evenly by following a geometric progression of the form: for each angular momentum l , where Nl is the number of primitives functions. Here, only the two parameters αl and βl must be optimized, significantly reducing the dimension of the search space or even avoiding the exponent optimization problem. In order to properly describe electronic delocalized states, a previously optimized standard basis set can be complemented with additional delocalized Gaussian functions with small exponent values, generated by the even-tempered scheme. This approach has also been employed to generate basis sets for other types of quantum particles rather than electrons, like quantum nuclei, negative muons or positrons.
Plane-wave basis sets:
In addition to localized basis sets, plane-wave basis sets can also be used in quantum-chemical simulations. Typically, the choice of the plane wave basis set is based on a cutoff energy. The plane waves in the simulation cell that fit below the energy criterion are then included in the calculation. These basis sets are popular in calculations involving three-dimensional periodic boundary conditions.
Plane-wave basis sets:
The main advantage of a plane-wave basis is that it is guaranteed to converge in a smooth, monotonic manner to the target wavefunction. In contrast, when localized basis sets are used, monotonic convergence to the basis set limit may be difficult due to problems with over-completeness: in a large basis set, functions on different atoms start to look alike, and many eigenvalues of the overlap matrix approach zero.
Plane-wave basis sets:
In addition, certain integrals and operations are much easier to program and carry out with plane-wave basis functions than with their localized counterparts. For example, the kinetic energy operator is diagonal in the reciprocal space. Integrals over real-space operators can be efficiently carried out using fast Fourier transforms. The properties of the Fourier Transform allow a vector representing the gradient of the total energy with respect to the plane-wave coefficients to be calculated with a computational effort that scales as NPW*ln(NPW) where NPW is the number of plane-waves. When this property is combined with separable pseudopotentials of the Kleinman-Bylander type and pre-conditioned conjugate gradient solution techniques, the dynamic simulation of periodic problems containing hundreds of atoms becomes possible.
Plane-wave basis sets:
In practice, plane-wave basis sets are often used in combination with an 'effective core potential' or pseudopotential, so that the plane waves are only used to describe the valence charge density. This is because core electrons tend to be concentrated very close to the atomic nuclei, resulting in large wavefunction and density gradients near the nuclei which are not easily described by a plane-wave basis set unless a very high energy cutoff, and therefore small wavelength, is used. This combined method of a plane-wave basis set with a core pseudopotential is often abbreviated as a PSPW calculation.
Plane-wave basis sets:
Furthermore, as all functions in the basis are mutually orthogonal and are not associated with any particular atom, plane-wave basis sets do not exhibit basis-set superposition error. However, the plane-wave basis set is dependent on the size of the simulation cell, complicating cell size optimization.
Plane-wave basis sets:
Due to the assumption of periodic boundary conditions, plane-wave basis sets are less well suited to gas-phase calculations than localized basis sets. Large regions of vacuum need to be added on all sides of the gas-phase molecule in order to avoid interactions with the molecule and its periodic copies. However, the plane waves use a similar accuracy to describe the vacuum region as the region where the molecule is, meaning that obtaining the truly noninteracting limit may be computationally costly.
Linearized augmented-plane-wave basis sets:
A combination of some of the properties of localized basis sets and plane-wave approaches is achieved by linearized augmented-plane-wave (LAPW) basis sets. These are based on a partitioning of space into nonoverlapping spheres around each atom and an interstitial region in between the spheres. An LAPW basis function is a plane wave in the interstitial region, which is augmented by numerical atomic functions in each sphere. The numerical atomic functions hereby provide a linearized representation of wave functions for arbitrary energies around automatically determined energy parameters.
Linearized augmented-plane-wave basis sets:
Similarly to plane-wave basis sets an LAPW basis set is mainly determined by a cutoff parameter for the plane-wave representation in the interstitial region. In the spheres the variational degrees of freedom can be extended by adding local orbitals to the basis set. This allows representations of wavefunctions beyond the linearized description.
Linearized augmented-plane-wave basis sets:
The plane waves in the interstitial region imply three-dimensional periodic boundary conditions, though it is possible to introduce additional augmentation regions to reduce this to one or two dimensions, e.g., for the description of chain-like structures or thin films. The atomic-like representation in the spheres allows to treat each atom with its potential singularity at the nucleus and to not rely on a pseudopotential approximation.
Linearized augmented-plane-wave basis sets:
The disadvantage of LAPW basis sets is its complex definition, which comes with many parameters that have to be controlled either by the user or an automatic recipe. Another consequence of the form of the basis set are complex mathematical expressions, e.g., for the calculation of a Hamiltonian matrix or atomic forces.
Real-space basis sets:
Real-space approaches offer powerful methods to solve electronic structure problems thanks to their controllable accuracy. Real-space basis sets can be thought to arise from the theory of interpolation, as the central idea is to represent the (unknown) orbitals in terms of some set of interpolation functions.
Real-space basis sets:
Various methods have been proposed for constructing the solution in real space, including finite elements, basis splines, Lagrange sinc-functions, and wavelets. Finite difference algorithms are also often included in this category, even though precisely speaking, they do not form a proper basis set and are not variational unlike e.g. finite element methods.A common feature of all real-space methods is that the accuracy of the numerical basis set is improvable, so that the complete basis set limit can be reached in a systematical manner.
Real-space basis sets:
Moreover, in the case of wavelets and finite elements, it is easy to use different levels of accuracy in different parts of the system, so that more points are used close to the nuclei where the wave function undergoes rapid changes and where most of the total energies lie, whereas a coarser representation is sufficient far away from nuclei; this feature is extremely important as it can be used to make all-electron calculations tractable. For example, in finite element methods (FEMs), the wave function is represented as a linear combination of a set of piecewise polynomials. Lagrange interpolating polynomials (LIPs) are a commonly-used basis for FEM calculations. The local interpolation error in LIP basis of order n is of the form max f(n+1)(ξ) . The complete basis set can thereby be reached either by going to smaller and smaller elements (i.e. dividing space in smaller and smaller subdivisions; h -adaptive FEM), by switching to the use of higher and higher order polynomials ( p -adaptive FEM), or by a combination of both strategies ( hp -adaptive FEM). The use of high-order LIPs has been shown to be highly beneficial for accuracy. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Literary forgery**
Literary forgery:
Literary forgery (also known as literary mystification, literary fraud or literary hoax) is writing, such as a manuscript or a literary work, which is either deliberately misattributed to a historical or invented author, or is a purported memoir or other presumably nonfictional writing deceptively presented as true when, in fact, it presents untrue or imaginary information or content.
History:
Literary forgery may involve the work of a famous author whose writings have an established intrinsic, as well as monetary, value. In an attempt to gain the rewards of such a reputation, the forger often engages in two distinct activities. The forger produces a writing which resembles the style of the known reputable author to whom the fake is to be attributed. The forger may also fake the physical alleged original manuscript. This is less common, as it requires a great deal of technical effort, such as imitating the ink and paper. The forger then claims that, not only is the style of writing the same, but also that the ink and paper are of the kind or type used by the famous author. Other common types of literary forgery may draw upon the potential historical cachet and novelty of a previously undiscovered author.
History:
Literary forgery has a long history. Onomacritus (c. 530 – 480 BCE) is among the most ancient known literary forgers. He invented prophecies, which he ascribed to the poet Musaeus.In the 3rd century CE, a certain Septimius produced what appeared to be a Latin translation of an eyewitness account to the Trojan War by Dictys of Crete. In the letter of dedication, the translator gave additional credence to the document by claiming the Greek original had come to light during Nero's reign when Dictys' tomb was opened by an earthquake and his diary was discovered. Septimius then claimed the original had been handed to the governor of Crete, Rutilius Rufus, who gave the diary to Nero during his tour of Greece in 66-67 CE. According to historian Miriam Griffin, such bogus and romantic claims to antiquity were not uncommon at the time.One of the longest lasting literary forgeries is by Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, a 5th-6th century Syrian mystical writer who claimed to be a disciple of Paul the Apostle. Five hundred years later, Abelard expressed doubts about the authorship, but it was not until after the Renaissance that there was general agreement that the attribution of the work was false. In the intervening 1,000 years, the writings had much theological influence.Thomas Chatterton (1752–1770), the English poet and letter writer, began his brilliant medieval forgeries when little more than a child. While they brought him praise, and fame after his death, his writing afforded little in the way of financial success and he committed suicide aged 17, penniless, alone and half-starved.
History:
The English Mercurie appeared to be the first English newspaper when it was discovered in 1794. This was, ostensibly, an account of the English battle with the Spanish Armada of 1588, but was, in fact, written in the 18th century by Philip Yorke, 2nd Earl of Hardwicke, as a literary game with his friends.Literary forgery was promoted as a creative method by Charles Nodier and, in the 19th century, many writers produced literary forgeries under his influence, notably Prosper Merimee and Pierre Louys.
History:
The Protocols of the Elders of Zion is an antisemitic forged document first published in Russia in around 1903–1904. The work purports to be details of a Jewish plan for world domination, and describes how Judaism will overthrow Christianity via control of the media, financial institutions, subverting the social order, and so on. The document was exposed as a hoax by English journalist Philip Graves in 1921. Graves showed the work drew as a source an 1864 political satire by Maurice Joly, The Dialogue in Hell Between Machiavelli and Montesquieu, except presenting it as real. Similar exposes were published in other languages, but it did not matter; the Protocols were immensely popular among anti-semitic circles, who took it as proof of the evilness of the Jews.The Hitler Diaries were an example of a 20th century forgery for money. Konrad Kujau, an East German forger, created diaries purportedly written by Adolf Hitler. His forgeries passed initial scrutiny enough for the magazine Stern to purchase them at great expense, but various errors and closer analysis revealed the fraud. Kujau was sent to prison for fraud afterward.
Related issues:
Fake memoirs Some pieces' authors are uncontested, but the writers are untruthful about themselves to such a degree that the books are functionally forgeries - rather than forging in the name of an expert or authority, the authors falsely claim such authority for themselves. This usually takes the form of autobiographical works as fake memoirs. Its modern form is most common with "misery lit" books, in which the author claims to have suffered illness, parental abuse, and/or drug addiction during their upbringing, yet recovered well enough to write of their struggles. The 1971 book Go Ask Alice is officially anonymous, but claims to be taken from the diary of an actual drug abuser; later investigation showed that the work is almost certainly fictitious, however. A recent example is the 2003 book A Million Little Pieces by James Frey, wherein Frey claimed to experience fighting drug addiction in rehab; the claimed events were fictional, yet not presented as such.Other forms considered literary hoaxes are when an author asserts an identity and history for themselves that is not accurate. Asa Earl Carter wrote under the pseudonym Forrest Carter; Forrest Carter claimed to be a half-Cherokee descendent who grew up in native culture, but the real Asa Earl Carter was a white man from Alabama. Forrest Carter's persona thus possessed a similar false authenticity as a forged work would, in both their memoir and their fiction. Similarly, Nasdijj and Margaret Seltzer also falsely claimed Native American descent to help market their works. Danny Santiago claimed to be a young Latino growing up in East Los Angeles, yet the author (whose real name was Daniel Lewis James) was a Midwesterner in his 70s.
Related issues:
Transparent literary fiction Occasionally, it is unclear whether a work is fiction or a forgery. This generally occurs when a work is written intended as a piece of fiction, but through the mouthpiece of a famous historical character; the audience at the time understands that the work is actually written by others imagining what the historical persona might have written or thought. With later generations, this distinction is lost, and the work is treated as authoritatively by the real person. Later yet, the fact that the work was not really by the seeming author resurfaces. In the case of true transparent literary fictions, no deception is involved, and the issue is merely one of misinterpretation. However, this is fairly rare.
Related issues:
Examples of this may include several works of wisdom literature such as the book of Ecclesiastes and the Song of Solomon in the Hebrew Bible. Both works do not directly name an author, but are written from the perspective of King Solomon, and feature poetry and philosophical thoughts from his perspective that can switch between first and third-person perspectives. The books may not have intended to be taken as actually from the hand of Solomon, but this became tangled, and many later generations did assume they were directly from Solomon's hand. The fact that it is not clear if any deception was involved makes many scholars reluctant to call the work forgeries, however, even those that take the modern scholarly view that they were unlikely to have been written by Solomon due to the work only being quoted by others many centuries after Solomon's death.
Related issues:
For more disputed examples, some New Testament scholars believe that pseudepigrapha in the New Testament epistles can be explained as such transparent fictions. Richard Bauckham, for example, writes that for the Second Epistle of Peter, "Petrine authorship was intended to be an entirely transparent fiction." This view is contested. Bart Ehrman writes that if a religiously prescriptive document was widely known to be not actually from the authority it claimed, it would not be taken seriously. Therefore, the claim of authorship by Peter only makes sense if the intent was indeed to falsely claim the authority of a respected figure in such epistles. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Turn (dance and gymnastics)**
Turn (dance and gymnastics):
In dance and gymnastics, a turn is a rotation of the body about the vertical axis. It is usually a complete rotation of the body, although quarter (90°) and half (180°) turns are possible for some types of turns. Multiple, consecutive turns are typically named according to the number of 360° rotations (e.g., double or triple turn).
Turn (dance and gymnastics):
There are many types of turns, which are differentiated by a number of factors. The performer may be supported by one or both legs or be airborne during a turn. When supported by one leg, that leg is known as the supporting leg and the other as the free, raised, or working leg. During airborne turns, the first leg to leave the floor is the leading leg. Trunk, arm and head positions can vary, and in turns with one supporting leg, the free leg may be straight or bent. Turns can begin in various ways as well. For example, ballet turns may begin by rising to relevé (supported on the ball of the foot) or by stepping directly onto relevé.
Turn (dance and gymnastics):
Some turns can be executed in either of two directions. In ballet, a turn in the direction of the raised leg is said to be en dehors whereas a turn in the opposite direction is en dedans. In ballroom dancing, a natural turn is a clockwise revolution of dance partners around each other, and its mirrored counterpart is the counter-clockwise reverse turn.
Turn (dance and gymnastics):
In some dance genres and dance notation systems (e.g., Labanotation), a turn in which the performer rotates without traveling is known as a pivot. Pivots may be performed on one or on both feet; the latter is sometimes called a twist turn.
Technique:
Spotting is a technique that is often used when executing turns, in which a performer executes a periodic, rapid rotation of the head that serves to fix the performer's gaze on a single spot, thus giving the impression that the head is always facing forward. Spotting prevents dizziness by allowing the head to remain stable during most of the turn. This helps the performer maintain balance and, when executing traveling turns such as tours chaînés and piques, it helps the performer control the direction of travel.
Types of turns:
Attitude An attitude turn is performed with the working leg held in attitude position. In ballet, the performer may be assisted by a partner so that the turn can be performed slowly.
Axel An axel is a turn in which the performer leaps into the air and, while airborne, tucks both legs underneath and rotates. It is usually executed while traveling across the floor. It is commonly performed in jazz dance and is often immediately preceded by a chaînés in a deep plié (bend of the knees).
Types of turns:
Barrel roll A barrel roll turn, or simply barrel roll, is a turn that involves casting the arms up and leaping into the air and rotating 360 degrees while airborne. While airborne, the performer's back may be arched and the head may be cast back. It starts and ends with the performer facing forward. Barrel roll turns are commonly used in tap, jazz, and contemporary dance.
Types of turns:
Chaînés Chaînés (French, meaning "chain") is a type of two-step turn that is executed repeatedly while the performer travels along a line or curved (often circular or elliptical) path. It is performed quickly on alternating feet and results in a complete rotation for every two steps taken. It is commonly used in ballet, modern, and ballroom dancing.
Types of turns:
In the first half-turn, one foot is stepped out to the dancer's side in the direction of travel and placed in releve or en pointe; the dancer then rotates 180° on the placed foot while lifting the other foot so that it crosses over the placed foot. As this happens, the arms are brought together away from the chest and spotting technique is employed so that the dancer's head faces the direction of travel as much as possible. The second half-turn is executed with the feet together. Upon completion of the second half-turn, the first foot is stepped out again to begin another turn.
Types of turns:
In ballet, chaînés turns are usually performed at a very fast tempo, with each turn lasting one half or one quarter of a music beat. They can be performed outwards (en dehors), or inwards (en dedans).
Types of turns:
Fouetté A fouetté turn (or fouetté en tournant) begins with the performer standing on one flat foot in plié (with knee bent). The working leg is extended and whipped around (fouetté is French for "whipped") to the side and then, once extended to maximum turnout, bent and pulled in to a passe or retiré position. The foot beats behind the knee and then to the front of the knee of the supporting leg before extending back out to the front. At the same time, the supporting foot transitions to relevé (heel raised), in ballet often rising to en pointe (on toe tips). These movements create the angular momentum needed for one turn, which is executed by rotating in place on the supporting foot.
Types of turns:
In classical ballet, particular significance is attached to the successful completion of 32 consecutive fouettés, a feat first performed publicly by Italian ballerina Pierina Legnani in 1893 and since incorporated into the grand pas of Swan Lake and other 20th-century ballets. Jeanne Devereaux, an American prima ballerina in the first half of the 20th century, held the world record of 16 triple fouettés (48 total).
Types of turns:
Illusion An illusion turn (or simply illusion) is performed by keeping the working leg aligned with the torso while, simultaneously, a 360 degree spin is executed while the torso pivots down and then back up at the hip. An illusion can be performed by turning toward or away from the working leg; the latter is known as a reverse illusion. Illusions are commonly performed in jazz dance and rhythmic gymnastics.
Types of turns:
Piqué A piqué turn is begun by stepping directly onto the ball of a relevé (or en pointe) foot, followed by a complete rotation while supported by the relevé (or en pointe) foot before returning to plié position. The working leg is often held in retiré position, but may be held in a variety of other positions, either with or without turnout.
Types of turns:
Pirouette A pirouette (literally "whirl" or "spin") is a type of dance turn on one foot. It is performed with turnout (legs rotated outward at hips) in ballet, and typically without turnout in gymnastics and many other genres of dance, such as jazz and modern. It is often executed by starting with one or both legs in plié (knees bent) and then rising onto demi pointe (heels raised) as the turn commences, or in the case of ballet dancers, en pointe (on toe tips). Pirouettes may be executed singly or in multiple rotations; the latter is commonly performed in the adagio part of a grand pas de deux.
Types of turns:
There are many variations of pirouettes. A pirouette can be executed beginning from fifth or fourth position in ballet, whereas artistic gymnasts usually start from fourth position. In ballet, the working leg can be held in retiré position or in attitude, arabesque, or second position. The performer may return to the starting position, finish in arabesque or attitude, or proceed otherwise. A pirouette is most often performed en dehors but can also be performed en dedans. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Monkey Kung Fu**
Monkey Kung Fu:
Monkey Kung Fu or Hóu Quán (猴拳, "monkey fist") is a Chinese martial art which utilizes ape or monkey-like movements as part of its technique.
Northern Chinese martial art such as Northern Praying Mantis and Wuzuquan incorporate some of the techniques from Monkey Kung Fu.
Origins:
It first originated from the Southern Shaolin Temple as Hou Quan (猴拳), Monkey Kung Fu, or way of the mythical Sasquatch, as well as the better-known Dà Shèng Pī Guà Mén (大聖劈掛門) style. There are a number of independently developed systems of monkey kung fu. Some are integrated in Five Animal Kung Fu, Ng Ying Kung Fu systems. On its own standing examples include Xíng-Zhě-Mén (行者門) named after the protagonist Sun Wukong of the popular Ming dynasty novel Journey to the West, and Nán-Hóu-Quán (南猴拳) or Southern Monkey Fist.
Origins:
Hou Quan The Hou Quan style from the Emei region, taught by the famous "Monkey King" Xiao Yingpeng and others, was also used as the basis for the modern wushu variant of monkey style (and monkey staff) that is often seen in demonstrations and competitions today. Each independent style has its own unique approach to the expression of how to incorporate a monkey's movements into fighting.
Origins:
Da Sheng Men Da Sheng Men, or "Great Sage" Kung Fu, was developed near the end of the Qing dynasty (1911) by a fighter named Kou Si (Kau Sei) from a small village in Northern China. Legend states that while serving a sentence in prison, he observed a group of monkeys from his cell. As he studied their movements and mannerisms, he found that they combined well with his own Di Tang style. While exact circumstances of Kou Si's inspiration remain legend, upon his release he developed his new style of fighting and dubbed it 'Da Sheng Men' (Great Sage Style) in honor of the Monkey King Sun Wukong in the Buddhist tale Journey to the West.
Origins:
Da Sheng Pi Gua Da Sheng Pi Gua Kung Fu 大聖劈掛門 (also known as Tai Sing Pek Kwar) was developed by Kou Si's(寇四) student Geng De Hai (耿德海) who started learning Pi Gua kung fu from his father Kan Wing Kwai(耿榮貴) from as early as 8 years of age. Gan Wing Gwai was a master of Pi Gua kung fu and after his death, Kou Si decided to train Geng De Hai in Da Sheng Kung Fu. After mastering Da Sheng Kung Fu and combining it with Pi Gua Kung Fu, out of respect for Kou Si's friendship, ie attacks are aimed at the knees, groin area, throat or eyes of the opponent and hand strikes are normally either open handed slaps or clawing with a semi-closed fist called the monkey claw. A wide array of facial monkey expressions are also practiced, inclusive of happiness, anger, fear, fright, confusion and bewilderment etc. Except for very brief periods, most movements inclusive of running are executed from either a squatting or semi-squatting position and are normally accompanied by very swift and 'jerky' head movements as the practitioner nervously looks around. The monkey staff, or hou gun (猴棍), is one of this style's specialty weapons. Monkey boxing is an imitative technique and so execution of the movements and facial expressions must be so convincing that it looks exactly like a monkey and not simply like a human imitating a monkey hence the very high degree of difficulty associated with this technique.
Origins:
Tai Shing There are five variations of monkey kung fu developed an naming the new technique Geng De Hai placed Da Sheng at the beginning followed by Pi Gua hence the name Da Sheng Pi Gua Kung Fu.
Techniques:
Hou Quan Traditional hou quan as taught in Mainland China includes running on all fours (i.e. the hands and feet), various difficult acrobatic movements such as flipping sideways in the air, front flips, back flips, back handsprings, hand stands, walking on the hands, forward lunges/dives, backward lunges, spinning on the butt, spinning on the back and many kicks and strikes. Most of ths part of the Tai Shing system: Drunken Monkey focuses on throat, eye, and groin strikes, as well as tumbling and falling techniques. It incorporates false steps to affect defenselessness and off-balance strikes. The practitioner waddles, takes very faltering steps, and sometimes falls to the ground and lies prone while waiting for the opponent to approach, at which time a devastating attack is launched at the knees or groin. Drunken monkey uses more internal energy than any other variations, and is one of the more difficult monkey styles to master, but also extremely effective against a standard, attack-oriented enemy. Countering this style involves shifting body position often to ensure that the Drunken Monkey user's techniques strike more solid, tougher areas of the body.
Techniques:
Stone Monkey is a more physically-focused style. The practitioner trains up his body to exchange blows with the opponent - a kind of iron body method. A practitioner often leaves an area exposed, inviting an opponent to attack, then attacks a more vital spot on their body. It is important not to attack reflexively at open spots, and try to hammer away Standing Monkey or Tall Monkey is a relatively conventional monkey variation that maintains an upright position. This style is better suited for tall people. Tall monkey likes to climb body limbs to make attacks at pressure points. It is a long range style.
Techniques:
Wooden Monkey mimics a serious, angry monkey that attacks and defends with ferocity. This variation is more serious, and its movements are noticeably less light than the other monkeys. Wood monkey involves grappling opponents to the ground at their weak spots until they give in.
Techniques:
Lost Monkey heavily incorporates feints. Practitioners of Lost Monkey give the appearance of being lost and confused to deceive their opponents into underestimating their abilities, then retaliate when it is least expected. The hands and footwork change and flow from each other at will. Monkeys are sociable animals that live in troupes or family groups, but are also very territorial by nature. So when they wander into the territory of another troupe, there is normally a fight, which could possibly result in the death of the trespassers. This technique incorporates the fear, nervousness and mischief of a monkey who has wandered into a neighboring territory, in that it attempts to pick and eat as many fruits and insects as quickly as possible, while nervously looking around before scurrying back to its own home range.
Movies and television programs:
The following films and television programs showcase Monkey Kung Fu either throughout the movie or in major scenes: Hou quan kou si, English title Monkey's Fist (1974), features real-life Monkey Kung Fu specialist Chan Sau Chung.
Tie ma liu, English title Iron Monkey (1977), starring Chen Kuan Tai.
In the movie Knockabout, (1979) the lead protagonist Yipao used monkey fist technique (which he learned from a cop pretending to be a beggar) against The Fox, which happens to be his former master and the one who killed his friend Taipao.
Feng hou, English title Mad Monkey Kung-Fu (1979), although the technique displayed in this movie is really the 'monkey' variation of the Lau Family Hung Gar system and not genuine Da Sheng Pi Gua Kung Fu.
Chu long ma liu, English title Monkey Fist Floating Snake (1979), starring Simon Chan.
Zui hou nu, English title Lady Iron Monkey (1979), starring Fung Ling Kam.
Movies and television programs:
Liu he qian shou, English title Return of the Scorpion, (1979) features 7 Kung Fu masters, one (i.e. Chan Sau Chung) is a practitioner of Monkey Kung Fu. In the first fight scene, Chan Sau Chung does a few movements of the Drunken Monkey technique in that he take a few faltering steps (i.e. Monkey Staggering Steps) then he lies prone and waits for his opponent to approach at which time he does a massive wheel kick and immediately launches an attack at his opponents groin (i.e. angry monkey steals the peaches).
Movies and television programs:
The English dub of Jackie Chan's Drunken Master II (1994) (AKA The Legend of Drunken Master (2000) (U.S.)) incorrectly references the Drunken Monkey style whenever Wong Fei-hung is about to perform some acrobatic kicks. The original dialogue actually references the immortals Li Tieguai and Zhang Gualao of the Daoist style of Drunken Fist. The former is a cripple with a powerful right leg and the latter is known for his swift double-kicks. All eight immortals are also referenced in the original Drunken Master (1978).
Movies and television programs:
Chui ma lau, English title Drunken Monkey, uses the Monkey fist variant Drunken Monkey, (2002) although the technique displayed in this movie is really the 'monkey' variation of the Lau Family Hung Gar system and not genuine Tai Shing Pak Kwar Kung Fu.
Movies and television programs:
In the Disney cartoon Kim Possible, Kim's sidekick, Ron Stoppable, is imbued with the abilities of a Monkey Kung Fu master by four ancient statues. Also in the show, the character Lord Monty Fiske is a known practitioner of Da Sheng Pi Gua. He was so obsessed with the martial arts style that he mutated his hands and feet to resemble those of monkeys and then adopted the name "Monkey Fist".
Movies and television programs:
In the film "Extreme Fighter," Monkey Kung Fu master Michael Matsuda co-stars in the role of the "monkey man." In the film Bloodsport a Monkey Kung Fu user participates in an underground fighting tournament.
In Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace, Ray Park can be seen using an adapted form of Monkey Kung Fu as Sith Lord Darth Maul.
Eileen from the video game Virtua Fighter series uses "Kou-Ken" known as Monkey Kung Fu.
In Kung Fu Panda there was a monkey master, also named Monkey, that attacked obviously with the monkey style of kung fu. He was voiced by Jackie Chan in the film, and James Sie in the accompanying television series, Kung Fu Panda: Legends of Awesomeness.
In the movie The Quest, the representative from China uses an obvious monkey style for his second match.
In the movie Ip Man 2, Master Law (Lo Mang) is the first master that Ip Man fights on the tabletop, and is a master of Monkey-Style Kung Fu. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**NETCONF**
NETCONF:
The Network Configuration Protocol (NETCONF) is a network management protocol developed and standardized by the IETF. It was developed in the NETCONF working group and published in December 2006 as RFC 4741 and later revised in June 2011 and published as RFC 6241. The NETCONF protocol specification is an Internet Standards Track document.
NETCONF:
NETCONF provides mechanisms to install, manipulate, and delete the configuration of network devices. Its operations are realized on top of a simple Remote Procedure Call (RPC) layer. The NETCONF protocol uses an Extensible Markup Language (XML) based data encoding for the configuration data as well as the protocol messages. The protocol messages are exchanged on top of a secure transport protocol.
NETCONF:
The NETCONF protocol can be conceptually partitioned into four layers: The Content layer consists of configuration data and notification data.
