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**S100A3**
S100A3:
S100 calcium-binding protein A3 (S100A3) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the S100A3 gene.The protein encoded by this gene is a member of the S100 family of proteins containing 2 EF-hand calcium-binding motifs. S100 proteins are localized in the cytoplasm and/or nucleus of a wide range of cells, and involved in the regulation of a number of cellular processes such as cell cycle progression and differentiation. S100 genes include at least 13 members which are located as a cluster on chromosome 1q21. This protein has the highest content of cysteines of all S100 proteins, has a high affinity for Zinc, and is highly expressed in human hair cuticle. The precise function of this protein is unknown. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Air draft**
Air draft:
Air draft (or air draught) is the distance from the surface of the water to the highest point on a vessel. This is similar to the "deep draft" of a vessel which is measured from the surface of the water to the deepest part of the hull below the surface, but air draft is expressed as a height, not a depth.
Clearance below:
The vessel's "clearance" is the distance in excess of the air draft which allows a vessel to pass safely under a bridge or obstacle such as power lines, etc. A bridge's "clearance below" is most often noted on charts as measured from the surface of the water to the under side of the bridge at the chart datum Mean High Water (MHW), a less restrictive clearance than Mean Higher High Water (MHHW). In 2014, the United States Coast Guard reported that 1.2% of the collisions that it investigated in the recent past were caused by vessels attempting to pass under structures with insufficient clearance.
Examples:
The Bridge of the Americas in Panama limits which ships can traverse the Panama Canal due to its height at 61.3 m (201 ft) above the water. The world's largest cruise ships, Oasis of the Seas, Allure of the Seas and the Harmony of the Seas will fit within the canal's new widened locks, but they are too tall to pass under the bridge, even at low tide (the two first ships are 72 m (236 ft), but do have lowerable funnels, enabling them to pass the 65-metre (213 ft) Great Belt Bridge in Denmark). New vessels are rarely built not clearing 65 m (213 ft), a height which accommodates all but the largest cruise and container ships.
Examples:
The Suez Canal Bridge has a 70-metre (230 ft) clearance over the canal.
The Bayonne Bridge, an arch bridge connecting New Jersey with New York City, undertook a $1.7 billion modification to raise its roadbed to 66 m (217 ft). | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Eardrum**
Eardrum:
In the anatomy of humans and various other tetrapods, the eardrum, also called the tympanic membrane or myringa, is a thin, cone-shaped membrane that separates the external ear from the middle ear. Its function is to transmit sound from the air to the ossicles inside the middle ear, and then to the oval window in the fluid-filled cochlea. Hence, it ultimately converts and amplifies vibration in the air to vibration in cochlear fluid. The malleus bone bridges the gap between the eardrum and the other ossicles.Rupture or perforation of the eardrum can lead to conductive hearing loss. Collapse or retraction of the eardrum can cause conductive hearing loss or cholesteatoma.
Structure:
Orientation and relations The tympanic membrane is oriented obliquely in the anteroposterior, mediolateral, and superoinferior planes. Consequently, its superoposterior end lies lateral to its anteroinferior end.Anatomically, it relates superiorly to the middle cranial fossa, posteriorly to the ossicles and facial nerve, inferiorly to the parotid gland, and anteriorly to the temporomandibular joint.
Regions The eardrum is divided into two general regions: the pars flaccida and the pars tensa.
Structure:
The relatively fragile pars flaccida lies above the lateral process of the malleus between the notch of Rivinus and the anterior and posterior malleal folds. Consisting of two layers and appearing slightly pinkish in hue, it is associated with Eustachian tube dysfunction and cholesteatomas.The larger pars tensa consists of three layers: skin, fibrous tissue, and mucosa. Its thick periphery forms a fibrocartilaginous ring called the annulus tympanicus or Gerlach's ligament. while the central umbo tents inward at the level of the tip of malleus. The middle fibrous layer, containing radial, circular, and parabolic fibers, encloses the handle of malleus. Though comparatively robust, the pars tensa is the region more commonly associated with perforations.
Structure:
Umbo The manubrium (Latin: handle) of the malleus is firmly attached to the medial surface of the membrane as far as its center, drawing it toward the tympanic cavity. The lateral surface of the membrane is thus concave. The most depressed aspect of this concavity is termed the umbo (Latin: shield boss).
Structure:
Nerve supply Sensation of the outer surface of the tympanic membrane is supplied mainly by the auriculotemporal nerve, a branch of the mandibular nerve (cranial nerve V3), with contributions from the auricular branch of the vagus nerve (cranial nerve X), the facial nerve (cranial nerve VII), and possibly the glossopharyngeal nerve (cranial nerve IX). The inner surface of the tympanic membrane is innervated by the glossopharyngeal nerve.
Clinical significance:
Examination When the eardrum is illuminated during a medical examination, a cone of light radiates from the tip of the malleus to the periphery in the anteroinferior quadrant, this is what is known clinically as 5 o'clock.
Clinical significance:
Rupture Unintentional perforation (rupture) has been described in blast injuries and air travel, typically in patients experiencing upper respiratory congestion that prevents equalization of pressure in the middle ear. It is also known to occur in swimming, diving (including scuba diving), and martial arts.Patients with tympanic membrane rupture may experience bleeding, tinnitus, hearing loss, or disequilibrium (vertigo). However, they rarely require medical intervention, as between 80 and 95 percent of ruptures recover completely within two to four weeks. The prognosis becomes more guarded as the force of injury increases.
Clinical significance:
Surgical puncture for treatment of middle ear infections The pressure of fluid in an infected middle ear onto the eardrum may cause it to rupture. Usually, this consists of a small hole (perforation), which allows fluid to drain out. If this does not occur naturally, a myringotomy (tympanotomy, tympanostomy) can be performed. A myringotomy is a surgical procedure in which a tiny incision is created in the eardrum to relieve pressure caused by excessive buildup of fluid, or to drain pus from the middle ear. The fluid or pus comes from a middle ear infection (otitis media), which is a common problem in children. A tympanostomy tube is inserted into the eardrum to keep the middle ear aerated for a prolonged time and to prevent reaccumulation of fluid. Without the insertion of a tube, the incision usually heals spontaneously in two to three weeks. Depending on the type, the tube is either naturally extruded in 6 to 12 months or removed during a minor procedure.Those requiring myringotomy usually have an obstructed or dysfunctional eustachian tube that is unable to perform drainage or ventilation in its usual fashion. Before the invention of antibiotics, myringotomy without tube placement was also used as a major treatment of severe acute otitis media.In some cases, the pressure of fluid in an infected middle ear is great enough to cause the eardrum to rupture naturally. Usually, this consists of a small hole (perforation), from which fluid can drain.
Society and culture:
The Bajau people of the Pacific intentionally rupture their eardrums at an early age to facilitate diving and hunting at sea. Many older Bajau therefore have difficulties hearing. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Matrix molding**
Matrix molding:
Matrix molding or matrix transfer molding is a technique often used during molding. The person doing the assembly will first create the rigid outer shell or flask, then introduce the softer and more fluid molding material between the shell and the prototype. This process is often used for complex shapes using composites such as with glass and glass/ceramic composites. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**WDR4**
WDR4:
tRNA (guanine-N(7)-)-methyltransferase subunit WDR4 is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the WDR4 gene.This gene encodes a member of the WD repeat protein family. WD repeats are minimally conserved regions of approximately 40 amino acids typically bracketed by gly-his and trp-asp (GH-WD), which may facilitate formation of heterotrimeric or multiprotein complexes. Members of this family are involved in a variety of cellular processes, including cell cycle progression, signal transduction, apoptosis, and gene regulation. This gene is excluded as a candidate for a form of nonsyndromic deafness (DFNB10), but is still a candidate for other disorders mapped to 21q22.3 as well as for the development of Down syndrome phenotypes. Two transcript variants encoding the same protein have been found for this gene. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Nano-Micro Letters**
Nano-Micro Letters:
Nano-Micro Letters is a peer-reviewed open-access scientific journal covering nanotechnology. It is published by Springer Science+Business Media on behalf of Shanghai Jiao Tong University. The editor-in-chief is Yafei Zhang (Shanghai Jiao Tong University). The journal was established in 2009.
Abstracting and indexing:
The journal is abstracted and indexed in the Science Citation Index Expanded and Scopus. According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2020 impact factor of 1 6.419. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Pattern coin**
Pattern coin:
A pattern coin is a coin which has not been approved for release, but produced to evaluate a proposed coin design. They are often off-metal strike (using metals of lower value to test out the dies), to proof standard or piedforts. Many coin collectors collect and study pattern coins because of their historical importance. Many of the world's most valuable coins are pattern coins; nearly 25 of the pieces listed in 100 Greatest US Coins are pattern coins.
English patterns:
The first English coin that can be identified with certainty is a groat, originally worth fourpence. This piece, an example of which was illustrated and sold in the Dodsley Cuff sale of the mid-19th century, had crowns in place of the usual three pellets in each quarter of the reverse.Patterns are particularly identifiable and exist in larger numbers from the reign of Elizabeth I onwards. The experimental base metal issues of all coinage prior to the mid-18th century have been well preserved.Boulton's mint in Soho produced large quantities of patterns, which were supplemented by Taylor some fifty or so years later from the same dies.
United States patterns:
Early United States patterns After the Declaration of Independence was signed on July 4, 1776, discussion arose over what sort of currency should be adopted in the United States. At the time, people in North America relied upon a mixture of foreign coins, none of which were struck to a consistent standard, making day-to-day financial transactions difficult. In 1783, Congress resolved to create a mint, tasking Superintendent of Finance Robert Morris with developing a plan for a system of coinage. The first coins struck by the United States – the Nova Constellatio patterns – were made to illustrate this plan.In 1792 the United States Mint opened in Philadelphia. In that year several more patterns were created, including the half dime, then known as a "half disme". It is believed that c. 1,500 pieces were struck as patterns, and that these patterns themselves entered circulation during the next decade.Over the next 40 years, more patterns were created but there is little information currently known about these pieces. Technically, these coins were not patterns but rather off-metal strikes, with the coins struck in a different metal than those destined for general use in circulation. An example is an 1807 Half Eagle, or five dollar gold piece struck in copper.
United States patterns:
Mid-19th century United States patterns Starting in 1836, more patterns were created by the United States Mint in Philadelphia. These consisted of several types of patterns: Real pattern coins for proposed coinage Off-metal strikes Transitional pieces Fantasy piecesOne example of a pattern coin for proposed coinage is the half-union, a gold pattern coin with a face value of 50 U.S. dollars that was minted in 1877 and weighed 2.5 ounces (71 g). The U.S. Mint deemed the idea of a 2.5-ounce gold coin infeasible, and only two were ever minted.Transitional pieces are patterns dated before coins with the new design officially went into circulation. These were often produced during the final stage of the pattern process, used to present the newly adopted design to the public. One famous example is the 1856 Flying Eagle cent, although that coin has been commonly and incorrectly believed to be regular issue due to its high mintage for collectors.Fantasy pieces include many struck in the 1860s and 1870s as patterns and sold to numismatists for the sole purpose of raising cash for the mint. This practice ended in the 1880s, when the U.S. Mint enforced regulations to prevent the sale of pattern coins.
United States patterns:
Modern United States patterns The U.S. Mint experiments with new coinage occasionally, such as when silver was removed from coin designs. The Mint began using dies with Martha Washington for trial strikings, since they would not be confused with real circulating money since they do not resemble money. Thus, no restrictions exist on the sale of Martha Washington pieces. Mint-produced modern patterns are very rare, with only a few pieces existing in private collections. The United States mint has placed restrictions on the sale of modern patterns that do resemble coins, such as the 1974 aluminum cent. One of the most expansive collections of American pattern coins is the Harry W. Bass, Jr. collection housed at the American Numismatic Association Money Museum in Colorado Springs, Colorado.
Other countries:
Pattern coins of France and of French-speaking countries such as Monaco are described by the French term essai. The essai coins of New Hebrides are of interest to collectors of British Commonwealth coinage, as New Hebrides gained independence in 1980 as the Republic of Vanuatu.
The word essai is found inscribed on the pattern coins of Namibia along with the German word Probe. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Hot dog stand**
Hot dog stand:
A hot dog stand is a business that sells hot dogs, usually from an external counter. Hot dog stands can be located on a public thoroughfare, near a sports stadium, in a shopping mall, or at a fair. They are often found on the streets of major American cities. According to one report, some hot dog stands are paying up to $80,000 in rent for prime locations in Manhattan.Similar businesses include hot dog carts or wagons, which are portable hand carts with a grill or boiler for cooking the hot dogs and keeping them hot. In the United States, hot dog carts are also referred to as hot dog stands. However, a hot dog stand is typically a permanent or semi-permanent structure, whereas a hot dog cart is movable. Similarly, hot dog trucks are motor vehicles that are set up at a roadside location, and often include a complete kitchen for storage and preparation. In Denmark, hot dog stands are called Pølsevogn (sausage wagons). They serve traditional hot dogs as well as assorted sausages and sausage meats.
Hot dog stand:
In Toronto, the hot dogs from hot dog stands are often called "street meat".Windows 3.1 included a red and yellow desktop colour setting titled "Hot Dog Stand".
Notable stands:
Art's Famous Chili Dog Stand, Los Angeles, CA Bæjarins Beztu Pylsur, Reykjavík, Iceland Ben's Chili Bowl, Washington, DC Coney Island Colorado, Bailey, CO Dog n Suds, Grayslake, IL Essie's Original Hot Dog Shop, Pittsburgh, PA Gene & Jude's, River Grove, IL Gray's Papaya, Manhattan, NY Hillbilly Hot Dogs, Huntington, WV Hot Dog on a Stick, Santa Monica, CA Nathan's Famous, Coney Island, NY Papaya King, Manhattan, NY Rutt's Hut, Clifton, NJ Superdawg, Chicago, IL Tail o' the Pup, Los Angeles, CA The Varsity, Atlanta, GA Walkin' Dog, Minneapolis, MN Walter's Hot Dog Stand, Mamaroneck, NY Weenie Beenie, Arlington, VA The Wieners Circle, Chicago, IL | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Dog pox**
Dog pox:
Dog pox is an infection of canines which may be caused by the canine herpes virus, and can result in symptoms ranging from no symptoms to inflammation of the respiratory or digestive tract to skin inflammation and lesions. Over 60% of adult male dogs exhibit lesions as a result of this infection. It can result in reduction of epithelial function in the intestine.: 129 | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Photonic crystal sensor**
Photonic crystal sensor:
Photonic crystal sensors use photonic crystals: nanostructures composed of periodic arrangements of dielectric materials that interact with light depending on their particular structure, reflecting lights of specific wavelengths at specific angles. Any change in the periodicity or refractive index of the structure can give rise to a change in the reflected color, or the color perceived by the observer or a spectrometer. That simple principle makes them useful colorimetric intuitive sensors for different applications including, but not limited to, environmental analysis, temperature sensing, magnetic sensing, biosensing, diagnostics, food quality control, security, and mechanical sensing. Many animals in nature such as fish or beetles employ responsive photonic crystals for camouflage, signaling or to bait their prey. The variety of materials utilizable in such structures ranging from inorganic, organic as well as plasmonic metal nanoparticles makes these structures highly customizable and versatile. In the case of inorganic materials, variation of the refractive index is the most commonly exploited effect in sensing, while periodicity change is more commonly exhibited in polymer-based sensors. Besides their small size, current developments in manufacturing technologies have made them easy and cheap to fabricate on a larger scale, making them mass-producible and practical.
Types and structures:
Biosensors and integrated lab-on-a-chip As properly designed photonic crystals exhibit high sensitivity, selectivity, stability, and their electricity-free operation if needed, they have become highly researched portable biological sensors. Developments in analysis, device miniaturization, fluidic design and integration have catapulted the development of integrated photonic crystal sensors in what is known as lab-on-a-chip devices of high sensitivity, low limit of detection, faster response time and low cost. A large range of analytes of biological interest such as proteins, DNA, cancer cells, glucose and antibodies can be detected with this kind of sensors, providing fast, cheap and accurate diagnostic and health-monitoring tools that can detect concentrations as low as 15 nM. Certain chemical or biological target molecules can be integrated within the structure to provide specificity.
Types and structures:
Chemical sensors As chemical analytes have their own specific refractive indices, they can fill porous photonic structures, altering their effective index and consequently their color in a finger-print like manner. On the other hand, they can alter the volume of polymer-based structures, resulting in a change in the periodicity leading to a similar end effect. In ion-containing hydrogels, their selective swelling results in their specificity. Applications in gaseous and aqueous environment have been studied to detect concentrations of chemical species, solvents, vapors, ions, pH and humidity. The specificity and sensitivity can be controlled by the appropriate choice of materials and their interaction with the analytes, that can achieve even label-free sensors. The concentration of chemical species in vapor or liquid phases as well as in more complex mixtures can be determined with high confidence.
Types and structures:
Mechanical sensors Different mechanical signals such as pressure, strain, torsion and bending can be detected with photonic crystal sensors. Commonly, they are based on the deformation-induced change in the lattice constants in flexible materials such as elastomeric composites or colloidal crystals, causing a mechano-chromic effect as they stretch or contract.
Types and structures:
3D photonic crystals Synthetic opals are three dimensional photonic crystals usually made of self-assembled nanospheres of diameters on the order of hundreds of nanometers, where the high refractive index material is that of the spheres and the low-index material is air or another filler. On the other hand, inverse opals are structures where the interstitial space between the spheres is filled with another material and the spheres are consequently removed, providing a larger free volume for faster diffusion of chemical species.
Types and structures:
Photonic crystal fibers Photonic crystal fibers are a special types of optical fibers that has contain air holes distributed in specific patterns around a solid or hollow core. Due to their high sensitivity, inherent flexibility, and small diameters, they can be used in a variety of situations requiring high robustness and portability. Compared to traditional optical fibers, they are highly birefringent with tailorable dispersion, limited loss and endless single-mode propagation for a long range of wavelengths and have a very fast sensing response.
Types and structures:
2D gratings and slabs One-dimensional slabs with two dimensional order cause by selective removal of material, creating a pattern of holes or grooves in an otherwise homogeneous material is a popular photonic crystal structure used in sensing.
Fabry-Pérot mirrors Fabry-Pérot mirrors are planar photonic crystal where the periodicity is maintained only in the z-dimension. sputtered porous inorganic sensors, spin-coated polymer sensors and self-assembled block-copolymers are a few of the commonly used planar 1D structures. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Copper chromite**
Copper chromite:
Copper chromite is an inorganic compound with the formula Cu2Cr2O5. It is a black solid that is used to catalyze reactions in organic synthesis.
History:
The material was first described in 1908. The catalyst was developed in North America by Homer Burton Adkins and Wilbur Arthur Lazier, partly based on interrogation of German chemists after World War II in relation to the Fischer–Tropsch process. For this reason it is sometimes referred to as the Adkins catalyst or the Lazier catalyst.
Chemical structure:
The compound adopts a spinel structure. The oxidation states for the constituent metals are Cu(II) and Cr(III). A variety of compositions are recognized for the substance, including Cu2CrO4·CuO·BaCrO4 (CAS# 99328-50-4) and Cu2Cr2O5 (CAS# 12053-18-8). Commercial samples often contain barium oxide and other components.
Production:
Copper chromite is produced by thermal decomposition of one of three substances. The traditional method is by the ignition of copper chromate: 2 CuCrO4 → 2 CuCrO3 + O2Copper barium ammonium chromate is the most commonly used substance for production of copper chromite. The resulting copper chromite mixture produced by this method can only be used in procedures that contain materials inert to barium, as barium is a product of the decomposition of copper barium ammonium chromate, and is thus present in the resulting mixture. The by-product copper oxide is removed using an acetic acid extraction, consisting of washing with the acid, decantation and then heat drying of the remaining solid to yield isolated copper chromite. Copper chromite is produced by the exposure of copper barium ammonium chromate to temperatures of 350-450 °C, generally by a muffle furnace: Ba2Cu2(NH4)2(CrO4)5 → CrCuO3 + CuO + 2 Ba + 4 H2O + 4 Cr + N2 + 6 O2Copper ammonium chromate is also used for production of copper chromite. It is generally utilized as an alternative to the route of barium ammonium chromate for usage in chemicals reactive with barium. This can also be washed with acetic acid and dried to remove impurities. Copper chromite is produced through the exposure of copper ammonium chromate to temperatures of 350-450 °C: Cu(NH4)2(CrO4)2 → CrCuO3 + CrO + 4 H2O + N2An active copper chromite catalyst which includes barium in its structure can be prepared from a solution containing barium nitrate, copper(II) nitrate, and ammonium chromate. When these compounds are mixed a resulting precipitate is formed. This solid product is then calcined at 350–400 °C to yield the catalyst: Cu(NO3)2 + Ba(NO3)2 + (NH4)2CrO4 → CuCr2O4·BaCr2O4
Illustrative reactions:
Hydrogenolysis of ester compounds to the corresponding alcohols, and carbon–carbon and carbon–oxygen double bonds to single bonds. For example, sebacoin, derived from the acyloin condensation of dimethyl sebacate, is hydrogenated to 1,2-cyclodecanediol by this catalyst. Phenanthrene is also reduced, at the 9,10 position.
Hydrogenolysis of tetrahydrofurfuryl alcohol to 1,5-pentanediol at 250–300 °C under 3300-6000 psi of H2.
Illustrative reactions:
Decarboxylation of α-phenylcinnamic acid to cis-stilbene.Reactions involving hydrogen are conducted at relatively high gas pressure (135 atm) and high temperatures (150–300 °C) in a so-called hydrogenation bomb. More active catalysts, such as W-6 grade Raney nickel, also catalyze hydrogenations such as ester reductions. The latter catalyst benefits from requiring less vigorous conditions (i.e., it works at room temperature under similar hydrogenation pressures) but requires the chemist to use a higher ratio of catalyst to reagents. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Narrowcasting**
Narrowcasting:
Narrowcasting is the dissemination of information (usually via Internet, radio, newspaper, or television) to a narrow audience, rather than to the broader public at-large. Related to niche marketing or target marketing, narrowcasting involves aiming media messages at specific segments of the public defined by values, preferences, demographic attributes or subscription. Narrowcasting is based on the postmodern idea that mass audiences do not exist.The term narrowcasting can also apply to the spread of information to an audience (private or public) which is by nature geographically limited—a group such as office employees, military troops, or conference attendees—and requires a localized dissemination of information from a shared source.
History of the term:
The evolution of narrowcasting came from broadcasting. In the early 20th century, Charles Herrold designate radio transmissions meant for a single receiver, distinguished from broadcasting, meant for a general audience. Broadcasting was revived in the context of subscription radio programs in the late 1940s, then the term narrowcasting first entered the common lexicon due to computer scientist and public broadcasting advocate J. C. R. Licklider, who in a 1967 report envisioned a multiplicity of television networks aimed at serving the needs of smaller, specialized audiences. 'Here,' stated Licklider, 'I should like to coin the term "narrowcasting," using it to emphasize the rejection or dissolution of the constraints imposed by commitment to a monolithic mass-appeal, broadcast approach.'
Origins and evolution on television:
In the beginning of the 1990s, when American television was still mainly ruled by three major networks (ABC, CBS and NBC), it was believed that the greatest achievement was to promote and create content that would be directed towards a huge mass of people, avoiding completely those projects that might appeal to only a reduced audience. That was mainly due to the fact that specially in the earlier days of television, there was not much more competition. Nevertheless, this changed once independent stations, more cable channels, and the success of videocassettes started increasing and rising, which gave the audiences the possibility of having more options. Thus, this previous mass-oriented point of view started to change towards one that was, obviously, narrower.It was precisely the arrival of cable TV that allowed a much larger number of producers and programmers to aim at smaller audiences. For example, whereas MTV started off as the channel for those who loved music, it ended up with so many different shows that nowadays it rarely ever "trades in the 'music' of her name anymore", proving how the big networks evolved through a constant stage of diaspora with the aim to provide content appealing to a variety of audiences.
Origins and evolution on television:
Nowadays, despite the fact that the major networks keep promoting mostly content whose main aim is to get to a huge audience, narrowcasting has of course made its place in, for example, the way they schedule shows. For example, while one night they might choose to stream shows directed at teenagers, a different night they might want to focus on another specific kind of audience, such as those interested in documentaries. Therefore, they will be targeting what could be seen as a narrow audience, but collect their attention altogether as a mass audience on one night.
Social impact:
This evolution towards narrowcasting was discussed in 1993 by Hamid Naficy, who focused on this change specifically in Los Angeles and how such a content directed towards a much more narrowed audience affected social culture. For example, with the rise of Middle Eastern television programs, these ended up constituting "part of the dynamic and multifaceted popular cultures produced and consumed by immigrant and exile communities in southern California." Therefore, more content that did not have the pressure to have a mass audience appeal to watch it, was able to be produced and promoted, which made it easier for minorities to feel represented in television.
Commercial application:
Marketing experts are often interested in narrowcast media as a commercial advertising tool, since access to such content implies exposure to a specific and clearly defined prospective consumer audience. The theory being that, by identifying particular demographics viewing such programs, advertisers can better target their markets. Pre-recorded television programs are often broadcast to captive audiences in taxi cabs, buses, elevators and queues (such as at branches of the Post Office in the United Kingdom). For instance, the Cabvision network in London's black cabs shows limited pre-recorded television programs interspersed with targeted advertising to taxicab passengers. Television has made a transition from broadcasting to narrowcasting which has given advertisers a greater advantage when it comes to directing their messages to a specific demographic audience. For example, if an energy drink company wanted to target 18- to 25-year-old action sport athletes, they may purchase commercial time on a niche network that only narrowcasts mixed martial arts, thus making their message more valuable by marketing to a concentrated audience.
On the Internet:
The Internet uses both a broadcast and a narrowcast model. Most websites are on a broadcast model since anyone with Internet access can view the sites (Wikipedia is a good example, this website can be received by anyone with an internet connection). However, sites that require one to log-in before viewing content are based more on the narrowcast model. Push technologies which send information to subscribers are another form for narrowcasting. Perhaps the best example of narrowcasting are electronic mailing lists where messages are sent only to individuals who subscribe to the list.
On the Internet:
Narrowcasting is also sometimes applied to podcasting, since the audience for a podcast is often specific and sharply defined. Dr. Jonathan Sterne of McGill University stated, "Narrowcasting is a form of broadcasting, if the latter term is understood as the 'wide dissemination of content through mechanical or electronic media'". Other one-way, traditional media approaches to narrowcasting, such as Internet Talk Radio, can be contrasted with broadcast radio programs. Narrowcasting approaches are focused on a specific (narrow) topic, whereas broadcast programs have a wider coverage of broad topics.
Interactive narrowcasting:
A new type of narrowcasting is evolving in the form of interactive narrowcasting. Interactive narrowcasting enables shoppers to influence the content displayed via narrowcasting. One way of doing this is via a touch screen. More and more systems are being introduced into the narrowcasting market.
User-driven content also provides an excellent medium for narrowcast marketing, provided the correct product is matched with the appropriate medium.
These systems enable brands to communicate with their customers via a personal computer. The advantage of the majority of interactive narrowcasting projects is that they are more effective and less costly over time. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Side Pocket**
Side Pocket:
Side Pocket is a pocket billiards simulation released as an arcade video game by Data East in 1986. It was ported to the Nintendo Entertainment System and Game Boy, while an enhanced remake was later released on the Sega Genesis, Super Nintendo Entertainment System, and Game Gear. The game spawned two sequels, as well as arcade spin-off series titled Pocket Gal.
Side Pocket:
G-Mode owns the intellectual property rights to the Side Pocket series, and licenses these games globally.
Gameplay:
The primary play mode, called "Pocket Game", is a straight pool game set within a limited number of lives; the player must achieve a predetermined score to advance through four or five levels, each with increasing number of balls. The player earns points by potting balls, potting balls on consecutive shots, and potting balls in numerical order. On occasion, a flashing star appear in a pocket, and if the player pots a ball into that pocket in the same shot, a bonus will be awarded in the form of points, extra lives or a bonus round. One life is lost if the player scratches or fails to pot a ball in two consecutive shots.
Gameplay:
In the two-player mode, the player can choose between Pocket Game or 9-Ball Game. In two-player Pocket Game, the game plays similarly, except the two players take turns and there are no lives; if one player misses or scratches, control of the ball simply changes to the other player. In 9-Ball Game, each player has three lives and one life is lost if a foul is committed. However, the lives will be restored if the player makes a legal shot on the next turn.
Gameplay:
In the Game Boy and Game Gear version, there is also an additional practice mode, which is essentially a single-player version of 9-Ball Game.
Gameplay:
A variety of trick shot challenges are also available to the player(s), to earn additional points or extra life, requiring the player pot all balls into select pockets using a single shot. The player may put various spins on the ball, such as left and right english, and perform massés and jump shots.The Genesis and SNES versions features a photo-realistic representation of the player characters. The characters are a homage to the 1986 billiards-themed film The Color of Money; with the characters bearing resemblance to Vincent Lauria (played by Tom Cruise) and Fast Eddie (played by Paul Newman), the two main characters from the film.
Ports:
Side Pocket was ported to the Nintendo Entertainment System and Game Boy. The NES version plays almost identical to the arcade version, but the Pocket Game mode features 4 levels and the player starts with 5 lives, as opposed to 2. The NES version also introduce four different rack configuration that become standard in later versions, whereas the arcade version only feature six-ball and nine-ball racks. The Game Boy version of Side Pocket is a slight modification from the NES version, featuring a smaller playing field (to compensate with Game Boy's screen), new set of soundtrack and a different screen layout. Like in NES version, the Pocket Game mode features 4 levels and the player starts with 5 lives. One unique addition to the Game Boy version is the ability to play single-player nine-ball mode, while in other versions this mode is limited only to two players.
Legacy:
Pocket Gal Pocket Gal is the arcade adaptation of the NES version of Side Pocket released exclusively for Japan in 1987. Gameplay remains similar to the NES game, although the lesser number of lives makes the game more challenging. It also has different music and sound effects, alongside hidden explicit imagery as rewards for completing certain levels. An English version was also released under the name Pocket Gal 2. There is also another version of the game called Super Pool III which removes the hidden explicit images. This version was published by I-Vics in North America.
Legacy:
Pocket Gal Deluxe In 1992, a sequel called Pocket Gal Deluxe was released in Japan and Europe. While the gameplay remains the same, Pocket Gal Deluxe features revamped graphics, more levels and includes a MIDI-based jazz music. Furthermore, Pocket Gal Deluxe also serve as the basis for the Genesis, Super Nintendo Entertainment System, and Game Gear versions of Side Pocket.
Legacy:
This version features completely different contents compared to the original, including revamped graphics, new smooth jazz-oriented soundtrack, new sound effects and photo-realistic background sceneries during gameplay. The main game modes remain identical to the original, with several alteration on the Pocket Game mode. This mode now features 5 levels represented as "cities" (Los Angeles, San Francisco, Las Vegas, New York City, and Atlantic City) and the player starts with 8 lives. In addition, a new "trick shot" mode is featured, in which the player can try one of the 19 trick shot levels, each with increasing difficulty. The Game Gear port is a stripped-down version of the Genesis version, which plays more akin to the original rendition, more specifically the NES version. However, most elements from the Genesis/SNES version are retained, such as the background images (scaled down to 8-bit), some of the soundtracks, and the trick shot levels.
Legacy:
Sequels Minnesota Fats: Pool Legend expands greatly upon the original game by adding various pool games (including eight-ball, straight pool, and one-pocket) and the ability to play against AI-controlled players.
Side Pocket 3 uses a First-person view.
Reception:
In Japan, Game Machine listed Side Pocket on their August 1, 1986 issue as being the eighth most-successful table arcade unit of the month. It went on to be the eighth highest-grossing table arcade game of 1987 in Japan.In reviewing the NES version, Computer Gaming World declared it "far and away the best billiards simulation ever published for any system". The features that went beyond realistic pool were especially praised as enhancing the game's play.Reviewing the SNES version, GamePro praised the variety of modes, the audio and graphical improvements over the NES version, and the realistic details. They recommended the game "for pool enthusiasts and casual video game pool players alike. There are plenty of great options and genuine pool strategies to keep serious players interested, and yet it's simple enough to play without the manual." They gave the Game Gear version a more mixed review, commenting that the representation of the player's stick as a stream of balls is needlessly cumbersome, and that the graphics and sound are poor. However, they summarized, "Determining the precise angle and power for a shot can be harder than taking a geometry test, but it's definitely more fun." Electronic Gaming Monthly also complained of poor sounds but were more impressed with the graphics, describing them as exceptional for a portable system. They praised the game for its trick shots and generally strategic gameplay and gave it a 6.25 out of 10.Entertainment Weekly gave the game a B- and wrote that "Insipid electronic lounge sounds are an integral component of Side Pocket (for Genesis), which presents American pool halls as a series of squeaky-clean (no beer stains on the felt here), nonconfrontational venues where your sole objective is to play pool — and not, say, impress your date with how many shots of tequila you can down in five minutes. Embodying this utilitarian approach is the game's hyper-realistic, overhead-angle table display — not as realistic, unfortunately, is its follow-the-dotted-line aiming system, which allows you to hit the cue ball in only about half a dozen places. An extensive trick-shot menu — apparently meant to compensate for this glaring limitation — is intriguing, but completely superfluous."Italian magazine Consolmania, however, gave the Genesis version 80.In 1995, Total! ranked the game 70th on their Top 100 SNES Games writing: "A bit flawed and there are no UK pool rules but in two-player mode this is a real giggle." In 1996, Super Play listed Side Pocket 90th in it’s Top 100 SNES Games of All Time. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Landing**
Landing:
Landing is the last part of a flight, where a flying animal, aircraft, or spacecraft returns to the ground. When the flying object returns to water, the process is called alighting, although it is commonly called "landing", "touchdown"a or "splashdown" as well. A normal aircraft flight would include several parts of flight including taxi, takeoff, climb, cruise, descent and landing.
Aircraft:
Aircraft usually land at an airport on a firm runway or helicopter landing pad, generally constructed of asphalt concrete, concrete, gravel or grass. Aircraft equipped with pontoons (floatplane) or with a boat hull-shaped fuselage (a flying boat) are able to land on water. Aircraft also sometimes use skis to land on snow or ice.
Aircraft:
To land, the airspeed and the rate of descent are reduced such that the object descends at a low enough rate to allow for a gentle touch down. Landing is accomplished by slowing down and descending to the runway. This speed reduction is accomplished by reducing thrust and/or inducing a greater amount of drag using flaps, landing gear or speed brakes. When a fixed-wing aircraft approaches the ground, the pilot will move the control column back to execute a flare or round-out. This increases the angle of attack. Progressive movement of the control column back will allow the aircraft to settle onto the runway at minimum speed, landing on its main wheels first in the case of a tricycle gear aircraft or on all three wheels simultaneously in the case of a conventional landing gear-equipped aircraft, commonly referred to as a "taildragger".
Aircraft:
Light aircraft In a light aircraft, power is adjusted to control the descent rate, and pitch attitude is adjusted to control airspeed, although theoretically they must be adjusted together.In a light aircraft, with little crosswind, the ideal landing is when contact with the ground occurs as the forward speed is reduced to the point where there is no longer sufficient airspeed to remain aloft. The stall warning is often heard just before landing, indicating that this speed and altitude have been reached. The result is very light touch down.Light aircraft landing situations, and the pilot skills required, can be divided into four types: Normal landings Crosswind landings - where a significant wind not aligned with the landing area is a factor Short field landings - where the length of the landing area is a limiting factor Soft and unprepared field landings - where the landing area is wet, soft or has ground obstacles such as furrows or ruts to contend with Large aircraft In large transport category (airliner) aircraft, pilots land the aircraft by "flying the airplane on to the runway." The airspeed and attitude (pitch angle) of the plane are adjusted for landing. Thrust and pitch must be adjusted together, however the technique is reversed compared to light aircraft. In large aircraft, thrust is used to control airspeed and pitch is used to control rate of descent. The airspeed is kept well above stall speed and at a constant rate of descent. A flare is performed just before landing, and the descent rate is significantly reduced, causing a light touch down. Upon touchdown, spoilers (sometimes called "lift dumpers") are deployed to dramatically reduce the lift and transfer the aircraft's weight to its wheels, where mechanical braking, such as an autobrake system, can take effect. Reverse thrust is used by many jet aircraft to help slow down just after touch-down, redirecting engine exhaust forward instead of back. Some propeller-driven airplanes also have this feature, where the blades of the propeller are re-angled to push air forward instead of back using the 'beta range'.
Aircraft:
Environmental factors Factors such as crosswind where the pilot will use a crab landing or a slip landing will cause pilots to land slightly faster and sometimes with different aircraft attitude to ensure a safe landing.
Other factors affecting a particular landing might include: the plane size, wind, weight, runway length, obstacles, ground effects, weather, runway altitude, air temperature, air pressure, air traffic control, visibility, avionics and the overall situation.
Aircraft:
For example, landing a multi-engine turboprop military such as a C-130 Hercules, under fire in a grass field in a war zone, requires different skills and precautions than landing a single engine plane such as a Cessna 150 on a paved runway in uncontrolled airspace, which is different from landing an airliner such as an Airbus A380 at a major airport with air traffic control.
Aircraft:
Required Navigation Performance (RNP) is being used more and more. Rather than using radio beacons, the airplane uses GPS-navigation for landing using this technique. This translates into a much more fluid ascent, which results in decreased noise, and decreased fuel consumption.
Parachutes:
The term "landing" is also applied to people or objects descending to the ground using a parachute. Some consider these objects to be in a controlled descent instead of actually flying. Most parachutes work by capturing air, inducing enough drag that the falling object hits the ground at a relatively slow speed. There are many examples of parachutes in nature, including the seeds of a dandelion.
Parachutes:
On the other hand, modern ram-air parachutes are essentially inflatable wings that operate in a gliding flight mode. Parachutists execute a flare at landing, reducing or eliminating both downward and forward speed at touchdown, in order to avoid injury.
Spacecraft:
Sometimes, a safe landing is accomplished by using multiple forms of lift, thrust (propulsive landing) and dampening systems. Both the Surveyor uncrewed lunar probe craft and the Apollo Lunar Module used a rocket deceleration system and landing gear to soft-land on the moon. Several Soviet rockets including the Soyuz spacecraft have used parachutes and airbag landing systems to dampen the landing on earth. In November 2015, Blue Origin's New Shepard became the first rocket to cross the Kármán line and land vertically back on Earth. In December 2015, SpaceX's Falcon 9 became the first launch vehicle on an orbital trajectory to successfully vertically-land and recover its first stage, although the landed first stage was on a sub-orbital trajectory. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Air cooling**
Air cooling:
Air cooling is a method of dissipating heat. It works by expanding the surface area or increasing the flow of air over the object to be cooled, or both. An example of the former is to add cooling fins to the surface of the object, either by making them integral or by attaching them tightly to the object's surface (to ensure efficient heat transfer). In the case of the latter, it is done by using a fan blowing air into or onto the object one wants to cool. The addition of fins to a heat sink increases its total surface area, resulting in greater cooling effectiveness. There are two types of cooling pads that can used for air cooling: one is the honeycomb design and another one is excelsior.In all cases, the air has to be cooler than the object or surface from which it is expected to remove heat. This is due to the second law of thermodynamics, which states that heat will only move spontaneously from a hot reservoir (the heat sink) to a cold reservoir (the air).
Derating at high altitude:
When operating in an environment with lower air pressure like high altitude or airplane cabins, the cooling capacity has to be derated compared to that of sea level.
A rule-of-thumb formula to note: 1 – (h/17500) = derating factor. Where h is the height over sea level in meters. And the result is the factor that should be multiplied with the cooling capacity in [W] to get the cooling capacity at the specified height over sea level. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Honda–Tate theorem**
Honda–Tate theorem:
In mathematics, the Honda–Tate theorem classifies abelian varieties over finite fields up to isogeny. It states that the isogeny classes of simple abelian varieties over a finite field of order q correspond to algebraic integers all of whose conjugates (given by eigenvalues of the Frobenius endomorphism on the first cohomology group or Tate module) have absolute value √q.
Tate (1966) showed that the map taking an isogeny class to the eigenvalues of the Frobenius is injective, and Taira Honda (1968) showed that this map is surjective, and therefore a bijection. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Stage machinery**
Stage machinery:
Stage machinery, also known as stage mechanics, comprises the mechanical devices used to create special effects in theatrical productions. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**August 2013 NASDAQ flash freeze**
August 2013 NASDAQ flash freeze:
For three hours on August 22, 2013, trading was halted on the Nasdaq Stock Market. Trading on the exchange stopped at 12:14 pm and resumed at 3:25 pm, with 35 minutes left of trading for the day. One week after the trading halt NASDAQ OMX credited the freeze to an overloading of the Securities Information Processor (SIP) caused by reconnection issues with the New York Stock Exchange Arca. The freeze received substantial media coverage and generated discussions on the security of increasingly technologically advanced stock exchanges. The event coined the term "flash freeze" following the earlier "flash crash" on May 6, 2010.Throughout the freeze the Nasdaq composite remained at 3631.17. Following the reopening of the market it rose, closing at 3,638.71, 1.1% higher. Shares of the Nasdaq exchange closed 3.42% down following the freeze.
