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Alexander Hyde (1598–1667) was an English royalist clergyman, Bishop of Salisbury from 1665 to 1667.
Life
Hyde was born at Salisbury in 1598, the second-born of the four most prominent sons of Lawrence Hyde. At the age of 12 (1610) he entered Winchester College as a scholar, and matriculated 17 November 1615 at New College, Oxford. In 1617, he was admitted perpetual fellow there, and afterwards graduated Bachelor of Civil Law (BCL) 24 April 1623, and Doctor of Civil Law (DCL) 4 July 1632.
In 1634, Hyde was made rector of Wylye and Little Langford, Wiltshire. In May 1637, Hyde became subdean and prebendary of Salisbury Cathedral, stall of South Grantham (4 March 1639). Like other members of his family, he was a staunch royalist and was sequestered from his livings under the Commonwealth, but reoccupied them at the Restoration. According to his epitaph, he gave generously to the repairs of the cathedral after its desecration by the soldiers of the parliament.
Due to the influence of the Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon (his first cousin), he was at the Restoration rewarded by the deanery of Winchester (installed 8 August 1660) and, on the death of John Earle in 1665, was appointed to the See of Salisbury. He resigned the subdeanery of Salisbury in 1661 and his prebend there in 1665. His consecration as a bishop took place 31 December 1665 in New College Chapel, Oxford. Hyde died in St Giles in the Fields (near London), on 22 August 1667, aged 69, and was buried in the south aisle of the nave of Salisbury Cathedral, beneath a black marble slab bearing a Latin inscription.
Family
His father, Lawrence Hyde, was the second son of Lawrence Hyde of Gussage St Michael, Dorset, who was third son of Robert Hyde of Norbury, Cheshire. His mother was Barbara Castilion of Benham, Berkshire. His brothers were Edward Hyde (a priest), Robert Hyde (a judge), and Henry Hyde (a diplomat), who was beheaded in London in 1650. His first cousin was Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon.
By his wife, Mary, daughter of Robert Tounson, and niece of John Davenant, Hyde had three daughters and a son, Robert (1650–1722), who ultimately succeeded to the family estates. His daughter, Margaret, was married to the paternal grandfather of vice-admiral Hyde Parker.
References
Attribution
1598 births
1667 deaths
Fellows of New College, Oxford
Bishops of Salisbury
Deans of Winchester
17th-century Church of England bishops | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander%20Hyde |
The Silver Streak is a 1934 American black-and-white film drama from RKO, loosely based on the record-setting "dawn-to-dusk" run of the Pioneer Zephyr on May 26, 1934. The film stars Sally Blane, Charles Starrett, William Farnum, and Hardie Albright.
The original Zephyr train was used for the film's exterior shots, while interior scenes were filmed on a Hollywood sound stage. For the film, the "Burlington Route" nameplate on the train's nose was replaced with one that read "Silver Streak". One of the film's promotional items was a small book called The Story of the Silver Streak, illustrated with black-and-white film stills.
In 2006 Con-Cor International, Ltd. produced scale models of the Pioneer Zephyr. A limited number (350 HO scale and 250 N scale) of these bore the film's Silver Streak nameplate instead of the standard Burlington Route nameplate.
Plot
In the face of seriously declining railroad passenger travel, engineer Tom Caldwell presents to the president of the CB&D Railroad, B.J. Dexter, a design for a revolutionary streamlined diesel-electric train that will increase efficiency and lower all costs. Dexter opposes change, however, and the railroad's conservative board of directors agrees with him, rejecting Tom's concept. He quits in frustration. Sure that Tom's theory is sound, Dexter's daughter, Ruth, convinces Ed Tyler, a locomotive manufacturer, to look at Tom's design. Tyler is impressed and initiates immediate construction of the new train. Soon, Tom and his team prepare the newly named Silver Streak for a well-publicized trial run with Dexter and Ruth aboard as passengers.
The new train fails to attain even half of its projected speed of , however, and is easily overtaken by a steam-powered freight train hauled by CB&Q Class O-1-a No. 4990, a Class O-1-a 2-8-2 'Mikado' type steam engine. An angry Dexter tells Tyler that all the Silver Streak is good for is an exhibit at the Century of Progress Exposition to help recover his advertising expenses. Tom is baffled by the train's failure since all the engine components worked perfectly during assembly, but Dexter stubbornly insists that the concept will never work. Furious with Dexter's attitude, Tom quarrels with Ruth. Her brother Allen, who supported Tom's idea, tells his father that he is now quitting the railroad to take a job as a civil engineer with the Six Companies, Inc. constructing the Boulder Dam.
Tom and Bronte, the diesel engine's builder, discover that the electrical generator acquired for the Silver Streak has a manufacturing defect. After correcting it, the engine produces even greater power than he had earlier predicted. He tries to telephone Ruth with the good news to reconcile with her, but she has left Chicago to travel by train to California. Ruth discovers en route that infantile paralysis (polio) has broken out among the dam's construction crew and detours to the site only to find that Allen has contracted the disease. When a doctor informs her that Allen will die within 24 hours unless he receives treatment with an iron lung respirator, Ruth telephones her father to have one shipped to the dam by air. Dexter is told that a single iron lung is too heavy for any air transport to carry and cannot be disassembled. Tom and Tyler persuade Dexter to take a gamble on the Silver Streak, as it is now Allen's only hope.
With less than twenty hours to travel , the Silver Streak is given emergency track clearance all the way after picking up a shipment of seven Drinker Respirators in Chicago. Tom includes Bronte on his crew, unaware that he is now wanted for attempted murder. As radio broadcasts track the progress of the "epic errand of mercy", the Silver Streak breaks records as it races south, against time, through the night. Nearing Boulder City, however, Bronte is revealed to be a wanted fugitive and throws the engine breakers to stop the train so he can escape. Instead, this causes the Silver Streak to run out-of-control at very high speeds. After a struggle, Tom knocks Bronte unconscious and finally regains control of the runaway train just before it arrives (early) at the Boulder City station. After the iron lungs are unloaded on the train platform, Ruth and Tom see each other and reconcile, sealing their relationship with a kiss.
Cast
Sally Blane as Ruth Dexter
Charles Starrett as Tom Caldwell
William Farnum as B.J. Dexter
Hardie Albright as Allen Dexter
Irving Pichel as Bronte
Arthur Lake as Crawford
Theodore von Eltz as Ed Tyler
Guinn "Big Boy" Williams as Higgins
Edgar Kennedy as O'Brien
Doris Dawson as Molly
Production
The Pioneer Zephyr was chosen for the film after the California-based Union Pacific Railroad declined to provide its high-speed passenger train, the M-10000. The plot element of the infantile paralysis epidemic took advantage of public fears of the disease rampant in 1934 when more than 1,000 cases were diagnosed in Los Angeles alone. Location filming of the Zephyr was done over a two-day period in September 1934 at the CB&Q yards in Galesburg, Illinois. The train was renamed The Silver Streak for the film, which had been a discarded choice of CB&Q president Ralph Budd, and the local high school adopted it as the nickname for its athletic teams.
Reception
The film made a profit of $107,000, approximately $2,196,000 in February 2022 dollars.
References
External links
1934 films
American black-and-white films
American films based on actual events
1934 drama films
1934 in rail transport
Rail transport films
American action drama films
1930s action films
1930s English-language films
1930s American films | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Silver%20Streak |
Mohamed Harbi (born June 16, 1933) is an Algerian historian who was a member of the FLN during the Algerian War of Independence.
Mohamed Harbi was born in 1933 into a wealthy family in El Harrouch, Algeria. At the age of 15, he joined the MTLD (ex.PPA). According to his later memoirs, Harbi lived underground in France and gathered support for the Algerian independence. 1954-1962 he was in a prominent position in the FLN.
After the Algerian War of Independence, he became an advisor to new president, Ahmed Ben Bella and later a member of his cabinet. Harbi's Marxism was fiercely opposed by many veterans of the war, as well as by the army. According to his memoirs, Harbi tried to resist the increasingly authoritarian approach of the new government and urged Ben Bella to arm the people to avert a military coup. He believed, like many Marxists in his generation, that popular militias were needed to revolutionize society as well as resist the impending coup. However, his own insistence on Marxist dogma helped fuel popular as well as political opposition toward him, which culminated in the very coup he had feared.
In June 1965 Houari Boumedienne seized power and arrested Ben Bella. Two months later Harbi was also imprisoned. For the next six years he was transferred between prisons until he was placed in house arrest in 1971. In 1973 he escaped to Tunisia with a false Turkish passport and from there moved to Paris.
In France, Harbi began to teach political science in the University of Paris.
During his house arrest, Harbi had begun to write the history of the independence movement and in 1975 published a book The history of FLN. His inside view of the movement was not the one FLN cherished and he began to receive death threats from three sides; Algerian secret police, Algerian Islamic militants and French ultra nationalists.
Currently Harbi lives in Paris, retired from the university. The first part of his memoirs was published in 2003.
External links
copy of a New York Times article "An Arab Gadly With a Memorable Bite"
1933 births
Living people
Algerian historians
Historians of Africa
Members of the National Liberation Front (Algeria)
People from Skikda Province
Academic staff of the University of Paris
21st-century Algerian people | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohamed%20Harbi |
is an action-adventure game developed by Sonic! Software Planning and Camelot Software Planning and published by Sega for the Sega Saturn. It was the last game in the Shining series to be developed for the Sega Genesis/Mega Drive but was reworked for the Saturn late in development. Because of this, it is more typical of the Genesis library than the Saturn library in its basic approach, rendering characters and backgrounds exclusively in 2D (albeit at a higher resolution than would be possible on the Genesis) and utilizing mechanics which mostly follow the rules of a two-dimensional world. This approach was seen as dated by critics, and it was met with mixed reviews, with some seeing it as a decent holdover title due to its massive length.
While the Shining series has flitted across numerous sub-genres, Shining Wisdom remains the only game in the series to abandon the multi-character RPG format entirely. Players instead can control just one character, whose abilities cannot be increased, and gameplay focuses on solving puzzles and navigating the large game world. Though it stands apart from the rest of the series in terms of gameplay, Shining Wisdom is strongly tied into the story continuity of the previous entries and is the last game in the series to follow the saga of the Devil Kings. In North America the game was localized and published by Working Designs.
Gameplay
Shining Wisdom differs from its predecessors in the Shining series in that it was the first to employ an action-adventure style of gameplay. Players control one character whose attacks rely on speed and skill, rather than controlling a group of characters who engage in turn-based combat sequences and increase their stats as the game progresses. The gameplay is similar to that of The Legend of Zelda series. Shining Wisdom has a unique system of attacks based on a combination of acquired items and "orbs." The graphics employ CGI-rendered sprites, and a top-down camera angle.
Plot
In the land of Odegan, orphaned squire Mars is employed at Odegan Castle on the strength of his father's great reputation. A series of lies and deceptions on his part unexpectedly places him as the foremost obstacle to the schemes of the dark elf wizard, Pazort. Pazort and his followers intend to destroy the world by summoning the Giant, Seeega (referred to as "the Dark Titan" in the North American translation), and to do so they first must use Princess Satera to get at an orb held by King Odegan. It is up to Mars to redeem his lies and failures by thwarting the mighty wizard's plans.
Shining Wisdom takes place on the continent of Parmecia just a few years after Shining Force II, and some of its plot points follow from that game. Sarah and Kazin, who were playable characters in Shining Force II, are roaming the continent in a hunt for Zeon's remaining henchmen. Pazort, the main villain of Shining Wisdom, is a former follower of Zeon, and Sarah and Kazin aid in the fight against him. There are also several references to the hero of Shining Force II, Bowie, though he does not actually appear anywhere in the game. A book refers to the setting of Shining in the Darkness, Stormsong (referred to in English versions as "Thornwood"). Due to the various name changes and omissions of the North American translation, none of the above connections to the Shining series are apparent in the USA version of the game and they can only be seen in the Japanese and European versions.
Development
Shining Wisdom was originally designed for the Mega Drive, and adapted for the Sega Saturn at the last minute, presumably in order to bolster the new system's library of games. All the characters in the game were modeled using Softimage 3D. It was the last of Sega's Shining series of video games to be scored by Motoaki Takenouchi, the series's longest-running composer.
Working Designs' North American version of the game took numerous creative liberties with the story. Kazin, Sarah, Bowie, and Zeon are respectively referred to as "Parn", "Salah", "Puck", and "Zhaion", while the land of Parmecia is referred to as "Palacia". Sega Japan owned the copyrights to the original names and would not release them. Working Designs also made considerable changes to the characters' personalities and how they relate to each other. For example, the original script made explicit that Sarah does not return the romantic feelings of her companion, Kazin; Working Designs not only deleted these parts of the script, but added in numerous comments from Sarah and other NPCs indicating that she and Kazin are romantically involved.
The European release of Shining Wisdom was translated by Sega Europe. This translation contains some grammatical errors and typos, but none of the contemporary pop-culture jokes and altered characterizations of the Working Designs translation. It also keeps intact the storyline connections between Shining Wisdom and the other games of the Shining series.
Reception
The four reviewers of Electronic Gaming Monthly lambasted Shining Wisdom, citing mediocre and outdated graphics, a lack of originality, and the linearity of the quest. They also criticized the Working Designs translation for its ridiculing of other games on the market, remarking, "Considering the lackluster quality of this generic title, they have a lot of nerve." A reviewer for Next Generation said Shining Wisdom "sadly falls short of 32-bit graphic and gameplaying expectations", looking and playing very similar to last generation games. However, he added it has "a long, involved storyline, a variety of lands to explore, and high play value", and concluded it would make a decent holdover title until more genuinely next generation games in the genre arrived. GamePro thoroughly panned the game, saying it "looks, plays, and feels like a ten-year-old RPG". The reviewer criticized the boring story and dialogue, overly cutesy enemies, and the needlessly difficult to master acceleration skill, and remarked that the game's mediocrity particularly stood out against competition like Mystaria and Working Designs' own Iron Storm.
A reviewer for Maximum concurred with EGM and GamePro that the graphics and audio are outdated to the point where it seemed likely that the game was made for the Genesis/Mega Drive and ported over to the Saturn, but felt the game's "in-depth RPG action" made it a decent holdover title until more promising Saturn action-adventure games like Dark Savior and The Story of Thor 2 were localized to Europe. Rad Automatic of Sega Saturn Magazine praised the "fast-moving and intriguing" storyline, and the ability to control the direction of the plot through the yes/no questions (this is an error on Automatic's part; the answers to the yes/no questions have no impact on the plot, nor do any other actions the player may take). He concluded it to be "ace".
Notes
References
External links
Shining Wisdom at GameFAQs
Shining Wisdom at Giant Bomb
Shining Wisdom at MobyGames
1995 video games
Shining (series)
Action-adventure games
Camelot Software Planning games
Fantasy video games
Sega video games
Sega Saturn games
Sega Saturn-only games
Single-player video games
Video games scored by Motoaki Takenouchi
Working Designs
Video games developed in Japan | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shining%20Wisdom |
West Brompton is an area of west London, England, that straddles the boundary between the London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham and Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea. The centuries-old boundary was traced by Counter's Creek, now lost beneath the West London Line railway.
History
The name refers to the older locality of Brompton to the east, linked to its western namesake through the areas of Earl's Court and South Kensington by the Old Brompton Road. Before the vigorous urbanisation of the second half of the 19th century, Brompton also referred to the area between the Fulham Road, previously known as Little Chelsea and Counter's Creek to the West, on its way to the Thames. The most famous landmark in the area is the Grade I listed Brompton Cemetery, laid out between 1837 and 1839, with magnificent catacombs and a domed chapel by architect, Benjamin Baud. Since the area was chiefly devoted to market gardens, with leading nurseries such as that of James Veitch & Sons, philanthropists looking to establish hospitals near London. looked no further than Brompton as a suitable healthy location. Thus came into being the Royal Brompton Hospital, for chest diseases. Ten years later, Marsden decided to erect a new Cancer Hospital in memory of his wife, and a tract of land was found for it along the Fulham Road in Brompton. Designed by Messrs John Young & Son, Architects, and built by the Lawrence Company in 1859, it has subsequently achieved world renown as The Royal Marsden Hospital. One famous resident in the area was the writer and illustrator, Beatrix Potter.
The advent of a canal and a road
The most notable landowners in 'West Brompton' at the start of the 19th century were James Gunter (1731-1819), Sir John Scott Lillie (1790–1868) and the Edwardes. The first non-agrarian activity in the area was to the West of Counter's Creek, which between 1828 and 1859 became the short-lived, six-mile long Kensington Canal. This area of farm land, bounded by North End Lane to the West, was known then as North End in the Parish of Fulham and was dotted with a few grand houses, such as the Hermitage and the less grand Grange, home of artist, Edward Burne-Jones. A new road was laid out to join North End and Kensington parish with access to the new Hammersmith Bridge by Sir John Scott Lillie, Peninsular War veteran, road builder and investor in the canal company. Lillie is buried in Brompton Cemetery. After Gunter's Bridge was built over the canal in 1826, the road on either side was called the Richmond Road. The remnants of the canal bridge can be seen from platform 4 at the West Brompton station. The early Fulham buildings were associated with freight transport such as the wharves in today's Rickett Street and Roxby Place, south of Lillie Road, and a brewery to offer refreshment to the canal, barge and later railway workers as well as the builders of the nearby Westminster and Brompton Company's new 40 acre cemetery opened in 1840. The oldest extant building is the Lily Langtry public house, formerly the Lillie Arms 1833, part of the old brewery in Lillie Road.
Meanwhile, the Kensington Canal turned out to be a financial fiasco for its backers trying to link the Grand Union Canal and the burgeoning railways with the Thames. They switched to the idea of a railway to benefit from the boom to the West and to the North, and the canal was filled in to make way for the West London (extension) Line 1840.
The earliest Brompton residential development was along the south side of Richmond Road (today's Lillie Road) Lansdowne, Vieras and Beaufort Villas 1853, a group of Palladian style semi-detached houses with front and back gardens, now entirely demolished. These were followed in 1864 off its north side by a small terraced cul-de-sac abutting the railway with a number of attached retail outlets onto the main road, a development called Richmond Place, the current Empress Place (scheduled for demolition for a high rise development), and in 1866 by a terrace of more substantial houses along Richmond Road, both designed by the City of London architect, John Young, known for his signature ornamental brickwork. The houses would have been intended for the different levels of professionals, craftsmen and workers coming into London to service the growing transport and building booms. Indeed, the owners and residents of this Fulham housing development would soon be involved from 1872 in the massive urbanisation of the farmland estates of the Edwardes and Gunter families, over Lillie bridge.
The local railway boom
Sir John Fowler, 1st Baronet, a civil engineer from Yorkshire took over as consulting engineer of the Metropolitan and District Railway following the early death of Brunel and was active in the area laying down tracks and building bridges and leading to the establishment in 1872 of the Lillie Bridge Depot and Railway Engineering works, currently being demolished to make way for a high rise development. Among his many famous designs is the West Brompton station opened in 1865. Fowler, like many people who contributed to the early development of the West Brompton area, is buried in Brompton Cemetery.
West Brompton Station provides London Underground District line services to Wimbledon in a Southerly direction and Edgware Road and Upminster to the North and East. It is possible also to change at Earls Court (1 stop or a short walk) for District line services to Ealing Broadway and Richmond as well as Kensington Olympia. The West London Line also provides services between Willesden Junction and Clapham Junction, South Croydon and Gatwick airport.
The sports craze
West Brompton F.C. was a 19th-century pioneer football team, who played in the defunct West London Cup along with the likes of Fulham F.C. and Queens Park Rangers F.C. Between 1869 and 1874 the Middlesex County Cricket Club had its home on the Lillie Grounds, prior to moving to Lord's in St John's Wood, where the turf was judged to be superior. Nevertheless, WG Grace scored a few centuries in West Brompton. John Chambers, who was himself a competitor and the moving force behind both the Amateur Athletics Club and developing the Lillie Bridge Grounds, is buried in Brompton Cemetery
The entertainment boom
John Robinson Whitley opened his Earl's Court exhibition and fair grounds here in 1887, with the entrance in West Brompton in Richmond Gardens at the bottom of Richmond Place, named subsequently, Empress Place in honour of Queen Victoria's visit to the grounds. His opening gambit was the American Wild West Show which coincided with the Queen's Golden Jubilee and featured William Cody, aka, Buffalo Bill and Annie Oakley along with a cortege of First Nation Americans. After Queen Victoria's personal attendance with her cortege on 9 May, the show became a runaway success.
The show was not without tragedy, as three performers died during their tours. As a result, two Oglala Sioux Native Americans, 'Surrounded By the Enemy' and 'Red Penny', were buried in Brompton Cemetery. Red Penny was Little Chief and Good Robe's eighteen-month-old son. Brulé tribesman, Paul Eagle Star who died on 24 August 1891 at age twenty-seven due to complications from a horse-riding accident in Sheffield. Fifty-nine-year-old Oglala Sioux tribesman, Long Wolf died due to pneumonia during the Wild West Show's tour on 13 June 1892. Two months later, a two-year-old girl named White Star Ghost Dog lost her life when she fell from her mother's arms on a horse ride. All three of these Lakota Native Americans were buried in Brompton's cemetery. The coffins of Long Wolf, White Star Ghost Dog and Paul Eagle Star were exhumed to Pine Ridge and Rosebud, South Dakota in the late 1990s by their tribal descendants.
Whitley did not make money on his venture and in 1894-5 he was replaced by the internationally successful Hungarian impresario, Imre Kiralfy who relaid the grounds and built a hall to accommodate 5,000 spectators and put on spectacles on ice. This was the Empress Hall, sometimes referred to as a theatre, which survived until 1959.
The suffragettes
In 1913 Mrs Pankhurst called one of her rallies in the local Empress Hall, just to the West of the Earls Court Exhibition Centre and former Exhibition Grounds. She too is buried in Brompton Cemetery. The Empress Hall was knocked down in the late 1950s and was replaced by the brutalist 30-storey Empress State Building in 1961.
West Brompton today
West Brompton today is bounded by West Kensington and Earl's Court to the north, Chelsea to the east, Fulham Broadway to the south and Fulham to the west. It contains the historic 'Lillie Enclave' destined to be replaced, under the aegis of Mayor Boris Johnson, on its Western flank along with three social housing estates by an ambitious high rise development, trailed as four new 'villages' on decking, due to obliterate most of its existing biodiversity and history. Also included in the area are the Brompton Park Crescent estate, in the grounds of the old Fulham (Fever) Hospital, and its once associated Fulham Ambulance Station. One hospital ward block remains and appears to have been renamed "Lillie Bridge House" although it is a quarter of a mile from the bridge, down Seagrave Road. Also down that road are The London Oratory School, linked to Brompton Oratory, the Sedlescombe Conservation Area and a number of late Victorian streets of stucco terraces. These now front the dominating new high rise Lillie Square development emerging out of the erstwhile Athletics ground, latterly the Earl's Court exhibition car park, seeking to insert 'modern urban living' into this quiet, human scale and almost rural backwater, permanently obscuring the spires of the Redcliffe Square and Boltons churches and the trees of Brompton Cemetery. After the recent purchase and closure of the 150-year-old retail outlets by Lillie Bridge (scheduled for demolition), the nearest significant local commercial centres are North End Road to the west, which includes a street market, Fulham Broadway to the south and Earl's Court in steep economic decline, to the north.