The Operations layer defines a set of base protocol operations to retrieve and edit the configuration data.
The Messages layer provides a mechanism for encoding remote procedure calls (RPCs) and notifications.
The Secure Transport layer provides a secure and reliable transport of messages between a client and a server.The NETCONF protocol has been implemented in network devices such as routers and switches by some major equipment vendors. One particular strength of NETCONF is its support for robust configuration change using transactions involving a number of devices.
History:
The IETF developed the Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) in the late 1980s and it proved to be a very popular network management protocol. In the early part of the 21st century it became apparent that in spite of what was originally intended, SNMP was not being used to configure network equipment, but was mainly being used for network monitoring. In June 2002, the Internet Architecture Board and key members of the IETF's network management community got together with network operators to discuss the situation. The results of this meeting are documented in RFC 3535. It turned out that each network operator was primarily using a different proprietary command line interface (CLI) to configure their devices. This had a number of features that the operators liked, including the fact that it was text-based, as opposed to the BER-encoded SNMP. In addition, many equipment vendors did not provide the option to completely configure their devices via SNMP. As operators generally liked to write scripts to help manage their boxes, they found the SNMP CLI lacking in a number of ways. Most notably was the unpredictable nature of the output. The content and formatting of output was prone to change in unpredictable ways.
History:
Around this same time, Juniper Networks had been using an XML-based network management approach. This was brought to the IETF and shared with the broader community. Collectively, these two events led the IETF in May 2003 to the creation of the NETCONF working group. This working group was chartered to work on a network configuration protocol, which would better align with the needs of network operators and equipment vendors. The first version of the base NETCONF protocol was published as RFC 4741 in December 2006. Several extensions were published in subsequent years (notifications in RFC 5277 in July 2008, partial locks in RFC 5717 in December 2009, with-defaults in RFC 6243 in June 2011, system notifications in RFC 6470 in February 2012, access control in RFC 6536 in March 2012). A revised version of the base NETCONF protocol was published as RFC 6241 in June 2011.
Protocol layers:
Content The content of NETCONF operations is well-formed XML. Most content is related to network management. Subsequently, support for encoding in JavaScript Object Notation (JSON) was also added.
The NETMOD working group has completed work to define a "human-friendly" modeling language for defining the semantics of operational data, configuration data, notifications, and operations, called YANG. YANG is defined in RFC 6020 (version 1) and RFC 7950 (version 1.1), and is accompanied by the "Common YANG Data Types" found in RFC 6991.
During the summer of 2010, the NETMOD working group was re-chartered to work on core configuration models (system, interface, and routing) as well as work on compatibility with the SNMP modeling language.
Protocol layers:
Operations The base protocol defines the following protocol operations: Basic NETCONF functionality can be extended by the definition of NETCONF capabilities. The set of additional protocol features that an implementation supports is communicated between the server and the client during the capability exchange portion of session setup. Mandatory protocol features are not included in the capability exchange since they are assumed. RFC 4741 defines a number of optional capabilities including :xpath and :validate. Note that RFC 6241 obsoletes RFC 4741.
Protocol layers:
A capability to support subscribing and receiving asynchronous event notifications is published in RFC 5277. This document defines the <create-subscription> operation, which enables creating real-time and replay subscriptions. Notifications are then sent asynchronously using the <notification> construct. It also defines the :interleave capability, which when supported with the basic :notification capability facilitates the processing of other NETCONF operations while the subscription is active.
Protocol layers:
A capability to support partial locking of the running configuration is defined in RFC 5717. This allows multiple sessions to edit non-overlapping sub-trees within the running configuration. Without this capability, the only lock available is for the entire configuration.
A capability to monitor the NETCONF protocol is defined in RFC 6022. This document contains a data model including information about NETCONF datastores, sessions, locks, and statistics that facilitates the management of a NETCONF server. It also defines methods for NETCONF clients to discover data models supported by a NETCONF server and defines the <get-schema> operation to retrieve them.
Protocol layers:
Messages The NETCONF messages layer provides a simple, transport-independent framing mechanism for encoding RPC invocations (<rpc> messages), RPC results (<rpc-reply> messages), and event notifications (<notification> messages).Every NETCONF message is a well-formed XML document. An RPC result is linked to an RPC invocation by a message-id attribute. NETCONF messages can be pipelined, i.e., a client can invoke multiple RPCs without having to wait for RPC result messages first. RPC messages are defined in RFC 6241 and notification messages are defined in RFC 5277.
Protocol layers:
Transport NETCONF Protocol over Secure Shell (SSH): rfc:6242 NETCONF Protocol over Transport Layer Security (TLS) with Mutual X.509 Authentication: rfc:7589 | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Membrane-associated transporter protein**
Membrane-associated transporter protein:
Membrane-associated transporter protein (MATP), also known as solute carrier family 45 member 2 (SLC45A2) or melanoma antigen AIM1, is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC45A2 gene.
Function:
SLC45A2 is a transporter protein that mediates melanin synthesis. It may regulate the pH of the melanosome, affecting tyrosinase activity. SLC45A2 is also a melanocyte differentiation antigen that is expressed in a high percentage of melanoma cell lines. A similar sequence gene in medaka fish, 'B,' encodes a transporter that mediates melanin synthesis. Mutations in this gene are a cause of oculocutaneous albinism type 4. Alternative splicing results in multiple transcript variants encoding different isoforms. Protein expression is localized to the melanosome, and analysis of the by knockdown of RNA expression leads to altered melanosome pH potentially altering tyrosinase function by affecting copper binding.In melanocytic cell types, the SLC45A2 gene is regulated by microphthalmia-associated transcription factor.SLC45A2 has been found to play a role in pigmentation in several species. In humans, it has been identified as a factor in the light skin of Europeans and as an ancestry-informative marker (AIM) for distinguishing Sri Lankan from European ancestry. Mutations in the gene have also been identified as the cause of human Type IV oculocutaneous albinism. SLC45A2 is the so-called cream gene responsible in horses for buckskin, palomino and cremello coloration, while a mutation in this gene underlies the white tiger variant. In dogs a mutation to this gene causes white fur, pink skin, and blue eyes.SLC45A2 was identified as a melanoma tumor-associated antigen with high tumor specificity and reduced potential for autoimmune toxicity, and is currently in clinical development as a target for T-cell based immunotherapy. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Marco Polo (game)**
Marco Polo (game):
Marco Polo ( (listen)) is a form of tag played in a swimming pool.
Rules:
One player is chosen as "it". That player, with closed eyes, tries to find and tag any one of the other players, relying on hearing to find someone to tag. The player who is "it" shouts "Marco" and the other players must all respond by shouting "Polo", which the "it" player uses to try to find them. If a player is tagged, then that player becomes "it". If "it" suspects that a player has left the pool, they can shout, "fish out of water!" and the player who is out of the pool becomes the new "it".The game can also be played on land. It is similar to Blind Man's Buff, where one person is blindfolded while others choose hiding places around the room. While playing, one cannot hold another player in place to be tagged or that person is it.
History:
The game shares its name with the 13th-century Italian trader and explorer Marco Polo.There does not appear to be any real connection between the game and the explorer of the same name, although according to one whimsical explanation, "legend has it that the famed explorer didn't really have a clue as to where he was going", this being reflected in the "it" player's behavior. Although water polo is another popular pool game, the name of "Marco Polo" is apparently unrelated.The game shares similar traits with blind man's buff, an essentially identical game played on dry land which dates back to at least the 16th century. Marco Polo was known as a water game in America by the 1960s. Between 1965 and 1970, some respondents to a Dictionary of American Regional English survey, when asked to name a game played in the water, responded with "Marco Polo". By the mid-1970s, the game had spread and become very popular in swimming pools frequented by expatriates living in Hong Kong. It did not reach swimming pools in the United Kingdom until later, likely from British children returning from Hong Kong for their studies.In modern times, Marco Polo is played worldwide. Various regions have their own versions of the game, with names such as Mermaid on the Rocks and Alligator. The term "Marco Polo game" is sometimes used to describe an online game where a similar call-and-response system of gameplay is adopted.
Analysis:
Marco Polo is an "easily modifiable game", and is based on the notion of call-and-response. Marco Polo is a location-based game because players are confined to a set space and because players must locate each other using auditory clues. Encyclopedia of Play in Today's Society argues "there is bipolarity in the reversal of roles...there are repeated actions, a routine to be repeated, rules to be observed, and verbal signs to be used". Playing this game can allow children to experiment with different social roles, for example learning what it means to be an outcast in the role of "it" (isolated, confined to a space, and unable to see others). According to the Nevada Regional Medical Center, "Marco Polo is not only fun, it can be a good workout. It also puts less stress on your bones and joints because the water makes your body float." | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Trivial name**
Trivial name:
In chemistry, a trivial name is a non-systematic name for a chemical substance. That is, the name is not recognized according to the rules of any formal system of chemical nomenclature such as IUPAC inorganic or IUPAC organic nomenclature. A trivial name is not a formal name and is usually a common name.
Trivial name:
Generally, trivial names are not useful in describing the essential properties of the thing being named. Properties such as the molecular structure of a chemical compound are not indicated. And, in some cases, trivial names can be ambiguous or will carry different meanings in different industries or in different geographic regions (for example, a trivial name such as white metal can mean various things). Trivial names are simpler. As a result, a limited number of trivial chemical names are retained names, an accepted part of the nomenclature.
Trivial name:
Trivial names often arise in the common language; they may come from historic usages in, for example, alchemy. Many trivial names pre-date the institution of formal naming conventions. Names can be based on a property of the chemical, including appearance (color, taste or smell), consistency, and crystal structure; a place where it was found or where the discoverer comes from; the name of a scientist; a mythological figure; an astronomical body; the shape of the molecule; and even fictional figures. All elements that have been isolated have trivial names.
Definitions:
In scientific documents, international treaties, patents and legal definitions, names for chemicals are needed that identify them unambiguously. This need is satisfied by systematic names. One such system, established by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), was established in 1950. Other systems have been developed by the American Chemical Society, the International Organization for Standardization, and the World Health Organization. However, chemists still use many names that are not systematic because they are traditional or because they are more convenient than the systematic names. These are called trivial names. The word "trivial", often used in a pejorative sense, was intended to mean "commonplace".In addition to trivial names, chemists have constructed semi-trivial names by appending a standard symbol to a trivial stem. Some trivial and semi-trivial names are so widely used that they have been officially adopted by IUPAC; these are known as retained names.
Elements:
Traditional names of elements are trivial, some originating in alchemy. IUPAC has accepted these names, but has also defined systematic names of elements that have not yet been prepared. It has adopted a procedure by which the scientists who are credited with preparing an element can propose a new name. Once the IUPAC has accepted such a (trivial) name, it replaces the systematic name.
Elements:
Origins Nine elements were known by the Middle Ages: gold, silver, tin, mercury, copper, lead, iron, sulfur, and carbon. Mercury was named after the planet, but its symbol was derived from the Latin hydrargyrum, which itself comes from the greek υδράργυρος, meaning liquid silver; mercury is also known as quicksilver in English. The symbols for the other eight are derived from their Latin names.Systematic nomenclature began after Louis-Bernard Guyton de Morveau stated the need for “a constant method of denomination, which helps the intelligence and relieves the memory”. The resulting system was popularized by Antoine Lavoisier's publication of Méthode de nomenclature chimique (Method of Chemical Nomenclature) in 1787. Lavoisier proposed that elements be named after their properties. For the next 125 years, most chemists followed this suggestion, using Greek and Latin roots to compose the names; for example, hydrogen ("water-producing"), oxygen ("acid-producing"), nitrogen ("soda-producing"), bromine ("stink"), and argon were based on Greek roots, while the names of iodine and chlorine were derived from the Greek words for their characteristic colors. Indium, rubidium, and thallium were similarly named for the colors of particular lines in their emission spectra. Iridium, which forms compounds of many different colors, takes its name from iris, the Latin for "rainbow". The noble gases have all been named for their origin or properties. Helium comes from the Greek helios, meaning "Sun" because it was first detected as a line in the spectrum of the Sun (it is not known why the suffix -ium, which is used for metals, was chosen). The other noble gases are neon ("new"), argon ("slow, lazy"), krypton ("hidden"), xenon ("stranger"), and radon ("from radium").Many more elements have been given names that have little or nothing to do with their properties. Elements have been named for celestial bodies (helium, selenium, tellurium, for the Sun, Moon, and Earth; cerium and palladium for Ceres and Pallas, two asteroids). They have been named for mythological figures, including Titans in general (titanium) and Prometheus in particular (promethium); Roman and Greek gods (uranium, neptunium, and plutonium) and their descendants (tantalum for Tantalus, a son of Zeus, and niobium for Niobe, a daughter of Tantalus); and Norse deities (vanadium for the goddess Vanadis and thorium for the god Thor).Some elements were named for aspects of the history of their discovery. In particular, technetium and promethium were so named because the first samples detected were artificially synthesised; neither of the two has any isotope sufficiently stable to occur in nature on Earth in significant quantities. The connection to the Titan Prometheus was that he had been fabled to have stolen fire from the gods for mankind.
Elements:
Discoverers of some elements named them after their home country or city. Marie Curie named polonium after Poland; ruthenium, gallium, germanium, and lutetium were based on the Latin names for Russia, France, Germany, and Paris. Other elements are named after the place where they were discovered. Four elements—terbium, erbium, ytterbium, and yttrium—were named after the Swedish village Ytterby, where ores containing them were extracted. Other elements named after places are magnesium (after Magnesia), strontium, scandium, europium, thulium (after an old Roman name for an unidentified northern region), holmium, copper (derived from Cyprus, where it was mined in the Roman era), hafnium, rhenium, americium, berkelium, californium, and darmstadtium.For the elements up to 92 (uranium), naming elements after people was discouraged. The two exceptions are indirect, the elements being named after minerals that were themselves named after people. These were gadolinium (found in gadolinite, named after the Finnish chemist Johan Gadolin) and samarium (the mineral samarskite was named after a Russian mining engineer, Vasili Samarsky-Bykhovets). Among the transuranium elements, this restriction was relaxed; there followed curium (after the Curies), einsteinium (Albert Einstein), fermium (Enrico Fermi), mendelevium (Dmitri Mendeleev), nobelium (Alfred Nobel) and lawrencium (Ernest Lawrence).: 320 Relation to IUPAC standards IUPAC has established international standards for naming elements. The first scientist or laboratory to isolate an element has the right to propose a name; after a review process, a final decision is made by the IUPAC Council. In keeping with tradition, names can be based on a mythological concept or character, astronomical object, mineral, place, property of the element or scientist. For those elements that have not yet been discovered, IUPAC has established a systematic name system. The names combine syllables that represent the digits of the atomic number, followed by "-ium". For example, "unununium" is element 111 ("un" being the syllable for 1). However, once the element has been found, the systematic name is replaced by a trivial one, in this case roentgenium.The IUPAC names for elements are intended for use in the official languages. At the time of the first edition of the IUPAC Red Book (which contains the rules for inorganic compounds), those languages were English and French; now English is the sole official language. However, other languages still have their own names for elements. The chemical symbol for tungsten, W, is based on the German name Wolfram, which is found in wolframite and comes from the German for "wolf's foam", how the mineral was known to Saxon miners. The name tungsten means "heavy stone", a description of scheelite, another mineral in which tungsten is found. Russian names for hydrogen, oxygen and carbon are vodorod, kislorod and uglerod (generating water, acid and coal respectively). The German names for hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen are Wasserstoff (water substance), Sauerstoff (acid substance), and Stickstoff (smothering substance). The corresponding Chinese names are qīngqì (light gas), yǎngqì (nourishing gas), and dànqì (diluting gas). A method for translating chemical names into Chinese was developed by John Fryer and Xu Shou in 1871. Where traditional names were well established, they kept them; otherwise, a single character was created.
Inorganic chemistry:
Early terminology for compound chemicals followed similar rules to the naming of elements. The names could be based on the appearance of the substance, including all five senses. In addition, chemicals were named after the consistency, crystalline form, a person or place, its putative medical properties or method of preparation.: 68 Salt (sodium chloride) is soluble and is used to enhance the taste of food. Substances with similar properties came to be known as salts, in particular Epsom salt (magnesium sulfate, found in a bitter saline spring in the English town of Epsom). Ammonium (with the little-used formal name nitrogen trihydride) was first extracted from sal ammoniac, meaning "salt of Amun". Ancient Romans noticed crystals of it in Egyptian temples devoted to the god Amun; the crystals had condensed from the smoke of burning camel dung. Lead acetate was called sugar of lead.: 70, 77–78 However, other names like sugar of lead (lead(II) acetate), butter of antimony (antimony trichloride), oil of vitriol (sulfuric acid), and cream of tartar (potassium bitartrate) borrowed their language from the kitchen.: 65–66 Many more names were based on color; for example, hematite, orpiment, and verdigris come from words meaning "blood-like stone", "gold pigment", and "green of Greece".: 70 Some names are based on their use. Lime is a general name for materials combining calcium with carbonates, oxides or hydroxides; the name comes from a root "sticking or adhering"; its earliest use was as mortar for construction.Water has several systematic names, including oxidane (the IUPAC name), hydrogen oxide, and dihydrogen monoxide (DHMO). The latter was the basis of the dihydrogen monoxide hoax, a document that was circulated warning readers of the dangers of the chemical (for example, it is fatal if inhaled).
Organic chemistry:
In organic chemistry, some trivial names derive from a notable property of the thing being named. For instance, lecithin, the common name for phosphatidylcholine, was originally isolated from egg yolk. The word is coined from the Greek λέκιθος (lékithos) for yolk.Many trivial names continue to be used because their sanctioned equivalents are considered too cumbersome for everyday use. For example, "tartaric acid", a compound found in wine, has a systematic name of 2,3-dihydroxybutanedioic acid. The pigment β-Carotene has an IUPAC name of 1,3,3-trimethyl-2-[(1E,3E,5E,7E,9E,11E,13E,15E,17E)-3,7,12,16-tetramethyl-18-(2,6,6-trimethylcyclohexen-1-yl)octadeca-1,3,5,7,9,11,13,15,17-nonaenyl]cyclohexene. However, the trivial name can be potentially confusing. Based on its name, one might come to the conclusion that the molecule theobromine contains one or more bromine atoms. In reality it is an alkaloid similar in structure to caffeine.
Organic chemistry:
Shape-based Several organic molecules have semitrivial names where the suffixes -ane (for an alkane) or -ene (for an alkene) are added to a name based on the shape of the molecule.: xi Some are pictured below. Other examples include barrelene (shaped like a barrel),: 58 fenestrane (having a window-pane motif),: 55 ladderane (a ladder shape), olympiadane (having a shape with the same topology as the Olympic rings) and quadratic acid (also known as squaric acid).
Organic chemistry:
Based on fiction The bohemic acid complex is a mixture of chemicals obtained through fermentation of a species of actinobacteria. In 1977 the components were isolated and have been found useful as antitumor agents and anthracycline antibiotics. The authors named the complex (and one of its components, bohemamine) after the opera La bohème by Puccini, and the remaining components were named after characters in the opera: alcindoromycin (Alcindoro), collinemycin (Colline), marcellomycin (Marcello), mimimycin (Mimi), musettamycin (Musetta), rudolphomycin (Rodolfo) and schaunardimycin (Schaunard).: 64 However, the relationships between the characters do not correctly reflect the chemical relationships.A research lab at Lepetit Pharmaceuticals, led by Piero Sensi, was fond of coining nicknames for chemicals that they discovered, later converting them to a form more acceptable for publication. The antibiotic rifampicin was named after a French movie, Rififi, about a jewel heist. They nicknamed another antibiotic "Mata Hari" before changing the name to matamycin. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Nonmagmatic meteorite**
Nonmagmatic meteorite:
Nonmagmatic meteorite (also nonmagmatic iron meteorite) is a deprecated term formerly used in meteoritics to describe iron meteorites that were originally thought to have not formed by igneous processes, to differentiate them from the magmatic meteorites, produced by the crystallization of a metal melt. The concept behind this was developed in the 1970s, but it was quickly realized that igneous processes actually play a vital role in the formation of the so-called "nonmagmatic" meteorites. Today, the terms are still sometimes used, but usage is discouraged because of the ambiguous meanings of the terms magmatic and nonmagmatic. The meteorites that were described to be nonmagmatic are now understood to be the product of partial melting and impact events and are grouped with the primitive achondrites and the achondrites.
Description:
Iron meteorites are derived from planetary cores of asteroids and planetesimals. The formation of metallic cores depends on the heat of radionuclides that lead to melting and differentiation into a core and a silicate mantle. While the parent body of the meteorites cools off, the metallic core crystallizes into meteoric iron, an iron-nickel alloy.In the 1970s, it was realized that some of the iron meteorite groups had properties that were incompatible with this formation mechanism, leading some scientists to posit that they were not formed through this mechanism.Today, the processes that lead to these unusual properties are described as partial melting and subsequent fast cooling, which prevented melt migration. The most likely cause for this to happen are impact events.The term "nonmagmatic" is still sometimes used to refer to this grouping of meteorites, although its use is now deprecated.
Subdivision:
Three iron meteorite groups are described as being part of the nonmagmatic meteorites. They share a number of similarities, the most easily recognizable is that they contain many silicate inclusions composed of olivine, pyroxene and feldspar. Other iron meteorites can also contain silicate inclusions but with different mineralogy (IVA for example has tridymite and pyroxene). Two of those groups, the IAB and the IIICD meteorites are now classified as primitive achondrites. The IIE meteorites are now classified as regular achondrites.The following table shows the groups are described as nonmagmatic and their classification: | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Nucleolus organizer region**
Nucleolus organizer region:
Nucleolus organizer regions (NORs) are chromosomal regions crucial for the formation of the nucleolus. In humans, the NORs are located on the short arms of the acrocentric chromosomes 13, 14, 15, 21 and 22, the genes RNR1, RNR2, RNR3, RNR4, and RNR5 respectively. These regions code for 5.8S, 18S, and 28S ribosomal RNA. The NORs are "sandwiched" between the repetitive, heterochromatic DNA sequences of the centromeres and telomeres. The exact sequence of these regions is not included in the human reference genome as of 2016 or the GRCh38.p10 released January 6, 2017. On 28 February 2019, GRCh38.p13 was released, which added the NOR sequences for the short arms of chromosomes 13, 14, 15, 21, and 22. However, it is known that NORs contain tandem copies of ribosomal DNA (rDNA) genes. Some sequences of flanking sequences proximal and distal to NORs have been reported. The NORs of a loris have been reported to be highly variable. There are also DNA sequences related to rDNA that are on other chromosomes and may be involved in nucleoli formation.
Visualization:
Barbara McClintock first described the "nucleolar-organizing body" in Zea mays in 1934. In karyotype analysis, a silver stain can be used to identify the NOR. NORs can also be seen in nucleoli using silver stain, and that is being used to investigate cancerous changes. NORs can also be seen using antibodies directed against the protein UBF, which binds to NOR DNA.
Molecular biology:
In addition to UBF, NORs also bind to ATRX protein, treacle, sirtuin-7 and other proteins. UBF has been identified as a mitotic "bookmark" of expressed rDNA, which allows it to resume transcription quickly after mitosis. The distal flanking junction (DJ) of the NORs has been shown to associate with the periphery of nucleoli. rDNA operons in Escherichia coli have been found to cluster near each other, similar to a eukaryotic nucleolus. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Gomberg–Bachmann reaction**
Gomberg–Bachmann reaction:
The Gomberg–Bachmann reaction, named for the Russian-American chemist Moses Gomberg and the American chemist Werner Emmanuel Bachmann, is an aryl-aryl coupling reaction via a diazonium salt.
Gomberg–Bachmann reaction:
The arene compound (here benzene) is reacted with a diazonium salt in the presence of a base to provide the biaryl through an intermediate aryl radical. For example, p-bromobiphenyl may be prepared from 4-bromoaniline and benzene: BrC6H4NH2 + C6H6 → BrC6H4−C6H5The reaction offers a wide scope for both diazonium component and arene component but yields are generally low following the original procedure (less than 40%), given the many side-reactions of diazonium salts. Several improvements have been suggested. One possibility is to employ diazonium tetrafluoroborates in arene solvent together with a phase-transfer catalyst, another is to use 1-aryl-3,3-dialkyltriazenes.
Pschorr reaction:
One intramolecular variation which gives better results is the Pschorr cyclization: The group Z can be CH2, CH2CH2, NH and CO (to fluorenone) to name just a few. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**SQL Server Notification Services**
SQL Server Notification Services:
SQL Server Notification Services is a platform developed by Microsoft for the development and deployment of notification applications based on SQL Server technology and the Microsoft .NET Framework. Notification Services offers a scalable server engine on which to run notification applications, with multi-server capability-providing flexibility and scalability for deploying applications.Notification Services was designed to ease the pain of developing and deploying notification applications that generate personalized, timely information to subscribers.
SQL Server Notification Services:
To design, code and test all of the components that make up a robust Notification Services Application-such as notification scheduling, failure detection, retry logic, time zone management, notification grouping, and queue management, adding Notification Services to software applications can be a daunting task.
Background:
Over the years the term Notification applications has been superseded with the term Complex Event Processing (CEP). The idea is that the user defines a set of Rules (or Queries) in advance, and then push data through those rules. Should the data fit any of the criteria of the Rules then some action is fired. For example: A rule may state "If car speed through sensor is above 100 km/h, take photo and record" otherwise all other data is discarded.
Background:
This approach is much faster than the traditional OLTP design of; Insert the row(s) into the database while constantly polling the data to see if something relevant has happened. It is especially suited to situations where you have high speed inputs, a fixed set of fairly simple queries and may not need to keep all the data. e.g.: Some industries measure the voltage, current and other attributes of hundreds of electric motors in their conveyor belts, 100 times each second. Then compare each measurement to its average, plant operators are alerted should a sudden change occur.
Release history:
SQL Server Notification Services was one of the many components that comprised Microsoft SQL Server. It was first released in Microsoft SQL Server 2000 Service Pack 2 (2003). An enhanced release shipped in SQL Server 2005.
It was discontinued and removed from SQL Server 2008, although SQL Server 2005 SP3 allows for the Notification Services components to be run against the SQL Server 2008 Database Engine.
It has been replaced by StreamInsight which first shipped as a component of SQL 2008 R2. StreamInsight is a separate install and not visible as a part of a regular SQL Server setup.
Extensibility and programmability:
A programming framework based on Transact-SQL and XML, provides a declarative programming model, and lends itself to quick prototyping and deployment of robust notification applications.
An API for creating subscription management applications is provided, plus standard components for collecting event data from files and SQL Server databases, for formatting notifications using XSLT, and for sending notifications via Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) or by writing notifications to a file.
If the standard components do not meet the needs of an application, Notification Services is extendable by building custom components using the .NET family of programming languages, such as Microsoft Visual C# .NET and Microsoft Visual Basic .NET.
Finally, Notification Services can communicate with a wide variety of Microsoft, third-party, and custom-built event providers and delivery protocols, enabling Notification Services to communicate with existing systems in heterogeneous environments. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**IRF2BP2 (gene)**
IRF2BP2 (gene):
Interferon regulatory factor 2 binding protein 2 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the IRF2BP2 gene.
Function:
This gene encodes an interferon regulatory factor-2 (IRF2) binding protein that interacts with the C-terminal transcriptional repression domain of IRF2. Alternative splicing results in multiple transcript variants encoding distinct isoforms. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**IEEE 1584**
IEEE 1584:
IEEE Std 1584-2018 (Guide for Performing Arc-Flash Hazard Calculations) is a standard of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers that provides a method of calculating the incident energy of arc flash event.
Purpose:
IEEE 1584-2018 is an update to IEEE 1584-2002 and was developed to help protect people from arc-flash hazard dangers. The predicted arc current and incident energy are used in selecting appropriate overcurrent protective devices and personal protective equipment (generally abbreviated as PPE), as well as defining safe working distance. Since the magnitude of the arc current is inherently linked with the degree of arc hazard, the arc is examined as a circuit parameter. Furthermore, since estimations are often useful, simple equations for predicting ballpark arc current, arc power, and incident energy values and probable ranges are presented in this work.
Procedure:
Arc Flash Hazard calculations are currently implemented in most of the industry plants due to OSHA regulations. The IEEE 1584 empirically derived model accurately accounts for a wide variety of setup parameters including: Voltages in the range of 208–15,000 V, three-phase.