Summary of events:
At 10:53 am New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) Arca could not connect to the SIP after multiple attempts. Subsequently, Nasdaq declared ‘self help’ for Arca. This was revoked at 11:09 am, suggesting that the issue with Arca had been resolved. At 12:14 pm a technical issue impacted price quote distribution. This refers to be ability of the exchange to accurately provide prices of securities that are being traded. At 12:20 pm, all trading was halted on the Nasdaq exchange. There was a subsequent trading halt placed on ‘Tape C’ stocks - Nasdaq listed stocks which may be traded on other exchanges, as quotes could not be provided for those securities. Unlike some purposeful trading halts, options trading did not continue during the flash freeze. In a statement, Nasdaq claimed that the initial cause of the outage was identified and resolved within 30 minutes and that the additional outage time was to ensure that there would be a stable reopening of the market. Test trades began at 2:45 pm and trading officially resumed at 3:25 pm. It was later reported that trades in ‘dark pools’ on Nasdaq listed securities continued in a limited manner past 12:14 pm when trading was halted, until approximately 1:15 pm.Multiple "dark pool" trading platforms were also shut down during the freeze, and some did not reopen until the follow day, such as Sigma X, a dark pool operated by Goldman Sachs Group Inc. Dark pools operated by other prominent banks and trading firms such as Wells Fargo and Citadel LLC were also non operational for periods of the freeze. These dark pools are not the jurisdiction of the Nasdaq or the NYSE but are reliant on accurate quotes being issued on stocks listed on either exchange and therefore cannot operate when Nasdaq stocks cannot be traded.
Cause:
Prior to a public statement made by Nasdaq OMX released on the evening of August 22, there was speculation in financial markets as to the cause of the outage. Some media outlets suggested that the outage was caused by a coding error, while others speculated that hacking could have been the cause.The cause of the outage was identified as being a capacity issue with the Nasdaq SIP. A capacity assessment had been run on the SIP in January 2013 which found that each of the 50 ports in the system could tolerate 10,000 items per second, meaning the whole SIP had a capacity of 500,000 items per second. On August 22, 2013, the NYSE Arca system sent multiple sequences to Nasdaq which consumed a large amount of the system's capacity. The SIP then received quote for inaccurate symbols, the few characters which are used to represent a security on an exchange, from NYSE Arca. This resulted in the SIP generating a numerous quote rejects which further absorbed capacity of the SIP. Every connect and disconnect sequence sent by NYSE Arca to the SIP resulted in over 26000 updates, per port per second. This enormously overwhelmed the Nasdaq SIP and resulted in a system shut down to ensure fairness in the market and prevent further overloading. Nasdaq stated that the volume of activity, per port, per second, at the time of the freeze, was 26 times that of a usual trading day.
NASDAQ Response:
On August 22, 2013, NASDAQ OMX released a brief statement citing a connectivity issue between an exchange participant and the SIP as the catalyst for the inability to distribute quotes. The "exchange participant", later named as NYSE Arca was not specified in the initial statement. It was stated that the initial error was identified and resolved within 30 minutes and that the subsequent outage time was spent coordinating with regulators and stakeholders.On August 29, 2013, NASDAQ OMX issued a statement detailing the causes of the trading halt, as well as admitting a degree of responsibility for the outage. The statement accredited a number of convergent issues as the cause of the outage, some of which NASDAQ OMX took responsibility for. Of these issues they stated that “we are responsible for them, regret them, and intend to take all steps necessary to address them to enhance stability and functionality of the markets.” However, the statement also placed significant blame on the NYSE Arca system as the primary cause for the outage. The statement referred to systemic technological issues and called for collaboration among market leaders to progress the systems. The statement included references to policy changes and design improvements intended to mitigate the potential for further outages, specifically citing disaster recovery, as well as to improve communication with market participants when issues arise.The Chief Executive of NASDAQ at the time, Robert Greifeld, said in an interview with The New York Times that they did not blame Arca and the NYSE for the shutdown, instead suggesting that a broader issue with technology in the market was to blame, as well as stating that the Nasdaq shared responsibility for the issues.
New York Stock Exchange response:
The NYSE refuted Nasdaq's claims that Arca was the primary cause of the outage. They took the position that Nasdaq was responsible for establishing and maintaining a system that could handle significant amounts of traffic and that a connectivity issue should not result in a closure of the entire exchange.
Industry response:
Various responses were issued by US regulators and financial services firms during and after the freeze. Then Chairman of the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), Mary Jo White issued a statement following the halt saying that the matter was serious and that it "should reinforce our collective commitment to addressing technological vulnerabilities of exchanges". She also stated that a meeting would be called between the leaders of the NYSE and Nasdaq exchange to encourage efforts to strengthen the markets. In the weeks following the freeze, the SEC called for both Nasdaq OMX and NYSE Euronext to develop timelines of the freeze in order to identify the causes and areas for improvement. It was reported that the two platforms had conflicting reports of the causes and events.Nasdaq were also criticised for their lack of communication with traders and retail investors while the market was closed. Significantly, no message was sent by Nasdaq through the market feed to inform traders that the freeze had occurred. These messages are relied upon by automatic trading systems to ensure trades are not placed on markets which aren't operating, and resulted in manual shut down of trades in some firms. LandColt Capital Managing Director Todd Schoenberger was quoted as saying "The lack of transparency—we haven't heard from the Nasdaq, we haven't heard from Washington—it creates chaos and uncertainty.” Harvey Pitt, a former chair of the SEC was quoted as saying "It looked like Nasdaq was clueless about how to deal with this emergency." Media outlets reported that market participants were in communication with Nasdaq throughout the freeze, stating that there was an emphasis on ensuring the reopening of the market was without error, likely in an attempt to avoid a situation similar to the Facebook IPO. Many stakeholders believed that further issues at the reopening of the market would serve to damage investor confidence, and could lead to more substantial declines in the Nasdaq composite's value.Some finance industry commentators and participants suggested that the lack of severe market downturns following the freeze suggested that investors were becoming more understandable of the technical issues associated with increasingly automated trading platforms. Ryan Detrick, a strategist with Schaeffer's Investment Research said of the matter: "The fact we didn’t see a larger dip on today’s mess shows most investors are, for better or worse, becoming more comfortable with these mistakes." However, other commentators highlighted the widespread uncertainty that technical glitches can contribute to. CEO of JonesTrading Group, William Jones was quoted as saying "This takes confidence from the markets," as well as suggesting that traders were unsure if they could trust quotes published on various stocks, quoting his traders as asking "Are these prints real, or are they not real?".
Impact on financial markets:
Unlike the flash crash of 2010, there were no significant losses in the market as a result of the trading halt. Media outlets suggested that the impact of the freeze was mitigated due to its timing, a Thursday afternoon in mid August, as well as by its relatively short time period. Michael Farr also credited the nature of the freeze, being caused by an error between exchanges, as assisting in preventing sell offs and negative impacts on other markets such as gold. A similar sentiment was expressed by Christopher Nagy, who is quoted by FOX News as saying "I think people realized it’s a technology issue rather than a major news event or something that would create panic and dysfunction." However, the freeze raised further questions about the increasing risks posed by tech advances in the finance industry, contributing to potential dips in market confidence. Particularly, a number of media outlets considered the potential for targeted cyber attacks on significant trading platforms. It was pointed out by many that increased frequency of technical glitches in financial markets would decrease trader confidence, which could lead to dramatic market sell offs. While this was not the case for the August 2013 flash freeze, other technical glitches such as in September 2013, and again October 2013 can create trends.
Impact on financial markets:
The structure of the industry was considered a contributing factor in the crash, given that miscommunication between NYSE and Nasdaq systems was the primary cause. Some journalists and financial commentators suggested that the freeze was evidence of the need for industry wide cooperation in developing emergency procedures to cope with the issues posed by high frequency trading. Democratic New York Senator Chuck Schumer was quoted as saying that the freeze was indicative of increasing computerisation of trading firms and exchange systems, calling for regulators to consider "fundamental market structure reforms." It was reported that the Commodity Futures Trading Commission (CFTC) intended to develop a plan to further regulate computer based trading in the wake of the flash freeze, also spurred by the Goldman Sachs Group glitch that occurred the week prior.Brokerage firms that generate income through the execution of customer orders as well as proprietary trading firms were exposed to potential income loss during the freeze. Particularly given that many significant stocks such as Apple, Facebook, Google, and Amazon are listed on the Nasdaq, the shut down caused substantial interruptions to financial firms.
Impact on financial markets:
It was suggested by some media outlets that the decision of Twitter to hold their initial public offering (IPO) on the NYSE was partially a result of the flash freeze. The issues with the Facebook IPO were also credited as a cause for this decision. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Tobacco smoke enema**
Tobacco smoke enema:
The tobacco smoke enema, an insufflation of tobacco smoke into the rectum by enema, was a medical treatment employed by European physicians for a range of ailments.
Tobacco smoke enema:
Tobacco was recognised as a medicine soon after it was first imported from the New World, and tobacco smoke was used by western medical practitioners as a tool against cold and drowsiness, but applying it by enema was a technique appropriated from the North American indigenous peoples. The procedure was used to treat gut pain, and attempts were often made to resuscitate victims of near drowning. Liquid tobacco enemas were often given to ease the symptoms of a hernia.
Tobacco smoke enema:
During the early 19th century the practice fell into decline, when it was discovered that the principal active agent in tobacco smoke, nicotine, is poisonous.
Tobacco in medicine:
Before the Columbian Exchange, tobacco was unknown in the Old World. The Native Americans, from whom the first western explorers learnt about tobacco, used the leaf for a variety of purposes, including religious worship, but Europeans soon became aware that the Americans also used tobacco for medicinal purposes. The French diplomat Jean Nicot used a tobacco poultice as an analgesic, and Nicolás Monardes advocated tobacco as a treatment for a long list of diseases, such as cancer, headaches, respiratory problems, stomach cramps, gout, intestinal worms and female diseases. Contemporaneous medical science placed much weight on humorism, and for a short period tobacco became a panacea. Its use was mentioned in pharmacopoeia as a tool against cold and somnolence brought on by particular medical afflictions, its effectiveness being explained by its ability to soak up moisture, to warm parts of the body, and to therefore maintain the equilibrium so important to a healthy person. In an attempt to discourage disease tobacco was also used to fumigate buildings.In addition to the Native Americans' use of tobacco smoke enemas for stimulating respiration, European physicians also employed them for a range of ailments, e.g., headaches, respiratory failure, colds, hernias, abdominal cramps, typhoid fever, and cholera outbreaks.An early example of European use of this procedure was described in 1686 by Thomas Sydenham, who to cure iliac passion prescribed first bleeding, followed by a tobacco smoke enema: Here, therefore, I conceive it most proper to bleed first in the arm, and an hour or two afterwards to throw up a strong purging glyster; and I know of none so strong and effectual as the smoke of tobacco, forced up through a large bladder into the bowels by an inverted pipe, which may be repeated after a short interval, if the former, by giving a stool, does not open a passage downwards. However, emulating the Catawba, 19th-century Danish farmers reportedly used these enemas for constipated horses.
Medical opinion:
To physicians of the time, the appropriate treatment for "apparent death" was warmth and stimulation. Anne Greene, a woman sentenced to death and hanged in 1650 for the supposed murder of her stillborn child, was found by anatomists to be still alive. They revived her by pouring hot cordial down her throat, rubbing her limbs and extremities, bleeding her, applying heating plasters and a "heating odoriferous Clyster to be cast up in her body, to give heat and warmth to her bowels." After placing her in a warm bed with another woman, to keep her warm, she recovered fully and was pardoned.Artificial respiration and the blowing of smoke into the lungs or the rectum were thought to be interchangeably useful, but the smoke enema was considered the most potent method, due to its supposed warming and stimulating properties. The Dutch experimented with methods of inflating the lungs, as a treatment for those who had fallen into their canals and apparently drowned. Patients were also given rectal infusions of tobacco smoke, as a respiratory stimulant. Richard Mead was among the first Western scholars to recommend tobacco smoke enemas to resuscitate victims of drowning, when in 1745 he recommended tobacco glysters to treat iatrogenic drowning caused by immersion therapy. His name was cited in one of the earliest documented cases of resuscitation by rectally applied tobacco smoke, from 1746, when a seemingly drowned woman was treated. On the advice of a passing sailor, the woman's husband inserted the stem of the sailor's pipe into her rectum, covered the bowl with a piece of perforated paper, and "blew hard". The woman was apparently revived.In the 1780s the Royal Humane Society installed resuscitation kits, including smoke enemas, at various points along the River Thames, and by the turn of the 19th century, tobacco smoke enemas had become an established practice in Western medicine, considered by Humane Societies to be as important as artificial respiration.
Medical opinion:
"Tobacco glyster, breath and bleed.Keep warm and rub till you succeed.And spare no pains for what you do;May one day be repaid to you." By 1805, the use of rectally applied tobacco smoke was so established as a way to treat obstinate constrictions of the alimentary canal that doctors began experimenting with other delivery mechanisms. In one experiment, a decoction of half a drachm of tobacco in four ounces of water was used as an enema in a patient suffering from general convulsion where there was no expected recovery. The decoction worked as a powerful agent to penetrate and "roused the sensibility" of the patient to end the convulsions, although the decoction resulted in excited sickness, vomiting, and profuse perspiration. Such enemas were often used to treat hernias. A middle-aged man was reported in 1843 to have died following an application, performed to treat a strangulated hernia, and in a similar case in 1847 a woman was given a liquid tobacco enema, supplemented with a chicken broth enema, and pills of opium and calomel (taken orally). The woman later recovered.In 1811, a medical writer noted that "[t]he powers of the Tobacco Enema are so remarkable, that they have arrested the attention of practitioners in a remarkable manner. Of the effects and the method of exhibiting the smoke of Tobacco per anum, much has been written", providing a list of European publications on the subject. Smoke enemas were also used to treat various other afflictions. An 1827 report in a medical journal tells of a woman treated for constipation with repeated smoke enemas, with little apparent success. According to a report of 1835, tobacco enemas were used successfully to treat cholera "in the stage of collapse".
Medical opinion:
I may observe, that before I was called to this case, stercoraceous vomiting had decidedly set in. My object in ordering the tobacco infusion and smoke enemata was to favour the reduction of any obscure hernia or muscular spasm of the bowel which might exist. I also directed that the attendants of the girl should, after she had taken the crude mercury, frequently raise her up in bed, (she was too feeble to raise herself,) to alter her position from one side to the other, from the back to the belly, and vice versa, with the view of favouring the gravitation of the mercury to the lower bowels.
Decline:
Attacks on the theories surrounding the ability of tobacco to cure diseases had begun early in the 17th century. King James I was scathing of its effectiveness, writing "[it] will not deigne to cure heere any other than cleanly and gentlemanly diseases." Others claimed that smoking dried out the humours, that snuff made the brain sooty, and that old people should not smoke as they were naturally dried up anyway.While certain beliefs regarding the effectiveness of tobacco smoke to protect against disease persisted until well into the 20th century, the use of smoke enemas in Western medicine declined after 1811, when through animal experimentation Benjamin Brodie demonstrated that nicotine—the principal active agent in tobacco smoke—is a cardiac poison that can stop the circulation of blood. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**6-aminohexanoate-cyclic-dimer hydrolase**
6-aminohexanoate-cyclic-dimer hydrolase:
In enzymology, a 6-aminohexanoate-cyclic-dimer hydrolase (EC 3.5.2.12) is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction 1,8-diazacyclotetradecane-2,9-dione + H2O ⇌ N-(6-aminohexanoyl)-6-aminohexanoateThus, the two substrates of this enzyme are 1,8-diazacyclotetradecane-2,9-dione and H2O, whereas its product is N-(6-aminohexanoyl)-6-aminohexanoate.
This enzyme belongs to the family of hydrolases, those acting on carbon-nitrogen bonds other than peptide bonds, specifically in cyclic amides. The systematic name of this enzyme class is 1,8-diazacyclotetradecane-2,9-dione lactamhydrolase. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Ornidazole**
Ornidazole:
Ornidazole is an antibiotic used to treat protozoan infections.: 1368 A synthetic nitroimidazole, it is commercially obtained from an acid-catalyzed reaction between 2-methyl-5-nitroimidazole and epichlorohydrin.Antimicrobial spectrum is similar to that of metronidazole and is more well tolerated;: 1368 however there are concerns of lower relative efficacy.It was first introduced for treating trichomoniasis before being recognized for its broad anti-protozoan and anti-anaerobic-bacterial capacities.: 1261 has also been investigated for use in Crohn's disease after bowel resection. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Independence of premise**
Independence of premise:
In proof theory and constructive mathematics, the principle of independence of premise states that if φ and ∃x θ are sentences in a formal theory and φ → ∃x θ is provable, then ∃x (φ → θ) is provable. Here x cannot be a free variable of φ, while θ can be a predicate depending on it.
The main application of the principle is in the study of intuitionistic logic, where the principle is not generally valid. The principle is valid in classical logic.
Discussion:
As is common, the domain of discourse is assumed to be inhabited. That is, part of the theory is at least some term. For the discussion we distinguish one such term as a. In the theory of the natural numbers, this role may be played by the number 7. Below, φ and ψ denote propositions not depending on x, while θ is a predicate that can depend on in.
Discussion:
The following is easily established: Firstly, if φ is established to be true, then if one assumes φ → ∃x θ to be provable, there is an x satisfying φ → θ.
Discussion:
Secondly, if φ is established to be false, then, by the explosion, any proposition of the form φ → ψ holds. Then, any x formally satisfies φ → θ (and indeed any predicate of this form.)In the first scenario, some x bound in the premise is reused in the conclusion, and it is generally not the apriori a that validates it. In the second scenario, the value a in particular validates the conclusion of the principle. So in both of these two cases, some x validates the conclusion.
Discussion:
Thirdly, now in contrast to the two points above, consider the case in which it is not known how to prove or reject φ. A core case is when φ is the formula ∃z θ(z), in which case the antecedent φ → ∃x θ becomes trivial: "If θ is satisfiable then θ is satisfiable." For illustration purposes, let it be granted that θ is a decidable predicate in arithmetic, meaning for any given number b the proposition θ(b) can easily be inspected for its truth value. More specifically, θ shall express that x is the index of a formal proof of some mathematical conjecture whose provability is not known. Certainly here, one way to establish ∃x (φ → θ) would be to provide a particular index x for which it can be shown (then aided by the assumption that some value z satisfies θ) that it genuinely satisfies θ. However, explicating a such x is not possible (not yet and possibly never), as such x exactly encodes the proof of a conjecture not yet proven or rejected.
Discussion:
In intuitionistic logic The arithmetical example above provides what is called a weak counterexample. The existence claim ∃x (φ → θ) cannot be provable by intuitionistic means: Being able to inspect an x validating φ → θ would resolve the conjecture.
Discussion:
For example, consider the following classical argument: Either the Goldbach conjecture has a proof or it does not. If it does not have a proof, then to assume is has a proof is absurd and anything follows - in particular, it follows that it has a proof. Hence, there is some natural number index x such that if one assumes the Goldbach conjecture has a proof, that x is an index of such a proof.
Discussion:
The issue can also be approached using the BHK interpretation for intuitionistic proofs, which should be compared against the classical proof calculus. BHK says that a proof of φ → ∃x θ comprises a function that takes a proof of φ and returns a proof of ∃x θ. Here proofs themselves can act as input to functions and, when possible, may be used to construct an x. A proof of ∃x (φ → θ) must then demonstrate a particular x, together with a function that converts a proof of φ into a proof of θ in which x has that value. In the proof calculus - like in the weak counterexample - a suitable x can only be given using more input tied to amenable φ.
Discussion:
Indeed, using violating models, it has been established that the premise φ → ∃x θ does not suffice for a generic proof of existence as granted by the principle.
Rules An implication is strengthened when the antecedent can be weakened. Of interest here are premises in the form of a negated statements, φ := ¬η.
It has been meta-theoretically that if ¬η → ∃x θ has a proof in arithmetic, then ∃x (¬η → θ) has a proof as well.
It is not known whether this also applies to familiar set theories.For existential-quantifier-free φ, theories over intuitionistic logic tend to be well behaved in regard to rules of this nature.
Kreisel-Putnam logic The Intuitionistic propositional calculus still has the disjunction property when the following related principle is adopted as an axiom: (¬η→(α∨β))→((¬η→α)∨(¬η→β)) The corresponding rule is an admissible rule.
In classical logic As noted, the independence of premise principle for fixed φ and any θ follows both from a proof of φ as well as from a rejection of it. Hence, assuming the law of the excluded middle disjunction axiomatically, the principle is valid.
Discussion:
For example, here ∃x ((∃y θ) → θ) always holds. More concretely, consider the proposition: "There exists a natural number x, such that if an index of a proof of the Goldbach conjecture exists, then the number x is the index of a proof of the Goldbach conjecture."This is classically provable, as follows: Either an index for a proof of the Goldbach conjecture exists, or no such index exists. On the one hand, if one does exist, then whatever that index is also functions as a valid x in the above proposition. On the other hand, if no such index exists, then for such an index to also exist is contradictory, and then by explosion anything follows - and in particular it follows that x=7 is an index of a proof of the Goldbach conjecture. In both cases, some index exists that validates the proposition.
Discussion:
Constructively, one needs to provide an x such that one can demonstrate (then aided by φ assumed valid and so also ∃y θ for some y) that θ holds for that x. Classically, it suffices to draw the same conclusion of interest when starting from two hypotheticals about φ. In the latter framework, some x is asserted to exist either which way, and the logic does not demand for it to be explicated. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Simulation algorithms for coupled DEVS**
Simulation algorithms for coupled DEVS:
Given a coupled DEVS model, simulation algorithms are methods to generate the model's legal behaviors, which are a set of trajectories not to reach illegal states. (see behavior of a Coupled DEVS model.) [Zeigler84] originally introduced the algorithms that handle time variables related to lifespan ts∈[0,∞] and elapsed time te∈[0,∞) by introducing two other time variables, last event time, tl∈[0,∞) , and next event time tn∈[0,∞] with the following relations: and where t∈[0,∞) denotes the current time. And the remaining time, is equivalently computed as apparently tr∈[0,∞] Based on these relationships, the algorithms to simulate the behavior of a given Coupled DEVS are written as follows.
Algorithm:
algorithm DEVS-coordinator Variables: parent // parent coordinator tl : // time of last event tn : // time of next event N=(X,Y,D,{Mi},Cxx,Cyx,Cyy,Select) // the associated Coupled DEVS model when receive init-message(Time t) for each i∈D do send init-message(t) to child i max {tli:i∈D} min {tni:i∈D} when receive star-message(Time t) if t≠tn then error: bad synchronization; i∗←Select({i∈D:tni=tn}); send star-message(t)to i∗ max {tli:i∈D} min {tni:i∈D} when receive x-message( x∈X , Time t) if (tl≤t and t≤tn) == false then error: bad synchronization; for each (x,xi)∈Cxx do send x-message( xi ,t) to child i max {tli:i∈D} min {tni:i∈D} when receive y-message( yi∈Yi , Time t) for each (yi,xi)∈Cyx do send x-message( xi ,t) to child i if Cyy(yi)≠ϕ then send y-message( Cyy(yi) , t) to parent; max {tli:i∈D} min {tni:i∈D} | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**MoviePlus**
MoviePlus:
Serif MoviePlus was a non-linear video editor created by Serif Europe that allowed both professional and home users to edit digital video and digital images.
This software is no longer supported, as Serif are concentrating on their Affinity range.
MoviePlus:
MoviePlus was affordable and popular with home and semi-professional filmmakers. It can be used to edit material from FireWire-attached MiniDV video from a consumer digital video camera, professional DV camera or HDV camera. The software captures video onto the computer's hard drive, where it can be edited and processed. The result can be recorded on MiniDV tape, converted into a format suitable for replaying on a PC, converted into a format suitable for uploading to a web site, or burning onto a DVD. The current version of MoviePlus X6 requires a minimum of an Intel Pentium 4 Hyper-Threading processor or AMD Athlon XP processor and 1 GB of RAM.
History:
From the early 2000s (decade), MoviePlus has developed an enthusiastic user base. Originally, it was designed largely for editing video from MiniDV camcorders, largely to produce DVDs.
MoviePlus 1 (2003) MoviePlus 4 (March 2004) MoviePlus 5 (March 2006) MoviePlus X3 (August 2008) MoviePlus X5 (February 2011) MoviePlus X6 (March 2012, current version)(no longer supported)
Features:
MoviePlus provides non-linear, non-destructive editing of any compatible video format. It supports unlimited simultaneously composited video tracks; unlimited audio tracks; as well as standard ripple, roll, slip, slide, scrub, razor blade and time remapping edit functions. It comes with a range of dissolve, iris, distortion and basic 3D transitions and a range of video filters.
MoviePlus, like all current NLE systems also has the ability to up-convert standard definition material to high definition as well as the ability to cross-convert video of differing frame rates. Like many similar products, all rendering is performed in software rather than in hardware: Rendering is a slow process, even on a fast computer.
Interface:
MoviePlus X6 is based around the Timeline, which can accommodate multiple Overlay, Music, video and audio tracks, either singly or organized into groups. Video and audio sources and images can be organized in a Media Panel and then dragged onto the appropriate part of the Timeline. Using an in-built file browser, they can also be dragged direct from any disk location.
Interface:
Once on the timeline, the tools in MoviePlus can be used to non-destructively edit, manipulate and re-arrange these source. All actions can be previewed using the Video Preview screen. The Properties panel displays detailed information about any selected source and permits detailed adjustments. There are two audio level indicators for the left and right audio channels. The positions and sizes of these panel can be changed and while using multiple computer monitors, the different panels can be moved onto different monitors.
Interface:
MoviePlus has a shuttle interface (for variable-speed scanning through a clip, forwards or backwards) and a jogging interface (for frame-by-frame advancing).
MoviePlus X3 added a storyboard mode which simplifies editing for linear projects and cleaner and simpler interface.
Project Files:
Like similar digital non-linear editing applications, MoviePlus does not actually alter the media sources; it builds a small "project file" which contains links to all media sources used, together with details of virtual edits, transitions, special effects and titling.
Note: The project file contains only links to the locations of the sources; it does not contain the actual sources.
Project Files:
When the completed movie is exported, MoviePlus uses this project file to build, render and encode the movie. If a media source has been moved to a different location on the hard disk, MoviePlus issues a warning and allows the operator to find the new location or to remove the source from that movie. If several media sources have been moved to similar new locations, MoviePlus can quickly re-connect with the whole group.
Key Frames:
Effects and envelopes are introduced by placing special "Key Frames" on a track of the timeline. Each of these key frames holds information about the "effect" to be applied at that instant to a particular media source. For example: The opacity, colour or zoom of a video source; the volume or pan of an audio source; the pan, zoom, rotation of an image. Key-framed changes can be applied at the source, track, or group level.
Computer Generated Sources:
MoviePlus provides computer generated sources for coloured backgrounds, shapes and masks, and text in a variety of styles. These can be adjusted and dragged to the timeline.
Advanced editing and Blending modes:
MoviePlus supports an unlimited number of Overlay, Music, video and audio tracks, as well as Video tracks groups for linking elements together. Blending modes like the ones in Adobe Photoshop are also possible, enabling advanced blending with Overlay or Multiply effects that are generally not common on entry-level packages. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Rokushō**
Rokushō:
Rokushō (緑青) is a traditional Japanese chemical compound used in the niiro process for artificially inducing patination in decorative non-ferrous metals, especially several copper alloys, with the results being metals of the irogane class. These "colour metals," virtually unknown outside Japan until the late 19th century, have achieved some popularity in craft circles in other parts of the world since then.
Usage:
Rokushō is used to treat a number of metals, including raw natural copper, which holds impurities, purified copper, and copper alloy mixes with two to five metals, to produce irogane metals, including: shakudō, an alloy of copper and gold, which becomes black to dark blue-violet; shibuichi, an alloy of fine silver and copper (in a higher percentage than sterling), which turns grey to misty aquamarine or other shades of blue to green; kuromido which becomes dark coppery black.
Usage:
Rokushō was generally used to patinate all types of mokume-gane ("wood grain metal") as well.
Although other patination agents can be used on these metals, some artisans prefer the rich colors achieved with traditional rokushō in the niiro process.
Usage:
These metals are becoming increasingly popular in high-end artistic jewelry, especially in bi-metals (a layer of the alloy fused to another metal such as sterling). Because rokushō has a dramatically different effect on sterling silver than on the alloys typically fused to it in bi-metals, a common technique in art jewelry is to engrave through the alloy layer in a pattern to reveal the silver underneath prior to patination. This provides a rich contrast in color, highlighting the pattern.
Formulation:
The formulae for rokushō are not published widely or freely, but passed on in the Japanese craft tradition. However, some scholars have analysed samples of the material.
Formulation:
Premixed rokushō can be purchased outside Japan through specialty jewelry suppliers. Additionally, several different formulas have been proposed to replicate the traditional product for those who prefer to make their own: In a container made of glass, porcelain, or copper, dissolve 6g copper acetate, 2g calcium carbonate, and 2g sodium hydroxide in 150ml water. After a week, siphon or decant the clear liquid from the top; just before use, add another 2g copper sulfate.
Formulation:
Dissolve 4g copper acetate, 1g copper nitrate, 1g cupric chloride, and 4g copper sulfate in 1 liter of distilled water.
Formulation:
Dissolve 60g copper acetate and 60g copper sulfate in a 2-liter solution of white vinegar diluted 5-12% with water.Rokusho is not used alone, but mixed with one or more other chemicals. Further, metal to be processed is cleaned in advance of treatment, using a mild acid bath (oxalic or sulfuric acids are frequently used), scrubbing with daikon radish or pumice, and/or a surface abrasive, and often treated after patination also. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Subgame**
Subgame:
In game theory, a subgame is any part (a subset) of a game that meets the following criteria (the following terms allude to a game described in extensive form): It has a single initial node that is the only member of that node's information set (i.e. the initial node is in a singleton information set).
If a node is contained in the subgame then so are all of its successors.
If a node in a particular information set is in the subgame then all members of that information set belong to the subgame.It is a notion used in the solution concept of subgame perfect Nash equilibrium, a refinement of the Nash equilibrium that eliminates non-credible threats.
Subgame:
The key feature of a subgame is that it, when seen in isolation, constitutes a game in its own right. When the initial node of a subgame is reached in a larger game, players can concentrate only on that subgame; they can ignore the history of the rest of the game (provided they know what subgame they are playing). This is the intuition behind the definition given above of a subgame. It must contain an initial node that is a singleton information set since this is a requirement of a game. Otherwise, it would be unclear where the player with first move should start at the beginning of a game (but see nature's choice). Even if it is clear in the context of the larger game which node of a non-singleton information set has been reached, players could not ignore the history of the larger game once they reached the initial node of a subgame if subgames cut across information sets. Furthermore, a subgame can be treated as a game in its own right, but it must reflect the strategies available to players in the larger game of which it is a subset. This is the reasoning behind 2 and 3 of the definition. All the strategies (or subsets of strategies) available to a player at a node in a game must be available to that player in the subgame the initial node of which is that node.
Subgame perfection:
One of the principal uses of the notion of a subgame is in the solution concept subgame perfection, which stipulates that an equilibrium strategy profile be a Nash equilibrium in every subgame.
Subgame perfection:
In a Nash equilibrium, there is some sense in which the outcome is optimal - every player is playing a best response to the other players. However, in some dynamic games this can yield implausible equilibria. Consider a two-player game in which player 1 has a strategy S to which player 2 can play B as a best response. Suppose also that S is a best response to B. Hence, {S,B} is a Nash equilibrium. Let there be another Nash equilibrium {S',B'}, the outcome of which player 1 prefers and B' is the only best response to S'. In a dynamic game, the first Nash equilibrium is implausible (if player 1 moves first) because player 1 will play S', forcing the response (say) B' from player 2 and thereby attaining the second equilibrium (regardless of the preferences of player 2 over the equilibria). The first equilibrium is subgame imperfect because B does not constitute a best response to S' once S' has been played, i.e. in the subgame reached by player 1 playing S', B is not optimal for player 2.
Subgame perfection:
If not all strategies at a particular node were available in a subgame containing that node, it would be unhelpful in subgame perfection. One could trivially call an equilibrium subgame perfect by ignoring playable strategies to which a strategy was not a best response. Furthermore, if subgames cut across information sets, then a Nash equilibrium in a subgame might suppose a player had information in that subgame, he did not have in the larger game. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Natural Selection (manuscript)**
Natural Selection (manuscript):
Natural Selection is a manuscript written by Charles Darwin, in which he presented his theory of natural selection and its role in biological evolution.
Natural Selection (manuscript):
He did not publish the full work while he was alive, but wrote an abstract, titled On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life, which he published in 1859. He published the first two chapters of the manuscript, with additions, in 1868 as the two volume book The Variation of Animals and Plants Under Domestication.
Natural Selection (manuscript):
Darwin regarded Natural Selection as his main work, while On the Origin of Species was written for a wider audience. He always intended to finish Natural Selection, but because of frail health, the publicity and work involved in publishing six editions of On the Origin of Species, plus other research and publications, he never got around to finish it.
The unpublished eight and a half chapters of Natural Selection were among the manuscripts collated after Darwin's death, and were first transcribed and published in 1975. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Velocity triangle**
Velocity triangle:
In turbomachinery, a velocity triangle or a velocity diagram is a triangle representing the various components of velocities of the working fluid in a turbomachine. Velocity triangles may be drawn for both the inlet and outlet sections of any turbomachine. The vector nature of velocity is utilized in the triangles, and the most basic form of a velocity triangle consists of the tangential velocity, the absolute velocity and the relative velocity of the fluid making up three sides of the triangle.
Velocities involved:
A general velocity triangle consists of the following vectors: V : Absolute velocity of the fluid.
U : Blade Linear velocity.
Vr: Relative velocity of the fluid after contact with rotor.
Vw: Tangential component of V (absolute velocity), called Whirl velocity.
Velocities involved:
Vf: Flow velocity (axial component in case of axial machines, radial component in case of radial machines).The following angles are encountered during the analysis: α: Absolute angle is an angle made by V with the plane of the machine (usually the nozzle angle or the guide blade angle) i.e. angle made by absolute velocity V and the direction of blade rotation U β: Relative angle is an angle made by relative velocity and direction of blade rotation. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Butane (data page)**
Butane (data page):
This page provides supplementary chemical data on n-butane.
Material Safety Data Sheet:
The handling of this chemical may incur notable safety precautions. It is highly recommend that you seek the Material Safety Datasheet (MSDS) for this chemical from a reliable source such as eChemPortal, and follow its directions.
Vapor pressure of liquid:
n-Butane: Table data obtained from CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 44th ed. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Chalky paper**
Chalky paper:
In philately, chalky paper is a type of paper coated with a chalky solution for security purposes. The postmark cannot be removed without damaging the surface of the stamp thus discouraging erasure of cancellations and fraudulent reuse of stamps. The paper was first coated with a chalk-like powder, and the ink for the stamp was then impressed upon the paper. Collectors are cautioned not to attempt to remove a stamp printed on chalky paper from an envelope or paper backer by soaking it in fluid, as this may destroy the stamp's design. A simple test for chalky paper is to rub a silver coin over it, resulting in a "pencil" type mark. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Novell Embedded Systems Technology**
Novell Embedded Systems Technology:
Novell Embedded Systems Technology (NEST) was a series of APIs, data formats and network protocol stacks written in a highly portable fashion intended to be used in embedded systems. The idea was to allow various small devices to access Novell NetWare services, provide such services, or use NetWare's IPX protocol as a communications system (and later also TCP/IP). Novell referred to this concept as "Extended Networks", and when the effort was launched they boasted that they wanted to see one billion devices connected to NetWare networks by year 2000. NEST was launched in mid-1994 countering Microsoft's similar Microsoft at Work efforts, which had been launched in 1993.
Novell Embedded Systems Technology:
Neither technology saw much third-party support, although some of NEST's code was apparently re-used in Novell Distributed Print Services (NDPS), and thus iPrint.
Architecture:
NEST consisted primarily of a Novell protocol driver stack implemented in ANSI C. The stack included drivers for then-popular networking hardware, including Ethernet, Token Ring, AppleTalk (actually referring to LocalTalk, a common confusion) and ISDN, as well as higher-level modules for protocols such as Novell's own IPX, and AppleTalk, and later TCP/IP.The NetWare Services Layer added support for application protocols, notably NetWare client services such as file servers and network time synchronization, and the NEST Requester which acted as a pipe-like endpoint for lightweight communications.Orthogonal to these services, NEST also included basic implementations of Novell's PSERVER and NPRINTER servers.Finally, NEST also defined an operating system interface known as POSE (Portable Operating System Extension), which was a thin translation module defining all of the calls NEST needed to support its own functionality, things like memory management and process creation (as POSIX 1003.1, 1003.4, and 1003.4A subsets), which the developer ported to the particular platform of interest. NEST was deliberately written to be able to run from ROM without secondary storage (i.e., it had no long-term state it needed to store).Whereas the Digital Research-inherited modular real-time multi-user multi-tasking operating system FlexOS was used by Novell as a primary test platform during development, NEST did not include an operating system of its own, and instead was intended to be used on existing platforms and OSs.
Architecture:
One such third-party OS to support NEST in 1995 was pSOS+ by Integrated Systems (ISI) a company who had bought FlexOS from Novell for US$3,000,000 in July 1994. The deal comprised a direct payment of half this sum as well as shares representing 2% of the company.
Architecture:
The NEST code was deliberately modular, in order to allow developers to use as much or as little of the overall package as they needed. It was expected that developers would pick and choose the components they needed, for instance, a device reporting status over the network might choose only the NEST Requester, IPX and an Ethernet driver, removing the rest from their assembly. In contrast, Microsoft at Work could be used in a similar fashion, but it seemed that it was generally expected that end users would use the complete system as the basis of their devices in a fashion similar to the later Windows CE.
Impact:
Like at Work, however, NEST appears to have seen little real-world use. After the initial release in 1994, there appears to be little news on NEST, followed by another flurry in early 1996 when TCP/IP support was added, at which point Novell claimed there were over 80 companies using NEST, including major office machinery firms like Canon, Hewlett-Packard, Ricoh, and Xerox. However, NEST then went the way of at Work, and was abandoned within Novell in January 1997. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**PORCN**
PORCN:
PORCN (porcupine homolog – Drosophila) is a human gene.
The protein is homologous to other membrane-bound O-acyltransferases.
Function:
The protein encoded by this gene is an endoplasmic reticulum transmembrane protein involved in processing of wingless proteins such as WNT7A. It performs O-Palmitoleoylation of these proteins.
Clinical significance:
Mutations in this gene are associated with focal dermal hypoplasia.Mutations in PORCN are associated to Goltz-Gorlin syndrome.
Ligands:
Inhibitors WNT974 (LGK-974) - 1243244-14-5, researched for anti-cancer effects in Wnt-pathway sensitive tumours. Also investigated for influencing cardiac tissue remodelling following infarction.IWP (1-4) RXC004 | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Eisner Award for Best Lettering**
Eisner Award for Best Lettering:
The Eisner Award for Best Lettering is an award for "creative achievement" in American comic books. It is awarded to a Letterer. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Genmaicha**
Genmaicha:
Genmaicha (玄米茶, "brown rice tea") is a Japanese brown rice green tea consisting of green tea mixed with roasted popped brown rice. It is sometimes referred to colloquially as "popcorn tea" because a few grains of the rice pop during the roasting process and resemble popcorn, or as "people's tea", as the rice served as a filler and reduced the price of the tea, making it historically more available for poorer Japanese. Today all segments of society drink genmaicha. It was also used by people fasting for religious purposes or who found themselves to be between meals for long periods of time.
Genmaicha:
The sugar and starch from the rice cause the tea to have a warm, full, nutty flavor. It is considered easy to drink and to make the stomach feel better. Tea steeped from genmaicha has a light yellow hue. Its flavor is mild and combines the fresh grassy flavor of green tea with the aroma of the roasted rice.
Genmaicha:
Genmaicha is also sold with matcha (powdered green tea) added to it. This product is called matcha-iri genmaicha (抹茶入り玄米茶) (lit. genmaicha with added powdered tea). Matcha-iri genmaicha has a similar flavor to plain genmaicha, but the flavor is often stronger and the color more green than light yellow.In South Korea, a very similar tea is called hyeonminokcha (현미녹차; "brown rice green tea"), while the word hyeonmicha (현미차), which is a cognate of genmaicha, refers to an infusion of roasted brown rice in boiling water. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Great tarsal synovial membrane**
Great tarsal synovial membrane:
The great tarsal synovial membrane is a synovial membrane in the foot.
The synovial membranes between the second and third, and the third and fourth metatarsal bones are part of the great tarsal synovial membrane; that between the fourth and fifth metatarsal bones is a prolongation of the synovial membrane of the cuboideometatarsal joint. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**SB-205384**
SB-205384:
SB-205384 is an anxiolytic drug. It has similar effects to benzodiazepine drugs, but is structurally distinct and so is classed as a nonbenzodiazepine anxiolytic.
SB-205384:
SB-205384 is a GABAA positive allosteric modulator, which binds preferentially to α3, α5, and α6 subunit containing subtypes. It has a novel mechanism of action, prolonging the duration of GABA-mediated chloride flux but without increasing the intensity of the response, and this may give it an unusual pharmacological profile, with tests showing that it alters the firing of some populations of neurons while leaving others unaffected. Animal studies have shown it to produce both anxiolytic and anti-aggressive effects, but with little sedation or other behavioural changes. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Clesh**
Clesh:
Clesh (clip load edit share) is a cloud-based video editing platform designed for the consumers, prosumers, and online communities to integrate user-generated content. The core technology is based on FORscene which is geared towards professionals working for example in broadcasting, news media, post production.
Video, audio, and graphical content is uploaded to Clesh via a standard web browser, a mobile device such as a phone / tablet, or desktop software for DV capture over FireWire. The hosted material can then be reviewed, searched, edited, and published online by anyone with a standard web browser or compatible mobile device.
Clesh supports storyboard shot selection, frame-accurate editing, transitions and various other functions such as; pan, zoom, colour and light correction, and audio levels. Content can be published in formats for example; Podcast, Mpeg2, HTML5 video or in a proprietary Java format.