Nearby places
Battersea
Chelsea
Earls Court
Fulham
Hammersmith
South Kensington
Stamford Bridge, Chelsea Football Club
Wandsworth
West Kensington
References
Districts of the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea
Areas of London | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West%20Brompton |
Unspunnen can refer to:
the ruins of Unspunnen Castle
the Unspunnenfest held there since 1805
the Unspunnen Stone, symbol of the Unspunnenfest | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unspunnen |
Samuel Maverick (1602) was one of the first colonists to settle in the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Arriving ahead of the Winthrop Fleet, Maverick became one of the earliest settlers, one of the largest landowners and one of the first slave-owners in Massachusetts. He signed his name as "Mavericke". He is the ancestor of rancher Samuel Maverick, from whom the term maverick for "independently minded" and an unbranded animal derives.
Early life and career
Maverick was born around 1602 to the Anglican priest John Maverick and Mary Gye; his father was one of the first ministers in Dorchester, Massachusetts upon migrating to the colony in 1630. Samuel's brother, Moses Maverick is also an important historical figure, in Marblehead, Massachusetts.
Samuel Maverick was in North America in 1623/4, after explorer Capt. Christopher Levett, before his father's arrival in Dorchester some years later. Samuel Maverick first settled at Winnisimmet, modern day Chelsea.
Maverick settled in the area close by modern-day Boston, after his arrival in Massachusetts, which he later claimed was in 1624. Some historians have suggested that Maverick arrived in the area with English explorer Capt. Christopher Levett, who made an exploration of the New England coast about that time.
In 1628 Maverick married Amias Cole Thompson, widow of colonist David Thompson, who had been sent by Sir Ferdinando Gorges as an early explorer and settler to New Hampshire, and later settled on present-day Thompson Island in Boston Harbor. After Thompson's death, his wife inherited his properties, including Noddle's Island. Maverick built a fortified house on Noddle's, to ward against Indian attacks, and armed it with four guns. It is said to be the first permanent house in Massachusetts. Maverick and Amias had three children, and Amias had a son from her previous marriage.
In 1631 the first ferry ran from the Maverick farm to Charlestown and Boston. In April 1633 general court granted Maverick property rights to most of the area of modern-day Chelsea excluding Prattville. In March 1635 Maverick sold his holdings outside his farm in Winnisimmet to Richard Bellingham, the deputy governor of Massachusetts. The same year he visited Virginia to buy seed corn and remained there for a year. When he returned he had two pinnaces and had also bought many livestock.
In 1638, Maverick was recorded as purchasing black slaves, becoming one of the earliest slave-owners in Massachusetts. In 1638, Maverick ordered one of his male black slaves to rape one of his female slaves in order to "breed negros", an act in which shocked visiting English writer, John Josselyn, who comforted the victim. In 1640, Boston granted him of land from Boston and from Braintree. In 1646, Maverick was among the seven merchants and entrepreneurs who signed the Remonstrance, petitioning the Massachusetts General Court for conformity to English law and more moderate civil and church policies. John Child and William Vassall included the Remonstrance in their 1647 pamphlet, New England's Jonas cast up in London. In 1664, he visited England and was granted an audience with the King Charles II on April 23. When he stated that he had been persecuted because he was an Anglican and a royalist, the king appointed him as one of the four commissioners to arbitrate disputes in New England. He was also to reduce Dutch influence in the colonies.
The commission was granted both military and civil powers in Massachusetts but was eventually unsuccessful. Maverick eventually gave up his possession in Noddle's Island and moved to New York.
Death
The exact date of Maverick's death is unknown; the last sign of him is a letter signed October 15, 1669. The year that he died was thought to be 1670.
References
External links
Maverick in olgp.net
Samuel Maverick
1600s births
1670s deaths
People from colonial Boston
American slave owners
People of colonial Massachusetts
English emigrants to Massachusetts Bay Colony
People from Chelsea, Massachusetts | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel%20Maverick%20%28colonist%29 |
"Queen Bitch" is a song by the English singer-songwriter David Bowie. It was originally released on his 1971 album Hunky Dory before appearing as the B-side of the single "Rebel Rebel" in the United Kingdom in early 1974. It was debuted on BBC radio in June 1971 before being properly recorded at Trident Studios in London between late June and mid-July. Co-produced by Bowie and Ken Scott, the lineup consisted of the musicians who would later become known as the Spiders from Mars: guitarist Mick Ronson, bassist Trevor Bolder and drummer Mick Woodmansey.
A tribute to the Velvet Underground, the song contains both musical and lyrical references to the band. The provocative lyrics concern a male character whose lover searches for drag queens and hookups after the narrator refuses his advances. The drag queen is described using stereotypical phrases. Unlike the majority of Hunky Dorys tracks, "Queen Bitch" is primarily driven by guitar rather than piano. Characterised as glam rock and proto-punk, commentators have noted that the song foreshadowed the direction Bowie would take for his next album The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars (1972).
"Queen Bitch" has been called one of the best tracks on the album, while some reviewers have considered it one of the best glam rock songs. Bowie performed it live on various BBC radio programmes and concert tours. He also performed it with Lou Reed at Bowie's 50th birthday bash in 1997. Artists who have covered the song include Brazilian singer Seu Jorge and the Hotrats, while it has also appeared in various films and video games.
Writing and recording
Following the critical success of his 1970 album The Man Who Sold the World, Mercury Records sent David Bowie on a promotional radio tour of the America in February 1971. The trip inspired him to write tribute songs for three American icons: artist Andy Warhol ("Andy Warhol"), singer-songwriter Bob Dylan ("Song for Bob Dylan"), and the rock band the Velvet Underground, more specifically their singer Lou Reed ("Queen Bitch"). Bowie was a great fan of the Velvet Underground—he was one of the first artists to cover "I'm Waiting for the Man"—and wrote "Queen Bitch" as a tribute. "Queen Bitch" was debuted ahead of Hunky Dory on 3 June 1971 for BBC DJ John Peel's radio programme In Concert. Here, the song's arrangement is different than the final studio version. Bowie does a full-on impersonation of Reed, while the riff primarily stays acoustic.
Work on Hunky Dory officially began at Trident Studios in London on 8 June 1971 and concluded on 6 August. "Queen Bitch" was recorded sometime between 20 June and mid-July, according to biographer Chris O'Leary. Kevin Cann writes that the song was recorded by 26 July, as the finished track appeared on a promotional album compiled for Gem Productions. Co-produced by Bowie and Ken Scott, it was recorded with the musicians who would later become known as the Spiders from Mars: guitarist Mick Ronson, bassist Trevor Bolder and drummer Mick Woodmansey. Although the rest of the album featured piano playing from keyboardist Rick Wakeman, then-member of the Strawbs, he does not appear on "Queen Bitch".
Composition
As a tribute to the Velvet Underground, the song contains numerous references to the band, both musically and lyrically. The handwritten sleeve notes on the back cover of Hunky Dory read: "some V.U. White Light returned with thanks", acknowledging the influence of "I'm Waiting for the Man" and "White Light/White Heat". Meanwhile, the line "trying hard to pull sister Flo" is a reference to "Sister Ray".
The song starts with a countdown from Bowie leading into an eight-bar introduction, starting with his 12-string acoustic guitar before Ronson's thrashy electric guitar enters. While author Peter Doggett considers the main riff to be similar to the Velvet Underground's "Sweet Jane", O'Leary and biographer Nicholas Pegg state that it was borrowed from Eddie Cochran's "Three Steps to Heaven". After the bass and drums enter, a second guitar arrives, mixed into the left channel. O'Leary notes that Ronson's guitars clash throughout the track: the left-mixed guitar is raw, playing random tones rather than chords, while the right-mixed guitar "imposes itself on the acoustic" and doubles the bass part in the bars before the refrains. Bolder's bassline jumps octaves and goes up and down the G scale in the verses.
The lyrics of "Queen Bitch" are provocative. They concern a character whose male lover looks for drag queens and hookups on the street after the main character refuses his advances. As he watches his lover from the eleventh floor of his apartment building, he describes the drag queen wearing stereotypical attire, such as "satin and tat" and a "bipperty-bopperty hat". The phrase "satin and tat" was a saying made by dancer Lindsay Kemp, who used it to describe, in Pegg's words, "his taste in theatricality". Author James Perone notes that the sexual orientation of the narrator is unclear, meaning they could be homosexual or bisexual. He also addresses the "campiness" in Bowie's vocal performance and makes comparisons to Elton John's song "Daniel".
While the majority of Hunky Dory is categorised as art pop and melodic pop rock, "Queen Bitch" features a style akin to glam rock and proto-punk. Concurrently, the song is primarily guitar-led rather than piano-led, leading Pegg to call it Hunky Dorys "least representative track". Biographers and BBC Music's Daryl Easlea would note that the song's glam rock sound foreshadowed the direction Bowie was going to take on his next album The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars (1972).
Release and reception
RCA Records released Hunky Dory on 17 December 1971, with "Queen Bitch" sequenced as the fourth track on side two of the original LP, between "Song for Bob Dylan" and "The Bewlay Brothers". Over two years later, RCA selected it as the B-side of the "Rebel Rebel" single, releasing it in the UK on 15 February 1974 ahead of Bowie's forthcoming Diamond Dogs LP. The B-side, according to Spitz, was selected to provide the label with some "much needed fiscal plasma".
Michael Gallucci of Ultimate Classic Rock called it one of the best songs on Hunky Dory, citing it as an example of showcasing Bowie's growth as a songwriter and proof that he would become an unpredictable artist. Furthermore, Perone describes it as a "highly effective piece of pop music theater" that stands out as one of Hunky Dorys track that has aged the best, due to its catchiness and theatricality in the band's performance. Commentators, including Perone and AllMusic's Ned Raggett, call "Queen Bitch" a "glam rock classic". Jon Savage of The Guardian ranked "Queen Bitch" the second greatest glam rock song of all time in 2013, behind T. Rex's "Hot Love". Mojo magazine listed it as Bowie's 55th best track in 2015.
Live versions
"Queen Bitch" was played frequently during Bowie's BBC radio sessions. A performance on the Sounds of the 70s programme on 18 January 1972 was released on the album Bowie at the Beeb in 2000. Another performance made during The Old Grey Whistle Test on 7 February 1972 was included on the DVD version of Best of Bowie (2002). On the Ziggy Stardust Tour, the song was performed at the Santa Monica Civic Auditorium in Santa Monica, California on 20 October 1972, which later appeared on Santa Monica '72 (1994) and Live Santa Monica '72 (2008). A later performance recorded at the Nassau Coliseum in Uniondale, New York on 23 March 1976, during the Isolar Tour, was included on Rarestonebowie (1995) and Live Nassau Coliseum '76 (2017). He continued to perform it on his Sound+Vision, Earthling and A Reality tours in 1990, 1997 and 2003–2004, respectively. In January 1997, Bowie and Lou Reed performed the song together at the latter's 50th birthday bash in New York City.
Cover versions and appearances in media
Brazilian singer Seu Jorge recorded a Portuguese version of "Queen Bitch" for the 2004 film The Life Aquatic with Steve Zissou, appearing in a climactic scene in the film. In 2010, the band the Hotrats recorded a cover version for their covers album Turn Ons. Bowie's original version also appeared in the soundtrack of the 2008 PlayStation 3 racing game MotorStorm: Pacific Rift, as well as the films Run Fatboy Run (2007) and Milk (2008).
Personnel
According to biographer Chris O'Leary:
David Bowie – lead and backing vocals, 12-string acoustic guitar
Mick Ronson – lead and rhythm electric guitar
Trevor Bolder – bass
Mick Woodmansey – drums
Production
David Bowie – producer
Ken Scott – producer, engineer
References
Sources
David Bowie songs
1971 songs
Songs written by David Bowie
Song recordings produced by Ken Scott
Song recordings produced by David Bowie
Glam rock songs | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen%20Bitch |
The Ministry for the Press and the Media of Greece () was a government department of Greece.
History
The ministry has its origins in the Department of Press and Tourism formed on 29 August 1936. Until 1974, the Department functioned in various organisational forms, such as General Directorate of Press and Information, the Department of Press and Information, the Ministry of Press and Information, either as a self-contained department, or under the Office of the Prime Minister, sometimes as part of the government presidency, and other times under the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
From 1974 to 1994, it functioned as the Secretariat General of Press and Information under the Ministry of the Presidency of the Government. In 1994, under Presidential Decree 181, it was consolidated as the Ministry of Press and Mass Media.
In 2004, the ministry was dissolved and two General Secretariats under the Prime Minister were established: The Secretariat General of Communication and the Secretariat General of Information, which incorporated the functions of the defunct ministry.
On 26 May 2004, the prime minister placed the two secretariats under the aegis of the Minister of State.
List of ministers (1994–2004)
References
Defunct government ministries of Greece
Lists of government ministers of Greece | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry%20for%20the%20Press%20and%20the%20Media |
Windows Media Connect (WMC) is a UPnP AV server from Microsoft for Windows XP and later Windows operating systems, to share and stream media on a Windows computer to WMC clients. The first two releases of WMC were made available as stand-alone software, and included a client as well. Following that, it was renamed to Home Media Ecosystem (HME) and the media server component was integrated into Windows Media Player and Windows Home Server. WMC version 2.0 can be manually installed on Windows Server 2008 or Windows Server 2008 R2 32bit or 64bit operating system but this type of installation is not officially supported by Microsoft and requires manual tweaking of NT Services' dependencies in order to run.
Version history
WMC 1.0 was originally released as an out-of-band update to Windows XP, which could stream only Windows Media files. Version 2.0 added support for UNC paths and removable devices as well as enhanced support for media formats, including ASF. Future versions were not released as stand-alone applications, but integrated into Windows Media Player, where it powers the Network Sharing Service feature. WMP 11 in Windows XP contains WMC 3.0, and in Windows Vista it contains WMC 4.0; the Windows Vista version of WMP 11 includes a WMC client as well. While WMC 3.0 and WMC 4.0 offer similar feature-set, they are built using different codebases. With WMP integration, WMC can make available the entire media library managed by WMP. When a shared library is browsed by the WMP client, it can be browsed, filtered and sorted like a regular WMP media library. On Windows XP by default, Windows Media Connect 2.0 does not work after Windows Media Player 11 has been installed, although Windows Media Player 11 only includes the UPnP AV server and does not include the client.
Overview
WMC is a UPnP AV server that can make media files stored on a computer available to UPnP AV-compatible digital media receiver clients over a local area network. WMC advertises itself to the clients, so there is no need to manually configure the client to connect to the WMC server. Multiple WMC instances can run at a time, all will be accessible to a client. Any UPnP AV client can be used to access WMC shared media. The client can query WMC for the list of files shared, the result of the query is formatted using XML. Once it chooses from the list the media to be played, the media file is streamed to the client for playing. Pictures are streamed using HTTP, different protocols are used for music and video. A client supporting the UPnP Media Renderer standard will be able to render the stream.
While any UPnP AV client can act as a client, using a dedicated WMC client, like the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3, Zune music player, WMP 11 in Windows Vista or the WMC standalone client (available as part of WMC 2.0) can give an enhanced experience. The query results for the list of media contain certain metadata about the files as well, including media type, dates, rating, keywords for artist, albums etc. It also contains shared playlists. A WMC client uses these metadata to present the media items categorically for browsing. The top-level menu in a WMC client has containers for Audio, Video, Pictures and Playlists, and sub-menus further categorize the media. Client-side playlists can be created out of these shared files as well. When the WMC 11 client is used to access a library shared by WMC 3.0 or WMC 4.0, it lists the media files as a Shared Library using the same library view it uses to organize local media files, complete with album art and thumbnails.
See also
Windows Media Center
References
WMC Frequently Asked Questions
External links
Microsoft Resource Page
Download of Windows Media Connect (for Windows XP 32 bit only)
Home servers
Microsoft Windows multimedia technology | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows%20Media%20Connect |
Hubertus Brandenburg (17 November 1923 – 4 November 2009) was a Catholic bishop of Stockholm. He was ordained priest in Osnabrück on 20 December 1952. On 12 December 1974, he was appointed by Pope Paul VI as auxiliary bishop of Osnabrück. On 21 November 1977, he was appointed as Bishop of Stockholm. He resigned in 1998, and was succeeded by Bishop Anders Arborelius.
Biography
Brandenburg was born in Osnabrück, Germany, in 1923. After graduation at the Carolinum High School in Osnabrück, he was drafted into military service. As a Marine soldier, he rose to speed boat commander. Brandenburg studied law and economics after the war. He then moved to the Catholic Theology Faculty of the University of Münster. Ordained a priest in 1952, he was a chaplain in Hamburg Winterhude 1955 to 1958, and completed a PhD in Rome. In 1967 he was appointed a canon, then appointed to the finance director in Osnabruck.
In 1974, Brandenburg was appointed Titular Bishop of Strathernia and auxiliary bishop of Osnabrück by Pope Paul VI. He was consecrated by Bishop Helmut Hermann Wittler on 26 January 1975, co-consecrators were the Curia Bishop and President of the Pontifical Council for Social Communications, Andrzej Maria Deskur, and Auxiliary Bishop of Osnabrück John Albert von Rudloff.
On 13 May 1972 Brandenburg was invested in the Order of the Holy Sepulchre. In 1976, he became a member of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta.
In 1977 he was appointed bishop of the Diocese of Stockholm. He was a longtime vice chairman of the Nordic Bishops Conference. After his retirement, Brandenburg lived first in Helsingborg, before returning to his home town of Osnabrück.
Since 1946, Brandenburg was a member of the Catholic fraternity KDSt.V. Sauerlandia Munster, a Catholic student fraternity that belongs to the Cartellverband der katholischen deutschen Studentenverbindungen. He was a grandson of member of the German Reichstag Carl Brandenburg, who succeeded Ludwig Windthorst from 1891 to 1902 representing the constituency of Meppen in the Reichstag.
Brandenburg died aged 85 in Osnabrück.
External links
Catholic Hierarchy page
1923 births
2009 deaths
Clergy from Osnabrück
20th-century Roman Catholic bishops in Sweden
German emigrants to Sweden
People from the Province of Hanover
Roman Catholic bishops of Stockholm
20th-century German Roman Catholic bishops
20th-century German Roman Catholic priests
Members of the Order of the Holy Sepulchre | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubertus%20Brandenburg |
Harisinh Pratapsinh Chavda (30 October 1930 – 29 June 2013) was a member of the 14th Lok Sabha of India. He represented the Banaskantha constituency of Gujarat and is a member of the Indian National Congress.
A brief introduction
He was born in the village called Ambod, Dist. Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India on 30 October 1930.
His high school education was at Killol - Patan, Gujarat, India.
He was a Member, Gujarat Legislative Assembly for two terms between 1975 and 1985.
He was a cabinet minister, Government of Gujarat from 1975 to 1980.
He was a member of Indian Parliament from 1991 to 1995.
He is also a sitting member in 14th parliament since 2004.
He is a Member of Indian National Committee on Human Resource Development.
He is widely travelled and has visited Austria, Belgium, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Switzerland, U.K, and U.S.A.
Founder
Lokniketan and from this platform, started three colleges ten High Schools, five ashram shalas, eight hostels, kindergartens,
Founded "Nootan Bharati" Institute at Taluka Palanpur then handed over its management to the local people. Started Thakkarbapa and Sarvajanik Chhatralaya at Palanpur.
External links
Official biographical sketch in Parliament of India website
He is a founder of Lokniketan, a renowned non-profit organization in Gujarat
1930 births
2013 deaths
People from Gandhinagar
Indian National Congress politicians from Gujarat
Lok Sabha members from Gujarat
India MPs 2004–2009
India MPs 1991–1996 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harisinh%20Pratapsinh%20Chavda |
The Flower portrait is the name of one of the painted portraits of William Shakespeare. A 2005 investigation of the portrait led to the conclusion that it was a forged artwork painted in the 19th century.
The name originates with the painting's previous owners, the Flower family, who gave it to the Royal Shakespeare Company. The painting depicts Shakespeare gazing out of the picture and wearing a wide white collar. It has a signed date of 1609, but many art experts had been suspicious of its provenance before it was X-rayed in 2005.
The picture has been commonly used, for example, in the covers of Shakespeare's published plays. It is similar to, and most likely a copy of, the Droeshout engraving, which appeared in 1623 in the first folio publication of Shakespeare's plays.
History
According to statements by Edgar Flower, whose family had owned the painting, it was acquired sometime around 1840 by a Mr H.C. Clements, whose widow sold it to a member of the Flower family. Mrs C. Flower donated it to the Shakespeare Memorial Trust in Stratford, and it was exhibited at its picture gallery there in 1892. A number of experts who studied it at the time accepted that it was an authentic 17th-century painting. It was exhibited as the original from which the Droeshout engraving had been copied. Sidney Lee, in his 1898 biography of Shakespeare, declared that "no other pictorial representation of the poet has equally serious claims to be treated as contemporary with himself". However, in 1904, the art critic Marion Spielmann undertook a detailed analysis in which he demonstrated that the painting resembled Droeshout's revised second-state print rather than the original print, concluding that if Droeshout had copied the painting, then the first version would be more directly imitative. He took the view that the painting was an early copy of the print.
Many historians accepted this argument, but the painting still had its defenders. In 1966, an X-ray revealed that the portrait was painted on top of a 16th-century painting that depicts a Madonna and child with John the Baptist. In 2000, Hildegard Hammerschmidt-Hummel reasserted claims to the painting's authenticity, publishing a detailed argument in 2006.
2004 study
In 2004, experts of the National Portrait Gallery in London investigated three portraits of Shakespeare in preparation for the gallery's 150th anniversary exhibition. On April 21, 2005, investigators announced that the painting was not contemporary with Shakespeare.
Most of the pigments on the painting are those that were available in the 17th century, but the golden braid of the doublet was painted with chrome yellow, a pigment unavailable until about 1814. The particles of the chrome yellow are part of the normal layer of paint, meaning that it was not painted afterwards. Therefore, Tarnya Cooper, one of the curators of the Gallery, announced that the painting is a 19th-century forgery, dating from around 1818–1840.
References
External links
"Flower portrait 'is a fake'", BBC News
"Shakespeare Portrait Is A Fake", CBS
Portraits of William Shakespeare
Painting forgeries
19th-century portraits | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flower%20portrait |
Roan Mountain State Park is a Tennessee state park in Carter County, in Northeast Tennessee. It is close to the Tennessee-North Carolina border and near the community of Roan Mountain, Tennessee. Situated in the Blue Ridge of the Appalachian Mountains, the park preserves of mostly hardwood forest. The park is in close proximity to Roan Mountain and the Appalachian Trail, both of which are owned and managed by the US Forest Service. On exceptionally clear days, the Charlotte skyline can be photographed from the peak. Most of the town of Roan Mountain is privately owned by the residence, and much of the land in Roan Mountain has been family owned for many generations, being passed down generation after generation through the years.