Frequencies of 50 Hz to 60 Hz.
Bolted fault current in the range of 700–106,000 A.
Grounded or ungrounded.
Equipment enclosures of commonly available sizes with various conductor configurations, or open air.
Gaps between conductors.
Faults involving three phases.For cases where voltage is over 15 kV or gap is outside the range of the model, the theoretically derived Lee method can be applied.
IEEE 1584.1 is a guide published in July 2022 for the specification of requirements for an Arc Flash Hazard Calculation study in accordance with the IEEE 1584 Standard. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Underwater basket weaving**
Underwater basket weaving:
Underwater basket weaving is an idiom referring pejoratively to supposedly useless or absurd college or university courses and often generally to refer to a perceived decline in educational standards.The term also serves as an intentionally humorous generic answer to questions about an academic degree. It is also used to humorously refer to any non-academic elective course, specifically one that does not count towards any graduation requirements.
Possible origin of the phrase:
In weaving willow baskets, a trough of water is needed in which to soak the dried willow rods. They are then left to stand until pliable and ready to be used in weaving. The weaving is, however, usually not done under water (see counterexample below). An issue of The American Philatelist from 1956 refers to an Alaskan village where "Underwater basket weaving is the principal industry of the employables among the 94 Eskimos here. By way of explanation – the native reeds used in this form of basketry are soaked in water and the weavers create their handiwork with their hands and raw materials completely submerged in water throughout the process of manufacture".
Early use:
The phrase in its pejorative sense has been used since at least the mid-1950s. According to a 1953 article in the Boston Globe on "Hepster Lingo," "Any snap course in school is 'underwater basket weaving.'" In a letter to the editor of the Los Angeles Times in 1956, a correspondent bemoaned an alleged decline in academic standards among college football programs and mentioned "majoring in underwater basket weaving, or the preparation and serving of smorgasbord, or, particularly at Berkeley, the combined course of anatomy and panty-raiding". The following year, an article in the National Review mentioned that "the bored students in the educationists' courses call those dreary subjects 'underwater basket-weaving courses'", and another year on a newspaper column noted that "One seaside university is bowing to the stern educational demands of the times by eliminating its popular course in underwater basket weaving". An article in the Daily Collegian at Penn State University in 1961 refers to a parody in which "a typical Miami coed majoring in underwater basket weaving was interviewed". An article from 1976 refers to football players so dumb that they had to take underwater basket weaving, and another 1976 article refers to underwater basket-weaving as "an old old family joke".
Current use:
In recent years, many subjects in the humanities have adopted scientific methodologies under the category of social sciences. Some of the courses offered in these subjects have drawn criticism; for instance, an op-ed expressed concern over the lack of rigor and scientific relevancy in coursework at the University of Minnesota. Such criticism has been accused of stereotyping the social sciences as underwater basket weaving subjects.Dave Ramsey, American personal finance writer and radio host, has used the self-invented term "German Polka History" to describe university degree programs that are unlikely to result in a career and which he thus advises people against pursuing. He uses the term along with a degree in "Left-Handed Puppetry" as an umbrella description to avoid singling any specific degree for ridicule.
Notable uses:
Some of the boys she knew from college were trying to dodge the draft by taking graduate courses, "underwater basket weaving and things like that," as Vonda contemptuously put it.
This is no surprise, as normal office job functions generally require little knowledge of underwater basket-weaving, 19th century Hungarian clog art, or other things of academic interest.
Notable uses:
The phrase was used during the Vietnam War era to describe the sort of major that many young men who would otherwise not have entered college undertook to escape the draft. US Senator Gordon L. Allott referred in 1968 to "the situation that we were in after World War II where we had universities setting up courses in underwater basket weaving, and all this sort of thing". Senator Robert Byrd used the phrase in 1969 when questioning the use of funds to offer professional training to Cuban refugees. The University of Portsmouth had a joke syllabus for underwater basket weaving on the Technology faculty pages, and another joke syllabus proposal was posted by a University of Central Arkansas student magazine.US punk band NOFX referred to an underwater basket weaving course in their song "Anarchy Camp".
Notable uses:
Moral of the story: writing "underwater basket weaving" will not give you an edge in the admissions process, so just be honest! The phrase appears in the MIT application process as a humorous example suggesting students should simply state their current interests.
As a taught course:
Since 1980, Reed College in Portland, Oregon, has occasionally offered an underwater basket weaving class during Paideia, its festival of learning that offers informal, non-credit courses.The Student Resource Center at the University of Arizona offered a submerged snorkeling basket-weaving course in spring 1998. In early 2009, a Rutgers University scuba diving instructor offered a one-off course. Underwater Basket Weaving is a trademark of the US Scuba Center Inc., which offers a specialty class designed to improve or more fully enjoy diving skills from which participants can "take home a memorable souvenir."As an April Fools joke, Coursera offered an online course on underwater basket weaving as of April 1, 2013. The class was supposed to "consist of short lecture and demonstration videos, between 8 and 10 minutes in length, short quizzes, and practical weaving exercises." | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**QEMU**
QEMU:
QEMU (Quick Emulator) is a free and open-source emulator. It emulates a computer's processor through dynamic binary translation and provides a set of different hardware and device models for the machine, enabling it to run a variety of guest operating systems. It can interoperate with Kernel-based Virtual Machine (KVM) to run virtual machines at near-native speed. QEMU can also do emulation for user-level processes, allowing applications compiled for one architecture to run on another.
Licensing:
QEMU was written by Fabrice Bellard and is free software, mainly licensed under the GNU General Public License (GPL for short). Various parts are released under the BSD license, GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL) or other GPL-compatible licenses.
Operating modes:
QEMU has multiple operating modes: User-mode emulation In this mode QEMU runs single Linux or Darwin/macOS programs that were compiled for a different instruction set. System calls are thunked for endianness and for 32/64 bit mismatches. Fast cross-compilation and cross-debugging are the main targets for user-mode emulation.
Operating modes:
System emulation In this mode QEMU emulates a full computer system, including peripherals. It can be used to provide virtual hosting of several virtual computers on a single computer. QEMU can boot many guest operating systems, including Linux, Solaris, Microsoft Windows, DOS, and BSD; it supports emulating several instruction sets, including x86, MIPS, 32-bit ARMv7, ARMv8, PowerPC, RISC-V, SPARC, ETRAX CRIS and MicroBlaze.
Operating modes:
KVM Hosting Here QEMU deals with the setting up and migration of KVM images. It is still involved in the emulation of hardware, but the execution of the guest is done by KVM as requested by QEMU.
Xen Hosting QEMU is involved only in the emulation of hardware; the execution of the guest is done within Xen and is totally hidden from QEMU.
Features:
QEMU can save and restore the state of the virtual machine with all programs running. Guest operating systems do not need patching in order to run inside QEMU.
QEMU supports the emulation of various architectures, including x86, MIPS64 (up to Release 6), SPARC (sun4m and sun4u), ARM (Integrator/CP and Versatile/PB), SuperH, PowerPC (PReP and Power Macintosh), ETRAX CRIS, MicroBlaze, and RISC-V.
The virtual machine can interface with many types of physical host hardware, including the user's hard disks, CD-ROM drives, network cards, audio interfaces, and USB devices. USB devices can be completely emulated, or the host's USB devices can be used, although this requires administrator privileges and does not work with some devices.
Features:
Virtual disk images can be stored in a special format (qcow or qcow2) that only takes up as much disk space as the guest OS actually uses. This way, an emulated 120 GB disk may occupy only a few hundred megabytes on the host. The QCOW2 format also allows the creation of overlay images that record the difference from another (unmodified) base image file. This provides the possibility for reverting the emulated disk's contents to an earlier state. For example, a base image could hold a fresh install of an operating system that is known to work, and the overlay images are used. Should the guest system become unusable (through virus attack, accidental system destruction, etc.), the user can delete the overlay and use an earlier emulated disk image.
Features:
QEMU can emulate network cards (of different models) which share the host system's connectivity by doing network address translation, effectively allowing the guest to use the same network as the host. The virtual network cards can also connect to network cards of other instances of QEMU or to local TAP interfaces. Network connectivity can also be achieved by bridging a TUN/TAP interface used by QEMU with a non-virtual Ethernet interface on the host OS using the host OS's bridging features.
Features:
QEMU integrates several services to allow the host and guest systems to communicate; for example, an integrated SMB server and network-port redirection (to allow incoming connections to the virtual machine). It can also boot Linux kernels without a bootloader.
QEMU does not depend on the presence of graphical output methods on the host system. Instead, it can allow one to access the screen of the guest OS via an integrated VNC server. It can also use an emulated serial line, without any screen, with applicable operating systems.
Simulating multiple CPUs running SMP is possible.
QEMU does not require administrative rights to run unless additional kernel modules for improving speed (like KQEMU) are used or certain modes of its network connectivity model are utilized.
Features:
Tiny Code Generator The Tiny Code Generator (TCG) aims to remove the shortcoming of relying on a particular version of GCC or any compiler, instead incorporating the compiler (code generator) into other tasks performed by QEMU at run time. The whole translation task thus consists of two parts: basic blocks of target code (TBs) being rewritten in TCG ops - a kind of machine-independent intermediate notation, and subsequently this notation being compiled for the host's architecture by TCG. Optional optimisation passes are performed between them, for a just-in-time compiler (JIT) mode.
Features:
TCG requires dedicated code written to support every architecture it runs on, so that the JIT knows what to translate the TCG ops to. If no dedicated JIT code is available for the architecture, TCG falls back to a slow interpreter mode called TCG Interpreter (TCI). It also requires updating the target code to use TCG ops instead of the old dyngen ops.
Features:
Starting with QEMU Version 0.10.0, TCG ships with the QEMU stable release. It replaces the dyngen, which relied on GCC 3.x to work.
Features:
Accelerator KQEMU was a Linux kernel module, also written by Fabrice Bellard, which notably sped up emulation of x86 or x86-64 guests on platforms with the same CPU architecture. This worked by running user mode code (and optionally some kernel code) directly on the host computer's CPU, and by using processor and peripheral emulation only for kernel-mode and real-mode code. KQEMU could execute code from many guest OSes even if the host CPU did not support hardware-assisted virtualization. KQEMU was initially a closed-source product available free of charge, but starting from version 1.3.0pre10 (February 2007), it was relicensed under the GNU General Public License. QEMU versions starting with 0.12.0 (as of August 2009) support large memory which makes them incompatible with KQEMU. Newer releases of QEMU have completely removed support for KQEMU.
Features:
QVM86 was a GNU GPLv2 licensed drop-in replacement for the then closed-source KQEMU. The developers of QVM86 ceased development in January, 2007.
Features:
Kernel-based Virtual Machine (KVM) has mostly taken over as the Linux-based hardware-assisted virtualization solution for use with QEMU in the wake of the lack of support for KQEMU and QVM86. QEMU can also use KVM on other architectures like ARM and MIPS.Intel's Hardware Accelerated Execution Manager (HAXM) is an open-source alternative to KVM for x86-based hardware-assisted virtualization on NetBSD, Linux, Windows and macOS using Intel VT. As of 2013 Intel mostly solicits its use with QEMU for Android development. Starting with version 2.9.0, the official QEMU includes support for HAXM, under the name hax.QEMU also supports the following accelerators: hvf, Apple's Hypervisor.framework based on Intel VT.
Features:
whpx, Microsoft's Windows Hypervisor Platform based on Intel VT or AMD-V.
tcg, QEMU's own Tiny Code Generator. This is the default.
Features:
Supported disk image formats QEMU supports the following disk image formats: macOS Universal Disk Image Format (.dmg) – Read-only Bochs – Read-only Linux cloop – Read-only Parallels disk image (.hdd, .hds) – Read-only QEMU copy-on-write (.qcow2, .qed, .qcow, .cow) VirtualBox Virtual Disk Image (.vdi) Virtual PC Virtual Hard Disk (.vhd) Virtual VFAT VMware Virtual Machine Disk (.vmdk) Raw images (.img) that contain sector-by-sector contents of a disk CD/DVD images (.iso) that contain sector-by-sector contents of an optical disk (e.g. booting live OSes) QEMU Object Model The QEMU Object Model (QOM) provides a framework for registering user creatable types and instantiating objects from those types.QOM provides the following features: System for dynamically registering types Support for single-inheritance of types Multiple inheritance of stateless interfaces
Hardware-assisted emulation:
The MIPS-compatible Loongson-3 processor adds 200 new instructions to help QEMU translate x86 instructions; those new instructions lower the overhead of executing x86/CISC-style instructions in the MIPS pipeline. With additional improvements in QEMU by the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Loongson-3 achieves an average of 70% the performance of executing native binaries while running x86 binaries from nine benchmarks. As of June 2020, no source code has been published for this fork, so the claim cannot be verified independently.
Parallel emulation:
Virtualization solutions that use QEMU are able to execute multiple virtual CPUs in parallel. For user-mode emulation QEMU maps emulated threads to host threads. For full system emulation, QEMU is capable of running a host thread for each emulated virtual CPU (vCPU). This is dependent on the guest having been updated to support parallel system emulation, currently ARM, Alpha, HP-PA, PowerPC, RISC-V, s390x, x86 and Xtensa. Otherwise a single thread is used to emulate all virtual CPUS (vCPUS) which executes each vCPU in a round-robin manner.
Integration:
VirtualBox VirtualBox, first released in January 2007, used some of QEMU's virtual hardware devices, and had a built-in dynamic recompiler based on QEMU. As with KQEMU, VirtualBox runs nearly all guest code natively on the host via the VMM (Virtual Machine Manager) and uses the recompiler only as a fallback mechanism - for example, when guest code executes in real mode.
Integration:
In addition, VirtualBox did a lot of code analysis and patching using a built-in disassembler in order to minimize recompilation. VirtualBox is free and open-source (available under GPL), except for certain features.
Xen-HVM Xen, a virtual machine monitor, can run in HVM (hardware virtual machine) mode, using Intel VT-x or AMD-V hardware x86 virtualization extensions and ARM Cortex-A7 and Cortex-A15 virtualization extension. This means that instead of paravirtualized devices, a real set of virtual hardware is exposed to the domU to use real device drivers to talk to.
Integration:
QEMU includes several components: CPU emulators, emulated devices, generic devices, machine descriptions, user interface, and a debugger. The emulated devices and generic devices in QEMU make up its device models for I/O virtualization. They comprise a PIIX3 IDE (with some rudimentary PIIX4 capabilities), Cirrus Logic or plain VGA emulated video, RTL8139 or E1000 network emulation, and ACPI support. APIC support is provided by Xen.
Integration:
Xen-HVM has device emulation based on the QEMU project to provide I/O virtualization to the VMs. Hardware is emulated via a QEMU "device model" daemon running as a backend in dom0. Unlike other QEMU running modes (dynamic translation or KVM), virtual CPUs are completely managed to the hypervisor, which takes care of stopping them while QEMU is emulating memory-mapped I/O accesses.
Integration:
KVM KVM (Kernel-based Virtual Machine) is a FreeBSD and Linux kernel module that allows a user space program access to the hardware virtualization features of various processors, with which QEMU is able to offer virtualization for x86, PowerPC, and S/390 guests. When the target architecture is the same as the host architecture, QEMU can make use of KVM particular features, such as acceleration.
Integration:
Win4Lin Pro Desktop In early 2005, Win4Lin introduced Win4Lin Pro Desktop, based on a 'tuned' version of QEMU and KQEMU and it hosts NT-versions of Windows. In June 2006, Win4Lin released Win4Lin Virtual Desktop Server based on the same code base. Win4Lin Virtual Desktop Server serves Microsoft Windows sessions to thin clients from a Linux server.
In September 2006, Win4Lin announced a change of the company name to Virtual Bridges with the release of Win4BSD Pro Desktop, a port of the product to FreeBSD and PC-BSD. Solaris support followed in May 2007 with the release of Win4Solaris Pro Desktop and Win4Solaris Virtual Desktop Server.
SerialICE SerialICE is a QEMU-based firmware debugging tool running system firmware inside of QEMU while accessing real hardware through a serial connection to a host system. This can be used as a cheap replacement for hardware in-circuit emulators (ICE).
WinUAE WinUAE introduced support for the CyberStorm PPC and Blizzard 603e boards using the QEMU PPC core in version 3.0.0.
Unicorn Unicorn is a CPU emulation framework based on QEMU's "TCG" CPU emulator. Unlike QEMU, Unicorn focuses on the CPU only: no emulation of any peripherals is provided and raw binary code (outside of the context of an executable file or a system image) can be run directly. Unicorn is thread-safe and has multiple bindings and instrumentation interfaces.
Emulated hardware platforms:
x86 Can emulate i386 and x86_64 architecture. Besides the CPU (which is also configurable and can emulate a number of Intel CPU models including (as of 3 March 2018) Sandy Bridge, Ivy Bridge, Haswell, Broadwell and Skylake), the following devices are emulated: CD/DVD-ROM drive using an ISO image Floppy disk drive ATA controller or Serial ATA AHCI controller Graphics card: Cirrus CLGD 5446 PCI VGA-card, Standard-VGA graphics card with Bochs-VBE, Red Hat QXL VGA Network card: Realtek 8139C+ PCI, NE2000 PCI, NE2000 ISA, PCnet, E1000 (PCI Intel Gigabit Ethernet) and E1000E (PCIe Intel Gigabit Ethernet) NVMe disk interface Serial port Parallel port PC speaker i440FX/PIIX3 or Q35/ICH9 chipsets PS/2 mouse and keyboard SCSI controller: LSI MegaRAID SAS 1078, LSI53C895A, NCR53C9x as found in the AMD PCscsi and Tekram DC-390 controllers Sound card: Sound Blaster 16, AudioPCI ES1370 (AC97), Gravis Ultrasound, and Intel HD Audio Watchdog timer (Intel 6300 ESB PCI, or iB700 ISA) USB 1.x/2.x/3.x controllers (UHCI, EHCI, xHCI) USB devices: Audio, Bluetooth dongle, HID (keyboard/mouse/tablet), MTP, serial interface, CAC smartcard reader, storage (bulk-only transfer and USB Attached SCSI), Wacom tablet Paravirtualized VirtIO devices: block device, network card, SCSI controller, video device, serial interface, balloon driver, 9pfs filesystem driver Paravirtualized Xen devices: block device, network card, console, framebuffer and input deviceThe BIOS implementation used by QEMU starting from version 0.12 is SeaBIOS. The VGA BIOS implementation comes from Plex86/Bochs. The UEFI firmware for QEMU is OVMF.
Emulated hardware platforms:
PowerPC PowerMac QEMU emulates the following PowerMac peripherals: UniNorth PCI bridge PCI-VGA-compatible graphics card which maps the VESA Bochs Extensions Two PMAC-IDE-Interfaces with hard disk and CD-ROM support.
NE2000 PCI adapter Non-volatile RAM VIA-CUDA with ADB keyboard and mouse.OpenBIOS is used as the firmware.
PREP QEMU emulates the following PREP peripherals: PCI bridge PCI VGA-compatible graphics card with VESA Bochs Extensions Two IDE interfaces with hard disk and CD-ROM support Floppy disk drive NE2000 network adapter Serial interface PREP non-volatile RAM PC-compatible keyboard and mouseOn the PREP target, Open Hack'Ware, an Open-Firmware-compatible BIOS, is used.
IBM System p QEMU can emulate the paravirtual sPAPR interface with the following peripherals: PCI bridge, for access to virtio devices, VGA-compatible graphics, USB, etc.
Virtual I/O network adapter, SCSI controller, and serial interface sPAPR non-volatile RAMOn the sPAPR target, another Open-Firmware-compatible BIOS is used, called SLOF.
Emulated hardware platforms:
ARM ARM32 QEMU emulates the ARMv7 instruction set (and down to ARMv5TEJ) with NEON extension. It emulates full systems like Integrator/CP board, Versatile baseboard, RealView Emulation baseboard, XScale-based PDAs, Palm Tungsten|E PDA, Nokia N800 and Nokia N810 Internet tablets etc. QEMU also powers the Android emulator which is part of the Android SDK (most current Android implementations are ARM-based). Starting from version 2.0.0 of their Bada SDK, Samsung has chosen QEMU to help development on emulated 'Wave' devices.
Emulated hardware platforms:
In 1.5.0 and 1.6.0 Samsung Exynos 4210 (dual-core Cortex-A9) and Versatile Express ARM Cortex-A9 ARM Cortex-A15 are emulated. In 1.6.0, the 32-bit instructions of the ARMv8 (AArch64) architecture are emulated, but 64-bit instructions are unsupported.
Emulated hardware platforms:
The Xilinx Cortex A9-based Zynq SoC is modeled, with the following elements: Zynq-7000 ARM Cortex-A9 CPU Zynq-7000 ARM Cortex-A9 MPCore Triple Timer Counter DDR Memory Controller DMA Controller (PL330) Static Memory Controller (NAND/NOR Flash) SD/SDIO Peripheral Controller (SDHCI) Zynq Gigabit Ethernet Controller USB Controller (EHCI - Host support only) Zynq UART Controller SPI and QSPI Controllers I2C Controller ARM64 SPARC QEMU has support for both 32- and 64-bit SPARC architectures.
Emulated hardware platforms:
When the firmware in the JavaStation (sun4m-Architecture) became version 0.8.1 Proll, a PROM replacement used in version 0.8.2, was replaced with OpenBIOS.
Emulated hardware platforms:
SPARC32 QEMU emulates the following sun4m/sun4c/sun4d peripherals: IOMMU or IO-UNITs TCX Frame buffer (graphics card) Lance (Am7990) Ethernet Non-volatile RAM M48T02/M48T08 Slave I/O: timers, interrupt controllers, Zilog serial ports, keyboard and power/reset logic ESP SCSI controller with hard disk and CD-ROM support Floppy drive (not on SS-600MP) CS4231 sound device (only on SS-5, not working yet) SPARC64 Emulating Sun4u (UltraSPARC PC-like machine), Sun4v (T1 PC-like machine), or generic Niagara (T1) machine with the following peripherals: UltraSparc IIi APB PCI Bridge PCI VGA-compatible card with VESA Bochs Extensions PS/2 mouse and keyboard Non-volatile RAM M48T59 PC-compatible serial ports 2 PCI IDE interfaces with hard disk and CD-ROM support Floppy disk MicroBlaze Supported peripherals: MicroBlaze with/without MMU, including AXI Timer and Interrupt controller peripherals AXI External Memory Controller AXI DMA Controller Xilinx AXI Ethernet AXI Ethernet Lite AXI UART 16650 and UARTLite AXI SPI Controller LatticeMico32 Supported peripherals: From the Milkymist SoC UART VGA Memory card Ethernet pfu timer CRIS OpenRISC Others External trees exist, supporting the following targets: Zilog Z80 emulating a 48K ZX Spectrum HP PA-RISC RISC-V | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Amyoplasia**
Amyoplasia:
Amyoplasia is a condition characterized by a generalized lack in the newborn of muscular development and growth, with contracture and deformity at most joints. It is the most common form of arthrogryposis.It is characterized by the four limbs being involved, and by the replacement of skeletal muscle by dense fibrous and adipose tissue. Studies involving amyoplasia have revealed similar findings of the muscle tissue due to various causes including that seen in sacral agenesis and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. So amyoplasia may also include an intermediate common pathway, rather than the primary cause of the contractors.
Signs and symptoms:
Amyoplasia results when a fetus is unable to move sufficiently in the womb. Mothers of children with the disorder often report that their baby was abnormally still during the pregnancy. The lack of movement in utero (also known as fetal akinesia) allows extra connective tissue to form around the joints and, therefore, the joints become fixed. This extra connective tissue replaces muscle tissue, leading to weakness and giving a wasting appearance to the muscles. Additionally, due to the lack of fetal movement, the tendons that connect the muscles to bone are not able to stretch to their normal length and this contributes to the lack of joint mobility as well.
Causes:
There is no single factor that is consistently found in the prenatal history of individuals affected with amyoplasia and, in some cases, there is no known cause of the disorder.
Causes:
Amyoplasia is a sporadic condition that occurs due to lack of fetal movement in the womb. There is no specific gene that is known to cause the disorder. It is thought to be multifactorial, meaning that numerous genes and environmental factors play a role in its development. The recurrence risk is minimal for siblings or children of affected individuals. There have been no reports of recurrent cases of amyoplasia in a family.The fetal akinesia in amyoplasia is thought to be caused by various maternal and fetal abnormalities. In some cases, the mother's uterus does not allow for adequate fetal movement because of a lack of amniotic fluid, known as oligohydramnios, or an abnormal shape to the uterus, called a bicornuate uterus.
Causes:
There may also be a myogenic cause to the fetal akinesia, meaning that fetal muscles do not develop properly due to a muscle disease (for example, a congenital muscular dystrophy). Similarly, connective tissue tendon and skeletal defects may contribute to the fetal akinesia and be the primary cause of amyoplasia. Additionally, malformations may occur in the central nervous system and/or spinal cord that can lead to a lack of fetal movement in utero. This neurogenic cause is often accompanied by a wide range of other conditions. Other causes of fetal akinesia may include a maternal fever during pregnancy or a virus.
Diagnosis:
It is the most common form of arthrogryposis multiplex congenita (AMC), where multiple joint contractures are present at birth. Arthrogryposis is derived from the Greek word meaning "with crooking of joints." It occurs in about one out of every 3,000 live births. There are more than 150 types of AMC. Amyoplasia accounts for 40% of AMC cases.
Characteristic appearance Children with amyoplasia often suffer from internally rotated shoulders, extended elbows, ulnar flexed wrists. The type of displacement of the hips and knees is more variable, and they often have club feet.About 10% of children with amyoplasia have evidence of vascular compromise including Intestinal atresia, abdominal wall defects, and gastroschisis.
Treatment:
Surgery may be necessary to address the congenital deformities frequently occurring in conjunction with arthrogryposis. Surgery on feet, knees, hips, elbows and wrists may also be useful if more range of motion is needed after therapy has achieved maximum results. In some cases, tendon transfers can improve function. Congenital deformities of the feet, hips and spine may require surgical correction at or about one year of age.
Prognosis:
Overall prognosis for children with amyoplasia is good. Intensive therapies throughout developing years include physical therapy, occupational therapy and multiple orthopedic procedures. Most children require therapy for years, but almost 2/3 are eventually able to walk, with or without braces, and attend school. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Lin–Kernighan heuristic**
Lin–Kernighan heuristic:
In combinatorial optimization, Lin–Kernighan is one of the best heuristics for solving the symmetric travelling salesman problem. It belongs to the class of local search algorithms, which take a tour (Hamiltonian cycle) as part of the input and attempt to improve it by searching in the neighbourhood of the given tour for one that is shorter, and upon finding one repeats the process from that new one, until encountering a local minimum. As in the case of the related 2-opt and 3-opt algorithms, the relevant measure of "distance" between two tours is the number of edges which are in one but not the other; new tours are built by reassembling pieces of the old tour in a different order, sometimes changing the direction in which a sub-tour is traversed. Lin–Kernighan is adaptive and has no fixed number of edges to replace at a step, but favours small numbers such as 2 or 3.
Derivation:
For a given instance (G,c) of the travelling salesman problem, tours are uniquely determined by their sets of edges, so we may as well encode them as such. In the main loop of the local search, we have a current tour T⊂E(G) and are looking for new tour T′⊂E(G) such that the symmetric difference F=T△T′ is not too large and the length ∑e∈T′c(e) of the new tour is less than the length ∑e∈Tc(e) of the current tour. Since F is typically much smaller than T and T′ , it is convenient to consider the quantity g(F)=∑e∈F∩Tc(e)−∑e∈F∖Tc(e) — the gain of using F⊆E(G) when switching from T —since g(T△T′)=∑e∈Tc(e)−∑e∈T′c(e) : how much longer the current tour T is than the new tour T′ . Naively k -opt can be regarded as examining all F⊆E(G) with exactly 2k elements ( k in T but not in T′ , and another k in T′ but not in T ) such that T△F is again a tour, looking for such a set which has g(F)>0 . It is however easier to do those tests in the opposite order: first search for plausible F with positive gain, and only second check if T△F is in fact a tour.