Cloud-based software provides greater scope for sharing information and collaborating compared to LAN or desktop based systems. Users of cloud-based software rely on the cloud's owner for adequate security, performance and resilience.
Clesh does not assert any rights over uploaded content in contrast to other platforms (such as YouTube). All rights to any content uploaded to Clesh remain with the Author.
Features:
Some of the services available to Clesh users: Access via Java enabled desktops or Android smartphones or tablets Real-time video rendering including effects and transitions Multiple audio tracks Secured log-on Frame accurate timeline for fine cut editing Logging / meta-data annotation assigns text to portions of video (usable by Clesh and web search engines) Storyboard assembles rough cuts using drag-and-drop Import, host, organise and search for media (DV tape and various video, audio, and still image formats) Publish content to in formats such as podcast, MPEG-2, web (Java Applet), Flash, Ogg, HTML5 and JPEG Chatrooms to talk to other Clesh users Showreel (a gallery for publishing material visible to internet users) Moderation for approval of material prior to distribution downstream Re-branding and integration support for white-label deployment
Technology:
Clesh is based on the same technology as FORscene. An array of servers on the internet backbone provide the cloud computing platform to host Clesh. As a white-label solution Clesh would be branded and hosted per the client requirement.
User Interface:
End-users access Clesh with a rich user interface on clients such as standard Java-enabled Web Browsers and / or Android enabled mobile devices such as tablets and smartphones.
History:
Clesh was launched January 2006 and subject to several upgrades during the year to extend functionality including; storyboard, podcasting, moderation, chat and a showreel. During 2007 consumers are offered Clesh via a subscription model. Upgrades include Web Start and graphics upload. Mr Paparazzi selects Clesh as the platform to host its video offering and TrueTube does the same in 2008 by choosing to use Clesh to manage its video portal. Several further upgrades are applied and include; better audio quality, image enhancement controls, transitions, fades, titles, and additional publishing options such as JPEG. In 2010 a version of Clesh is demonstrated on an Android OS tablet device (Samsung Galaxy S Tab), and several upgrades are applied including; HTML5 publishing, pan, zoom, and overlays. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Consciousness (Hill book)**
Consciousness (Hill book):
Consciousness is a 2009 book by Christopher S. Hill, in which the author offers explanations of six forms of consciousness: agent consciousness, propositional consciousness, introspective consciousness, relational consciousness, phenomenal consciousness, and experiential consciousness.
Reception:
The book has been reviewed by Joseph Levine, Fred Dretske, Daniel Stoljar, Adam Pautz, Ellen Fridland, Erhan Demircioglu and Gabriel Jucá. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Ranked poset**
Ranked poset:
In mathematics, a ranked partially ordered set or ranked poset may be either: a graded poset, or a poset with the property that for every element x, all maximal chains among those with x as greatest element have the same finite length, or a poset in which all maximal chains have the same finite length.The second definition differs from the first in that it requires all minimal elements to have the same rank; for posets with a least element, however, the two requirements are equivalent. The third definition is even more strict in that it excludes posets with infinite chains and also requires all maximal elements to have the same rank. Richard P. Stanley defines a graded poset of length n as one in which all maximal chains have length n. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Primary alcohol**
Primary alcohol:
A primary alcohol is an alcohol in which the hydroxy group is bonded to a primary carbon atom. It can also be defined as a molecule containing a “–CH2OH” group.
In contrast, a secondary alcohol has a formula “–CHROH” and a tertiary alcohol has a formula “–CR2OH”, where “R” indicates a carbon-containing group.
Examples of primary alcohols include ethanol and 1-butanol.
Methanol is also generally regarded as a primary alcohol, including by the 1911 edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Task View**
Task View:
Task View is a task switcher and virtual desktop system introduced in Windows 10 and is among the first features new to Windows 10. Task View allows a user to quickly locate an open window, quickly hide all windows and show the desktop, and to manage windows across multiple monitors or virtual desktops. Clicking the Task View button on the taskbar or swiping from the left side of the screen displays all open windows and allows users to switch between them, or switch between multiple workspaces. It was first previewed on September 30, 2014 at a Windows 10 press event in downtown San Francisco. A redesigned Task View with support for giving different wallpapers on each desktop has been introduced in Windows 11.
Similar features:
Similar effects are used on other operating systems and programs like X Window System, macOS's Mission Control, GNOME 3, and ChromeOS. However, Microsoft has provided a few similar features of its own: Windows 3.0 first introduced a window switcher in 1990. Using Alt+Tab ↹, users could see a flattened view of all open windows. Every version of Windows since then has also provided this window switching functionality.
Similar features:
Windows Vista and Windows 7 provide an additional feature called Windows Flip 3D, which has a broadly similar purpose. Flip 3D allows a user to flip through all open windows with a 3D perspective. A downside to this method is that the front most window covers a significant portion of the other windows. On the other hand, this allows the user to see the contents of the front most window, while this can be difficult in similar applications that show the open windows in a grid, especially if the user has a large number of windows open. Vista's Desktop Window Manager exposes a public API that allows any application to access the same thumbnail representations that Flip3D uses, and so there are a number of third party add-ons that are able to provide this functionality in Vista. A very few third-party applications, such as the Emcee Desktop Organizer, provide organization of similar windows into visual "stacks," or support Windows 8's "Immersive" Apps.
Similar features:
Microsoft's Intellipoint Software for Microsoft Mice has a similar feature as it also works with live images of windows, rather than a static representations. Additionally, several freeware Windows applications exist to emulate the functionality. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Etcher (software)**
Etcher (software):
balenaEtcher (commonly referred to and formerly known as Etcher) is a free and open-source utility used for writing image files such as .iso and .img files, as well as zipped folders onto storage media to create live SD cards and USB flash drives. It is developed by Balena, and licensed under Apache License 2.0. Etcher is a free, open-source tool that allows users to write images to portable storage media such as USB sticks and SD cards. Etcher was developed using the Electron framework and supports Windows, macOS and Linux. balenaEtcher was originally called Etcher, but its name was changed on October 29, 2018, when Resin.io changed its name to Balena.
Features:
Etcher is primarily used through a graphical user interface. Additionally, there is a command line interface available which is under active development.Future planned features include support for persistent storage allowing live SD card or USB flash drive to be used as a hard drive, as well as support for flashing multiple boot partitions to a single SD card or USB flash drive. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Class variable**
Class variable:
In class-based, object-oriented programming, a class variable is a variable defined in a class of which a single copy exists, regardless of how many instances of the class exist.A class variable is not an instance variable. It is a special type of class attribute (or class property, field, or data member). The same dichotomy between instance and class members applies to methods ("member functions") as well; a class may have both instance methods and class methods.
Static member variables and static member functions:
In some languages, class variables and class methods are either statically resolved, not via dynamic dispatch, or their memory statically allocated at compile time (once for the entire class, as static variables), not dynamically allocated at run time (at every instantiation of an object). In other cases, however, either or both of these are dynamic. For example, if classes can be dynamically defined (at run time), class variables of these classes are allocated dynamically when the class is defined, and in some languages class methods are also dispatched dynamically.
Static member variables and static member functions:
Thus in some languages, static member variable or static member function are used synonymously with or in place of "class variable" or "class function", but these are not synonymous across languages. These terms are commonly used in Java, C# , and C++, where class variables and class methods are declared with the static keyword, and referred to as static member variables or static member functions.
Example:
C++ In this C++ example, the class variable Request::count is incremented on each call to the constructor, so that Request::count always holds the number of Requests that have been constructed, and each new Request object is given a number in sequential order. Since count is a class variable, there is only one object Request::count; in contrast, each Request object contains its own distinct number field.
Example:
Also note that the variable Request::count is initialized only once.
Python In the above Python code, it does not provide much information as there is only class variable in the Dog class that provide the vertebrate group of dog as mammals. In instance variable, you could customize your own object (in this case, dog_1) by having one or more instance variables in the Dog class. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Optode**
Optode:
An optode or optrode is an optical sensor device that optically measures a specific substance usually with the aid of a chemical transducer.
Construction:
An optode requires three components to function: a chemical that responds to an analyte, a polymer to immobilise the chemical transducer and instrumentation (optical fibre, light source, detector and other electronics). Optodes usually have the polymer matrix coated onto the tip of an optical fibre, but in the case of evanescent wave optodes the polymer is coated on a section of fibre that has been unsheathed.
Operation:
Optodes can apply various optical measurement schemes such as reflection, absorption, evanescent wave, luminescence (fluorescence and phosphorescences), chemiluminescence, surface plasmon resonance. By far the most popular methodology is luminescence.
Operation:
Luminescence in solution obeys the linear Stern–Volmer relationship. Fluorescence of a molecule is quenched by specific analytes, e.g., ruthenium complexes are quenched by oxygen. When a fluorophore is immobilised within a polymer matrix myriad micro-environments are created. The micro-environments reflect varying diffusion co-efficients for the analyte. This leads to a non-linear relationship between the fluorescence and the quencher (analyte). This relationship is modelled in various ways, the most popular model is the two site model created by James Demas (University of Virginia).
Operation:
The signal (fluorescence) to oxygen ratio is not linear, and an optode is most sensitive at low oxygen concentration, i.e., the sensitivity decreases as oxygen concentration increases. The optode sensors can however work in the whole region 0–100% oxygen saturation in water, and the calibration is done the same way as with the Clark type sensor. No oxygen is consumed and hence the sensor is stirring insensitive, but the signal will stabilize more quickly if the sensor is stirred after being put into the sample.
Popularity:
Optical sensors are growing in popularity due to the low-cost, low power requirements and long term stability. They provide viable alternatives to electrode-based sensors or more complicated analytical instrumentation, especially in the field of environmental monitoring although in the case of oxygen optrodes, they do not have the resolution as the most recent cathodic microsensors. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Buddy Fruits**
Buddy Fruits:
Buddy Fruits is a squeezable fruit pouch sold in the US market, offering a range of ready-to-eat fruit snacks produced by Ouhlala Gourmet Corp. It was founded in 2008. The company's headquarters are in Miami, Florida.
The founders launched the first pure fruit pouch in 2009 with 5 flavors of Pure Blended Fruits. In the following years, Buddy Fruits also launched the first fruit smoothie in a pouch (Blended Fruits and Milk), the first fruit gel in a pouch (Pure Fruit Jiggle Gel), and the first larger pouches of Superfruits and of Cocomilk targeting adults.
Buddy Fruits offers a range of seven lines of products. They contain 100% fresh fruit, and are all natural with no preservatives, no artificial colors, and no additives.
Healthy innovations:
In 2012, Buddy Fruits launched two flavors of 100% baked Apple Chips. The baking process is a food cooking method using prolonged dry heat; on the other hand, the frying process, favored by most of the chips manufacturers, is the cooking of food in oil.Buddy Fruits also launched the first fruit gel in a pouch. It was presented as a healthier vegan alternative to the traditional gelatin snacks because it has no water, no high-fructose corn syrup and no animal gelatin (Buddy Fruits uses fruit pectin instead).
Sport endorsement:
Buddy Fruits sponsors rising tennis player Christina McHale and double Olympic medalist Dee Dee Trotter.
Buddy Fruits is also involved in its local community and supports the Miami Hurricanes and the Miami Dolphins. Buddy Fruits was the Official Healthy Snack of the 2013 Sony Open Tennis in Miami, Florida.
Distribution:
Buddy Fruits provides its snack lines through a network of retail stores in the United States (Walmart, Safeway, Kroger, Publix), Canada, Europe, and in some countries in South America, Asia and the Middle-East. In the United States, Buddy Fruits’ products can also be found online. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Alternating-time temporal logic**
Alternating-time temporal logic:
In computer science, alternating-time temporal logic, or ATL, is a branching-time temporal logic that extends computation tree logic (CTL) to multiple players. ATL naturally describes computations of multi-agent systems and concurrent games. Quantification in ATL is over program-paths that are possible outcomes of games. ATL uses alternating-time formulas to construct model-checkers in order to address problems such as receptiveness, realizability, and controllability.
Examples:
One can write logical formulas in ATL such as ⟨⟨{a,b}⟩⟩Fp that expresses the fact that agents a and b have a strategy to ensure that the property p holds in the future, whatever the other agents of the system are performing.
Extensions and variants:
ATL* is the extension of ATL, as CTL* extends CTL. ATL* allows to write more complex temporal objectives, for instance ⟨⟨{a,b}⟩⟩(Fp∧Gq) . Belardinelli et al. proposes a variant of ATL on finite traces. ATL has been extended with context, in order to store the current strategies played by the agents. ATL* is extended by strategy logic.
Extensions and variants:
ATL has been generalized to include epistemic features. In 2003, van der Hoek and Woodridge proposed ATEL: the logic ATL augmented with an epistemic operator from epistemic logic. In 2004, Pierre-Yves Schobbens proposed variants of ATL with imperfect recall.One cannot express properties about individual objectives in ATL. That is why, in 2010, Chatterjee, Henzinger and Piterman introduced strategy logic, a first-order logic in which strategies are first-order citizens. Strategy logic subsumes both ATL and ATL*. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Pet sitting**
Pet sitting:
Pet sitting is the act of temporarily taking care of another person's pet for a given time frame. It commonly occurs at the pet owner's home, but may also occur at the provider's home or at a pet sitting place of business or organization. Pet sitting is a more personal and individualized arrangement for care compared to boarding or kenneling. Specialized training is usually not required for pet sitting.
Description:
In 1997 Pet Sitters International (PSI) successfully campaigned to have “pet sitting” added to the Random House Dictionary. “Pet sitting” is defined as “the act of caring for a pet in its own home while the owner is away.” Dog walking is also a form of pet sitting since it involves coming to the pet’s home to provide exercise and companionship. Caring for pets in the clients’ homes is what separates pet sitters from boarders or doggie daycares. Pet sitters visit the pet home to provide a range of services. This primarily involves feeding, exercise and companionship. Pet sitters generally bill clients on a per-visit, per-day or per vacation basis, and include additional charges for multiple pets, travel expenses, and non-standard duties.
Description:
Pet sitting services do not include services in the pet sitter's home. This is considered "pet boarding." Boarding outside the pet's home generally requires a kennel license, city or county approval, and in some counties oversight by the local Department of Agriculture which requires protocols to help maintain standards to prevent the transmission of diseases.
In many areas, no occupational license is required for pet sitters. The term "licensed" is often used by pet sitting professionals to refer to licenses to do business, and/or animal transportation permits available within the coverage area of the business. While licenses are not needed in all areas, they may be required in specific locations.
Global market:
According to Pet Sitters International's 2016 State of the Industry Survey, its members completed 17 million pet sitting assignments and generated more than $391 million in pet sitting revenues in 2015.Many pet owners prefer hiring pet sitters instead of the more traditional pet care options available. Some reasons cited for using a pet sitter are to prevent stress to the animal caused by a changing environment, travel trauma, contracting illnesses and parasites from exposure to other animals, not meeting vaccination requirements that may be necessary for kennelling, and to maintain regular routines and prevent the need to adapt to a new environment. It is also a solution for pets with health problems and mobility issues due to arthritis, dysplasia, incontinence, etc.Many new pet sitting businesses are emerging due to high levels of pet ownership and relatively low financial barriers of entry. The pet sitting gig economy has led to the creation of various apps and websites to match pet sitters with clients.
Global market:
Vacation care Vacation care is the most typical type of pet sitting service. While a pet owner is on vacation, a pet sitter will arrange to visit the client's home for a period of time and frequency as determined between the pet owner and sitter. Services include (but are not limited to) feeding, exercising, grooming, providing company, monitoring health, administering medications or other special care. Less commonly, pet sitters offer live-in care which can also include the service of house sitting and property maintenance.
Global market:
Dog walking Pet sitters commonly provide dog walking services. Clients hire pet sitters to exercise and care for their pets when they are unable to do so themselves. This is particularly prevalent in dense urban areas, where pet owners often lead busy working lives, and are hence unable to care for their pets. Also, Clients who are physically unable to exercise their pets due to their own health issues or the client is not physically strong enough due to age.
Global market:
Pet sitters may also offer other more aggressive methods of exercise for dogs during dog walking appointments. These methods include jogging, running, inline skating, bicycling, or dog scootering with client dogs.
Commercial dog walkers in some regions are required to obtain a license for dog walking along with inspection of the vehicle that is used to transport dogs for commercial walking. Such licenses sometimes limit the number of dogs that can be walked at one time.
Insurance and bonding:
Insurance Most professional pet sitters are insured through pet sitter insurance providers. Most pet sitting insurance providers are country-specific. The United Kingdom, the United States, Australia, and Canada each have firms insuring pet sitters.
Insurance and bonding:
As of 2016, the major American and Canadian pet sitting liability insurance providers include limits from $2,000,000 to $4,000,000 for liability claims. They also include an uncommon endorsement that provides coverage for care, custody, and control of the client pets from $10,000 to $200,000 per occurrence. Coverage is included for fire damage, lost keys, and other negligence claims. The major UK pet sitting insurance providers claim coverage limits between £2,000,000 and £10,000,000. The limits for liability claims generally range from £2,000,000 to £5,000,000.
Insurance and bonding:
According to the PSI 2022 State of the Industry Survey, 78% of the association's U.S. member pet caretakers obtain their insurance through Business Insurers of the Carolinas (BIC).
Pet Sitters Associates (8%), PETCARE Insurance (6%) and Mourer-Foster (3%), among others, were also used by the U.S.-based pet-sitting and dog-walking companies owned by PSI's members as insurance providers.
Insurance and bonding:
In the same poll, 28% of respondents said they used PROFUR, 1% said they used Canadian Pet Pro, and 59% of Canadian pet sitters said they used BINKS (PSI's Preferred Canadian Provider) for insurance.Most pet sitter insurance plans provide coverage for pet transport. The majority of pet sitting industry insurers also provide care, custody, and control liability coverage for all animals, excluding the loss from income from an animal that may be used for other business ventures such as farming.
Insurance and bonding:
Some resources recommend that pet sitters be bonded, though many professional organizations in recent years have held bonding to be unnecessary.
Pet sitters are generally not protected from injury to themselves by regular pet sitting liability coverage. pet sitter liability insurance usually covers injury to other people and pets.
Insurance and bonding:
Bonding A dishonesty or fidelity bond claim generally applies when a pet sitter is convicted in criminal court of theft from a client home. When the pet sitter is convicted, the bond will reimburse the client for the loss, and then seek reimbursement from the pet sitter. This process can take many years to complete, and usually relies on a criminal law court conviction.
Insurance and bonding:
Many pet sitters have decided to seek actual insurance coverage for theft instead of procuring a bond. Theft insurance coverage does not require convictions, and can include coverage for accidental breakage, mysterious disappearance, and accidental damage to items in a client's home.
Certification and accreditation:
Pet sitting organizations offer training, testing, or review of credentials for pet sitters in the form of certification or accreditation. The curriculum of pet sitting programs may include pet care, health and first aid, animal law information, nutrition, and behavior, and/or business development and management.
Certification that is credentials-based may require the pet sitter to provide a criminal background check, proof of insurance, proof of bonding, certificate of completion of a pet first aid program, documentation of business methods and policies, or other evidence of their professionalism and adherence to industry standards.
It is common for pet sitters to obtain a separate certification for pet first aid. Hands-on training can be obtained through private businesses and organizations like Red Cross. Virtual classes are also available. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**What Color Is Your Parachute?**
What Color Is Your Parachute?:
What Color Is Your Parachute? is a self-help book by Richard Nelson Bolles intended for job-seekers. It has been in print since 1970 and has been revised annually since 1975, sometimes substantially. Bolles initially self-published the book on December 1, 1970, and it has been commercially published since November 1972 by Ten Speed Press in Berkeley, California. As of September 28, 2010, the book is available in 22 languages and used in 26 countries around the world. Over ten million copies have been sold worldwide. It is one of the most highly regarded career advice books in print. In the 2014 edition of the book, Bolles writes about how to adapt one's job search to the Internet age.The book recommends networking to find "the person with the authority to hire you", rather than sending out resumes in bulk, shotgun fashion. It also recommends carefully figuring out what one is best at and what one enjoys most, which Bolles asserts tend to coincide. The Flower Exercise is a key element of the book, featuring seven ways that job seekers can define themselves in order to inform their job search. Years later, Bolles explained the book's memorable title as his response at a business meeting in 1968 when someone told him that he and several co-workers were "bailing out" of a failing organization, prompting Bolles to joke, "What color is your parachute?". "The question was just a joke," he said. "I had no idea that it would take on all this additional meaning."
Related media:
Richard Nelson Bolles wrote numerous spinoffs of What Color Is Your Parachute?, targeted at specific audiences and career issues; he also collaborated with Mark Emery Bolles to write versions targeted at online job hunting. Additionally, in March 2013, Ten Speed Press released an app titled What Color Is Your Parachute? Job-Hunter’s Workbook Tablet Edition for the iPad and Nook. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Woolly hair autosomal recessive**
Woolly hair autosomal recessive:
Woolly hair autosomal recessive is a rare hereditary hair disorder characterized by sparse, short, curly hair.
Signs/symptoms:
The scalp hair is sparse, short and curly. It grows slowly and stops growing after a few inches.
Genetics:
This condition may be part of a more complex syndrome or an isolated mutation.
Isolated cases are due to mutations in the lipase member H (LIPH), lysophosphatidic acid receptor 6 (LPAR6) or keratin 2A (KRT2) genes. Isolated cases are inherited in an autosomal recessive fashion.
Epidemiology:
This is rare disorder. Precise estimates of its prevalence are not known.
Diagnosis:
This is made by light microscopy. A number of structural anomalies are visible under light microscopy including trichorrhexis nodosa and tapered ends.
Differential diagnosis Cardiofaciocutaneous syndrome Naxos disease Palmoplantar keratoderma and cardiomyopathy syndrome
Treatment:
There is no treatment for this condition known at present.
Prognosis:
In isolate cases life expectancy is normal and there are no other related problems.
As part of another syndrome this will depend on the other features of the syndrome. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Banbury lock**
Banbury lock:
The Banbury lock is an early form of church lock, in which the metal components of the lock are separately fitted into a block of wood which forms the frame. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Chlorophane**
Chlorophane:
Chlorophane, also sometimes known as pyroemerald, cobra stone, and pyrosmaragd, is a rare variety of the mineral fluorite with the unusual combined properties of thermoluminescence, thermophosphoresence, triboluminescence, and fluorescence: it will emit light in the visible spectrum when exposed to ultraviolet light, when heated, and when rubbed; if heated, it will continue to emit light for a period of time after a heat source is withdrawn. The small amount of heat generated by being held in the hand has been reported as enough to induce luminescence, though this may be the result of experimental error. Although chemically very similar to fluorite, chlorophane has several impurities including magnesium, aluminum, manganese, and traces of iron and sodium (none of which occur in fluorite). As of 2013 it was still not known which if any of these impurities imparts to chlorophane the luminescent properties that distinguish it from fluorite. Some samples of chlorophane, particularly those exposed to high temperatures, will only luminesce once or will do so with only weakened intensity over time. A very bright luminescence can be achieved at between 200 °C (392 °F) and 300 °C (572 °F), and mineralogists once believed that it would glow indefinitely at temperatures of just 30 °C (86 °F), meaning that when exposed on the ground in warmer climates, the mineral would glow year-round. This effect, which was reported many times without having been observed, was eventually attributed in part to a combination of both heat and light acting on the mineral.
Chlorophane:
The unusual properties of chlorophane have been attributed to samarium, terbium, dysprosium, gadolinium, ytterbium, and yttrium; none of these rare earth elements, however, has been consistently found in all chlorophane specimens. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Peach (color)**
Peach (color):
Peach is a color that is named for the pale color of the interior flesh of the peach fruit. This name may also be substituted for "peachy". Like the color apricot, the color peach is paler than most actual peach fruits and seems to have been formulated (like the color apricot) primarily to create a pastel palette of colors for interior design.
Peach:
The color peach approximates the color of the interior flesh of that variety of peaches known as white peaches.
The first recorded use of peach as a color name in English was in 1588.
Etymology:
The etymology of the color peach (and the fruit): the word comes from the Middle English peche, derived from Middle French, in turn derived from Latin persica, i.e., the fruit from Persia. In actuality, the ultimate origin of the peach fruit was from China.
Variations:
Peach puff Displayed at right is the web color peach puff.
Peach Displayed at right is the deep tone of peach called peach in Crayola crayons. Prior to 1962, it was known as flesh, but the name was changed to peach, ostensibly in recognition of the Civil Rights Movement.
In nature:
FungiThe peach-colored fly agaric is a peach-colored mushroom.
In culture:
Interior Design In Art Deco interior design of the 1920s and 1930s, peach-colored mirrors (as well as blue mirrors) were often seen installed in exclusive luxury homes, and in nightclubs and hotels catering to the upper classes. Peach color is also recommended for bedroom to have a good sleep.Religion The color peach represents immortality in Chinese culture because The Peach Tree of Immortality, long thought to be on a mountainside somewhere in the Tian Shan in western China, and which blooms only once every 3,000 years, is a key concept in the mythology of the Taoist religion.Sexuality In the bandana code of the gay leather subculture, wearing a peach bandana means that one is a "bear" or a "cub" looking for a bear. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Gas burner**
Gas burner:
A gas burner is a device that produces a non-controlled flame by mixing a fuel gas such as acetylene, natural gas, or propane with an oxidizer such as the ambient air or supplied oxygen, and allowing for ignition and combustion.
The flame is generally used for the heat, infrared radiation, or visible light it produces. Some burners, such as gas flares, dispose of unwanted or uncontainable flammable gases. Some burners are operated to produce carbon black.
Gas burner:
The gas burner has many applications such as soldering, brazing, and welding, the latter using oxygen instead of air for producing a hotter flame, which is required for melting steel. Chemistry laboratories use natural-gas fueled Bunsen burners. In domestic and commercial settings gas burners are commonly used in gas stoves and cooktops. For melting metals with melting points of up to 1100 °C (such as copper, silver, and gold), a propane burner with a natural drag of air can be used. For higher temperatures, acetylene is commonly used in combination with oxygen.
Flame temperatures of common gases and fuels:
The above data is given with the following assumptions: The flame is adiabatic The surrounding air is at 20°C, 1 bar (atm) Complete combustion (no soot, and more blue-like flame is the key) (Stoichiometric) Peak Temperature These notes are not assumptions, and need more clarification: Speed of Combustion (has no effect on temperature, but more energy released per second (as adiabatic) compared to normal flame) Spectral bands also affect colour of flame, as of what part and elements of combustion Blackbody radiation (colour appearance only because of heat) Atmosphere - affects temperature of flame and colour due to the atmospheric colour effect
Flammability limits and ignition temperatures of common gases:
(Atmosphere is air at 20 degrees Celsius.) | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Caterpillar tree**
Caterpillar tree:
In graph theory, a caterpillar or caterpillar tree is a tree in which all the vertices are within distance 1 of a central path.
Caterpillars were first studied in a series of papers by Harary and Schwenk. The name was suggested by Arthur Hobbs. As Harary & Schwenk (1973) colorfully write, "A caterpillar is a tree which metamorphoses into a path when its cocoon of endpoints is removed."
Equivalent characterizations:
The following characterizations all describe the caterpillar trees: They are the trees for which removing the leaves and incident edges produces a path graph.
They are the trees in which there exists a path that contains every vertex of degree two or more.
They are the trees in which every vertex of degree at least three has at most two non-leaf neighbors.
They are the trees that do not contain as a subgraph the graph formed by replacing every edge in the star graph K1,3 by a path of length two.
They are the connected graphs that can be drawn with their vertices on two parallel lines, with edges represented as non-crossing line segments that have one endpoint on each line.
Equivalent characterizations:
They are the trees whose square is a Hamiltonian graph. That is, in a caterpillar, there exists a cyclic sequence of all the vertices in which each adjacent pair of vertices in the sequence is at distance one or two from each other, and trees that are not caterpillars do not have such a sequence. A cycle of this type may be obtained by drawing the caterpillar on two parallel lines and concatenating the sequence of vertices on one line with the reverse of the sequence on the other line.
Equivalent characterizations:
They are the trees whose line graphs contain a Hamiltonian path; such a path may be obtained by the ordering of the edges in a two-line drawing of the tree. More generally the number of edges that need to be added to the line graph of an arbitrary tree so that it contains a Hamiltonian path (the size of its Hamiltonian completion) equals the minimum number of edge-disjoint caterpillars that the edges of the tree can be decomposed into.
Equivalent characterizations:
They are the connected graphs of pathwidth one.
They are the connected triangle-free interval graphs.
They are n-vertex graphs whose adjacency matrices can be written in such a way that the ones of the upper triangular part form a path of length n-1 beginning at the upper right corner and going down or left.
Generalizations:
A k-tree is a chordal graph with exactly n − k maximal cliques, each containing k + 1 vertices; in a k-tree that is not itself a (k + 1)-clique, each maximal clique either separates the graph into two or more components, or it contains a single leaf vertex, a vertex that belongs to only a single maximal clique. A k-path is a k-tree with at most two leaves, and a k-caterpillar is a k-tree that can be partitioned into a k-path and some k-leaves, each adjacent to a separator k-clique of the k-path. In this terminology, a 1-caterpillar is the same thing as a caterpillar tree, and k-caterpillars are the edge-maximal graphs with pathwidth k.A lobster graph is a tree in which all the vertices are within distance 2 of a central path.
Enumeration:
Caterpillars provide one of the rare graph enumeration problems for which a precise formula can be given: when n ≥ 3, the number of caterpillars with n unlabeled vertices is 2n−4+2⌊(n−4)/2⌋.
For n = 1, 2, 3, ... the numbers of n-vertex caterpillars are 1, 1, 1, 2, 3, 6, 10, 20, 36, 72, 136, 272, 528, 1056, 2080, 4160, ... (sequence A005418 in the OEIS).
Computational complexity:
Finding a spanning caterpillar in a graph is NP-complete. A related optimization problem is the Minimum Spanning Caterpillar Problem (MSCP), where a graph has dual costs over its edges and the goal is to find a caterpillar tree that spans the input graph and has the smallest overall cost. Here the cost of the caterpillar is defined as the sum of the costs of its edges, where each edge takes one of the two costs based on its role as a leaf edge or an internal one. There is no f(n)-approximation algorithm for the MSCP unless P = NP. Here f(n) is any polynomial-time computable function of n, the number of vertices of a graph.There is a parametrized algorithm that finds an optimal solution for the MSCP in bounded treewidth graphs. So both the Spanning Caterpillar Problem and the MSCP have linear time algorithms if a graph is an outerplanar, a series-parallel, or a Halin graph.
Applications:
Caterpillar trees have been used in chemical graph theory to represent the structure of benzenoid hydrocarbon molecules. In this representation, one forms a caterpillar in which each edge corresponds to a 6-carbon ring in the molecular structure, and two edges are incident at a vertex whenever the corresponding rings belong to a sequence of rings connected end-to-end in the structure. El-Basil (1987) writes, "It is amazing that nearly all graphs that played an important role in what is now called "chemical graph theory" may be related to caterpillar trees." In this context, caterpillar trees are also known as benzenoid trees and Gutman trees, after the work of Ivan Gutman in this area. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Human genetic variation**
Human genetic variation:
Human genetic variation is the genetic differences in and among populations. There may be multiple variants of any given gene in the human population (alleles), a situation called polymorphism.
No two humans are genetically identical. Even monozygotic twins (who develop from one zygote) have infrequent genetic differences due to mutations occurring during development and gene copy-number variation. Differences between individuals, even closely related individuals, are the key to techniques such as genetic fingerprinting.
Human genetic variation:
The human genome has a total length of approximately 3.2 billion base pairs (bp) across 46 chromosomes of DNA as well as slightly under 17,000 bp DNA in cellular mitochondria. In 2015, the typical difference between an individual's genome and the reference genome was estimated at 20 million base pairs (or 0.6% of the total). As of 2017, there were a total of 324 million known variants from sequenced human genomes.Comparatively speaking, humans are a genetically homogeneous species. Although a small number of genetic variants are found more frequently in certain geographic regions or in people with ancestry from those regions, this variation accounts for a small portion (~15%) of human genome variability. The majority of variation exists within the members of each human population. For comparison, rhesus macaques exhibit 2.5-fold greater DNA sequence diversity compared to humans.The lack of discontinuities in genetic distances between human populations, absence of discrete branches in the human species, and striking homogeneity of human beings globally, imply that there is no scientific basis for inferring races or subspecies in humans, and for most traits, there is much more variation within populations than between them. Despite this, modern genetic studies have found substantial average genetic differences across human populations in traits such as skin colour, bodily dimensions, lactose and starch digestion, high altitude adaptions, and predisposition to developing particular diseases. The greatest diversity is found within and among populations in Africa, and gradually declines with increasing distance from the African continent, consistent with the Out of Africa theory of human origins.The study of human genetic variation has evolutionary significance and medical applications. It can help scientists reconstruct and understand patterns of past human migration. In medicine, study of human genetic variation may be important because some disease-causing alleles occur more often in certain population groups. For instance, the mutation for sickle-cell anemia is more often found in people with ancestry from certain sub-Saharan African, south European, Arabian, and Indian populations, due to the evolutionary pressure from mosquitos carrying malaria in these regions.
Human genetic variation:
New findings show that each human has on average 60 new mutations compared to their parents.
Causes of variation:
Causes of differences between individuals include independent assortment, the exchange of genes (crossing over and recombination) during reproduction (through meiosis) and various mutational events.
Causes of variation:
There are at least three reasons why genetic variation exists between populations. Natural selection may confer an adaptive advantage to individuals in a specific environment if an allele provides a competitive advantage. Alleles under selection are likely to occur only in those geographic regions where they confer an advantage. A second important process is genetic drift, which is the effect of random changes in the gene pool, under conditions where most mutations are neutral (that is, they do not appear to have any positive or negative selective effect on the organism). Finally, small migrant populations have statistical differences – called the founder effect – from the overall populations where they originated; when these migrants settle new areas, their descendant population typically differs from their population of origin: different genes predominate and it is less genetically diverse.
Causes of variation:
In humans, the main cause is genetic drift. Serial founder effects and past small population size (increasing the likelihood of genetic drift) may have had an important influence in neutral differences between populations. The second main cause of genetic variation is due to the high degree of neutrality of most mutations. A small, but significant number of genes appear to have undergone recent natural selection, and these selective pressures are sometimes specific to one region.
Measures of variation:
Genetic variation among humans occurs on many scales, from gross alterations in the human karyotype to single nucleotide changes. Chromosome abnormalities are detected in 1 of 160 live human births. Apart from sex chromosome disorders, most cases of aneuploidy result in death of the developing fetus (miscarriage); the most common extra autosomal chromosomes among live births are 21, 18 and 13.Nucleotide diversity is the average proportion of nucleotides that differ between two individuals. As of 2004, the human nucleotide diversity was estimated to be 0.1% to 0.4% of base pairs. In 2015, the 1000 Genomes Project, which sequenced one thousand individuals from 26 human populations, found that "a typical [individual] genome differs from the reference human genome at 4.1 million to 5.0 million sites … affecting 20 million bases of sequence"; the latter figure corresponds to 0.6% of total number of base pairs. Nearly all (>99.9%) of these sites are small differences, either single nucleotide polymorphisms or brief insertions or deletions (indels) in the genetic sequence, but structural variations account for a greater number of base-pairs than the SNPs and indels.As of 2017, the Single Nucleotide Polymorphism Database (dbSNP), which lists SNP and other variants, listed 324 million variants found in sequenced human genomes.
Measures of variation:
Single nucleotide polymorphisms A single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) is a difference in a single nucleotide between members of one species that occurs in at least 1% of the population. The 2,504 individuals characterized by the 1000 Genomes Project had 84.7 million SNPs among them. SNPs are the most common type of sequence variation, estimated in 1998 to account for 90% of all sequence variants. Other sequence variations are single base exchanges, deletions and insertions. SNPs occur on average about every 100 to 300 bases and so are the major source of heterogeneity.
Measures of variation:
A functional, or non-synonymous, SNP is one that affects some factor such as gene splicing or messenger RNA, and so causes a phenotypic difference between members of the species. About 3% to 5% of human SNPs are functional (see International HapMap Project). Neutral, or synonymous SNPs are still useful as genetic markers in genome-wide association studies, because of their sheer number and the stable inheritance over generations.A coding SNP is one that occurs inside a gene. There are 105 Human Reference SNPs that result in premature stop codons in 103 genes. This corresponds to 0.5% of coding SNPs. They occur due to segmental duplication in the genome. These SNPs result in loss of protein, yet all these SNP alleles are common and are not purified in negative selection.
Measures of variation:
Structural variation Structural variation is the variation in structure of an organism's chromosome. Structural variations, such as copy-number variation and deletions, inversions, insertions and duplications, account for much more human genetic variation than single nucleotide diversity. This was concluded in 2007 from analysis of the diploid full sequences of the genomes of two humans: Craig Venter and James D. Watson. This added to the two haploid sequences which were amalgamations of sequences from many individuals, published by the Human Genome Project and Celera Genomics respectively.According to the 1000 Genomes Project, a typical human has 2,100 to 2,500 structural variations, which include approximately 1,000 large deletions, 160 copy-number variants, 915 Alu insertions, 128 L1 insertions, 51 SVA insertions, 4 NUMTs, and 10 inversions.
Measures of variation:
Copy number variation A copy-number variation (CNV) is a difference in the genome due to deleting or duplicating large regions of DNA on some chromosome. It is estimated that 0.4% of the genomes of unrelated humans differ with respect to copy number. When copy number variation is included, human-to-human genetic variation is estimated to be at least 0.5% (99.5% similarity). Copy number variations are inherited but can also arise during development.A visual map with the regions with high genomic variation of the modern-human reference assembly relatively to a Neanderthal of 50k has been built by Pratas et al.
Measures of variation:
Epigenetics Epigenetic variation is variation in the chemical tags that attach to DNA and affect how genes get read. The tags, "called epigenetic markings, act as switches that control how genes can be read." At some alleles, the epigenetic state of the DNA, and associated phenotype, can be inherited across generations of individuals.
Measures of variation:
Genetic variability Genetic variability is a measure of the tendency of individual genotypes in a population to vary (become different) from one another. Variability is different from genetic diversity, which is the amount of variation seen in a particular population. The variability of a trait is how much that trait tends to vary in response to environmental and genetic influences.
Measures of variation:
Clines In biology, a cline is a continuum of species, populations, varieties, or forms of organisms that exhibit gradual phenotypic and/or genetic differences over a geographical area, typically as a result of environmental heterogeneity. In the scientific study of human genetic variation, a gene cline can be rigorously defined and subjected to quantitative metrics.
Measures of variation:
Haplogroups In the study of molecular evolution, a haplogroup is a group of similar haplotypes that share a common ancestor with a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) mutation. The study of haplogroups provides information about ancestral origins dating back thousands of years.The most commonly studied human haplogroups are Y-chromosome (Y-DNA) haplogroups and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroups, both of which can be used to define genetic populations. Y-DNA is passed solely along the patrilineal line, from father to son, while mtDNA is passed down the matrilineal line, from mother to both daughter or son. The Y-DNA and mtDNA may change by chance mutation at each generation.
Measures of variation:
Variable number tandem repeats A variable number tandem repeat (VNTR) is the variation of length of a tandem repeat. A tandem repeat is the adjacent repetition of a short nucleotide sequence. Tandem repeats exist on many chromosomes, and their length varies between individuals. Each variant acts as an inherited allele, so they are used for personal or parental identification. Their analysis is useful in genetics and biology research, forensics, and DNA fingerprinting.
Measures of variation:
Short tandem repeats (about 5 base pairs) are called microsatellites, while longer ones are called minisatellites.
History and geographic distribution:
Recent African origin of modern humans The recent African origin of modern humans paradigm assumes the dispersal of non-African populations of anatomically modern humans after 70,000 years ago. Dispersal within Africa occurred significantly earlier, at least 130,000 years ago. The "out of Africa" theory originates in the 19th century, as a tentative suggestion in Charles Darwin's Descent of Man, but remained speculative until the 1980s when it was supported by the study of present-day mitochondrial DNA, combined with evidence from physical anthropology of archaic specimens.
History and geographic distribution:
According to a 2000 study of Y-chromosome sequence variation, human Y-chromosomes trace ancestry to Africa, and the descendants of the derived lineage left Africa and eventually were replaced by archaic human Y-chromosomes in Eurasia. The study also shows that a minority of contemporary populations in East Africa and the Khoisan are the descendants of the most ancestral patrilineages of anatomically modern humans that left Africa 35,000 to 89,000 years ago. Other evidence supporting the theory is that variations in skull measurements decrease with distance from Africa at the same rate as the decrease in genetic diversity. Human genetic diversity decreases in native populations with migratory distance from Africa, and this is thought to be due to bottlenecks during human migration, which are events that temporarily reduce population size.A 2009 genetic clustering study, which genotyped 1327 polymorphic markers in various African populations, identified six ancestral clusters. The clustering corresponded closely with ethnicity, culture and language. A 2018 whole genome sequencing study of the world's populations observed similar clusters among the populations in Africa. At K=9, distinct ancestral components defined the Afroasiatic-speaking populations inhabiting North Africa and Northeast Africa; the Nilo-Saharan-speaking populations in Northeast Africa and East Africa; the Ari populations in Northeast Africa; the Niger-Congo-speaking populations in West-Central Africa, West Africa, East Africa and Southern Africa; the Pygmy populations in Central Africa; and the Khoisan populations in Southern Africa.In May 2023, scientists reported, based on genetic studies, a more complicated pathway of human evolution than previously understood. According to the studies, humans evolved from different places and times in Africa, instead of from a single location and period of time.