Activities
Roan Mountain State Park hosts a variety of outdoor activities including hiking, mountain biking, camping, cross-country skiing (during snowy, winter months), fishing, and swimming. A heated swimming pool is open from Memorial Day to mid-August. At an elevation of 2,972 feet (906 m), the outdoor swimming pool is at the highest elevation of any swimming pool within the Tennessee State Park System. Other attractions include the historic Miller homestead and the Roan Mountain Rhododendron Festival. The festival celebrates the blooming of the world's largest natural rhododendron garden, and it is held in the park annually, during the peak of the alpine catawba rhododendron bloom in late June.
Amenities
Roan Mountain State Park has a 107-site campground for tents, trailers, and RVs, as well as 30 rental cabins available by reservation. A modern meeting facility is also available for rent, by advance reservation. Picnicking is also available in the park. There are three picnic pavilions.
Miller Farmstead
Miller Farmstead is a historic farmstead located in the park. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on July 25, 2014.
The farm was settled in 1870 and the house was built in either 1908 or 1910.
The farmstead includes the home, a barn, a chicken coop, and several other contributing structures. The Miller Family Cemetery is also located on the farm.
Nearby state parks
The following state parks are within of Roan Mountain State Park:
Elk Knob State Park, North Carolina
Grandfather Mountain State Park, North Carolina
Lake James State Park, North Carolina
Lamar Alexander Rocky Fork State Park
Mount Mitchell State Park, North Carolina
References
"In the footsteps of the heroic Overmountain Men." Ren Davis. Atlanta Journal-Constitution. Cache as retrieved on July 4, 2005.
External links
Roan Mountain State Park
State parks of Tennessee
State parks of the Appalachians
Protected areas of Carter County, Tennessee
Roan Mountain, Tennessee | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roan%20Mountain%20State%20Park |
Tushar Chaudhary (born 18 December 1965) is an Indian politician and a leader of the Indian National Congress in Gujarat. He was elected to Gujarat Legislative Assembly in 2002 and 2022, and to Lok Sabha in 2004 and 2009.
Early life
Chaudhary was born on 18 December 1965 in Bedkuvta Valod village in Surat district of Gujarat. He is a son of Amarsinh Chaudhary, a politician and former chief minister of Gujarat. He has studied MBBS from Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda.
Career
He was elected from Vyara in 2002 Gujarat legislative assembly election. In 2004, he was elected to 14th Lok Sabha from Mandvi constituency. In 2009, he was elected to the 15th Lok Sabha from Bardoli constituency. He was the Union Minister of State for Tribal Affairs from 28 May 2009 to 28 September 2012. On 28 September 2012 he became the Union Minister of State for Road Transport and Highways.
He contested 2014 and 2019 Indian general elections from Bardoli but lost both times. In 2017 Gujarat legislative assembly election, he lost from Mahuva constituency. In 2022 Gujarat legislative assembly election, he contested and was elected from Khedbrahma constituency defeating his nearest rival Bharatiya Janata Party candidate Ashvin Kotwal.
Personal life
In 1991, Chaudhary married Dipti Chaudhary. They have a daughter and a son.
Notes
External links
Official biographical sketch in Parliament of India website
1965 births
Living people
India MPs 2009–2014
India MPs 2004–2009
Indian National Congress politicians
Lok Sabha members from Gujarat
People from Tapi district
Indian National Congress politicians from Gujarat
Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda alumni
Indian medical doctors
Gujarat MLAs 2002–2007
Gujarat MLAs 2022–2027 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tushar%20Amarsinh%20Chaudhary |
Frédéric Pierre Bourdin (born 13 June 1974) is a French serial impostor the press has nicknamed "The Chameleon". He began his impersonations as a child and claims to have assumed at least 500 false identities, three being teenage missing people.
Early life
Born in Nanterre, Bourdin was raised by his grandparents in Nantes until he ran away and eventually went to Paris. He never knew his father, who his mother stated was a married Algerian immigrant named Kaci.
Impersonations
Nicholas Barclay, aged 13 at the time he went missing, was last seen playing basketball with his friends in his home town of San Antonio, Texas, on 13 June 1994. Barclay never made it home and has not been seen or heard from since. In 1997, Bourdin took Barclay's identity and was flown to the United States. Although Bourdin had brown eyes and a French accent, he convinced the family he was their blue-eyed son, saying he had escaped from a child prostitution ring and the ring had altered his eye color. Bourdin lived with the family for almost five months until 6 March 1998.
In late 1997, a local private investigator grew suspicious while he was working with a TV crew that had been filming the family. The investigator compared a photo of Bourdin's ears to Nicholas's ears and discovered that they did not match. In February 1998, the FBI obtained a court order to take the young man's fingerprints and DNA, which were later identified as belonging to Bourdin. In September 1998, Bourdin pleaded guilty to passport fraud and perjury in a San Antonio federal court. He was imprisoned for six years, more than twice as long as recommended by the sentencing guidelines.
When Bourdin was returned to France from the U.S. in 2003, he moved to Grenoble and assumed the identity of Léo Balley, a 14-year-old French boy who had been missing since 1996; DNA testing proved he was not Balley.
In August 2004, he was in Spain, claiming to be an adolescent named Rubén Sánchez Espinoza whose mother had been killed in the Madrid bomb attacks. When the police found out the truth, they deported him to France.
In June 2005, Bourdin passed himself off as Francisco Hernandes-Fernandez, a 15-year-old Spanish orphan, and spent a month in the Collège Jean Monnet (a junior high school) in Pau, France. He claimed that his parents had been killed in a car accident. He dressed as a teenager, adopted a proper walking style, covered his receding hairline with a baseball cap and used depilatory face creams. On 12 June, an administrator from his school unmasked him after seeing a television program about his exploits. On 16 September, he was sentenced to four months in prison for possessing and using the previous false identity of Léo Balley.
According to interviews, Bourdin has been looking for "love and affection" and attention he never received as a child. He has pretended to be an orphan several times.
Personal life
On 8 August 2007, Bourdin married a French woman named Isabelle after a year-long courtship. The couple reside in France with their five children. On 23 March 2017, Bourdin made a Facebook post stating that Isabelle had left him for another man, claiming she had been unhappy for 10 years and very unhappy in recent months. He claims that she left him with their children. The status of Isabelle and the children is currently unknown.
According to The Daily Mirror, Bourdin claimed in 2012 that he would "never impersonate anyone again". Bourdin was interviewed in 2008 by David Grann, a staff writer for The New Yorker. After Isabelle gave birth to their first child, Bourdin contacted Grann and told him that the child was a girl. Grann then asked if Bourdin had become a new person now that he was a father and a husband, to which Bourdin replied, "No, this is who I am."
Depictions in the media
Aired on 6 January 2009, Law & Order: Special Victims Unit episode "Stranger" (Season 10, Episode 11) fundamentally resembles Bourdin moving into a family's home by impersonating their missing son Nicholas Barclay, living in their home for some time before eventually being discovered as well as coming forward with allegations of his own abuse when confronted in court. While the fictional episode changes the names and sexes of the base characters, the situational elements remain parallel in their similarities. The story formula (along with its resemblance to Bourdin) was later largely reused in the 25 October 2017 episode "Complicated" (Season 19, Episode 5).
In 2010, a fictionalized account of the Nicholas Barclay case was brought to theaters under the title The Chameleon, by French director and screenwriter Jean-Paul Salomé. Bourdin – renamed Fortin in the film – was portrayed by Canadian actor Marc-André Grondin. The film was adapted from Le Caméléon, Christophe D'Antonio's authorized biography of Bourdin. It premiered at the 2010 Tribeca Film Festival.
The Imposter, a documentary about Bourdin's impersonation of Nicholas Barclay, premiered at the Sundance Film Festival in January 2012.
References
1974 births
French fraudsters
French people of Algerian descent
Impostors
Living people
Sex | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric%20Bourdin |
The Frankford Arsenal is a former United States Army ammunition plant located adjacent to the Bridesburg neighborhood of Northeast Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, north of the original course of Frankford Creek.
History
Opened in 1816 on of land purchased by President James Madison, it was the center of U.S. military small-arms ammunition design and development until its closure in 1977. Among the many other products manufactured at the arsenal were fire-control and range-finding instruments, and gauges for these components.
With the outbreak of the Civil War, the arsenal's commander, Josiah Gorgas, resigned and joined the Confederate States Army in deference to the wishes of his Alabama-born wife and reported to the Confederate capital in Richmond with a large supply of U.S. Army guns and ammunition. By the end of the war, the arsenal employed over 1,000 workers. It served as a major site for the storage of weapons and artillery pieces; a depot for the repair of artillery, cavalry and infantry equipment; repair and cleaning of small arms and harnesses; the manufacture of percussion powder and Minié balls; and the testing of new forms of gunpowder and time fuses. During the Gettysburg campaign, the arsenal provided tens of thousands of muskets and vast supplies of ammunition for Pennsylvania's "Emergency Militia" regiments. Among the innovations extensively tested at the Arsenal was the Gatling Gun, an early form of machine gun that saw extensive service in the Indian Wars.
During World War I and World War II, the arsenal was again busy supplying the war efforts, providing a major source of jobs and income for the region. At times, employment reached 22,000.
The Frankford Arsenal was an entity unto itself, a virtual city within a city, and contained everything from its own police and fire departments, dining halls, motor pool, and a complete medical facility. The Arsenal was part of the U.S. Arsenal System—dedicated military establishments spread throughout the country to perform specific military missions for the Government.
From the beginning, the Frankford Arsenal was involved in the design and manufacture of munitions. As military weapons became more complex, the center's role expanded to cover the development of a whole range of the Army's more advanced weapon systems. The Arsenal contained the world-famous Pitman-Dunn Laboratories along with a number of other R&D departments. Arsenal scientists and engineers designed and developed everything from basic materials to LASER-guided ballistics, all produced entirely in-house from the concept phase to the fielding of the equipment. New portable and embedded computer applications saw the development of the LASER rangefinder, fielded artillery computational machines (FADAC) and radar systems. During the Vietnam War, experiments in caseless ammunition, far-infrared low-light-level technologies, and advanced LASER applications were under development.
The labs were supported by a full range of first-class drafting and machine shops scattered throughout the many buildings of the center. Everything from milling to electroplating, to multi-layer printed circuit board fabrication could be accomplished by "The Shops". The Optical Lens Design Facility was one of the finest in the country. The Optical Assembly shop also refurbished field binoculars. The Fire Control department literally wrote the glass and optics standards used throughout the United States.
Once a newly designed system was manufactured, complete structural and environmental testing was necessary to insure that the device could withstand the rigors of a fielded environment. This was accomplished in Arsenal's environmental testing and evaluation facility.
As the U.S. military–industrial complex grew, the Arsenal could no longer compete as a manufacturing entity. More and more of its programs were farmed out to industry. The Arsenal's functions were eventually transferred to the Picatinny Arsenal in New Jersey. The Fire Control and Ammunition Engineers were transferred to Picatinny Arsenal until they were retired.
During the presidential campaign of 1976, vice presidential candidate Walter Mondale stood in front of the Frankford Arsenal and promised that it would remain open. The Carter/Mondale ticket won the election but the promise was not fulfilled; the arsenal closed for U.S. government use in 1977.
Before closing, many custom designs were developed and tested, including the use of aluminum and steel for the manufacture of cartridge cases.
The northernmost part of the site was assumed by the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission for use as a boat ramp and fishing spot on the Delaware River. In August 2018, six buildings on the southernmost part of the property were purchased by Alliance Partners HSP for use as a light-industrial and office park.
Munition markings
Each round of ammunition was marked with the headstamp "F A" on its base, denoting that it was produced at the Frankford Arsenal.
Early metallic cartridges produced at Frankford were not head-stamped. These were either Martin or Benet primed copper cases. Early cartridges were stamped "F" for Frankford, or "R" for rifle, or "C" for carbine. Ammunition produced prior to World War I was dated with the numerical month-year headstamp, such as "8 79" or "2 12", indicating August 1879 or February 1912 as the date of manufacture.
Match-grade 7.62 mm (.308) cartridge cases were manufactured in limited quantities.
Cartridges conforming to NATO specifications were marked with the NATO cross (a circle containing a "+").
See also
References
Further reading
External links
Frankford Arsenal Business Center
Photograph of Frankford Arsenal, c. 1900
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Theriac or theriaca is a medical concoction originally labelled by the Greeks in the 1st century AD and widely adopted in the ancient world as far away as Persia, China and India via the trading links of the Silk Route. It was an alexipharmic, or antidote for a variety of poisons and diseases. It was also considered a panacea, a term for which it could be used interchangeably: in the 16th century Adam Lonicer wrote that garlic was the rustic's theriac or Heal-All.<ref>A. Vogel, "Allium sativum". 'Plant Encyclopedia.</ref>
The word theriac comes from the Greek term θηριακή (thēriakē), a feminine adjective signifying "pertaining to animals", from θηρίον (thērion), "wild animal, beast". The ancient bestiaries included information—often fanciful—about dangerous beasts and their bites. When cane sugar was an exotic Eastern commodity, the English recommended the sugar-based treacle as an antidote against poison, originally applied as a salve. By extension, treacle could be applied to any healing property: in the Middle Ages the treacle (i.e. healing) well at Binsey was a place of pilgrimage.
Norman Cantor observes that the remedy's supposed effect followed the homeopathic principle of "the hair of the dog", whereby a concoction containing some of the poisonous (it was thought) flesh of the serpent would be a sovereign remedy against the creature's venom: in his book on medicine, Henry of Grosmont, 1st Duke of Lancaster, wrote that "the treacle is made of poison so that it can destroy other poisons". Another rationale for including snake flesh was the widespread belief that snakes contained an antidote to protect themselves against being poisoned by their own venom. Thinking by analogy, Henry Grosmont also thought of theriac as a moral curative, the medicine "to make a man reject the poisonous sin which has entered into his soul". Since the plague, and notably the Black Death, was believed to have been sent by God as a punishment for sin and had its origins in pestilential serpents that poisoned the rivers, theriac was a particularly appropriate remedy or therapeutic. By contrast, Christiane Fabbri argues that theriac, which very frequently contained opium, actually did have palliative effect against pain and reduced coughing and diarrhea.
History
According to legends, the history of theriac begins with the king Mithridates VI of Pontus who experimented with poisons and antidotes on his prisoners. His numerous toxicity experiments eventually led him to declare that he had discovered an antidote for every venomous reptile and poisonous substance. He mixed all the effective antidotes into a single one, mithridatium or mithridate. Mithridate contained opium, myrrh, saffron, ginger, cinnamon and castor, along with some forty other ingredients. When the Romans defeated him, his medical notes fell into their hands and Roman medici began to use them. Emperor Nero's physician Andromachus improved upon mithridatum by bringing the total number of ingredients to sixty-four, including viper's flesh, a mashed decoction of which, first roasted then well aged, proved the most constant ingredient. Lise Manniche, however, links the origins of theriac to the ancient Egyptian kyphi recipe, which was also used medicinally.
Greek physician Galen devoted a whole book Theriaké to theriac. One of his patients, Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius, took it on a regular basis.
In 667, ambassadors from Rûm presented the Emperor Gaozong of the Tang dynasty in China with a theriac. The Chinese observed that it contained the gall of swine, was dark red in colour and the foreigners seemed to respect it greatly. The Tang pharmacologist Su Kung noted that it had proved its usefulness against "the hundred ailments". Whether this panacea contained the traditional ingredients such as opium, myrrh and hemp, is not known.
In the Middle East, theriac was known as Tiryaq, and makers of it were known as Tiryaqi.
In medieval London, the preparation arrived on galleys from the Mediterranean, under the watchful eye of the Worshipful Company of Grocers. Theriac, the most expensive of medicaments, was called Venice treacle by the English apothecaries.
At the time of the Black Death in the mid 14th century, Gentile da Foligno, who died of the plague in June 1348, recommended in his plague treatise that the theriac should have been aged at least a year. Children should not ingest it, he thought, but have it rubbed on them in a salve.
In 1669, the famous French apothecary, Moyse Charas, published the formula for theriac, seeking to break the monopoly held by the Venetians at that time on the medication, thereby opening up the transfer of medical information.
Production
The production of a proper theriac took months with all the collection and fermentation of herbs and other ingredients. It was supposed to be left to mature for years. As a result, it was also expensive and hence available only for the rich.
According to the commentary on Exodus, Ki Tisa, the Spanish scholar Moses ben Nachman lists the ingredients of theriac as leaven, honey, flesh of wild beasts and reptiles, dried scorpion and viper.
According to Galen, theriac reached its greatest potency six years after preparation and kept its virtues for 40 years. It was therefore good practice to make large batches; in 1712, 150 kg of theriac was prepared at one session in Maastricht in the Netherlands.
By the time of the Renaissance, the making of theriac had become an official ceremony, especially in Italy. Pharmacists sold it as late as 1884.
Theriaca Andromachi SeniorisTheriaca andromachi or Venice Treacle contained 64 ingredients. In addition to viper flesh and opium, it included cinnamon, agarics and gum arabic. The ingredients were pulverized and reduced to an electuary with honey.
The following ingredients for the theriac were taken from the Amsterdammer Apotheek'' (1683) and translated from the old Latin names into the Latin names now used where possible. Not all ingredients are known, and identifications and assignments below are tentative.
Roots: Iris, Balsamorhiza deltoidea, Potentilla reptans (creeping cinquefoil), Rheum rhabarbarum (garden rhubarb), Zingiber officinale, Angustifolia odorata, Gentiana, Meum athamanticum (spignel), Valeriana, Corydalis cava (hollowroot), glycyrrhiza
Stems and barks: Cinnamomum zeylanicum (cinnamon), Cinnamomum aromaticum (cassia)
Leaves: Teucrium scordium (water germander), Fraxinus excelsior, Clinopodium calamintha (lesser calamint), Marrubium vulgare (white or common horehound), Cymbopogon citratus (West-Indian lemongrass), Teucrium chamaedrys (wall germander), Cupressasae, Laurus nobilis (bay laurel), Polium montanum, Cytinus hypocistis
Flowers: Rosa, Crocus sativus, Lavandula stoechas (French lavender), Lavandula angustifolia (common or English lavender), Centaurea minoris
Fruits and seeds: Brassica napus (rapeseed), Petroselinum (parsley), Nigella sativa, Pimpinella anisum (anise), Elettaria cardamomum, Foeniculum vulgare (fennel), Hypericum perforatum (St. John's wort), seseli, thlaspi, Daucus carota (carrot), Piper nigrum (black pepper), Piper longum (long pepper), Juniperus (juniper), Syzygium aromaticum (clove), Canary Island wine, Agaricus fruiting bodies
Gums, oils and resins: Acaciae (acacia), Styrax benzoin, Gummi arabicum, Sagapeni (wax of an unknown tree, possibly some kind of Ferula), Gummi Opopanax chironium, Gummi Ferula foetida, Commiphora (myrrh), incense, Turpentine from Cyprus, oil from Myristica fragans (nutmeg), Papaver somniverum latex (opium).
Animal parts and products: Castoreum, Trochisci Viperarum, Narbonne white honey
Mineral substances: Boli armen. verae, Chalciditis (copper salts), Dead sea bitumen
See also
Mithridate
Notes
References
.
.
.
Further reading
Raj D, Pękacka-Falkowska K, Włodarczyk M, Węglorz J. The real Theriac - panacea, poisonous drug or quackery? J Ethnopharmacol. 2021 Dec 5;281:114535. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2021.114535. Epub 2021 Aug 17. PMID: 34416297.
External links
Ancient Greek medicine
History of ancient medicine | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theriac |
Leonard George Hayton (February 14, 1908 – April 24, 1971) was an American musician, composer, conductor and arranger. Hayton's trademark was a captain's hat, which he always wore at a rakish angle.
Early life
Hayton was born in New York City to a Jewish family. The son of a Manhattan restaurateur, he developed a penchant for the piano when six years old, showing unusual interest in the early classics from the rolls of the family player piano. Although neither of his parents was a tutored musician, both were keen followers of the concert hall. Hayton attended many concerts with them. His parents disliked "Jazz", and it was not until Hayton was 16 that he really discovered it. He left high school to become pianist with the Broadway Hotel Orchestra of Cass Hagen, a boyhood friend.
Career
While playing at the Park Central, Hayton was heard by Paul Whiteman and immediately engaged by him in April 1928 as second pianist, playing piano and celeste as well as acting as a part-time arranger. Whilst with the Paul Whiteman orchestra, he played with musicians such as Frankie Trumbauer, Bix Beiderbecke, Red Nichols and Joe Venuti. He also became friendly with Bing Crosby, then a member of The Rhythm Boys. In May 1930, Whiteman had to thin down his orchestra as theatre audiences fell due to the economic problems of the day and because of the impact of radio. Hayton and Eddie Lang were amongst the ten members of the band released. Hayton then joined the Charles Previn Orchestra which had a weekly assignment on radio in the Camel Pleasure Hour.
The chance came to re-join Bing Crosby who by late 1931 had enjoyed tremendous success on record, radio and the stage. Starting in April 1932, Crosby embarked on a tour of Paramount-Publix theaters, working across the country to Hollywood where he was to make the film The Big Broadcast. At each location, he continued to broadcast his radio show until he reached the West Coast. Lennie Hayton and Eddie Lang provided the musical support to Crosby on his theatre appearances and on his radio shows. In Chicago in May 1932, Hayton led an orchestra for his first recordings with the singer. "Cabin in the Cotton", "Love Me Tonight" and "Some of These Days" were all hits. In September 1932, Crosby again went on tour with Hayton accompanying him on piano. In New York on October 25, 1932, Hayton led the orchestra for one of Bing Crosby's most famous recordings, "Brother, Can You Spare a Dime?" which went to the top of the charts of the day. In January 1933, Hayton became the musical director for the Chesterfield radio series "Music That Satisfies" which again featured Crosby and ran for 13 weeks.
Hayton's involvement with Bing Crosby continued, and he was made musical director for the singer's film Going Hollywood (1933), which was a Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer production. This was to be the start of a major career for Hayton in Hollywood. He continued to work with Crosby on radio (Bing Crosby Entertains) and record for a while but in 1940 he became a musical director for Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer and guided it through its prime years as foremost producer of movie musicals. Up until his retirement from the post in 1953, he racked up four Oscar nominations: for the Judy Garland musicals The Harvey Girls (1946) and The Pirate (1948). Hayton won the Academy Award for music for On the Town with Roger Edens in 1950. Lennie Hayton also arranged the music for Singin' in the Rain in 1952. Hayton notched up two more nominations—one in 1968 for the unsuccessful Julie Andrews musical Star! and his last the following year for the Barbra Streisand vehicle Hello, Dolly! co-composed with Lionel Newman, which brought him his second and final Oscar. In 1970, Hayton arranged Frank Sinatra's first attempt at the George Harrison composition "Something". However, Sinatra later began using a Nelson Riddle arrangement of the song in concert performances and, in 1979, he put the Riddle version on record. Hayton composed "Apple Blossoms" with Joe Venuti, Frankie Trumbauer, and Eddie Lang. His other compositions included "Flying Fingers", "The Stage is Set", "Mood Hollywood" with Jimmy Dorsey, and "Midnight Mood". Hayton also co-arranged the Hoagy Carmichael composition "Stardust" with Artie Shaw, for Shaw's recording of it in 1940, for Bluebird Records.