Derivation:
Define a trail in G to be alternating (with respect to T ) if its edges are alternatingly in T and not in T , respectively. Because the subgraphs (V(G),T) and (V(G),T′) are 2 -regular, the subgraph G[T△T′]=(V(G),T△T′) will have vertices of degree 0 , 2 , and 4 only, and at each vertex there are as many incident edges from T as there are from T′ . Hence (essentially by Hierholzer's algorithm for finding Eulerian circuits) the graph G[T△T′] decomposes into closed alternating trails. Sets F⊆E(G) that may satisfy F=T△T′ for some tour T′ may thus be found by enumerating closed alternating trails in G , even if not every closed alternating trail F makes T△F into a tour; it could alternatively turn out to be a disconnected 2 -regular subgraph.
Derivation:
Key idea Alternating trails (closed or open) are built by extending a shorter alternating trail, so when exploring the neighbourhood of the current tour T , one is exploring a search tree of alternating trails. The key idea of the Lin–Kernighan algorithm is to remove from this tree all alternating trails which have gain ≤0 . This does not prevent finding every closed trail with positive gain, thanks to the following lemma.
Derivation:
Lemma. If a0,…,an−1 are numbers such that ∑i=0n−1ai>0 , then there is a cyclic permutation of these numbers such that all partial sums are positive as well, i.e., there is some k such that mod n>0 for all r=0,1,…,n−1 .For a closed alternating trail F=e0e1…en−1 , one may define ai=c(ei) if ei∈T and ai=−c(ei) if ei∉T ; the sum ∑i=0n−1ai is then the gain g(F) . Here the lemma implies that there for every closed alternating trail with positive gain exists at least one starting vertex v0 for which all the gains of the partial trails are positive as well, so F will be found when the search explores the branch of alternating trails starting at v0 . (Prior to that the search may have considered other subtrails of F starting at other vertices but backed out because some subtrail failed the positive gain constraint.) Reducing the number of branches to explore translates directly to a reduction in runtime, and the sooner a branch can be pruned, the better.
Derivation:
This yields the following algorithm for finding all closed, positive gain alternating trails in the graph.
State: a stack of triples (u,i,g) , where u∈V(G) is a vertex, i≥0 is the current number of edges in the trail, and g is the current trail gain.For all u∈V(G) , push (u,0,0) onto the stack.
While the stack is nonempty: Pop (u,i,g) off the stack and let := u . The current alternating trail is now F={v0v1,v1v2,…,vi−1vi} If i is even then: For each u∈V(G) such that viu∈T∖{v0v1,v1v2,…,vi−1vi} (there are at most two of these), push (u,i+1,g+c(viu)) onto the stack.
If instead i is odd then: If g>c(viv0) then report {v0v1,v1v2,…,vi−1vi,viv0} as a closed alternating trail with gain g−c(viv0)>0 For each u∈V(G) such that g>c(viu) and viu∉T∪{v0v1,v1v2,…,vi−1vi} (there may be O(n) of these, or there could be none), push (u,i+1,g−c(viu)) onto the stack.
Derivation:
StopAs an enumeration algorithm this is slightly flawed, because it may report the same trail multiple times, with different starting points, but Lin–Kernighan does not care because it mostly aborts the enumeration after finding the first hit. It should however be remarked that: Lin–Kernighan is not satisfied with just having found a closed alternating trail F of positive gain, it additionally requires that T△F is a tour.
Derivation:
Lin–Kernighan also restricts the search in various ways, most obviously regarding the search depth (but not only in that way). The above unrestricted search still terminates because at i=2n there is no longer any unpicked edge remaining in T , but that is far beyond what is practical to explore.
In most iterations one wishes to quickly find a better tour T′ , so rather than actually listing all siblings in the search tree before exploring the first of them, one may wish to generate these siblings lazily.
Basic Lin–Kernighan algorithm The basic form of the Lin–Kernighan algorithm not only does a local search counterpart of the above enumeration, but it also introduces two parameters that narrow the search.
Derivation:
The backtracking depth p1 is an upper bound on the length of the alternating trail after backtracking; beyond this depth, the algorithm explores at most one way of extending the alternating trail. Standard value is that p1=5 The infeasibility depth p2 is an alternating path length beyond which it begins to be required that closing the current trail (regardless of the gain of doing so) yields an exchange to a new tour. Standard value is that p2=2 .Because there are O(n⌊p1/2⌋) alternating trails of length p1 , and the final round of the algorithm may have to check all of them before concluding that the current tour is locally optimal, we get ⌊p1/2⌋ (standard value 2 ) as a lower bound on the exponent of the algorithm complexity. Lin & Kernighan report 2.2 as an empirical exponent of n in the average overall running time for their algorithm, but other implementors have had trouble reproducing that result. It appears unlikely that the worst-case running time is polynomial.In terms of a stack as above, the algorithm is: Input: an instance (G,c) of the travelling salesman problem, and a tour T⊂E(G) Output: a locally optimal tour Variables: a stack of triples (u,i,g) , where u∈V(G) is a vertex, i≥0 is the current number of edges in the trail, and g is the current trail gain, the sequence v0,v1,… of vertices in the current alternating trail, the best set F of exchange edges found for current tour, and its corresponding gain g∗ Initialise the stack to being empty.
Derivation:
Repeat Set := 0 and := ∅ For all u∈V(G) , push (u,0,0) onto the stack.
Derivation:
While the stack is nonempty: Pop (u,i,g) off the stack and let := u If i is even then for each u∈V(G) such that viu∈T∖{v0v1,v1v2,…,vi−1vi} push (u,i+1,g+c(viu)) onto the stack if: i≤p2 , or uv0∉T∪{v0v1,v1v2,…,vi−1vi,viu} and T△{v0v1,v1v2,…,vi−1vi,viu,uv0} is a tour (Hamiltonicity check) else ( i is odd): If g>c(viv0) , g−c(viv0)>g∗ , and T△{v0v1,v1v2,…,vi−1vi,viv0} is a tour (Hamiltonicity check) then let := {v0v1,v1v2,…,vi−1vi,viv0} and := g−c(viv0) For each u∈V(G) such that g>c(viu) and viu∉T∪{v0v1,v1v2,…,vi−1vi} , push (u,i+1,g−c(viu)) onto the stack.
Derivation:
End if.
Let (u,j,g) be the top element on the stack (peek, not pop). If i≤j then if g∗>0 then set := T△F (update current tour) and clear the stack.
Derivation:
else if i>p1 then pop all elements (u,j,g) off the stack that have j>p1 end if end if end while until g∗=0 Return T The length of the alternating trails considered are thus not explicitly bounded, but beyond the backtracking depth p1 no more than one way of extending the current trail is considered, which in principle stops those explorations from raising the exponent in the runtime complexity.
Derivation:
Limitations The closed alternating trails found by the above method are all connected, but the symmetric difference T△T′ of two tours need not be, so in general this method of alternating trails cannot explore the full neighbourhood of a trail T . The literature on the Lin–Kernighan heuristic uses the term sequential exchanges for those that are described by a single alternating trail. The smallest non-sequential exchange would however replace 4 edges and consist of two cycles of 4 edges each (2 edges added, 2 removed), so it is long compared to the typical Lin–Kernighan exchange, and there are few of these compared to the full set of 4-edge exchanges.
Derivation:
In at least one implementation by Lin & Kernighan there was an extra final step considering such non-sequential exchanges of 4 edges before declaring a tour locally optimal, which would mean the tours produced are 4-opt unless one introduces further constraints on the search (which Lin and Kernighan in fact did). The literature is vague on exactly what is included in the Lin–Kernighan heuristic proper, and what constitutes further refinements.
Derivation:
For the asymmetric TSP, the idea of using positive gain alternating trails to find favourable exchanges is less useful, because there are fewer ways in which pieces of a tour can be rearranged to yield new tours when one may not reverse the orientation of a piece. Two pieces can only be patched together to reproduce the original tour. Three pieces can be patched together to form a different tour in one way only, and the corresponding alternating trail does not extend to a closed trail for rearranging four pieces into a new tour. To rearrange four pieces, one needs a non-sequential exchange.
Checking Hamiltonicity:
The Lin–Kernighan heuristic checks the validity of tour candidates T△F at two points: obviously when deciding whether a better tour has been found, but also as a constraint to descending in the search tree, as controlled via the infeasibility depth p2 . Concretely, at larger depths in the search a vertex v2k+1 is only appended to the alternating trail if T△{v0v1,v1v2,…,v2kv2k+1,v2k+1v0} is a tour. By design that set of edges constitutes a 2-factor in G , so what needs to be determined is whether that 2-factor consists of a single Hamiltonian cycle, or instead is made up of several cycles.
Checking Hamiltonicity:
If naively posing this subproblem as giving a subroutine the set of n edges as input, one ends up with O(n) as the time complexity for this check, since it is necessary to walk around the full tour before being able to determine that it is in fact a Hamiltonian cycle. That is too slow for the second usage of this test, which gets carried out for every alternating trail with more than 2 edges from T . If keeping track of more information, the test can instead be carried out in constant time.
Checking Hamiltonicity:
A useful degree of freedom here is that one may choose the order in which step 2.3.2 iterates over all vertices; in particular, one may follow the known tour T . After picking k edges from T , the remaining subgraph (V(G),T∖{v0v1,…,v2k−2v2k−1}) consists of k paths. The outcome of the Hamiltonicity test done when considering the (k+1) th edge v2kv2k+1 depends only on in which of these paths that v2k resides and whether v2k+1 is before or after v2k . Hence it would be sufficient to examine 2k different cases as part of performing step 2.3.2 for v2k−1 ; as far as v2k+1 is concerned, the outcome of this test can be inherited information rather than something that has to be computed fresh. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Gateway Design Automation**
Gateway Design Automation:
"Verilog HDL originated at Automated Integrated Design Systems (later renamed as Gateway Design Automation) in 1985. The company was privately held at that time by Dr. Prabhu Goel, the inventor of the PODEM (Path-Oriented Decision Making) test generation algorithm. Verilog HDL was designed by Phil Moorby, who was later to become the Chief Designer for Verilog-XL and the first Corporate Fellow at Cadence Design Systems. Gateway Design Automation grew rapidly with the success of Verilog-XL and was finally acquired by Cadence Design Systems, San Jose, CA in 1989." | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Skyline (software)**
Skyline (software):
Skyline is an open source software for targeted proteomics and metabolomics data analysis. It runs on Microsoft Windows and supports the raw data formats from multiple mass spectrometric vendors. It contains a graphical user interface to display chromatographic data for individual peptide or small molecule analytes.
Skyline supports multiple workflows including selected reaction monitoring (SRM) / multiple reaction monitoring (MRM), parallel reaction monitoring (PRM), data-independent acquisition (DIA/SWATH) and targeted data-dependent acquisition. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Chromosomal polymorphism**
Chromosomal polymorphism:
In genetics, chromosomal polymorphism is a condition where one species contains members with varying chromosome counts or shapes. Polymorphism is a general concept in biology where more than one version of a trait is present in a population.
In some cases of differing counts, the difference in chromosome counts is the result of a single chromosome undergoing fission, where it splits into two smaller chromosomes, or two undergoing fusion, where two chromosomes join to form one.
Chromosomal polymorphism:
This condition has been detected in many species. Trichomycterus davisi, for example, is an extreme case where the polymorphism was present within a single chimeric individual.It has also been studied in alfalfa, shrews, Brazilian rodents, and an enormous variety of other animals and plants. In one instance it has been found in a human.Another process resulting in differing chromosomal counts is polyploidy. This results in cells which contain multiple copies of complete chromosome sets.
Chromosomal polymorphism:
Possessing chromosomes of varying shapes is generally the result of a chromosomal translocation or chromosomal inversion.
In a translocation, genetic material is transferred from one chromosome to another, either symmetrically or asymmetrically (a Robertsonian translocation).
In an inversion, a segment of a chromosome is flipped end-for-end.
Implications for speciation:
All forms of chromosomal polymorphism can be viewed as a step towards speciation. Polymorphisms will generally result in a level of reduced fertility, because some gametes from one parent cannot successfully combine with all gametes of the other parent. However, when both parents contain matching chromosomal patterns, this obstacle does not occur. Further mutations in one group will not flow as rapidly into the other group as they do within the group in which it originally occurred.
Implications for speciation:
Further mutations can also cause absolute infertility. If an interbreeding population contains one group in which (for example) chromosomes A and B have fused, and another population in which chromosomes B and C have fused, both populations will be able to interbreed with the parent population. However, the two subpopulations will not be able to breed successfully with each other if the doubling of chromosome B is fatal. Similar difficulties will occur for incompatible translocations of material. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Balmshell**
Balmshell:
Balmshell is a cosmetic line developed by Canadian identical twin sisters Jennifer and Fiona Lees.
Description:
Balmshell products were launched in Holt Renfrew stores in Canada in 2006. The brand now includes lip gloss and the Smear Campaign products. The line is sold at Shoppers Drug Mart, and usually associated with "BROS". Murale, and London Drugs stores across Canada. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Bermekimab**
Bermekimab:
Bermekimab (MABp1, trade name Xilonix) is a human monoclonal antibody of IgG1k isotype targeting Interleukin 1 alpha (IL1A). As of March 2017, bermekimab is in phase III clinical trials as an immunotherapy for colorectal cancer and as of September 2018 in phase II clinical trials for the treatment of atopic dermatitis.Bermekimab is being developed by XBiotech Inc. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**LPIN1**
LPIN1:
Lipin-1 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the LPIN1 gene.
Function:
Lipin-1 has phosphatidate phosphatase activity. The nuclear localization of Lipin 1 is regulated by the mammalian Target Of Rapamycin protein kinase and links mTORC1 activity to the regulation of Sterol regulatory element-binding proteins (SREBP)-dependent gene transcription.
Clinical significance:
Homozygous mutations in LPIN1 gene in humans cause recurrent rhabdomyolysis and exercise-induced myalgia while carrier state may predispose for statin-induced myopathy.This gene also represents a candidate gene for human lipodystrophy, characterized by loss of body fat, fatty liver, hypertriglyceridemia, and insulin resistance. Mouse studies suggest that this gene functions during normal adipose tissue development and may also play a role in human triglyceride metabolism. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Penryn (microarchitecture)**
Penryn (microarchitecture):
In Intel's Tick-Tock cycle, the 2007/2008 "Tick" was the shrink of the Core microarchitecture to 45 nanometers as CPUID model 23. In Core 2 processors, it is used with the code names Penryn (Socket P), Wolfdale (LGA 775) and Yorkfield (MCM, LGA 775), some of which are also sold as Celeron, Pentium and Xeon processors. In the Xeon brand, the Wolfdale-DP and Harpertown code names are used for LGA 771 based MCMs with two or four active Wolfdale cores.
Penryn (microarchitecture):
Architectural improvements over 65-nanometer Core 2 CPUs include a new divider with reduced latency, a new shuffle engine, and SSE4.1 instructions (some of which are enabled by the new single-cycle shuffle engine).Maximum L2 cache size per chip was increased from 4 to 6 MB, with L2 associativity increased from 16-way to 24-way. Cut-down versions with 3 MB L2 also exist, which are commonly called Penryn-3M and Wolfdale-3M as well as Yorkfield-6M, respectively. The single-core version of Penryn, listed as Penryn-L here, is not a separate model like Merom-L but a version of the Penryn-3M model with only one active core.
Processor cores:
The processors of the Core microarchitecture can be categorized by number of cores, cache size, and socket; each combination of these has a unique code name and product code that is used across a number of brands. For instance, code name "Allendale" with product code 80557 has two cores, 2 MB L2 cache and uses the desktop socket 775, but has been marketed as Celeron, Pentium, Core 2 and Xeon, each with different sets of features enabled. Most of the mobile and desktop processors come in two variants that differ in the size of the L2 cache, but the specific amount of L2 cache in a product can also be reduced by disabling parts at production time.
Processor cores:
Wolfdale-DP and all quad-core processors except Dunnington QC are multi-chip modules combining two dies. For the 65 nm processors, the same product code can be shared by processors with different dies, but the specific information about which one is used can be derived from the stepping.
Processor cores:
Steppings using 45 nm process In the model 23 (cpuid 01067xh), Intel started marketing stepping with full (6 MB) and reduced (3 MB) L2 cache at the same time, and giving them identical cpuid values. All steppings have the new SSE4.1 instructions. Stepping C1/M1 was a bug fix version of C0/M0 specifically for quad core processors and only used in those. Stepping E0/R0 adds two new instructions (XSAVE/XRSTOR) and replaces all earlier steppings.
Processor cores:
In mobile processors, stepping C0/M0 is only used in the Intel Mobile 965 Express (Santa Rosa refresh) platform, whereas stepping E0/R0 supports the later Intel Mobile 4 Express (Montevina) platform.
Model 29 stepping A1 (cpuid 106d1h) adds an L3 cache as well as six instead of the usual two cores, which leads to an unusually large die size of 503 mm². As of February 2008, it has only found its way into the very high-end Xeon 7400 series (Dunnington). | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**McKusick–Kaufman syndrome**
McKusick–Kaufman syndrome:
McKusick–Kaufman syndrome is a genetic condition associated with MKKS.
McKusick–Kaufman syndrome:
The condition is named for Dr. Robert L. Kaufman and Victor McKusick. It is sometimes known by the abbreviation MKS. In infancy it can be difficult to distinguish between MKS and the related Bardet–Biedl syndrome, as the more severe symptoms of the latter condition rarely materialise before adulthood.McKusick-Kaufman syndrome affects 1 in 10,000 people in the Old Order Amish population. Research has not identified cases outside of this population.
Presentation:
Clinically, McKusick–Kaufman syndrome is characterized by a combination of three features: postaxial polydactyly, heart defects, and genital abnormalities: Vaginal atresia with hydrometrocolpos Double vagina and/or uterus.
Hypospadias, chordee (a downward-curving penis), and undescended testes (cryptorchidism).
ureter stenosis or ureteric atresia
Genetics:
MKS is inherited in an autosomal recessive dominance pattern. Both parents of the affected must be heterozygous carriers of the pathogenic variant. Heterozygous carriers for MKS show no symptoms of the disorder, nor can they develop the disorder. Each child of these carriers has a 1/4 chance of being affected by MKS, a 1/2 chance of being carriers themselves, and a 1/4 chance of being unaffected and a non carrier.
Diagnosis:
Clinical findings support the diagnosis of MKS, including identification of biallelic pathogenetic variants. Diagnosis additionally requires ruling out Bardet-Biedl Syndrome.
Treatment:
Treatments are available for accompanying symptoms of MKS, including addressing polydactyly and congenital heart defects. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**HIP 41378 d**
HIP 41378 d:
HIP 41378 d (also known as EPIC 211311380 d) is an exoplanet orbiting around the F-type star HIP 41378. It has a radius about 3.5 times that of Earth. Planetary orbit is significantly inclined to the equatorial plane of the parent star, misalignment been equal to 57.1+26.4−17.9°. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Dental fricative**
Dental fricative:
The dental fricative or interdental fricative is a fricative consonant pronounced with the tip of the tongue against the teeth. There are several types (those used in English being written as th): Voiced dental fricative [ð] - as in the English this, [ðɪs].
Voiceless dental fricative [θ] - as in the English thin, [θɪn].
Dental ejective fricative [θʼ] | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Wilms' tumor**
Wilms' tumor:
Wilms' tumor or Wilms tumor, also known as nephroblastoma, is a cancer of the kidneys that typically occurs in children (rarely in adults), and occurs most commonly as a renal tumor in child patients. It is named after Max Wilms, the German surgeon (1867–1918) who first described it.Approximately 650 cases are diagnosed in the U.S. annually. The majority of cases occur in children with no associated genetic syndromes; however, a minority of children with Wilms' tumor have a congenital abnormality. It is highly responsive to treatment, with about 90 percent of children being cured.
Signs and symptoms:
Typical signs and symptoms of Wilms' tumor include the following: a painless, palpable abdominal mass loss of appetite abdominal pain fever nausea and vomiting blood in the urine (in about 20% of cases) high blood pressure in some cases (especially if synchronous or metachronous bilateral kidney involvement) Rarely as varicocele
Pathogenesis:
Wilms' tumor has many causes, which can broadly be categorized as syndromic and non-syndromic. Syndromic causes of Wilms' tumor occur as a result of alterations to genes such as the Wilms Tumor 1 (WT1) or Wilms Tumor 2 (WT2) genes, and the tumor presents with a group of other signs and symptoms. Non-syndromic Wilms' tumor is not associated with other symptoms or pathologies. Many, but not all, cases of Wilms' tumor develop from nephrogenic rests, which are fragments of tissue in or around the kidney that develop before birth and become cancerous after birth. In particular, cases of bilateral Wilms' tumor, as well as cases of Wilms' tumor derived from certain genetic syndromes such as Denys-Drash syndrome, are strongly associated with nephrogenic rests. Most nephroblastomas are on one side of the body only and are found on both sides in less than 5% of cases, although people with Denys-Drash syndrome mostly have bilateral or multiple tumors. They tend to be encapsulated and vascularized tumors that do not cross the midline of the abdomen. In cases of metastasis it is usually to the lung. A rupture of Wilms' tumor puts the patient at risk of bleeding and peritoneal dissemination of the tumor. In such cases, surgical intervention by a surgeon who is experienced in the removal of such a fragile tumor is imperative.Pathologically, a triphasic nephroblastoma comprises three elements: blastema mesenchyme (stroma) epitheliumWilms' tumor is a malignant tumor containing metanephric blastema, stromal and epithelial derivatives. Characteristic is the presence of abortive tubules and glomeruli surrounded by a spindled cell stroma. The stroma may include striated muscle, cartilage, bone, fat tissue, and fibrous tissue. Dysfunction is caused when the tumor compresses the normal kidney parenchyma.The mesenchymal component may include cells showing rhabdomyoid differentiation or malignancy (rhabdomyosarcomatous Wilms).Wilms' tumors may be separated into two prognostic groups based on pathologic characteristics: Favorable – Contains well developed components mentioned above Anaplastic – Contains diffuse anaplasia (poorly developed cells) Molecular biology and related conditions Mutations of the WT1 gene which is located on the short arm of chromosome 11 (11p13) are observed in approximately 20% of Wilms' tumors, the majority of them being inherited from the germline, while a minority are acquired somatic mutations. In addition at least half of the Wilms' tumors with mutations in WT1 also carry acquired somatic mutations in CTNNB1, the gene encoding the proto-oncogene beta-catenin. This latter gene is found on short arm of chromosome 3 (3p22.1).
Pathogenesis:
Most cases do not have mutations in any of these genes.
An association with H19 has been reported. H19 is a long noncoding RNA located on the short arm of chromosome 11 (11p15.5).
Diagnosis:
The majority of people with Wilms' tumor present with an asymptomatic abdominal mass which is noticed by a family member or healthcare professional. Renal tumors can also be found during routine screening in children who have known predisposing clinical syndromes. The diagnostic process includes taking a medical history, a physical exam, and a series of tests including blood, urine, and imaging tests.Once Wilms' tumor is suspected, an ultrasound scan is usually done first to confirm the presence of an intrarenal mass. A computed tomography scan or MRI scan can also be used for more detailed imaging. Finally, the diagnosis of Wilms' tumor is confirmed by a tissue sample. In most cases, a biopsy is not done first because there is a risk of cancer cells spreading during the procedure. Treatment in North America is nephrectomy or in Europe chemotherapy followed by nephrectomy. A definitive diagnosis is obtained by pathological examination of the nephrectomy specimen.
Diagnosis:
Staging Staging is a standard way to describe the extent of spread of Wilms' tumors and to determine prognosis and treatments. Staging is based on anatomical findings and tumor cells pathology. According to the extent of tumor tissue at the time of initial diagnosis, four stages are considered, with a fifth classification for bilateral involvement.
Stage I In Stage I Wilms' tumor (43% of cases), all of the following criteria must be met: Tumor is limited to the kidney and is completely excised.
The surface of the renal capsule is intact.
The tumor is not ruptured or biopsied (open or needle) prior to removal.
No involvement of extrarenal or renal sinus lymph-vascular spaces No residual tumor apparent beyond the margins of excision.
Metastasis of tumor to lymph nodes not identified.
Stage II In Stage II (23% of cases), 1 or more of the following criteria must be met: Tumor extends beyond the kidney but is completely excised.
No residual tumor apparent at or beyond the margins of excision.
Any of the following conditions may also exist: Tumor involvement of the blood vessels of the renal sinus and/or outside the renal parenchyma.
Extensive tumor involvement of renal sinus soft tissue.
Stage III In Stage III (20% of cases), 1 or more of the following criteria must be met: Inoperable primary tumor.
Lymph node metastasis.
Tumor is present at surgical margins.
Tumor spillage involving peritoneal surfaces either before or during surgery, or transected tumor thrombus.
The tumor has been biopsied prior to removal or there is local spillage of tumor during surgery, confined to the flank.
Stage IV Stage IV (10% of cases) Wilms' tumor is defined by the presence of hematogenous metastases (lung, liver, bone, or brain), or lymph node metastases outside the abdominopelvic region.
Diagnosis:
Bilateral 5% of Wilms' tumor cases at the time of initial diagnosis are bilateral involements, which pose unique challenges to treatment. An attempt should be made to stage each side according to the above criteria (stage I to III) on the basis of extent of disease prior to biopsy. Bilateral Wilms' tumors are as a whole placed in Stage V.
Treatment and prognosis:
The overall 5-year survival is estimated to be approximately 90%, but for individuals the prognosis is highly dependent on individual staging and treatment. Early removal tends to promote positive outcomes.
Treatment and prognosis:
Tumor-specific loss-of-heterozygosity (LOH) for chromosomes 1p and 16q identifies a subset of Wilms' tumor patients who have a significantly increased risk of relapse and death. LOH for these chromosomal regions can now be used as an independent prognostic factor together with disease stage to target intensity of treatment to risk of treatment failure. Genome-wide copy number and LOH status can be assessed with virtual karyotyping of tumor cells (fresh or paraffin-embedded).Statistics may sometimes show more favorable outcomes for more aggressive stages than for less aggressive stages, which may be caused by more aggressive treatment and/or random variability in the study groups. Also, a stage V tumor is not necessarily worse than, but nevertheless comparable in prognosis to a stage IV tumor.
Treatment and prognosis:
In case of relapse of Wilms' tumor, the 4-year survival rate for children with a standard-risk has been estimated to be 80%.
Epidemiology:
Wilms tumor is the most common malignant renal tumor in children. There are a number of rare genetic syndromes that have been linked to an increased risk of developing Wilms Tumor. Screening guidelines vary between countries; however health care professionals are recommending regular ultrasound screening for people with associated genetic syndromes.Wilms' tumor affects approximately one person per 10,000 worldwide before the age of 15 years. People of African descent may have slightly higher rates of Wilms' tumor. The peak age of Wilms' tumor is 3 to 4 years and most cases occur before the age of 10 years. A genetic predisposition to Wilms' tumor in individuals with aniridia has been established, due to deletions in the p13 band on chromosome 11.
History:
Sidney Farber, founder of Dana–Farber Cancer Institute, and his colleagues achieved the first remissions in Wilms' tumor in the 1950s. By employing the antibiotic actinomycin D in addition to surgery and radiation therapy, they boosted cure rates from 40 to 89 percent.The use of computed tomography scan for the diagnosis of Wilms' tumor began in the early 1970s, thanks to the intuition of Mario Costici, an Italian physician. He discovered that in the direct radiograms and in the urographic images, you can identify determining elements for a differential diagnosis with the Wilms' tumor. This possibility was a premise for starting a treatment. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Citiolone**
Citiolone:
Citiolone is a drug used in liver therapy. It is a derivative of the amino acid cysteine. Citilone has also been studied with regards to hypothermia due to it being a hydroxyl free radical scavenger. The drug has been shown to protect hamster cells subjected to temperature conditions of 8-25 °C. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Autoreceptor**
Autoreceptor:
An autoreceptor is a type of receptor located in the membranes of nerve cells. It serves as part of a negative feedback loop in signal transduction. It is only sensitive to the neurotransmitters or hormones released by the neuron on which the autoreceptor sits. Similarly, a heteroreceptor is sensitive to neurotransmitters and hormones that are not released by the cell on which it sits. A given receptor can act as either an autoreceptor or a heteroreceptor, depending upon the type of transmitter released by the cell on which it is embedded.
Autoreceptor:
Autoreceptors may be located in any part of the cell membrane: in the dendrites, the cell body, the axon, or the axon terminals.Canonically, a presynaptic neuron releases a neurotransmitter across a synaptic cleft to be detected by the receptors on a postsynaptic neuron. Autoreceptors on the presynaptic neuron will also detect this neurotransmitter and often function to control internal cell processes, typically inhibiting further release or synthesis of the neurotransmitter. Thus, release of neurotransmitter is regulated by negative feedback. Autoreceptors are usually G protein-coupled receptors (rather than transmitter-gated ion channels) and act via a second messenger.