History and geographic distribution:
Population genetics Because of the common ancestry of all humans, only a small number of variants have large differences in frequency between populations. However, some rare variants in the world's human population are much more frequent in at least one population (more than 5%).
History and geographic distribution:
It is commonly assumed that early humans left Africa, and thus must have passed through a population bottleneck before their African-Eurasian divergence around 100,000 years ago (ca. 3,000 generations). The rapid expansion of a previously small population has two important effects on the distribution of genetic variation. First, the so-called founder effect occurs when founder populations bring only a subset of the genetic variation from their ancestral population. Second, as founders become more geographically separated, the probability that two individuals from different founder populations will mate becomes smaller. The effect of this assortative mating is to reduce gene flow between geographical groups and to increase the genetic distance between groups.The expansion of humans from Africa affected the distribution of genetic variation in two other ways. First, smaller (founder) populations experience greater genetic drift because of increased fluctuations in neutral polymorphisms. Second, new polymorphisms that arose in one group were less likely to be transmitted to other groups as gene flow was restricted.Populations in Africa tend to have lower amounts of linkage disequilibrium than do populations outside Africa, partly because of the larger size of human populations in Africa over the course of human history and partly because the number of modern humans who left Africa to colonize the rest of the world appears to have been relatively low. In contrast, populations that have undergone dramatic size reductions or rapid expansions in the past and populations formed by the mixture of previously separate ancestral groups can have unusually high levels of linkage disequilibrium Distribution of variation The distribution of genetic variants within and among human populations are impossible to describe succinctly because of the difficulty of defining a "population," the clinal nature of variation, and heterogeneity across the genome (Long and Kittles 2003). In general, however, an average of 85% of genetic variation exists within local populations, ~7% is between local populations within the same continent, and ~8% of variation occurs between large groups living on different continents. The recent African origin theory for humans would predict that in Africa there exists a great deal more diversity than elsewhere and that diversity should decrease the further from Africa a population is sampled.
History and geographic distribution:
Phenotypic variation Sub-Saharan Africa has the most human genetic diversity and the same has been shown to hold true for phenotypic variation in skull form. Phenotype is connected to genotype through gene expression. Genetic diversity decreases smoothly with migratory distance from that region, which many scientists believe to be the origin of modern humans, and that decrease is mirrored by a decrease in phenotypic variation. Skull measurements are an example of a physical attribute whose within-population variation decreases with distance from Africa.
History and geographic distribution:
The distribution of many physical traits resembles the distribution of genetic variation within and between human populations (American Association of Physical Anthropologists 1996; Keita and Kittles 1997). For example, ~90% of the variation in human head shapes occurs within continental groups, and ~10% separates groups, with a greater variability of head shape among individuals with recent African ancestors (Relethford 2002).
History and geographic distribution:
A prominent exception to the common distribution of physical characteristics within and among groups is skin color. Approximately 10% of the variance in skin color occurs within groups, and ~90% occurs between groups (Relethford 2002). This distribution of skin color and its geographic patterning – with people whose ancestors lived predominantly near the equator having darker skin than those with ancestors who lived predominantly in higher latitudes – indicate that this attribute has been under strong selective pressure. Darker skin appears to be strongly selected for in equatorial regions to prevent sunburn, skin cancer, the photolysis of folate, and damage to sweat glands.Understanding how genetic diversity in the human population impacts various levels of gene expression is an active area of research. While earlier studies focused on the relationship between DNA variation and RNA expression, more recent efforts are characterizing the genetic control of various aspects of gene expression including chromatin states, translation, and protein levels. A study published in 2007 found that 25% of genes showed different levels of gene expression between populations of European and Asian descent. The primary cause of this difference in gene expression was thought to be SNPs in gene regulatory regions of DNA. Another study published in 2007 found that approximately 83% of genes were expressed at different levels among individuals and about 17% between populations of European and African descent.
History and geographic distribution:
Wright's fixation index as measure of variation The population geneticist Sewall Wright developed the fixation index (often abbreviated to FST) as a way of measuring genetic differences between populations. This statistic is often used in taxonomy to compare differences between any two given populations by measuring the genetic differences among and between populations for individual genes, or for many genes simultaneously. It is often stated that the fixation index for humans is about 0.15. This translates to an estimated 85% of the variation measured in the overall human population is found within individuals of the same population, and about 15% of the variation occurs between populations. These estimates imply that any two individuals from different populations may be more similar to each other than either is to a member of their own group.
History and geographic distribution:
"The shared evolutionary history of living humans has resulted in a high relatedness among all living people, as indicated for example by the very low fixation index (FST) among living human populations." Richard Lewontin, who affirmed these ratios, thus concluded neither "race" nor "subspecies" were appropriate or useful ways to describe human populations.Wright himself believed that values >0.25 represent very great genetic variation and that an FST of 0.15–0.25 represented great variation. However, about 5% of human variation occurs between populations within continents, therefore FST values between continental groups of humans (or races) of as low as 0.1 (or possibly lower) have been found in some studies, suggesting more moderate levels of genetic variation. Graves (1996) has countered that FST should not be used as a marker of subspecies status, as the statistic is used to measure the degree of differentiation between populations, although see also Wright (1978).Jeffrey Long and Rick Kittles give a long critique of the application of FST to human populations in their 2003 paper "Human Genetic Diversity and the Nonexistence of Biological Races". They find that the figure of 85% is misleading because it implies that all human populations contain on average 85% of all genetic diversity. They argue the underlying statistical model incorrectly assumes equal and independent histories of variation for each large human population. A more realistic approach is to understand that some human groups are parental to other groups and that these groups represent paraphyletic groups to their descent groups. For example, under the recent African origin theory the human population in Africa is paraphyletic to all other human groups because it represents the ancestral group from which all non-African populations derive, but more than that, non-African groups only derive from a small non-representative sample of this African population. This means that all non-African groups are more closely related to each other and to some African groups (probably east Africans) than they are to others, and further that the migration out of Africa represented a genetic bottleneck, with much of the diversity that existed in Africa not being carried out of Africa by the emigrating groups. Under this scenario, human populations do not have equal amounts of local variability, but rather diminished amounts of diversity the further from Africa any population lives. Long and Kittles find that rather than 85% of human genetic diversity existing in all human populations, about 100% of human diversity exists in a single African population, whereas only about 70% of human genetic diversity exists in a population derived from New Guinea. Long and Kittles argued that this still produces a global human population that is genetically homogeneous compared to other mammalian populations.
History and geographic distribution:
Archaic admixture Anatomically modern humans interbred with Neanderthals during the Middle Paleolithic. In May 2010, the Neanderthal Genome Project presented genetic evidence that interbreeding took place and that a small but significant portion, around 2-4%, of Neanderthal admixture is present in the DNA of modern Eurasians and Oceanians, and nearly absent in sub-Saharan African populations.Between 4% and 6% of the genome of Melanesians (represented by the Papua New Guinean and Bougainville Islander) appears to derive from Denisovans – a previously unknown hominin which is more closely related to Neanderthals than to Sapiens. It was possibly introduced during the early migration of the ancestors of Melanesians into Southeast Asia. This history of interaction suggests that Denisovans once ranged widely over eastern Asia.Thus, Melanesians emerge as one of the most archaic-admixed populations, having Denisovan/Neanderthal-related admixture of ~8%.In a study published in 2013, Jeffrey Wall from University of California studied whole sequence-genome data and found higher rates of introgression in Asians compared to Europeans. Hammer et al. tested the hypothesis that contemporary African genomes have signatures of gene flow with archaic human ancestors and found evidence of archaic admixture in the genomes of some African groups, suggesting that modest amounts of gene flow were widespread throughout time and space during the evolution of anatomically modern humans.A study published in 2020 found that the Yoruba and Mende populations of West Africa derive between 2% and 19% of their genome from an as-yet unidentified archaic hominin population that likely diverged before the split of modern humans and the ancestors of Neanderthals and Denisovans, potentially making these groups the most archaic-admixed human populations identified yet.
Categorization of the world population:
New data on human genetic variation has reignited the debate about a possible biological basis for categorization of humans into races. Most of the controversy surrounds the question of how to interpret the genetic data and whether conclusions based on it are sound. Some researchers argue that self-identified race can be used as an indicator of geographic ancestry for certain health risks and medications.
Categorization of the world population:
Although the genetic differences among human groups are relatively small, these differences in certain genes such as duffy, ABCC11, SLC24A5, called ancestry-informative markers (AIMs) nevertheless can be used to reliably situate many individuals within broad, geographically based groupings. For example, computer analyses of hundreds of polymorphic loci sampled in globally distributed populations have revealed the existence of genetic clustering that roughly is associated with groups that historically have occupied large continental and subcontinental regions (Rosenberg et al. 2002; Bamshad et al. 2003).
Categorization of the world population:
Some commentators have argued that these patterns of variation provide a biological justification for the use of traditional racial categories. They argue that the continental clusterings correspond roughly with the division of human beings into sub-Saharan Africans; Europeans, Western Asians, Central Asians, Southern Asians and Northern Africans; Eastern Asians, Southeast Asians, Polynesians and Native Americans; and other inhabitants of Oceania (Melanesians, Micronesians & Australian Aborigines) (Risch et al. 2002). Other observers disagree, saying that the same data undercut traditional notions of racial groups (King and Motulsky 2002; Calafell 2003; Tishkoff and Kidd 2004). They point out, for example, that major populations considered races or subgroups within races do not necessarily form their own clusters.
Categorization of the world population:
Racial categories are also undermined by findings that genetic variants which are limited to one region tend to be rare within that region, variants that are common within a region tend to be shared across the globe, and most differences between individuals, whether they come from the same region or different regions, are due to global variants. No genetic variants have been found which are fixed within a continent or major region and found nowhere else.Furthermore, because human genetic variation is clinal, many individuals affiliate with two or more continental groups. Thus, the genetically based "biogeographical ancestry" assigned to any given person generally will be broadly distributed and will be accompanied by sizable uncertainties (Pfaff et al. 2004).
Categorization of the world population:
In many parts of the world, groups have mixed in such a way that many individuals have relatively recent ancestors from widely separated regions. Although genetic analyses of large numbers of loci can produce estimates of the percentage of a person's ancestors coming from various continental populations (Shriver et al. 2003; Bamshad et al. 2004), these estimates may assume a false distinctiveness of the parental populations, since human groups have exchanged mates from local to continental scales throughout history (Cavalli-Sforza et al. 1994; Hoerder 2002). Even with large numbers of markers, information for estimating admixture proportions of individuals or groups is limited, and estimates typically will have wide confidence intervals (Pfaff et al. 2004).
Categorization of the world population:
Genetic clustering Genetic data can be used to infer population structure and assign individuals to groups that often correspond with their self-identified geographical ancestry. Jorde and Wooding (2004) argued that "Analysis of many loci now yields reasonably accurate estimates of genetic similarity among individuals, rather than populations. Clustering of individuals is correlated with geographic origin or ancestry." However, identification by geographic origin may quickly break down when considering historical ancestry shared between individuals back in time.An analysis of autosomal SNP data from the International HapMap Project (Phase II) and CEPH Human Genome Diversity Panel samples was published in 2009.
Categorization of the world population:
The study of 53 populations taken from the HapMap and CEPH data (1138 unrelated individuals) suggested that natural selection may shape the human genome much more slowly than previously thought, with factors such as migration within and among continents more heavily influencing the distribution of genetic variations.
Categorization of the world population:
A similar study published in 2010 found strong genome-wide evidence for selection due to changes in ecoregion, diet, and subsistence particularly in connection with polar ecoregions, with foraging, and with a diet rich in roots and tubers. In a 2016 study, principal component analysis of genome-wide data was capable of recovering previously-known targets for positive selection (without prior definition of populations) as well as a number of new candidate genes.
Categorization of the world population:
Forensic anthropology Forensic anthropologists can assess the ancestry of skeletal remains by analyzing skeletal morphology as well as using genetic and chemical markers, when possible. While these assessments are never certain, the accuracy of skeletal morphology analyses in determining true ancestry has been estimated at 90%.
Categorization of the world population:
Gene flow and admixture Gene flow between two populations reduces the average genetic distance between the populations, only totally isolated human populations experience no gene flow and most populations have continuous gene flow with other neighboring populations which create the clinal distribution observed for most genetic variation. When gene flow takes place between well-differentiated genetic populations the result is referred to as "genetic admixture".
Categorization of the world population:
Admixture mapping is a technique used to study how genetic variants cause differences in disease rates between population. Recent admixture populations that trace their ancestry to multiple continents are well suited for identifying genes for traits and diseases that differ in prevalence between parental populations. African-American populations have been the focus of numerous population genetic and admixture mapping studies, including studies of complex genetic traits such as white cell count, body-mass index, prostate cancer and renal disease.An analysis of phenotypic and genetic variation including skin color and socio-economic status was carried out in the population of Cape Verde which has a well documented history of contact between Europeans and Africans. The studies showed that pattern of admixture in this population has been sex-biased (involving mostly matings between European men and African women) and there is a significant interaction between socioeconomic status and skin color, independent of ancestry. Another study shows an increased risk of graft-versus-host disease complications after transplantation due to genetic variants in human leukocyte antigen (HLA) and non-HLA proteins.
Health:
Differences in allele frequencies contribute to group differences in the incidence of some monogenic diseases, and they may contribute to differences in the incidence of some common diseases. For the monogenic diseases, the frequency of causative alleles usually correlates best with ancestry, whether familial (for example, Ellis–Van Creveld syndrome among the Pennsylvania Amish), ethnic (Tay–Sachs disease among Ashkenazi Jewish populations), or geographical (hemoglobinopathies among people with ancestors who lived in malarial regions). To the extent that ancestry corresponds with racial or ethnic groups or subgroups, the incidence of monogenic diseases can differ between groups categorized by race or ethnicity, and health-care professionals typically take these patterns into account in making diagnoses.Even with common diseases involving numerous genetic variants and environmental factors, investigators point to evidence suggesting the involvement of differentially distributed alleles with small to moderate effects. Frequently cited examples include hypertension (Douglas et al. 1996), diabetes (Gower et al. 2003), obesity (Fernandez et al. 2003), and prostate cancer (Platz et al. 2000). However, in none of these cases has allelic variation in a susceptibility gene been shown to account for a significant fraction of the difference in disease prevalence among groups, and the role of genetic factors in generating these differences remains uncertain (Mountain and Risch 2004).
Health:
Some other variations on the other hand are beneficial to human, as they prevent certain diseases and increase the chance to adapt to the environment. For example, mutation in CCR5 gene that protects against AIDS. CCR5 gene is absent on the surface of cell due to mutation. Without CCR5 gene on the surface, there is nothing for HIV viruses to grab on and bind into. Therefore, the mutation on CCR5 gene decreases the chance of an individual's risk with AIDS. The mutation in CCR5 is also quite common in certain areas, with more than 14% of the population carry the mutation in Europe and about 6–10% in Asia and North Africa.
Health:
Apart from mutations, many genes that may have aided humans in ancient times plague humans today. For example, it is suspected that genes that allow humans to more efficiently process food are those that make people susceptible to obesity and diabetes today.Neil Risch of Stanford University has proposed that self-identified race/ethnic group could be a valid means of categorization in the US for public health and policy considerations. A 2002 paper by Noah Rosenberg's group makes a similar claim: "The structure of human populations is relevant in various epidemiological contexts. As a result of variation in frequencies of both genetic and nongenetic risk factors, rates of disease and of such phenotypes as adverse drug response vary across populations. Further, information about a patient's population of origin might provide health care practitioners with information about risk when direct causes of disease are unknown." However, in 2018 Noah Rosenberg released a study arguing against genetically essentialist ideas of health disparities between populations stating environmental variants are a more likely cause
Genome projects:
Human genome projects are scientific endeavors that determine or study the structure of the human genome. The Human Genome Project was a landmark genome project. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Postinflammatory hypopigmentation**
Postinflammatory hypopigmentation:
Postinflammatory hypopigmentation is a cutaneous condition characterized by decreased pigment in the skin following inflammation of the skin. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Psychiatric Genomics Consortium**
Psychiatric Genomics Consortium:
The Psychiatric Genomics Consortium (PGC) is an international consortium of scientists dedicated to conducting meta- and mega-analyses of genomic-wide genetic data, with a focus on psychiatric disorders. It is the largest psychiatric consortium ever created, including over 800 researchers from 38 countries as of 2019. Its goal is to generate information about the genetics of psychiatric conditions that will be "actionable", that is, "genetic findings whose biological implications can be used to improve diagnosis, develop rational therapeutics, and craft mechanistic approaches to primary prevention". The consortium makes the main findings from its research freely available for use by other researchers.
History:
The PGC was founded in early 2007, originally as the Psychiatric Genome Wide Association Consortium. One of its founders was Patrick F. Sullivan (UNC School of Medicine), who now serves as its lead principal investigator. It was initially a branch of the Genetic Association Information Network, a public-private partnership aimed at researching the genetics of human disorders in general.For its first four years of existence, the PGC focused on autism spectrum disorder, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, bipolar disorder, major depressive disorder, and schizophrenia. It also initially focused only on finding common single nucleotide polymorphisms that were associated with psychiatric disorders. Since then, it has expanded its scope to include other disorders, as well as less common forms of genetic variation such as copy number variation.
Findings:
Research from the PGC has shed light on the genetic architecture of psychiatric disorders generally, as well as demonstrating the viability of the genome-wide association approach for specific disorders such as schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. The consortium has also identified 108 genetic loci that are consistently associated with schizophrenia. In addition, its findings have pointed to significant pleiotropy across psychiatric disorders, with many common alleles influencing the risk of multiple such disorders. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Tao ExDOS**
Tao ExDOS:
Tao ExDOS is an emulator software application designed to allow users of old MS-DOS applications to run these applications on new operating systems such as Windows 10, Windows 8, Windows 7, Windows Vista, Windows XP, Windows 2000, and Windows Terminal Server.
Features:
Tao ExDOS enables users of DOS applications to work with these applications on new operating systems. Using the built-in Virtual 8086 mode of the x86 CPU, Tao ExDOS enables DOS and 16-bit Windows applications (that run under DOS) to run effectively in 32-bit Windows desktop environments, including Windows 10/8/7/Vista/XP/2000 and Windows Terminal Server 2003/2008. Support for 64-bit systems is available on Windows 7 via the Virtual XP Mode, which can be downloaded for free from Microsoft for Windows 7 Professional, Ultimate and Enterprise versions.
Features:
Additional modules allow the DOS users to print to printers connected to USB ports, network printers, fax printers, PDF, Microsoft Word, HTML and image files. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Two-ply**
Two-ply:
In comics, the term two-ply refers to pre-bordered boards of 11 inches by 17 inches, commonly used by a comic book penciller in the creating of the individual pages for comic books. They often have a marked off art area which is 10 inches by 15 inches, which is the actual size of original comic book art. This format is larger than a printed comic page, and will get scaled down before it sees publication in a comic book.
Two-ply:
The term 'ply' comes from the fact that the drawing board consists of two interwoven layers, resulting in a thickness made up of two layers or strands. It is sometimes referred to as a Bristol board or as Bristol paper. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**GOST**
GOST:
GOST (Russian: ГОСТ) refers to a set of international technical standards maintained by the Euro-Asian Council for Standardization, Metrology and Certification (EASC), a regional standards organization operating under the auspices of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS).
All sorts of regulated standards are included, with examples ranging from charting rules for design documentation to recipes and nutritional facts of Soviet-era brand names. The latter have become generic, but may only be sold under the label if the technical standard is followed, or renamed if they are reformulated.
History:
GOST standards were originally developed by the government of the Soviet Union as part of its national standardization strategy. The word GOST (Russian: ГОСТ) is an acronym for gosudarstvennyy standart (Russian: государственный стандарт), which means government standard.
History:
The history of national standards in the USSR can be traced back to 1925, when a government agency, later named Gosstandart, was established and put in charge of writing, updating, publishing, and disseminating the standards. After World War II, the national standardization program went through a major transformation. The first GOST standard, GOST 1 State Standardization System, was published in 1968.
Present:
After the disintegration of the USSR, the GOST standards acquired a new status of the regional standards. They are now administered by the Euro-Asian Council for Standardization, Metrology and Certification (EASC), a standards organization chartered by the Commonwealth of Independent States.
At present, the collection of GOST standards includes over 20,000 titles used extensively in conformity assessment activities in 12 countries. Serving as the regulatory basis for government and private-sector certification programs throughout the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), the GOST standards cover energy, oil and gas, environmental protection, construction, transportation, telecommunications, mining, food processing, and other industries.
The following countries have adopted all or some of GOST standards in addition to their own, nationally developed standards: Russia, Belarus, Moldova, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Georgia, and Turkmenistan.
Present:
Because GOST standards are adopted by Russia, the largest and most influential member of the CIS, it is a common misconception to think of GOST standards as the national standards of Russia. They are not. Since the EASC, the organization responsible for the development and maintenance of the GOST standards, is recognized by ISO as a regional standards organization, the GOST standards are classified as the regional standards. The national standards of Russia are the GOST R standards.
Present:
Ukraine scrapped its GOST (DSTU) standards in December 2015.
GOST standards and technical specifications:
The abbreviation GOST (rus) (SUST) (eng) stands for the State Union Standard. From its name we learn that most of the GOST standards of the Russian Federation came from the Soviet Union period. Creation and promotion of the Union Standards began in 1918 after introduction of the international systems of weights and measures.
The first body for standardization was created by the Council of Labor and Defense in 1925 and was named the Committee for Standardization. Its main objective was development and introduction of the Union standards OST standards. The first OST standards gave the requirements for iron and ferrous metals, selected sorts of wheat, and a number of consumer goods.
Until 1940, People's Commissariats had approved the standards. But in that year the Union Standardization Committee was founded and the standardization was redirected to creation of OST standards.
GOST standards and technical specifications:
In 1968 the state system of standardization (SSS) as the first in the world practice. It included creating and developing five standards: GOST – State Standard of the Soviet Union RST – Republican standard IST – Industrial Standard STE – Standard of an Enterprise TU – [[:ru:Технические условия|Технические условия]], literally "Technical conditions", a document setting technical requirements to which a specific product, material, substance, etc. must comply; example: TU 14-3-571-2004, for CrNi60WTi alloyThe level of technical development, and the need to develop and introduce informational calculating systems and many other factors, lead to creating complexes of standards and a number of large general technical standard systems. They are named inter-industrial standards. Within the state standard system they have their own indexes and the SSS has index 1. As of 2020, seven standard systems (GOST standards) are valid: USCD – The Uniform System of Constructor Documentation (index 2) USTD – The Uniform System of Technological Documentation (3) SIBD – The System of Information-Bibliographical Documentation (7) SSM – The State System of Providing the Uniformity of Measuring(8) SSLS – The System of Standards of Labor Safety(12) USPD – The Uniform System of Program Documentation (19) SSERTE – The System of Standards of Ergonomic Requirements and Technical Esthetic (29)The USCD and USTD systems take special place among other inter-industrial systems. They are interrelated and they formulate requirements for general technical documentation in all industries of economy.
GOST standards and technical specifications:
The task of harmonization of Russia's standards and the GOST standards was set in 1990 by the Soviet Council of Ministers at the beginning of the transit to market economy. At that time they formulated a direction that obeying the GOST standards may be obligatory or recommendable. The obligatory requirements are the ones that deal with safety, conformity of products, ecological friendliness and inter-changeability. The Act of the USSR Government permitted applying of national standards existing in other countries, international requirements if they meet the requirements of the people's economy.
GOST standards and technical specifications:
During the past years a large number of GOST standards were developed and approved.
Nowadays there is a process of their revision so that they conform to international standard requirements. As the base is the system of international standards ISO, in Russia they created series of Russian standards such as GOST ISO 9001 or GOST ISO 14001, which absorbed the best developments of the world community but they also consider the Russia's specific.
Examples of more common GOST standards GOST 7.67: Country codes GOST 5461-59 and 13393-76 Vacuum tube designation system GOST 7396: standard for power plugs and sockets used in Russia and throughout the Commonwealth of Independent States GOST 10859: A 1964 character set for computers, includes non-ASCII/non-Unicode characters required when programming in the ALGOL programming language.
GOST 16876-71: a standard for Cyrillic-to-Latin transliteration GOST 27975-88: Programming language ALGOL 68 extended - Язык программирования АЛГОЛ 68 расширенный GOST 28147-89 block cipher – commonly referred to as just GOST in cryptography
GOST R:
GOST R, or Russian certification system, is a subset of GOST standards that is valid only the territory of the Russian Federation, in contrast to the GOST standards, used across all CIS countries, including Russia.
GOST R:
This system is aimed to ensure safety and quality of products and services and involves obligatory certification of certain goods, both produced locally and imported. List of products subject to obligatory certification is defined by the Russian Federal Technical Regulation and Metrology Agency. The very system of certification GOST R has been valid in Russia for many years. The main normative base for it was national standards. At the same time active policy of Russia towards entering the WTO was the reason for adopting the federal law no. 184-ФЗ "On Technical Regulation", designed to harmonise Russian technical regulations with European legislation.
Certification systems:
Creation of certification systems in Russia is provided by the Federal Law no. 184-ФЗ "On Technical Regulation" Evaluating the product's conformity to requirements of laws, standards, technical regulations and other kinds of normative acts appears to be one of the most important possibilities of providing safety of different kinds of products for humans, environment and the state.
Certification systems:
According to the FL № 184 any certification system includes: A central certification organ which performs organizational operations within the system; Certification organs that must prove their ability to perform activities in expertise and drawing up the certification documents in certain sphere of evaluation of conformity. Only certification organs authorized for such kinds of works, have right to perform such function; Certification laboratories performs tests and measurements of safety indicators or quality of the evaluated objects. Such laboratory must have equipment and trained staff (and test methods) to perform its activities. Existence of all the resources is proved by the Attestation of Authorization of the laboratory in the given sphere of activity; Applicants are individual entrepreneurs or Russian legal entities (in some cases foreign manufacturers), that intend to go through evaluation process to prove the conformity of their production to the legal requirements or some other certain requirements of the system of certification (to which it applied).There is a great variety of objects for certification (different products and manufacturing processes, management systems, construction sites, etc.). A little smaller is the lists of risks that may be encountered by using some products and from which consumers should be protected. The variety of certification systems in Russia is explained by these two factors and by the wish of some corporations to introduce their own requirements for the product's deliverers.
Certification systems:
There two big groups of certification systems in Russia: voluntary and obligatory ones. From the names, it is clear that the evaluation of conformity for the objects of obligatory certification system appears to be mandatory requirement for all Russian manufacturers and for the products from abroad.
Obligatory certification:
It is only federal state structure who can create the obligatory certification system of Russia. The system must go through the procedure of state registration. The Rosstandart which is responsible for the certification in Russia as a whole keeps a registry of the RF certification systems. Only after receiving the Certificate of state registration with getting the unique registration number, may activities be performed in evaluating conformity as a new system.
Obligatory certification:
There are 16 obligatory certification systems in Russia: GOST R; Means of protection of information according to requirements of informational security; "Electrocommunication"; Geodesic, cartographic and topographic production; On the federal Railway transport; Means of protection of information; Security of manufacturing of explosives; In the sphere of fire security; Means of protection of information according to requirements of security; Marine civil vessels; On the air transport of the RF; Air techniques and the objects of civil aviation; Space craft; For nuclear sets, the points of storing radioactive materials; Means of protecting the information that include the state secret; Immune biological preparations.The obligatory GOST R certification system consists of sub-systems of certificating homogeneous products. The obligatory GOST R certification system consists of 40 sub-systems according to the kinds of homogeneous production. For example, the following sub-systems: Medical certification; The system of certification oil products; The system of certification of dishes; The system of certification of electrical equipment (SCE); The system of certification of mechanic transport means and trailers; The system of certification of gases; The "SEPROCHIM" certification system (rubber, asbestos) and many others.The management of state property in the sphere of technical regulation, organizing and performing works in certification in the GOST R system is performed by the Rostechregulation (former Gosstandart) which appears to be the Federal agency for technical regulation and metrology (now is called Rosstandart). The given agency is part of the structure of the Ministry of Industry and Trade of the RF.
Obligatory certification:
It became the very first and the largest system of evaluation of conformity in Russia and it encompasses all the groups of production that are to be evaluated according to the Federal Law "About protection of Consumers Rights" and it performs the other legislative acts considering separate kinds of goods The authority of the GOST R obligatory certification systems covers also the voluntary GOST R certification system because the applicants for the voluntary evaluation of conformity most often apply this very system.
Voluntary certification:
Any Russian citizen may register such evaluation system according to the Law. While creating the system they must set the list of objects to be evaluated on conformity in its frameworks, the indicators and characteristics in accord to which the voluntary certification will be performed, they must also formulate the rules of system and the pay order of the works in certification, and they must define the participants of the given system of evaluation of conformity.
Voluntary certification:
Registration of voluntary certification system is similar to the procedure of registration of the obligatory system. In the case of refusal, the Rosstandart sends to the applicant explanations of reasons why the new system may not be registered. Nowadays there are more than 130 central certification organs that went through the registration procedure.
Voluntary certification:
Examples of voluntary certification: Construction materials "Rosstroisertificazia"; Personnel and housing services – "Roszhilkommunsertifikazia"; Means of cryptographic protection of information; The production of the Gosstandart of Russia; Production and the quality systems defense industries – "Oboronsertifika"; Certification of food "HAASP"; Coal production; Jewelry (several systems in the given sphere with different names; Bio active materials – "BOSTI"; Services in the sphere of advertising; Evaluation of intellectual property objects; Information technologies – "SSIT".
Voluntary certification:
Corporative voluntary certification systems Fuel and energy complex (The System "Teksert"); Equipment for the oil-gas industry "Neftegaz"; GAZPROMSERT; Regional national certification systems Trading services in Moscow; Trading services "Tulasert"; Services of gas stations and complexes in Moscow; Fuel services in the Moscow Region; Services of retail sale in the Sakhalin Region; Services of retail sale in the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia); Services of gas stations and complexes of the Urals Region "URALSERT-AZS"; Services of retail sale in St. Petersburg and others. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Cannon–Bard theory**
Cannon–Bard theory:
The main concepts of the Cannon–Bard theory are that emotional expression results from the function of hypothalamic structures, and emotional feeling results from stimulations of the dorsal thalamus. The physiological changes and subjective feeling of an emotion in response to a stimulus are separate and independent; arousal does not have to occur before the emotion. Thus, the thalamic region is attributed a major role in this theory of emotion. The theory is therefore also referred to as the thalamic theory of emotion.
Origins:
Walter Bradford Cannon (1871–1945) was a physiologist at Harvard University, who is perhaps best known for his classic treatise on homeostasis. Philip Bard (1898–1977) was a doctoral student of Cannon's, and together they developed a model of emotion called the Cannon–Bard Theory. Cannon was an experimenter who relied on studies of animal physiology. Through these studies, Cannon and Bard highlighted the role of the brain in generating physiological responses and feelings; a role that is important in their explanation of emotion experience and production.A dominant theory of emotion of Cannon's time was the James–Lange theory of emotion, and Cannon recognized that to test this theory, an examination of emotional expression with no visceral afferent feedback was required. This was necessary because the link between visceral changes and the feedback required to stimulate cerebral manifestations of an emotion would no longer be present. To do so, Cannon experimented with severing afferent nerves of the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system in cats. Cannon compiled his experimental results in 1915, then refined and expanded them, and finally proposed his model of emotion as a challenge and alternative to the James–Lange theory of emotion.The James–Lange theory relies on the backflow of impulses from the periphery to account for unique emotional experiences; impulses that William James assumed to come from all parts of the organism, including the muscles, skin, and the viscera. The viscera were attributed a major role by James. The viscera are composed of smooth muscle and glands. Cannon identified and outlined five issues with the James–Lange theory's notion of the vasomotor center as the explanation of emotional experience.
Origins:
Total separation of the viscera from the central nervous system does not alter emotional behaviour.
Origins:
In an experiment, cats were kept alive and healthy after having their sympathetic nervous systems completely removed. Removal of this system resulted in the abolishment of all the reactions under control of the vasomotor center, the region that the James–Lange theory purported to be responsible for emotional experiences. However, it was found that destroying these functions had little or no effect on the animals' emotional responses. The cats displayed the typical signs of rage in response to a barking dog, and the animals displayed full emotional expression in all organs that had not had their connections to the brain destroyed.
Origins:
The same visceral changes occur in very different emotional states and in non-emotional states.
Origins:
The sympathetic nervous system functions as a single unit. Visceral changes brought on/caused by sympathetic nervous system action include: increased heart rate; contraction of arterioles; dilatation of bronchioles; increased levels of blood sugar; sweating; widening of the pupils and erection of hairs; and discharge of adrenin. These physiological changes can be seen in great excitement under any circumstances, including in distinguishable emotional states such as fear and rage, as well as situations of fever, asphyxia, and exposure to cold temperatures. Cannon articulated that these responses of the viscera are too uniform to offer a means of distinguishing emotions that have varying subjective qualities. He postulated that if emotions were the result of impulses from the viscera, we could expect fear, rage, chilliness, asphyxia, and fever to feel similarly, which is not the case.
Origins:
The viscera are relatively insensitive structures.
Origins:
Cannon wrote that there is a common belief that the more deeply the body is penetrated, the more sensitive it becomes; however, this is not the case. In the nerves distributed to the viscera the afferent sensory fibers may be only 1/10th as numerous as the efferent sensory fibers. For example, in the case of the viscera, we are unaware of the contractions and relaxations of the digestive processes. Such processes are undemonstrative and beyond our physical awareness, even when marked changes are induced in them.
Origins:
Visceral changes are too slow to be a source of emotional feeling.
Origins:
As previously stated, the viscera are composed of smooth muscle and glands, which are typically sluggish in their responses. It has been found that the latent period of the psychogalvanic response in man is approximately 3 seconds. However, it has also been noted that the latent period of affective responses to photos of men and women can end within 0.8 seconds. The James–Lange theory contends that such affective responses result from reverberations from the viscera. Cannon pointed out that the time required for nerve impulses to travel from the brain to the periphery and back to the brain again could not occur quickly enough to be the cause of such emotional responses.
Origins:
Artificial induction of the visceral changes typical of strong emotions does not produce them.
Origins:
When adrenaline is injected it induces the physiological responses typical of sympathetic nervous system activity previously discussed (dilation of bronchioles, constriction of blood vessels, increased blood sugar etc.). These changes are typical of intense emotional states. Therefore, if these visceral changes were artificially induced by the injection of adrenaline, one would expect the emotions to follow, as articulated by the James–Lange theory of emotion. When this experiment was done, participants experienced no specific emotions. However, it was found that an emotional response may develop only when the adrenaline as injected subsequent to discussing with patients their sick children or their dead parents. Thus, injection of adrenaline had an effect when an emotional mood already existed in participants.
Further criticisms of the James–Lange theory:
William James argued that there were either special centers for cerebral processes that accompany emotion, or they occurred in the ordinary motor and sensory centers of the cortex. Cannon responded by positing that there may not be one or the other, that there may be cortical processes and special centers that accompany emotional responses. He outlined two ideas regarding the existence of two sources of cerebral processes of emotions.
Further criticisms of the James–Lange theory:
Emotional expression results from action of subcortical centers Cannon summarized research done by Bechterev regarding emotional expression. In this research, it was argued that emotional expression must be independent of the cortex because the expression of emotions cannot always be inhibited or controlled (e.g. laughing from being tickled) because visceral changes occur independent of our control, and because these responses, which cannot be inhibited, are seen soon after birth before cortical management is developed. Furthermore, after cerebral hemispheres were removed from animal test subjects, correct affective responses could be elicited by appropriate stimulations. These emotional effects were no longer present when the optic thalamus was removed from the animals; thus, it was concluded that this region plays a significant role in the expression of emotions.
Further criticisms of the James–Lange theory:
To further support the assertion that emotional expression results from action of subcortical centers, Cannon and Britton performed further experimental research with cats. Cats were decorticated, and after a period of recovery they spontaneously displayed the behaviours characteristic of intense fury. This response, referred to as sham rage, continued to be displayed after ablation of all brain regions anterior to the diencephalon. However, once the lower posterior portion of the thalamic region was removed, the display of sham rage by the cats subsided. Based on this finding, it was concluded that the thalamus was a region from which, in the absence of cortical control, impulses are discharged which evoke an extreme degree of "emotional" activity, both muscular and visceral.
Further criticisms of the James–Lange theory:
Based on these findings and observations, Cannon asserts that the optic thalamus is a region in the brain responsible for the neural organization for the different emotional expressions.
Further criticisms of the James–Lange theory:
Thalamic processes are a source of affective experience There are numerous reported and cited cases of patients with unilateral lesions in the thalamus region who have a tendency to react excessively to affective stimuli. For example, pin pricks, painful pressure, and excessive heat or cold all cause more distress on the damaged side of the body as compared to the normal side. Similar results can be observed from agreeable stimuli: warmth stimuli may cause intense pleasure, demonstrated by facial expressions of enjoyment and exclamations of delight by the individual. The increased influence of stimuli resulting in excessive responses was attributed to the release of the thalamus from cortical inhibition. When the thalamus is released from cortical control, the affective states and responses are increased; thus, it was concluded that the thalamic region is occupied with the affective component of sensation.
The Cannon–Bard theory:
According to Cannon, an external stimulus activates receptors and this excitation starts impulses toward the cortex. Upon arriving in the cortex, the impulses are associated with conditioned processes that determine the direction of the subsequent response. It is this response that stimulates the thalamic processes. Once the thalamic processes are activated, they are ready to discharge. The thalamic neurons fire in a special combination in a given emotional expression. These neurons then discharge precipitately and intensely. Cannon wrote that within and near the thalamus, the neurons responsible for an emotional expression lie close to the relay in the sensory path from the periphery to the cortex, and when these neurons fire in a particular combination they innervate muscles and viscera and excite afferent paths to the cortex by direct connection or irradiation.
The Cannon–Bard theory:
The key component of the Cannon–Bard theory of emotion is that when the thalamic discharge occurs, the bodily changes occur almost simultaneously with the emotional experience. The bodily changes and emotional experience occur separately and independently of one another; physiological arousal does not have to precede emotional expression or experience. The theory asserts that the thalamic region is the brain area responsible for emotional responses to experienced stimuli.Cannon summarises the observations that serve as the basis for his theory of emotion which claims the thalamic region is the coordinating center for emotional reactions. First, after the removal of the cerebrum anterior to the thalamus in animal test subjects, the animals continue to display rage-like emotional responses. These reactions cease when the thalamus is then removed. Secondly, a tumor on one side of the thalamus can result in unilateral laughter or grimace under the appropriate conditions, although cortical and voluntary control of the same muscles is bilateral. Lastly, temporary impairment of cortical control of lower centers from light amnesia or permanent impairment by disease (e.g. tumor or lesion) can cause uncontrollable and prolonged weeping or laughing.
Additional theories of emotion:
The Cannon–Bard theory of emotion was formulated as a challenge and alternative to James–Lange theory. The Papez-Maclean theory is another influential theory of emotion that differs from the Cannon–Bard theory in terms of the area that is considered to be responsible for emotion expression. James Papez initially suggested that the interconnections among structures of the limbic system were ideally constituted to handle the long-lasting, intense aspects of experience that are typically associated with emotion.
Additional theories of emotion:
The circuit originally proposed by Papez consisted of the hippocampus, the ipsilateral mammillary body, the anterior nucleus of the thalamus, the cingulate cortex, the parahippocampal gyrus, and the entorhinal cortex, returning to the hippocampus. MacLean elaborated on Papez's earlier work, adding the prefrontal cortex, the septum, and the amygdala, and named this group of structures the limbic system.There is also the two-factor theory of emotion, as proposed by Stanley Schachter and Jerome E. Singer. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Questions (game)**
Questions (game):
Questions is a game that is played by participants maintaining a dialogue of asking questions back and forth for as long as possible, without making any declarative statements. Play begins when the first player serves by asking a question (often "Would you like to play questions?"). The second player must respond to the question with another question (e.g. "How do you play that?"). Each player must quickly continue the conversation by using only questions. Hesitation, statements, or non sequiturs are not allowed, and cause players to foul. The game is usually played by two players, although multiplayer variants exist.
Rules:
Scoring is done by foul. Fouls can be called for: statement: player fails to reply with a question hesitation: player takes too long to reply or grunts or makes a false start repetition: player asks questions identical to or synonymous with one already asked this game (not match) rhetoric: player asks a rhetorical question non sequitur: player responds with an unrelated question synonym: player asks a question almost the same as a previous question grunts: player makes a noise with question-like inflection that the other player cannot answer with a questionWhen a foul is called on a player, his opponent is awarded one point. First player to get three points wins a game. Matches are played to best out of three games.
Rules:
In one multiplayer variant, the game is played with two lines facing each other. The two opponents at the heads of the lines play each other and go to the back of the line (or the other line) when they foul. Scoring can be however the players like.
In popular culture:
Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead The game of Questions is featured prominently in Tom Stoppard's play Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead, and in an abridged form in the 1990 film adaptation of the same. The following is an excerpt from the play: R: Could we play at questions? G: What good would that do? R: Practice! G: Statement! One - love.
In popular culture:
R: Cheating! G: How? R: I hadn't started yet.
G: Statement. Two - love.
R: Are you counting that? G: What? R: Are you counting that? G: Foul! No repetitions. Three - love. First game to...