Personal life and death
Hayton's first marriage was to Helen Maude Gifford, also named Bubs Gelderman, who died in 1943. Lennie Hayton met Lena Horne when both were under contract to MGM and married her in December 1947 in Paris. Throughout the marriage, Hayton also acted as Horne's music director. Facing the stresses and pressures of an interracial relationship, which was still relatively rare in that time period, Hayton and Horne had a tumultuous marriage. She later admitted in a 1980 Ebony interview she had married Hayton primarily to advance her career, and cross the "color-line" in show business, but had learned to love him very much. Horne and Hayton were separated for most of the 1960s. Always a heavy drinker and smoker, Hayton died of a heart attack while separated from Horne, in Palm Springs, California in 1971. He was buried in the Hollywood Forever Cemetery in Hollywood, California.
Awards
Academy Awards
References
External links
1908 births
1971 deaths
20th-century American composers
20th-century American male musicians
20th-century classical musicians
20th Century Studios people
American film score composers
American male film score composers
American music arrangers
American television composers
Best Original Music Score Academy Award winners
Jewish American classical musicians
Jewish American film score composers
Jewish American television composers
MGM Records artists | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lennie%20Hayton |
Trachselwald District is a district in the canton of Bern, Switzerland. From 1 January 2010, the district lost its administrative power while being replaced by the Emmental (administrative district), whose administrative centre is Langnau im Emmental. Since 2010, it remains therefore a fully recognised district under the law and the Constitution (Art.3 al.2) of the Canton of Berne. Its governor's seat was in Trachselwald Castle in Trachselwald. It consistes of 10 municipalities within an area of 191 km².
External links
Official website of the district
References
Former districts of the canton of Bern | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trachselwald%20District |
Jashubhai Dhanabhai Barad (15 September 1955 – 25 January 2016) was an Indian politician. He was a member of the 14th Lok Sabha of India where he represented the Junagadh constituency of Gujarat. He was a former Cabinet Minister of water resources and irrigation of Gujarat state. He played a vital role in the development of Narmada and Ukai Dam Projects. He served his fourth term as member of legislative assembly representing Talala Gir Constituency of Gujarat until 2016.
Early life
He hailed from Yadav/Ahir community. His family was a native of Badalpara village near Veraval. Jashubhai was also known as lion of saurastra and lion of sorath(Sorath no savaj) રાજનીતિ માં આવ્યા બાદ પોતે તાલાલા તાલુકાનાં ઘુસીંયા ગામે તેમની સ્કૂલ આવેલી છે ત્યાં રહેવાનું વધારે પસંદ કરતા હતા.
Career
He was elected to Lok Sabha in 2004 Indian general election and represented Junagadh.
He was twice elected to Gujarat legislative assembly in 1990 and 1995 from Somnath constituency and became Cabinet Minister for water resources and irrigation. He was also twice elected to Gujarat legislative assembly in 1998 and in 2012 from Talala Gir constituency.
He died on 25 January 2016 at Ahmedabad following brain tumour.
After his death, his brother Bhagvanjibhai Barad was elected with 31,000 margin against BJP candidate Govindbhai Parmar.
References
External links
Official biographical sketch in Parliament of India website
1955 births
2016 deaths
People from Junagadh
India MPs 2004–2009
Lok Sabha members from Gujarat
Indian National Congress politicians from Gujarat | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jashubhai%20Dhanabhai%20Barad |
Jefferson Randolph "Soapy" Smith II (November 2, 1860 – July 8, 1898) was an American con artist and gangster in the American frontier.
Smith operated confidence schemes across the Western United States, and had a large hand in organized criminal operations in both Colorado and the District of Alaska. Smith gained notoriety through his "prize soap racket," in which he would sell bars of soap with prize money hidden in some of the bars' packaging in order to increase sales. However, through sleight of hand, he would ensure that only members of his gang purchased "prize" soap. The racket led to his sobriquet of "Soapy."
The success of his soap racket and other scams helped him finance three successive criminal empires in Denver and Creede, both in Colorado, and in Skagway, Alaska. He was killed in the shootout on Juneau Wharf in Skagway, on July 8, 1898.
Early years
Jefferson Smith was born on November 2, 1860, in Coweta County, Georgia, to a wealthy family. His grandfather was a plantation owner and Georgia legislator, while his father was an attorney. However, the Smith family was met with financial ruin at the close of the American Civil War and in 1876, they moved to Round Rock, Texas, to start anew. It was in Round Rock where Smith began his career as a confidence man. In 1877, Smith's mother died and he left home shortly thereafter, but not before witnessing the death of the outlaw Sam Bass in 1878.
Career
Smith moved to Fort Worth, Texas, where he formed a close-knit, disciplined gang of shills and thieves to work for him. He quickly became a well-known crime boss and, eventually, the "king of the frontier con men." His gang of swindlers, known as the Soap Gang, including men such as Texas Jack Vermillion and "Big Ed" Burns, moved from town to town plying their trade on unwary victims. Their principal method was short cons, in which swindles were quick and needed little setup and assistance. The short cons included the shell game, three-card monte, and rigged poker games, which they called "big mitt."
The prize soap racket
Smith's most well-known short con was a ploy which the Denver newspapers dubbed the "prize soap racket." Smith would set a display case, piled with bars of soap, on a busy street corner. As he sold the bars of soap and spoke to a growing crowd of onlookers, he would wrap money—ranging from one to a hundred dollars—around a few select bars of soap. He then wrapped plain paper around all the bars so that the money was hidden.
He then made the appearance of mixing the money-wrapped "prize soap" in with the regular soap and sold the soap to the crowd for one dollar per bar. Then, a shill in the crowd would buy a bar, tear it open, and loudly proclaim that he had won some money, waving it around for all to see. The performance led to the sale of even more bars of soap. Midway through the sale, Smith would announce that the hundred-dollar bill still remained in the pile. He would then auction off the remaining soap bars to the highest bidders. Through manipulation and sleight-of-hand, the only money "won" went to his shills.
On one occasion, Smith was arrested by policeman John Holland for running his prize soap racket. While writing in the police logbook, Holland had forgotten Smith's first name and wrote "Soapy." The sobriquet stuck, and he became known as "Soapy Smith."
Denver, Colorado
In 1879, Smith arrived in Denver for the first time and, by 1882, he had successfully built the first of his three empires. Con men usually moved from town to town to avoid the law, but as Smith's power and gang grew, so did his influence at city hall, which allowed him to remain in the city, protected from prosecution. By 1887, he was reputedly involved with most of the criminal activities in the city. Newspapers in Denver reported that he controlled the city's criminals and underworld gambling, and accused corrupt politicians and the police chief of accepting bribes.
The Tivoli Club
In 1888, Smith opened The Tivoli Club—a combination saloon and gambling house—on the southeast corner of Market and 17th Street. Allegedly, a sign above the entrance to the gambling games read "caveat emptor," Latin for "let the buyer beware." Smith's younger brother, Bascomb Smith, joined the gang and operated a cigar store that was a front for dishonest poker games and other swindles, which operated in one of the back rooms. Other operations included fraudulent lottery shops, a "sure thing" stock exchange, fake watch and diamond auctions, and the sale of stocks in nonexistent businesses.
Politics and other cons
Due to receiving bribes, some of the police officers patrolling the streets would not arrest Smith or members of his gang, and other officers feared Smith's quick and violent anger. On those occasions when Smith or one of his men were arrested, their friends, attorneys, and associates were always ready to obtain their quick release from jail. An electoral fraud trial after the municipal elections of 1889 brought attention to the corrupt ties and payoffs among Smith, the mayor and the chief of police—a combination referred to in local newspapers as "the firm of Londoner, Farley, and Smith." The mayor lost his job, but Smith remained untouched. He opened an office in the prominent Cheever block (one block south of his Tivoli Club) from which he ran his many operations. This also fronted as a business tycoon's office for high-end swindles.
Smith was not without enemies and rivals for his position as underworld boss. He faced several attempts on his life and shot several of his assailants. He became known increasingly for his gambling and bad temper.
Creede, Colorado
In 1892, with Denver in the midst of anti-gambling and saloon reforms, Smith sold the Tivoli and moved to Creede, Colorado, a mining boomtown that sprang up on the site of a major silver strike. Using Denver-based prostitutes to get close to property owners and convince them to sign over leases, he acquired numerous lots along Creede's main street and rented them to his associates. After gaining enough allies, he announced that he was the camp boss.
With brother-in-law and gang member William Sidney "Cap" Light as a deputy sheriff, Smith began his second empire, opening a gambling hall and saloon called the Orleans Club. He purchased and briefly exhibited a petrified man nicknamed "McGinty" for an admission of 10 cents. While customers were waiting in line, Smith ran shell and three-card monte games to swindle even more money.
Smith provided an order of sorts, protecting his friends and associates from the town's council and expelling violent troublemakers. Many of the influential newcomers were sent to meet him. Smith grew rich in the process but was also known to give money away freely, using it to build churches, help the poor, and to bury unfortunate prostitutes.
Creede's boom quickly waned, and corrupt Denver officials sent word that the reforms in Denver were coming to an end. Smith returned to Denver and brought "McGinty" with him. He left at the right time, as Creede soon lost most of its business district in a huge fire on 5 June 1892. Among the buildings destroyed was the Orleans Club.
Return to Denver, Colorado
Upon his return to Denver, Smith opened new businesses which served as fronts for his many short cons. One involved allegedly discounted railroad tickets, in which potential purchasers were told the ticket agent was out of the office, but that they could benefit from a discount by playing any of several rigged games. Smith's power had grown to the point that he admitted to the press he was a con man and saw nothing wrong with it, telling a reporter, "I consider bunco steering more honorable than the life led by the average politician."
In 1894, Colorado's newly-elected governor Davis Hanson Waite fired three Denver officials as part of anti-corruption reforms. They refused to leave their positions and fortified themselves in the Denver City Hall with others who felt their jobs were threatened. Governor Waite called on the state militia to remove them, which brought two cannons and two Gatling guns. Smith joined the corrupt officeholders and police at City Hall and was commissioned a deputy sheriff. Smith and several of his men climbed the City Hall's central tower with rifles and dynamite to fend off any attackers. However, Governor Waite eventually decided to withdraw the militia and the battle was instead fought in the courts, in which Soapy Smith was an important witness. The Colorado Supreme Court ruled that Governor Waite had authority to replace the commissioners, but was to be reprimanded for bringing in the militia, in what became known as the "City Hall War."
Governor Waite then ordered the closure of all of Denver's gambling dens, saloons, and bordellos. Smith exploited the situation, using his new title of deputy sheriff to make fake arrests in his own gambling houses by apprehending patrons who had lost large sums in rigged poker games. The victims were happy to leave when the "officers" allowed them to walk away from the crime scene—without recouping their losses—rather than be arrested.
Eventually, Soapy and his brother Bascomb Smith became too well-known, and even the most corrupt city officials could no longer protect them. When they were charged with attempted murder for the beating of a saloon manager, Bascomb was jailed but Soapy managed to escape, becoming a wanted man in Colorado.
Before leaving, Smith tried to convince the Mexican President Porfirio Díaz that his country needed the services of a foreign legion made up of American toughs. Smith became known as Colonel Smith, and managed to organize a recruiting office before the deal failed.
Skagway and the Klondike Gold Rush
When the Klondike Gold Rush began in 1897, Smith moved his operations to Dyea and Skagway. His first attempt at occupying Skagway ended in failure when miners' committees encouraged him to leave the area after operating his three-card monte and pea-and-shell games on the White Pass Trail for less than a month. He traveled to St. Louis and Washington, D.C., and did not return to Skagway until late January 1898.
Smith set up his third empire much the same way as he had in Denver and Creede. He put the town's deputy U.S. marshal on his payroll and began collecting allies for a takeover. Smith opened a fake telegraph office in which the wires went only as far as the wall. Not only did the telegraph office obtain fees for "sending" messages, but also cash-laden victims soon found themselves losing even more money in poker games with newfound "friends." Telegraph lines did not reach or leave Skagway until 1901. Smith opened a saloon named Jeff. Smith's Parlor in March 1898 as an office from which to run his operations. Although Skagway already had a municipal building, Smith's saloon became known as "the real city hall."
Smith's men played a variety of roles, such as newspaper reporter or clergyman, with the intention of befriending a new arrival and determining the best way to rid him of his money. The new arrival would be steered by his "friends" to dishonest shipping companies, hotels, or gambling dens until he was wiped out. If the man was likely to make trouble or could not be recruited into the gang, Smith would then appear in person and offer to pay his way back to civilization.
When a vigilance committee, the "Committee of 101," threatened to expel Smith and his gang, he formed his own "law and order society," which claimed 317 members, to force the vigilantes into submission. Most of the petty gamblers and con men did indeed leave Skagway at this time, and Smith resorted to other means to appear respectable to the community.
During the Spanish–American War in 1898, Smith formed his own volunteer army with the approval of the United States Department of War, known as the "Skaguay Military Company," with himself as its captain. Smith wrote to President William McKinley and gained official recognition for his company, which he used to strengthen his control of the town.
On July 4, 1898, Smith rode as marshal of the Fourth Division of the parade leading his army on his gray horse. On the grandstand, he sat beside the territorial governor and other officials.
Death
On July 7, 1898, John Douglas Stewart, a returning Klondike miner, came to Skagway with a sack of gold valued at $2,700 ($82,620 in 2017 dollars). Three gang members convinced the miner to participate in a game of three-card monte. When Stewart balked at having to pay his losses, the three men grabbed the sack and ran. The "Committee of 101" demanded that Smith return the gold, but he refused, claiming that Stewart had lost it "fairly."
On the evening of July 8, the vigilance committee organized a meeting on the Juneau Wharf. With a Winchester rifle draped over his shoulder, Smith began an argument with Frank H. Reid, one of four guards blocking his way to the wharf. A gunfight, known as the Shootout on Juneau Wharf, began unexpectedly, and both men were fatally wounded.
Smith's last words were "My God, don't shoot!" A letter from Sam Steele, the legendary head of the Canadian Mounties at the time, indicates that another guard, Jesse Murphy, may have fired the fatal shot. Smith died on the spot with a bullet to the heart. He also received a bullet in his left leg and a severe wound on the left arm by the elbow. Reid died 12 days later with a bullet in his leg and groin area. The three gang members who robbed Stewart received jail sentences.
Soapy Smith was buried several yards outside the city cemetery.
Legacy and portrayals
Festivals
Soapy Smith Wake in Skagway, Alaska. Held annually on July 8.
Soapy Smith Party at the Magic Castle in Hollywood. An annual party on July 8 with costume contests, charity gambling, and magic shows.
Fiction
You Can't Win (1926), Smith appears in Jack Black's autobiography.
The Great Alone (1987), Smith is a major character in the novel by Janet Dailey.
The Yukon Trail (1994), a video game where the player can meet Soapy Smith and play his shell game featured in "The Wretched Hive".
The King of the Klondike (1995) (Uncle Scrooge #292, part 8 of The Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck),Soapy Slick is the crooked saloon operator and profiteer in the Uncle Scrooge comic series.
How Much for Just the Planet? (2000), in the Star Trek Worlds Apart novel by John M. Ford, a 1987 Star Trek tie-in novel, a small 3-person Sulek-Class dilithium-scouting prospector starship was named after the infamous con-man, USS Jefferson Randolph Smith, NCC-29402.
Tara Kane (2001), presents a fictionalized version of Soapy Smith (and his death) featured in George Markstein's novel.
American Gods (2002), Smith and his schemes are mentioned repeatedly in the novel by Neil Gaiman.
Lili Klondike (2008), a book by Mylène Gilbert-Dumas, Smith is the villain.
The Assassination of Jesse James by the Coward Robert Ford (2013), Smith is depicted as a business rival of an antagonist to Robert Ford in the novel by Ron Hansen.
The Klondike (1996), Smith appears in a Lucky Luke story by Jean Léturgie.
Film
The Girl Alaska (1919) is believed to be the first portrayal of Soapy Smith. The film was shown in a theater in St. Louis, where Soapy's widow and son lived and caused them to sue the production company.
Call of the Wild (1935), portrayed by Harry Woods.
Honky Tonk (1941), portrayed by Clark Gable. Due to legal pressure from Smith's descendants, the name "Soapy Smith" was changed to "Candy Johnson."
The Great Jesse James Raid (1953), portrayed by Earle Hodgins.
The Far Country (1955), John McIntire portrays a character loosely based on Smith.
Klondike Fever (1980), portrayed by Rod Steiger.
The Call of the Wild (2020), an extra bearing a striking resemblance to Smith can be seen in an Alaskan saloon in a dark suit and wide-brimmed white hat.
Television
The Alaskans (1959–1960), portrayed by John Dehner.
Alias Smith and Jones (1971–1972), portrayed by Sam Jaffe in three episodes: "The Great Shell Game" (aired February 18, 1971), "A Fistful of Diamonds" (March 4, 1971), and "Bad Night in Big Butte" (March 2, 1972).
Klondike (2014), portrayed by Ian Hart. The series depicts Smith operating in Dawson City in 1897 as opposed to Skagway and instead of dying in a shootout, he is stabbed to death by a Tlingit.
An Klondike (2015–2017), portrayed by Michael Glenn Murphy. Smith's nationality was changed to English in the series, which depicts him as operating in the fictional town of Dominion Creek.
HBO television series Deadwood (2004–2006): A character known to sell soap with a prize inside, amongst other small cons, like selling fake strands of hair supposedly taken from a decapitated Indian.
Also depicted in a Canadian "Heritage Minute" being refused entry by Sir Sam Steele into the Klondike during the gold rush.
Citations
General and cited references
Further reading
Collier, William R. and Edwin V. Westrate, The Reign of Soapy Smith: Monarch of Misrule, New York: Doubleday, Doran, 1935.
Pullen, Harriet S., Soapy Smith Bandit of Skagway: How He Lived; How He Died, Stroller's Weekly Print, undated (the early 1900s).
Shea & Patten, The Soapy Smith Tragedy, The Daily Alaskan Print, 1907.
External links
Jeff. Smiths Parlor Museum
Alias Soapy Smith: The Life and Death of a Scoundrel
1860 births
1898 deaths
19th-century American criminals
American confidence tricksters
American gamblers
American political bosses
Criminals from Alaska
Criminals from Texas
Deaths by firearm in Alaska
Outlaws of the American Old West
People from Coweta County, Georgia
People from Denver
People from Fort Worth, Texas
People from Mineral County, Colorado
People from Round Rock, Texas
People from the Municipality of Skagway Borough, Alaska
People of pre-statehood Alaska
People of the Klondike Gold Rush
Saloonkeepers | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soapy%20Smith |
Trypsinization is the process of cell dissociation using trypsin, a proteolytic enzyme which breaks down proteins, to dissociate adherent cells from the vessel in which they are being cultured. When added to cell culture, trypsin breaks down the proteins that enable the cells to adhere to the vessel. Trypsinization is often used to pass cells to a new vessel. When the trypsinization process is complete the cells will be in suspension and appear rounded.
For experimental purposes, cells are often cultivated in containers that take the form of plastic flasks or plates. In such flasks, cells are provided with a growth medium comprising the essential nutrients required for proliferation, and the cells adhere to the container and each other as they grow.
This process of cell culture or tissue culture requires a method to dissociate the cells from the container and each other. Trypsin, an enzyme commonly found in the digestive tract, can be used to "digest" the proteins that facilitate adhesion to the container and between cells.
Once cells have detached from their container it is necessary to deactivate the trypsin, unless the trypsin is synthetic, as cell surface proteins will also be cleaved over time and this will affect cell functioning. Serum can be used to inactivate trypsin, as it contains protease inhibitors. Because of the presence of these inhibitors, the serum must be removed before treatment of a growth vessel with trypsin and must not be added again to the growth vessel until cells have detached from their growth surface - this detachment can be confirmed by visual observation using a microscope.
Trypsinization is often used to permit passage of adherent cells to a new container, observation for experimentation, or reduction of the degree of confluency in a culture flask through the removal of a percentage of the cells.
References
Cell culture | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trypsinization |
Arthur Kelton (d. 1549/1550) was an author who wrote in rhyme about Welsh history.
Biography
Kelton, whose date of birth and ancestry are unclear, is credited with Book of Poetry in Praise of Welshmen (1546) and (1547), which was dedicated to Edward VI. He dealt with early British history after the uncritical fashion of Geoffrey of Monmouth, and made no serious effort at scholarship.
Recognition
As Philip Schwyzer says in the Dictionary of National Biography, "His works are devoted to the celebration, in roughly equal measure, of British antiquity, the Tudor dynasty, the Reformation, and the union of England and Wales. Kelton's originality lies in the way he fused these disparate strands into a grand historical narrative." This was later to be a common theme in English literature.
References
Philip Schwyzer, 'Kelton, Arthur (d. 1549/50)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004 retrieved 16 April 2007 (subscription access)
W. O. Ringler, 'Arthur Kelton's contributions to early British history', Huntington Library Quarterly, 40 (1976–7), 353–6.
16th-century Welsh historians
Anglo-Welsh poets
1550s deaths | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur%20Kelton |
Wetheral is a village, civil parish and electoral ward in Cumbria, England. At the 2001 census, the population of the Wetheral Ward was 4,039, The civil parish of Wetheral is slightly larger, with a population of 5,203. being counted as 4,541 at the 2011 Census for both Parish and Ward.
Wetheral stands high on a bank overlooking a gorge in the River Eden. Parts of the riverbank here are surrounded by ancient woodlands, including Wetheral Woods, owned by the National Trust. Formerly a small ferryboat operated to the village of Great Corby on the opposite bank, and an iron ring can still be found attached to the rocks on the Great Corby side of the river where the ferry would tie up.
The place-name 'Wetheral' is first attested in the Register of Wetheral Priory circa 1100 AD, where it appears as Wetherhala. The name means 'the haugh (area of flat land by a river) where wethers (castrated male sheep) were kept'.
The Newcastle to Carlisle Railway has a station here at the west end of Corby Bridge (popularly known as 'Wetheral Viaduct') over the Eden which acts also as a footbridge connecting with Great Corby. The station was closed during the Beeching cuts in 1967, but was reopened in 1981. In 1836 one of the very earliest railway accidents happened close to Wetheral station.
In the Middle Ages there was a priory at Wetheral. All that is left now is the gatehouse, which is in the care of English Heritage, and some low ruined walls behind the farm buildings that now occupy the site.