Examples:
As an example, norepinephrine released from sympathetic neurons may interact with the alpha-2A and alpha-2C adrenoreceptors to inhibit further release of norepinephrine. Similarly, acetylcholine released from parasympathetic neurons may interact with M2 and M4 receptors to inhibit further release of acetylcholine. An atypical example is given by the β-adrenergic autoreceptor in the sympathetic peripheral nervous system, which acts to increase transmitter release.The D2sh autoreceptor has been shown recently to interact with the trace amine-assorted receptor 1 (TAAR1), a G-Coupled Protein Receptor GPCR, to regulate monoaminergic systems in the brain. Active TAAR1 opposes the autoreceptor's activity by inactivating the dopamine transporter (DAT). In their review of TAAR1 in monoaminergic systems, Xie and Miller proposed this schematic: synaptic dopamine binds to the dopamine autoreceptor, which activates the DAT. Dopamine enters the presynaptic cells and binds to TAAR1, which increases adenylyl cyclase activity. This eventually allows for the translation of trace amines in the cytoplasm and activation of cyclic nucleotide-gated ion channels, which further activate TAAR1 and dump dopamine into the synapse. Through a series of phosphorylation events related to PKA and PKC, active TAAR1 inactivates DAT, preventing uptake of dopamine from the synapse. The presence of two Postsynaptic receptors with opposite abilities to regulate monoamine transporter function allows for regulation of the monoaminergic system.
Examples:
Autoreceptor activity may also decrease paired-pulse facilitation (PPF). A feedback cell is activated by the (partially) depolarized post-synaptic neuron. The feedback cell releases a neurotransmitter to which the autoreceptor of the presynaptic neuron is receptive. The autoreceptor causes the inhibition of calcium channels (slowing calcium ion influx) and the opening of potassium channels (increasing potassium ion efflux) in the presynaptic membrane. These changes in ion concentration effectively diminish the amount of the original neurotransmitter released by the presynaptic terminal into the synaptic cleft. This causes a final depression on the activity of the postsynaptic neuron. Thus the feedback cycle is complete. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Autocatalysis**
Autocatalysis:
A chemical reaction is said to be autocatalytic if one of the reaction products is also a catalyst for the same reaction. Many forms of autocatalysis are recognized.A set of chemical reactions can be said to be "collectively autocatalytic" if a number of those reactions produce, as reaction products, catalysts for enough of the other reactions that the entire set of chemical reactions is self-sustaining given an input of energy and food molecules (see autocatalytic set).
Examples:
Acid-catalyzed hydrolysis of esters produces carboxylic acids that also catalyze the same reaction. Indeed, the observation of an accelerating hydrolysis of gamma valerolactone to gamma-hydroxyvaleric acid led to the introduction of the concept of autocatalysis in 1890.The oxidation of hydrocarbons by air or oxygen is the basis of autoxidation. Like many radical reactions, the rate vs time plot shows a sigmoidal behavior, characteristic of autocatalysis. Many reactions of organic compounds with halogen involve autocatalytic radical mechanisms. For example the reaction of acetophenone with bromine to give phenacyl bromide.
Examples:
Oscillating reactions such as the Belousov-Zhabotinsky reaction are more complicated examples that involve autocatalysis. In such reactions the concentrations of some intermediates oscillate, as does the rate of formation of products. Other notable examples are the Lotka–Volterra equations for the predator-prey model, and the Brusselator model.
Autocatalysis applies also to reactions involving solids. Crystal growth provide dramatic examples of autocatalysis: the growth rate depends on the surface area of the growing crystal. The growth of metal films from solution using the technique of electroless plating is autocatalytic. The rate of plating accelerates after some deposition has occurred, i.e., nucleation.
Mathematical description:
Autocatalytic reactions are those in which at least one of the products is also a reactant. A simple autocatalytic reaction can be written A+B⇌2B with the rate equations (for an elementary reaction) ddt[A]=−k+[A][B]+k−[B]2 ddt[B]=+k+[A][B]−k−[B]2 .This reaction is one in which a molecule of species A interacts with a molecule of species B. The A molecule is converted into a B molecule. The final product consists of the original B molecule plus the B molecule created in the reaction.
Mathematical description:
The key feature of these rate equations is that they are nonlinear; the second term on the right varies as the square of the concentration of B. This feature can lead to multiple fixed points of the system, much like a quadratic equation can have two roots. Multiple fixed points allow for multiple states of the system. A system existing in multiple macroscopic states is more orderly (has lower entropy) than a system in a single state.
Mathematical description:
The concentrations of A and B vary in time according to [A]=[A]0+[B]01+[B]0[A]0e([A]0+[B]0)kt and [B]=[A]0+[B]01+[A]0[B]0e−([A]0+[B]0)kt .The graph for these equations is a sigmoid curve (specifically a logistic function), which is typical for autocatalytic reactions: these chemical reactions proceed slowly at the start (the induction period) because there is little catalyst present, the rate of reaction increases progressively as the reaction proceeds as the amount of catalyst increases and then it again slows down as the reactant concentration decreases. If the concentration of a reactant or product in an experiment follows a sigmoid curve, the reaction may be autocatalytic.
Mathematical description:
These kinetic equations apply for example to the acid-catalyzed hydrolysis of some esters to carboxylic acids and alcohols. There must be at least some acid present initially to start the catalyzed mechanism; if not the reaction must start by an alternate uncatalyzed path which is usually slower. The above equations for the catalyzed mechanism would imply that the concentration of acid product remains zero forever.
Mathematical description:
Asymmetric autocatalysis Asymmetric autocatalysis occurs when the reaction product is chiral and thus serves as a catalyst for its own production. Reactions of this type, such as the Soai reaction, have the property that they can amplify a very small enantiomeric excess into a large one. In another example, sodium chlorate crystallizes as an equilibrium mixture of left- and right-handed crystals. When seeded appropriated, saturated solutions of this salt (which is optically inactive), will produce batches of single enantiomeric crystals.
Mathematical description:
Possible role in origin of life An early example of autocatalysis is the formose reaction, in which formaldehyde and base produce sugars and related polyols. Characteristic of autocatalysis, this reaction rate is extremely slow initially but accelerates with time. This kind of reaction has often been cited as being relevant to the origin of life.Autocatalysis is one explanation for abiogenesis. Illustrative is the reaction amino adenosine and pentafluorophenyl ester in the presence of amino adenosine triacid ester (AATE). This experiment demonstrated that autocatalysts could exhibit competition within a population of entities with heredity, which could be interpreted as a rudimentary form of natural selection, and that certain environmental changes (such as irradiation) could alter the chemical structure of some of these self-replicating molecules (an analog for mutation) in such ways that could either boost or interfere with its ability to react, thus boosting or interfering with its ability to replicate and spread in the population. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Comminution**
Comminution:
Comminution is the reduction of solid materials from one average particle size to a smaller average particle size, by crushing, grinding, cutting, vibrating, or other processes. In geology, it occurs naturally during faulting in the upper part of the Earth's crust. In industry, it is an important unit operation in mineral processing, ceramics, electronics, and other fields, accomplished with many types of mill. In dentistry, it is the result of mastication of food. In general medicine, it is one of the most traumatic forms of bone fracture.
Comminution:
Within industrial uses, the purpose of comminution is to reduce the size and to increase the surface area of solids. It is also used to free useful materials from matrix materials in which they are embedded, and to concentrate minerals.
Energy requirements:
The comminution of solid materials consumes energy, which is being used to break up the solid into smaller pieces. The comminution energy can be estimated by: Rittinger's law, which assumes that the energy consumed is proportional to the newly generated surface area; Kick's law, which related the energy to the sizes of the feed particles and the product particles; Bond's law, which assumes that the total work useful in breakage is inversely proportional to the square root of the diameter of the product particles, [implying] theoretically that the work input varies as the length of the new cracks made in breakage.
Energy requirements:
Holmes's law, which modifies Bond's law by substituting the square root with an exponent that depends on the material.
Forces:
There are three forces which typically are used to effect the comminution of particles: impact, shear, and compression.
Methods:
There are several methods of comminution. Comminution of solid materials requires different types of crushers and mills depending on the feed properties such as hardness at various size ranges and application requirements such as throughput and maintenance. The most common machines for the comminution of coarse feed material (primary crushers) are the jaw crusher (1m > P80 > 100 mm), cone crusher (P80 > 20 mm) and hammer crusher. Primary crusher product in intermediate feed particle size ranges (100mm > P80 > 20mm) can be ground in autogenous (AG) or semi-autogenous (SAG) mills depending on feed properties and application requirements. For comminution of finer particle size ranges (20mm > P80 > 30 μm) machines like the ball mill, vertical roller mill, hammer mill, roller press or high compression roller mill, vibration mill, jet mill and others are used. For yet finer grind sizes (sometimes referred to as "ultrafine grinding"), specialist mills such as the IsaMill are used.
Methods:
Trituration, for instance, is comminution (or substance breakdown) by rubbing. Trituration can further be described as levigation (trituration of a powder with a non-solvent liquid), or pulverization by intervention, which is trituration with a solvent that can be easily removed after the substance has been broken down. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Radioflash**
Radioflash:
Radioflash is a term used (chiefly in sources from the United Kingdom) in early literature on the phenomena now known more widely as nuclear electromagnetic pulse, or EMP. The term originated in the early 1950s, primarily associated with the "click" typically heard on radio receivers when a nuclear bomb was detonated. It was later discovered that the phenomena was one part of the more wide-ranging set of effects resulting from EMPs after the detonation of a nuclear weapon.
Radioflash:
Instrumentation failures observed during nuclear weapons testing between 1951 and 1953 were mentioned in declassified military literature as attributed to "radiated radioflash". A similar term was first used in the Soviet Union in an early theoretical publication (which contained some errors and was later corrected) on the effects of a nuclear explosion.The term has also been used during the 1970s in high-energy physics in describing a type of collective ion acceleration that would take place during intense solar flares. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Margin (machine learning)**
Margin (machine learning):
In machine learning the margin of a single data point is defined to be the distance from the data point to a decision boundary. Note that there are many distances and decision boundaries that may be appropriate for certain datasets and goals. A margin classifier is a classifier that explicitly utilizes the margin of each example while learning a classifier. There are theoretical justifications (based on the VC dimension) as to why maximizing the margin (under some suitable constraints) may be beneficial for machine learning and statistical inferences algorithms.
Margin (machine learning):
There are many hyperplanes that might classify the data. One reasonable choice as the best hyperplane is the one that represents the largest separation, or margin, between the two classes. So we choose the hyperplane so that the distance from it to the nearest data point on each side is maximized. If such a hyperplane exists, it is known as the maximum-margin hyperplane and the linear classifier it defines is known as a maximum margin classifier; or equivalently, the perceptron of optimal stability. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Tethered flight test**
Tethered flight test:
A tethered flight test is a type of flight testing where a machine is connected by a tether to the ground. Tethered testing may be used when motion through the atmosphere is not required to sustain flight, such as for airship; vertical take-off and landing (VTOL), rotary wing or tiltwing aircraft (tethered hovering); or for tests of certain rockets, such as vertical takeoff, vertical landing (VTVL). Fixed wing scale models can be tested on a tether in a wind tunnel, simulating motion through the atmosphere.
History:
Numerous vertical take-off and landing (VTOL) aircraft conducted their initial flights while tethered. Early vertical flights of the Short SC.1, an early experimental aircraft that was the first British fixed-wing VTOL aircraft as well as the first one to transition between vertical and horizontal flight modes. For these flights, a custom-built gantry was developed that accommodated only a limited amount of freedom, up to 15 ft vertically and 10 ft off-centre in any direction, vertical velocity was also restricted to less than 10 ft/second; progressive arresting of the aircraft occurred beyond these limitation. It would take off from a grid platform positioned 6 ft above the ground itself in order to circumvent the ground effect phenomenon; considerable effort on the part of Shorts had been made during development of a suitable platform to eliminate the negative impact of ground effect and was redesigned several times. The gantry facility was used for ab initio training and familiarisation purposes for the first 8 pilots to fly the SC.1.Insight from the SC.1 heavily influenced the Hawker Siddeley P.1127, the forerunner to the Hawker Siddeley Harrier VTOL fighter. Its initial flights were also performed while tethered; such flights were largely conducted so that test pilots could familiarise themselves with the aircraft's controls in hover in a less risky environment. As confidence in the aircraft's handling grew, tethered flights without the aid of its onboard auto-stabiliser system were conducted. Finally, on 19 November 1960, the first un-tethered free-flight hover of a P.1127 took place; flight testing of the type proceeded over the rest of the decade ahead of the first production aircraft being introduced to service in 1969.Numerous VTOL aircraft that would eventually be cancelled mid-development underwent tethered test flights. A pair of prototype EWR VJ 101 fighters were produced, the first performing its first hovering flight on 10 April 1963. Prior to this, the VJ 1010's propulsion concept had been evaluated on a specially-produced test rig, often informally referred to as the Wippe (seesaw), during the early 1960s; it incorporated a rudimentary cockpit fixed upon a horizontal beam, which had a "lift" engine mounted vertically at the centre, for the purpose of performing preliminary single-axis tests of the control system. A second "hover rig" was later assembled, possessing the skeletal fuselage of the VJ 101C along with a total of three Rolls-Royce RB108 engines installed in the approximate positions that they would occupy in the final flight-capable version and capable of lifting the test rig. Starting in May 1961, initial testing was conducted from a telescopic column, in March 1962, the new rig conducted its first "free flight" successfully.The experimental Dassault Balzac V, a forerunner to the larger Dassault Mirage IIIV, was another experimental VTOL aircraft. The Balzac commenced tethered hover flights on 12 October 1962, and achieved the first free-hover only six days later; flight testing of the type ended in September 1965 following an accident. The Yakovlev Yak-36, an experimental VTOL aircraft developed in the Soviet Union as a forerunner to the Yakovlev Yak-38 production carrier aircraft, was also subject to a number of tethered flights in advance of freely hovering. During early development work for the Ryan X-13 Vertijet, test rigs were repeatedly flown via remote control while tethered. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Major aortopulmonary collateral artery**
Major aortopulmonary collateral artery:
Major aortopulmonary collateral arteries (or MAPCAs) are arteries that develop to supply blood to the lungs when native pulmonary circulation is underdeveloped. Instead of coming from the pulmonary trunk, supply develops from the aorta and other systemic arteries.
Pathogenesis and anatomy:
Major aortopulmonary collateral arteries (MAPCAs) develop early in embryonic life but regress as the normal pulmonary arteries (vessels that will supply deoxygenated blood to the lungs) develop. In certain heart conditions the pulmonary arteries do not develop. The collaterals continue to grow, and can become the main supply of blood to the lungs. Though it is usually associated with congenital heart diseases with decreased pulmonary blood flow like tetralogy of Fallot or pulmonary atresia it may be seen sometimes in isolation i.e. not associated with any congenital heart disease in that case it is termed as isolated aortopulmonary collateral artery. In these cases it may be one of the cause of congestive cardiac failure in neonates.Pulmonary arteries come from the right side of the heart, and usually carry deoxygenated blood from the body. These collateral arteries carry blood which has already been oxygenated by the lungs, so are of little use in helping the body to get oxygen.
Pathogenesis and anatomy:
Associated conditions Pulmonary atresia with ventricular septal defect (or Tetralogy of Fallot with pulmonary atresia) will result in the development of systemic collaterals.
Implications of a systemic collateral supply:
Major aortopulmonary collateral arteries come from the systemic circulation, because of this they will often have higher pressure than normal found in the lungs, leading to pulmonary hypertension. These vessels are not programmed to exist beyond early fetal life, and eventually became narrowed.
Treatment:
The aim of treatment of the MAPCAs is to group them together and convert their supply to deoxygenated blood from the right side of the heart. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Cortical map**
Cortical map:
Cortical maps are collections (areas) of minicolumns in the brain cortex that have been identified as performing a specific information processing function (texture maps, color maps, contour maps, etc.).
Cortical maps:
Cortical organization, especially for the sensory systems, is often described in terms of maps. For example, sensory information from the foot projects to one cortical site and the projections from the hand target in another site. As the result of this somatotopic organization of sensory inputs to the cortex, cortical representation of the body resembles a map (or homunculus).
Cortical maps:
In the late 1970s and early 1980s, several groups began exploring the impacts of removing portions of the sensory inputs. Michael Merzenich and Jon Kaas and Doug Rasmusson used the cortical map as their dependent variable. They found—and this has been since corroborated by a wide range of labs—that if the cortical map is deprived of its input it will become activated at a later time in response to other, usually adjacent inputs. At least in the somatic sensory system, in which this phenomenon has been most thoroughly investigated, JT Wall and J Xu have traced the mechanisms underlying this plasticity. Re-organization is not cortically emergent, but occurs at every level in the processing hierarchy; this produces the map changes observed in the cerebral cortex.Merzenich and William Jenkins (1990) initiated studies relating sensory experience, without pathological perturbation, to cortically observed plasticity in the primate somatosensory system, with the finding that sensory sites activated in an attended operant behavior increase in their cortical representation. Shortly thereafter, Ford Ebner and colleagues (1994) made similar efforts in the rodent whisker barrel cortex (also somatic sensory system). These two groups largely diverged over the years. The rodent whisker barrel efforts became a focus for Ebner, Matthew Diamond, Michael Armstrong-James, Robert Sachdev, Kevin Fox and great inroads were made in identifying the locus of change as being at cortical synapses expressing NMDA receptors, and in implicating cholinergic inputs as necessary for normal expression. However, the rodent studies were poorly focused on the behavioral end, and Ron Frostig and Daniel Polley (1999, 2004) identified behavioral manipulations as causing a substantial impact on the cortical plasticity in that system.
Cortical maps:
Merzenich and DT Blake (2002, 2005, 2006) went on to use cortical implants to study the evolution of plasticity in both the somatosensory and auditory systems. Both systems show similar changes with respect to behavior. When a stimulus is cognitively associated with reinforcement, its cortical representation is strengthened and enlarged. In some cases, cortical representations can increase two to threefold in 1–2 days at the time at which a new sensory motor behavior is first acquired, and changes are largely finished within at most a few weeks. Control studies show that these changes are not caused by sensory experience alone: they require learning about the sensory experience, and are strongest for the stimuli that are associated with reward, and occur with equal ease in operant and classical conditioning behaviors.
Cortical maps:
An interesting phenomenon involving cortical maps is the incidence of phantom limbs (see Ramachandran for review). This is most commonly described in people that have undergone amputations in hands, arms, and legs, but it is not limited to extremities. The phantom limb feeling, which is thought to result from disorganization in the brain map and the inability to receive input from the targeted area, may be annoying or painful. Incidentally, it is more common after unexpected losses than planned amputations. There is a high correlation with the extent of physical remapping and the extent of phantom pain. As it fades, it is a fascinating functional example of new neural connections in the human adult brain.
Cortical maps:
Norman Doidge, following the lead of Michael Merzenich, separates manifestations of neuroplasticity into adaptations that have positive or negative behavioral consequences. For example, if an organism can recover after a stroke to normal levels of performance, that adaptiveness could be considered an example of "positive plasticity". An excessive level of neuronal growth leading to spasticity or tonic paralysis, or an excessive release of neurotransmitters in response to injury which could kill nerve cells; this would have to be considered a "negative" plasticity. In addition, drug addiction and obsessive-compulsive disorder are deemed examples of "negative plasticity" by Dr. Doidge, as the synaptic rewiring resulting in these behaviors is also highly maladaptive.A 2005 study found that the effects of neuroplasticity occur even more rapidly than previously expected. Medical students' brains were imaged during the period when they were studying for their exams. In a matter of months, the students' gray matter increased significantly in the posterior and lateral parietal cortex. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Acronym**
Acronym:
An acronym is a word or name consisting of parts of the full name's words.
Acronym:
Initialisms or alphabetisms are acronyms formed from the string of initials which are usually pronounced as individual letters, as in the FBI (Federal Bureau of Investigation). But acronyms sometimes use syllables instead, as in Benelux (short for Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg), NAPOCOR (National Power Corporation), and TRANSCO (National Transmission Corporation). They can also be a mixture, as in radar (Radio Detection And Ranging) and MIDAS (Missile Defense Alarm System).
Acronym:
Acronyms can be pronounced as words, like NASA and UNESCO; as individual letters, like CIA, TNT, NPC, BLM, and ATM; or as both letters and words, like JPEG (JAY-peg), CSIS (SEE-sis), and IUPAC (I-U-pak). Some are not universally pronounced one way or the other and it depends on the speaker's preference or the context in which it is being used, such as SQL (either "sequel" or "ess-cue-el").
Acronym:
The broader sense of acronym—the meaning of which includes terms pronounced as individual letters—is sometimes criticized, but that is the term's original meaning, and is still in common use. Dictionary and style-guide editors are not in universal agreement on the naming for such abbreviations, and it is a matter of some dispute whether the term acronym can be legitimately applied to abbreviations which are not pronounced "as words", nor do these language authorities agree on the correct use of spacing, casing, and punctuation.
Etymology:
The word acronym is formed from the Greek roots acr-, meaning "height, summit, or tip" and -onym, meaning "name". This neoclassical compound appears to have originated in German, with attestations for the German form Akronym appearing as early as 1921. Citations in English date to a 1940 translation of a novel by the German writer Lion Feuchtwanger.
Nomenclature:
Whereas an abbreviation may be any type of shortened form, such as words with the middle omitted (for example, Rd. for Road or Dr. for Doctor) or the end cut off (as in Prof. for Professor), an acronym or initialism is—in the broad sense—formed from the first letter or first few letters of each important word in a phrase (such as AIDS, from acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, and scuba from self-contained underwater breathing apparatus). However, this is only a loose rule of thumb, as some acronyms are built in part from the first letters of morphemes (word components; as in the i and d in immuno-deficiency) or using a letter from the middle or end of a word, or from only a few key words in a long phrase or name. Less significant words such as in, of, and the are usually dropped (NYT for The New York Times, DMV for Department of Motor Vehicles), but not always (TICA for The International Cat Association, DOJ for Department of Justice).
Nomenclature:
Abbreviations formed from a string of initials and usually pronounced as individual letters (as in FBI from Federal Bureau of Investigation, and e.g. from Latin exempli gratia) are sometimes more specifically called initialisms or alphabetisms. Occasionally, some letter other than the first is chosen, most often when the pronunciation of the name of the letter coincides with the pronunciation of the beginning of the word (example: BX from base exchange). Acronyms that are usually pronounced as words, such as AIDS and scuba, are sometimes called word acronyms; this is done to differentiate them more clearly from initialisms, especially since some users of the term "initialism" use "acronym" in a narrow sense meaning only the type sounded out as letters. Another sub-type of acronym (or a related form) is the syllabic abbreviation, which is composed specifically of multi-letter syllabic (even multi-syllabic) fragments of the shortened words such as Interpol from international + police, though its full proper name in English is the International Criminal Police Organization. Usually the first syllable (or two) is used from each major component word, but there are exceptions, such as the U.S. Navy term DESRON or DesRon from destroyer squadron.
Nomenclature:
There is no special term for abbreviations whose pronunciation involves the combination of letter names with words, or with word-like pronunciations of strings of letters, such as JPEG () and MS-DOS (). Similarly, there is no unique name for those that are a mixture of syllabic abbreviations and initialisms; these are usually pronounced as words (e.g., radar from radio detection and ranging, consisting of one syllabic abbreviation and three single letters, and sonar from sound navigation ranging, consisting of two syllabic abbreviations followed by a single acronymic letter for ranging); these would generally qualify as word acronyms among those who use that term. There is also some disagreement as to what to call an abbreviation that some speakers pronounce as letters but others pronounce as a word. For example, the terms URL and IRA (for individual retirement account) can be pronounced as individual letters: and , respectively; or as a single word: and , respectively. The same character string may be pronounced differently when the meaning is different; IRA is always sounded out as I-R-A when standing for Irish Republican Army.
Nomenclature:
The spelled-out form of an acronym, initialism, or syllabic abbreviation (that is, what that abbreviation stands for) is called its expansion.
Lexicography and style guides:
It is an unsettled question in English lexicography and style guides whether it is legitimate to use the word acronym to describe forms that use initials but are not pronounced as a word. While there is plenty of evidence that acronym is used widely in this way, some sources do not acknowledge this usage, reserving the term acronym only for forms pronounced as a word, and using initialism or abbreviation for those that are not. Some sources acknowledge the usage, but vary in whether they criticize or forbid it, allow it without comment, or explicitly advocate for it.
Lexicography and style guides:
Some mainstream English dictionaries from across the English-speaking world affirm a sense of acronym which does not require being pronounced as a word. American English dictionaries such as Merriam-Webster, Dictionary.com's Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary and the American Heritage Dictionary as well as the British Oxford English Dictionary and the Australian Macquarie Dictionary all include a sense in their entries for acronym equating it with initialism, although The American Heritage Dictionary criticizes it with the label "usage problem". However, many English language dictionaries, such as the Collins COBUILD Advanced Dictionary, Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary, Macmillan Dictionary, Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, New Oxford American Dictionary, Webster's New World Dictionary, and Lexico from Oxford University Press do not acknowledge such a sense.
Lexicography and style guides:
Most of the dictionary entries and style guide recommendations regarding the term acronym through the twentieth century did not explicitly acknowledge or support the expansive sense. The Merriam–Webster's Dictionary of English Usage from 1994 is one of the earliest publications to advocate for the expansive sense, and all the major dictionary editions that include a sense of acronym equating it with initialism were first published in the twenty-first century. The trend among dictionary editors appears to be towards including a sense defining acronym as initialism: The Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary added such a sense in its eleventh edition in 2003, and both the Oxford English Dictionary and the American Heritage Dictionary added such senses in their 2011 editions. The 1989 edition of the Oxford English Dictionary only included the exclusive sense for acronym and its earliest citation was from 1943. In early December 2010, Duke University researcher Stephen Goranson published a citation for acronym to the American Dialect Society e-mail discussion list which refers to PGN being pronounced "pee-gee-enn", antedating English language usage of the word to 1940. Linguist Ben Zimmer then mentioned this citation in his December 16, 2010 "On Language" column about acronyms in The New York Times Magazine. By 2011, the publication of the third edition of the Oxford English Dictionary added the expansive sense to its entry for acronym and included the 1940 citation. As the Oxford English Dictionary structures the senses in order of chronological development, it now gives the "initialism" sense first.
Lexicography and style guides:
English language usage and style guides which have entries for acronym generally criticize the usage that refers to forms that are not pronounceable words. Fowler's Dictionary of Modern English Usage says that acronym "denotes abbreviations formed from initial letters of other words and pronounced as a single word, such as NATO (as distinct from B-B-C)" but adds later "In everyday use, acronym is often applied to abbreviations that are technically initialisms, since they are pronounced as separate letters." The Chicago Manual of Style acknowledges the complexity ("Furthermore, an acronym and initialism are occasionally combined (JPEG), and the line between initialism and acronym is not always clear") but still defines the terms as mutually exclusive. Other guides outright deny any legitimacy to the usage: Bryson's Dictionary of Troublesome Words says "Abbreviations that are not pronounced as words (IBM, ABC, NFL) are not acronyms; they are just abbreviations." Garner's Modern American Usage says "An acronym is made from the first letters or parts of a compound term. It's read or spoken as a single word, not letter by letter." The New York Times Manual of Style and Usage says "Unless pronounced as a word, an abbreviation is not an acronym."In contrast, some style guides do support it, whether explicitly or implicitly. The 1994 edition of Merriam-Webster's Dictionary of English Usage defends the usage on the basis of a claim that dictionaries do not make a distinction. The BuzzFeed style guide describes CBS and PBS as "acronyms ending in S".