In popular culture:
The neo-Vaudevillian troupe The Flying Karamazov Brothers incorporated Stoppard's version of the Questions game into at least two Karamazov shows ("Juggling and Cheap Theatrics" and "Club!"). Karamazov brothers "Ivan" and "Dmitri" (Howard Jay Patterson and Paul David Magid) would play the game while performing takeaway juggling with three beanbags. The jugglers gleefully inform the audience that the routine is "copyrighted and used by permission!" Whose Line is it Anyway? A variation is played on the show Whose Line is it Anyway?, where a specific setting is established and players are replaced when they foul. The rules for determining a foul are not so strict in this version of the game, since the point is to entertain the audience rather than determine who is the best player. It is left to the judgment of the host, who "buzzes out" a player who fouls, with the purpose of keeping the game fast-paced and funny. (The host typically buzzes out a player for statement, hesitation, or "cracking up" with laughter, rarely buzzing out for a non-sequitur.) As with the show's other games, it is played for an unspecified length of time; at the end of the game, the host arbitrarily chooses a "winner", who receives an arbitrary number of meaningless "points". | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Treasury tag**
Treasury tag:
A treasury tag, India tag, or string tag is an item of stationery used to fasten sheets of paper together or to a folder. It consists of a short length of string, with metal or plastic cross-pieces at each end that are orthogonal to the string. They are threaded through holes in paper or card made with a hole punch or lawyers bodkin or electric drill, and the cross-pieces are sufficiently wide as to not slip back through the holes.The names Treasury tag and India tag are first found on record in a list of stationery items published by His Majesty's Stationery Office (HMSO) in 1912, and, both being capitalised, probably refer to HM Treasury and the India Office. While the terms are now equivalent, a Treasury tag was originally a lace with a sharp metal tag at one end, which could be threaded through the holes in a stack of documents or cards and inserted into a corresponding tag at the other end, thus forming a loop and binding the documents. The tags, in that case, were in line with the string, similar to aglets on a shoelace. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**PQDIF**
PQDIF:
Power Quality Data Interchange Format (PQDIF) is a binary file format specified in IEEE Std. 1159.3 that is used to exchange voltage, current, power, and energy measurements between software applications with a focus on the power quality domain.PQDIF can be utilized by power quality meters, electric meters, desktop software applications, server software, and web servers. Users of PQDIF files include meter manufacturers, electric utility company engineers, and commercial/industrial consumers of electric power.
PQDIF:
PQDIF is defined in a "recommended practice" standard maintained by the IEEE PQDIF Task Force, which is sponsored by the Transmission & Distribution Committee of the IEEE Power & Energy Society.
PQDIF:
The file format is designed to represent all power quality phenomena identified in IEEE Std 1159, which is a recommended practice on monitoring electric power quality. PQDIF can be used to represent other power related measurement data and is extensible to other data types as well. The recommended file format includes optional compression using zlib to help reduce disk space and transmission times. The utilization of Globally Unique Identifiers (GUID) to represent each element in the file permits the format to be extensible without the need for a central registration authority.
PQDIF:
PQDIF allows storage of the following types of measurements: waveforms, time series value logs (rms voltage, rms current, real/reactive/apparent power, total harmonic distortion, harmonics, flicker, etc.), phasors, frequency spectrums, lightning strikes, histograms, cross-tabulations, and magnitude-duration summary tables for voltage sags, voltage swells, interruptions, voltage spikes and other rapid voltage changes. PQDIF allows storage of information related to the sources that recorded the data, including name, description, location, transducer settings, trigger settings, and more.
PQDIF:
A single PQDIF file is a collection of PQDIF records consisting of a Container record, Data Source record, an optional Monitor Settings record, and one or more Observation records. In contrast, a PQDIF stream is a collection of PQDIF records streamed to a client using communication media such as a network connection. A stream presents records such that they are downloaded in the same order as they would be if read from a PQDIF file.
PQDIF:
The specification for PQDIF was first published in IEEE Std 1159.3-2003, which was reaffirmed in 2009. A second edition was approved and published by IEEE in 2019. The physical structure of PQDIF remains unchanged between IEEE Std 1159.3-2003 and IEEE Std 1159.3-2019, making PQDIF both backward and forwards compatible.
The 2019 edition of IEEE Std 1159.3 includes an annex explaining the relationship of the PQDIF file format with the IEEE COMTRADE file format. Another annex explains how to represent PQDIF files in XML files. The 2019 edition also explains the relationship between PQDIF and IEC 61850.
An open source software library maintained by IEEE Standards Association for reading and writing PQDIF files called PQDIFNet is maintained in IEEE SA OPEN. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Sideways Arithmetic from Wayside School**
Sideways Arithmetic from Wayside School:
Sideways Arithmetic From Wayside School is a children's novel by Louis Sachar in the Wayside School series. The book contains mathematical and logic puzzles for the reader to solve, presented as what The New Yorker called "absurdist math problems." The problems are interspersed with characteristically quirky stories about the students at Wayside School.
Plot:
Sideways Arithmetic from Wayside School begins with a foreword from Sachar in character as Louis the yard teacher, explaining the "sideways" nature of the problems within. He says that when he showed the students at Wayside School a regular math textbook, they laughed, thinking it was a book of jokes.
Plot:
The first chapter introduces Sue, a new student in Mrs. Jewls's class. She is bewildered to discover that the arithmetic lessons involve adding words instead of numbers using verbal arithmetic, e.g., "elf + elf = fool." The book presents an explanation for children of how these problems are solved, and then gives them several to do on their own. In chapter 2, Sue protests that math isn't supposed to be done that way, and gives the class a few traditional math problems like "seven + four = eleven." These are also presented as verbal arithmetic puzzles that are, as Mrs. Jewls states, impossible; the reader is tasked with figuring out why. In the next chapter, Mrs. Jewls tells Sue that if she doesn't understand how to do math in her class, she should switch schools. But when Sue inadvertently gets a question correct, Mrs. Jewls lets her stay. Chapter 4 contains more verbal arithmetic problems, this time with multiplication.
Plot:
Beginning with chapter 5, the book switches to logic and optimization problems. In this chapter, students have to determine what happened at recess through logical elimination. In Chapter 6, Mrs. Jewls is having trouble filling out report cards because she lost the correct answers to a series of quizzes; the reader must logically deduce those answers based on the scores each student got. Chapter 7 presents an algebraic optimization problem: lunch lady Miss Mush's meals become more and more disgusting the more of them she prepares, and the reader must determine, among other things, how many meals she should cook so that the most students are willing to eat. Chapter 8 involves "false logic" puzzles, with statements presented as questions on true-or-false quizzes. In the final chapter, Sue finally makes a new friend, Joy, who has stayed after school trying to solve her impossible true-or-false test involving the liar's paradox). They go home together.
Critical reception:
Charles Ashbacher, writing in the Journal of Recreational Mathematics, called Sideways Arithmetic an "excellent supplementary book for elementary school mathematics, and suggested that the verbal arithmetic problems would be particularly useful in teaching. The Guardian praised the book and its sequel, writing: "Sachar never wastes a moment, a word or a clue." | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Picross DS**
Picross DS:
Picross DS (ピクロスDS) is a puzzle video game developed by Jupiter Corporation and published by Nintendo for the Nintendo DS handheld video game console. It is the second Picross game to be released by Nintendo in Europe and North America after Mario's Picross suffered a commercial failure in regions outside Japan, where many Picross games have been released for several Nintendo consoles. Like other Picross games, it presents the player with a series of nonogram logic puzzles to solve. It was first released in Japan, and was later released in North America, Europe and Australia.
Gameplay:
Gameplay follows traditional Picross rules, where players use logic to mark each square as full or empty, eventually revealing an unknown picture. Additional modes allow players to create their own puzzles and send them to friends, download classic puzzles and compete in speed competitions with friends or random rivals via the Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection, download classic Picross puzzles from previous titles and complete up to five timed daily challenges.In all modes except Daily and Online Challenge, the player is given the opportunity to receive a "hint" which reveals one randomly selected row and column, which does not impact the player's time. Also, three types of background music can be selected (except for Classic puzzles and the unlockable level 11 "extra" puzzles), or the music can be turned off.
Gameplay:
Game modes In Normal mode, the player is informed if they mark a square that should be unmarked. The first mistake incurs a time penalty of two minutes, the second mistake four minutes, and each following mistake eight minutes.
Gameplay:
Initially, the player can choose from an "easy mode" of 5×5 and 10×10 puzzles, and Levels 1–4 of 10×10 and 15×15 puzzles. As the player completes puzzles in the standard levels, levels 5–10 and an extra level can be unlocked, with puzzles up to 25×20 in size. To unlock the extra level, the puzzles in all ten levels must be completed with a time of less than one hour for each, including penalties.
Gameplay:
Each level contains 15 puzzles. After completing five puzzles in each level, one of three timed mini-games is unlocked: Catch: 1×1 squares float around the grid. Tapping them all with the stylus clears this mode.
Sketch: The top screen displays a picture, which must be copied into the grid on the bottom screen.
Hit: Many squares appear and disappear quickly. Once a certain number are tapped, this mode is cleared.Minigames can be played multiple times to improve score, but do not have any bearing on unlocking new levels. They become more difficult in higher levels.
The three types of music available in Normal mode are jazz, reggae and bossa nova.
In Free mode, the player is not informed of mistakes, and the puzzles are generally more difficult to complete. To offset this, a Try it Out mode is available in which an overlay can be constructed to test various solutions. When finished with this mode, the player can delete it or apply the overlay.
The Free mode minigames are the same as in Normal Mode but are generally more difficult.
The three types of music available in Free Mode are rock, house and ambient.
Gameplay:
My Picross contains Original and Classic puzzles. Original puzzles are those that are created by the player or downloaded from friends in local or online wireless modes. Original puzzles can be classified as Normal or Free mode, and are given an automatically generated one to four star rating based on the puzzle's difficulty as assessed by the game. When these puzzles are played, the music selections are the same as in the regular Normal and Free modes depending on how the Original puzzle is classified.
Gameplay:
Classic puzzles are downloaded from the Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection. Downloadable puzzle packs will contain a variety of puzzles from classic Nintendo Picross titles; currently, puzzle packs from Mario's Picross, and Nintendo Power, are available in Europe and North America. As of November 21, 2007, twelve puzzle packs are currently available in North America, with two packs having been released biweekly starting on September 3, 2007. In Europe, only two packs have been released so far. In the classic mode, there is only one choice of music, which is not the same as any of the other modes but is different for Classic Normal mode and a Classic Free mode puzzles. The classic mode puzzles can be deleted at any time to make room for additional puzzles (ten packs can be held in memory at a time).
Gameplay:
Daily Picross contains up to five challenges, all on a 7×7 board with Normal mode rules. Mistakes in this mode incur a five-second penalty. Once a challenge is completed, the game time is recorded, graphed and assigned a letter grade, with A being an average time under 30 seconds. When other modes are unlocked, the grades are averaged together to obtain an overall grade, with five A grades resulting in the highest overall grade of S.
Gameplay:
The five challenges available in Daily Picross mode: Nonstop Time Attack mode is initially available, which is a fast-paced series of five puzzles in rapid succession.
No X Marks mode is identical to Nonstop Time Attack, but the X mark, which is used to mark squares that the player thinks cannot contain a filled mark, cannot be used. This mode is available after playing Daily Picross for three (not necessarily consecutive) days.
Gameplay:
Error Search mode shows the player five partially completed puzzles, with some squares needing a fill and some of the filled squares erroneously filled. On the top screen, the player is shown how many squares must be filled and how many erroneous squares need to be cleared before the puzzle is complete. If a filled square is cleared that should not be, no penalty is incurred, but if a square is filled that should not be, it incurs a time penalty similar to the Nonstop Time Attack mode. This mode is available after playing Daily Picross for seven days.
Gameplay:
Memory mode gives the player one puzzle to solve. For 20 seconds, the numerical clues on the edges of the grid are shown. After these disappear, the player is free to complete the puzzle. After various time intervals, one clue in one row or column is revealed until all of them are shown or the puzzle is complete. This mode is available after playing Daily Picross for twelve days.
Gameplay:
Secret mode is similar to Nonstop Time Attack in that a 7×7 grid must be completed and time penalties are possible; however, three of the numerical clues are replaced with an X mark. Three numbers are placed on the top screen; one of each of these are the true clue, and must be determined by the player by filling out the rest of the puzzle. Only one puzzle needs to be completed to finish this challenge. This mode is available after playing Daily Picross for twenty days.Online challenges consist of two 10×10 puzzles in a row. If a mistake is made, the game grid is frozen for five seconds while the other player is allowed to continue. Players cannot see the other player's screen, but are shown a progress bar that estimates how close the other player is to completing the puzzles. The bar quivers when the opponent has been penalized for making a mistake. The first player to complete both puzzles wins. This mode may be played against friends with a friend code, or with a randomly selected challenger.
Reception:
Dan Ryckert of Lawrence.com gave Picross DS a 9.4 out of 10 saying that "I couldn't have been more pleasantly surprised with Picross DS. It ranks up there with the system's elite in terms of "pick up and play" gameplay. With so much content and such a great price, you'd be a fool not to add this to your DS library." Boys' Life gave the game 8 out of 10 praising fun and challenging puzzles but also criticized it for a short length and zero replayability. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Dicirenone**
Dicirenone:
Dicirenone (INN, USAN; developmental code name SC-26304; also known as 7α-carboxyisopropylspirolactone) is a synthetic, steroidal antimineralocorticoid of the spirolactone group which was developed as a diuretic and antihypertensive agent but was never marketed. It was synthesized and assayed in 1974. Similarly to other spirolactones like spironolactone, dicirenone also possesses antiandrogen activity, albeit with relatively reduced affinity. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Neo (French law enforcement agencies mobile terminals)**
Neo (French law enforcement agencies mobile terminals):
NEO is a project aimed to provide French police officers and gendarmes with mobile terminals with a secure broadband connection. It is based on a version of Android developed by the national agency of the security of the information systems (ANSSI) with the support of the service for technologies and information systems of homeland security (ST[SI]²). NEO stands for new operational equipment. The gendarmerie uses the acronym NeoGend to designate this terminal.
History:
The project to create a modern tool for mobile police and gendarmerie forces began in 2014. Its outcome will occur in 2017 with the distribution of the mobile devices throughout the national territory.
History:
Here is a summary of the different stages of the project : September 2014: launch of the project October 2014: creation of the steering committee between the different development actors Fall 2014: definition of the first applications to integrate, choice of the secured android solution Secdroid December 2014: selection of the gendarmerie group of the department of the Nord and the departmental public security department of Seine-et-Marne to experiment the tool June 2015: first smartphones and tablets distributed in experimental sites September to November 2015: distribution of 1650 devices in the department of Nord and Seine-et-Marne and choice of the Burgundy region and the Seine-Maritime for a second phase of tests March to June 2016: distribution of 3,500 equipment in Burgundy-Franche-Comté and Seine-Maritime.
History:
September 2016: distribution in the gendarmerie units at the national level of a collective equipment (6000 devices) End of 2016: distribution of 10000 collective and individual devices at the national level September 2017: planned deployment to all police and gendarmerie forces (90 000 devices)
Technical platform:
The device work under an Android platform was modified to include a VPN linked to two electronic certificates: one for the device and the other for the user. This makes it possible to secure communications and to keep track of the actions performed by each user.
In terms of connectivity, these devices can use conventional operated networks but also specific networks of security forces based on Tetrapol with a Bluetooth connexion. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Indian Basket**
Indian Basket:
Indian Basket (IB), also known as Indian Crude Basket, is weighted average of Dubai and Oman (sour) and the Brent Crude (sweet) crude oil prices. It is used as an indicator of the price of crude imports in India and Government of India watches the index when examining domestic price issues.
Methodology for calculation:
The Indian basket of Crude Oil represents a derived basket comprising Sour grade (Oman and Dubai average) and Sweet grade (Brent Dated) of Crude oil processed in Indian refineries. During the year 2018-19,the ratio is 75.50 : 24.50 (Dubai : Brent respectively) and during the year 2017-2018, the ratio was 74.77 : 25.23 (Dubai : Brent). The Indian Basket is weighted average of daily prices and is updated daily on the website of the Petroleum Planning and Analysis Cell of the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Nanotechnology (journal)**
Nanotechnology (journal):
Nanotechnology is a peer-reviewed scientific journal published by IOP Publishing. It covers research in all areas of nanotechnology. The editor-in-chief is Ray LaPierre (McMaster University, Canada).
Abstracting, indexing, and impact factor:
According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2022 impact factor of 3.5.It is indexed in the following bibliographic databases: Chemical Abstracts Compendex Inspec Web of Science PubMed Scopus Astrophysics Data System Aerospace & High Technology EMBASE Environmental Science and Pollution Management International Nuclear Information System | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Potential game**
Potential game:
In game theory, a game is said to be a potential game if the incentive of all players to change their strategy can be expressed using a single global function called the potential function. The concept originated in a 1996 paper by Dov Monderer and Lloyd Shapley.The properties of several types of potential games have since been studied. Games can be either ordinal or cardinal potential games. In cardinal games, the difference in individual payoffs for each player from individually changing one's strategy, other things equal, has to have the same value as the difference in values for the potential function. In ordinal games, only the signs of the differences have to be the same.
Potential game:
The potential function is a useful tool to analyze equilibrium properties of games, since the incentives of all players are mapped into one function, and the set of pure Nash equilibria can be found by locating the local optima of the potential function. Convergence and finite-time convergence of an iterated game towards a Nash equilibrium can also be understood by studying the potential function.
Potential game:
Potential games can be studied as repeated games with state so that every round played has a direct consequence on game's state in the next round. This approach has applications in distributed control such as distributed resource allocation, where players without a central correlation mechanism can cooperate to achieve a globally optimal resource distribution.
Definition:
We will define some notation required for the definition. Let N be the number of players, A the set of action profiles over the action sets Ai of each player and u be the payoff function.
Definition:
Given a game G=(N,A=A1×…×AN,u:A→RN) , a function Φ:A→R is called: an exact potential function if ∀i,∀a−i∈A−i,∀ai′,ai″∈Ai ,Φ(ai′,a−i)−Φ(ai″,a−i)=ui(ai′,a−i)−ui(ai″,a−i) That is: when player i switches from action a′ to action a″ , the change in the potential Φ equals the change in the utility of that player.a weighted potential function if there is a vector w∈R++N such that ∀i,∀a−i∈A−i,∀ai′,ai″∈Ai ,Φ(ai′,a−i)−Φ(ai″,a−i)=wi(ui(ai′,a−i)−ui(ai″,a−i)) That is: when a player switches action, the change in Φ equals the change in the player's utility, times a positive player-specific weight. Every exact PF is a weighted PF with wi=1 for all i.an ordinal potential function if ∀i,∀a−i∈A−i,∀ai′,ai″∈Ai ,ui(ai′,a−i)−ui(ai″,a−i)>0⇔Φ(ai′,a−i)−Φ(ai″,a−i)>0 That is: when a player switches action, the sign of the change in Φ equals the sign of the change in the player's utility, whereas the magnitude of change may differ. Every weighted PF is an ordinal PF.a generalized ordinal potential function if ∀i,∀a−i∈A−i,∀ai′,ai″∈Ai ,ui(ai′,a−i)−ui(ai″,a−i)>0⇒Φ(ai′,a−i)−Φ(ai″,a−i)>0 That is: when a player switches action, if the player's utility increases, then the potential increases (but the opposite is not necessarily true). Every ordinal PF is a generalized-ordinal PF.a best-response potential function if ∀i∈N,∀a−i∈A−i arg max ai∈AiΦ(ai,a−i) where bi(a−i) is the best action for player i given a−i
A simple example:
In a 2-player, 2-action game with externalities, individual players' payoffs are given by the function ui(ai, aj) = bi ai + w ai aj, where ai is players i's action, aj is the opponent's action, and w is a positive externality from choosing the same action. The action choices are +1 and −1, as seen in the payoff matrix in Figure 1.
A simple example:
This game has a potential function P(a1, a2) = b1 a1 + b2 a2 + w a1 a2.
If player 1 moves from −1 to +1, the payoff difference is Δu1 = u1(+1, a2) – u1(–1, a2) = 2 b1 + 2 w a2.
The change in potential is ΔP = P(+1, a2) – P(–1, a2) = (b1 + b2 a2 + w a2) – (–b1 + b2 a2 – w a2) = 2 b1 + 2 w a2 = Δu1.
A simple example:
The solution for player 2 is equivalent. Using numerical values b1 = 2, b2 = −1, w = 3, this example transforms into a simple battle of the sexes, as shown in Figure 2. The game has two pure Nash equilibria, (+1, +1) and (−1, −1). These are also the local maxima of the potential function (Figure 3). The only stochastically stable equilibrium is (+1, +1), the global maximum of the potential function.
A simple example:
A 2-player, 2-action game cannot be a potential game unless [u1(+1,−1)+u1(−1,+1)]−[u1(+1,+1)+u1(−1,−1)]=[u2(+1,−1)+u2(−1,+1)]−[u2(+1,+1)+u2(−1,−1)]
Potential games and congestion games:
Exact potential games are equivalent to congestion games: Rosenthal proved that every congestion game has an exact potential; Monderer and Shapley proved the opposite direction: every game with an exact potential function is a congestion game.
Potential games and improvement paths:
An improvement path (also called Nash dynamics) is a sequence of strategy-vectors, in which each vector is attained from the previous vector by a single player switching his strategy to a strategy that strictly increases his utility. If a game has a generalized-ordinal-potential function Φ , then Φ is strictly increasing in every improvement path, so every improvement path is acyclic. If, in addition, the game has finitely many strategies, then every improvement path must be finite. This property is called the finite improvement property (FIP). We have just proved that every finite generalized-ordinal-potential game has the FIP. The opposite is also true: every finite game has the FIP has a generalized-ordinal-potential function. The terminal state in every finite improvement path is a Nash equilibrium, so FIP implies the existence of a pure-strategy Nash equilibrium. Moreover, it implies that a Nash equlibrium can be computed by a distributed process, in which each agent only has to improve his own strategy.
Potential games and improvement paths:
A best-response path is a special case of an improvement path, in which each vector is attained from the previous vector by a single player switching his strategy to a best-response strategy. The property that every best-response path is finite is called the finite best-response property (FBRP). FBRP is weaker than FIP, and it still implies the existence of a pure-strategy Nash equilibrium. It also implies that a Nash equlibrium can be computed by a distributed process, but the computational burden on the agents is higher than with FIP, since they have to compute a best-response.
Potential games and improvement paths:
An even weaker property is weak-acyclicity (WA). It means that, for any initial strategy-vector, there exists a finite best-response path starting at that vector. Weak-acyclicity is not sufficient for existence of a potential function (since some improvement-paths may be cyclic), but it is sufficient for the existence of pure-strategy Nash equilibirum. It implies that a Nash equilibrium can be computed almost-surely by a stochastic distributed process, in which at each point, a player is chosen at random, and this player chooses a best-strategy at random. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Countergradient variation**
Countergradient variation:
Countergradient variation is a type of phenotypic plasticity that occurs when the phenotypic variation determined by a biological population's genetic components opposes the phenotypic variation caused by an environmental gradient. This can cause different populations of the same organism to display similar phenotypes regardless of their underlying genetics and differences in their environments.To illustrate a common example known as countergradient growth rate, consider two populations. The two populations live in different environments that affect growth differently due to many ecological factors, such as the temperature and available food. One population is genetically predisposed to have an increased growth rate but inhabits an environment that reduces growth rate, such as a cool environment, and thereby limits the opportunities to take full advantage of any genetic predisposition. The second population is genetically predisposed to have a decreased growth rate but inhabits an environment that supports an increased growth rate, such as a warm environment, and allows members of the population to grow faster despite their genetic disadvantage. Since the genetic influence directly counteracts the environmental influence in each population, both populations will have a similar intermediate growth rate. Countergradient variation can reduce apparent variability by creating similar phenotypes, but it is still possible for the two populations to show phenotypic diversity if either the genetic gradient or the environmental gradient has a stronger influence.
Countergradient variation:
Many examples of countergradient variation have been discovered through the use of transplant experiments. Countergradient variation of growth rate is one of the most common examples. Growth rate and body size have important ecological implications, such as how they impact an organism's survival, life history, and fecundity. Countergradient variation has been described in many ectothermic animals, since ectotherms rely on environmental temperature to regulate their metabolic rates, and thus, their growth rates. Ectotherms grow at a slower rate as latitude increases due to this impact of temperature. However, under countergradient variation, when these same animals are placed in a common environment with their low-latitude relatives, they grow faster relative to the low-latitude population. These studies are useful in predicting how animals can adapt to and will survive in different environmental conditions.
History:
Countergradient variation, originally termed "contra-gradient variation", was coined by Richard Levins in his 1968 book Evolution in Changing Environments. Levins first used the term when describing patterns of body size across an altitudinal gradient in populations of Drosophila, and since then many other instances of countergradient variation have been discovered. A study by Keith Berven and others was the first to find countergradient variation in a vertebrate. Specifically, they found that in comparing montane, high altitude, populations to lowland, low altitude populations of the green frog (Lithobates clamitans, formerly Rana clamitans), rates of growth and development were higher in the montane populations. This is counter to what is expected since high altitude populations grow slower than low altitude ones in their respective environments. Similar to the results of this study, most of the known instances of countergradient variation are associated with a latitudinal or altitudinal gradient having an effect on growth rate (see Examples section).
Examples:
The following are among the discovered cases of countergradient variation. The species name is followed by the trait affected and the environmental gradient studied.
Animals Drosophila melanogaster – body size; altitude Menidia menidia – growth; latitude Lithobates clamitans – developmental rate; altitude Lithobates sylvatica – growth; latitude and altitude Sceloporus undulatus – growth; latitude Plants Laminaria saccharina – growth; latitude Carex aquatilis – shoot height; temperature and latitude Spartina angilca – growth and survival; tide elevation and succession stage
Mechanisms:
Countergradient variation is the opposite of cogradient variation, in which the environmental effect on the phenotype enhances the genetic effect on the phenotype. One common way to test for both of these patterns is with transplant experiments. By bringing the two populations to the same environment, the environmental effect on phenotype is eliminated and only the genetic effect will cause variation. If cogradient variation is occurring, the same relationship will be seen in the common environment as the two natural environments. However, if countergradient variation is occurring the opposite relationship of what is seen in the natural environments will be seen in the common environment. For example, if Population 1 has higher growth than Population 2 in their respective natural environments, countergradient variation can be detected if, when brought to the same environment, Population 1 now has lower growth than Population 2. Many of the examples listed above were discovered through these types of experiments. However, the mechanisms of how these differential growth rates arise is not fully understood.
Mechanisms:
Take the example of Sceloporus undulatus, the eastern fence lizard. These lizards demonstrate countergradient variation in growth rate across a latitudinal gradient. That is, in a common environment eggs from populations from the northern part of their range hatch out sooner than the eggs from populations at a more southern range. This is opposite the pattern seen in their native habitats. One explanation for this could be that the northern eggs are also naturally larger, so they have more yolk energy available. Originally this maternal investment in larger eggs was thought to support increased developmental rate. However when yolk is removed from the eggs so that the populations have equal energy sources, there is still a substantial difference in growth. Therefore, the mechanism behind this differential growth rate may lie in the efficiency of energy use.
Ecological relevance:
Populations that inhabit high latitudes experience shorter growing seasons than those that inhabit low latitudes due to the differences in seasonality. Because of this, it is thought that countergradient variation of growth is a means to compensate for the short amount of time juveniles have to prepare for winter. With a genetic disposition to grow faster, these individuals can reach a large enough body size to survive through the winter. Increased body size is also associated with higher reproductive output. Additionally, when countergradient variation acts on developmental rates, embryos that develop sooner or hatch out larger will have more time to grow or require less resources, respectively.
Ecological relevance:
Since these inherently fast growth rates are not observed in all populations, it seems there are potential trade-offs that would prevent this from being beneficial in low latitude populations. One proposed detriment of enhanced embryonic growth is that animals use too much of their supplied nutrients or yolk during development. In some species of lizards the yolk remaining after hatching is absorbed into the body and used as energy for growth as a hatchling. The use of more yolk energy during development diminishes the reserves available for hatchling growth and can impact hatchling survival. Another hypothesis is that animals that grow quickly do not expend as much energy on differentiation or cellular maintenance because they have shorter incubation times. This allows more energy to be used for growth, but less energy for differentiation. Increased growth has been shown to lead to higher occurrences of defects or complications that cause higher rates of mortality. Some examples include rapid growth leading to bone deformities in sandhill cranes and increased risk of cardiovascular problems in Atlantic salmon.Animals are able to employ different strategies for growth and development to counteract environmental challenges. However, the fact that all individuals do not grow faster and the presence of the mentioned potential fitness trade-offs show that there must be some limit to how much animals can use countergradient growth to compensate for environmental conditions that cause slow growth. Studies of countergradient variation are being explored as a useful way to predict the evolutionary constraints animals face in differing environmental conditions. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Malonyl-CoA O-methyltransferase**
Malonyl-CoA O-methyltransferase:
Malonyl-CoA O-methyltransferase (EC 2.1.1.197, BioC) is an enzyme with systematic name S-adenosyl-L-methionine:malonyl-CoA O-methyltransferase. This enzyme catalyses the following chemical reaction S-adenosyl-L-methionine + malonyl-CoA ⇌ S-adenosyl-L-homocysteine + malonyl-CoA methyl esterMalonyl-CoA O-methyltransferase is involved in an early step of biotin biosynthesis in Gram-negative bacteria. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**KELT-1**
KELT-1:
KELT-1 is a F-type main-sequence star. Its surface temperature is 6518±50 K. It is similar to the Sun in its concentration of heavy elements, with a metallicity Fe/H index of 0.008±0.073, but is much younger at an age of 1.75±0.25 billion years. The star is rotating very rapidly.A red dwarf stellar companion at a projected separation of 154±8 AU was detected in 2012, simultaneously with a planetary companion.
Planetary system:
The star was found to be orbited by a low-mass brown dwarf or giant planet in 2012.Brown dwarf/planet KELT-1b has an equilibrium temperature of 2422+32−26 K, but features a very strong contrast between measured dayside and nightside temperatures. Dayside temperature appears to be 3340±110 K, while nightside temperature is 1173+175−130 K. The excess dayside temperature may be an artifact arising from highly reflective (dayside albedo reaching 0.5, which is unusual for hot planets and brown dwarfs) rock-vapor clouds. Also, the brightest band is shifted eastward from the subsolar point by 18.3±7.4°.KELT-1b's density of 22.1+5.62−9.16 g/cm3 is the highest among well characterized planets.The planetary orbit is well aligned with the equatorial plane of the star, with the misalignment angle equal to 2±16°. Despite the short orbital period, orbital decay of KELT-1b has not been detected as of 2018. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Mir-615 microRNA precursor family**
Mir-615 microRNA precursor family:
mir-615 microRNA is a short non-coding RNA molecule belonging both to the family of microRNAs and to that of small interfering RNAs (siRNAs). MicroRNAs function to regulate the expression levels of other genes by several mechanisms, whilst siRNAs are involved primarily with the RNA interference (RNAi) pathway. siRNAs have been linked through some members to the regulation of cancer cell growth, specifically in prostate adenocarcinoma.
miR-615 and NGX6:
Nasopharyngeal carcinoma-associated gene 6 (NGX6) acts as a tumour suppressor gene in colon cancer. miR-615 has been found to be downregulated in NGX6-transfected cells, although identification of its target genes has not yet been achieved.
Hox cluster conservation:
miR-615 has been found to reside within Hox gene clusters, alongside Hox genes other miRNAs. Hox genes are involved in anterior-posterior axis patterning. miR-615 is located at the HOXC5 (encdoing the HOXC5 homeobox protein) intron in mammals. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Monolithic Memories**
Monolithic Memories:
Monolithic Memories, Inc. (MMI) produced bipolar PROMs, programmable logic devices, and logic circuits (including 7400 series TTL).
A team of MMI engineers, under the direction of Ze'ev Drori and headed by John Birkner and H. T. Chua, invented the class of devices known as Programmable Array Logic (PAL).
Monolithic Memories:
MMI was founded in 1969 by former Fairchild Semiconductor engineer Ze'ev Drori, later the President and CEO of Tesla Motors. In 1987, under the stewardship of President Irwin Federman, it was merged with Advanced Micro Devices in a $422 million stock swap to become the world's largest integrated circuit manufacturer. AMD later spun off their programmable logic division as Vantis, which was then acquired by Lattice Semiconductor. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**RCOR1**
RCOR1:
REST corepressor 1 also known as CoREST is a protein that in humans is encoded by the RCOR1 gene.
Function:
This gene encodes a protein that is well-conserved, downregulated at birth, and with a specific role in determining neural cell differentiation. The encoded protein binds to the C-terminal domain of REST (repressor element-1 silencing transcription factor).
Interactions:
RCOR1 has been shown to interact with HDAC1, HDAC2, HMG20B, REST and PHF21A. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Neurometric function**
Neurometric function:
In neuroscience, a neurometric function is a mathematical formula relating the activity of brain cells to aspects of an animal's sensory experience or motor behavior. Neurometric functions provide a quantitative summary of the neural code of a particular brain region.
In sensory neuroscience, neurometric functions measure the probability with which a sensory stimulus would be perceived based on decoding the activity of a given neuron or collection of neurons.
Neurometric function:
The concept was introduced to investigate the visibility of visual stimuli, by applying Detection theory to the output of single neurons of visual cortex.Comparing neurometric functions to psychometric functions (by recording from neurons in the brain of the observer) can reveal whether the neural representation in the recorded region constrains perceptual accuracy.In motor neuroscience, neurometric functions are used to predict body movements from the activity of neuronal populations in regions such as motor cortex. Such neurometric functions are used in the design of brain–computer interfaces. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**ASAH1**
ASAH1:
The ASAH1 gene encodes in humans the acid ceramidase enzyme.
Function:
This gene encodes a heterodimeric protein consisting of a nonglycosylated alpha subunit and a glycosylated beta subunit that is cleaved to the mature enzyme posttranslationally. The encoded protein catalyzes the synthesis and degradation of ceramide into sphingosine and fatty acid. Mutations in this gene have been associated with a lysosomal storage disorder known as Farber disease and, recently, with a rare neurodegenerative condition known as spinal muscular atrophy with progressive myoclonic epilepsy. Two transcript variants encoding distinct isoforms have been identified for this gene. In melanocytic cells ASAH1 gene expression may be regulated by MITF.
As a glioblastoma drug target:
ASAH1 expression is upregulated following radiation, suggesting it plays a role in conferring radioresistance to glioblastoma and in the development of recurrent glioblastoma. Inhibiting the activity of ASAH1 with carmofur, a drug that has been approved for clinical treatment of colorectal cancers in several countries, leads to substantial cell deaths and as a result has been proposed as a drug target in the treatment of glioblastoma. It has also been suggested to be a novel drug target against pediatric brain tumors as well. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Inhalant**
Inhalant:
Inhalants are a broad range of household and industrial chemicals whose volatile vapors or pressurized gases can be concentrated and breathed in via the nose or mouth to produce intoxication, in a manner not intended by the manufacturer. They are inhaled at room temperature through volatilization (in the case of gasoline or acetone) or from a pressurized container (e.g., nitrous oxide or butane), and do not include drugs that are sniffed after burning or heating. For example, amyl nitrite (poppers), nitrous oxide and toluene – a solvent widely used in contact cement, permanent markers, and certain types of glue – are considered inhalants, but smoking tobacco, cannabis, and crack cocaine are not, even though these drugs are inhaled as smoke or vapor.While a few inhalants are prescribed by medical professionals and used for medical purposes, as in the case of inhaled anesthetics and nitrous oxide (an anxiolytic and pain relief agent prescribed by dentists), this article focuses on inhalant use of household and industrial propellants, glues, fuels, and other products in a manner not intended by the manufacturer, to produce intoxication or other psychoactive effects. These products are used as recreational drugs for their intoxicating effect. According to a 1995 report by the National Institute on Drug Abuse, the most serious inhalant use occurs among homeless children and teenagers who "... live on the streets completely without family ties." Inhalants are the only substance used more by younger teenagers than by older teenagers. Inhalant users inhale vapor or aerosol propellant gases using plastic bags held over the mouth or by breathing from a solvent-soaked rag or an open container. The practices are known colloquially as "sniffing", "huffing" or "bagging".
Inhalant:
The effects of inhalants range from an alcohol-like intoxication and intense euphoria to vivid hallucinations, depending on the substance and the dose. Some inhalant users are injured due to the harmful effects of the solvents or gases or due to other chemicals used in the products that they are inhaling. As with any recreational drug, users can be injured due to dangerous behavior while they are intoxicated, such as driving under the influence. In some cases, users have died from hypoxia (lack of oxygen), pneumonia, heart failure or arrest, or aspiration of vomit. Brain damage is typically seen with chronic long-term use of solvents as opposed to short-term exposure.While legal when used as intended, in England, Scotland, and Wales it is illegal to sell inhalants to persons likely to use them as an intoxicant. As of 2017, thirty-seven US states impose criminal penalties on some combination of sale, possession or recreational use of various inhalants. In 15 of these states, such laws apply only to persons under the age of 18.
Classification:
Inhalants can be classified by their intended function. Most inhalant drugs that are used non-medically are ingredients in household or industrial chemical products that are not intended to be concentrated and inhaled. A small number of recreational inhalant drugs are pharmaceutical products that are used illicitly.
Product category Another way to categorize inhalants is by their product category. There are three main product categories: solvents; gases; and medical drugs which are used illicitly.
Classification:
Solvents A wide range of volatile solvents intended for household or industrial use are inhaled as recreational drugs. This includes petroleum products (gasoline and kerosene), toluene (used in paint thinner, permanent markers, contact cement and model glue), and acetone (used in nail polish remover). These solvents vaporize at room temperature. Ethanol (the alcohol which is normally drunk) is sometimes inhaled, but this cannot be done at room temperature. The ethanol must be converted from liquid into gaseous state (vapor) or aerosol (mist), in some cases using a nebulizer, a machine that agitates the liquid into an aerosol. The sale of nebulizers for inhaling ethanol was banned in some US states due to safety concerns.
Classification:
Gases A number of gases intended for household or industrial use are inhaled as recreational drugs. This includes chlorofluorocarbons used in aerosols and propellants (e.g., aerosol hair spray, aerosol deodorant). A gas used as a propellant in whipped cream aerosol containers, nitrous oxide, is used as a recreational drug. Pressurized canisters of propane and butane gas, both of which are intended for use as fuels, are used as inhalants.
Classification:
Medical anesthetics Several medical anesthetics are used as recreational drugs, including diethyl ether (a drug that is no longer used medically, due to its high flammability and the development of safer alternatives) and nitrous oxide, which is widely used in the 2010s by dentists as an anti-anxiety drug during dental procedures. Diethyl ether has a long history of use as a recreational drug. The effects of ether intoxication are similar to those of alcohol intoxication, but more potent. Also, due to NMDA antagonism, the user may experience all the psychedelic effects present in classical dissociatives such as ketamine in the forms of thought loops and the feeling of the mind being disconnected from one's body. Nitrous oxide is a dental anesthetic that is used as a recreational drug, either by users who have access to medical-grade gas canisters (e.g., dental hygienists or dentists) or by using the gas contained in whipped cream aerosol containers. Nitrous oxide inhalation can cause pain relief, depersonalisation, derealisation, dizziness, euphoria, and some sound distortion.
Classification:
Classification by effect It is also possible to classify inhalants by the effect they have on the body. Some solvents act as depressants, causing users to feel relaxed or drowsy while others act as stimulants. All commonly abused inhalants act as asphyxiant gases, although a common myth is that their primary effects are only due to oxygen deprivation. In reality, the majority of abused inhalants still exhibit psychoactive effects, although oxygen deprivation does add to the notable effects. Nitrous oxide can be categorized as a dissociative drug, as it can cause visual and auditory hallucinations. Other agents may have more direct effects at receptors, as inhalants exhibit a variety of mechanisms of action. The mechanisms of action of many non-medical inhalants have not been well elucidated. Anesthetic gases used for surgery, such as nitrous oxide or enflurane, are believed to induce anesthesia primarily by acting as NMDA receptor antagonists, open-channel blockers that bind to the inside of the calcium channels on the outer surface of the neuron, and provide high levels of NMDA receptor blockade for a short period of time.
Classification:
This makes inhaled anesthetic gases different from other NMDA antagonists, such as ketamine, which bind to a regulatory site on the NMDA-sensitive calcium transporter complex and provide slightly lower levels of NMDA blockade, but for a longer and much more predictable duration. This makes a deeper level of anesthesia achievable more easily using anesthetic gases but can also make them more dangerous than other drugs used for this purpose.