At the historic core of the village lies the village green, in one corner of which stands Wetheral Cross. The steps were the base of a maypole erected in the centre of the green at the expense of Henry Howard in 1814. For some reason, in 1838 to 1844, the steps were moved to the current location and the cross added. It is not a market cross as Wetheral was not a market town. The head of the cross appears much older than the shaft and this may possibly be on the site of a Medieval cross. The green is surrounded by large period houses in different styles, and the Fantails restaurant, shop and tea room front the green. The church, hotel (The Crown), village hall, hairdresser and pub (The Wheatsheaf) are not far away. The north western part of the village is known as Wetheral Plain and consists of a ribbon development along Plains Road and the housing estates of Greenacres and Faustin Hill.
Wetheral Parish Church is dedicated to the Holy Trinity and St Constantine. St Constantine was said to be a Scottish king who relinquished his throne to become a monk. Legend has it that he lived as a hermit in a cave at Wetheral., which can be reached by walking down the River Eden. The current Rector is based at The Rectory in Warwick Bridge. The Church contains a life-size sculpture by Joseph Nollekens of 'Faith'. This was commissioned by Henry Howard after the death, in childbirth, of his wife Maria. The cost of the sculpture was £1,500 in the late eighteenth century, which is estimated to be equivalent to nearly £2 million today.
There is no school in the village (it closed many years ago) and most primary school children travel to the school at Scotby, although some go to Great Corby or Warwick Bridge. The village lies in the catchment area of the Richard Rose Central Academy in Carlisle, although the William Howard School in nearby Brampton provides a bus service for pupils who wish to attend school there. This is undertaken by most pupils despite having to pay a fee for the service rather than using the free bus to the catchment school.
World war one ambulance driver and nurse Pat Waddell was born near here at Warwick Bridge and Nursing education theorist Nancy Roper was born in Wetheral in 1918. She trained in Cumberland Infirmary, Carlisle, and went on to develop the nursing process based on Activities of Daily Living (Roper -Logan - Tierney method) used across the UK and beyond.
The ward of Wetheral includes the villages and hamlets of Warwick-on-Eden, Aglionby, Scotby, Cotehill, Cumwhinton, Wetheral Shield and Wetheral Pasture. The civil parish also includes part of the Great Corby & Geltsdale ward, namely the villages of Great Corby, and Warwick Bridge (but not Corby Hill or Little Corby).
At Wetheral Shield is the Animals' Refuge, operated by the National Equine (and Smaller Animals) Defence League.
See also
Listed buildings in Wetheral
References
External links
Cumbria County History Trust: Wetheral (nb: provisional research only – see Talk page)
Animals' Refuge
Villages in Cumbria
Civil parishes in Cumbria
City of Carlisle | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetheral |
Ravindrasinh Anirudhsinh Jadeja (born 6 December 1988), commonly known as Ravindra Jadeja, is an Indian international cricketer who represents the Indian national cricket team in all formats. He is an all-rounder, who bats left-handed and bowls left-arm orthodox spin. He is regarded as one of the best all-rounders of the last decade, becoming the fifth Indian and fifth-fastest player to score 2,000 runs and take 200 wickets in Test cricket in 2021. Jadeja was the leading wicket-taker in the 2013 ICC Champions Trophy and received the man of the match award as a member of the final-winning team. He represents Saurashtra in first-class cricket and has captained the Chennai Super Kings in the Indian Premier League. As of August 2023, Ravindra Jadeja is the 8th highest ODI wicket taker for India with 194 wickets.
Jadeja was vice-captain of the Indian U-19 cricket team that won the World Cup in Malaysia in 2008, under the captaincy of former Indian captain Virat Kohli. He made his ODI debut against Sri Lanka on 8 February 2009 and scored an unbeaten 60 off 77 balls in that match. However, his Test debut came almost four years later, on 13 December 2012, against England at Nagpur.
Jadeja was bought for $2 million by the Chennai Super Kings at the 2012 IPL Players Auction. He was bought by the Gujarat Lions in the 2016 IPL Players Auction for 9.5 crores after the Chennai Super Kings were banned from the IPL for two seasons. On 22 January 2017, Jadeja became the first Indian left-arm spinner to take 150 One Day International wickets, when he dismissed Sam Billings at Eden Gardens, Kolkata. In March 2017, he became the top ranked bowler in the world leaving behind Ravichandran Ashwin who held that position for a long time. He was announced as captain of the Chennai Super Kings IPL franchise, for the 2022 IPL season, succeeding MS Dhoni. He however stepped down in the middle of the season.
Personal life
Jadeja was born on 6 December 1988 in a Gujarati Rajput Hindu family in Navagam Ghed city of Jamnagar district in Gujarat. His father Anirudh was a watchman for a private security agency. His father wanted him to become an Army officer but his interest was in Cricket, he was scared of his father in his childhood. His mother Lata died in an accident in 2005 and the trauma of his mother's death almost made him quit cricket. His sister Naina is a nurse. He lives in Jamnagar.
Jadeja married politician Rivaba Jadeja on 17 April 2016. They have a daughter born in June 2017.
Domestic career
Youth career
Jadeja made his first Under-19 appearance for India in 2005 at the age of 16. He was picked in the Indian squad for the 2006 U/19 Cricket World Cup in Sri Lanka. India finished runners-up with Jadeja impressing in the final against Pakistan with a haul of 3 wickets. He was the vice-captain of the victorious Indian team at the 2008 U/19 Cricket World Cup. He played a crucial role with the ball in the tournament, taking 10 wickets in 6 games at an average of 13.
First-class cricket
Jadeja made his first-class debut in the 2006–07 Duleep Trophy. He played for West Zone in the Duleep Trophy and for Saurashtra in the Ranji Trophy.
In 2012, Jadeja became the eighth player in history, and the first Indian player, to score three first-class triple centuries in his career, joining Don Bradman, Brian Lara, Bill Ponsford, Wally Hammond, WG Grace, Graeme Hick and Mike Hussey. His first came in early November 2011 against Orissa, in which he scored 314 off 375 balls. His second came in November 2012 against Gujarat, in which he scored 303 not out. His third came against Railways in December 2012, in which he scored 331 runs in 501 balls. Jadeja reached this milestone at the young age of only 23.
International career
Jadeja caught the attention of the national selectors with his strong all-round showing in the 2008–09 Ranji Trophy – 42 wickets and 739 runs – and was picked for the ODI series in Sri Lanka. His international debut came in the final match of the series on 8 February 2009, where he scored 60*, although India lost the match. In the 2009 World Twenty20, Jadeja was criticised for not scoring fast enough in India's loss to England. After the incumbent all-rounder Yusuf Pathan suffered a loss of form, Jadeja took his place at No. 7 in the ODI team in late 2009. In the third ODI against Sri Lanka in Cuttack on 21 December 2009, Jadeja was awarded the man of the match award following a haul of four wickets. His best bowling is 4–32.
He made a comeback into the Indian ODI side in the third ODI against England at The Oval in London. Arriving at the crease with India 58–5 after 19 overs, he scored 78, adding 112 with skipper Mahendra Singh Dhoni and 59 off only 5.1 overs with Ravichandran Ashwin to help his side reach 234–7 in 50 overs. He also took 2–42 from his 9 overs and was named "player of the match", but England won the rain-affected game. His performance in the fourth ODI at Lord's was mixed: he gave away four crucial overthrows with a poor throw from the boundary, but then took a catch on the boundary off the last ball.
In the second T20I of the Australian tour in February 2012, Jadeja had figures of 1/16 in 3 overs and effected two run outs in the Australian innings. India went on to win the game and Jadeja was awarded Man of the Match, mainly for his fielding effort.
After his impressive performance at the start of Ranji Trophy season 2012–13, when he scored two 300+ scores in 4 matches (4/125 and then 303* against Gujarat at Surat; 331 and 3/109 against Railways at Rajkot in the Ranji Trophy 2012–13), he was called up to join the 15-member India Test team to play the fourth Test against England at Nagpur. In his Test debut against England at Nagpur, he bowled 70 overs and picked 3/117.
During the second ODI in the India-England series at Kochi, Jadeja hit 61 off just 37 balls, which took India to a total of 285. In the second innings, he bowled a spell of 2 for 12 in 7 overs, helping India beat England by 127 runs and level the series 1–1. This performance earned Jadeja the Man of the Match award.
In the historic 4–0 home Test series win against Australia in February–March 2013, Jadeja took 24 wickets, dismissing the Australian captain Michael Clarke five out of six times in the series which cemented his place in the team as an all-rounder, despite not contributing much with the bat. His seven-wicket haul, including a five-for in the second innings of the final Test match, earned him the Man of the Match award. He played an important role for India in lifting the ICC Champions Trophy 2013. He was the highest wicket-taker of the tournament with 12 wickets, which won him the Golden Ball. He made 33* with bat and took 2 wickets in the final against England. He was also named as part of the 'Team of the Tournament' by the ICC and ESPNCricinfo.
He was ranked as the No.1 bowler in ODI Cricket by the ICC in August 2013. Jadeja is the first India bowler to top the rankings since Anil Kumble, who topped the table in 1996. He is the fourth India bowler after Kapil Dev, Maninder Singh and Kumble to be ranked No. 1.
Jadeja scored his maiden test fifty on 20 July 2014, playing against England and saving the match for India, who were struggling at 235/7. He made 68 runs from just 57 balls. His partnership of 99 with Bhuvneshwar Kumar helped India set England a target of 319.
Jadeja was selected for the 2015 Cricket World Cup in Australia and New Zealand despite not being fully fit due to a shoulder injury. He took 9 wickets in 8 games. His returns with the bat were modest, scoring just 57 runs from 5 innings. India went on to lose against Australia in the semi-final. After his poor performance in the next ODI series in Bangladesh, he was dropped from the Indian team.
Jadeja returned strongly in the next Ranji season (2015–16), where he picked up 38 wickets from 4 games and 215 runs, including 3 50+ scores. His strong performances were rewarded with selection for the Indian test side facing South Africa at home. Jadeja helped his team achieve victory, by taking 23 wickets in 4 games. He scored 109 runs in the series, which included crucial knocks lower down the order. Jadeja was included in Indian limited-overs side touring Australia to play 5 ODIs and 3 T20Is. In ODIs, Jadeja bowled economically in a series where more than 3000 runs were scored in 5 matches. He took 3 wickets at an economy rate of 5.35. He was the second-highest wicket-taker in T20Is, picking up 5 wickets in 3 games. In the second game of the series, Jadeja took a blinder off his own bowling to get the important wicket of Shane Watson, and he also ran Aaron Finch out, who was batting on 74 at that moment.
He featured in all four tests against the visiting Australian side. He bagged 25 wickets and made two half-centuries down the order, which earned him the player of the match as well as the player of the series award in the latest concluded series on 28 March 2017.
He along with Ravichandran Ashwin, became the first pair of spinners to be jointly ranked number 1 bowler in ICC Test Rankings history. On 5 August 2017, Jadeja became the fastest left-arm bowler to reach 150 wickets in terms of number of Tests played (32).
On 5 October 2018, he scored his first century in Tests. In March 2019, during the second ODI against Australia, Jadeja became the third cricketer for India to score 2,000 runs and take 150 wickets in ODIs. In April 2019, he was named in India's squad for the 2019 Cricket World Cup.
In October 2019, in the first Test against South Africa, Jadeja took his 200th wicket in Test cricket.
On 6 August 2021, batting during the first innings of the first Test against England at Trent Bridge, Jadeja became the fifth Indian and fifth-fastest player score 2,000 runs and take 200 wickets in Tests.
In September 2021, Jadeja was named in India's squad for the 2021 ICC Men's T20 World Cup. His spin-bowling partner on many occasions, R Ashwin, was also named in the squad after 4 years out of the white-ball team.
On 5 March 2022, in a Test match against Sri Lanka, Jadeja broke the 35-year-old record of Kapil Dev by scoring 175*. He made the record of the highest score by a No. 7 or below.
He then took 5/41 and then 4/46 in the two innings, registering match figures of 9/87 to help India beat Sri Lanka by an innings and 222 runs.
He scored his first overseas century in the fifth Test match of the 2022 Indian tour of England.
In July 2022, he was named as India's vice-captain for the away ODI series against the West Indies.
In September 2022, Jadeja was named in the Indian squad for the 2022 ICC Men's T20 World Cup but was unable to play due to a severe knee injury. Following a five-month recovery, Jadeja returned to the test squad for the home edition of the Border-Gavaskar Trophy on 9 February in Nagpur, where he achieved a Five-wicket haul. Jadeja Becomes Fastest Indian to Take 250 Wickets and Score 2500+ Runs in Test Cricket.
Indian Premier League
Ravindra Jadeja was selected by the Rajasthan Royals for the inaugural season of the Indian Premier League (IPL) in 2008, and played an important role in their victory (Royals defeated Chennai Super Kings in the final). Jadeja scored 135 runs from 14 matches at a strike rate of 131.06, his best score being 36* against Kings XI Punjab. He did even better in 2009, scoring 295 runs at a strike rate of 110.90, and conceding fewer than 6.5 runs per over. Shane Warne, the captain of Rajasthan Royals, referred to Jadeja as a "superstar in the making". Warne also nicknamed him "Rockstar".
Jadeja sat out the 2010 IPL because of a ban arising from contractual irregularities. In 2011, he was bought by the Kochi Tuskers Kerala for $950,000. Kochi Tuskers were terminated from the IPL in September 2011, and in the 2012 IPL player auction, Jadeja was bought by Chennai Super Kings for $2 million (approx. Rs. 9.8 crores) after a tie-breaker with Deccan Chargers who bid the same amount. Jadeja was the most expensive player of the year's auction. He won the Man of the Match award in the second match of the season against Deccan Chargers for his all-round performance (48 runs off 29 balls, 5/16 in 4 overs).
For his performances in 2014, he was named in the Cricinfo CLT20 XI.
In a Mother's Day game during IPL 2015, Jadeja put in a fine spin bowling performance in Chennai; he took four wickets for 11 runs with a brilliant spell of bowling against Rajasthan Royals.
In the 19th match of the 2021 Indian Premier League, Jadeja hit 62*, including a joint-highest ever 37 runs in the last over bowled by Harshal Patel. He later took 3/13 in his four overs and was named Man of the Match.
Jadeja was appointed as the captain for the Chennai Super Kings ahead of the 2022 IPL season, replacing MS Dhoni. He however stepped down in the middle of the season, handing over the captaincy back to Dhoni. He was later ruled out of the tournament due to a rib injury. Jadeja and the franchise later unfollowed each other on Instagram, leading to reports about a rift. But the CEO of CSK maintained that he was ruled out on medical advice, and denied allegations of the rift.
In the final of the 2023 Indian Premier League final, Chennai Super Kings required 10 from the final two balls. Jadeja hit a 6 and 4 to give CSK the title.
Media image
Sunil Gavaskar said in March 2013 that Ravindra Jadeja, along with Cheteshwar Pujara, was a role model for youngsters. Jadeja's contributions in India's 4–0 test series win over Australia in February and March 2013 were praised in the media, and Gavaskar called him one of the architects of the win. Jadeja's dominance of Clarke was also praised in the media. Jadeja was named Player of the Week by the portal Cricket World after the end of the fourth test.
Since his performance at the 2009 ICC World Twenty20 event, Jadeja has been a consistent target of sarcasm and jokes on cricket portals and by Indian cricket fans. On Twitter and Facebook, he is jokingly referred to as Sir Ravindra Jadeja since an online joke calling him the same went viral. When Jadeja was out clean bowled for 16 while not offering a shot in the February 2013 Chennai test against Australia, a cricket portal described his dismissal as "Jadeja falls 284 runs short of what would have been a fourth first-class triple-century". Following his good performance against Australia in the 2013 test series, there was a flurry of Jadeja jokes on Twitter comparing him to Rajinikanth. His Wikipedia article was temporarily vandalized to mock him. In April 2013, Mahendra Singh Dhoni, Suresh Raina and Ravichandran Ashwin, teammates of Jadeja in Chennai Super Kings, tweeted several Jadeja jokes on Twitter, in one of which Dhoni referred to him as Sri Sri Pandit Sir Lord Ravindra Jadeja. In response, Jadeja said in April 2013 that it was a joke which everybody was enjoying, and that he had no problem with the prefix Sir.
For his flamboyancy with bat, ball and while fielding, Jadeja is often nicknamed 'Rockstar', as he was originally called by Shane Warne. His IPL jersey has the name 'Jaddu' on the back rather than Jadeja, and Dhoni can often be heard calling him this from behind the stumps. Jadeja's sword celebration has been a popular feature of world cricket over the years, as he usually brings this out after scoring a 50 or a 100. Though, he has often been criticised for his caste reference regarding the sword celebration.
During the 2019 Cricket World Cup, commentator Sanjay Manjrekar criticised Jadeja by calling him a 'bits and pieces player'. The former apologised after Jadeja's performance at the tournament.
Awards
ICC ODI Team of the Year: 2013, 2016
Madhavrao Scindia Award for most wickets in Ranji Trophy: 2008–09
Ranked 1st in ICC Top 10 Test all-rounders (2021)
Arjuna Award : 2019
References
External links
Ravindra Jadeja's profile page on Wisden.com ()
1988 births
Indian cricketers
India Test cricketers
India One Day International cricketers
India Twenty20 International cricketers
Saurashtra cricketers
West Zone cricketers
Rajasthan Royals cricketers
Chennai Super Kings cricketers
Kochi Tuskers Kerala cricketers
India Blue cricketers
India Red cricketers
Living people
Cricketers at the 2015 Cricket World Cup
Cricketers at the 2019 Cricket World Cup
Gujarat Lions cricketers
Recipients of the Arjuna Award
Gujarati people
Indian Hindus | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ravindra%20Jadeja |
The eastern spinebill (Acanthorhynchus tenuirostris) is a species of honeyeater found in south-eastern Australia in forest and woodland areas, as well as gardens in urban areas of Canberra, Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide and Hobart. It is around 15 cm long, and has a distinctive black, white and chestnut plumage, a red eye, and a long downcurved bill.
Taxonomy
Originally described as Certhia tenuirostris by the English ornithologist John Latham in 1801, it is a member of the small genus Acanthorhynchus with one other, the western spinebill of Western Australia. The generic name is derived from the Greek translation of spinebill, namely acantho-/ακανθο- 'spine' and rhynchos/ρυνχος 'bill'. Its specific epithet is from Latin tenuis 'narrow' and rostrum 'bill'. Other English names include spine-billed honeyeater and awl-bird or cobbler's awl bird. The eastern spinebill is polytypic, consisting of the subspecies A. t. cairnsensis, A. t. dubius, A. t. halmaturinus, and the nominate subspecies A. t. tenuirostris.
The eastern spinebill forms a superspecies with the closely related western spinebill. Scientists believe the two sister species are descended from a shared ancestor whose once widespread populations were separated by climate change. During a past period of desertification, that ancestor species retreated to refuges in the southwestern and southeastern corners of the continent, and evolved into the two present-day spinebill species. Recent DNA studies have shown that the two spinebills belong to a clade which is a sister taxon to all other honeyeaters.
Description
The male eastern spinebill is long, and has a long thin downcurved black bill with a black head, white throat with a chestnut patch and red iris. It has a brownish-red nape, a grey-brown back and pale cinnamon underparts. The dark tail is tipped with white laterally. Females are smaller with olive-grey crown, similar in colouring to male but slightly duller; and juveniles are pale warm cinnamon below with grey to olive-brown upperparts, a brown-red eye and orange base to the bill. The call is a clear, high-pitched, staccato piping "chip-chip-chip", sometimes repeated for lengthy periods.
Distribution and habitat
Eastern spinebills are found in dry sclerophyll forest, scrub and heathland from the Cooktown area in North Queensland south through New South Wales east of the Great Dividing Range, through Victoria and into the Flinders Ranges in eastern South Australia as well as throughout Tasmania. Adaptable, they can be found in urban gardens with sufficient vegetation to act as cover and a food source.
Breeding
Breeding season is from August to January, with one or two broods raised. The nest is a deep cup-shaped structure of grass and bark strips, lined with feathers and soft plant fibres, hanging by the rim in the fork of a small bushy tree or shrub, above ground. The clutch is one to four, with two being the average, pinkish eggs with dark reddish-brown blotches and spots, in size. The female incubates the eggs for 13 to 16 days before hatching. Both parents feed the chicks and remove the faecal sacs from the nest.
Diet
The eastern spinebill feeds on nectar from many plants, including the blooms of gum trees, mistletoes Amyema spp., Epacris longiflora, Epacris impressa (common heath), Correa reflexa, and various members of the Proteaceae such as Banksia ericifolia, Banksia integrifolia, Lambertia formosa and Grevillea speciosa, as well as small insects and other invertebrates. A 1982 study in the New England National Park in north-eastern New South Wales found that there was a large influx of birds coinciding with the start of flowering of Banksia spinulosa there. They have been known to feed from exotic plants such as fuchsias.
During periods of abundant flowering there may be periods of low nectar production, and it appears that the eastern spinebill responds to these periodic shortages by storing fat during periods of high nectar production, increasing the amount of time spent feeding, or dropping its day-time metabolic rate to night-time levels.
References
Citations
General and cited references
External links
Eastern spinebill at the Internet Bird Collection
eastern spinebill
Birds of New South Wales
Birds of Queensland
Birds of South Australia
Birds of Tasmania
Birds of Victoria (state)
Endemic birds of Australia
eastern spinebill | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern%20spinebill |
The superior ophthalmic vein is a vein of the orbit that drains venous blood from structures of the upper orbit. It is formed by the union of the angular vein, and supraorbital vein. It passes backwards within the orbit alongside the ophthalmic artery, then exits the orbit through the superior orbital fissure to drain into the cavernous sinus.
The superior ophthalmic vein can be a path for the spread of infection from the danger triangle of the face to the cavernous sinus and the pterygoid plexus. It may also be affected by an arteriovenous fistula of the cavernous sinus.
Structure
The superior ophthalmic vein - together with the inferior ophthalmic vein - represents the principal drainage system of the orbit (with the superior ophthalmic vein being the larger of the two). The superior ophthalmic vein drains venous blood from structures of the upper orbit. The superior ophthalmic vein forms/represents a connection between facial veins, and intracranial veins. It is valveless.
The superior ophthalmic vein is the largest and the most consistently present vein of the orbit. It usually measures 2-10 mm in diameter.
Origin
The superior ophthalmic vein is formed (depending upon the source) either by the union of the angular vein, and supraorbital vein, or by the union of two tributaries which connect anteriorly with the supraobrital vein, and the facial vein.
Its origin is situated within the orbit, near the superomedial orbital rim, posteromedial to the upper eyelid.
Course and relations
The superior ophthalmic vein is the only orbital vein whose course generally parallels the course of an orbital artery: it has a similar course as the ophthalmic artery (however, the latter instead exits the orbit through the optic canal).
Within the orbit, the superior ophthalmic vein passes posterior-ward alongside the ophthalmic artery. It passes inferior to the superior rectus muscle, running in between this muscle and the optic nerve. It runs across the optic nerve (CN II) to reach the superior portion of the superior orbital fissure through which it then exits the orbit to drain into the cavernous sinus. It usually passes superior to the common tendinous ring on its way out of the orbit.