Comparing a few examples of each type:
Pronounced as a word, containing only initial letters NATO: "North Atlantic Treaty Organization" Scuba: "self-contained underwater breathing apparatus" Laser: "light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation" GIF: "graphics interchange format" Pronounced as a word, containing a mixture of initial and non-initial letters Amphetamine: "alpha-methyl-phenethylamine" Gestapo: Geheime Staatspolizei (secret state police) Radar: "radio detection and ranging" Lidar: "light detection and ranging" Pronounced as a combination of spelling out and a word CD-ROM: (cee-dee-) "compact disc read-only memory" IUPAC: (i-u- or i-u-pee-a-cee) "International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry" JPEG: (jay- or jay-pee-e-gee) "Joint Photographic Experts Group" SFMOMA: (ess-ef- or ess-ef-em-o-em-a) "San Francisco Museum of Modern Art" Pronounced only as a string of letters BBC: "British Broadcasting Corporation" OEM: "original equipment manufacturer" USA: "United States of America" VHF: "very high frequency" Pronounced as a string of letters, but with a shortcut AAA: (Triple-A) "American Automobile Association"; "abdominal aortic aneurysm"; "anti-aircraft artillery"; "Asistencia, Asesoría y Administración" (Three-As) "Amateur Athletic Association" IEEE: (I triple-E) "Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers" NAACP: (N double-A C P or N A A C P) "National Association for the Advancement of Colored People" NCAA: (N C double-A or N C two-A or N C A A) "National Collegiate Athletic Association" Shortcut incorporated into name 3M: (three M) originally "Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing Company" W3C: (W-three C) "World Wide Web Consortium" A2DP: (A-two D P) "Advanced Audio Distribution Profile" I18N: ("18" stands in for the word's middle eighteen letters, "nternationalizatio") "Internationalization" C4ISTAR: (C-four Istar) "Command, Control, Communications, Computers, Intelligence, Surveillance, Target Acquisition, and Reconnaissance" Mnemonic acronyms, an abbreviation that is used to remember phrases or principles KISS (Kiss) "Keep it simple, stupid", a design principle preferring simplicity SMART (Smart) "Specific, Measurable, Assignable, Realistic, Time-related", A principle of setting of goals and objectives FAST (Fast) "Facial drooping, Arm weakness, Speech difficulties, Time", helps detect and enhance responsiveness to the needs of a person having a stroke DRY (Dry) "Don't repeat yourself", A principle of software development aimed at reducing repetition of software patterns Multi-layered acronyms AIM: "AOL Instant Messenger", in which "AOL" originally stood for "America Online" AFTA: "ASEAN Free Trade Area", where ASEAN stands for "Association of Southeast Asian Nations" NAC Breda: (Dutch football club) "NOAD ADVENDO Combinatie" ("NOAD ADVENDO Combination"), formed by the 1912 merger of two clubs from Breda: NOAD: (Nooit Opgeven Altijd Doorgaan "Never give up, always persevere") ADVENDO: (Aangenaam Door Vermaak En Nuttig Door Ontspanning "Pleasant by entertainment and useful by relaxation") GIMP: "GNU image manipulation program" Recursive acronyms, in which the abbreviation refers to itself GNU: "GNU's not Unix!" Wine: "Wine is not an emulator" (originally, "Windows emulator") These may go through multiple layers before the self-reference is found: HURD: "HIRD of Unix-replacing daemons", where "HIRD" stands for "HURD of interfaces representing depth" Pseudo-acronyms, which consist of a sequence of characters that, when pronounced as intended, invoke other, longer words with less typing This makes them gramograms.
Comparing a few examples of each type:
CQ: cee-cue for "seek you", a code used by radio operators IOU: i-o-u for "I owe you" K9: kay-nine for "canine", used to designate police units using dogs Abbreviations whose last abbreviated word is often redundantly included anyway ATM machine: "automated teller machine" (machine) HIV virus: "human immunodeficiency virus" (virus) LCD display: "liquid-crystal display" (display) PIN number: "personal identification number" (number) Pronounced as a word, containing letters as a word in itself PAYGO: "pay-as-you-go"
Historical and current use:
Acronymy, like retronymy, is a linguistic process that has existed throughout history but for which there was little to no naming, conscious attention, or systematic analysis until relatively recent times. Like retronymy, it became much more common in the 20th century than it had formerly been.
Historical and current use:
Ancient examples of acronymy (before the term "acronym" was invented) include the following: Acronyms were used in Rome before the Christian era. For example, the official name for the Roman Empire, and the Republic before it, was abbreviated as SPQR (Senatus Populusque Romanus). Inscriptions dating from antiquity, both on stone and on coins, use many abbreviations and acronyms to save space and work. For example, Roman first names, of which there was only a small set, were almost always abbreviated. Common terms were abbreviated too, such as writing just "F" for filius, meaning "son", a very common part of memorial inscriptions mentioning people. Grammatical markers were abbreviated or left out entirely if they could be inferred from the rest of the text.
Historical and current use:
So-called nomina sacra (sacred names) were used in many Greek biblical manuscripts. The common words "God" (Θεός), "Jesus" (Ιησούς), "Christ" (Χριστός), and some others, would be abbreviated by their first and last letters, marked with an overline. This was just one of many kinds of conventional scribal abbreviation, used to reduce the time-consuming workload of the scribe and save on valuable writing materials. The same convention is still commonly used in the inscriptions on religious icons and the stamps used to mark the eucharistic bread in Eastern Churches.
Historical and current use:
The early Christians in Rome, most of whom were Greek rather than Latin speakers, used the image of a fish as a symbol for Jesus in part because of an acronym (or backronym): "fish" in Greek is ichthys (ΙΧΘΥΣ), which was construed to stand for Ἰησοῦς Χριστός Θεοῦ Υἱός Σωτήρ (Iesous Christos Theou huios Soter: "Jesus Christ, God's Son, Savior"). This interpretation dates from the 2nd and 3rd centuries and is preserved in the catacombs of Rome. Another ancient acronym for Jesus is the inscription INRI over the crucifix, for the Latin Iesus Nazarenus Rex Iudaeorum ("Jesus the Nazarene, King of the Jews").
Historical and current use:
The Hebrew language has a centuries-long history of acronyms pronounced as words. The Hebrew Bible ("Old Testament") is known as "Tanakh", an acronym composed from the Hebrew initial letters of its three major sections: "Torah" (five books of Moses), "Nevi'im" (prophets), and "K'tuvim" (writings). Many rabbinical figures from the Middle Ages onward are referred to in rabbinical literature by their pronounced acronyms, such as Rambam and Rashi from the initial letters of their full Hebrew names: "Rabbi Moshe ben Maimon" and "Rabbi Shlomo Yitzkhaki".During the mid- to late 19th century, acronyms became a trend among American and European businessmen: abbreviating corporation names, such as on the sides of railroad cars (e.g., "Richmond, Fredericksburg and Potomac Railroad" → "RF&P"); on the sides of barrels and crates; and on ticker tape and newspaper stock listings (e.g. American Telephone and Telegraph Company → AT&T). Some well-known commercial examples dating from the 1890s through 1920s include "Nabisco" ("National Biscuit Company"), "Esso" (from "S.O.", from "Standard Oil"), and "Sunoco" ("Sun Oil Company").
Historical and current use:
Another field for the adoption of acronyms was modern warfare, with its many highly technical terms. While there is no recorded use of military acronyms dating from the American Civil War (acronyms such as "ANV" for "Army of Northern Virginia" postdate the war itself), they became somewhat common in World War I, and by World War II they were widespread even in the slang of soldiers, who referred to themselves as G.I.s.
Historical and current use:
The widespread, frequent use of acronyms across the whole range of linguistic registers is relatively new in most languages, becoming increasingly evident since the mid-20th century. As literacy spread and technology produced a constant stream of new and complex terms, abbreviations became increasingly convenient. The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) records the first printed use of the word initialism as occurring in 1899, but it did not come into general use until 1965, well after acronym had become common.
Historical and current use:
In English, acronyms pronounced as words may be a 20th-century phenomenon. Linguist David Wilton in Word Myths: Debunking Linguistic Urban Legends claims that "forming words from acronyms is a distinctly twentieth- (and now twenty-first-) century phenomenon. There is only one known pre-twentieth-century [English] word with an acronymic origin and it was in vogue for only a short time in 1886. The word is colinderies or colinda, an acronym for the Colonial and Indian Exposition held in London in that year." However, although acronymic words seem not to have been employed in general vocabulary before the 20th century (as Wilton points out), the concept of their formation is treated as effortlessly understood (and evidently not novel) in an Edgar Allan Poe story of the 1830s, "How to Write a Blackwood Article", which includes the contrived acronym "P.R.E.T.T.Y.B.L.U.E.B.A.T.C.H." Early examples in English The use of Latin and Neo-Latin terms in vernaculars has been pan-European and predates modern English. Some examples of acronyms in this class are: A.M. (from Latin ante meridiem, "before noon") and P.M. (from Latin post meridiem, "after noon") A.D. (from Latin Anno Domini, "in the year of our Lord"), whose complement in English, B.C. (Before Christ), is English-sourcedThe earliest example of a word derived from an acronym listed by the OED is "abjud" (now "abjad"), formed from the original first four letters of the Arabic alphabet in the late 18th century. Some acrostics predate this, however, such as the Restoration witticism arranging the names of some members of Charles II's Committee for Foreign Affairs to produce the "CABAL" ministry.OK, a term of disputed origin, dates back at least to the early 19th century and is now used around the world.
Historical and current use:
Current use Acronyms are used most often to abbreviate names of organizations and long or frequently referenced terms. The armed forces and government agencies frequently employ acronyms; some well-known examples from the United States are among the "alphabet agencies" (jokingly referred to as "alphabet soup") created under the New Deal by Franklin D. Roosevelt (himself known as "FDR"). Business and industry also coin acronyms prolificly. The rapid advance of science and technology also drives the usage, as new inventions and concepts with multiword names create a demand for shorter, more pronounceable names. One representative example, from the U.S. Navy, is "COMCRUDESPAC", which stands for "commander, cruisers destroyers Pacific"; it is also seen as "ComCruDesPac". Inventors are encouraged to anticipate the formation of acronyms by making new terms "YABA-compatible" ("yet another bloody acronym"), meaning the term's acronym can be pronounced and is not an offensive word: "When choosing a new name, be sure it is 'YABA-compatible'."Acronym use has been further popularized by text messaging on mobile phones with short message service (SMS), and instant messenger (IM). To fit messages into the 160-character SMS limit, and to save time, acronyms such as "GF" ("girlfriend"), "LOL" ("laughing out loud"), and "DL" ("download" or "down low") have become popular. Some prescriptivists disdain texting acronyms and abbreviations as decreasing clarity, or as failure to use "pure" or "proper" English. Others point out that languages have always continually changed, and argue that acronyms should be embraced as inevitable, or as innovation that adapts the language to changing circumstances. In this view, the modern practice is just the "proper" English of the current generation of speakers, much like the earlier abbreviation of corporation names on ticker tape or newspapers.
Historical and current use:
Exact pronunciation of "word acronyms" (those pronounced as words rather than sounded out as individual letters) often vary by speaker population. These may be regional, occupational, or generational differences, or simply personal preference. For instance, there have been decades of online debate about how to pronounce GIF ( or ) and BIOS (, , or ). Similarly, some letter-by-letter initialisms may become word acronyms over time, especially in combining forms: IP for Internet Protocol is generally said as two letters, but IPsec for Internet Protocol Security is usually pronounced as or , along with variant capitalization like "IPSEC" and "Ipsec". Pronunciation may even vary within a single speaker's vocabulary, depending on narrow contexts. As an example, the database programming language SQL is usually said as three letters, but in reference to Microsoft's implementation is traditionally pronounced like the word sequel.
Historical and current use:
Expansion at first use In writing for a broad audience, the words of an acronym are typically written out in full at its first occurrence within a given text. Expansion At First Use (EAFU) benefits readers unfamiliar with the acronym.Another text aid is an abbreviation key which lists and expands all acronyms used, a reference for readers who skipped past the first use. (This is especially important for paper media, where no search utility is available to find the first use.) It also gives students a convenient review list to memorize the important acronyms introduced in a textbook chapter.
Historical and current use:
Expansion at first use and abbreviation keys originated in the print era, but they are equally useful for electronic text.
Jargon While acronyms provide convenience and succinctness for specialists, they often degenerate into confusing jargon. This may be intentional, to exclude readers without domain-specific knowledge. New acronyms may also confuse when they coincide with an already existing acronym having a different meaning.
Medical literature has been struggling to control the proliferation of acronyms, including efforts by the American Academy of Dermatology.
As mnemonics Acronyms are often taught as mnemonic devices: for example the colors of the rainbow are ROY G. BIV (red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet). They are also used as mental checklists: in aviation GUMPS stands for gas-undercarriage-mixture-propeller-seat belts. Other mnemonic acronyms include CAN SLIM in finance, PAVPANIC in English grammar, and PEMDAS in mathematics.
Historical and current use:
Acronyms as legendary etymology It is not uncommon for acronyms to be cited in a kind of false etymology, called a folk etymology, for a word. Such etymologies persist in popular culture but have no factual basis in historical linguistics, and are examples of language-related urban legends. For example, "cop" is commonly cited as being derived, it is presumed, from "constable on patrol", and "posh" from "port outward, starboard home". With some of these specious expansions, the "belief" that the etymology is acronymic has clearly been tongue-in-cheek among many citers, as with "gentlemen only, ladies forbidden" for "golf", although many other (more credulous) people have uncritically taken it for fact. Taboo words in particular commonly have such false etymologies: "shit" from "ship/store high in transit" or "special high-intensity training" and "fuck" from "for unlawful carnal knowledge", or "fornication under consent/command of the king".
Orthographic styling:
Punctuation Showing the ellipsis of letters In English, abbreviations have previously been marked by a wide variety of punctuation. Obsolete forms include using an overbar or colon to show the ellipsis of letters following the initial part. The forward slash is still common in many dialects for some fixed expressions—such as w/ for "with" or A/C for "air conditioning"—while only infrequently being used to abbreviate new terms. The apostrophe is common for grammatical contractions (e.g. don't, y'all, and ain't) and for contractions marking unusual pronunciations (e.g. a'ight, cap'n, and fo'c'sle for "all right", "captain", and "forecastle"). By the early 20th century, it was standard to use a full stop/period/point, especially in the cases of initialisms and acronyms. Previously, especially for Latin abbreviations, this was done with a full space between every full word (e.g. A. D., i. e., and e. g. for "Anno Domini", "id est", and "exempli gratia"). This even included punctuation after both Roman and Arabic numerals to indicate their use in place of the full names of each number (e.g. LII. or 52. in place of "fifty-two" and "1/4." or "1./4." to indicate "one-fourth"). Both conventions have fallen out of common use in all dialects of English, except in places where an Arabic decimal includes a medial decimal point.
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Particularly in British and Commonwealth English, all such punctuation marking acronyms and other capitalized abbreviations is now uncommon and considered either unnecessary or incorrect. The presence of all-capital letters is now thought sufficient to indicate the nature of the UK, the EU, and the UN. Forms such as the U.S.A. for "the United States of America" are now considered to indicate American or North American English. Even within those dialects, such punctuation is becoming increasingly uncommon.
Orthographic styling:
Ellipsis-is-understood style Some influential style guides, such as that of the BBC, no longer require punctuation to show ellipsis; some even proscribe it. Larry Trask, American author of The Penguin Guide to Punctuation, states categorically that, in British English, "this tiresome and unnecessary practice is now obsolete." Pronunciation-dependent style and periods Nevertheless, some influential style guides, many of them American, still require periods in certain instances. For example, The New York Times Manual of Style and Usage recommends following each segment with a period when the letters are pronounced individually, as in "K.G.B.", but not when pronounced as a word, as in "NATO". The logic of this style is that the pronunciation is reflected graphically by the punctuation scheme.
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Other conventions When a multiple-letter abbreviation is formed from a single word, periods are in general not used, although they may be common in informal usage. "TV", for example, may stand for a single word ("television" or "transvestite", for instance), and is in general spelled without punctuation (except in the plural). Although "PS" stands for the single English word "postscript" or the Latin postscriptum, it is often spelled with periods ("P.S.") as if parsed as Latin post scriptum instead.
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The slash ('/', or solidus) is sometimes used to separate the letters in an acronym, as in "N/A" ("not applicable, not available") and "c/o" ("care of").
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Inconveniently long words used frequently in related contexts can be represented according to their letter count as a numeronym. For example, "i18n" abbreviates "internationalization", a computer-science term for adapting software for worldwide use. The "18" represents the 18 letters that come between the first and the last in "internationalization". "Localization" can be abbreviated "l10n", "multilingualization" "m17n", and "accessibility" "a11y". In addition to the use of a specific number replacing that many letters, the more general "x" can be used to replace an unspecified number of letters. Examples include "Crxn" for "crystallization" and the series familiar to physicians for history, diagnosis, and treatment ("hx", "dx", "tx").
Orthographic styling:
Representing plurals and possessives There is a question about how to pluralize acronyms. Often a writer will add an 's' following an apostrophe, as in "PC's". However, Kate Turabian, writing about style in academic writings, allows for an apostrophe to form plural acronyms "only when an abbreviation contains internal periods or both capital and lowercase letters". Turabian would therefore prefer "DVDs" and "URLs" and "Ph.D.'s". The Modern Language Association and American Psychological Association prohibit apostrophes from being used to pluralize acronyms regardless of periods (so "compact discs" would be "CDs" or "C.D.s"), whereas The New York Times Manual of Style and Usage requires an apostrophe when pluralizing all abbreviations regardless of periods (preferring "PC's, TV's and VCR's").Possessive plurals that also include apostrophes for mere pluralization and periods appear especially complex: for example, "the C.D.'s' labels" (the labels of the compact discs). In some instances, however, an apostrophe may increase clarity: for example, if the final letter of an abbreviation is "S", as in "SOS's" (although abbreviations ending with S can also take "-es", e.g. "SOSes"), or when pluralizing an abbreviation that has periods.A particularly rich source of options arises when the plural of an acronym would normally be indicated in a word other than the final word if spelled out in full. A classic example is "Member of Parliament", which in plural is "Members of Parliament". It is possible then to abbreviate this as "M's P". (or similar), as used by former Australian Prime Minister Ben Chifley. This usage is less common than forms with "s" at the end, such as "MPs", and may appear dated or pedantic. In common usage, therefore, "weapons of mass destruction" becomes "WMDs", "prisoners of war" becomes "POWs", and "runs batted in" becomes "RBIs".The argument that acronyms should have no different plural form (for example, "If D can stand for disc, it can also stand for discs") is in general disregarded because of the practicality in distinguishing singulars and plurals. This is not the case, however, when the abbreviation is understood to describe a plural noun already: For example, "U.S." is short for "United States", but not "United State". In this case, the options for making a possessive form of an abbreviation that is already in its plural form without a final "s" may seem awkward: for example, "U.S.", "U.S.'s", etc. In such instances, possessive abbreviations are often forgone in favor of simple attributive usage (for example, "the U.S. economy") or expanding the abbreviation to its full form and then making the possessive (for example, "the United States' economy"). On the other hand, in speech, the pronunciation "United States's" is sometimes used.
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Abbreviations that come from single, rather than multiple, words – such as "TV" ("television") – are usually pluralized without apostrophes ("two TVs"); most writers feel that the apostrophe should be reserved for the possessive ("the TV's antenna").
In some languages, the convention of doubling the letters in the acronym is used to indicate plural words: for example, the Spanish EE.UU., for Estados Unidos ('United States'). This old convention is still followed for a limited number of English abbreviations, such as SS. for "Saints", pp. for the Latin plural of "pages", paginae, or MSS for "manuscripts".
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Case All-caps style The most common capitalization scheme seen with acronyms is all-uppercase (all caps). Small caps are sometimes used to make the run of capital letters seem less jarring to the reader. For example, the style of some American publications, including the Atlantic Monthly and USA Today, is to use small caps for acronyms longer than three letters; thus "U.S." and "FDR" in normal caps, but "nato" in small caps. The acronyms "AD" and "BC" are often smallcapped as well, as in: "From 4004 bc to ad 525".
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Normal case and anacronyms Where an acronym has linguistically taken on an identity as regular word, the acronym may use normal case rules, e.g. it would appear generally in lower case, but with an initial capital when starting a sentence or when in a title. Once knowledge of the words underlying such an acronym has faded from common recall, the acronym may be termed an anacronym. Examples of anacronyms are the words "scuba", "radar", and "laser". The word "anacronym" should not be confused with the word "anachronym", which is a type of misnomer.
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Mixed-case variant Words derived from an acronym by affixing are typically expressed in mixed case, so the root acronym is clear. For example, "pre-WWII politics", "post-NATO world", "DNase". In some cases a derived acronym may also be expressed in mixed case. For example, "messenger RNA" and "transfer RNA" become "mRNA" and "tRNA".
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Pronunciation-dependent style and case Some publications choose to capitalize only the first letter of acronyms, reserving all-caps styling for initialisms, writing the pronounced acronyms "Nato" and "Aids" in mixed case, but the initialisms "USA" and "FBI" in all caps. For example, this is the style used in The Guardian, and BBC News typically edits to this style (though its official style guide, dating from 2003, still recommends all-caps). The logic of this style is that the pronunciation is reflected graphically by the capitalization scheme. However, it conflicts with conventional English usage of first-letter upper-casing as a marker of proper names in many cases; e.g. AIDS stands for acquired immuno-deficiency syndrome which is not a proper name, while Aids is in the style of one.
Orthographic styling:
Some style manuals also base the letters' case on their number. The New York Times, for example, keeps "NATO" in all capitals (while several guides in the British press may render it "Nato"), but uses lower case in "Unicef" (from "United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund") because it is more than four letters, and to style it in caps might look ungainly (flirting with the appearance of "shouting capitals").
Orthographic styling:
Numerals and constituent words While abbreviations typically exclude the initials of short function words (such as "and", "or", "of", or "to"), this is not always the case. Sometimes function words are included to make a pronounceable acronym, such as CORE (Congress of Racial Equality). Sometimes the letters representing these words are written in lower case, such as in the cases of "TfL" ("Transport for London") and LotR (The Lord of the Rings); this usually occurs when the acronym represents a multi-word proper noun.
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Numbers (both cardinal and ordinal) in names are often represented by digits rather than initial letters, as in "4GL" ("fourth generation language") or "G77" ("Group of 77"). Large numbers may use metric prefixes, as with "Y2K" for "Year 2000" (sometimes written "Y2k", because the SI symbol for 1000 is "k", not "K", which stands for "kelvin", the SI unit for temperature). Exceptions using initials for numbers include "TLA" ("three-letter acronym/abbreviation") and "GoF" ("Gang of Four"). Abbreviations using numbers for other purposes include repetitions, such as "A2DP" ("Advanced Audio Distribution Profile"), "W3C" ("World Wide Web Consortium"), and T3 (Trends, Tips & Tools for Everyday Living); pronunciation, such as "B2B" ("business to business"); and numeronyms, such as "i18n" ("internationalization"; "18" represents the 18 letters between the initial "i" and the final "n").
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Casing of expansions Authors of expository writing will sometimes capitalize or otherwise distinctively format the initials of the expansion for pedagogical emphasis (for example, writing: "the onset of Congestive Heart Failure (CHF)" or "the onset of congestive heart failure (CHF)"). Capitalization like this, however, conflicts with the convention of English orthography, which generally reserves capitals in the middle of sentences for proper nouns; when following the AMA Manual of Style, this would instead be rendered as "the onset of congestive heart failure (CHF)".
Changes to (or wordplay on) the expanded meaning:
Pseudo-acronyms and orphan initialisms Some apparent acronyms or other abbreviations do not stand for anything and cannot be expanded to some meaning. Such pseudo-acronyms may be pronunciation-based, such as "BBQ" (bee-bee-cue), for "barbecue", or "K9" (kay-nine) for "canine". Pseudo-acronyms also frequently develop as "orphan initialisms"; an existing acronym is redefined as a non-acronymous name, severing its link to its previous meaning. For example, the letters of the "SAT", a US college entrance test originally dubbed "Scholastic Aptitude Test", no longer officially stand for anything. The US-based abortion-rights organization "NARAL" is another example of this; in that case, the organization changed its name three times, with the long-form of the name always corresponding to the letters "NARAL", before eventually opting to simply be known by the short-form, without being connected to a long-form.
Changes to (or wordplay on) the expanded meaning:
This is common with companies that want to retain brand recognition while moving away from an outdated image: American Telephone and Telegraph became AT&T and British Petroleum became BP. Russia Today has rebranded itself as RT. American Movie Classics has simply rebranded itself as AMC. Genzyme Transgenics Corporation became GTC Biotherapeutics, Inc.; The Learning Channel became TLC; MTV dropped the name Music Television out of its brand; and American District Telegraph became simply known as ADT. "Kentucky Fried Chicken" went partway, re-branding itself with its acronym "KFC" to de-emphasize the role of frying in the preparation of its signature dishes, although in this case, "KFC" remains a true acronym which still officially stands for "Kentucky Fried Chicken".Pseudo-acronyms may have advantages in international markets: for example, some national affiliates of International Business Machines are legally incorporated with "IBM" in their names (for example, IBM Canada) to avoid translating the full name into local languages. Likewise, UBS is the name of the merged Union Bank of Switzerland and Swiss Bank Corporation, and HSBC has replaced the long name Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation. Some companies which have a name giving a clear indication of their place of origin will choose to use acronyms when expanding to foreign markets: for example, Toronto-Dominion Bank continues to operate under the full name in Canada, but its U.S. subsidiary is known as TD Bank, just as Royal Bank of Canada used its full name in Canada (a constitutional monarchy), but its U.S. subsidiary is called RBC Bank. The India-based JSW Group of companies is another example of the original name (Jindal South West Group) being re-branded into a pseudo-acronym while expanding into other geographical areas in and outside of India.
Changes to (or wordplay on) the expanded meaning:
Redundant acronyms and RAS syndrome Rebranding can lead to redundant acronym syndrome, as when Trustee Savings Bank became TSB Bank, or when Railway Express Agency became REA Express. A few high-tech companies have taken the redundant acronym to the extreme: for example, ISM Information Systems Management Corp. and SHL Systemhouse Ltd. Examples in entertainment include the television shows CSI: Crime Scene Investigation and Navy: NCIS ("Navy" was dropped in the second season), where the redundancy was likely designed to educate new viewers as to what the initials stood for. The same reasoning was in evidence when the Royal Bank of Canada's Canadian operations rebranded to RBC Royal Bank, or when Bank of Montreal rebranded their retail banking subsidiary BMO Bank of Montreal.
Changes to (or wordplay on) the expanded meaning:
Another common example is "RAM memory", which is redundant because "RAM" ("random-access memory") includes the initial of the word "memory". "PIN" stands for "personal identification number", obviating the second word in "PIN number"; in this case its retention may be motivated to avoid ambiguity with the homophonous word "pin". Other examples include "ATM machine", "EAB bank", "HIV virus", Microsoft's NT Technology, and the formerly redundant "SAT test", now simply "SAT Reasoning Test"). TNN (The Nashville/National Network) also renamed itself "The New TNN" for a brief interlude.
Changes to (or wordplay on) the expanded meaning:
Redefined acronyms In some cases, while the initials in an acronym may stay the same, for what those letters stand may change. Examples include the following: DVD was originally an acronym for the unofficial term "digital video disc", but is now stated by the DVD Forum as standing for "Digital Versatile Disc" GAO changed the full form of its name from "General Accounting Office" to "Government Accountability Office" GPO changed the full form of its name from "Government Printing Office" to "Government Publishing Office" RAID was originally an acronym for "Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks" but has since been redefined as "Redundant Array of Independent Disks" The UICC was founded as the "International Union Against Cancer", and its initials originally came from the Romance-language versions of that name (such as French Union Internationale Contre le Cancer). The English expansion of its name has since been changed to "Union for International Cancer Control" so that it would also correspond to the UICC acronym.
Changes to (or wordplay on) the expanded meaning:
WWF was originally an acronym for "World Wildlife Fund", but now stands for "World Wide Fund for Nature" (although the organization's branches in the U.S. and Canada still use the original name) Backronyms A backronym (or bacronym) is a phrase that is constructed "after the fact" from a previously existing word. For example, the novelist and critic Anthony Burgess once proposed that the word "book" ought to stand for "box of organized knowledge". A classic real-world example of this is the name of the predecessor to the Apple Macintosh, the Apple Lisa, which was said to refer to "Local Integrated Software Architecture", but was actually named after Steve Jobs's daughter, born in 1978.
Changes to (or wordplay on) the expanded meaning:
Backronyms are oftentimes used for comedic effect. An example of creating a backronym for comedic effect would be in naming a group or organization, the name "A.C.R.O.N.Y.M." stands for (among other things) "a clever regiment of nerdy young men".