Classification:
Chemical structure Inhalants can also be classified by chemical structure. Classes include:
Administration and effects:
Inhalant users inhale vapors or aerosol propellant gases using plastic bags held over the mouth or by breathing from an open container of solvents, such as gasoline or paint thinner. Nitrous oxide gases from whipped cream aerosol cans, aerosol hairspray or non-stick frying spray are sprayed into plastic bags. Some nitrous oxide users spray the gas into balloons. When inhaling non-stick cooking spray or other aerosol products, some users may filter the aerosolized particles out with a rag. Some gases, such as propane and butane gases, are inhaled directly from the canister. Once these solvents or gases are inhaled, the extensive capillary surface of the lungs rapidly absorbs the solvent or gas, and blood levels peak rapidly. The intoxication effects occur so quickly that the effects of inhalation can resemble the intensity of effects produced by intravenous injection of other psychoactive drugs.Ethanol is also inhaled, either by vaporizing it by pouring it over dry ice in a narrow container and inhaling with a straw or by pouring alcohol in a corked bottle with a pipe, and then using a bicycle pump to make a spray. Alcohol can be vaporized using a simple container and open-flame heater. Medical devices such as asthma nebulizers and inhalers were also reported as means of application. The practice gained popularity in 2004, with the marketing of the device dubbed AWOL (Alcohol without liquid), a play on the military term AWOL (Absent Without Leave). AWOL, created by British businessman Dominic Simler, was first introduced in Asia and Europe, and then in the United States in August 2004. AWOL was used by nightclubs, at gatherings and parties, and it garnered attraction as a novelty, as people 'enjoyed passing it around in a group'. AWOL uses a nebulizer, a machine that agitates the liquid into an aerosol. AWOL's official website states that "AWOL and AWOL 1 are powered by Electrical Air Compressors while AWOL 2 and AWOL 3 are powered by electrical oxygen generators", which refer to a couple of mechanisms used by the nebulizer drug delivery device for inhalation. Although the AWOL machine is marketed as having no downsides, such as the lack of calories or hangovers, Amanda Shaffer of Slate describes these claims as "dubious at best". Although inhaled alcohol does reduce the caloric content, the savings are minimal. After expressed safety and health concerns, sale or use of AWOL machines was banned in a number of American states.The effects of solvent intoxication can vary widely depending on the dose and what type of solvent or gas is inhaled. A person who has inhaled a small amount of rubber cement or paint thinner vapor may be impaired in a manner resembling alcohol inebriation. A person who has inhaled a larger quantity of solvents or gases, or a stronger chemical, may experience stronger effects such as distortion in perceptions of time and space, hallucinations, and emotional disturbances. The effects of inhalant use are also modified by the combined use of inhalants and alcohol or other drugs.
Administration and effects:
In the short term, many users experience headaches, nausea and vomiting, slurred speech, loss of motor coordination, and wheezing. A characteristic "glue sniffer's rash" around the nose and mouth is sometimes seen after prolonged use. An odor of paint or solvents on clothes, skin, and breath is sometimes a sign of inhalant abuse, and paint or solvent residues can sometimes emerge in sweat.According to NIH, even a single session of inhalant use "can disrupt heart rhythms and lower oxygen levels", which can lead to death. "Regular abuse can result in serious harm to the brain, heart, kidneys, and liver."
Dangers and health problems:
Statistics on deaths caused by heavy inhalant use are difficult to determine. It may be severely under-reported because death is often attributed to a discrete event such as a stroke or a heart attack, even if the event happened because of inhalant use. Inhalant use was mentioned on 144 death certificates in Texas during the period 1988–1998 and was reported in 39 deaths in Virginia between 1987 and 1996 from acute voluntary exposure to used inhalants.
Dangers and health problems:
General risks Regardless of which inhalant is used, inhaling vapors or gases can lead to injury or death. One major risk is hypoxia (lack of oxygen), which can occur due to inhaling fumes from a plastic bag, or from using proper inhalation mask equipment (e.g., a medical mask for nitrous oxide) but not adding oxygen or room air. Another danger is freezing the throat. When a gas that was stored under high pressure is released, it cools abruptly and can cause frostbite if it is inhaled directly from the container. This can occur, for example, with inhaling nitrous oxide. When nitrous oxide is used as an automotive power adder, its cooling effect is used to make the fuel-air charge denser. In a person, this effect is potentially lethal. Many inhalants are volatile organic chemicals and can catch fire or explode, especially when combined with smoking. As with many other drugs, users may also injure themselves due to loss of coordination or impaired judgment, especially if they attempt to operate machinery.
Dangers and health problems:
Solvents have many potential risks in common, including pneumonia, cardiac failure or arrest, and aspiration of vomit. The inhaling of some solvents can cause hearing loss, limb spasms, and damage to the central nervous system and brain. Serious but potentially reversible effects include liver and kidney damage and blood-oxygen depletion. Death from inhalants is generally caused by a very high concentration of fumes. Deliberately inhaling solvents from an attached paper or plastic bag or in a closed area greatly increases the chances of suffocation. Brain damage is typically seen with chronic long-term use as opposed to short-term exposure. Parkinsonism (see: Signs and symptoms of Parkinson's disease) has been associated with huffing.
Dangers and health problems:
Female inhalant users who are pregnant may have adverse effects on the fetus, and the baby may be smaller when it is born and may need additional health care (similar to those seen with alcohol – fetal alcohol syndrome). There is some evidence of birth defects and disabilities in babies born to women who sniffed solvents such as gasoline.
Dangers and health problems:
In the short term, death from solvent use occurs most commonly from aspiration of vomit while unconscious or from a combination of respiratory depression and hypoxia, the second cause being especially a risk with heavier-than-air vapors such as butane or gasoline vapor. Deaths typically occur from complications related to excessive sedation and vomiting. Actual overdose from the drug does occur, however, and inhaled solvent use is statistically more likely to result in life-threatening respiratory depression than intravenous use of opioids such as heroin. Most deaths from solvent use could be prevented if individuals were resuscitated quickly when they stopped breathing and their airways cleared if they vomited. However, most inhalant use takes place when people inhale solvents by themselves or in groups of people who are intoxicated. Certain solvents are more hazardous than others, such as gasoline.
Dangers and health problems:
In contrast, a few inhalants like amyl nitrate and diethyl ether have medical applications and are not toxic in the same sense as solvents, though they can still be dangerous when used recreationally. Nitrous oxide is thought to be particularly non-toxic, though heavy long-term use can lead to a variety of serious health problems linked to the destruction of vitamin B12 and folic acid.
Dangers and health problems:
Risks of specific agents The hypoxic effect of inhalants can cause damage to many organ systems (particularly the brain, which has a very low tolerance for oxygen deprivation), but there can also be additional toxicity resulting from either the physical properties of the compound itself or additional ingredients present in a product. Organochlorine solvents are particularly hazardous; many of these are now restricted in developed countries due to their environmental impact.
Dangers and health problems:
Methylene chloride, after being metabolized, can cause carbon monoxide poisoning.
Gasoline sniffing can cause lead poisoning, in locations where leaded gas is not banned.
Ingestion of alkyl nitrites can cause methemoglobinemia, and by inhalation it has not been ruled out.
Carbon tetrachloride can cause significant damage to multiple systems, but its association with liver damage is so strong that it is used in animal models to induce liver injury.
Use of butane, propane, nitrous oxide and other inhalants can create a risk of freezing burns from contact with the extremely cold liquid (See aerosol burn). The risk of such contact is greatly increased by the impaired judgement and motor coordination brought on by inhalant intoxication.
Benzene use can cause bone marrow depression. It is also a known carcinogen.
Toluene can damage myelin.Toxicity may also result from the pharmacological properties of the drug; excess NMDA antagonism can completely block calcium influx into neurons and provoke cell death through apoptosis, although this is more likely to be a long-term result of chronic solvent use than a consequence of short-term use.
Sudden sniffing death syndrome Sudden sniffing death syndrome is commonly known as SSDS.
Dangers and health problems:
Inhaling butane gas can cause drowsiness, unconsciousness, asphyxia, and cardiac arrhythmia. Butane is the most commonly misused volatile solvent in the UK and caused 52% of solvent-related deaths in 2000. When butane is sprayed directly into the throat, the jet of fluid can cool rapidly to −20 °C by adiabatic expansion, causing prolonged laryngospasm.Some inhalants can also indirectly cause sudden death by cardiac arrest, in a syndrome known as "sudden sniffing death". The anaesthetic gases present in the inhalants appear to sensitize the user to adrenaline and, in this state, a sudden surge of adrenaline (e.g., from a frightening hallucination or run-in with aggressors), may cause fatal cardiac arrhythmia.Furthermore, the inhalation of any gas that is capable of displacing oxygen in the lungs (especially gases heavier than oxygen) carries the risk of hypoxia as a result of the very mechanism by which breathing is triggered. Since reflexive breathing is prompted by elevated carbon dioxide levels (rather than diminished blood oxygen levels), breathing a concentrated, relatively inert gas (such as computer-duster tetrafluoroethane or nitrous oxide) that removes carbon dioxide from the blood without replacing it with oxygen will produce no outward signs of suffocation even when the brain is experiencing hypoxia. Once full symptoms of hypoxia appear, it may be too late to breathe without assistance, especially if the gas is heavy enough to lodge in the lungs for extended periods. Even completely inert gases, such as argon, can have this effect if oxygen is largely excluded.
Legal aspects:
Solvent glue Even though solvent glue is normally a legal product, there is a 1983 case where a court ruled that supplying glue to children is illegal. Khaliq v HM Advocate was a Scottish criminal case decided by the High Court of Justiciary on appeal, in which it was decided that it was an offense at common law to supply glue-sniffing materials that were otherwise legal in the knowledge that they would be used recreationally by children. Two shopkeepers in Glasgow were arrested and charged for supplying children with "glue-sniffing kits" consisting of a quantity of petroleum-based glue in a plastic bag. They argued there was nothing illegal about the items that they had supplied. On appeal, the High Court took the view that, even though glue and plastic bags might be perfectly legal, everyday items, the two shopkeepers knew perfectly well that the children were going to use the articles as inhalants and the charge on the indictment should stand. When the case came to trial at Glasgow High Court the two were sentenced to three years' imprisonment.
Legal aspects:
As of 2023, in England, Scotland, and Wales it illegal to sell inhalants, including solvent glues, to persons of any age likely to use them as an intoxicant. As of 2017, thirty-seven US states impose criminal penalties on some combination of sale, possession or recreational use of various inhalants. In 15 of these states, such laws apply only to persons under the age of 18.
Legal aspects:
Propellant gases "New Jersey... prohibits selling or offering to sell minors products containing chlorofluorocarbon that is used in refrigerant." Poppers The sale of alkyl nitrite-based poppers was banned in Canada in 2013. Although not considered a narcotic and not illegal to possess or use, they are considered a drug. Sales that are not authorized can now be punished with fines and prison. Since 2007, reformulated poppers containing isopropyl nitrite are sold in Europe because only isobutyl nitrite is prohibited. In France, the sale of products containing butyl nitrite, pentyl nitrite, or isomers thereof, has been prohibited since 1990 on grounds of danger to consumers. In 2007, the government extended this prohibition to all alkyl nitrites that were not authorized for sale as drugs. After litigation by sex shop owners, this extension was quashed by the Council of State on the grounds that the government had failed to justify such a blanket prohibition: according to the court, the risks cited, concerning rare accidents often following abnormal usage, rather justified compulsory warnings on the packaging.In the United Kingdom, poppers are widely available and frequently (legally) sold in gay clubs/bars, sex shops, drug paraphernalia head shops, over the Internet and on markets. It is illegal under Medicines Act 1968 to sell them advertised for human consumption, and to bypass this, they are usually sold as odorizers. In the U.S., originally marketed as a prescription drug in 1937, amyl nitrite remained so until 1960, when the Food and Drug Administration removed the prescription requirement due to its safety record. This requirement was reinstated in 1969, after observation of an increase in recreational use. Other alkyl nitrites were outlawed in the U.S. by Congress through the Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1988. The law includes an exception for commercial purposes. The term commercial purpose is defined to mean any use other than for the production of consumer products containing volatile alkyl nitrites meant for inhaling or otherwise introducing volatile alkyl nitrites into the human body for euphoric or physical effects. The law came into effect in 1990. Visits to retail outlets selling these products reveal that some manufacturers have since reformulated their products to abide by the regulations, through the use of the legal cyclohexyl nitrite as the primary ingredient in their products, which are sold as video head cleaners, polish removers, or room odorants.
Legal aspects:
Nitrous oxide In the United States, possession of nitrous oxide is legal under federal law and is not subject to DEA purview. It is, however, regulated by the Food and Drug Administration under the Food Drug and Cosmetics Act; prosecution is possible under its "misbranding" clauses, prohibiting the sale or distribution of nitrous oxide for the purpose of human consumption as a recreational drug. Many states have laws regulating the possession, sale, and distribution of nitrous oxide. Such laws usually ban distribution to minors or limit the amount of nitrous oxide that may be sold without a special license. For example, in the state of California, possession for recreational use is prohibited and qualifies as a misdemeanor. In New Zealand, the Ministry of Health has warned that nitrous oxide is a prescription medicine, and its sale or possession without a prescription is an offense under the Medicines Act. This statement would seemingly prohibit all non-medicinal uses of the chemical, though it is implied that only recreational use will be legally targeted. In India, for general anesthesia purposes, nitrous oxide is available as Nitrous Oxide IP. India's gas cylinder rules (1985) permit the transfer of gas from one cylinder to another for breathing purposes. Because India's Food & Drug Authority (FDA-India) rules state that transferring a drug from one container to another (refilling) is equivalent to manufacturing, anyone found doing so must possess a drug manufacturing license.
Patterns of non-medical use:
Inhalant drugs are often used by children, teenagers, incarcerated or institutionalized people, and impoverished people, because these solvents and gases are ingredients in hundreds of legally available, inexpensive products, such as deodorant sprays, hair spray, contact cement and aerosol air fresheners. However, most users tend to be "... adolescents (between the ages of 12 and 17)." In some countries, chronic, heavy inhalant use is concentrated in marginalized, impoverished communities. Young people who become used to heavy amounts of inhalants chronically are also more likely to be those who are isolated from their families and community. The article "Epidemiology of Inhalant Abuse: An International Perspective" notes that "[t]he most serious form of obsession with inhalant use probably occurs in countries other than the United States where young children live on the streets completely without family ties. These groups almost always use inhalants at very high levels (Leal et al. 1978). This isolation can make it harder to keep in touch with the sniffer and encourage him or her to stop sniffing."The article also states that "... high [inhalant use] rates among barrio Hispanics almost undoubtedly are related to the poverty, lack of opportunity, and social dysfunction that occur in barrios" and states that the "... same general tendency appears for Native-American youth" because "... Indian reservations are among the most disadvantaged environments in the United States; there are high rates of unemployment, little opportunity, and high rates of alcoholism and other health problems." There are a wide range of social problems associated with inhalant use, such as feelings of distress, anxiety and grief for the community; violence and damage to property; violent crime; stresses on the juvenile justice system; and stresses on youth agencies and support services.
Patterns of non-medical use:
Africa and Asia Glue and gasoline (petrol) sniffing is also a problem in parts of Africa, especially with street children. In India and South Asia, three of the most widely used inhalants are the Dendrite brand and other forms of contact adhesives and rubber cement manufactured in Kolkata, and toluenes in paint thinners. Genkem is a brand of glue, which had become the generic name for all the glues used by glue-sniffing children in Africa before the manufacturer replaced n-hexane in its ingredients in 2000.The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime has reported that glue sniffing is at the core of "street culture" in Nairobi, Kenya, and that the majority of street children in the city are habitual solvent users. Research conducted by Cottrell-Boyce for the African Journal of Drug and Alcohol Studies found that glue sniffing amongst Kenyan street children was primarily functional – dulling the senses against the hardship of life on the street – but it also provided a link to the support structure of the "street family" as a potent symbol of shared experience.Similar incidents of glue sniffing among destitute youth in the Philippines have also been reported, most commonly from groups of street children and teenagers collectively known as "Rugby" boys, which were named after a brand of toluene-laden contact cement. Other toluene-containing substances have also been used, most notably the Vulca Seal brand of roof sealants. Bostik Philippines, which currently owns the Rugby and Vulca Seal brands, has since responded to the issue by adding bitterants such as mustard oil to their Rugby line, as well as reformulating it by replacing toluene with xylene. Several other manufacturers have also followed suit.
Patterns of non-medical use:
Another very common inhalant is Erase-X, a correction fluid that contains toluene. It has become very common for school and college students to use it, because it is easily available in stationery shops in India. This fluid is also used by street and working children in Delhi.
Patterns of non-medical use:
Europe and North America In the UK, marginalized youth use a number of inhalants, such as solvents and propellants. In Russia and Eastern Europe, gasoline sniffing became common on Russian ships following attempts to limit the supply of alcohol to ship crews in the 1980s. The documentary Children Underground depicts the huffing of a solvent called Aurolac (a product used in chroming) by Romanian homeless children. During the interwar period, the inhalation of ether (etheromania) was widespread in some regions of Poland, especially in Upper Silesia. Tens of thousands of people were affected by this problem.In Canada, Native children in the isolated Northern Labrador community of Davis Inlet were the focus of national concern in 1993, when many were found to be sniffing gasoline. The Canadian and provincial Newfoundland and Labrador governments intervened on a number of occasions, sending many children away for treatment. Despite being moved to the new community of Natuashish in 2002, serious inhalant use problems have continued. Similar problems were reported in Sheshatshiu in 2000 and also in Pikangikum First Nation. In 2012, the issue once again made the news media in Canada. In Mexico, the inhaling of a mixture of gasoline and industrial solvents, known locally as "Activo" or "Chemo", has risen in popularity among the homeless and among the street children of Mexico City in recent years. The mixture is poured onto a handkerchief and inhaled while held in one's fist.
Patterns of non-medical use:
In the US, ether was used as a recreational drug during the 1930s Prohibition era, when alcohol was made illegal. Ether was either sniffed or drunk and, in some towns, replaced alcohol entirely. However, the risk of death from excessive sedation or overdose is greater than that with alcohol, and ether drinking is associated with damage to the stomach and gastrointestinal tract. Use of glue, paint and gasoline became more common after the 1950s. Model airplane glue-sniffing as problematic behavior among youth was first reported in 1959 and increased in the 1960s. Use of aerosol sprays became more common in the 1980s, as older propellants such as CFCs were phased out and replaced by more environmentally friendly compounds such as propane and butane. Most inhalant solvents and gases are not regulated under drug laws such as the United States Controlled Substances Act. However, many US states and Canadian cities have placed restrictions on the sale of some solvent-containing products to minors, particularly for products widely associated with sniffing, such as model cement. The practice of inhaling such substances is sometimes colloquially referred to as huffing, sniffing (or glue sniffing), dusting, or chroming.
Patterns of non-medical use:
Australia Australia has long faced a petrol (gasoline) sniffing problem in isolated and impoverished aboriginal communities. Although some sources argue that sniffing was introduced by United States servicemen stationed in the nation's Top End during World War II or through experimentation by 1940s-era Cobourg Peninsula sawmill workers, other sources claim that inhalant abuse (such as glue inhalation) emerged in Australia in the late 1960s. Chronic, heavy petrol sniffing appears to occur among remote, impoverished indigenous communities, where the ready accessibility of petrol has helped to make it a common addictive substance.
Patterns of non-medical use:
In Australia, petrol sniffing now occurs widely throughout remote Aboriginal communities in the Northern Territory, Western Australia, northern parts of South Australia, and Queensland. The number of people sniffing petrol goes up and down over time as young people experiment or sniff occasionally. "Boss", or chronic, sniffers may move in and out of communities; they are often responsible for encouraging young people to take it up.A 1983 survey of 4,165 secondary students in New South Wales showed that solvents and aerosols ranked just after analgesics (e.g., codeine pills) and alcohol for drugs that were inappropriately used. This 1983 study did not find any common usage patterns or social class factors. The causes of death for inhalant users in Australia included pneumonia, cardiac failure/arrest, aspiration of vomit, and burns. In 1985, there were 14 communities in Central Australia reporting young people sniffing. In July 1997, it was estimated that there were around 200 young people sniffing petrol across 10 communities in Central Australia. Approximately 40 were classified as chronic sniffers. There have been reports of young Aboriginal people sniffing petrol in the urban areas around Darwin and Alice Springs.
Patterns of non-medical use:
In 2005, the Government of Australia and BP Australia began the usage of opal fuel in remote areas prone to petrol sniffing. Opal is a non-sniffable fuel (which is much less likely to cause a high) and has made a difference in some indigenous communities.
In popular culture:
Music and musical culture One of the early musical references to inhalant use occurs in the 1974 Elton John song "The Bitch Is Back", in the line "I get high in the evening sniffing pots of glue." Inhalant use, especially glue-sniffing, is widely associated with the late-1970s punk youth subculture in the UK and North America. Raymond Cochrane and Douglas Carroll claim that when glue sniffing became widespread in the late 1970s, it was "adopted by punks because public [negative] perceptions of sniffing fitted in with their self-image" as rebels against societal values. While punks at first used inhalants "experimentally and as a cheap high, adult disgust and hostility [to the practice] encouraged punks to use glue sniffing as a way of shocking society." As well, using inhalants was a way of expressing their anti-corporatist DIY (do it yourself) credo; by using inexpensive household products as inhalants, punks did not have to purchase industrially manufactured liquor or beer.
In popular culture:
One history of the punk subculture argues that "substance abuse was often referred to in the music and did become synonymous with the genre, glue-sniffing especially" because the youths' "faith in the future had died and that the youth just didn't care anymore" due to the "awareness of the threat of nuclear war and a pervasive sense of doom." In a BBC interview with a person who was a punk in the late 1970s, they said that "there was a real fear of imminent nuclear war—people were sniffing glue knowing that it could kill them, but they didn't care because they believed that very soon everybody would be dead anyway." A number of 1970s punk rock and 1980s hardcore punk songs refer to inhalant use. The Ramones, an influential early US punk band, referred to inhalant use in several of their songs. The song "Now I Wanna Sniff Some Glue" describes adolescent boredom, and the song "Carbona not Glue" states, "My brain is stuck from shooting glue." An influential punk fanzine about the subculture and music took its name (Sniffin' Glue) from the Ramones song. The 1980s punk band The Dead Milkmen wrote a song, "Life is Shit" from their album Beelzebubba, about two friends hallucinating after sniffing glue. Punk-band-turned-hip-hop group the Beastie Boys penned a song "Hold it Now – Hit It", which includes the line "cause I'm beer drinkin, breath stinkin, sniffing glue." Their song "Shake Your Rump" includes the lines, "Should I have another sip no skip it/In the back of the ride and bust with the whippits". Pop punk band Sum 41 wrote a song, "Fat Lip", which refers to a character who does not "make sense from all the gas you be huffing..." The song Lança-perfume, written and performed by Brazilian pop star Rita Lee, became a national hit in 1980. The song is about chloroethane and its widespread recreational sale and use during the rise of Brazil's carnivals.
In popular culture:
Inhalants are referred to by bands from other genres, including several grunge bands—an early 1990s genre that was influenced by punk rock. The 1990s grunge band Nirvana, which was influenced by punk music, penned a song, "Dumb", in which Kurt Cobain sings "my heart is broke / But I have some glue/help me inhale / And mend it with you". L7, an all-female grunge band, penned a song titled "Scrap" about a skinhead who inhales spray-paint fumes until his mind "starts to gel". Also in the 1990s, the Britpop band Suede had a UK hit with their song "Animal Nitrate" whose title is a thinly veiled reference to amyl nitrite. The Beck song "Fume" from his "Fresh Meat and Old Slabs" release is about inhaling nitrous oxide. Another Beck song, "Cold Ass Fashion", contains the line "O.G. – Original Gluesniffer!" Primus's 1998 song "Lacquer Head" is about adolescents who use inhalants to get high. Hip hop performer Eminem wrote a song, "Bad Meets Evil", which refers to breathing "... ether in three lethal amounts." The Brian Jonestown Massacre, a retro-rock band from the 1990s, has a song "Hyperventilation", which is about sniffing model-airplane cement. Frank Zappa's song "Teenage Wind" from 1981 has a reference to glue sniffing: "Nothing left to do but get out the 'ol glue; Parents, parents; Sniff it good now..." Films A number of films have depicted or referred to the use of solvent inhalants. In the 1980 comedy film Airplane!, the character of McCroskey (Lloyd Bridges) refers to his inhalant use when he states, "I picked the wrong week to quit sniffing glue." In the 1996 film Citizen Ruth, the character Ruth (Laura Dern), a homeless drifter, is depicted inhaling patio sealant from a paper bag in an alleyway. In the tragicomedy Love Liza, the main character, played by Philip Seymour Hoffman, plays a man who takes up building remote-controlled airplanes as a hobby to give him an excuse to sniff the fuel in the wake of his wife's suicide.
In popular culture:
Harmony Korine's 1997 Gummo depicts adolescent boys inhaling contact cement for a high. Edet Belzberg's 2001 documentary Children Underground chronicles the lives of Romanian street children addicted to inhaling paint. In The Basketball Diaries, a group of boys is huffing Carbona cleaning liquid at 3 minutes and 27 seconds into the movie; further on, a boy is reading a diary describing the experience of sniffing the cleaning liquid.
In popular culture:
In the David Lynch film Blue Velvet, the bizarre and manipulative character played by Dennis Hopper uses a mask to inhale amyl nitrite. In Little Shop of Horrors, Steve Martin's character dies from nitrous oxide inhalation. The 1999 independent film Boys Don't Cry depicts two young low-income women inhaling aerosol computer cleaner (compressed gas) for a buzz. In The Cider House Rules, Michael Caine's character is addicted to inhaling ether vapors.
In popular culture:
In Thirteen, the main character, a teen, uses a can of aerosol computer cleaner to get high. In the action movie Shooter, an ex-serviceman on the run from the law (Mark Wahlberg) inhales nitrous oxide gas from a number of Whip-It! whipped cream canisters until he becomes unconscious. The South African film The Wooden Camera also depicts the use of inhalants by one of the main characters, a homeless teen, and their use in terms of socio-economic stratification. The title characters in Samson and Delilah sniff petrol; in Samson's case, possibly causing brain damage.
In popular culture:
In the 2004 film Taxi, Queen Latifah and Jimmy Fallon are trapped in a room with a burst tank containing nitrous oxide. Queen Latifah's character curses at Fallon while they both laugh hysterically. Fallon's character asks if it is possible to die from nitrous oxide, to which Queen Latifah's character responds with "It's laughing gas, stupid!" Neither of them had any side effects other than their voices becoming much deeper while in the room.
In popular culture:
In the French horror film Them, (2006) a French couple living in Romania are pursued by a gang of street children who break into their home at night. Olivia Bonamy's character is later tortured and forced to inhale aurolac from a silver-colored bag. During a flashback scene in the 2001 film Hannibal, Hannibal Lecter gets Mason Verger high on amyl nitrite poppers, then convinces Verger to cut off his own face and feed it to his dogs.
In popular culture:
Books The science fiction story "Waterspider" by Philip K. Dick (first published in January 1964 in If magazine) contains a scene in which characters from the future are discussing the culture of the early 1950s. One character says: "You mean he sniffed what they called 'airplane dope'? He was a 'glue-sniffer'?", to which another character replies: "Hardly. That was a mania among adolescents and did not become widespread in fact until a decade later. No, I am speaking about imbibing alcohol."The book Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas describes how the two main characters inhale diethyl ether and amyl nitrite.
In popular culture:
Television In the comedy series Newman and Baddiel in Pieces, Rob Newman's inhaling gas from a foghorn was a running joke in the series. One episode of the Jeremy Kyle Show featured a woman with a 20-year butane gas addiction. In the series It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia, Charlie Kelly has an addiction to huffing glue. Additionally, season nine episode 8 shows Dennis, Mac, and Dee getting a can of gasoline to use as a solvent, but instead end up taking turns huffing from the canister.
In popular culture:
A 2008 episode of the reality show Intervention (season 5, episode 9) featured Allison, who was addicted to huffing computer duster for the short-lived, psychoactive effects. Allison has since achieved a small but significant cult following among bloggers and YouTube users. Several remixes of scenes from Allison's episode can be found online. Since 2009, Allison has worked with drug and alcohol treatment centers in Los Angeles County. In the third episode of season 5 of American Dad!, titled "Home Adrone", Roger asks a flight attendant to bring him industrial adhesive and a plastic bag. In the seventh episode of the fourteenth season of South Park, Towelie, an anthropomorphic towel, develops an addiction to inhaling computer duster. In the show Squidbilles, the main character Early Cuyler is often seen inhaling gas or other substances. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Matrix decomposition**
Matrix decomposition:
In the mathematical discipline of linear algebra, a matrix decomposition or matrix factorization is a factorization of a matrix into a product of matrices. There are many different matrix decompositions; each finds use among a particular class of problems.
Example:
In numerical analysis, different decompositions are used to implement efficient matrix algorithms.
Example:
For instance, when solving a system of linear equations Ax=b , the matrix A can be decomposed via the LU decomposition. The LU decomposition factorizes a matrix into a lower triangular matrix L and an upper triangular matrix U. The systems L(Ux)=b and Ux=L−1b require fewer additions and multiplications to solve, compared with the original system Ax=b , though one might require significantly more digits in inexact arithmetic such as floating point.
Example:
Similarly, the QR decomposition expresses A as QR with Q an orthogonal matrix and R an upper triangular matrix. The system Q(Rx) = b is solved by Rx = QTb = c, and the system Rx = c is solved by 'back substitution'. The number of additions and multiplications required is about twice that of using the LU solver, but no more digits are required in inexact arithmetic because the QR decomposition is numerically stable.
Decompositions related to solving systems of linear equations:
LU decomposition Traditionally applicable to: square matrix A, although rectangular matrices can be applicable.
Decomposition: A=LU , where L is lower triangular and U is upper triangular Related: the LDU decomposition is A=LDU , where L is lower triangular with ones on the diagonal, U is upper triangular with ones on the diagonal, and D is a diagonal matrix.
Related: the LUP decomposition is PA=LU , where L is lower triangular, U is upper triangular, and P is a permutation matrix.
Existence: An LUP decomposition exists for any square matrix A. When P is an identity matrix, the LUP decomposition reduces to the LU decomposition.
Decompositions related to solving systems of linear equations:
Comments: The LUP and LU decompositions are useful in solving an n-by-n system of linear equations Ax=b . These decompositions summarize the process of Gaussian elimination in matrix form. Matrix P represents any row interchanges carried out in the process of Gaussian elimination. If Gaussian elimination produces the row echelon form without requiring any row interchanges, then P = I, so an LU decomposition exists.
Decompositions related to solving systems of linear equations:
LU reduction Block LU decomposition Rank factorization Applicable to: m-by-n matrix A of rank r Decomposition: A=CF where C is an m-by-r full column rank matrix and F is an r-by-n full row rank matrix Comment: The rank factorization can be used to compute the Moore–Penrose pseudoinverse of A, which one can apply to obtain all solutions of the linear system Ax=b Cholesky decomposition Applicable to: square, hermitian, positive definite matrix A Decomposition: A=U∗U , where U is upper triangular with real positive diagonal entries Comment: if the matrix A is Hermitian and positive semi-definite, then it has a decomposition of the form A=U∗U if the diagonal entries of U are allowed to be zero Uniqueness: for positive definite matrices Cholesky decomposition is unique. However, it is not unique in the positive semi-definite case.
Decompositions related to solving systems of linear equations:
Comment: if A is real and symmetric, U has all real elements Comment: An alternative is the LDL decomposition, which can avoid extracting square roots.
Decompositions related to solving systems of linear equations:
QR decomposition Applicable to: m-by-n matrix A with linearly independent columns Decomposition: A=QR where Q is a unitary matrix of size m-by-m, and R is an upper triangular matrix of size m-by-n Uniqueness: In general it is not unique, but if A is of full rank, then there exists a single R that has all positive diagonal elements. If A is square, also Q is unique.
Decompositions related to solving systems of linear equations:
Comment: The QR decomposition provides an effective way to solve the system of equations Ax=b . The fact that Q is orthogonal means that QTQ=I , so that Ax=b is equivalent to Rx=QTb , which is very easy to solve since R is triangular.
RRQR factorization Interpolative decomposition
Decompositions based on eigenvalues and related concepts:
Eigendecomposition Also called spectral decomposition.
Applicable to: square matrix A with linearly independent eigenvectors (not necessarily distinct eigenvalues).
Decomposition: A=VDV−1 , where D is a diagonal matrix formed from the eigenvalues of A, and the columns of V are the corresponding eigenvectors of A.
Decompositions based on eigenvalues and related concepts:
Existence: An n-by-n matrix A always has n (complex) eigenvalues, which can be ordered (in more than one way) to form an n-by-n diagonal matrix D and a corresponding matrix of nonzero columns V that satisfies the eigenvalue equation AV=VD . V is invertible if and only if the n eigenvectors are linearly independent (that is, each eigenvalue has geometric multiplicity equal to its algebraic multiplicity). A sufficient (but not necessary) condition for this to happen is that all the eigenvalues are different (in this case geometric and algebraic multiplicity are equal to 1) Comment: One can always normalize the eigenvectors to have length one (see the definition of the eigenvalue equation) Comment: Every normal matrix A (that is, matrix for which AA∗=A∗A , where A∗ is a conjugate transpose) can be eigendecomposed. For a normal matrix A (and only for a normal matrix), the eigenvectors can also be made orthonormal ( VV∗=I ) and the eigendecomposition reads as A=VDV∗ . In particular all unitary, Hermitian, or skew-Hermitian (in the real-valued case, all orthogonal, symmetric, or skew-symmetric, respectively) matrices are normal and therefore possess this property.
Decompositions based on eigenvalues and related concepts:
Comment: For any real symmetric matrix A, the eigendecomposition always exists and can be written as A=VDVT , where both D and V are real-valued.
Decompositions based on eigenvalues and related concepts:
Comment: The eigendecomposition is useful for understanding the solution of a system of linear ordinary differential equations or linear difference equations. For example, the difference equation xt+1=Axt starting from the initial condition x0=c is solved by xt=Atc , which is equivalent to xt=VDtV−1c , where V and D are the matrices formed from the eigenvectors and eigenvalues of A. Since D is diagonal, raising it to power Dt , just involves raising each element on the diagonal to the power t. This is much easier to do and understand than raising A to power t, since A is usually not diagonal.
Decompositions based on eigenvalues and related concepts:
Jordan decomposition The Jordan normal form and the Jordan–Chevalley decomposition Applicable to: square matrix A Comment: the Jordan normal form generalizes the eigendecomposition to cases where there are repeated eigenvalues and cannot be diagonalized, the Jordan–Chevalley decomposition does this without choosing a basis.
Schur decomposition Applicable to: square matrix A Decomposition (complex version): A=UTU∗ , where U is a unitary matrix, U∗ is the conjugate transpose of U, and T is an upper triangular matrix called the complex Schur form which has the eigenvalues of A along its diagonal.
Comment: if A is a normal matrix, then T is diagonal and the Schur decomposition coincides with the spectral decomposition.
Decompositions based on eigenvalues and related concepts:
Real Schur decomposition Applicable to: square matrix A Decomposition: This is a version of Schur decomposition where V and S only contain real numbers. One can always write A=VSVT where V is a real orthogonal matrix, VT is the transpose of V, and S is a block upper triangular matrix called the real Schur form. The blocks on the diagonal of S are of size 1×1 (in which case they represent real eigenvalues) or 2×2 (in which case they are derived from complex conjugate eigenvalue pairs).
Decompositions based on eigenvalues and related concepts:
QZ decomposition Also called: generalized Schur decomposition Applicable to: square matrices A and B Comment: there are two versions of this decomposition: complex and real.
Decomposition (complex version): A=QSZ∗ and B=QTZ∗ where Q and Z are unitary matrices, the * superscript represents conjugate transpose, and S and T are upper triangular matrices.
Comment: in the complex QZ decomposition, the ratios of the diagonal elements of S to the corresponding diagonal elements of T, λi=Sii/Tii , are the generalized eigenvalues that solve the generalized eigenvalue problem Av=λBv (where λ is an unknown scalar and v is an unknown nonzero vector).
Decomposition (real version): A=QSZT and B=QTZT where A, B, Q, Z, S, and T are matrices containing real numbers only. In this case Q and Z are orthogonal matrices, the T superscript represents transposition, and S and T are block upper triangular matrices. The blocks on the diagonal of S and T are of size 1×1 or 2×2.
Takagi's factorization Applicable to: square, complex, symmetric matrix A.
Decomposition: A=VDVT , where D is a real nonnegative diagonal matrix, and V is unitary. VT denotes the matrix transpose of V.
Comment: The diagonal elements of D are the nonnegative square roots of the eigenvalues of AA∗=VD2V∗ Comment: V may be complex even if A is real.
Comment: This is not a special case of the eigendecomposition (see above), which uses V−1 instead of VT . Moreover, if A is not real, it is not Hermitian and the form using V∗ also does not apply.
Singular value decomposition Applicable to: m-by-n matrix A.
Decomposition: A=UDV∗ , where D is a nonnegative diagonal matrix, and U and V satisfy U∗U=I,V∗V=I . Here V∗ is the conjugate transpose of V (or simply the transpose, if V contains real numbers only), and I denotes the identity matrix (of some dimension).
Comment: The diagonal elements of D are called the singular values of A.
Comment: Like the eigendecomposition above, the singular value decomposition involves finding basis directions along which matrix multiplication is equivalent to scalar multiplication, but it has greater generality since the matrix under consideration need not be square.
Uniqueness: the singular values of A are always uniquely determined. U and V need not to be unique in general.
Scale-invariant decompositions Refers to variants of existing matrix decompositions, such as the SVD, that are invariant with respect to diagonal scaling.
Applicable to: m-by-n matrix A.
Unit-Scale-Invariant Singular-Value Decomposition: A=DUSV∗E , where S is a unique nonnegative diagonal matrix of scale-invariant singular values, U and V are unitary matrices, V∗ is the conjugate transpose of V, and positive diagonal matrices D and E.
Comment: Is analogous to the SVD except that the diagonal elements of S are invariant with respect to left and/or right multiplication of A by arbitrary nonsingular diagonal matrices, as opposed to the standard SVD for which the singular values are invariant with respect to left and/or right multiplication of A by arbitrary unitary matrices.
Comment: Is an alternative to the standard SVD when invariance is required with respect to diagonal rather than unitary transformations of A.
Uniqueness: The scale-invariant singular values of A (given by the diagonal elements of S) are always uniquely determined. Diagonal matrices D and E, and unitary U and V, are not necessarily unique in general.
Comment: U and V matrices are not the same as those from the SVD.Analogous scale-invariant decompositions can be derived from other matrix decompositions; for example, to obtain scale-invariant eigenvalues.
Hessenberg decomposition Applicable to: square matrix A.
Decomposition: A=PHP∗ where H is the Hessenberg matrix and P is a unitary matrix.
Comment: often the first step in the Schur decomposition.
Complete orthogonal decomposition Also known as: UTV decomposition, ULV decomposition, URV decomposition.
Applicable to: m-by-n matrix A.
Decomposition: A=UTV∗ , where T is a triangular matrix, and U and V are unitary matrices.
Comment: Similar to the singular value decomposition and to the Schur decomposition.
Other decompositions:
Polar decomposition Applicable to: any square complex matrix A.
Decomposition: A=UP (right polar decomposition) or A=P′U (left polar decomposition), where U is a unitary matrix and P and P' are positive semidefinite Hermitian matrices.
Uniqueness: P is always unique and equal to A∗A (which is always hermitian and positive semidefinite). If A is invertible, then U is unique.
Other decompositions:
Comment: Since any Hermitian matrix admits a spectral decomposition with a unitary matrix, P can be written as P=VDV∗ . Since P is positive semidefinite, all elements in D are non-negative. Since the product of two unitary matrices is unitary, taking W=UV one can write A=U(VDV∗)=WDV∗ which is the singular value decomposition. Hence, the existence of the polar decomposition is equivalent to the existence of the singular value decomposition.
Other decompositions:
Algebraic polar decomposition Applicable to: square, complex, non-singular matrix A.
Decomposition: A=QS , where Q is a complex orthogonal matrix and S is complex symmetric matrix.
Uniqueness: If ATA has no negative real eigenvalues, then the decomposition is unique.
Comment: The existence of this decomposition is equivalent to AAT being similar to ATA Comment: A variant of this decomposition is A=RC , where R is a real matrix and C is a circular matrix.
Mostow's decomposition Applicable to: square, complex, non-singular matrix A.
Decomposition: A=UeiMeS , where U is unitary, M is real anti-symmetric and S is real symmetric.
Comment: The matrix A can also be decomposed as A=U2eS2eiM2 , where U2 is unitary, M2 is real anti-symmetric and S2 is real symmetric.
Sinkhorn normal form Applicable to: square real matrix A with strictly positive elements.
Decomposition: A=D1SD2 , where S is doubly stochastic and D1 and D2 are real diagonal matrices with strictly positive elements.
Sectoral decomposition Applicable to: square, complex matrix A with numerical range contained in the sector Sα={reiθ∈C∣r>0,|θ|≤α<π2} Decomposition: A=CZC∗ , where C is an invertible complex matrix and diag (eiθ1,…,eiθn) with all |θj|≤α Williamson's normal form Applicable to: square, positive-definite real matrix A with order 2n×2n.
Decomposition: diag (D,D)S , where Sp (2n) is a symplectic matrix and D is a nonnegative n-by-n diagonal matrix.
Matrix square root Decomposition: A=BB , not unique in general.
In the case of positive semidefinite A , there is a unique positive semidefinite B such that A=B∗B=BB
Generalizations:
There exist analogues of the SVD, QR, LU and Cholesky factorizations for quasimatrices and cmatrices or continuous matrices. A ‘quasimatrix’ is, like a matrix, a rectangular scheme whose elements are indexed, but one discrete index is replaced by a continuous index. Likewise, a ‘cmatrix’, is continuous in both indices. As an example of a cmatrix, one can think of the kernel of an integral operator.
Generalizations:
These factorizations are based on early work by Fredholm (1903), Hilbert (1904) and Schmidt (1907). For an account, and a translation to English of the seminal papers, see Stewart (2011). | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Propulsion**
Propulsion:
Propulsion is the generation of force by any combination of pushing or pulling to modify the translational motion of an object, which is typically a rigid body (or an articulated rigid body) but may also concern a fluid. The term is derived from two Latin words: pro, meaning before or forward; and pellere, meaning to drive. A propulsion system consists of a source of mechanical power, and a propulsor (means of converting this power into propulsive force). Plucking a guitar string to induce a vibratory translation is technically a form of propulsion of the guitar string; this is not commonly depicted in this vocabulary, even though human muscles are considered to propel the fingertips. The motion of an object moving through a gravitational field is affected by the field, and within some frames of reference physicists speak of the gravitational field generating a force upon the object, but for deep theoretic reasons, physicists now consider the curved path of an object moving freely through space-time as shaped by gravity as a natural movement of the object, unaffected by a propulsive force (in this view, the falling apple is considered to be unpropelled, while the observer of the apple standing on the ground is considered to be propelled by the reactive force of the Earth's surface). Biological propulsion systems use an animal's muscles as the power source, and limbs such as wings, fins or legs as the propulsors. A technological system uses an engine or motor as the power source (commonly called a powerplant), and wheels and axles, propellers, or a propulsive nozzle to generate the force. Components such as clutches or gearboxes may be needed to connect the motor to axles, wheels, or propellers. A technological/biological system may use human, or trained animal, muscular work to power a mechanical device.