Tributaries
Tributaries of the superior ophthalmic vein (may) include: the anterior ethmoidal vein and posterior ethmoidal vein, lacrimal vein, central retinal vein (sometimes), superior vorticose veins, medial palpebral veins, inferior ophthalmic vein (sometimes), and veins from the superior rectus muscle, superior oblique muscle, and medial rectus muscle.
The tributaries/territory drained by the superior ophthalmic vein is however somewhat variable.
Structures drained by the superior ophthalmic vein includes the frontal sinus.
Fate
The superior ophthalmic vein drains into the cavernous sinus.
Clinical significance
Cavernous sinus thrombosis
The medial angle of the eye, nose and lips (known as the danger triangle of the face) usually drain through the facial vein, via the superior ophthalmic vein through the cavernous sinus. An infection of the face may spread to the cavernous sinus through the superior ophthalmic vein. This can cause cavernous sinus thrombosis. This can lead to damage of the nerves running through the cavernous sinus.
Arteriovenous fistula
When arteriovenous fistula affects the cavernous sinus, blood flow may occur backwards in the superior ophthalmic vein. This can cause exophthalmos. This may be treated by embolising the superior ophthalmic vein.
See also
Inferior ophthalmic vein
References
External links
()
Veins of the head and neck | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superior%20ophthalmic%20vein |
The oblique order (also known as the 'declined flank') is a military tactic whereby an attacking army focuses its forces to attack a single enemy flank. The force commander concentrates the majority of their strength on one flank and uses the remainder to fix the enemy line. This allows a commander with weaker or equal forces to achieve a local superiority in numbers. The commander can then try to defeat the enemy in detail. It has been used by numerous successful generals. Oblique order required disciplined troops able to execute complex maneuvers in varied circumstances.
Detail
In the oblique order attack, the commander of the army would intentionally weaken one portion of the line to concentrate their troops elsewhere. They would then create an angled or oblique formation, refuse the weakened flank and attack the strongest flank of the enemy with a concentration of force. Once the critical flank was secure, the commander would wheel the troops 90 degrees to roll up the enemy line, and the angled formation would continue to advance. The echelons not involved in the assault served the important function of holding the rival army in check by remaining defensive and threatening, thus offering protection to the attacking echelons by keeping the enemy force occupied. On occasion both commanders would attempt the same tactic (e.g.the Diadochi trying to replicate Alexander's tactics). The oblique order was a tactic particularly favored by King Frederick II of Prussia.
Requirements and disadvantages
Proper execution of Frederick's oblique order involved three main requirements. First, each officer needed to know exactly how to form a battalion from "line to column, maintain its place in the column, and then redeploy either normally, or en echelon for the final attack." The next two necessities were that the soldiers marched in close formation, and in step. Cadenced marching had not been used since the days of the Roman Empire; however, uncadenced marching, or 'route step', required loose marching order to ensure that the soldiers did not bump into each other, and the oblique order could not have been implemented in such unstructured formations. Lastly, for the oblique order to be successful the leaders of the opposing forces had to be unaware of the Frederician technique, which could be countered by a quick response from them; the attack required a confused enemy army incapable of a rapid change in their deployment. Frederick's oblique order was born of the desire to overwhelm a weak point in the enemy line, thus allowing a smaller Prussian force superiority on the battlefield.
There were some dangers with attempting an oblique order in battle, namely the chance of opening up a fatal gap between the two wings, or that the two forces may completely lose contact. Moreover, the Frederician oblique order called for a long march, either through the night, or in the early hours of the morning of the assault, which meant that the advancing Prussian forces were almost always fatigued by the time they engaged their enemy. Another risky aspect of the oblique order was that it required total determination, as, once it was executed, the assaulting echelons would be deployed with no chance of being recalled.
History
Antiquity
The first recorded use of a tactic similar to the oblique order was in 371 BC at the Battle of Leuctra, when the Thebans under Epaminondas defeated the Spartans by reinforcing their left flank to fifty rows deep, rather than spreading their troops evenly across the front. This move might have had its origin in the previous Battle of Tegyra, where the Thebans under Pelopidas, a political ally to Epaminondas, placed their best troops in close array on the left flank. Philip of Macedon learned Epaminondas' technique while held prisoner at Thebes, and his successors, including Alexander the Great, used it in their campaigns.
Asclepiodotus mentions the so called oblique phalanx ( loxē phalanx) in his Tactica. Vegetius is known to have written about the tactic that became the oblique order of battle.
Medieval
A variation of the formation known as the hammer and anvil was used with devastating effect by Khalid ibn al-Walid in the Battle of Yarmouk AD 636. He massed all his cavalry behind his right flank, and led a combined cavalry-infantry assault on the Byzantine left, while simultaneously ordering his centre and left to make minor holding attacks and tie down the enemy center and right. Thus the Byzantine left was completely destroyed and with Byzantine cavalry driven off the battlefield, the center was enveloped, leading to a resounding Arab victory.
Early modern era
Subsequent military commanders in the early modern world again employed such tactics once they rediscovered the writings of antiquity. In the Battle of Breitenfeld, Imperial general Johann Tserclaes von Tilly made an oblique advance against the Swedish and Saxon forces of Gustavus Adolphus and was repulsed only due to the Swedes' superior combined arms tactics. Simon Goodenough wrote of Tilly's manoeuvre: "It was a manoeuvre worthy of Alexander the Great and Epaminondas and one that was to be repeated with startling success by Frederick the Great." Another imperial general, Raimondo Montecuccoli, who maintained that the best forces should always be positioned on the flanks with the more powerful wing initiating the attack, was the first of the more modern generals to employ tactics similar to the oblique order of battle, and Frederick II of Prussia was well aware of the texts of Montecuccoli.
The Battle of Rossbach in 1757 shows the oblique order at its worst and at its best. The large marginally trained and poorly disciplined Allied army attempted an ill-conceived and badly executed oblique attack on the Prussian left. The far smaller but highly trained and superbly disciplined Prussian army countered with a well-conceived and perfectly executed oblique attack of their own on the advancing Allied right. The apparent Prussian retreat goaded the Allies on, further disorganizing their dense columns already in disarray from the march. Using intense musket and cannon fire from the front and a charge from hidden cavalry in the flank and rear, the Prussians quickly destroyed the Allied right and routed their Army.
Prussian generals under Frederick the Great used the tactic in their own manner. The Prussian attacking army sent a strong advance force of infantry directly towards the enemy. The frontline troops occupied the attention of the enemy and the rest of the troops would maneuver behind it. They could also exploit any locally available obstacle, using hindering terrain or the smoke of cannon and musket fire to mask maneuvers. The Prussian cavalry would be stationed so as to cover the flank of the main body. Frederick even instructed his senior officers that numerical inferiority was indeed an advantage when it came to implementing 'his oblique order', as they could merely weaken one wing while reinforcing the other.
The main body of the army would then spread their forces to one side and deploy in an echelon (or the "oblique order"), spreading their firepower and attacking the stronger enemy flank with increasing pressure. The protective cavalry would then exploit any enemy collapse. Frederick first implemented his oblique order at the Battle of Hohenfriedberg, in 1745, with a subsequent major victory, despite numerical inferiority, at the Battle of Leuthen in 1757. It was in this decade, between the Silesian Wars and the Seven Years' War, that Frederick had his army perfect all the manoeuvres of the oblique order of battle.
The theoretical seeds of Frederick's oblique order can be seen in two of the Seelowitz Instructions' ('Instruction für die Cavalleire', 17 March, Oeuvres, XXX, 33; 'Disposition für die sämmtlichen Regimenter Infanterie', 25 March Oeuvres, XXX, 75) in March 1742. Members of the German General Staff maintained that Frederick was only dedicated to the oblique order after the Second Silesian War, with full-hearted application of the tactic in the Seven Years' War; however, Otto Herrman disputed the Staff Historians' insubstantial definitions of oblique order and claimed that Frederick had sought to utilize oblique at Mollwitz and Chotusitz. The most likely and poignant arguments for the advent of Fredrician oblique order came from Rudolf Keibel, who held that Frederick had indeed been implementing it since Hohenfriedberg.
Since the Austrians had been taught valuable lessons in the Wars for Silesia, Frederician tactics were, as Frederick knew from his informants, a subject of discussion in the Viennese cabinet, where Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor, remarked that 'Old Fritz' preferred a one-winged-attack style of warfare that burdened his troops heavily. Then, in 1760, official documents obtained in the capture of Major-General Gzettritz offered direct insight into Frederick's oblique tactics, meaning that Frederick could henceforth be engaged with a well-informed army capable of countering his tactics. Furthermore, the Prussian forces, being heavily fatigued by the time they reached their target, lacked the ability to repel a well-situated enemy, such as at Kunersdorf, or an enemy that made a sudden about-turn, such as at the Battle of Zorndorf or the Battle of Torgau.
References
Tactical formations
Theban hegemony | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oblique%20order |
Vinga is a small island outside Gothenburg's harbour entrance in Sweden. The 19th century Vinga Lighthouse is noted, not only as a beacon in the waterway of the Swedish west coast, but also as the place where the Swedish poet laureate Evert Taube grew up. Today Vinga is a tourist attraction, with boats to and from Gothenburg harbour.
Geology
The bedrock of Vinga is mostly made up of porphyrite (porfyrit), a volcanic rock with less Silicon dioxide, SiO2, than porphyry. The rock has a fine-grained structure, dark with lighter grains of feldspar and other minerals.
The mineralogical composition of the Vinga porphyry classifies it as a
monzogranite or quartz diorite. The northern part of the island contains orthopyroxene. The Vinga porphyry was created about 950 million years ago, when it penetrated the surrounding older gneiss rock.
References
Southern Gothenburg Archipelago
Listed buildings in Gothenburg
Islands of Västra Götaland County | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vinga%20%28Gothenburg%29 |
Sir Théodore Turquet de Mayerne (28 September 1573 – 22 March 1655) was a Genevan-born physician who treated kings of France and England and advanced the theories of Paracelsus.
The Young Doctor
Mayerne was born in a Huguenot family in Geneva, Republic of Geneva. His father was a Protestant French historian who had fled Lyon following the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre and his godfather was Theodore Beza. Mayerne's first wife was Marguerite de Boetslaer and they had three children.
Mayerne studied first in Geneve and later moved to the University of Heidelberg. Later he moved to Montpellier to study medicine, graduated 1596 and received his doctorate in 1597. His dissertation defended the use of chemical remedies in medicine, under the guidance of Joseph du Chesne; this was the first intimation of his interest in Paracelsian theories. In May 1599, Mayerne joined Henri de Rohan, a Huguenot nobleman very powerful in Brittany, on his grand tour of Europe, visiting Germany, Italy, Bohemia, the Netherlands, England, and Scotland. During their visit to London in October 1600, Rohan and Mayerne were received by Queen Elizabeth I at her court, and in November 1600, when they reached Edinburgh, they were received by King James VI, before returning to France in early 1601. Despite his austere Calvinism, Mayerne greatly admired the many works of art and architecture he saw in his travels in Germany and Italy, especially liking the paintings of Albrecht Dürer and the Kunstkammer in Munich of curios kept by the Duke of Bavaria.
The Paris Years
Mayerne moved to Paris, lecturer on anatomy and pharmacy and founded a medical practice. By that time he had begun to support the views of Paracelsus and used many chemical remedies. He kept detailed notes about his patients, among them Armand du Plessis, later Cardinal Richelieu, whom he treated for gonorrhea in 1605.
In 1600 French royal physician Jean Ribit de la Rivière (1571–1605) sponsored him to become one of the personal physicians, physician in ordinary, of the king Henri IV. His other pursuits were thwarted because he was not a Catholic and because most French physicians still followed the principles of Galen. In 1603 he tried to support his views to Medical Faculty of Paris, stating that his views were not opposed to Galenic and Hippocratic principles.
Despite their opposition, he retained the favour of the King, who appointed him to travel with the Duc de Rohan in his diplomatic missions to Germany and Italy. When the King intended to make Mayerne his first physician, the queen opposed the decision because Mayerne refused to convert to Catholicism. Mayerne continued in his lower post until 1606 when he sold it to another physician.
At this time he continued his association with du Chesne and the circle of Hermeticists that had grown up around him. These devotees of Paracelsus believed they were reviving the wisdom of the mythical pre-Platonic natural philosophers - men known as the prisci theologi that included Zoroaster and Hermes Trismegistus. The alchemical nature of their experiments was greatly resented by Galenists at the University of Paris.
In the same year he briefly visited England by invitation and met James I. He became a physician of Anne of Denmark and was incorporated at Oxford on April 8, 1606. He probably spent the following years back in France.
Life in England
When Henri IV was murdered in 1610, Mayerne moved to England, again by invitation. In 1611 he became first physician of James I and his queen, succeeding Martin Schöner. He also treated most members of the royal court, including Sir Robert Cecil and Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales. His inability to successfully treat those two individuals, together with his closeness to the scandal surrounding the murder of Sir Thomas Overbury coloured his first years in England. Nevertheless, he was sometimes sent on diplomatic missions to France.
Mayerne made extensive Latin notes describing his treatment of Anne of Denmark from 10 April 1612 to her death in 1619. Some of these were published in 1703.
In 1616 Mayerne was elected a Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians. He helped the Society of Apothecaries to obtain a royal charter separate from the Grocers and helped to found the Company of Distillers. He was knighted in 1624. Next year he briefly visited Switzerland, where he had become Baron Aubonne. Mayerne retained his post as a first physician after the accession of Charles I in 1625.
There were fears over the health of Henrietta Maria, and in July 1627 she travelled with Mayerne to take the medicinal spring waters at Wellingborough in Northamptonshire.
He successfully championed the effort to produce the first official pharmacopoeia, which would specify treatments that apothecaries should provide for specific ailments. In this he included chemical remedies, which were easier to introduce in Protestant England than in Catholic France.
In 1628 his wife died and in 1630 he married Elizabeth Joachimi. They had five children but only one daughter Marie from his first marriage survived to adulthood. At about this time he treated Oliver Cromwell for a variety of physical and emotional symptoms, including a severe depression. In response to the Plague of 1630, he suggested the institution of a centralized 'Office of Health', with free royal hospitals, trained officials, and regulatory power.
During the English Civil War Mayerne kept a low profile in his practice in London and retained the favour of the parliament. After the execution of Charles I in 1649, he became nominal physician to Charles II but soon retired to Chelsea.
Mayerne died at Chelsea on 22 March 1654 or 1655. He was buried in St Martin-in-the-Fields with most of his family and his godson Sir Theodore des Vaux sponsored a monument for him. Des Vaux later published Mayerne's medical notes in the book Praxis Medica in 1690.
Legacy
Mayerne compiled the so-called 'de Mayerne manuscript' between 1620 and 1646 based on conversations with painters (and others). The manuscript includes contributions from Rubens, van Dyck, Mytens, Paul van Somer, and Cornelius Johnson. His estate included copious amount of medical manuscripts, including detailed notes about his patients, most of it in Latin and French; his patients ranged from John Donne to Oliver Cromwell. His papers are kept in the Royal College of Physicians.
His influence on the administration of medicine - including the first suggestion of socialized medicine in England, and the standardisation of chemical cures, has been widely recognised.
His 'Paracelsian' outlook, which viewed the world as 'abounding in chemical secrets waiting to be exploited', led him to devise projects to enhance Scottish coal mines, to reopen lead mines in Europe and to monopolize oyster beds. He made chemical and physical experiments, created pigments and cosmetics, introduced calomel to medical use and created black-wash (lotio nigra). It also led him to an interest in cooking, and he grew obese in later years.
In 1634, he wrote the introduction for and edited one of the first treatises ever published on Insects (usually attributed to Thomas Muffet), under the title Insectorum, sive minimorum animalium Theatrum: Olim ab Edoardo Wottono, Conrado Gesnero, Thomaque Pennio inchoatum: Tandem Tho. Moufeti Londinâtis operâ sumptibusque maximis concinnatum, auctum, perfectum: Et ad vivum expressis Iconibus suprà quingentis illustratum. Londini ex Officinâ typographicâ Thom. Cotes. Et venales extant apud Benjam. Allen, in diverticulo, quod Anglicè dicitur Popes-head Alley.
In 1701 Joseph Browne produced an edition of Mayerne's Latin casebooks which includes details of medical treatments given to several courtiers, documents concerning the final illness of Prince Henry, and a journal of his consultations with Anne of Denmark and Henrietta Maria. The edition is some respects unreliable with misleading punctuation.
See also
Timeline of hydrogen technologies
Notes
References
Nance, Brian - Turquet de Mayerne as Baroque Physician: The Art of Medical Portraiture (Amsterdam, 2001)
Dipl.-Rest. Gudrun Bischoff: Das De Mayerne-Manuskript; Die Rezepte der Werkstoffe, Maltechniken und Gemälderestaurierung (German, published by Siegl, Munich, in 2004)
Kahn, Didier Alchimie et Paracelsisme en France à la fin de la Renaissance (1567-1625), Librairie Droz, 2007.
Trevor-Roper, Hugh Redwald Europe's physician: the various life of Sir Theodore de Mayerne, Yale University Press, 2006.
External links
Mayerne's notes in the Royal College of Physicians
Online Galleries, History of Science Collections, University of Oklahoma Libraries High resolution images of works by and/or portraits of Theodore de Mayerne in .jpg and .tiff format.
Physicians from the Republic of Geneva
Paracelsians
17th-century French physicians
Fellows of the Royal College of Physicians
1573 births
1650s deaths
Art technological sources
Court physicians
Swiss expatriates in France | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A9odore%20de%20Mayerne |
Pinal Shah (born 3 November 1987, in Baroda) was the wicket-keeper for India U19s World Cup squad. He is an able batsman and has played five first-class matches for Baroda scoring 377 runs, including a blistering 217* against Services in early 2006. He usually bats in the middle-order, but has also opened on occasions.
Shah has played 11 U19 ODI matches for India but has been unable to reproduce the batting form that he has shown so far in his short career with Baroda, his highest score being just 19. He has taken 23 catches at ODI level and is guaranteed a place in the starting eleven for the Under 19 World Cup as he is the squad's specialist wicket-keeper.
References
cricinfo
Indian cricketers
Living people
1987 births
Mumbai Indians cricketers
Rajasthan Royals cricketers
West Zone cricketers
Baroda cricketers
Wicket-keepers | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinal%20Shah |
Shanghai has an expansive grade-separated highway and expressway network consisting of 16 municipal express roads, 10 provincial-level expressways, and 8 national-level expressways. Three municipal expressways and four provincial-level expressways are also under construction.
Municipal express roads
Most municipal express roads are found in the inner districts of Shanghai, including several elevated highways which run directly above surface-level roadways. In Chinese, these expressways are literally termed city high-speed roadways (), and their maximum speed is typically . These are still considered expressways or controlled-access highways because of the presence of ramps, grade-separated junctions, and the absence of traffic lights. Most of these expressways are elevated and run above a lower-speed roadway. The Inner Ring Road is a beltway, while the Middle Ring Road, once fully constructed, will also be a beltway.
Primary express roads
These are primary express roads that form a major backbone of expressways within the city core. Of these four, the Inner Ring, North–South, and Yan'an Elevated Roads form a 申 (a Chinese abbreviation for Shanghai) shape. The Middle Ring forms a second orbital surrounding the Inner Ring Elevated Road, but is not yet fully complete.
Auxiliary express roads
These are other express roads that serve as part of the municipal expressway network. Of these, six belong to the Hongqiao Comprehensive Transportation Hub, a network of municipal expressways serving Shanghai Hongqiao Railway Station and Shanghai Hongqiao International Airport.
Provincial expressways
Designations for provincial-level and federal-level expressways in Shanghai had the letter prefix A before the number of the expressway. Starting at the Yingbin Expressway, which was designated the number 1, the numbers increased clockwise around the city. For ring expressways, the designations A20, A30, A40, etc., were used. For expressways connecting to other provinces which already had national designations (beginning with the letter G), designations with the letter A were attached.
In August 2009, Shanghai replaced its system of naming expressways with the prefix A with the letter prefix S, in order to conform to the standard designations for provincial-level highways within China. The S means Shengdao, or provincial-level roads. The letter prefix A was abolished.
National expressways
National highways and expressways in Shanghai both have the prefix G, an abbreviation for Guodao (), which literally means National roads. It is important to note that both grade-separated, controlled-access expressways and normal at-grade highways both have the prefix G. Only the national-level expressways are mentioned here. National-highways which are at grade and not controlled-access are also found in Shanghai, and these include G204, G312, G318, and G320. Expressways also have green-coloured signs while their highway counterparts have red-coloured signs.
Yangtze River fixed crossing
Shanghai has one bridge-tunnel crossing spanning the Yangtze Delta to the north of the city. The G40 Shanghai–Xi'an Expressway follows the Shanghai Yangtze River Tunnel from Pudong to Changxing Island, and then over the Shanghai Yangtze River Bridge from Changxing to Chongming Island and finally via the Chongming–Qidong Yangtze River Bridge from Chongming to Qidong in Jiangsu Province on the north bank of the river. A second fixed crossing is planned to the west of this bridge, and will become part of the S7 Shanghai–Chongming Expressway.
References | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expressways%20of%20Shanghai |
François Antoine "Charles" Lallemand (23 June 1774 – 9 March 1839) was a French general who served Napoleon I of France, tried to found a colony in what is now Texas, and finally returned to France to serve as governor of Corsica.
Biography
Early years
Lallemand was born in Metz, France. He joined the cavalry in 1792 and during the French Revolution served in France, Egypt, Santo Domingo and Spain. In 1801 he was for three weeks a prisoner aboard after the French defeat in Egypt. Cameleons captain was Commander Frederick Lewis Maitland, whom Lallemand would meet again in 1815 in connection with Napoleon's surrender. In 1804 Lallemand married a 16-year-old creole named Marie Charlotte Henriette Lartique (known as Caroline) in New York.
Military career
By 1811 he had earned promotion to General of Brigade, the title of Baron and commandant in the Legion of Honor. In 1812, while leading 17th and 29th regiments of dragoons in Spain, he was defeated by British cavalry under Stapleton Cotton at the Battle of Villagarcia, but later defeated a British heavy cavalry brigade under John Slade at the Battle of Maguilla. see Major-general Slade's report of a battle in the London Gazette. After the retreat from Moscow he served on the staff of Marchal Davout Louis-Nicolas Davout with the XIIIth Cops in Hamburg. During the campaign of the fall af 1813 he served with the Danish troops supporting Napoleon in North Germany, commanding the 30th Light Cavalry Brigade consisting of two squadrons of the 28th French regiment Chasseurs á Cheval and three squadrons 17th (Lithuanian) regiment Lanciers Polonaise. He then commanded a mixed French- Danish Arrieregard; Four squadrons Holstenske Rytter Regiment, 17th (Lithuanian) Regiment Lanciers Polonaise, one battalion Slesvigske Jægerkorps and two battalions Holstenske Skarpskytte Regiment. He received the Grand Cross of the Order of Dannebrog.