Changes to (or wordplay on) the expanded meaning:
Contrived acronyms Acronyms are sometimes contrived, that is, deliberately designed to be especially apt for the thing being named (by having a dual meaning or by borrowing the positive connotations of an existing word). Some examples of contrived acronyms are USA PATRIOT, CAN SPAM, CAPTCHA and ACT UP. The clothing company French Connection began referring to itself as fcuk, standing for "French Connection United Kingdom". The company then created T-shirts and several advertising campaigns that exploit the acronym's similarity to the taboo word "fuck".
Changes to (or wordplay on) the expanded meaning:
The U.S. Department of Defense's Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) is known for developing contrived acronyms to name projects, including RESURRECT, NIRVANA, and DUDE. In July 2010, Wired magazine reported that DARPA announced programs to "... transform biology from a descriptive to a predictive field of science" named BATMAN and ROBIN for "Biochronicity and Temporal Mechanisms Arising in Nature" and "Robustness of Biologically-Inspired Networks", a reference to the Batman and Robin comic-book superheroes.
Changes to (or wordplay on) the expanded meaning:
The short-form names of clinical trials and other scientific studies constitute a large class of acronyms that includes many contrived examples, as well as many with a partial rather than complete correspondence of letters to expansion components. These trials tend to have full names that are accurately descriptive of what the trial is about but are thus also too long to serve practically as names within the syntax of a sentence, so a short name is also developed, which can serve as a syntactically useful handle and also provide at least a degree of mnemonic reminder as to the full name. Examples widely known in medicine include the ALLHAT trial (Antihypertensive and Lipid-Lowering Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack Trial) and the CHARM trial (Candesartan in Heart Failure: Assessment of Reduction in Mortality and Morbidity). The fact that RAS syndrome is often involved, as well as that the letters often do not entirely match, have sometimes been pointed out by annoyed researchers preoccupied by the idea that because the archetypal form of acronyms originated with one-to-one letter matching, there must be some impropriety in their ever deviating from that form. However, the raison d'être of clinical trial acronyms, as with gene and protein symbols, is simply to have a syntactically usable and easily recalled short name to complement the long name that is often syntactically unusable and not memorized. It is useful for the short name to give a reminder of the long name, which supports the reasonable censure of "cutesy" examples that provide little to no hint of it. But beyond that reasonably close correspondence, the short name's chief utility is in functioning cognitively as a name, rather than being a cryptic and forgettable string, albeit faithful to the matching of letters. However, other reasonable critiques have been (1) that it is irresponsible to mention trial acronyms without explaining them at least once by providing the long names somewhere in the document, and (2) that the proliferation of trial acronyms has resulted in ambiguity, such as three different trials all called ASPECT, which is another reason why failing to explain them somewhere in the document is irresponsible in scientific communication. At least one study has evaluated the citation impact and other traits of acronym-named trials compared with others, finding both good aspects (mnemonic help, name recall) and potential flaws (connotatively driven bias).Some acronyms are chosen deliberately to avoid a name considered undesirable: For example, Verliebt in Berlin (ViB), a German telenovela, was first intended to be Alles nur aus Liebe (All for Love), but was changed to avoid the resultant acronym ANAL. Likewise, the Computer Literacy and Internet Technology qualification is known as CLaIT, rather than CLIT. In Canada, the Canadian Conservative Reform Alliance (Party) was quickly renamed to the "Canadian Reform Conservative Alliance" when its opponents pointed out that its initials spelled CCRAP (pronounced "see crap"). Two Irish Institutes of Technology (Galway and Tralee) chose different acronyms from other institutes when they were upgraded from Regional Technical colleges. Tralee RTC became the Institute of Technology Tralee (ITT), as opposed to Tralee Institute of Technology (TIT). Galway RTC became Galway-Mayo Institute of Technology (GMIT), as opposed to Galway Institute of Technology (GIT). The charity sports organization Team in Training is known as "TNT" and not "TIT". Technological Institute of Textile & Sciences, however, is still known as "TITS". George Mason University was planning to name their law school the "Antonin Scalia School of Law" (ASSOL) in honor of the late Antonin Scalia, only to change it to the "Antonin Scalia Law School" later.
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Macronyms/nested acronyms A macronym, or nested acronym, is an acronym in which one or more letters stand for acronyms (or abbreviations) themselves. The word "macronym" is a portmanteau of "macro-" and "acronym".
Changes to (or wordplay on) the expanded meaning:
Some examples of macronyms are: XHR stands for "XML HTTP Request", in which "XML" is "Extensible Markup Language", and HTTP stands for "HyperText Transfer Protocol" POWER stands for "Performance Optimization With Enhanced RISC", in which "RISC" stands for "Reduced Instruction Set Computing" VHDL stands for "VHSIC Hardware Description Language", in which "VHSIC" stands for "Very High Speed Integrated Circuit" XSD stands for "XML Schema Definition", in which "XML" stands for "Extensible Markup Language" AIM stands for "AOL Instant Messenger", in which "AOL" originally stood for "America Online" HASP stood for "Houston Automatic Spooling Priority", but "spooling" itself was an acronym: "simultaneous peripheral operations on-line" VORTAC stands for "VOR+TACAN", in which "VOR" is "VHF omnidirectional range" (where VHF = Very High Frequency radio) and "TAC" is short for TACAN, which stands for "Tactical Air Navigation" Global Information Assurance Certification has a number of nested acronyms for its certifications, e.g. "GSEC" is an acronym for "GIAC Security Essentials" RBD stands for "REM Behavior Disorder", in which "REM" stands for "Rapid Eye Movement"Some macronyms can be multiply nested: the second-order acronym points to another one further down a hierarchy. In an informal competition run by the magazine New Scientist, a fully documented specimen was discovered that may be the most deeply nested of all: RARS is the "Regional ATOVS Retransmission Service"; ATOVS is "Advanced TOVS"; TOVS is "TIROS operational vertical sounder"; and TIROS is "Television infrared observational satellite". Fully expanded, "RARS" might thus become "Regional Advanced Television Infrared Observational Satellite Operational Vertical Sounder Retransmission Service", which would produce the much more unwieldy acronym "RATIOSOVSRS".
Changes to (or wordplay on) the expanded meaning:
Another example is VITAL, which expands to "VHDL Initiative Towards ASIC Libraries" (a total of 15 words when fully expanded).
Changes to (or wordplay on) the expanded meaning:
However, to say that "RARS" stands directly for that string of words, or can be interchanged with it in syntax (in the same way that "CHF" can be usefully interchanged with "congestive heart failure"), is a prescriptive misapprehension rather than a linguistically accurate description; the true nature of such a term is closer to anacronymic than to being interchangeable like simpler acronyms are. The latter are fully reducible in an attempt to "spell everything out and avoid all abbreviations", but the former are irreducible in that respect; they can be annotated with parenthetical explanations, but they cannot be eliminated from speech or writing in any useful or practical way. Just as the words laser and radar function as words in syntax and cognition without a need to focus on their acronymic origins, terms such as "RARS" and "CHA2DS2–VASc score" are irreducible in natural language; if they are purged, the form of language that is left may conform to some imposed rule, but it cannot be described as remaining natural. Similarly, protein and gene nomenclature, which uses symbols extensively, includes such terms as the name of the NACHT protein domain, which reflects the symbols of some proteins that contain the domain – NAIP (NLR family apoptosis inhibitor protein), C2TA (major histocompatibility complex class II transcription activator), HET-E (incompatibility locus protein from Podospora anserine), and TP1 (telomerase-associated protein) – but is not syntactically reducible to them. The name is thus itself more symbol than acronym, and its expansion cannot replace it while preserving its function in natural syntax as a name within a clause clearly parsable by human readers or listeners.
Changes to (or wordplay on) the expanded meaning:
Recursive acronyms A special type of macronym, the recursive acronym, has letters whose expansion refers back to the macronym itself. One of the earliest examples appears in The Hacker's Dictionary as MUNG, which stands for "MUNG Until No Good".
Some examples of recursive acronyms are: GNU stands for "GNU's Not Unix!" LAME stands for "LAME Ain't an MP3 Encoder" PHP stands for "PHP: Hypertext Preprocessor" WINE stands for "WINE Is Not an Emulator" HURD stands for "HIRD of Unix-replacing daemons", where HIRD itself stands for "HURD of interfaces representing depth" (a "mutually recursive" acronym)
Non-English languages:
Specific languages Chinese In English language discussions of languages with syllabic or logographic writing systems (such as Chinese, Japanese, and Korean), "acronyms" describe the short forms that take selected characters from a multi-character word.
Non-English languages:
For example, in Chinese, "university" (大學/大学, literally "great learning") is usually abbreviated simply as 大 ("great") when used with the name of the institute. So "Peking University" (北京大学) is commonly shortened to 北大 (lit. "north-great") by also only taking the first character of Peking, the "northern capital" (北京; Beijing). In some cases, however, other characters than the first can be selected. For example, the local short form of "Hong Kong University" (香港大學) uses "Kong" (港大) rather than "Hong".
Non-English languages:
There are also cases where some longer phrases are abbreviated drastically, especially in Chinese politics, where proper nouns were initially translated from Soviet Leninist terms. For instance, the full name of China's highest ruling council, the Politburo Standing Committee (PSC), is "Standing Committee of the Central Political Bureau of the Communist Party of China" (中国共产党中央政治局常务委员会). The term then reduced the "Communist Party of China" part of its name through acronyms, then the "Standing Committee" part, again through acronyms, to create "中共中央政治局常委". Alternatively, it omitted the "Communist Party" part altogether, creating "Politburo Standing Committee" (政治局常委会), and eventually just "Standing Committee" (常委会). The PSC's members full designations are "Member of the Standing Committee of the Central Political Bureau of the Communist Party of China" (中国共产党中央政治局常务委员会委员); this was eventually drastically reduced to simply Changwei (常委), with the term Ruchang (入常) used increasingly for officials destined for a future seat on the PSC. In another example, the word "全国人民代表大会" (National People's Congress) can be broken into four parts: "全国" = "the whole nation", "人民" = "people", "代表" = "representatives", "大会" = "conference". Yet, in its short form "人大" (literally "man/people big"), only the first characters from the second and the fourth parts are selected; the first part ("全国") and the third part ("代表") are simply ignored. In describing such abbreviations, the term initialism is inapplicable.Many proper nouns become shorter and shorter over time. For example, the CCTV New Year's Gala, whose full name is literally read as "China Central Television Spring Festival Joint Celebration Evening Gala" (中国中央电视台春节联欢晚会) was first shortened to "Spring Festival Joint Celebration Evening Gala" (春节联欢晚会), but eventually referred to as simply Chunwan (春晚). Along the same vein, CCTV or Zhongguo Zhongyang Dianshi Tai (中国中央电视台) was reduced to Yangshi (央视) in the mid-2000s.
Non-English languages:
Korean Many aspects of academics in Korea follow similar acronym patterns as Chinese, owing to the two languages' commonalities, like using the word for "big" or "great" i.e. dae (대), to refer to universities (대학; daehak, literally "great learning" although "big school" is an acceptable alternate). They can be interpreted similarly to American university appellations, such as "UPenn" or "Texas Tech".
Non-English languages:
Some acronyms are shortened forms of the school's name, like how Hongik University (홍익대학교, Hongik Daehakgyo) is shortened to Hongdae (홍대, "Hong, the big [school]" or "Hong-U") Other acronyms can refer to the university's main subject, e.g. Korea National University of Education (한국교원대학교, Hanguk Gyowon Daehakgyo) is shortened to Gyowondae (교원대, "Big Ed." or "Ed.-U"). Other schools use a Koreanized version of their English acronym. The Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (한국과학기술원, Hanguk Gwahak Gisulwon) is referred to as KAIST (카이스트, Kaiseuteu) in both English and Korean. The 3 most prestigious schools in Korea are known as SKY (스카이, seukai), combining the first letter of their English names (Seoul National, Korea, and Yonsei Universities). In addition, the College Scholastic Ability Test (대학수학능력시험, Daehak Suhang Neungryeok Siheom) is shortened to Suneung (수능, "S.A.").
Non-English languages:
Japanese The Japanese language makes extensive use of abbreviations, but only some of these are acronyms.
Chinese-based words (Sino-Japanese vocabulary) uses similar acronym formation to Chinese, like Tōdai (東大) for Tōkyō Daigaku (東京大学, Tokyo University). In some cases alternative pronunciations are used, as in Saikyō for 埼京, from Saitama + Tōkyō (埼玉＋東京), rather than Saitō.
Non-English languages:
Non-Chinese foreign borrowings (gairaigo) are instead frequently abbreviated as clipped compounds, rather than acronyms, using several initial sounds. This is visible in katakana transcriptions of foreign words, but is also found with native words (written in hiragana). For example, the Pokémon media franchise's name originally stood for "pocket monsters" (ポケット·モンスター [po-ke-tto-mon-su-tā] → ポケモン), which is still the long-form of the name in Japanese, and "wāpuro" stands for "word processor" (ワード·プロセッサー [wā-do-pu-ro-se-ssā]→ ワープロ).
Non-English languages:
German To a greater degree than English does, German tends toward acronyms that use initial syllables rather than initial single letters, although it uses many of the latter type as well. Some examples of the syllabic type are Gestapo rather than GSP (for Geheime Staatspolizei, 'Secret State Police'); Flak rather than FAK (for Fliegerabwehrkanone, anti-aircraft gun); Kripo rather than KP (for Kriminalpolizei, detective division police). The extension of such contraction to a pervasive or whimsical degree has been mockingly labeled Aküfi (for Abkürzungsfimmel, strange habit of abbreviating). Examples of Aküfi include Vokuhila (for vorne kurz, hinten lang, short in the front, long in the back, i.e., a mullet) and the mocking of Adolf Hitler's title as Gröfaz (Größter Feldherr aller Zeiten, "Greatest General of all Times").
Non-English languages:
Hebrew It is common to take more than just one initial letter from each of the words composing the acronym; regardless of this, the abbreviation sign gershayim ⟨״⟩ is always written between the second-last and last letters of the non-inflected form of the acronym, even if by this it separates letters of the same original word. Examples (keep in mind Hebrew reads right-to-left): ארה״ב (for ארצות הברית, the United States); ברה״מ (for ברית המועצות, the Soviet Union); ראשל״צ (for ראשון לציון, Rishon LeZion); ביה״ס (for בית הספר, the school). An example that takes only the initial letters from its component words is צה״ל (Tzahal, for צבא הגנה לישראל, Israel Defense Forces). In inflected forms the abbreviation sign gershayim remains between the second-last and last letters of the non-inflected form of the acronym (e.g. "report", singular: דו״ח, plural: דו״חות; "squad commander", masculine: מ״כ, feminine: מ״כית).
Non-English languages:
Indonesian There is also a widespread use of acronyms in Indonesia in every aspect of social life. For example, the Golkar political party stands for "Partai Golongan Karya", Monas stands for "Monumen Nasional" (National Monument), the Angkot public transport stands for "Angkutan Kota" (city public transportation), warnet stands for "warung internet" (internet cafe), and many others. Some acronyms are considered formal (or officially adopted), while many more are considered informal, slang or colloquial.
Non-English languages:
The capital's metropolitan area (Jakarta and its surrounding satellite regions), Jabodetabek, is another infamous acronym. This stands for "Jakarta-Bogor-Depok-Tangerang-Bekasi". Many highways are also named by the acronym method; e.g. Jalan Tol (Toll Road) Jagorawi (Jakarta-Bogor-Ciawi) and Purbaleunyi (Purwakarta-Bandung-Cileunyi), Joglo Semar (Jogja-Solo-Semarang).
Non-English languages:
In some languages, especially those that use certain alphabets, many acronyms come from the governmental use, particularly in the military and law enforcement services. The Indonesian military (TNI – Tentara Nasional Indonesia) and Indonesian police (POLRI – Kepolisian Republik Indonesia) are infamous for heavy acronyms use. Examples include the Kopassus (Komando Pasukan Khusus; Special Forces Command), Kopaska (Komando Pasukan Katak; Frogmen Command), Kodim (Komando Distrik Militer; Military District Command – one of the Indonesian army's administrative divisions), Serka (Sersan Kepala; Head Sergeant), Akmil (Akademi Militer; Military Academy – in Magelang) and many other terms regarding ranks, units, divisions, procedures, etc.
Non-English languages:
Malay Although not as common as in Indonesian, a number of Malay words are formed by merging two words, such as tadika from "taman didikan kanak-kanak" (kindergarten) and pawagam from "panggung wayang gambar". This, however, has been less prevalent in the modern era, in contrary to Indonesian. It is still often for names such as organisation names, among the most famous being MARA from Majlis Amanah Rakyat (People's Trust Council,) a government agency in Malaysia.
Non-English languages:
Some acronyms are developed from the Jawi (Malay in Arabic script) spelling of the name and may not reflect its Latin counterpart such as PAS from Parti Islam Se-Malaysia (Malaysian Islamic Party) which originated from the Jawi acronym ڤاس from ڤرتي إسلام سمليسيا, with the same pronunciation, since the first letter of the word "Islam" in Jawi uses the letter Aleph, which is pronounced like the letter A when in such position as in the acronym.
Non-English languages:
Rules in writing initialisms in Malay differ based on its script. In its Latin form, the initialism would be spelt much like in English, using capitals written without any spacing, such as TNB for Tenaga Nasional Berhad.
Non-English languages:
In Jawi, however, the way initialisms are different depending on the source language. For Malay initialisms, the initial Jawi letters would be written separated by a period such as د.ب.ڤ for ديوان بهاس دان ڤوستاک. If the initialism is from a different language, however, it would be written by transliterating each letter from the original language, such as عيم.سي.عيم.سي. for MCMC, or الفا.ڤي.ثيتا for Α.Π.Θ.
Non-English languages:
Russian Acronyms that use parts of words (not necessarily syllables) are commonplace in Russian as well, e.g. Газпром (Gazprom), for Газовая промышленность (Gazovaya promyshlennost, "gas industry"). There are also initialisms, such as СМИ (SMI, for средства массовой информации sredstva massovoy informatsii, "means of mass informing", i.e. ГУЛаг (GULag) combines two initials and three letters of the final word: it stands for Главное управление лагерей (Glavnoe upravlenie lagerey, "Chief Administration of Camps").
Non-English languages:
Historically, "OTMA" was an acronym sometimes used by the daughters of Emperor Nicholas II of Russia and his consort, Alexandra Feodorovna, as a group nickname for themselves, built from the first letter of each girl's name in the order of their births: "Olga, Tatiana, Maria and Anastasia".
Swahili In Swahili, acronyms are common for naming organizations such as "TUKI", which stands for Taasisi ya Uchunguzi wa Kiswahili (the Institute for Swahili Research). Multiple initial letters (often the initial syllable of words) are often drawn together, as seen more in some languages than others.
Non-English languages:
Vietnamese In Vietnamese, which has an abundance of compound words, initialisms are very commonly used for both proper and common nouns. Examples include TP.HCM (Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh, Ho Chi Minh City), THPT (trung học phổ thông, high school), CLB (câu lạc bộ, club), CSDL (cơ sở dữ liệu, database), NXB (nhà xuất bản, publisher), ÔBACE (ông bà anh chị em, a general form of address), and CTTĐVN (các Thánh tử đạo Việt Nam, Vietnamese Martyrs). Longer examples include CHXHCNVN (Cộng hòa Xã hội chủ nghĩa Việt Nam, Socialist Republic of Vietnam) and MTDTGPMNVN (Mặt trận Dân tộc Giải phóng miền Nam Việt Nam, Viet Cong). Long initialisms have become widespread in legal contexts in Vietnam, for example TTLT-VKSNDTC-TANDTC. It is also common for a writer to coin an ad hoc initialism for repeated use in an article.
Non-English languages:
Each letter in an initialism corresponds to one morpheme, that is, one syllable. When the first letter of a syllable has a tone mark or other diacritic, the diacritic may be omitted from the initialism, for example ĐNA or ĐNÁ for Đông Nam Á (Southeast Asia) and LMCA or LMCÂ for Liên minh châu Âu (European Union). The letter "Ư" is often replaced by "W" in initialisms to avoid confusion with "U", for example UBTWMTTQVN or UBTƯMTTQVN for Ủy ban Trung ương Mặt trận Tổ quốc Việt Nam (Central Committee of the Vietnamese Fatherland Front).
Non-English languages:
Initialisms are purely a written convenience, being pronounced the same way as their expansions. As the names of many Vietnamese letters are disyllabic, it would be less convenient to pronounce an initialism by its individual letters. Acronyms pronounced as words are rare in Vietnamese, occurring when an acronym itself is borrowed from another language. Examples include SIĐA (pronounced [s̪i˧ ˀɗaː˧]), a respelling of the French acronym SIDA (AIDS); VOA (pronounced [vwaː˧]), a literal reading of the English initialism for Voice of America; and NASA (pronounced [naː˧ zaː˧]), borrowed directly from the English acronym.
Non-English languages:
As in Chinese, many compound words can be shortened to the first syllable when forming a longer word. For example, the term Việt Cộng is derived from the first syllables of "Việt Nam" (Vietnam) and "Cộng sản" (communist). This mechanism is limited to Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary. Unlike with Chinese, such clipped compounds are considered to be portmanteau words or blend words rather than acronyms or initialisms, because the Vietnamese alphabet still requires each component word to be written as more than one character.
Non-English languages:
General grammatical considerations Declension In languages where nouns are declined, various methods are used. An example is Finnish, where a colon is used to separate inflection from the letters: An acronym is pronounced as a word: Nato [ˈnɑto] – Natoon [ˈnɑtoːn] "into Nato", Nasalta "from NASA" An acronym is pronounced as letters: EU [ˈeːˌʔuː] – EU:hun [ˈeːˌʔuːhun] "into EU" An acronym is interpreted as words: EU [euroːpan unioni] – EU:iin [ˈeu̯roːpɑnˌunioniːn] "into EU"The process above is similar to the way that hyphens are used for clarity in English when prefixes are added to acronyms: thus pre-NATO policy (rather than preNATO).
Non-English languages:
Lenition In languages such as Scottish Gaelic and Irish, where lenition (initial consonant mutation) is commonplace, acronyms must also be modified in situations where case and context dictate it. In the case of Scottish Gaelic, a lower-case h is often added after the initial consonant; for example, BBC Scotland in the genitive case would be written as BhBC Alba, with the acronym pronounced VBC. Likewise, the Gaelic acronym for telebhisean 'television' is TBh, pronounced TV, as in English. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Mass separating agent**
Mass separating agent:
In chemical separation processes, a mass separating agent (MSA) is a chemical species that is added to ensure that the intended separation process takes place. It is analogous to an energy separating agent, which aids separations processes via addition of energy. An MSA may be partially immiscible with one or more mixture components and frequently is the constituent of highest concentration in the added phase. Alternatively, the MSA may be miscible with a liquid feed mixture, but may selectively alter partitioning of species between liquid and vapor phases.Disadvantages of using an MSA are a need for an additional separator to recover the MSA for recycle, a need for MSA makeup, possible MSA product contamination, and more difficult design procedures.Processes like absorption and stripping generally utilize various MSAs. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Kinechromatic art**
Kinechromatic art:
Kinechromatic art is a form of art in which the image, particularly in reference to the colour perceived by the viewer, changes due to some form of movement.
Kinechromatic art:
The term "kinechromatic" was coined in 1951 by Mario Pedrosa in an article in Tribuna da Imprensa to refer to the work of Brazilian artist, Abraham Palatnik. Palatnik initially created electro-mechanical devices, based on the kaleidoscopic principle, which projected a constantly changing pattern of coloured light on a screen. Later devices exposed coloured moving parts of the machinery. In all cases, the shape and colour observed were changed by the devices for a stationary observer. Frank Popper, the eminent art historian, among others, commented on Palatnik's "luminous mobiles" and their aesthetic of motion.More recently, the term has been applied to the work of Ian Nunn, a Canadian computer scientist and artist who has done extensive work in the application of interference pigments and films to 2-dimensional painting surfaces. These special effect pigments, such as ChromaFlair, exhibit strong directional spectral reflectance and colour shifting with the angle of view. In Nunn's work, the viewer moves while the painting remains stationary. Elements in the picture change colour, appear and disappear as both the angle of viewing and the angle of illumination change. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Negative testing**
Negative testing:
Negative testing is a method of testing an application or system that ensures that the plot of the application is according to the requirements and can handle the unwanted input and user behavior. Invalid data is inserted to compare the output against the given input. Negative testing is also known as failure testing or error path testing. When performing negative testing exceptions are expected. This shows that the application is able to handle improper user behavior. Users input values that do not work in the system to test its ability to handle incorrect values or system failure.
Purpose:
The purpose of negative testing is to prevent the application from crashing and it also helps improve the quality of an application by detecting defects.
Negative testing helps you to improve the testing coverage of the application.
Negative testing makes the application more stable and reliable.
Negative testing together with positive testing allows users to test the application with any valid (or invalid) input data.
Benefits of negative testing:
Negative testing is done to check that the product deals properly with the circumstance for which it is not programmed. The fundamental aim of this testing is to check how bad data is taken care of by the systems, and appropriate errors are shown to the client when bad data is entered. Both positive and negative testing play an important role. Positive testing ensures that the application does what it is implied for and performs each function as expected. Negative testing is opposite of positive testing. Negative testing discovers diverse approaches to make the application crash and handle the crash effortlessly.
Benefits of negative testing:
Example If there is a text box that can only take numeric values but the user tries to type a letter, the correct behavior would be to display a message such as "(Incorrect data) Please enter a number." If the user is to fill the name field and there are ground rules that the name text is mandatory to fill, but that the name box shouldn't have values other than letters (no numeric values and special characters). Negative test cases could be a name containing numeric values or special characters. The correct behavior of the system would be to not display those invalid characters.
Parameters for writing Negative test cases:
There are two basic techniques that help to write the sufficient test cases to cover the most of the functionalities of the system. Both these techniques are used in positive testing as well. The two parameters are: Boundary-value analysisBoundary indicates a limit to something. In this parameter, test scenarios are designed in such a way that it covers the boundary values and validates how the application behaves on these boundary values.
Parameters for writing Negative test cases:
Example If there is an application that accepts Ids ranging from 0–255. Hence in this scenario, 0,255 will form the boundary values. The values within the range of 0–255 will constitute the positive testing. Any inputs going below 0 or above 255 will be considered invalid and will constitute negative testing.
Equivalence PartitioningThe input data may be divided into many partitions. Values from each partition must be tested at least once. Partitions with valid values are used for positive testing. While partitions with invalid values are used for negative testing.
Example Numeric values from minus ten to ten are divided into two partitions: from minus ten to zero and from one to ten. If we need to test positive numeric values, then the first partition (from minus ten to zero) is used in negative testing. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**1,4-Butanediol diglycidyl ether**
1,4-Butanediol diglycidyl ether:
1,4-Butanediol diglycidyl ether (B14DODGE) is an organic chemical in the glycidyl ether family. It is aliphatic and a colorless liquid. It has two epoxide (oxirane) groups per molecule. Its main use is in modifying epoxy resins especially viscosity reduction.It is REACH registered. The IUPAC name is 2-[4-(oxiran-2-ylmethoxy)butoxymethyl]oxirane.
Synthesis:
1,4-Butanediol and epichlorohydrin are reacted in the presence of a Lewis acid as catalyst to form a halohydrin: each hydroxyl group of the diol reacts with an epoxide on epichlorohydrin. This process is followed by washing with sodium hydroxide to re-form the epoxide rings in dehydrochlorination reaction. One of the quality control tests would involve measuring the Epoxy value by determination of the epoxy equivalent weight.
Uses:
A key use is modifying the viscosity and properties of epoxy resins which may then be formulated into CASE applications: Coatings, Adhesives, Sealants, Elastomers, composite materials, fillers, putties, plasters, modelling clay and semiconductors. It also has a number of medical applications. The molecule is also used to synthesize other molecules. As an Epoxy modifier it is classed as an epoxy reactive diluent.The use of the diluent does effect mechanical properties and microstructure of epoxy resins.
Toxicity:
The toxicity is fairly well known and understood and is rated as a severe skin and eye irritant. Contact dermatitis is also possible.
External websites:
Hexion difunctional epoxy diluents Denacol epoxy diluent range Cargill Reactive diluents | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Blue chip (sports)**
Blue chip (sports):
Blue chips are athletes, particularly high school players, targeted for drafting or signing by teams at the college level. Collegiate players being scouted by professional franchises may also be referred to as blue chips.