Propulsion:
Small objects, such as bullets, propelled at high speed are known as projectiles; larger objects propelled at high speed, often into ballistic flight, are known as rockets or missiles. Influencing rotational motion is also technically a form of propulsion, but in speech, an automotive mechanic might prefer to describe the hot gasses in an engine cylinder as propelling the piston (translational motion), which drives the crankshaft (rotational motion), the crankshaft then drives the wheels (rotational motion), and the wheels propel the car forward (translational motion). In common speech, propulsion is associated with spacial displacement more strongly than locally contained forms of motion, such as rotation or vibration. As another example, internal stresses in a rotating baseball cause the surface of the baseball to travel along a sinusoidal or helical trajectory, which would not happen in the absence of these interior forces; these forces meet the technical definition of propulsion from Newtonian mechanics, but are not commonly spoken of in this language.
Vehicular propulsion:
Air propulsion An aircraft propulsion system generally consists of an aircraft engine and some means to generate thrust, such as a propeller or a propulsive nozzle.
Vehicular propulsion:
An aircraft propulsion system must achieve two things. First, the thrust from the propulsion system must balance the drag of the airplane when the airplane is cruising. And second, the thrust from the propulsion system must exceed the drag of the airplane for the airplane to accelerate. The greater the difference between the thrust and the drag, called the excess thrust, the faster the airplane will accelerate.Some aircraft, like airliners and cargo planes, spend most of their life in a cruise condition. For these airplanes, excess thrust is not as important as high engine efficiency and low fuel usage. Since thrust depends on both the amount of gas moved and the velocity, we can generate high thrust by accelerating a large mass of gas by a small amount, or by accelerating a small mass of gas by a large amount. Because of the aerodynamic efficiency of propellers and fans, it is more fuel efficient to accelerate a large mass by a small amount, which is why high-bypass turbofans and turboprops are commonly used on cargo planes and airliners.Some aircraft, like fighter planes or experimental high speed aircraft, require very high excess thrust to accelerate quickly and to overcome the high drag associated with high speeds. For these airplanes, engine efficiency is not as important as very high thrust. Modern combat aircraft usually have an afterburner added to a low bypass turbofan. Future hypersonic aircraft may use some type of ramjet or rocket propulsion.
Vehicular propulsion:
Ground Ground propulsion is any mechanism for propelling solid bodies along the ground, usually for the purposes of transportation. The propulsion system often consists of a combination of an engine or motor, a gearbox and wheel and axles in standard applications.
Vehicular propulsion:
Maglev Maglev (derived from magnetic levitation) is a system of transportation that uses magnetic levitation to suspend, guide and propel vehicles with magnets rather than using mechanical methods, such as wheels, axles and bearings. With maglev a vehicle is levitated a short distance away from a guide way using magnets to create both lift and thrust. Maglev vehicles are claimed to move more smoothly and quietly and to require less maintenance than wheeled mass transit systems. It is claimed that non-reliance on friction also means that acceleration and deceleration can far surpass that of existing forms of transport. The power needed for levitation is not a particularly large percentage of the overall energy consumption; most of the power used is needed to overcome air resistance (drag), as with any other high-speed form of transport.
Vehicular propulsion:
Marine Marine propulsion is the mechanism or system used to generate thrust to move a ship or boat across water. While paddles and sails are still used on some smaller boats, most modern ships are propelled by mechanical systems consisting of a motor or engine turning a propeller, or less frequently, in jet drives, an impeller. Marine engineering is the discipline concerned with the design of marine propulsion systems.
Vehicular propulsion:
Steam engines were the first mechanical engines used in marine propulsion, but have mostly been replaced by two-stroke or four-stroke diesel engines, outboard motors, and gas turbine engines on faster ships. Nuclear reactors producing steam are used to propel warships and icebreakers, and there have been attempts to utilize them to power commercial vessels. Electric motors have been used on submarines and electric boats and have been proposed for energy-efficient propulsion. Recent development in liquified natural gas (LNG) fueled engines are gaining recognition for their low emissions and cost advantages.
Vehicular propulsion:
Space Spacecraft propulsion is any method used to accelerate spacecraft and artificial satellites. There are many different methods. Each method has drawbacks and advantages, and spacecraft propulsion is an active area of research. However, most spacecraft today are propelled by forcing a gas from the back/rear of the vehicle at very high speed through a supersonic de Laval nozzle. This sort of engine is called a rocket engine.
Vehicular propulsion:
All current spacecraft use chemical rockets (bipropellant or solid-fuel) for launch, though some (such as the Pegasus rocket and SpaceShipOne) have used air-breathing engines on their first stage. Most satellites have simple reliable chemical thrusters (often monopropellant rockets) or resistojet rockets for orbital station-keeping and some use momentum wheels for attitude control. Soviet bloc satellites have used electric propulsion for decades, and newer Western geo-orbiting spacecraft are starting to use them for north–south stationkeeping and orbit raising. Interplanetary vehicles mostly use chemical rockets as well, although a few have used ion thrusters and Hall-effect thrusters (two different types of electric propulsion) to great success.
Vehicular propulsion:
Cable A cable car is any of a variety of transportation systems relying on cables to pull vehicles along or lower them at a steady rate. The terminology also refers to the vehicles on these systems. The cable car vehicles are motor-less and engine-less and they are pulled by a cable that is rotated by a motor off-board.
Animal:
Animal locomotion, which is the act of self-propulsion by an animal, has many manifestations, including running, swimming, jumping and flying. Animals move for a variety of reasons, such as to find food, a mate, or a suitable microhabitat, and to escape predators. For many animals the ability to move is essential to survival and, as a result, selective pressures have shaped the locomotion methods and mechanisms employed by moving organisms. For example, migratory animals that travel vast distances (such as the Arctic tern) typically have a locomotion mechanism that costs very little energy per unit distance, whereas non-migratory animals that must frequently move quickly to escape predators (such as frogs) are likely to have costly but very fast locomotion. The study of animal locomotion is typically considered to be a sub-field of biomechanics.
Animal:
Locomotion requires energy to overcome friction, drag, inertia, and gravity, though in many circumstances some of these factors are negligible. In terrestrial environments gravity must be overcome, though the drag of air is much less of an issue. In aqueous environments however, friction (or drag) becomes the major challenge, with gravity being less of a concern. Although animals with natural buoyancy need not expend much energy maintaining vertical position, some will naturally sink and must expend energy to remain afloat. Drag may also present a problem in flight, and the aerodynamically efficient body shapes of birds highlight this point. Flight presents a different problem from movement in water however, as there is no way for a living organism to have lower density than air. Limbless organisms moving on land must often contend with surface friction, but do not usually need to expend significant energy to counteract gravity.
Animal:
Newton's third law of motion is widely used in the study of animal locomotion: if at rest, to move forward an animal must push something backward. Terrestrial animals must push the solid ground; swimming and flying animals must push against a fluid (either water or air). The effect of forces during locomotion on the design of the skeletal system is also important, as is the interaction between locomotion and muscle physiology, in determining how the structures and effectors of locomotion enable or limit animal movement. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Supermanifold**
Supermanifold:
In physics and mathematics, supermanifolds are generalizations of the manifold concept based on ideas coming from supersymmetry. Several definitions are in use, some of which are described below.
Informal definition:
An informal definition is commonly used in physics textbooks and introductory lectures. It defines a supermanifold as a manifold with both bosonic and fermionic coordinates. Locally, it is composed of coordinate charts that make it look like a "flat", "Euclidean" superspace. These local coordinates are often denoted by (x,θ,θ¯) where x is the (real-number-valued) spacetime coordinate, and θ and θ¯ are Grassmann-valued spatial "directions".
Informal definition:
The physical interpretation of the Grassmann-valued coordinates are the subject of debate; explicit experimental searches for supersymmetry have not yielded any positive results. However, the use of Grassmann variables allow for the tremendous simplification of a number of important mathematical results. This includes, among other things a compact definition of functional integrals, the proper treatment of ghosts in BRST quantization, the cancellation of infinities in quantum field theory, Witten's work on the Atiyah-Singer index theorem, and more recent applications to mirror symmetry.
Informal definition:
The use of Grassmann-valued coordinates has spawned the field of supermathematics, wherein large portions of geometry can be generalized to super-equivalents, including much of Riemannian geometry and most of the theory of Lie groups and Lie algebras (such as Lie superalgebras, etc.) However, issues remain, including the proper extension of de Rham cohomology to supermanifolds.
Definition:
Three different definitions of supermanifolds are in use. One definition is as a sheaf over a ringed space; this is sometimes called the "algebro-geometric approach". This approach has a mathematical elegance, but can be problematic in various calculations and intuitive understanding. A second approach can be called a "concrete approach", as it is capable of simply and naturally generalizing a broad class of concepts from ordinary mathematics. It requires the use of an infinite number of supersymmetric generators in its definition; however, all but a finite number of these generators carry no content, as the concrete approach requires the use of a coarse topology that renders almost all of them equivalent. Surprisingly, these two definitions, one with a finite number of supersymmetric generators, and one with an infinite number of generators, are equivalent.A third approach describes a supermanifold as a base topos of a superpoint. This approach remains the topic of active research.
Definition:
Algebro-geometric: as a sheaf Although supermanifolds are special cases of noncommutative manifolds, their local structure makes them better suited to study with the tools of standard differential geometry and locally ringed spaces.
A supermanifold M of dimension (p,q) is a topological space M with a sheaf of superalgebras, usually denoted OM or C∞(M), that is locally isomorphic to C∞(Rp)⊗Λ∙(ξ1,…ξq) , where the latter is a Grassmann (Exterior) algebra on q generators.
A supermanifold M of dimension (1,1) is sometimes called a super-Riemann surface.
Historically, this approach is associated with Felix Berezin, Dimitry Leites, and Bertram Kostant.
Definition:
Concrete: as a smooth manifold A different definition describes a supermanifold in a fashion that is similar to that of a smooth manifold, except that the model space Rp has been replaced by the model superspace Rcp×Raq To correctly define this, it is necessary to explain what Rc and Ra are. These are given as the even and odd real subspaces of the one-dimensional space of Grassmann numbers, which, by convention, are generated by a countably infinite number of anti-commuting variables: i.e. the one-dimensional space is given by C⊗Λ(V), where V is infinite-dimensional. An element z is termed real if z=z∗ ; real elements consisting of only an even number of Grassmann generators form the space Rc of c-numbers, while real elements consisting of only an odd number of Grassmann generators form the space Ra of a-numbers. Note that c-numbers commute, while a-numbers anti-commute. The spaces Rcp and Raq are then defined as the p-fold and q-fold Cartesian products of Rc and Ra .Just as in the case of an ordinary manifold, the supermanifold is then defined as a collection of charts glued together with differentiable transition functions. This definition in terms of charts requires that the transition functions have a smooth structure and a non-vanishing Jacobian. This can only be accomplished if the individual charts use a topology that is considerably coarser than the vector-space topology on the Grassmann algebra. This topology is obtained by projecting Rcp down to Rp and then using the natural topology on that. The resulting topology is not Hausdorff, but may be termed "projectively Hausdorff".That this definition is equivalent to the first one is not at all obvious; however, it is the use of the coarse topology that makes it so, by rendering most of the "points" identical. That is, Rcp×Raq with the coarse topology is essentially isomorphic to Rp⊗Λ∙(ξ1,…ξq)
Properties:
Unlike a regular manifold, a supermanifold is not entirely composed of a set of points. Instead, one takes the dual point of view that the structure of a supermanifold M is contained in its sheaf OM of "smooth functions". In the dual point of view, an injective map corresponds to a surjection of sheaves, and a surjective map corresponds to an injection of sheaves.
Properties:
An alternative approach to the dual point of view is to use the functor of points.
Properties:
If M is a supermanifold of dimension (p,q), then the underlying space M inherits the structure of a differentiable manifold whose sheaf of smooth functions is OM/I, where I is the ideal generated by all odd functions. Thus M is called the underlying space, or the body, of M. The quotient map OM → OM/I corresponds to an injective map M → M; thus M is a submanifold of M.
Examples:
Let M be a manifold. The odd tangent bundle ΠTM is a supermanifold given by the sheaf Ω(M) of differential forms on M.
More generally, let E → M be a vector bundle. Then ΠE is a supermanifold given by the sheaf Γ(ΛE*). In fact, Π is a functor from the category of vector bundles to the category of supermanifolds.
Lie supergroups are examples of supermanifolds.
Batchelor's theorem:
Batchelor's theorem states that every supermanifold is noncanonically isomorphic to a supermanifold of the form ΠE. The word "noncanonically" prevents one from concluding that supermanifolds are simply glorified vector bundles; although the functor Π maps surjectively onto the isomorphism classes of supermanifolds, it is not an equivalence of categories. It was published by Marjorie Batchelor in 1979.The proof of Batchelor's theorem relies in an essential way on the existence of a partition of unity, so it does not hold for complex or real-analytic supermanifolds.
Odd symplectic structures:
Odd symplectic form In many physical and geometric applications, a supermanifold comes equipped with an Grassmann-odd symplectic structure. All natural geometric objects on a supermanifold are graded. In particular, the bundle of two-forms is equipped with a grading. An odd symplectic form ω on a supermanifold is a closed, odd form, inducing a non-degenerate pairing on TM. Such a supermanifold is called a P-manifold. Its graded dimension is necessarily (n,n), because the odd symplectic form induces a pairing of odd and even variables. There is a version of the Darboux theorem for P-manifolds, which allows one to equip a P-manifold locally with a set of coordinates where the odd symplectic form ω is written as ω=∑idξi∧dxi, where xi are even coordinates, and ξi odd coordinates. (An odd symplectic form should not be confused with a Grassmann-even symplectic form on a supermanifold. In contrast, the Darboux version of an even symplectic form is ∑idpi∧dqi+∑jεj2(dξj)2, where pi,qi are even coordinates, ξi odd coordinates and εj are either +1 or −1.) Antibracket Given an odd symplectic 2-form ω one may define a Poisson bracket known as the antibracket of any two functions F and G on a supermanifold by {F,G}=∂rF∂ziωij(z)∂lG∂zj.
Odd symplectic structures:
Here ∂r and ∂l are the right and left derivatives respectively and z are the coordinates of the supermanifold. Equipped with this bracket, the algebra of functions on a supermanifold becomes an antibracket algebra.
A coordinate transformation that preserves the antibracket is called a P-transformation. If the Berezinian of a P-transformation is equal to one then it is called an SP-transformation.
Odd symplectic structures:
P and SP-manifolds Using the Darboux theorem for odd symplectic forms one can show that P-manifolds are constructed from open sets of superspaces Rn|n glued together by P-transformations. A manifold is said to be an SP-manifold if these transition functions can be chosen to be SP-transformations. Equivalently one may define an SP-manifold as a supermanifold with a nondegenerate odd 2-form ω and a density function ρ such that on each coordinate patch there exist Darboux coordinates in which ρ is identically equal to one.
Odd symplectic structures:
Laplacian One may define a Laplacian operator Δ on an SP-manifold as the operator which takes a function H to one half of the divergence of the corresponding Hamiltonian vector field. Explicitly one defines ΔH=12ρ∂r∂za(ρωij(z)∂lH∂zj) .In Darboux coordinates this definition reduces to Δ=∂r∂xa∂l∂θa where xa and θa are even and odd coordinates such that ω=dxa∧dθa .The Laplacian is odd and nilpotent Δ2=0 .One may define the cohomology of functions H with respect to the Laplacian. In Geometry of Batalin-Vilkovisky quantization, Albert Schwarz has proven that the integral of a function H over a Lagrangian submanifold L depends only on the cohomology class of H and on the homology class of the body of L in the body of the ambient supermanifold.
SUSY:
A pre-SUSY-structure on a supermanifold of dimension (n,m) is an odd m-dimensional distribution P⊂TM With such a distribution one associates its Frobenius tensor S2P↦TM/P (since P is odd, the skew-symmetric Frobenius tensor is a symmetric operation).
If this tensor is non-degenerate, e.g. lies in an open orbit of GL(P)×GL(TM/P) M is called a SUSY-manifold.
SUSY-structure in dimension (1, k) is the same as odd contact structure. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**DragThing**
DragThing:
DragThing was a shareware Dock application for Mac OS X. Intended for organization and as an application switcher, DragThing allowed for multiple docks with user-specified settings such as color, texture and shape. Dock contents could be organized into tabs and paying the shareware fee enabled the user to assign a keyboard shortcut to any dock item.
DragThing won many awards, and in 2010 MacWorld gave it 4.5 mice, highlighting its utility for users who preferred using the mouse over keyboard-oriented launchers such as LaunchBar or QuickSilver.
History:
In its early versions, DragThing brought many features useful in a multitasking environment to Classic Mac OS such as alt-tab application switching and an onscreen representation of running processes. These features were not implemented by Apple until Mac OS 8.5.
History:
DragThing was one of the first applications to adopt the Platinum appearance on Mac OS 8 and ran in the Blue Box on Apple's aborted Rhapsody project.The DragThing release schedule slowed between 1998 and 2000, as its developer James Thomson was then employed at Apple Inc. as part of the team working on Mac OS X's Finder and Dock. He surmised that the built-in Dock of OS X would soon make DragThing obsolete. Thomson left Apple shortly after Mac OS X was released and resumed work on DragThing, releasing version 4.0 on 24 March 2001, skipping version 3. None of Thomson's code survives in the current shipping version of Apple's Dock.DragThing was first released on 1 May 1995 and celebrated its 10th anniversary in 2005. It was praised in a 2004 article by Bruce Tognazzini, who said "...if I could have taken all the lessons learned in Systems 1 through 9 and applied them to System X, I certainly wouldn't have ended up with the Dock. No, I would have ended up with DragThing..."In late 2018, the software developer warned of probable end-of-life. This decision was confirmed in 2019, with its website updated to say: DragThing is written using the 32-bit Carbon APIs that Apple have now removed in macOS 10.15 Catalina. It will no longer run if you update to Catalina, and there are no plans to make a new version that will. We are sorry to say, DragThing has launched its last app. 64-bit support would require completely rewriting the code from the ground up, a process which would take us at least a year to complete... Unfortunately, there is not enough of a market out there these days, such that it would be financially viable for us to do so. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Dimethylaniline-N-oxide aldolase**
Dimethylaniline-N-oxide aldolase:
The enzyme dimethylaniline-N-oxide aldolase (EC 4.1.2.24) catalyzes the chemical reaction N,N-dimethylaniline N-oxide ⇌ N-methylaniline + formaldehydeThis enzyme belongs to the family of lyases, specifically the aldehyde-lyases, which cleave carbon-carbon bonds. The systematic name of this enzyme class is N,N-dimethylaniline-N-oxide formaldehyde-lyase (N-methylaniline-forming). Other names in common use include microsomal oxidase II, microsomal N-oxide dealkylase, and N,N-dimethylaniline-N-oxide formaldehyde-lyase. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Trigonal bipyramidal molecular geometry**
Trigonal bipyramidal molecular geometry:
In chemistry, a trigonal bipyramid formation is a molecular geometry with one atom at the center and 5 more atoms at the corners of a triangular bipyramid. This is one geometry for which the bond angles surrounding the central atom are not identical (see also pentagonal bipyramid), because there is no geometrical arrangement with five terminal atoms in equivalent positions. Examples of this molecular geometry are phosphorus pentafluoride (PF5), and phosphorus pentachloride (PCl5) in the gas phase.
Axial (or apical) and equatorial positions:
The five atoms bonded to the central atom are not all equivalent, and two different types of position are defined. For phosphorus pentachloride as an example, the phosphorus atom shares a plane with three chlorine atoms at 120° angles to each other in equatorial positions, and two more chlorine atoms above and below the plane (axial or apical positions).
Axial (or apical) and equatorial positions:
According to the VSEPR theory of molecular geometry, an axial position is more crowded because an axial atom has three neighboring equatorial atoms (on the same central atom) at a 90° bond angle, whereas an equatorial atom has only two neighboring axial atoms at a 90° bond angle. For molecules with five identical ligands, the axial bond lengths tend to be longer because the ligand atom cannot approach the central atom as closely. As examples, in PF5 the axial P−F bond length is 158 pm and the equatorial is 152 pm, and in PCl5 the axial and equatorial are 214 and 202 pm respectively.In the mixed halide PF3Cl2 the chlorines occupy two of the equatorial positions, indicating that fluorine has a greater apicophilicity or tendency to occupy an axial position. In general ligand apicophilicity increases with electronegativity and also with pi-electron withdrawing ability, as in the sequence Cl < F < CN. Both factors decrease electron density in the bonding region near the central atom so that crowding in the axial position is less important.
Related geometries with lone pairs:
The VSEPR theory also predicts that substitution of a ligand at a central atom by a lone pair of valence electrons leaves the general form of the electron arrangement unchanged with the lone pair now occupying one position. For molecules with five pairs of valence electrons including both bonding pairs and lone pairs, the electron pairs are still arranged in a trigonal bipyramid but one or more equatorial positions is not attached to a ligand atom so that the molecular geometry (for the nuclei only) is different.
Related geometries with lone pairs:
The seesaw molecular geometry is found in sulfur tetrafluoride (SF4) with a central sulfur atom surrounded by four fluorine atoms occupying two axial and two equatorial positions, as well as one equatorial lone pair, corresponding to an AX4E molecule in the AXE notation. A T-shaped molecular geometry is found in chlorine trifluoride (ClF3), an AX3E2 molecule with fluorine atoms in two axial and one equatorial position, as well as two equatorial lone pairs. Finally, the triiodide ion (I−3) is also based upon a trigonal bipyramid, but the actual molecular geometry is linear with terminal iodine atoms in the two axial positions only and the three equatorial positions occupied by lone pairs of electrons (AX2E3); another example of this geometry is provided by xenon difluoride, XeF2.
Berry pseudorotation:
Isomers with a trigonal bipyramidal geometry are able to interconvert through a process known as Berry pseudorotation. Pseudorotation is similar in concept to the movement of a conformational diastereomer, though no full revolutions are completed. In the process of pseudorotation, two equatorial ligands (both of which have a shorter bond length than the third) "shift" toward the molecule's axis, while the axial ligands simultaneously "shift" toward the equator, creating a constant cyclical movement. Pseudorotation is particularly notable in simple molecules such as phosphorus pentafluoride (PF5). | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Novation DrumStation**
Novation DrumStation:
The Novation DrumStation is a 1U rackmount "analog modelling" digital drum machine by Novation Digital Music Systems. It emulates the sounds of the Roland TR-808 and Roland TR-909, although it lacks the step sequencers of the originals, instead receiving notes via MIDI.
One of its notable characteristics is its DIN sync connector, allowing synchronisation of older equipment such as the Roland TB-303.
Notable users:
Mike Banks Laurent Garnier Massive Attack | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Katz syndrome**
Katz syndrome:
Katz syndrome is a rare congenital disorder, presenting as a polymalformative syndrome characterized by enlarged viscera, hepatomegaly, diabetes, and skeletal anomalies that result in a short stature, cranial hyperostosis, and typical facial features. It is probably a variant of the autosomal recessive type of Craniometaphyseal Dysplasia.
Symptoms and signs:
Manifestations include enlarged viscera, hepatomegaly, diabetes, short stature and cranial hyperostosis. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Euro calculator**
Euro calculator:
A euro calculator is a type of calculator in European countries (see eurozone) that adopted the euro as their official monetary unit. It functions like any other normal calculator, but it also includes a special function which allows one to convert a value expressed in the previously official unit (the peseta in Spain, for example) to the new value in euros, or vice versa. Its use became very popular within the population and commerce of these countries especially during the first few months after adopting the euro.
Euro calculator:
As so many were produced, they are also found outside the eurozone to help staff with conversions at airports or railway stations where the euro has a strong presence. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Flash-gas (refrigeration)**
Flash-gas (refrigeration):
In refrigeration, flash-gas is refrigerant in gas form produced spontaneously when the condensed liquid is subjected to boiling. The presence of flash-gas in the liquid lines reduces the efficiency of the refrigeration cycle. It can also lead several expansion systems to work improperly, and increase superheating at the evaporator. This is normally perceived as an unwanted condition caused by dissociation between the volume of the system, and the pressures and temperatures that allow the refrigerant to be liquid. Flash-gas must not be confused with lack of condensation, but special gear such as receivers, internal heat exchangers, insulation, and refrigeration cycle optimizers may improve condensation and avoid gas in the liquid lines.
Common Causes:
Heat absorption and pressure loss The most common causes driving the fluid to change its phase when in the liquid line are excessive length of the pipeline, small diameter of the pipelines, and a lack of subcooling. These create low pressure loci that may cause the fluid to begin changing its phase, especially if the pipeline is exposed to heat, through, for example, gaps in insulation. If there is inadequate subcooling, the refrigerant remains in thermodynamic conditions close to saturation, promoting flash-gas formation.
Common Causes:
Heat may be absorbed not only from external sources, but from internal energy sources such as friction in the pipeline. On the other hand, pressure in the liquid line may also be upset by artefacts and conditions including excessive vertical rise in the liquid line, gear too small for the size of the piping, devices pumping refrigerant through the line, and any obstructions, all of which cause differences in pressure throughout the liquid line. Eventually, heat absorption and pressure losses in the liquid line modify the saturation conditions of the refrigerant to such an extent that the refrigerant boils and produces flash-gas.
Common Causes:
Quality and amount of refrigerant Refrigerant may also explain flash-gas occurrence. When a system lacks refrigerant, or has a leakage, it may exhibit flash-gas as the volume in the piping exceeds the capacity of the refrigerant to fill it as liquid. This may force the refrigerant into a phase change. On the other hand, lack of refrigerant can sometimes also produce the opposite effect: an overall increase on the subcooling (and superheating) which will depend on the size and design of the system and its piping. If the system's refrigerant is degenerate, flash-gas may also be produced, as physical properties of the fluid change. This happens because the piping is designed for a specific refrigerant mixture that allows liquid in the liquid line, given certain thermodynamic conditions. If the refrigerant mixture changes its composition considerably, the original designs will not be adequate. Degenerated refrigerant produced by leakage, chemical decomposition or loading with gas when using a glided refrigerant, will most likely make the system perform very poorly, alter the lubricating oil's circulation or composition, and may eventually render the equipment inoperative.
Common Causes:
Gas production after expansion It is also common to find that refrigerant begins to evaporate immediately after the expansion valve, before arriving to the evaporator. This may also be considered as flash-gas but normally doesn't produce complications in the refrigeration cycle. Many refrigeration systems have the expansion valve set up inside the room being cooled, consequently generating productive refrigeration if absorbing heat from the room, to produce this kind of flash-gas between the expansion and the evaporator. Besides, the expansion valve deregulates its operation if the fluid arriving to it is boiling. In this case, the boiling occurs after the expansion.
Detection:
Flash-gas may be detected in the system by the observation of gas, bubbles or a foamy appearance of the liquid in the viewing glass in the liquid line. Depending on the location of the glass, this may also indicate an overwhelmed condenser, and the lack of these indicators at the glass does not definitely rule out flash-gas formation in the liquid line.
Detection:
Considering the saturation table for the refrigerant, if it is possible to confirm that a certain amount of condenser subcooling is being produced, and the glass still exhibits gas in the liquid line, one may identify this with flash-gas being produced between the condenser and the glass. The flash-gas phenomena may create a deceiving temperature drop on the liquid line that can be misinterpreted as subcooling. This is due to the fact that the refrigerant may use part of the heat obtained from lowering its temperature, to finish vaporizing itself to be able to occupy the volume of the pipes at those pressures.
Prevention:
Efforts to prevent flash-gas in the liquid line include a cautious design of the cooling system and its piping, but also the incorporation of gear that might help solve this type of difficulty. The inclusion of a refrigerant receiver is a common, cheap and simple way of decreasing the gas ratio in the liquid line. The incorporation of a subcooling stage after the receiver reduces even more the chances to observe flash gas. This subcooling may be done in a reserved portion of the main condenser, or separately with a heat exchanger. Some receivers may incorporate an internal heat exchanger that draws heat form the subcooled liquid to superheat the gas compressors suction. There are also many kinds of independent subcooling displays and applications such as refrigeration cycle optimizers; these help avoiding flash-gas in the liquid line by lowering the temperature away from the refrigerant's saturation curves. Some systems deal with flash-gas by separating it from the refrigerant that goes to the evaporator, as that portion of the refrigerant already evaporated and will only increase superheating.One key feature when preventing flash-gas is the diameter of the piping. If the pipes are too thin and long, loss of pressure and friction tend to occur. If the evaporator is too high above the receiver, the rising pipes produce a small amount of vacuum at the topmost portion, making the fluid to undergo ebullition and produce flash-gas. On the contrary, a refrigerant column that creates weight and pressure may reduce the chances of finding flash-gas. If the evaporator is a plate exchanger placed below the level of the receiver, the pressure will not allow the refrigerant to boil easily.
Prevention:
Insulating the liquid line can be helpful if one can determine that heat is being absorbed throughout the piping. On the contrary, if the liquid in the liquid line is hotter than the air outside, insulating the pipes on that section might increase flash-gas as natural subcooling is partially decreased.
Prevention:
Effects on the rest of the system When preventing flash gas, one must take into account all the other features of the system and how they are affected. Increasing the pipeline diameter may have incidence on the oil circulation and affect the gas compressor. A column of refrigerant creating weight pressure in the liquid line can be a solution for flash-gas, but may have incidence in the expansion and evaporation. If the evaporator floods and liquid arrives to the gas compressor, serious complications will show up, most likely destroying the compressor (especially if the compressor is below the level of the receiver).
Effects of Flash-Gas:
The main effect of the presence flash-gas in the liquid piping is the net loss of refrigeration capacity. In general terms this is produced in two ways. First, the expansion valve usually doesn't work properly if injecting a gas-liquid mixture such as refrigerant with flash-gas presence. Second, a portion of the heat required for the refrigerant to flash into gaseous form is drawn from mechanical work such as pressure imbued by the gas compressor that moves the refrigerant.
Effects of Flash-Gas:
Both, lack of evaporation, and untimed transformations of energy from work to heat: increase the pressures and temperatures along the pipes; decrease the thermodynamic reversibility of the process, and raise the overall magnitude of entropy produced throughout the whole cycle. This means the refrigeration efficiency of the cycle worsens as it moves away from Carnot's theoretical ideal efficiency.
A loss of performance implies that the system uses more energy to produce less refrigeration. Besides, these kinds of efficiency losses not only underutilize gear, but may end up lowering the operative life of the main components, especially the expansion valve and the gas compressor. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Oxygen difluoride**
Oxygen difluoride:
Oxygen difluoride is a chemical compound with the formula OF2. As predicted by VSEPR theory, the molecule adopts a "bent" molecular geometry. It is strong oxidizer and has attracted attention in rocketry for this reason. With a boiling point of -144.75 °C, OF2 is the most volatile (isolable) triatomic compound. The compound is one of many known oxygen fluorides.
Preparation:
Oxygen difluoride was first reported in 1929; it was obtained by the electrolysis of molten potassium fluoride and hydrofluoric acid containing small quantities of water. The modern preparation entails the reaction of fluorine with a dilute aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide, with sodium fluoride as a side-product: 2 F2 + 2 NaOH → OF2 + 2 NaF + H2O
Structure and bonding:
It is a covalently bonded molecule with a bent molecular geometry and a F-O-F bond angle of 103 degrees. Its powerful oxidizing properties are suggested by the oxidation number of +2 for the oxygen atom instead of its normal −2.
Reactions:
Above 200 °C, OF2 decomposes to oxygen and fluorine by a radical mechanism.
2 OF2 → O2 + 2 F2OF2 reacts with many metals to yield oxides and fluorides. Nonmetals also react: phosphorus reacts with OF2 to form PF5 and POF3; sulfur gives SO2 and SF4; and unusually for a noble gas, xenon reacts (at elevated temperatures) yielding XeF4 and xenon oxyfluorides.
Oxygen difluoride reacts very slowly with water to form hydrofluoric acid: OF2 + H2O → 2 HF + O2It can oxidize sulphur dioxide to sulfur trioxide and elemental fluorine: OF2 + SO2 → SO3 + F2However, in the presence of UV radiation, the products are sulfuryl fluoride (SO2F2) and pyrosulfuryl fluoride (S2O5F2): OF2 + 2 SO2 → S2O5F2
Safety:
Oxygen difluoride is considered an unsafe gas due to its oxidizing properties. Hydrofluoric acid produced by the hydrolysis of OF2 with water is highly corrosive and toxic, capable of causing necrosis, leaching calcium from the bones and causing cardiovascular damage, among a host of other insidious effects.
Popular culture:
In Robert L. Forward's science fiction novel Camelot 30K, oxygen difluoride was used as a biochemical solvent by fictional life forms living in the solar system's Kuiper belt. While OF2 would be a solid at 30 K, the fictional alien lifeforms were described as endothermic, maintaining elevated body temperatures and liquid OF2 blood by radiothermal heating. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Reshetnyak gluing theorem**
Reshetnyak gluing theorem:
In metric geometry, the Reshetnyak gluing theorem gives information on the structure of a geometric object built by using as building blocks other geometric objects, belonging to a well defined class. Intuitively, it states that a manifold obtained by joining (i.e. "gluing") together, in a precisely defined way, other manifolds having a given property inherit that very same property.
The theorem was first stated and proved by Yurii Reshetnyak in 1968.
Statement:
Theorem: Let Xi be complete locally compact geodesic metric spaces of CAT curvature ≤κ , and Ci⊂Xi convex subsets which are isometric. Then the manifold X , obtained by gluing all Xi along all Ci , is also of CAT curvature ≤κ For an exposition and a proof of the Reshetnyak Gluing Theorem, see (Burago, Burago & Ivanov 2001, Theorem 9.1.21). | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Publishing**
Publishing:
Publishing is the activity of making information, literature, music, software, and other content available to the public for sale or for free. Traditionally, the term refers to the creation and distribution of printed works, such as books, newspapers, and magazines. With the advent of digital information systems, the scope has expanded to include digital publishing such as ebooks, digital magazines, websites, social media, music, and video game publishing.
Publishing:
The commercial publishing industry ranges from large multinational conglomerates such as News Corp, Pearson, Penguin Random House, and Thomson Reuters, to major retail brands and thousands of small independent publishers. It has various divisions such as trade/retail publishing of fiction and non-fiction, educational publishing, and academic and scientific publishing. Publishing is also undertaken by governments, civil society, and private companies for administrative or compliance requirements, business, research, advocacy, or public interest objectives. This can include annual reports, research reports, market research, policy briefings, and technical reports. Self-publishing has become very common.
Publishing:
"Publisher" can refer to a publishing company or organization, or to an individual who leads a publishing company, imprint, periodical, or newspaper.
Stages of publishing:
The publishing process covering most magazine, journal, and book publishers includes: (Different stages are applicable to different types of publisher)
Types of publishers:
Newspaper publishing Newspapers or news websites are publications of current reports, articles, and features written by journalists and are available for free, available for free with a premium edition, or paid for, either individually or on a subscription. They are filled with photographs or other media and normally subsidized with advertising. They can have local, national, and international news or feature a particular industry. They can charge premium prices when they have the expertise and exclusive knowledge. They are intended to act in the public interest, hold people and businesses to account, and promote freedom of information and expression. Editors manage the tone-of-voice of their publication; for example, negative versus positive articles can affect the reader's perspective.
Types of publishers:
Journal publishing A journal is an academic or technical publication also available in digital formats, containing articles written by researchers, professors, and experts. These publications are specific in a particular field and often push the boundaries of human knowledge. They normally have peer review processes before publishing to test the validity and quality of the content.
Magazine publishing A magazine is a periodical published at regular intervals with creative layouts, photography, and illustrations that cover a particular subject or interest. They are available in print or digital formats and can be purchased on apps/websites like Readly or accessed for free on apps/websites like Issuu.
Types of publishers:
Book publishing The global book publishing industry consists of books that are categorized into either fiction or non-fiction and print, ebook, or audiobook. The market for books is huge with around 1.5 billion people speaking English, with translation services easily accessible to access the rest. The best content gets sold as TV and film rights. Self-publishing makes publishing accessible to everyone either with small print-run digital printing or online self-publishing platforms. E-reader screen technology continues to improve with increased contrast and resolution making them more comfortable to read. Each book has a registered ISBN number to identify it.
Types of publishers:
Directory publishing Directories are searchable indexed data containing businesses, products, and services. These were in the past printed but are now mostly online. Directories are now available as searchable lists, on a map, as a sector-specific portal, as a review site (expert or consumer), or as a comparison site. Although the businesses may not consider themselves as publishers, the way the data is displayed is published.
Types of publishers:
Textbook publishing A textbook is an educational book or an ebook containing knowledge about a particular subject that is used by people studying certain subjects. Textbook publishing continues to be needed due to the global need for education. Textbooks from major publishers are being integrated with learning platforms for expert knowledge and access to a library of books with digital content. A university press is an academic publisher run by a university. Oxford University Press is the largest in the world and specializes in research, education, and English language teaching internationally.
Types of publishers:
Catalog Publishing A Catalog (or Catalogue) is a visual directory or list of a large range of products that you can browse and buy from a particular company. In printed form, this is usually in the format of a soft-back book or directory. Smaller visual catalogs can be known as brochures. With the internet, they have evolved into searchable databases of products known under the term e-commerce. Interactive catalogs and brochures like IKEA and Avon allow the customer to browse a full range if they have not decided on their purchase. Responsive web and app design will allow further integration between interactive catalog visuals and searchable product databases.
Types of publishers:
Web publishing All the world's knowledge up to recently has been put in books. For accessibility and global reach, this content can be repurposed to the web. The British Library, for example, holds more than 170 million items, with 3 million new additions each year. With consent, content can be published online through ebooks, audiobooks, CMS based websites, online learning platforms, videos, or mobile apps. Online, writers and copy editors are known as content writers and content editors, although their roles vary from their print-based alternatives.
Types of publishers:
Advertising Advertising can provide income or a subsidized income for publishers. If there is a return on investment (ROI) from the advertising, the publisher can make exponentially more money by increasing the spending. An ROI of up to £10 per £1 invested is possible, as seen in the John Lewis & Partners Christmas campaigns. Likewise, any cost savings that harm the customer/consumer experience can affect a brand in the long term. Multichannel marketing can be more cost-effective at creating an immersive experience that can not be replicated with one channel. For example, think about a shop that has a small or no margin compared to a website, if you consider the shop as marketing spend, it is very cost-effective marketing, the shop is a huge billboard, you have a browsing experience that enables consumers to make purchasing decisions, they get to feel the brand, it has a presence in the community and creates jobs. Also using social media publishing to advertise has a good return on investment if you can create trending high-quality content that reflects positively on the brand.
Types of publishers:
Tie-in publishing Film, television, radio, and advertisements publish information to their audiences. Computer games, streaming apps, and social media publish content in new and various ways that can keep audiences more engaged. Marketing of a major film such as Star Wars is an example of tie-in publishing and can include a spin-off book, a graphic novel, a soundtrack album, a computer game, models, toys, social media posts, and promotional publications. Examples of tie-in publishing based on books are the Harry Potter and James Bond franchises.
Book publishing sub-divisions:
There are four major types of publishers in book publishing: Commercial publishers are more rigid and selective as to which books they publish. If accepted, authors pay no costs to publish in exchange for selling rights to their work. They receive in-house editing, design, printing, marketing and distribution services, and are paid royalties on sales.
Book publishing sub-divisions:
Self-publishers: Authors use self-publishing houses to publish their books and retain full rights to their works. Self-publishing houses are more open than traditional publishing houses, allowing emerging and established authors to publish their work. A number of modern or self-publishing houses offer enhanced services (e.g. editing, design) and authors may choose which one to use. Authors shoulder pre-publishing expenses and in return retain all the rights to their works, keep total control, and are paid royalties on sales.
Book publishing sub-divisions:
Vanity presses portray themselves as traditional publishers but are, in fact, just a self-publishing service. Unlike genuine self-publishing services, the author is often obliged to use some or all of their additional services, and the press will often take rights to the work as part of their contract.
Book publishing sub-divisions:
Hybrid publishers operate with a different revenue model than traditional publishing, while keeping the rest of the practices of publishing the same. There have been attempts to bridge this gap using hybrid models. No one model has been fully proven at this stage.In 2013, Penguin (owned by Pearson) and Random House (owned by Bertelsmann) merged, narrowing the industry to a handful of big publishers as it adapted to digital media. The merger created the largest consumer book publisher in the world, with a global market share of more than 25 percent. Approximately 60% of English-language books are produced through the "Big Five" publishing houses: Penguin Random House, Hachette, HarperCollins, Simon & Schuster, and Macmillan. In November 2020, ViacomCBS agreed to sell Simon & Schuster, the third largest book publisher in the United States, to Penguin Random House in a deal that will create the first mega-publisher. On November 2, 2021, the United States Department of Justice filed a lawsuit (U.S. v. Bertelsmann SE & CO. KGaA, et al.) to block the merger on antitrust grounds, and on October 31st, 2022, the D.C. District Court ruled in favour of the Department of Justice, filing a permanent injunction on the merger. Derided in the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica as "a purely commercial affair" that cared more about profits than about literary quality, publishing is like any business, with a need for the expenses not to exceed the income. Publishing is now a major industry with the largest companies Reed Elsevier and Pearson PLC having global publishing operations.