When Napoleon was defeated and exiled the first time Lallemand joined the army of Louis XVIII. In 1815 he and his brother Henri tried to lead a rebellion against the Bourbon government but were arrested. When Napoleon returned from Elba to start the Hundred Days, he released them and gave them both commands in the Imperial Guard—Henri commanded the Foot Artillery Regiment and Charles the Chasseurs à Cheval—and the brevet rank of Général de Division. After the Battle of Waterloo, Lallemand accompanied Napoleon to Rochefort, where Napoleon surrendered. Lallemand tried to follow Napoleon into exile but the British refused that and imprisoned him in Malta for two months before he escaped.
Lallemand and other Bonapartist officers were condemned to death in absentia. The Lallemand brothers were not included in the later amnesties.
America colonies
Lallemand arrived in Boston in the ship Triton, from Liverpool, under the assumed name of Gen. Cotting. According to the New York Columbian of April 29, 1817, quoting from the Evening Post, he was smuggled on board the Triton at Liverpool. "On leaving the river, as the Custom House boat passed from ship to ship to examine the rolls, the General was passed in a boat to and from several ships, so as to evade the boarding officer." The next day, April 30, 1817, the Columbian reported: "two more of Bonaparte's late officers have arrived at Boston, from Leghorn--Dufresne Cyprion and Liell Memon." Lallemand, at Philadelphia, became a president of the French Emigrant Association, an organization that gained a grant of four townships in what is now Alabama for a Vine and Olive Colony. There were rumors that Lallemands would try to rescue Napoleon or put his brother Joseph on a throne in South America.
The Alabama land grants were sold to finance another colony in Texas. The planned Texas colony, Champ d'Asile ("Field of Asylum") was meant for defeated Napoleonic veterans. Lallemand stated in public that the colony would have military men only for protection; otherwise it would concentrate on agriculture.
On December 17, 1817 150 would-be-settlers sailed from Philadelphia for Galveston, Texas, where they arrived on January 14. Lallemand and his brother reached New Orleans, Louisiana on February 2, 1818, gathered new recruits and on March 10 left for Galveston with 120 volunteers. They sailed up the Trinity River to Atascosito where they built two small forts.
However, the Mexican governor Antonio Maria Martinez heard about the French, prepared an expedition to the Trinity River and stationed a force at San Marcos to guard against possible attacks. When the French heard about this move, they abandoned Champ d'Asile around July 24 and fled to Galveston. Lallemand abandoned the colony and returned to New Orleans. Jean Lafitte and Amable Humbert helped some of the survivors to return to Louisiana and the rest walked back to New Orleans in August 1818.
Lallemand later became a United States citizen. Napoleon left him 100,000 francs in his will and Lallemand used it to cover his debts.
Return to France
After Louis-Philippe restored the old imperial military grades after the July Revolution of 1830, Lallemand returned to France. From 1837-1838, he served as military governor of Corsica. Charles Lallemand died in Paris in 1839.
In popular culture
Historical novelist C.S. Forrester provides a fictional version of Lallemand's design to colonize Texas as the first step to liberate Napoleon from exile in St. Helena in the first episode of Admiral Hornblower in the West Indies.
He is a minor character in Eric Flint's alternate history novel 1824: The Arkansas War. He serves as one of the leaders in an armed mob led by Robert Crittenden and is killed along with his brother in a battle at Arkansas Post.
Phillipe, a main character in Honoré de Balzac's novel, The Black Sheep, is a participant in Lallemand's Champ d'Asile colonisation.
References
Bibliography
Fletcher, Ian. Galloping at Everything, Spellmount (Staplehurst, 1999).
External links
Generals of the First French Empire
People sentenced to death in absentia
People of Spanish Texas
Texas border disputes
Grand Officers of the Legion of Honour
Knights of the Order of Saint Louis
1774 births
1839 deaths
French military personnel of the French Revolutionary Wars
Names inscribed under the Arc de Triomphe | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois%20Antoine%20Lallemand |
Alexander Howland Smith (16 March 1859 – 3 May 1913), also known as the "Antique Smith", was a Scottish document forger in the 1880s. His forgeries still surface today.
Methods
Howland Smith began his forging career in the 1880s in his native Edinburgh. At first, he began to visit second hand bookshops and bought all kinds of old books with blank fly leaves. He always carried them home himself, a habit that some bookshop owners thought unusual, since the books were old and heavy. When these materials ran out, he resorted to modern paper.
Smith began to sell his forgeries in 1886 and continued for the next five years. He sold them to bookshops, auctions and pawnshops, usually at modest prices.
Smith forged manuscripts from various historical people, such as Mary, Queen of Scots; Oliver Cromwell; and Sir Walter Scott. Smith forged the signatures without tracing the originals. He created poems, autographs and historical letters. He made the documents appear old by dipping them in weak tea.
Afterwards experts said that the forgeries were very clumsy and should have not deceived anyone. Letters were dated wrongly, sometimes after the death of their supposed writer, and had been written on modern paper with new writing implements.
Rillbank collection
In May 1891 manuscript collector James Mackenzie decided to sell some of the letters of his Rillbank Collection by auction in Edinburgh. Before the start of the auction, the auctioneer stated that some people had claimed that the items were forgeries and refused to personally vouch for them, which significantly decreased the prices.
Three months later Mackenzie published one old letter, supposedly from the poet Robert Burns, in the Cumnock Express newspaper. One reader of the paper found out that the person the letter had been addressed to, weaver John Hill, had never existed and begun to suspect the authenticity of the whole collection. Colvill Scott of Surrey, historical document expert, also announced that there were dozens of letter forgeries all over Scotland.
Mackenzie answered by publishing two unpublished poems purporting to be by Burns in the paper. Another reader noticed that one of them, The Poor Man's Prayer, had been published when Burns had been only a child and was the work of William Hayward Roberts, who had also written the other poem.
When Mackenzie was asked how he had acquired the letters, he claimed that he had found them in a secret drawer in an old cabinet. Contemporaries did not believe him. He had probably bought all of them in Edinburgh and it is unclear whether he knew them to be forgeries or not. He was not charged with anything.
James Stillie
An American collector, who had bought 2020 letters from a manuscript seller, James Stillie, in Edinburgh, heard the rumors about forgeries and sent them to the British Museum to be verified. The museum's handwriting experts found out that at least 201 of them were forgeries. The American charged Stillie in the Court of Session and demanded that Stillie return the $750 he had paid for the letters. Stillie pleaded mercy because of poor health and the American withdrew the suit. Stillie probably knew the letters were fakes.
Unraveling begins
In November 1892 the Edinburgh Evening Dispatch published articles about the forgeries, including facsimiles of some of the notes that had been with the letters. One reader recognized the handwriting of a clerk he knew as Alexander Howland Smith. Smith had been working in various law offices in Edinburgh and dealt in ephemera and old documents.
When police questioned Smith, he said that he had been employed as a chief clerk of the lawyer Thomas Henry Ferrie, who had asked him to get rid of old documents in the cellars of his law office. Smith had taken them home, found them to be valuable and begun to sell them. When the supply had run out, he had begun to create new forgeries. He claimed that he could create any kind of document. Smith was arrested.
Trial and sentence
On 26 June 1893 Smith's trial begun in the High Court of Justiciary. He was not charged with forgery but selling the forgeries under false pretences. One of the witnesses was a bookseller Bristo Brown, who had bought large number of Smith's letters and said that he had believed them to be genuine.
The jury convicted Smith but recommended leniency and he was sentenced to 12 months in prison.
The exact amount of Smith's forgeries is unknown. They were widely sold in the British Isles and abroad and are still occasionally sold as real in the British Isles and the USA.
References
David Fergus - Antique Smith the Affable Forger
Forgers
Scottish fraudsters
Criminals from Edinburgh
People convicted of fraud
1859 births
1913 deaths
19th-century Scottish businesspeople | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander%20Howland%20Smith |
The Holy Sepulchre is a Norman round church in Sheep Street, Northampton, England. It is a Grade I listed building. Dating from circa 1100, it was possibly built by Simon de Senlis, Earl of Northampton.
There are four medieval round churches still in use in England; the others are: Holy Sepulchre, Cambridge; Temple Church, London; and St John the Baptist, Little Maplestead, Essex.
The Church of the Holy Sepulchre (Northampton) Restoration Trust was established in 1982 as a registered charity.
Inspiration
Simon de Senlis, Earl of Northampton, was responsible for making Northampton a Norman stronghold by building Northampton Castle (now destroyed) and a town wall (approximately on the site of the present inner ring road). It is also probable that he was responsible for the building of All Hallows Church by the market place in the centre of Northampton and the church of the Holy Sepulchre to the north.
In around 1096, Simon de Senlis joined the First Crusade to the Holy Land. There he would have seen the Church of the Holy Sepulchre near the centre of Jerusalem. He would have seen it as a round church supported on eighteen columns or piers with an ambulatory around the perimeter on the west of the church, and the well attested site of Christ's tomb at the centre. There would have been four apses at each of the cardinal points, and on the east side there would have been a facade, so that the east apse was accessible directly from the rotunda. After restoration, this church is what would have remained of a 4th-century church built by Constantine I.
It is likely that after his return to Northampton, Simon de Senlis built the "Holy Sepulchre" in Northampton, ca 1100. It is approximately half the size of the church in Jerusalem. The original church of about 1100 had a round nave of 8 columns, supporting a triforium. An ambulatory ran round the perimeter. The remains of a Norman window in the present nave, however, suggests that the original round church had a chancel to the east, probably apse-ended.
A North aisle was added circa 1180 and second North aisle was added circa 1275. During the early 15th century, a South aisle was built, the triforium of the round nave was replaced by a clerestory, and a Western tower was added.
Original building
Crusades and pilgrimages continued to the Holy Land, resulting in further building of round churches in England, and around thirty years after the building of the Holy Sepulchre, Northampton, a similar Holy Sepulchre church was built in Cambridge which, although smaller than the one in Northampton, may be indicative of the original church.
The entrance of the Round Church in Cambridge is through a west round-arched doorway. The entrance to the Northampton church may have been similar, as the south porch is of a much later date and, in the 14th century, a tower and spire was added to the west of the round church. On entering the church at Cambridge, the plan is similar with eight large round piers, but unlike the church in Northampton, the ambulatory is vaulted with a gallery above. The piers support Norman round arches and there is Norman dog-tooth or zig-zag decoration throughout.
At the Holy Sepulchre, Northampton, three original Norman windows survive: one to the left of the south porch at low level and two on the north at high level. The fact that windows are positioned at two different levels indicates there would have been a gallery. Evidence of a corbel running round the perimeter supports the argument, but unlike Cambridge, there are no springers to suggest the form of vaulting. There are no gallery openings in the rotunda at high level and the piers support pointed arches characteristic of a more later architecture than the Norman round arches.
The church at Cambridge has a conical stone-slated roof. In the nineteenth century it was restored as was expected to be in keeping with the original Norman design. The Holy Sepulchre, Northampton, presently has a slightly flatter lead roof and it is likely that the roof was originally as the roof at Cambridge.
Alterations
Throughout the ages, a nave, chancel and aisles were added to the east of the round church at Northampton, and in the nineteenth century, the prolific architect Sir George Gilbert Scott was involved in extensive restoration to bring the church into its present state. The chancel screen is by John Oldrid Scott, 1880.
Clergy
John de Bothby
Robert Sibthorpe from 1619
Edward Pierce, 1660 to 1663
Peter Whalley, 1748 to 1762
Burials
Lochlann, Lord of Galloway
References
Cox, Rev. Charles, and Serjeantson, Rev. R. M. (1897) History of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre Northampton.
External links
Church of the Holy Sepulchre website
Church of the Holy Sepulchre (Northampton) Restoration Trust
Detailed historical record for the Holy Sepulchre, Northampton
Grade I listed churches in Northamptonshire
Holy Sepulchre
12th-century church buildings in England
Round churches in England
English churches with Norman architecture | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Holy%20Sepulchre%2C%20Northampton |
Hermann Görtz (also anglicised as Goertz; 15 November 1890 – 23 May 1947) was a German spy in Britain and Ireland before and during World War II, liaising with the Irish Republican Army (IRA). After the war, he committed suicide rather than be deported from Ireland to Germany.
Background
Hermann Görtz was born in the port city of Lübeck in northern Germany on 15 November 1890. Few details are available about his service in World War I, but it is thought he fought on the Eastern Front against Russia before being wounded around Christmas 1914, later receiving the Iron Cross first class for valour.
He joined the Imperial German Air Service in 1915. He trained as a pilot and served as a reconnaissance officer, but after he showed a talent for interrogation of captured enemies, he was promoted to the rank of Captain as an interrogations officer by the end of the war. Görtz served alongside Hermann Göring, who would go on to become head of the Luftwaffe. The most notable moment in Görtz's first military career seems to have come after the Armistice – it was said he was responsible for persuading Göring not to burn the planes in his squadron before the enemy forces impounded them.
Following the war, Görtz joined the Freikorps and married Ellen Aschenborn, the daughter of Admiral Richard Aschenborn. Görtz earned a doctorate in international law, which led to frequent travel abroad. It was during a trip to Ireland in 1927 that he developed an affection for the country. The visit may have been part of a study of the legal relationships forming between Ireland and the United Kingdom at that time. Görtz was known to show an interest in Irish politics; during conferences in America Görtz would converse with members of Clan na Gael, an Irish republican group based in the United States whose members opposed the Anglo-Irish Treaty. Görtz sympathised, viewing the treaty in the same light as the treaties imposed upon Germany at the time.
First trip to Broadstairs
Hermann Görtz arrived in Britain on 29 August 1935 with a secretary, Marianne Emig. They spent a few weeks in Suffolk and eventually moved to Broadstairs and rented a house. There they befriended British airman Kenneth Lewis and through him began to collect information about the RAF Manston air base. Emig asked for letters of Royal Air Force stationery and photographs of the planes and aerial views.
When Lewis became concerned that he might be passing military information, she assured him that Britain and Germany would be on the same side in the next war. Lewis later testified that he was surprised at how much the couple already knew about the RAF.
Near the end of their six-week tenancy, Görtz visited Germany and telegraphed his landlady Mrs Johnson that he would be gone for two days, asking her to take care of his belongings in the outhouse, including his ‘bicycle combination’. Görtz had meant his overalls, but Mrs Johnson thought he was referring to his Zündapp motorcycle.
Mrs Johnson checked the outhouse, did not find the motorbike and reported to police that it had disappeared. When police investigated the apparent theft, they found sketches and documents about Manston airfield. When Görtz returned to Britain three weeks later, police arrested him at Harwich. Emig had stayed behind in Germany.
Görtz was detained in Brixton prison. Police accused him of offences against the Official Secrets Act (effectively for espionage). The trial at the Old Bailey began in March 1936 and attracted much publicity. Görtz pleaded not guilty and claimed the documents were part of his research for an intended book about the growth of the RAF. He intended to write the book to pay off his creditors. Marianne Emig refused to come to England to testify for Görtz's defence, fearing she would be tried as well.
According to evidence, including letters Görtz had sent his wife, it appeared that Görtz had been acting independently, possibly to impress the German intelligence service. He had already unsuccessfully applied for a position in the German Air Ministry. Further evidence also showed that he had been involved in the interrogation of Allied prisoners at the end of World War I.
Görtz was convicted and sentenced to four years of prison for espionage and sent to Maidstone Prison. In February 1939, he was released and deported to Germany. The Abwehr eventually did employ him and he reached the rank of major.
Plan Kathleen
In the summer of 1940, Görtz parachuted into Ballivor, County Meath, Ireland (Operation Mainau) in an effort to gather information. He moved in with former IRA leader Jim O'Donovan. His mission was to act as a liaison officer with the IRA and enlist their assistance during a potential German occupation of Britain.
However, he soon decided that the IRA was too unreliable. On landing, he lost the 'Ufa' transmitter he had parachuted with. Görtz, attired in a Luftwaffe uniform, then walked to Dublin. He was not apprehended despite calling into a Garda barracks in County Wicklow, asking for directions to Dublin.
In Dublin, Görtz stayed at a safe house at 245 Templeogue Road in Templeogue and other properties during 19 months at liberty. These include houses in Spencer Villas, Glenageary; Charlemont Avenue, Dún Laoghaire; Nerano Road, Dalkey; Winton Avenue, Rathmines; and a period house in Shankill, County Dublin. He stayed for a month at Brittas Bay, and more briefly at Laragh Castle, Glendalough, County Wicklow, Fenit, County Kerry and Mount Nugent, County Cavan.
In May 1940, the Gardaí raided the home of an IRA member of German descent, Stephen Carroll Held, who had been working with Görtz, at his house at Blackheath Park, Clontarf. They confiscated a parachute, papers, Görtz's World War I medals, and a number of documents about the defence infrastructure of Ireland. The papers they took included files on possible military targets in Ireland, such as airfields and harbours, as well as details of Plan Kathleen—an IRA plan for the invasion of Northern Ireland with the support of the Nazi military. Held had brought this plan to Germany prior to Görtz's departure but his superiors had dismissed it as unfeasible.
Görtz went into hiding, staying with sympathizers in the Wicklow area and purposefully avoided contact with IRA safehouses. He remained at large for 18 months. When IRA member Pearse Paul Kelly visited Görtz's hiding place in Dublin in November 1941, police arrested them both.
Görtz was interned in Mountjoy Prison then in Custume Barracks, Athlone until release at the end of the war. He then lived in Glenageary and became secretary of the Save the German Children Society. He was rearrested the following year and served with a deportation order by the Minister for Justice. To prevent deportation he claimed to have been in the SS rather than a lieutenant in the Luftwaffe. This claim was disproved by Irish Military Intelligence (G2).
On Friday, 23 May 1947, he arrived at the Aliens’ Office in Dublin Castle at 9.50 am and was told he was being deported to Germany the next day. Although it had been stated to him that the Irish government had specifically requested that he not be handed over to the Soviets, he committed suicide.
The Irish Times reported that he: “Stared disbelievingly at the detective officers. Then suddenly, he took his hand from his trouser pocket, swiftly removed his pipe from between his lips, and slipped a small glass phial into his mouth. One of the police officers sprang at Görtz as he crunched the glass with his teeth. The officer got his hands around Görtz’s neck but failed to prevent most of the poison, believed to be prussic acid, from passing down his throat. Within a few seconds, Görtz collapsed.” He was driven to Mercer's Hospital and died there shortly after arrival.
Görtz was buried three days later in Dean’s Grange Cemetery, his funeral was attended by Dan Breen and Charles McGuinness. In 1974 his remains were transferred to the German Military Cemetery, Glencree, County Wicklow.
Media
In 1983, RTÉ made the dramatised television series Caught in a Free State about German spies in Ireland.
See also
Helmut Clissmann
Irish Republican Army – Abwehr collaboration in World War II – Main article on IRA Nazi links
The Emergency – the term used for World War II in neutral Ireland
References
External links
Dr Görtz the Manston Spy
Görtz in the British National Archives
Radio documentary
1890 births
1947 suicides
20th-century Freikorps personnel
World War II spies for Germany
Burials in the Republic of Ireland
Abwehr personnel of World War II
German Army personnel of World War I
Suicides by cyanide poisoning
Prisoners and detainees of the United Kingdom
German people imprisoned abroad
People deported from the United Kingdom
Military personnel from Lübeck
Recipients of the Iron Cross (1914), 1st class
Luftstreitkräfte personnel
Alumni of the University of Edinburgh
German lawyers
Siemens people
Nazis who died by suicide in prison custody
People convicted of spying for Nazi Germany
Prisoners who died in Irish detention
People interned during World War II | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann%20G%C3%B6rtz |
Dido Elizabeth Belle (June 1761 – July 1804) was a free black British gentlewoman. She was born into slavery and illegitimate; her mother, Maria Belle, was an enslaved Black woman in the British West Indies. Her father was Sir John Lindsay, a British career naval officer who was stationed there. Her father was knighted and promoted to admiral. Lindsay took Belle with him when he returned to England in 1765, entrusting her upbringing to his uncle William Murray, 1st Earl of Mansfield, and his wife Elizabeth Murray, Countess of Mansfield. The Murrays educated Belle, bringing her up as a free gentlewoman at their Kenwood House, together with another great-niece, Lady Elizabeth Murray, whose mother had died. Lady Elizabeth and Belle were second cousins. Belle lived there for 30 years. In his will of 1793, Lord Mansfield provided an outright sum and an annuity to her.
Early life
Dido Elizabeth Belle was born into slavery in 1761 in the British West Indies to an enslaved African woman known as Maria Belle. (Her name was spelled as Maria Bell in her daughter's baptism record.) Her father was 24-year-old Sir John Lindsay, a member of the Lindsay family of Evelix branch of the Clan Lindsay and a descendant of the Clan Murray, who was a career naval officer and then captain of the British warship HMS Trent, based in the West Indies. He was the son of Sir Alexander Lindsay, 3rd Baronet and his wife Amelia, daughter of David Murray, 5th Viscount Stormont. Lindsay is thought to have found Dido's mother Maria Belle held as a slave on a Spanish ship which his forces captured in the Caribbean. Maria Belle was a 14-year-old child slave when she was captured, around the same time she got pregnant by Sir John Lindsay, and gave birth to Dido when she was about 15 years old. Her age was confirmed by the Pensacola property record about her later life: "the manumission transaction for ‘the sum of two hundred Spanish milled dollars ... paid by Maria Belle a Negro Woman Slave about 28 years of age" dated 22 August 1774; this confirmed that Maria Belle was about 14 when Dido was conceived.
Sir John Lindsay returned to London after the war in 1765 presumably with his young daughter, Dido Belle, and her mother, Maria Belle. After they arrived in England for sometimes, he presumably took her to Kenwood House just outside the city, the home of his uncle, William Murray, 1st Earl of Mansfield, and his wife Elizabeth Murray, Countess of Mansfield. Belle was baptised as Dido Elizabeth Belle in 1766 at St George's, Bloomsbury by her mother Maria Belle but Sir John Lindsay was absent from the baptism. The Murray family raised Belle as an educated woman along with their niece and Dido's cousin, Lady Elizabeth Murray, whose German mother had died.
Sir John Lindsay married Mary Milner, daughter of Sir William Milner in 1768. They had no children together. Maria Belle was known to have remained in England with Lindsay until 1774, when Lindsay having made her free and paid for her manumission, also transferred a piece of property in Pensacola to Maria, where she was required to build a house within 10 years, Maria Belle appeared in the Pensacola property record and her manumission paper.
Sir John Lindsay would father a total of five illegitimate children from five different women. Dido Belle in June 1761, John Edward Lindsay on 9 February 1762, Ann in November 1766, Elizabeth Lindsay (later Palmer) in December 1766, and John Lindsay in November 1767. Only the latter two were named in his will.
A contemporary obituary of Sir John Lindsay, who had eventually been promoted to admiral, acknowledged that he was the father of Dido Belle, and described her: "[H]e has died, we believe, without any legitimate issue but has left one natural daughter, a Mulatta who has been brought up in Lord Mansfield's family almost from her infancy and whose amiable disposition and accomplishments have gained her the highest respect from all his Lordship's relations and visitants." At one time, historians thought her mother was an African slave on a ship captured by Lindsay's warship during the Siege of Havana, but this specific date is unlikely, as Dido was born in 1761.The obituary also failed to mention the existence of John and Elizabeth Lindsay named in Sir John Lindsay's will.