Blue chip (sports):
Blue chip players are those who have proven themselves to be among the best at their positions in their respective sports and are more sought after and wanted than other players. They are typically perceived as "can't miss" prospects who are desired by most organizations. Blue chip athletes are likely to have an immediate impact on teams that acquire them and have proven skills rather than speculative or untapped potential. Many top recruits eventually go on to be successful at the professional level, especially in basketball and baseball. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Body wave magnitude**
Body wave magnitude:
Body-waves consist of P-waves that are the first to arrive (see seismogram), or S-waves, or reflections of either. Body-waves travel through rock directly.
mB scale:
The original "body-wave magnitude" – mB or mB (uppercase "B") – was developed by Gutenberg (1945b, 1945c) and Gutenberg & Richter (1956) to overcome the distance and magnitude limitations of the ML scale inherent in the use of surface waves. mB is based on the P- and S-waves, measured over a longer period, and does not saturate until around M 8. However, it is not sensitive to events smaller than about M 5.5. Use of mB as originally defined has been largely abandoned, now replaced by the standardized mBBB scale.
mb scale:
The mb or mb scale (lowercase "m" and "b") is similar to mB , but uses only P-waves measured in the first few seconds on a specific model of short-period seismograph. It was introduced in the 1960s with the establishment of the World-Wide Standardized Seismograph Network (WWSSN); the short period improves detection of smaller events, and better discriminates between tectonic earthquakes and underground nuclear explosions.Measurement of mb has changed several times. As originally defined by Gutenberg (1945c) mb was based on the maximum amplitude of waves in the first 10 seconds or more. However, the length of the period influences the magnitude obtained. Early USGS/NEIC practice was to measure mb on the first second (just the first few P-waves), but since 1978 they measure the first twenty seconds. The modern practice is to measure short-period mb scale at less than three seconds, while the broadband mBBB scale is measured at periods of up to 30 seconds.
mbLg scale:
The regional mbLg scale – also denoted mb_Lg, mbLg, MLg (USGS), Mn, and mN – was developed by Nuttli (1973) for a problem the original ML scale could not handle: all of North America east of the Rocky Mountains. The ML scale was developed in southern California, which lies on blocks of oceanic crust, typically basalt or sedimentary rock, which have been accreted to the continent. East of the Rockies the continent is a craton, a thick and largely stable mass of continental crust that is largely granite, a harder rock with different seismic characteristics. In this area the ML scale gives anomalous results for earthquakes which by other measures seemed equivalent to quakes in California.
mbLg scale:
Nuttli resolved this by measuring the amplitude of short-period (~1 sec.) Lg waves, a complex form of the Love wave which, although a surface wave, he found provided a result more closely related to the mb scale than the Ms scale. Lg waves attenuate quickly along any oceanic path, but propagate well through the granitic continental crust, and MbLg is often used in areas of stable continental crust; it is especially useful for detecting underground nuclear explosions. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Interleukin 1 receptor, type II**
Interleukin 1 receptor, type II:
Interleukin 1 receptor, type II (IL-1R2) also known as CD121b (Cluster of Differentiation 121b) is an interleukin receptor. IL1R2 also denotes its human gene.
Function:
The protein encoded by this gene is a decoy receptor for certain cytokines that belongs to the interleukin-1 receptor family. This protein binds interleukin-1α (IL1A), interleukin-1β (IL1B), and interleukin 1 receptor antagonist (IL1Ra), preventing them from binding to their regular receptors and thereby inhibiting the transduction of their signaling. IL-1R2 protein also interacts non-productively with the second component of the signaling IL-1 receptor, namely IL-1RAcP, and a complex of the IL-1R2 and IL-1RAcP extracellular domains with interleukin-1 beta has been solved by X-ray crystallography. Interleukin 4 (IL4) is reported to antagonize the activity of interleukin 1 by inducing the expression and release of this cytokine. This gene and three other genes form a cytokine receptor gene cluster on chromosome 2q12. Two alternatively spliced transcript variants encoding the same protein have been reported. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Biological Rhythm Research**
Biological Rhythm Research:
Biological Rhythm Research is a peer-reviewed academic journal that publishes articles about research into the broad topic of biological rhythms. The areas covered range from studies at the genetic or molecular level to those of behavioural or clinical topics involving ultradian, circadian, infradian, or annual rhythms. The journal publishes original scientific research papers, review papers, short notes on research in progress, book reviews and summaries of activities, symposia and congresses of national and international organizations dealing with rhythmic phenomena. The current editors are W. J. Rietveld, A. A. Putilov, and D. Weinert.The journal was named Journal of Interdisciplinary Cycle Research from 1970 to 1993. It has been named Biological Rhythm Research since 1994. It is abstracted/indexed in Biological Abstracts, BIOSIS Previews, CAB International, Chemical Abstracts, Current Contents, EMBASE/Excerpta Medica, Ergonomics Abstracts, GEOBASE/Geo Abstracts, Psychological Abstracts, PsychoINFO, PsychoLIT, Science Citation Index, SCOPUS, Wildlife Review, and Zoological Record. The journal's SCOPUS Cite Score is 0.805. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Functional database model**
Functional database model:
The functional database model is used to support analytics applications such as financial planning and performance management. The functional database model, or the functional model for short, is different from but complementary to the relational model. The functional model is also distinct from other similarly named concepts, including the DAPLEX functional database model and functional language databases.
Functional database model:
The functional model is part of the online analytical processing (OLAP) category since it comprises multidimensional hierarchical consolidation. But it goes beyond OLAP by requiring a spreadsheet-like cell orientation, where cells can be input or calculated as functions of other cells. Also as in spreadsheets, it supports interactive calculations where the values of all dependent cells are automatically up to date whenever the value of a cell is changed.
Overview:
Analytics, especially forward looking or prospective analytics requires interactive modeling, "what if", and experimentation of the kind that most business analysts do with spreadsheets. This interaction with the data is enabled by the spreadsheet’s cell orientation and its ability to let users define cells calculated as a function of other cells.
The relational database model has no such concepts and is thus very limited in the business performance modeling and interactivity it can support. Accordingly, relational-based analytics is almost exclusively restricted to historical data, which is static. This misses most of the strategic benefits of analytics, which come from interactively constructing views of the future.
Overview:
The functional model is based on multidimensional arrays, or "cubes", of cells that, as in a spreadsheet, can be either externally input, or calculated in terms of other cells. Such cubes are constructed using dimensions which correspond to hierarchically organized sets of real entities such as products, geographies, time, etc. A cube can be seen as a function over the cartesian product of the dimensions. I.e., it assigns a value to each cell, which is identified by an n-tuple of dimension elements; thus the name "functional". The model retains the flexibility and potential for interactivity of spreadsheets, as well as the multidimensional hierarchical consolidations of relational-based OLAP tools. At the same time, the functional model overcomes the limitations of both the relational database model and classical spreadsheets.
Overview:
Products that implement the principles of the functional model to varying degrees have been in existence for some time, including products such as Essbase, TM1, Alea, Microsoft Analysis Services, etc.
Analytics context:
The management system of an enterprise generally consists of a series of interconnected control loops. Each loop starts by developing a plan, the plan is then executed, and the results are reviewed and compared against the plan. Based on those results, and a new assessment of what the future holds, a new plan is developed and the process is repeated. The three components of the control loop, planning, execution and assessment, have different time perspectives. Planning looks at the future, execution looks at the present and review looks at the past.
Analytics context:
Information Technology (IT) plays now a central role in making management control loops more efficient and effective. Operational computer systems are concerned with execution while analytic computer systems, or simply Analytics, are used to improve planning and assessment. The information needs of each component are different. Operational systems are typically concerned with recording transactions and keeping track of the current state of the business – inventory, work in progress etc. Analytics has two principal components: forward-looking or prospective analytics, which applies to planning, and backward looking or retrospective analytics, which applies to assessment.
Analytics context:
In retrospective analytics, transactions resulting from operations are boiled down and accumulated into arrays of cells. These cells are identified by as many dimensions as are relevant to the business: time, product, customer, account, region, etc. The cells are typically arrayed in cubes that form the basis for retrospective analyses such as comparing actual performance to plan. This is the main realm of OLAP systems.
Analytics context:
Prospective analytics develops similar cubes of data but for future time periods. The development of prospective data is typically the result of human input or mathematical models that are driven and controlled through user interaction.
Analytics context:
The application of IT to the tree components of the management control loop evolved over time as new technologies were developed. Recording of operational transactions was one of the first needs to be automated through the use of 80 column punch cards. As electronics progressed, the records were moved, first to magnetic tape, then to disk. Software technology progressed as well and gave rise to database management systems that centralized the access and control of the data.
Analytics context:
Databases made it then possible to develop languages that made it easy to produce reports for retrospective analytics. At about the same time, languages and systems were developed to handle multidimensional data and to automate mathematical techniques for forecasting and optimization as part of prospective analytics. Unfortunately, this technology required a high level of expertise and was not comprehensible to most end users. Thus its user acceptance was limited, and so were the benefits derived from it.
Analytics context:
No wide-use tool was available for prospective analytics until the introduction of the electronic spreadsheet. For the first time end users had a tool that they could understand and control, and use it to model their business as they understood it. They could interact, experiment, adapt to changing situations, and derive insights and value very quickly. As a result, spreadsheets were adopted broadly and ultimately became pervasive. To this day, spreadsheets remain an indispensable tool for anyone doing planning.
Spreadsheets and the functional model:
Spreadsheets have a key set of characteristics that facilitate modeling and analysis. Data from multiple sources can be brought together in one worksheet. Cells can be defined by means of calculation formulas in terms of other cells, so facts from different sources can be logically interlinked to calculate derived values. Calculated cells are updated automatically whenever any of the input cells on which they depend changes. When users have a "what if" question, they simply change some data cells, and automatically all dependent cells are brought up to date. Also, cells are organized in rectangular grids and juxtaposed so that significant differences can be spotted at a glance or through associated graphic displays. Spreadsheet grids normally also contain consolidation calculations along rows and or columns. This permits discovering trends in the aggregate that may not be evident at a detailed level.
Spreadsheets and the functional model:
But spreadsheets suffer from a number of shortcomings. Cells are identified by row and column position, not the business concepts they represent. Spreadsheets are two dimensional, and multiple pages provide the semblance of three dimensions, but business data often has more dimensions. If users want to perform another analysis on the same set of data, the data needs to be duplicated. Spreadsheet links can sometimes be used, but most often are not practical. The combined effect of these limitations is that there is a limit on the complexity of spreadsheets that can be built and managed. While the functional model retains the key features of the spreadsheet, it also overcomes its main limitations. With the functional model, data is arranged in a grid of cells, but cells are identified by business concept instead of just row or column. Rather than worksheets, the objects of the functional model are dimensions and cubes. Rather than two or three dimensions: row, column and sheet, the functional model supports as many dimensions as are necessary.
Spreadsheets and the functional model:
Another advantage of the functional model is that it is a database with features such as data independence, concurrent multiuser access, integrity, scalability, security, audit trail, backup/recovery, and data integration.
Spreadsheets and the functional model:
Data independence is of particularly high value for analytics. Data need no longer reside in spreadsheets. Instead the functional database acts as a central information resource. The spreadsheet acts as a user interface to the database, so the same data can be shared by multiple spreadsheets and multiple users. Updates submitted by multiple users are available to all users subject to security rules. Accordingly, there is always a single consistent shared version of the data.
Components of the functional model:
A functional database consists of a set of dimensions which are used to construct a set of cubes. A dimension is a finite set of elements, or members, that identify business data, e.g., time periods, products, areas or regions, line items, etc. Cubes are built using any number of dimensions. A cube is a collection of cells, each of which is identified by a tuple of elements, one from each dimension of the cube. Each cell in a cube contains a value. A cube is effectively a function that assigns a value to each n-tuple of the cartesian product of the dimensions.
Components of the functional model:
The value of a cell may be assigned externally (input), or the result of a calculation that uses other cells in the same cube or other cubes. The definition of a cube includes the formulas that specify the calculation of such cells. Cells may also be empty and deemed to have a zero value for purposes of consolidation.
As with spreadsheets, users need not worry about executing recalculation. When the value of a cell is requested, the value that is returned is up to date with respect to the values of all of the cells that go into its calculation i.e. the cells on which it depends.
Components of the functional model:
Dimensions typically contain consolidation hierarchies where some elements are defined as parents of other elements, and a parent is interpreted as the sum of its children. Cells that are identified by a consolidated element in one or more dimensions are automatically calculated by the functional model as sums of cells having child elements in those dimensions. When the value of a consolidated cell is requested, the value that is returned is always up to date with respect to the values of all of the cells that it consolidates.
Components of the functional model:
An example The cubes and their dimensions (in parentheses) are as follows: Profit and Loss - P&L (Region, Account, Currency, Time) Sales - Sales(Region, Product, Time) Payroll - Payroll(Region, Employee, Time) Overhead - Ovhd(Account, Time) Foreign Exchange - Fx(Currency, Time)The cubes in the model are interconnected through formulas: The P&L cube picks up the dollar costs from the payroll cube through a formula of the form: P&L( "Payroll", "Dollars") = Payroll ("All Employees") Note: The expression syntax used is for illustration purposes and may not reflect syntax used in the formal model or in particular products that implement the functional model. The dimensions that are omitted from the expression are assumed to range over all the leaf elements of those dimensions. Thus this expression is equivalent to: P&L( xRegion, "Payroll", "Dollars", xTime) = Payroll (xRegion, "All Employees", xTime), for all leaves xRegion in Region and all leaves xTime in Time.
Components of the functional model:
Similarly, P&L also picks up sales revenue from the Sales cube through: P&L( "Sales", "Dollars") = Sales("All Products") Overhead accounts are allocated by region on the basis of sales: P&L("Region", "Dollars") = Ovhd() * Sales("Region") / Sales("All Regions") Finally, other currencies are derived from the dollar exchange rate: P&L() = P&L("Dollars") * Fx() The historical portion of the cubes is also populated from the data warehouse. In this simplified example, the calculations just discussed may be done in the data warehouse for the historical portion of the cubes, but generally, the functional model supports the calculation of other functions, such as ratios and percentages.
Components of the functional model:
While the history is static, the future portion is typically dynamic and developed interactively by business analysts in various organizations and various backgrounds. Sales forecasts should be developed by experts from each region. They could use forecasting models and parameters that incorporate their knowledge and experience of that region, or they could simply enter them through a spreadsheet. Each region can use a different method with different assumptions. The payroll forecast could be developed by HR experts in each region. The overhead cube would be populated by people in headquarters finance, and so would the exchange rate forecasts. The forecasts developed by regional experts are first reviewed and recycled within the region and then reviewed and recycled with headquarters.
Components of the functional model:
The model can be expanded to include a Version dimension that varies based on, for example, various economic climate scenarios. As time progresses, each planning cycle can be stored in a different version, and those versions compared to actual and to one another.
At any time the data in all the cubes, subject to security constraints, is available to all interested parties. Users can bring slices of cubes dynamically into spreadsheets to do further analyses, but with a guarantee that the data is the same as what other users are seeing.
Functional databases and prospective analytics:
A functional database brings together data from multiple disparate sources and ties the disparate data sets into coherent consumable models. It also brings data scattered over multiple spreadsheets under control. This lets users see a summary picture that combines multiple components, e.g., to roll manpower planning into a complete financial picture automatically. It gives them a single point of entry to develop global insights based on various sources.
Functional databases and prospective analytics:
A functional database, like spreadsheets, also lets users change input values while all dependent values are up to date. This facilitates what-if experimentation and creating and comparing multiple scenarios. Users can then see the scenarios side by side and choose the most appropriate. When planning, users can converge on a most advantageous course of action by repeatedly recycling and interacting with results. Actionable insights come from this intimate interaction with data that users normally do with spreadsheets A functional database does not only provide a common interactive data store. It also brings together models developed by analysts with knowledge of a particular area of the business that can be shared by all users. To facilitate this, a functional database retains the spreadsheet’s interactive cell-based modelling capability. This makes possible models that more closely reflect the complexities of business reality.
Functional databases and prospective analytics:
Perhaps a functional database’s largest single contribution to analytics comes from promoting collaboration. It lets multiple individuals and organizations not only share a single version of the truth, but a truth that is dynamic and constantly changing. Its automatic calculations quickly consolidate and reconcile inputs from multiple sources. This promotes interaction of various departments, facilitates multiple iterations of thought processes and makes it possible for differing viewpoints to converge and be reconciled. Also, since each portion of the model is developed by the people that are more experts in their particular area, it is able to leverage experience and insights that exist up and down the organization. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Winze**
Winze:
A winze is a minor connection between different levels in a mine. When worked upwards from a lower level it is usually called a raise; when sunk downward from a higher level it may be called a sump. The top of a winze is located underground and it is not equipped with winding gear. Rather, the access up and down between levels is usually via ladder. This is in contrast to a shaft, which is a deeper connection between levels and does have winding gear, whether the top of the excavation is located on the surface or underground. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Rolf Wideroe Prize**
Rolf Wideroe Prize:
The Rolf Wideroe Prize is awarded every third year by the Accelerator Group of the European Physical Society (EPS), in memory of Rolf Widerøe, to individuals in recognition of outstanding work in the field of accelerator physics.The prize was awarded for the first time in 1996, but was only named the Rolf Wideroe Prize in 2011. Before this year the prize was simply referred to as EPS Accelerator Group Prizes.
Laureates:
2020: Lucio Rossi 2017: Lyn Evans 2014: Mikael Eriksson 2011: Shin-Ichi Kurokawa 2008: Alexander Chao 2006 Vladimir Teplyakov 2004: Igor Meshkov 2002: Kurt Hübner 2000: Eberhard Keil 1998: Cristoforo Benvenuti 1996: R.D. Kohaupt and the DESY Feedback Group: M. Ebert, D. Heins, J. Klute, K.-H. Matthiesen, H. Musfeldt, S. Pätzold, J. Rümmler, M. Schweiger, J. Theiss | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Webring**
Webring:
A webring (or web ring) is a collection of websites linked together in a circular structure, and usually organized around a specific theme, often educational or social. They were popular in the 1990s and early 2000s, particularly among amateur websites.
Webring:
To be a part of the webring, each site has a common navigation bar; it contains links to the previous and next sites. By selecting next (or previous) repeatedly, the user will eventually reach the site they started at; this is the origin of the term webring. However, the select-through route around the ring is usually supplemented by a central site with links to all member sites; this prevents the ring from breaking completely if a member site goes offline.
Webring:
A webring is managed from one website which is able to omit the websites that have dropped out or are no longer reachable. The advantage of a webring is that if the user is interested in the topic on one website, they can quickly connect to another website on the same topic. Webrings usually have a moderator who decides which pages to include in the webring. After approval, webmasters add their pages to the ring by 'linking in' to the ring; this requires adding the necessary HTML or JavaScript to their site.
Webring:
Sites usually join a webring in order to receive traffic from related sites. When used to improve search engine rankings, webrings can be considered a search engine optimization technique.
Webring:
Webrings are mainly viewed as a relic of the early web of the 1990s. When the primary site that managed web rings, webring.org was acquired by Yahoo, "ring masters" lost access to their webrings and the web ring hubs were replaced by a Yahoo page. By the time Yahoo stopped controlling webring.org in 2001, search engines had become good enough that web rings were no longer as useful. The webring.org site was still active in the mid-2010s.
WebRing.com:
Denis Howe started EUROPa (Expanding Unidirectional Ring Of Pages) at Imperial College in 1994. The idea developed further when Giraldo Hierro conceptualized a central CGI (Common Gateway Interface) script to enhance functionality. Sage Weil developed such a script in May 1994. Weil's script gained popularity, pushing Weil in June 1995 to form a company called WebRing. In 1997, Weil sold WebRing to Starseed, Inc.In 1998, Starseed was acquired by GeoCities, which made no major changes to the system. Just a few months later, in early 1999, Yahoo! bought GeoCities, and eighteen months after the acquisition, on September 5, 2000, Yahoo! unveiled a fully overhauled WebRing, known as Yahoo! WebRing. Although Yahoo!'s implementation was meant to streamline the way the rings were managed and provide a more consistent interface for all rings, many of these changes were unpopular with ringmasters accustomed to the older system which gave them more flexibility.On April 15, 2001, Yahoo! ended its support of WebRing, leaving the site in the hands of one technician from the original WebRing, Timothy Killeen. On October 12, 2001, he unveiled a WebRing free of Yahoo! influence. In the years since that change, many of the features which had been stripped by Yahoo!, particularly customization options, were re-implemented into the WebRing system.
WebRing.com:
On September 26, 2006, Webring Inc. announced a new WebRing Premium Membership Program. Memberships were separated into two types, WebRing 1.0 and WebRing 2.0. Sites that were part of WebRing 1.0 would be limited to 50 webrings per URL. Existing 1.0 members could maintain more than 50, but can not add more. In conjunction with the premium membership program, WebRing introduced an affiliate program, in which webmasters earned money when others join webrings from their site, and they earned an additional payment if the new member purchases a premium membership.
WebRing.com:
In early October 2007, the US Trademark office granted Webring a trademark on its name. Also in that month, Yahoo's long partnership ended, when Webring ownership repurchased Webring stock held by Yahoo, marking the first time since the late 1990s that Webring was privately held.
By August 15, 2020, webring.com became inaccessible, and as of December 18, 2021, the domain name has been taken over by a domain squatter.
Alt-webring:
A similar website was Alt-webring.com, using the Ringlink (Free CGI Perl program for running webrings). The first "Alt-webring" first appeared in the Internet Archive in April 2003. Alt-webring.com has since closed and has been taken over by a domain squatter.
Webringo:
An alternative website is Webringo.com, run as a hobby by the RingMaster. The first "webringo" first appeared in the Internet Archive in September 2006, but failed in September 2011.
The present RingMaster took it over as a hobby in August 2012.
RingSurf:
A similar website was RingSurf.com, which uses the term 'Net Rings'. The site first appeared in the Internet Archive in June 1998. The site's main page and directory of rings are still operating as of April 2014, but the rings' sites are inaccessible.
Webring software:
While the largest webring services use their own proprietary software, a few programs have been written that make it possible for webmasters to run webrings without being dependent on an off-site service. Ringlink, SimpleRing, PHP-Ring and Ringmaker are some examples. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Gyroscopic autopilot**
Gyroscopic autopilot:
The gyroscopic autopilot was a type of autopilot system developed primarily for aviation uses in the early 20th century. Since then, the principles of this autopilot has been the basis of many different aircraft control systems, both military and civilian.
Early development:
The Sperry Corporation developed the original gyroscopic autopilot in 1912. The device was called a “gyroscopic stabilizer apparatus,” and its purpose was to improve stability and control of aircraft. It utilized the inputs from several other instruments to allow an aircraft to automatically maintain a desired compass heading and altitude.The key feature of the gyroscopic stabilizer apparatus was that it incorporated a gyroscope to regulate the control surfaces of the aircraft. Lawrence Sperry managed to design a smaller and lighter version of a gyroscope, and the device was integrated into an aircraft's hydraulic control system. Using a negative feedback loop, the gyroscope automatically adjusted the control surfaces of an aircraft to maintain straight and level flight.
First use:
Lawrence Sperry's autopilot was first demonstrated in France on June 18, 1914. Sperry was participating in an exhibition in which 57 planes were fitted with new improvements and innovations. Sperry's aircraft, a Curtiss C-2, was the only one equipped with a gyroscopic stabilizer. Sperry, along with his assistant Emil Cachin, made three passes in front of a grandstand full of spectators and military observers. On his first pass, Sperry engaged the autopilot and flew past the grandstand with his hands held high off of the controls. On the second pass, Cachin climbed out onto the starboard wing seven feet away from the fuselage with Sperry's hands still off the controls. When the aircraft banked due to the shift in weight, the autopilot immediately stabilized the wings. On his final pass, Sperry climbed out onto the opposite wing, leaving the pilot seat empty. The observers were amazed at the aircraft's ability to maintain level flight without a pilot manually controlling it. Sperry also gave Joseph Barres, Commandant of the French Army Air Corps, a ride to demonstrate his device's ability to perform an unassisted takeoff and landing.
Achievements:
Wiley Post became famous after his record setting trip around the world on June 23, 1931. In his aircraft, a Lockheed Vega nicknamed “Winnie Mae,” he managed to travel around the world in eight days 15 hours and 51 minutes. He accomplished this with the help of Harold Gatty, who served as his navigator and copilot. Two years later he set out to beat his previous record by flying around the world by himself. He wanted to prove that one man could accomplish the same trip without a copilot. In order to accomplish this, he equipped the Winnie Mae with a Sperry gyroscope autopilot and a radio direction finder. Although he experienced some problems with the autopilot, he completed the trip in seven days, 18 hours and 49 minutes. The use of the autopilot and radio direction finder is credited for making the task of navigating the aircraft much easier and more efficient. The use of an autopilot reduced the physical and mental demands on Post as he flew around the world.
Early military applications:
The U.S. Army Air Corps and the U.S. Navy experimented with autopilots on military aircraft before and during World War II. Straight and level flight had become a necessity for new level bombing techniques that were being developed at the time. The Sperry Gyroscope Company developed many autopilot systems for use on military aircraft. When the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress was delivered in the late 1930s, it came equipped a commercial Sperry A-3 Autopilot. The A-3 was a simple autopilot and only corrected angular deviations in the aircraft's straight and level course. It utilized pneumatic hydraulic servos, which had a tendency to react slowly to inputs, and this often led to overcompensation of the aircraft's corrected course. This caused navigation and control issues when pilots were flying in poor weather or rough air.To fix these problems, the Sperry A-5 autopilot was developed. This was the first all electric autopilot. This new autopilot used three dual-element vacuum tube amplifiers and high-speed gyros. Each amplifier was associated with a different axis: Yaw, pitch, and roll. The high-speed gyros were more sensitive and established a base reference level of the aircraft's level flight path. Whenever the aircraft deviated from the base reference level, the autopilot adjusted for the amount of time that occurred between the changes in reference levels. This allowed the autopilot to detect the velocity and acceleration of the change. The calculated change was then communicated quickly to the control surfaces by independent electro-hydraulic servos. This led to faster, more stable corrections of the aircraft.The faster stabilization of the aircraft by the A-5 autopilot made it possible for new bombsights to be used on military aircraft. The Norden Bombsight and Sperry Bombsight were both used onboard Army and Navy bombers during the war. Both bombsights used gyroscopes, telescopes and analog computers to calculate the release point for bombers to drop their payloads accurately onto ground targets. The A-5 had the ability to be integrated with these bombsights. Once the bombardier found the target and adjusted the bombsight, the autopilot would be engaged to fly the aircraft straight and level to the target, where the bombsight would automatically calculate the release point of the bombs.
Early military applications:
Missiles The German V-1 Buzz Bomb also used an autopilot system for guidance. It used a pendulum system that was damped by a gyroscope, similar to the ones used in Sperry autopilots. It also used radio direction finding to maintain course. The use of autopilot on unmanned weapons can be seen as the precursor to modern cruise missiles. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Menthofuran**
Menthofuran:
Menthofuran is an organic compound found in a variety of essential oils including that of pennyroyal (Mentha pulegium). It is highly toxic and believed to be the primary toxin in pennyroyal responsible for its potentially fatal effects. After ingestion of menthofuran, it is metabolically activated to chemically reactive intermediates that are hepatotoxic.
Biosynthesis:
Menthofuran is produced biosynthetically from pulegone by the enzyme menthofuran synthase.
Chemistry:
Synthesis Menthofuran can be synthesized from 5-methylcyclohexane-1,3-dione and allenyldimethylsulfonium bromide in two steps via a furannulation strategy consisting of enolate addition and rearrangement.
Pharmacology:
Menthofuran is a metabolite of pulegone. Both in vitro and in vivo studies have found the pulegone metabolite menthofuran to be an inhibitor of CYP2A6.Menthofuran may deplete glutathione levels, leaving hepatocytes vulnerable to free radical damage. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Sugar-terminal-phosphatase**
Sugar-terminal-phosphatase:
The enzyme sugar-terminal-phosphatase (EC 3.1.3.58) catalyzes the chemical reaction D-glucose 6-phosphate + H2O ⇌ D-glucose + phosphateThis enzyme belongs to the family of hydrolases, specifically those acting on phosphoric monoester bonds. The systematic name is sugar-ω-phosphate phosphohydrolase. This enzyme is also called xylitol-5-phosphatase. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
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