Book publishing sub-divisions:
Some businesses maximize their profit margins through vertical integration; book publishing is not one of them. Although newspaper and magazine companies still often own printing presses and binderies, book publishers rarely do. Similarly, the trade usually sells the finished products through a distributor who stores and distributes the publisher's wares for a percentage fee or sells on a sale or return basis.
Book publishing sub-divisions:
The advent of the Internet has provided an electronic way of book distribution without the need for physical printing, physical delivery, and storage of books.
Book publishing sub-divisions:
Within the electronic book path, the publishing house's role remains almost identical. The process of preparing a book for ebook publication is exactly the same as print publication, with only minor variations in the process to account for the different mediums of publishing. While some costs, such as the discount given to retailers (normally around 45%) are eliminated, additional costs connected to ebooks apply (especially in the conversion process), raising the production costs to a similar level.Print on demand is rapidly becoming an established alternative to traditional publishing.
Book publishing sub-divisions:
Book clubs are almost entirely direct-to-retail, and niche publishers pursue a mixed strategy to sell through all available outlets — their output is insignificant to the major booksellers, so lost revenue poses no threat to the traditional symbiotic relationships between the four activities of printing, publishing, distribution, and retail.
Book publishing sub-divisions:
Some of the major publishers have entire divisions devoted to a single franchise, e.g., Ballantine Del Rey Lucasbooks has the exclusive rights to Star Wars in the United States; Random House UK (Bertelsmann)/Century LucasBooks holds the same rights in the United Kingdom. The game industry self-publishes through BL Publishing/Black Library (Warhammer) and Wizards of the Coast (Dragonlance, Forgotten Realms, etc.). The BBC has its publishing division that does very well with long-running series such as Doctor Who. These multimedia works are cross-marketed aggressively and sales frequently outperform the average stand-alone published work, making them a focus of corporate interest.
Recent developments:
Accessible publishing uses the digitization of books to mark up books into XML and then produces multiple formats from this to sell to customers, often targeting those with difficulty reading. Formats include a variety of larger print sizes, specialized print formats for dyslexia, eye tracking problems and macular degeneration, as well as Braille, DAISY, audiobooks, and ebooks.Green publishing means adapting the publishing process to minimize environmental impact. One example of this is the concept of on-demand printing, using digital or print-on-demand technology. This cuts down the need to ship books since they are manufactured close to the customer on a just-in-time basis.A further development is the growth of online publishing where no physical books are produced. The ebook is created by the author and uploaded to a website from where it can be downloaded and read by anyone.
Recent developments:
An increasing number of authors are using niche marketing online to sell more books by engaging with their readers online.
Standardization:
Refer to the ISO divisions of ICS 01.140.40 and 35.240.30 for further information.
Legal issues:
Publication is the distribution of copies or content to the public. The Berne Convention requires that this can only be done with the consent of the copyright holder, which is initially always the author. In the Universal Copyright Convention, "publication" is defined in article VI as "the reproduction in tangible form and the general distribution to the public of copies of a work from which it can be read or otherwise visually perceived."
Privishing:
Privishing (private publishing, but not to be confused with self-publishing) is a modern term for publishing a book but printing so few copies or with such lack of marketing, advertising, or sales support that it effectively does not reach the public. The book, while nominally published, is almost impossible to obtain through normal channels such as bookshops, often cannot be ordered specially, and has a notable lack of support from its publisher, including refusal to reprint the title. A book that is privished may be referred to as "killed". Depending on the motivation, privishing may constitute breach of contract, censorship, or good business practice (e.g., not printing more books than the publisher believes will sell in a reasonable length of time).
History:
Publishing became possible with the invention of writing, and became more practical upon the introduction of printing. Prior to printing, distributed works were copied manually, by scribes. Due to printing, publishing progressed hand-in-hand with the development of books.
History:
The Chinese inventor Bi Sheng made movable type of earthenware c. 1045, but there are no known surviving examples of his work. The Korean civil servant Choe Yun-ui, who lived during the Goryeo Dynasty, invented the first metal moveable type in 1234–1250 AD.Around 1450, in what is commonly regarded as an independent invention, Johannes Gutenberg invented movable type in Europe, along with innovations in casting the type based on a matrix and hand mould. This invention gradually made books less expensive to produce and more widely available.
History:
Early printed books, single sheets, and images that were created before 1501 in Europe are known as incunables or incunabula. "A man born in 1453, the year of the fall of Constantinople, could look back from his fiftieth year on a lifetime in which about eight million books had been printed, more perhaps than all the scribes of Europe had produced since Constantine founded his city in A.D. 330."Eventually, printing enabled other forms of publishing besides books. The history of modern newspaper publishing started in Germany in 1609, with publishing of magazines following in 1663.
History:
Missionaries brought printing presses to sub-Saharan Africa in the mid-18th century.Historically, publishing has been handled by publishers, although some authors self-published. The establishment of the World Wide Web in 1989 soon propelled the website into a dominant medium of publishing. Wikis and Blogs soon developed, followed by online books, online newspapers, and online magazines.
Since its start, the World Wide Web has been facilitating the technological convergence of commercial and self-published content, as well as the convergence of publishing and producing into online production through the development of multimedia content.
History:
A U.S.-based study in 2016 that surveyed 34 publishers found that the publishing industry in the US in general is overwhelmingly represented by straight, able-bodied, white females. Salon described the situation as "lack of diversity behind the scenes in book world". A survey in 2020 by the same group found there has been no statistical significant change in the lack of diversity since the 2016 survey four years earlier. Lack of diversity in the American publishing industry has been an issue for years. Within the industry, there was the least amount of diversity in higher-level editorial positions. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Club foot (furniture)**
Club foot (furniture):
A club foot is a type of rounded foot for a piece of furniture, such as the end of a chair leg. It is also known by the alternative names pad foot and Dutch foot, the latter sometimes corrupted into duck foot.Such feet are rounded flat pads or disks at the end of furniture legs. Pad feet were regularly used on cabriole legs during the 18th century. They can be found on tables, chairs, and some early sofas.
Club foot (furniture):
Pad feet were first seen in the French and Italian Renaissance periods and have been widely used ever since. Pad feet can still be seen on some classical furniture. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Sierpiński set**
Sierpiński set:
In mathematics, a Sierpiński set is an uncountable subset of a real vector space whose intersection with every measure-zero set is countable. The existence of Sierpiński sets is independent of the axioms of ZFC. Sierpiński (1924) showed that they exist if the continuum hypothesis is true. On the other hand, they do not exist if Martin's axiom for ℵ1 is true. Sierpiński sets are weakly Luzin sets but are not Luzin sets (Kunen 2011, p. 376).
Example of a Sierpiński set:
Choose a collection of 2ℵ0 measure-0 subsets of R such that every measure-0 subset is contained in one of them. By the continuum hypothesis, it is possible to enumerate them as Sα for countable ordinals α. For each countable ordinal β choose a real number xβ that is not in any of the sets Sα for α < β, which is possible as the union of these sets has measure 0 so is not the whole of R. Then the uncountable set X of all these real numbers xβ has only a countable number of elements in each set Sα, so is a Sierpiński set.
Example of a Sierpiński set:
It is possible for a Sierpiński set to be a subgroup under addition. For this one modifies the construction above by choosing a real number xβ that is not in any of the countable number of sets of the form (Sα + X)/n for α < β, where n is a positive integer and X is an integral linear combination of the numbers xα for α < β. Then the group generated by these numbers is a Sierpiński set and a group under addition. More complicated variations of this construction produce examples of Sierpiński sets that are subfields or real-closed subfields of the real numbers. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Koraly Pérez-Edgar**
Koraly Pérez-Edgar:
Koraly Elisa Pérez-Edgar is a developmental psychologist who studies the temperament of young children and connections between temperament, anxiety disorders, and other forms of psychopathology. She is known for her studies of shy children who may develop behavioral inhibition or social anxiety.Pérez-Edgar is a McCourtney Professor of Child Studies and Professor of Psychology at Pennsylvania State University where she directs the Cognition, Affect, and Temperament Lab. Pérez-Edgar is the Editor-in-Chief of the journal Developmental Psychology.
Biography:
Pérez-Edgar earned her AB in Psychology at Dartmouth College in 1995, where she conducted research under the supervision Alfonso Caramazza. Pérez-Edgar continued her studies at Harvard University, where she received her master's degree (1998) and Ph.D. (2001) in Psychology. Her dissertation titled "Attentional Control in Emotional Contexts: The Potential Role of Temperament" was supervised by Jerome Kagan. She conducted post-doctoral research with Nathan A. Fox at the University of Maryland, where they used electrophysiology to study children's responses to emotion words and emotionally charged conditions.Before moving to Penn State in 2011, Pérez-Edgar was part of the faculty at George Mason University (2006-2011). In 2021, Pérez-Edgar received Penn State's 2021 Graduate Faculty Teaching Award in recognition of outstanding teaching performance and advising of graduate students. Her research has been funded by the National Institutes of Health.
Research:
Pérez-Edgar studies the temperament and emotional development of young children. She has taken a variety of approaches to find explanations for social anxiety and other behavioral difficulties that children encounter, and how such difficulties may be related to differences in parenting styles and other external factors. Pérez-Edgar and her colleagues have documented atypical attentional biases in young children with behavioral inhibition who tend to withdraw from social situations. These children are at heightened risk of developing chronic anxiety and other forms of psychopathology.In a randomized controlled trial involving children with symptoms of anxiety, Pérez-Edgar and her colleagues found evidence that a treatment to modify attentional biases was effective in reducing the number and severity of anxiety symptoms as compared to a placebo condition.
Books:
Pérez-Edgar, K., & Fox, N. A. (Eds.). (2018). Behavioral inhibition: Integrating theory, research, and clinical perspectives. Springer International Publishing.
LoBue, V., Pérez-Edgar, K., & Buss, K. A. (Eds.). (2019). Handbook of emotional development. Springer.
Representative publications:
Chronis-Tuscano, Andrea; Degnan, Kathryn Amey; Pine, Daniel S.; Perez-Edgar, Koraly; Henderson, Heather A.; Diaz, Yamalis; Raggi, Veronica L.; Fox, Nathan A. (September 2009). "Stable Early Maternal Report of Behavioral Inhibition Predicts Lifetime Social Anxiety Disorder in Adolescence". Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. 48 (9): 928–935. doi:10.1097/chi.0b013e3181ae09df. PMC 2789287. PMID 19625982.
Eldar, Sharon; Apter, Alan; Lotan, Daniel; Edgar, Koraly Perez; Naim, Reut; Fox, Nathan A.; Pine, Daniel S.; Bar-Haim, Yair (February 2012). "Attention Bias Modification Treatment for Pediatric Anxiety Disorders: A Randomized Controlled Trial". American Journal of Psychiatry. 169 (2): 213–230. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2011.11060886. PMC 3491316. PMID 22423353.
McDermott, Jennifer M.; Perez-Edgar, Koraly; Henderson, Heather A.; Chronis-Tuscano, Andrea; Pine, Daniel S.; Fox, Nathan A. (March 2009). "A History of Childhood Behavioral Inhibition and Enhanced Response Monitoring in Adolescence Are Linked to Clinical Anxiety". Biological Psychiatry. 65 (5): 445–448. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.10.043. PMC 2788124. PMID 19108817.
Pérez-Edgar, Koraly; Fox, Nathan A. (October 2005). "Temperament and Anxiety Disorders". Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America. 14 (4): 681–706. doi:10.1016/j.chc.2005.05.008. PMID 16171698.
Pérez-Edgar, Koraly; Bar-Haim, Yair; McDermott, Jennifer Martin; Chronis-Tuscano, Andrea; Pine, Daniel S.; Fox, Nathan A. (2010). "Attention biases to threat and behavioral inhibition in early childhood shape adolescent social withdrawal". Emotion. 10 (3): 349–357. doi:10.1037/a0018486. PMC 3614079. PMID 20515224. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Quantum network**
Quantum network:
Quantum networks form an important element of quantum computing and quantum communication systems. Quantum networks facilitate the transmission of information in the form of quantum bits, also called qubits, between physically separated quantum processors. A quantum processor is a small quantum computer being able to perform quantum logic gates on a certain number of qubits. Quantum networks work in a similar way to classical networks. The main difference is that quantum networking, like quantum computing, is better at solving certain problems, such as modeling quantum systems.
Basics:
Quantum networks for computation Networked quantum computing or distributed quantum computing works by linking multiple quantum processors through a quantum network by sending qubits in-between them. Doing this creates a quantum computing cluster and therefore creates more computing potential. Less powerful computers can be linked in this way to create one more powerful processor. This is analogous to connecting several classical computers to form a computer cluster in classical computing. Like classical computing, this system is scalable by adding more and more quantum computers to the network. Currently quantum processors are only separated by short distances.
Basics:
Quantum networks for communication In the realm of quantum communication, one wants to send qubits from one quantum processor to another over long distances. This way, local quantum networks can be intra connected into a quantum internet. A quantum internet supports many applications, which derive their power from the fact that by creating quantum entangled qubits, information can be transmitted between the remote quantum processors. Most applications of a quantum internet require only very modest quantum processors. For most quantum internet protocols, such as quantum key distribution in quantum cryptography, it is sufficient if these processors are capable of preparing and measuring only a single qubit at a time. This is in contrast to quantum computing where interesting applications can only be realized if the (combined) quantum processors can easily simulate more qubits than a classical computer (around 60). Quantum internet applications require only small quantum processors, often just a single qubit, because quantum entanglement can already be realized between just two qubits. A simulation of an entangled quantum system on a classical computer cannot simultaneously provide the same security and speed.
Basics:
Overview of the elements of a quantum network The basic structure of a quantum network and more generally a quantum internet is analogous to a classical network. First, we have end nodes on which applications are ultimately run. These end nodes are quantum processors of at least one qubit. Some applications of a quantum internet require quantum processors of several qubits as well as a quantum memory at the end nodes.
Basics:
Second, to transport qubits from one node to another, we need communication lines. For the purpose of quantum communication, standard telecom fibers can be used. For networked quantum computing, in which quantum processors are linked at short distances, different wavelengths are chosen depending on the exact hardware platform of the quantum processor.
Third, to make maximum use of communication infrastructure, one requires optical switches capable of delivering qubits to the intended quantum processor. These switches need to preserve quantum coherence, which makes them more challenging to realize than standard optical switches.
Finally, one requires a quantum repeater to transport qubits over long distances. Repeaters appear in-between end nodes. Since qubits cannot be copied, classical signal amplification is not possible. By necessity, a quantum repeater works in a fundamentally different way than a classical repeater.
Elements of a quantum network:
End nodes: quantum processors End nodes can both receive and emit information. Telecommunication lasers and parametric down-conversion combined with photodetectors can be used for quantum key distribution. In this case, the end nodes can in many cases be very simple devices consisting only of beamsplitters and photodetectors.
Elements of a quantum network:
However, for many protocols more sophisticated end nodes are desirable. These systems provide advanced processing capabilities and can also be used as quantum repeaters. Their chief advantage is that they can store and retransmit quantum information without disrupting the underlying quantum state. The quantum state being stored can either be the relative spin of an electron in a magnetic field or the energy state of an electron. They can also perform quantum logic gates.
Elements of a quantum network:
One way of realizing such end nodes is by using color centers in diamond, such as the nitrogen-vacancy center. This system forms a small quantum processor featuring several qubits. NV centers can be utilized at room temperatures. Small scale quantum algorithms and quantum error correction has already been demonstrated in this system, as well as the ability to entangle two and three quantum processors, and perform deterministic quantum teleportation.Another possible platform are quantum processors based on Ion traps, which utilize radio-frequency magnetic fields and lasers. In a multispecies trapped-ion node network, photons entangled with a parent atom are used to entangle different nodes. Also, cavity quantum electrodynamics (Cavity QED) is one possible method of doing this. In Cavity QED, photonic quantum states can be transferred to and from atomic quantum states stored in single atoms contained in optical cavities. This allows for the transfer of quantum states between single atoms using optical fiber in addition to the creation of remote entanglement between distant atoms.
Elements of a quantum network:
Communication lines: physical layer Over long distances, the primary method of operating quantum networks is to use optical networks and photon-based qubits. This is due to optical networks having a reduced chance of decoherence. Optical networks have the advantage of being able to re-use existing optical fiber. Alternately, free space networks can be implemented that transmit quantum information through the atmosphere or through a vacuum.
Elements of a quantum network:
Fiber optic networks Optical networks using existing telecommunication fiber can be implemented using hardware similar to existing telecommunication equipment. This fiber can be either single-mode or multi-mode, with multi-mode allowing for more precise communication. At the sender, a single photon source can be created by heavily attenuating a standard telecommunication laser such that the mean number of photons per pulse is less than 1. For receiving, an avalanche photodetector can be used. Various methods of phase or polarization control can be used such as interferometers and beam splitters. In the case of entanglement based protocols, entangled photons can be generated through spontaneous parametric down-conversion. In both cases, the telecom fiber can be multiplexed to send non-quantum timing and control signals.
Elements of a quantum network:
In 2020 a team of researchers affiliated with several institutions in China has succeeded in sending entangled quantum memories over a 50-kilometer coiled fiber cable.
Elements of a quantum network:
Free space networks Free space quantum networks operate similar to fiber optic networks but rely on line of sight between the communicating parties instead of using a fiber optic connection. Free space networks can typically support higher transmission rates than fiber optic networks and do not have to account for polarization scrambling caused by optical fiber. However, over long distances, free space communication is subject to an increased chance of environmental disturbance on the photons.Free space communication is also possible from a satellite to the ground. A quantum satellite capable of entanglement distribution over a distance of 1,203 km has been demonstrated. The experimental exchange of single photons from a global navigation satellite system at a slant distance of 20,000 km has also been reported. These satellites can play an important role in linking smaller ground-based networks over larger distances.
Elements of a quantum network:
Repeaters Long-distance communication is hindered by the effects of signal loss and decoherence inherent to most transport mediums such as optical fiber. In classical communication, amplifiers can be used to boost the signal during transmission, but in a quantum network amplifiers cannot be used since qubits cannot be copied – known as the no-cloning theorem. That is, to implement an amplifier, the complete state of the flying qubit would need to be determined, something which is both unwanted and impossible.
Elements of a quantum network:
Trusted repeaters An intermediary step which allows the testing of communication infrastructure are trusted repeaters. Importantly, a trusted repeater cannot be used to transmit qubits over long distances. Instead, a trusted repeater can only be used to perform quantum key distribution with the additional assumption that the repeater is trusted. Consider two end nodes A and B, and a trusted repeater R in the middle. A and R now perform quantum key distribution to generate a key kAR . Similarly, R and B run quantum key distribution to generate a key kRB . A and B can now obtain a key kAB between themselves as follows: A sends kAB to R encrypted with the key kAR . R decrypts to obtain kAB . R then re-encrypts kAB using the key kRB and sends it to B. B decrypts to obtain kAB . A and B now share the key kAB . The key is secure from an outside eavesdropper, but clearly the repeater R also knows kAB . This means that any subsequent communication between A and B does not provide end to end security, but is only secure as long as A and B trust the repeater R.
Elements of a quantum network:
Quantum repeaters A true quantum repeater allows the end to end generation of quantum entanglement, and thus - by using quantum teleportation - the end to end transmission of qubits. In quantum key distribution protocols one can test for such entanglement. This means that when making encryption keys, the sender and receiver are secure even if they do not trust the quantum repeater. Any other application of a quantum internet also requires the end to end transmission of qubits, and thus a quantum repeater.
Elements of a quantum network:
Quantum repeaters allow entanglement and can be established at distant nodes without physically sending an entangled qubit the entire distance.In this case, the quantum network consists of many short distance links of perhaps tens or hundreds of kilometers. In the simplest case of a single repeater, two pairs of entangled qubits are established: |A⟩ and |Ra⟩ located at the sender and the repeater, and a second pair |Rb⟩ and |B⟩ located at the repeater and the receiver. These initial entangled qubits can be easily created, for example through parametric down conversion, with one qubit physically transmitted to an adjacent node. At this point, the repeater can perform a Bell measurement on the qubits |Ra⟩ and |Rb⟩ thus teleporting the quantum state of |Ra⟩ onto |B⟩ . This has the effect of "swapping" the entanglement such that |A⟩ and |B⟩ are now entangled at a distance twice that of the initial entangled pairs. It can be seen that a network of such repeaters can be used linearly or in a hierarchical fashion to establish entanglement over great distances.Hardware platforms suitable as end nodes above can also function as quantum repeaters. However, there are also hardware platforms specific only to the task of acting as a repeater, without the capabilities of performing quantum gates.
Elements of a quantum network:
Error correction Error correction can be used in quantum repeaters. Due to technological limitations, however, the applicability is limited to very short distances as quantum error correction schemes capable of protecting qubits over long distances would require an extremely large amount of qubits and hence extremely large quantum computers.
Elements of a quantum network:
Errors in communication can be broadly classified into two types: Loss errors (due to optical fiber/environment) and operation errors (such as depolarization, dephasing etc.). While redundancy can be used to detect and correct classical errors, redundant qubits cannot be created due to the no-cloning theorem. As a result, other types of error correction must be introduced such as the Shor code or one of a number of more general and efficient codes. All of these codes work by distributing the quantum information across multiple entangled qubits so that operation errors as well as loss errors can be corrected.In addition to quantum error correction, classical error correction can be employed by quantum networks in special cases such as quantum key distribution. In these cases, the goal of the quantum communication is to securely transmit a string of classical bits. Traditional error correction codes such as Hamming codes can be applied to the bit string before encoding and transmission on the quantum network.
Elements of a quantum network:
Entanglement purification Quantum decoherence can occur when one qubit from a maximally entangled bell state is transmitted across a quantum network. Entanglement purification allows for the creation of nearly maximally entangled qubits from a large number of arbitrary weakly entangled qubits, and thus provides additional protection against errors. Entanglement purification (also known as Entanglement distillation) has already been demonstrated in Nitrogen-vacancy centers in diamond.
Applications:
A quantum internet supports numerous applications, enabled by quantum entanglement. In general, quantum entanglement is well suited for tasks that require coordination, synchronization or privacy.
Applications:
Examples of such applications include quantum key distribution, clock stabilization, protocols for distributed system problems such as leader election or Byzantine agreement, extending the baseline of telescopes, as well as position verification, secure identification and two-party cryptography in the noisy-storage model. A quantum internet also enables secure access to a quantum computer in the cloud. Specifically, a quantum internet enables very simple quantum devices to connect to a remote quantum computer in such a way that computations can be performed there without the quantum computer finding out what this computation actually is (the input and output quantum states can not be measured without destroying the computation, but the circuit composition used for the calculation will be known).
Applications:
Secure communications When it comes to communicating in any form the largest issue has always been keeping these communications private. Quantum networks would allow for information to be created, stored and transmitted, potentially achieving "a level of privacy, security and computational clout that is impossible to achieve with today’s Internet."By applying a quantum operator that the user selects to a system of information the information can then be sent to the receiver without a chance of an eavesdropper being able to accurately be able to record the sent information without either the sender or receiver knowing. Unlike classical information that is transmitted in bits and assigned either a 0 or 1 value, the quantum information used in quantum networks uses quantum bits (qubits), which can have both 0 and 1 value at the same time, being in a state of superposition. This works because if a listener tries to listen in then they will change the information in an unintended way by listening, thereby tipping their hand to the people on whom they are attacking. Secondly, without the proper quantum operator to decode the information they will corrupt the sent information without being able to use it themselves. Furthermore, qubits can be encoded in a variety of materials, including in the polarization of photons or the spin states of electrons.
Current status:
Quantum internet At present, there is no network connecting quantum processors, or quantum repeaters deployed outside a lab.
Current status:
One example of a prototype quantum communication network is the eight-user city-scale quantum network described in a paper published in September 2020. The network located in Bristol used already deployed fibre-infrastructure and worked without active switching or trusted nodes.In 2022, Researchers at the University of Science and Technology of China and Jinan Institute of Quantum Technology demonstrated quantum entanglement between two memory devices located at 12.5 km apart from each other within an urban environment.In the same year, Physicist at the Delft University of Technology in Netherlands has taken a significant step toward the network of the future by using a technique called quantum teleportation that sends data to three physical locations which was previously only possible with two locations.
Current status:
Quantum networks for computation In 2021, researchers at the Max Planck Institute of Quantum Optics in Germany reported a first prototype of quantum logic gates for distributed quantum computers.
Current status:
Experimental quantum modems A research team at the Max-Planck-Institute of Quantum Optics in Garching, Germany is finding success in transporting quantum data from flying and stable qubits via infrared spectrum matching. This requires a sophisticated, super-cooled yttrium silicate crystal to sandwich erbium in a mirrored environment to achieve resonance matching of infrared wavelengths found in fiber optic networks. The team successfully demonstrated the device works without data loss.
Current status:
Mobile quantum networks In 2021, researchers in China reported the successful transmission of entangled photons between drones, used as nodes for the development of mobile quantum networks or flexible network extensions. This could be the first work in which entangled particles were sent between two moving devices.
Current status:
Quantum key distribution networks Several test networks have been deployed that are tailored to the task of quantum key distribution either at short distances (but connecting many users), or over larger distances by relying on trusted repeaters. These networks do not yet allow for the end to end transmission of qubits or the end to end creation of entanglement between far away nodes.
Current status:
DARPA Quantum Network Starting in the early 2000s, DARPA began sponsorship of a quantum network development project with the aim of implementing secure communication. The DARPA Quantum Network became operational within the BBN Technologies laboratory in late 2003 and was expanded further in 2004 to include nodes at Harvard and Boston Universities. The network consists of multiple physical layers including fiber optics supporting phase-modulated lasers and entangled photons as well free-space links.SECOQC Vienna QKD network From 2003 to 2008 the Secure Communication based on Quantum Cryptography (SECOQC) project developed a collaborative network between a number of European institutions. The architecture chosen for the SECOQC project is a trusted repeater architecture which consists of point-to-point quantum links between devices where long distance communication is accomplished through the use of repeaters.Chinese hierarchical network In May 2009, a hierarchical quantum network was demonstrated in Wuhu, China. The hierarchical network consists of a backbone network of four nodes connecting a number of subnets. The backbone nodes are connected through an optical switching quantum router. Nodes within each subnet are also connected through an optical switch and are connected to the backbone network through a trusted relay.Geneva area network (SwissQuantum) The SwissQuantum network developed and tested between 2009 and 2011 linked facilities at CERN with the University of Geneva and hepia in Geneva. The SwissQuantum program focused on transitioning the technologies developed in the SECOQC and other research quantum networks into a production environment. In particular the integration with existing telecommunication networks, and its reliability and robustness.Tokyo QKD network In 2010, a number of organizations from Japan and the European Union setup and tested the Tokyo QKD network. The Tokyo network build upon existing QKD technologies and adopted a SECOQC like network architecture. For the first time, one-time-pad encryption was implemented at high enough data rates to support popular end-user application such as secure voice and video conferencing. Previous large-scale QKD networks typically used classical encryption algorithms such as AES for high-rate data transfer and use the quantum-derived keys for low rate data or for regularly re-keying the classical encryption algorithms.Beijing-Shanghai Trunk Line In September 2017, a 2000-km quantum key distribution network between Beijing and Shanghai, China, was officially opened. This trunk line will serve as a backbone connecting quantum networks in Beijing, Shanghai, Jinan in Shandong province and Hefei in Anhui province. During the opening ceremony, two employees from the Bank of Communications completed a transaction from Shanghai to Beijing using the network. The State Grid Corporation of China is also developing a managing application for the link. The line uses 32 trusted nodes as repeaters. A quantum telecommunication network has been also put into service in Wuhan, capital of central China's Hubei Province, which will be connected to the trunk. Other similar city quantum networks along the Yangtze River are planned to follow.
Current status:
In 2021, researchers working on this network of networks reported that they combined over 700 optical fibers with two QKD-ground-to-satellite links using a trusted relay structure for a total distance between nodes of up to ~4,600 km, which makes it Earth's largest integrated quantum communication network.IQNET IQNET (Intelligent Quantum Networks and Technologies) was founded in 2017 by Caltech and AT&T. Together, they are collaborating with the Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. In December 2020, IQNET published a work in PRX Quantum that reported a successful teleportation of time-bin qubits across 44 km of fiber. For the first time, the published work includes a theoretical modelling of the experimental setup. The two test beds for performed measurements were the Caltech Quantum Network and the Fermilab Quantum Network. This research represents an important step in establishing a quantum internet of the future, which would revolutionise the fields of secure communication, data storage, precision sensing, and computing. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Passenger train**
Passenger train:
A passenger train is a train used to transport people along a railroad line. These trains may consist of unpowered passenger railroad cars (also known as coaches or carriages) hauled by one or more locomotives, or may be self-propelled; self propelled passenger trains are known as multiple units or railcars. Passenger trains stop at stations or depots, where passengers may board and disembark. In most cases, passenger trains operate on a fixed schedule and have priority over freight trains.
Passenger train:
Passenger trains may be made up of a number of passenger cars hauled by one or more locomotives, or may be made up of self-propelled railcars. Car design and the general safety of passenger trains have dramatically evolved over time, making travel by rail remarkably safe. Some passenger trains, both long-distance and short-distance, use bi-level (double-decker) cars to carry more passengers per train. Passenger trains hauled by locomotives are more expensive to operate than multiple units, but have a higher passenger capacity.Many prestigious passenger train services have been bestowed a special name, some of which have become famous in literature and fiction.
History:
The first occasion on which a railway locomotive pulled a train carrying passengers was in 1804 at Penydarren Ironworks in Wales, when 70 employees of the ironworks were transported 9 miles by an engine designed by Richard Trevithick. In 1808, Trevithick ran a passenger-carrying exhibition train called Catch Me Who Can on a small loop of track in London. The exhibition, which ran for two weeks, charged passengers for rides. The first passenger train in regular service was a horse drawn train on the Swansea and Mumbles Railway.The first steam train carrying passengers on a public railway was hauled by Locomotion No. 1 on the Stockton and Darlington Railway in 1825, traveling at speeds up to 15 miles per hour.
History:
Travel by passenger trains in the United States began in the 1830s and became popular in the 1850s and '60s. The first electric passenger train was exhibited at the Berlin Industrial Exposition 1879. The first successful commercial electric passenger train, the Gross-Lichterfelde Tramway, ran a year later in Lichterfelde.
Long-distance trains:
Long-distance trains travel between many cities or regions of a country, and sometimes cross several countries. They often have a dining car or restaurant car to allow passengers to have a meal during the course of their journey. Trains travelling overnight may also have sleeping cars. Currently, much of travel on these distances of over 500 miles (800 km) is done by air in many countries but in others long-distance travel by rail is a popular or the only cheap way to travel long distances.
Long-distance trains:
High-speed rail One notable and growing long-distance train category is high-speed rail, which generally runs at speeds above 200 km/h (120 mph) and often operates on a dedicated track that is surveyed and prepared to accommodate high speeds. The first successful example of a high-speed passenger rail system was Japan's Shinkansen, colloquially known as the "bullet train", which commenced operation in October 1964. Other examples include Italy's LeFrecce, France's TGV (Train à Grande Vitesse, literally "high speed train"), Germany's ICE (Inter-City Express), and Spain's AVE (Alta Velocidad Española).
Long-distance trains:
In most cases, high-speed rail travel is time- and cost-competitive with air travel when distances do not exceed 500 to 600 km (310 to 370 mi), as airport check-in and boarding procedures can add at least two hours to the overall transit time. Also, rail operating costs over these distances may be lower when the amount of jet fuel consumed by an airliner during takeoff and climbout is taken into consideration. Air travel becomes more cost-competitive as the travel distance increases because the fuel accounts for less of the overall operating cost of the airliner.
Long-distance trains:
Some high-speed rail systems employ tilting technology to improve stability in curves. Examples of tilting trains are the Advanced Passenger Train (APT), the Pendolino, the N700 Series Shinkansen, Amtrak's Acela and the Spanish Talgo. Tilting is a dynamic form of superelevation, allowing both low- and high-speed traffic to use the same trackage (though not simultaneously), as well as producing a more comfortable ride for passengers.
Long-distance trains:
Inter-city trains "Inter-city" is a general term for any rail service that uses trains with limited stops to provide fast long-distance travel. Inter-city services can be divided into three major groups: InterCity: using high-speed trains to connect cities, bypassing all intermediate stations, thus linking major population hubs in the fastest time possible Express: calling at some intermediate stations between cities, serving larger urban communities Regional: calling at all intermediate stations between cities, serving smaller communities along the routeThe distinction between the three types of inter-city rail service may be unclear; trains can run as InterCity services between major cities, then revert to an express (or even regional) train service to reach communities at the furthest points of the journey. This practice allows less populous communities to be served in the most cost-effective way, at the expense of a longer journey time for those wishing to travel to the terminus station.
Long-distance trains:
Higher-speed rail Higher-speed rail services operate at top speeds that are higher than conventional inter-city trains but below high-speed rail services. These services are provided after improvements to the conventional rail infrastructure to support trains that can operate safely at higher speeds.
Short-distance trains:
Commuter trains Many cities and their surrounding areas are served by commuter trains (also known as suburban trains), which serve commuters who live outside of the city they work in, or vice versa. More specifically, in the United States commuter rail service is defined as, "short-haul rail passenger transportation in metropolitan and suburban areas usually having reduced fare, multiple ride, and commuter tickets and morning and evening peak period operations". Trains are very efficient for transporting large numbers of people at once, compared to road transport. While automobiles may be delayed by traffic congestion, trains operate on dedicated rights-of-way which allow them to bypass such congestion.With the use of bilevel cars, which are tall enough to have two levels of seating, commuter rail services can haul as many as 150 commuters per train car, and over 1,000 per train, significantly outpacing the capacity of automobiles and buses.
Short-distance trains:
Railcar In British and Australian usage, a "railcar" is a self-propelled railway vehicle designed to transport passengers. The term is usually used in reference to a train consisting of a single passenger car (carriage, coach) with a driver's cab at one or both ends. Some railways, e.g. the Great Western Railway, used the term "railmotor". If the railcar is able to pull a full train, it is more likely to be called a "motor coach" or a "motor car". The term "railcar" is sometimes also used as an alternative name for the small types of multiple unit that consist of more than one coach.
Short-distance trains:
Rapid transit Rapid transit trains are urban-transport rails that operate on exclusive right-of-way in that pedestrians or vehicles may not access it.
Light rail Light rails are electrically powered urban passenger trains that run along an exclusive rights-of-way at ground level, raised structures, tunnels, or in streets. Light rail systems generally use lighter equipment that operate at slower speeds to allow for more flexibility in integrating systems into urban environments.
Tram Trams (also known as streetcars in North America) are a type of passenger train that run alongside public urban streets on a tramway track, often including segments of right-of-way for passengers and vehicles.
Heritage trains:
Heritage trains are operated by volunteers, often railfans, as a tourist attraction or as a museum railway. Usually, the trains are formed from historic vehicles retired from national commercial operation that have retained or assumed the character, appearance, and operating practices of railways in their time. Sometimes lines that operate in isolation also provide transport facilities for their respective community. Much of the equipment used on these train's systems are original or at least aim to replicate both the look and operating practices of historic/former railways companies.
Environmental impact:
Passenger rail is one of the modes of travel with the lowest carbon dioxide emissions. Rail travel emits much less carbon dioxide per mile than air travel (2-27%) or car travel (2-24%). | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Research stations in Antarctica**
Research stations in Antarctica:
Multiple governments have set up permanent research stations in Antarctica and these bases are widely distributed. Unlike the drifting ice stations set up in the Arctic, the research stations of the Antarctic are constructed either on rocks or on ice that are (for practical purposes) fixed in places.
Research stations in Antarctica:
Many of the stations are staffed throughout the year. A total of 42 countries (as of October 2006), all signatories to the Antarctic Treaty, operate seasonal (summer) and year-round research stations on the continent. The population of people performing and supporting scientific research on the continent and nearby islands varies from approximately 4,000 during the summer season to 1,000 during winter (June). In addition to these permanent stations, approximately 30 field camps are established each summer to support specific projects.
History:
First bases During the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration in the late 19th century, the first bases on the continent were established. In 1898, Carsten Borchgrevink, a Norwegian/British explorer, led the British Antarctic Expedition to Cape Adare, where he established the first Antarctic base on Ridley Beach. This expedition is often referred to now as the Southern Cross Expedition, after the expedition's ship name. Most of the staff were Norwegian, but the funds for the expedition were British, provided by Sir George Newnes. The 10 members of the expedition explored Robertson Bay to the west of Cape Adare by dog teams, and later, after being picked up by the ship at the base, went ashore on the Ross Ice Shelf for brief journeys. The expedition hut is still in good condition and visited frequently by tourists.
History:
The hut was later occupied by Scott's Northern Party under the command of Victor Campbell for a year in 1911, after its attempt to explore the eastern end of the ice shelf discovered Roald Amundsen already ashore preparing for his assault on the South Pole.
History:
In 1903, Dr William S. Bruce's Scottish National Antarctic Expedition set off to Antarctica, with one of its aims to establish a meteorological station in the area. After the expedition failed to find land, Bruce decided to head back to the Laurie Island in the South Orkneys and find an anchorage there. The islands were well-situated as a site for a meteorological station, and their relative proximity to the South American mainland allowed a permanent station to be established. Bruce instituted a comprehensive programme of work, involving meteorological readings, trawling for marine samples, botanical excursions, and the collection of biological and geological specimens.The major task completed during this time was the construction of a stone building, christened "Omond House". This was to act as living accommodation for the parties that would remain on Laurie Island to operate the proposed meteorological laboratory. The building was constructed from local materials using the dry stone method, with a roof improvised from wood and canvas sheeting. The completed house was 20 feet by 20 feet square (6m × 6m), with two windows, fitted as quarters for six people. Rudmose Brown wrote: "Considering that we had no mortar and no masons' tools it is a wonderfully fine house and very lasting. I should think it will be standing a century hence ..."Bruce later offered to Argentina the transfer of the station and instruments on the condition that the government committed itself to the continuation of the scientific mission. Bruce informed the British officer William Haggard of his intentions in December 1903, and Haggard ratified the terms of Bruce's proposition.The Scotia sailed back for Laurie Island on 14 January 1904 carrying on board Argentinean officials from the Ministry of Agriculture, National Meteorological Office, Ministry of Livestock and National Postal and Telegraphs Office. In 1906, Argentina communicated to the international community the establishment of a permanent base on the South Orkney Islands.
History:
WWII and postwar expansion Little happened for the following forty years until the Second World War, when the British launched Operation Tabarin in 1943, to establish a presence on the continent. The chief reason was to establish solid British claims to various uninhabited islands and parts of Antarctica, reinforced by Argentine sympathies toward Germany.
History:
Prior to the start of the war, German aircraft had dropped markers with swastikas across Queen Maud Land in an attempt to create a territorial claim (New Swabia). Led by Lieutenant James Marr, the 14-strong team left the Falkland Islands in two ships, HMS William Scoresby (a minesweeping trawler) and HMS Fitzroy, on Saturday January 29, 1944. Marr had accompanied the British explorer Sir Ernest Shackleton on his final Antarctic expedition in 1921–22.
History:
Bases were established during February near the abandoned Norwegian whaling station on Deception Island, where the Union Flag was hoisted in place of Argentine flags, and at Port Lockroy (on February 11) on the coast of Graham Land. A further base was founded at Hope Bay on February 13, 1945, after a failed attempt to unload stores on February 7, 1944. These bases were the first ever to be constructed on the mainland Antarctica.The United States starting under the leadership of Admiral Richard E. Byrd constructed a series of five bases near the Bay of Whales named Little America between 1929 and 1958. All of them have now drifted off to sea on icebergs.
History:
A massive expansion in international activity followed the war. Chile organized its First Chilean Antarctic Expedition in 1947–48. Among other accomplishments, it brought the Chilean president Gabriel González Videla to personally inaugurate one of its bases, thereby becoming the first head of state to set foot on the continent. Signy Research Station (UK) was established in 1947, Australia's Mawson Station in 1954, Dumont d'Urville Station was the first French station in 1956. In that same year, the United States built McMurdo Station and Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station, and the Soviet Union built Mirny Station.
Permanent active stations:
The United States maintains the southernmost base, Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station, and the largest base and research station in Antarctica, McMurdo Station. The second-southernmost base is the Chinese Kunlun Station at 80°25′02″S during the summer season, and the Russian Vostok Station at 78°27′50″S during the winter season.
Subantarctic stations | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
**Piano duet**
Piano duet:
According to the Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, there are two kinds of piano duet: "[pieces of music] for two players at one instrument, and those in which each of the two pianists has an instrument to themselves." In American usage the former is often referred to as "piano four hands". Grove notes that the one-piano duet has the larger repertory, but has come to be regarded as a modest, domestic form of music-making by comparison with "the more glamorous two-piano duet". The latter is more often referred to as a piano duo.The piano duet came to popularity in the second half of the 18th century. Mozart played duets as a child with his sister, and later wrote sonatas for four hands at one piano; Schubert was another composer who composed for the genre, notably with his Fantasy in F minor, D. 940. Jane Bellingham in The Oxford Companion to Music lists other composers who wrote piano duets, including Brahms, Dvořák, Grieg, Debussy, Stravinsky, and Bartók. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries French piano duets included Bizet's Jeux d'enfants, Fauré's Dolly Suite and Ravel's Ma mère l'oye. | kaggle.com/datasets/mbanaei/all-paraphs-parsed-expanded |
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