At Kenwood House
The Earl and Countess of Mansfield lived at Kenwood House in Hampstead, just outside the City of London. Childless, they were already raising their motherless great-niece, Lady Elizabeth Murray, born in 1760. It is possible that the Mansfields took Belle in to be Lady Elizabeth's playmate and, later in life, her personal attendant. As a result, Dido was baptised eight months after Lady Elizabeth's arrival. Her role within the family suggests that Belle became more that of a lady's companion than a lady's maid.
At Kenwood House, Dido Elizabeth Belle would work as an amanuensis for Lord Mansfield in his later years.
Belle lived at Kenwood House for 31 years. Her position was unusual because she had been born into slavery according to colonial law. Lord and Lady Mansfield to some extent treated her and brought her up as a member of the Murray family. As she grew older, she often assisted Mansfield by taking dictation of his letters, which showed she had been educated.
One of Mansfield's friends, American Thomas Hutchinson, a former governor of Massachusetts who as a Loyalist had moved to London, recalled in his personal diary a visit to Kenwood in 1779 that Belle "was called upon by my Lord every minute for this thing and that, and showed the greatest attention to everything he said". He described her as "neither handsome nor genteel – pert enough". He also talked about his first impressions of her at Lord Mansfield's house, saying "A Black came in after dinner and sat with the ladies, and after coffee, walked with the company in the gardens, one of the young ladies having her arm within the other. She had a very high cap, and her wool was much frizzled in her neck, but not enough to answer the large curls now in fashion. I knew her history before, but my Lord mentioned it again. Sir Lindsay, having taken her mother prisoner in a Spanish vessel, brought her to England, where she delivered of this girl, of which she was then with child, and which was taken care of by Lord M., and has been educated by his family. He calls her Dido, which I suppose is all the name she has. He knows he has been reproached for showing a fondness for her – I dare say not criminal". From Lord Mansfield's statement to Hutchinson, Mansfield seemed to have disguised the fact that Dido was his own great niece from the Governor, which created an implication that Hutchinson thought she was Mansfield's mistress. Such a relationship would have been common in the West Indies as his diary implied "I dare say not criminal".
A brief reference to Belle occurs in volume II of James Beattie's Elements of Moral Science. Beattie refers to her intelligence, saying "But I happened, a few days after, to see his theory overturned, and my conjecture established by a negro girl about ten years old, who had been six years in England, and not only spoke with the articulation and accent of a native, but repeated some pieces of poetry, with a degree of elegance, which would have been admired in any English child of her years." Following this is a footnote which states, "She was in Lord Mansfield's family; and at his desire, and in his presence, repeated those pieces of poetry to me. She was called Dido, and I believe is still alive." This and the quotations from Thomas Hutchinson are some of the few direct references to Dido found in primary source material. However, neither Beattie nor Hutchinson were aware of Dido's familial ties to Lord Mansfield.
Lord Mansfield ruled on a related matter of the status of slaves in England in his capacity as Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales. When called on in 1772 to judge Somerset v Stewart, the case of an escaped slave whose owner wanted to send him back to the West Indies for sale, Mansfield tried hard to prevent the case coming to trial, Mansfield also suggest to Somerset's abolitionist protectors to buy him from Stewart, they refused. The case went for trial and he decreed:
Mansfield's ruling that slavery did not exist in common law and had never been introduced by positive law. he later said his decision was intended only to apply to the slave at issue in the case. Mansfield's ruling may have warned for some slave owner to not bring their slaves to England, but it didn't stop slavery law in the colony. Later his ruling was used by the abolitionists to argue that slavery was abolished in England.
At the time, it was suggested that Mansfield's personal experience with raising Dido Belle influenced his decision. Thomas Hutchinson later recalled a comment by a slave-owner: "A few years ago there was a cause before his Lordship brought by a Black for recovery of his liberty. A Jamaica planter, being asked what judgment his Lordship would give [answered] 'No doubt... he will be set free, for Lord Mansfield keeps a Black in his house which governs him and the whole family.'"
Social position
The notion of a mixed-race child born in this era to be raised as part of an aristocratic British family was virtually unheard of, and the social conventions of Mansfield's household are somewhat unclear. A 2007 exhibit at Kenwood suggests that Dido's African origins may have played a part in the disparity, yet it was also usual to treat illegitimate children as lesser family, therefore she wasn't permitted to dine in with guests, as was reported by Thomas Hutchinson. He said Belle joined the ladies afterwards for coffee in the drawing-room. In 2014, author Paula Byrne wrote that Belle's exclusion from this particular dinner was pragmatic rather than the custom. She notes that other aspects of Belle's life, such as being given expensive medical treatments and luxurious bedroom furnishings, were evidence of her position as Lady Elizabeth's equal at Kenwood.
As Belle grew older, she took on the responsibility of managing the dairy and poultry yards at Kenwood. This was a typical occupation for ladies of the gentry, but helping her uncle with his correspondence was less usual. This was normally done by a male secretary or a clerk. However, Elizabeth was never recorded managing dairy or poultry yards. Thomas Hutchinson also remarked on Dido's position in 1779 "She is a sort of Superintendent over the dairy, poultry yard, &c., which we visited, and she was called upon by my Lord every minute for this thing and that, and shewed the greatest attention to everything he said."
Although Lady Elizabeth attended Royal balls and parties with her father, Dido apparently wasn't allowed to attend. Dido was even absent from the ball thrown by Elizabeth's stepmother in 1782. Lord Mansfield would also take Elizabeth riding with him to visit their neighbours, as noted by Mrs. Boscawen, but not Dido.
Belle was also given an annual allowance of £20, additional of £5 for birthday and Christmas. By contrast, Lady Elizabeth received £100, not including birthday and other gifts, as the only surviving account book started just as Lady Elizabeth was leaving to be married, but Lady Elizabeth was an heiress in her own right through her mother's aristocratic family. Belle, quite apart from her race, was illegitimate, in a time and place when great social stigma usually accompanied such status. Dido's allowance was also given quarterly which means she received £5 every 3 months, while Lady Elizabeth received £50 every 6 months, this would had further limited Dido's purchasing power compared to Elizabeth's at any given time.
For comparison, the annual wage of a female domestic worker holding the position of a housekeeper in a high-status household ranged from £20 to £70 at that time, while a Royal Navy lieutenant would draw about £100 a year. About £200 purchased a 3-bedroom house with garden outside the city of London.
In Lord Mansfield's will written and directed by himself, Mansfield didn't acknowledge Dido as his niece, unlike how Mansfield referred Lady Elizabeth, Lady Anne, and Lady Margery Murray all as his nieces.
Contemporary accounts from family friends did not mention Belle
Mary Hamilton (1756-1816), diarist, served Queen Charlotte as royal governess, she wrote in her diary that in spring 1784, her first cousin Lady Stormont and her stepdaughter Lady Elizabeth were invited to a royal ball at Carlton house by The Prince of Wales. But evidently, Dido was not invited to the ball. Throughout Hamilton's diary, she never once mentioned Dido Belle, despite her numerous visits to Kenwood, in which she had described all members of the Murray family including Lady Elizabeth, Elizabeth's 3 half siblings, 2 unmarried aunts, old Lord Mansfield, even the Parish Priest. Belle was apparently excluded from excursion to church, tour of Kenwood, and other family outings that was attended by Hamilton, which seems to consolidate Dido's awkward position in the household.
Accounts from Lady Mansfield's lifelong friends, Mrs. Boscawen and Mary Delany both prominent members of Blue Stockings Society who wrote frequently to each other about the news of the Mansfield's family, ranging from Lord Mansfield's health to Lady Elizabeth's marriage. Mrs. Boscawen visited Kenwood in 1782 and said "Kenwood, where I am always received in kindness. My Lord has gone to London; but my lady and 3 Miss Murrays made me almost forget to go home". But they too never mentioned Dido Belle.
Later life
Lady Mansfield died on 10 April 1784 after long illness, thus Elizabeth's two aunts, Lady Anne and Lady Margery took charge of the household accounts.
On 15 December 1785, Lady Elizabeth married George Finch Hatton, a rich aristocratic gentlemen, heir to Earl of Winchilsea and Earl Nottingham after his unmarried cousin, he was also Lady Mansfield's nephew, their wedding was witnessed by Lord Stormont and Lord Mansfield. Belle's companion, Elizabeth, left Kenwood at the age of 25 and began her married life between her husband's two vast estates Kirby Hall and Eastwell Park.
Belle's father died in 1788 without legitimate heirs, bequeathing £1,000 to be shared by his "reputed children", John and Elizabeth Lindsay (as noted in his will) and nothing for Dido. Overwhelming sources said that the Elizabeth named in his will was his other illegitimate daughter called Elizabeth Lindsay later Palmer (born c. 1765), who lived in Scotland. Elizabeth Palmer and her half brother John Lindsay were known to keep in contact.
Belle's legal status while Lord Mansfield was alive is uncertain. In his will written in 1783, published in 1793, Lord Mansfield officially confirmed or conferred Belle's freedom but unlike Lady Elizabeth, he didn't refer to Dido as his niece. To secure her future after his death, he bequeathed to her £500 as an outright sum and a £100 annuity. In 1799, Belle also inherited £100 from Lady Margery Murray, one of two female relatives who had come to live with and help care for the Murrays in their later years.
However, Lord Mansfield left his niece Lady Elizabeth Murray £10,000. Her father was in line to inherit his uncle's title and entire wealth, Elizabeth received £7,000 more from her father.
Initially in the original 1782 will of Lord Mansfield, he only intended Dido to receive the £100 annuity, but then decided to add the lump sum of £200 and another £300 resulting in £500 saying "I give Dido the sum of two hundred pounds to set out with” then “I think it right considering how she has been bred and how she has behaved to make a better provision for Dido", Lady Elizabeth was always intended to receive £10,000, he also added to Lady Elizabeth's two aunts's inheritances resulting in £22,000 and £1,000 annuity for their life, it is also worth noting that Mansfield was well aware as judge that Elizabeth would eventually inherit the wealth of her two aunts, making Lady Elizabeth's total inheritance from the family around £40,000.
After Lord Mansfield's death in March 1793, Belle now aged 32 married Jean Louis Charles Davinière (anglicized to John Davinier) on 5 December 1793 at St George's, Hanover Square, their wedding was witnessed by John Coventry and Martha Darnell (dairymaid from Kenwood). Belle's husband was a French servant from Ducey in Normandy. His date of birth is unknown, but he was baptised on 16 November 1768; assuming this happened shortly after birth, he was seven years younger than his wife. He had left France for England towards the end of the 1780s and found work as valet or steward, the terminology of his occupation varies on different sources, but his employer John ('Fish') Craufurd died in 1814 and in his will, he referred John Davinière firmly as his valet. They were both then residents of the parish. The Daviniers had at least three sons: twins Charles and John, both baptised at St George's on 8 May 1795; and William Thomas, baptised there on 26 January 1802.
Belle died in 1804 at the age of 43, and was interred in July of that year at St George's Fields, Westminster, a burial ground close to what is now Bayswater Road. In the 1970s, the site was redeveloped and her grave was moved. Her husband John Davinière later remarried to a white woman named Jane Holland and had two more children with his second wife.
Ancestry
Descendants
Two of Belle's sons, William Thomas and Charles, were employed by the East India Company; William in England and Charles in India. Presumably, both of them had enjoyed a good private school education in their childhood, with tuition in English, Greek, Latin, French, accounting, land surveying, mathematics and drawing.
Charles Davinière joined the army in 1811 and initially served as ensign with the Madras Army (one of the territorial armies of the East India Company (HEIC), preceding the British Indian Army). He was assigned to the 15th Madras Native Infantry (MNI) and later to the 30th MNI (that was formed from the 2nd Battailon, 15th MNI, in 1824). He was promoted to lieutenant in 1817 and captain in 1827. In August 1837, he was "to have charge of Infantry recruits" in the headquarters at Fort St. George. Becoming major in 1841, Davinière retired on health grounds in 1845 or 1847, still serving then with the 30th MNI. Nonetheless, he was promoted one more time, to lieutenant colonel of the Madras Infantry, in 1855. The reason seems unclear; possibly he was reactivated for an unknown number of years.
Charles Davinière had married Hannah Nash, youngest daughter of J. Nash, Esquire of Kensington, at Kensington Church in August 1836. After his (final) retirement, Charles lived with his wife, children, and servants at Lansdowne Villas in Notting Hill, where he died on 24 January 1873.
William Thomas Davinière married a widow, Fanny Graham, and had a daughter, Emily. Emily died unmarried in 1870, several years after the death of her parents.
Belle's last known descendant, her great-great-grandson Harold Davinier, died childless in South Africa in 1975.
Representation in media
18th-century portrait painting
The family commissioned a painting of Dido and Elizabeth. Completed in 1779, it was formerly attributed to Johan Zoffany, but, following research by the BBC TV programme Fake or Fortune?, it has now been verified by the Scottish National Gallery as a painting of the Scottish portraitist David Martin in the Zoffany style. The family archivist stated that the painting was put in storage at Kenwood House just 3 years after Lord Mansfield's death and stayed there until the 1920s, when the family sold Kenwood House and moved their belongings to Scone Palace in Perth, Scotland.
According to Historic England, the painting is "unique in British art of the 18th century in depicting a black woman and a white woman as near equals". It shows Dido alongside and slightly behind her cousin Elizabeth, carrying exotic fruit and wearing a turban with a large ostrich feather. The painting is owned by the present Earl of Mansfield and housed at Scone Palace. In 2007, it was exhibited in Kenwood House as part of an exposition marking the bicentenary of the Abolition of the Slave Trade Act 1807, together with more information about Belle.
The painting is discussed by English Heritage in the following way:
Film, music, plays
Dido Belle (2006), a film by Jason Young, was written as a short period drama titled Kenwood House. It was workshopped at Battersea Arts Centre on 21 June 2006 as part of the Battersea Writers' Group script development programme.
Shirley J. Thompson's operatic trilogy, Spirit Songs – including Spirit of the Middle Passage about Dido Elizabeth Belle, with Abigail Kelly in the role – was performed with the Philharmonia Orchestra at London's Queen Elizabeth Hall, Southbank Centre, in March 2007 as part of the 200-year commemoration of the act abolishing the Atlantic slave trade.
An African Cargo by Margaret Busby, a play staged by Black Theatre Co-operative (now NitroBeat) featuring actor Jeffery Kissoon at Greenwich Theatre, 2007, in commemoration of the bicentenary of the Abolition of the Slave Trade Act, deals with a landmark 1783 trial presided over by Lord Mansfield at the Guildhall, resulting from the Zong massacre. The character of Dido Belle expresses to the audience feelings of horror and injustice for the murder of the slaves on the ship.
Let Justice Be Done by Suchitra Chatterjee and Maureen Hicks, a play put on by the Mixed Blessings Theatre Group was premiered at the 2008 Brighton Fringe and explored the influence that Dido Belle might have had on her great-uncle's Somersett Ruling of 1772.
Belle (2013), a highly fictionalised feature film directed by Amma Asante, explores Dido's life as the multiracial natural daughter of an aristocrat in 18th-century England, who became an heiress but occupied an ambiguous social position. The film is based on the 1779 painting of Dido and her cousin Elizabeth. The film stars Gugu Mbatha-Raw as Dido and Tom Wilkinson as her guardian Lord Mansfield.
Fern Meets Dido (2018), A musical written by Evadne Bygrave based on the book Fern and Kate Meet Dido Elizabeth Belle by David Gleave. The story of a modern-day young girl of mixed heritage, disaffected at school and uncertain about her identity. On a school trip to Kenwood House, something magical happens, and she goes back in time and meets Dido.
I, Dido (2018), a three-handed play by Non Vaughan-O'Hagan was commissioned by St George's Bloomsbury where Dido was baptised. The play explores the relationship between Dido, Lord Mansfield and Lady Betty. Act I takes place on the night of 6 June 1780 when the Mansfields' home in Bloomsbury Square was destroyed in the Gordon Riots. Act II takes place in Kenwood House six years later, after the death of Lady Betty. The play has also been adapted as a short film of the same name, directed by Penelope Shales-Slyne.
Novels
Family Likeness, a 2013 novel by Caitlin Davies, was inspired in part by the life of Dido Elizabeth Belle.
Author Paula Byrne was commissioned to write Belle: The True Story of Dido Belle (2014) as a tie-in to the 2013 film Belle. It was published in paperback and as an audiobook when the movie opened in the United States.
Zadie Smith mentions the story of Belle in her 2016 novel Swing Time when the narrator goes to Kenwood House and overhears a tour guide talking about her.
The short-story collection The Woman Who Gave Birth to Rabbits, by Emma Donoghue, contains a short story called "Dido", about Dido Elizabeth Belle.
Dangerous Freedom, a 2021 historical novel about Dido Belle by Lawrence Scott, the story was largely spun from a lot of known facts about Dido Elizabeth Belle.
Dido Elizabeth Belle features as one of the two central characters in The Lizzie and Belle Mysteries: Drama and Danger by children's author J.T. Williams, published in 2022. This is the first of series of historical novels set in eighteenth century London, anchored around the imagined friendship of Dido Belle with Elizabeth "Lizzie" Sancho, daughter of Ignatius Sancho.
References
External links
Slavery And Justice: Lord Mansfield And Dido Belle At Kenwood, Untold London, 2007
Slavery and Justice exhibition at Kenwood House, on Mansfield and Dido.
Historic England leaflet, Slavery and Justice: the legacies of Dido Belle and Lord Mansfield, Part 1, Part 2
Paula Byrne, Belle: The True Story of Dido Belle, Harper Collins, 2014.
"Inside Out: Abolition of the British Slave Trade special", BBC London, 24 September 2014
Article on discovering Dido, in Hampstead Matters, February 2014
1761 births
1804 deaths
Black British former slaves
Black British history
British socialites
Clan Murray
British Anglicans
Black British women
English people of Scottish descent
English people of West Indian descent
Lindsay family of Evelix
People from the British West Indies
18th-century English women
19th-century English women
18th-century slaves | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dido%20Elizabeth%20Belle |
Gneeveguilla, ( ), officially Gneevgullia (), is a small village in the Sliabh Luachra region of East County Kerry, Ireland. It lies about east of Killarney, close to the County Kerry/County Cork border.
Location
Gneeveguilla is situated in a region of hills and valleys and serves a rural hinterland consisting of dairy farms, pastureland and peatland. Townlands in the area include Coom (Lower and Upper), Bawnard, Gullaun, Mausrower and Lisheen. At Mausrower, there used to be a large quarry in the early part of the 20th century, the remnants of which can be seen today on the approach from the Killarney direction towards Lower Coom. Hence the junction at Lower Coom being known as the Quarry Cross.
History
In the 19th century Gneeveguilla was the scene of an event known as the 'Moving Bog'. On the night of Sunday 28 December 1896, after a prolonged period of bad weather, sleeping families were awakened by an unusual sound. When daylight broke, to their horror they realised that over of bogland was on the move in a southerly direction, taking everything before it. It followed the course of the Ownachree river into the river Flesk. The bog continued to move until New Year's Day and came to rest covering hundreds of acres of pastureland. The Moving Bog claimed the lives of 8 members of one local family.
The Church of the Holy Rosary is a Roman Catholic church in Gneeveguilla opened on 10 October 1937. It is one of three churches in the Rathmore Parish of the Diocese of Kerry.
Education
Gneeveguilla National School () is a Catholic, co-educational school in the center of Gneevguilla, directly across from the GAA pitch and athletics center.
Music and culture
Several exponents of the 'Sliabh Luachra style' of traditional Irish music come from the Gneeveguilla area, including fiddler players Julia Clifford, Denis Murphy and Johnny and Paddy Cronin; and button accordion player Johnny O'Leary.
There is a statue in the village in honour of the Sliabh Luachra seanchaí (storyteller) Éamon Kelly (1914–2001).
Sports
Gneeveguilla is home to Gneeveguilla AC. Established in 1978, it has had success in both local Kerry Athletics and at national Level.
Gneeveguilla GAA is the local GAA club which plays in the East Kerry GAA division. Gneeveguilla is home to Ambrose O'Donovan, a former captain of the Kerry senior football team which won the 'Centenary All-Ireland' All-Ireland Senior Football Championship. Gneeveguilla won the Kerry Intermediate Football Championship in 2010, beating Finuge in the final in Austin Stack Park in Tralee. They then went on to win the Munster Championship and lost the All-Ireland semi-final to St. James of County Galway, after a period of extra time.
Development
In Kerry County Council's "South East Kerry Settlements Local Area Plan 2008–2015", a number of opportunities for the future development of Gneeveguilla were identified. The plan recommended against scattered and ribbon development, as well as environmental and pedestrian safety improvements.
Notable people
Julia Clifford (1914–1997), traditional musician.
Paddy Cronin (1925–2014), fiddler.
Eamon Kelly (1914–2001), actor and storyteller.
Denis Murphy (1910–1974), traditional musician.
Liam Murphy, Gaelic footballer.
Ambrose O'Donovan (b.1962), Gaelic footballer.
Charlie McCarthy, Gaelic footballer.
Aogán Ó Rathaille (c.1670–1726), poet born at Scrahanaveal near Gneeveguilla.
Eoghan Rua Ó Súilleabháin (1748–1782), poet.
See also
List of towns and villages in Ireland
References
Towns and villages in County Kerry | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gneeveguilla |
The Flying Flea () is a large family of light homebuilt aircraft first flown in 1933.
The odd name comes from the French nickname for the Ford Model T automobile: Pou de la Route, or "Louse of the Road", because Henry Ford's economy car was so common. Henri Mignet dreamed of creating a Model T of the air, an airplane for the common man, hence the term Pou du Ciel. In English, the term became Flying Flea. Originally applied only to the HM.14 model, the name has now come to describe the family of aircraft of similar configuration designed by Mignet and others.
Development
The Flying Flea family of aircraft was designed by Frenchman Henri Mignet.
Between 1920 and 1928, Mignet built various prototypes from the HM.1 to the HM.8, a monoplane that was the first of his designs that really flew. Instructions for building the HM.8 Avionnette were published by Mignet in a self-published book—he hand wrote the text and drawings, created photographic plates and printed and bound the books himself—but Mignet was still not satisfied. In particular, he felt that he was not himself a very good pilot and did not like the challenge of coordinating the stick and rudder on a conventional aircraft. He yearned for a simpler solution. Between 1929 and 1933, he continued building prototypes, and testing them in a large field near Soissons. The result of this experimentation with many odd and innovative configurations was the HM.14.
HM.14
In 1933, Mignet successfully flew for the first time in his HM.14, the original flying flea, and publicly demonstrated it. In 1934, he published the plans and building instructions in his book Le Sport de l'Air. In 1935, it was translated into English in Britain and serialised in Practical Mechanics in the USA, prompting hundreds of people around the world to build their own Flying Fleas.
Mignet's original HM.14 prototype aircraft was powered by a Aubier-Dunne 500 cc two stroke motorcycle engine. It had a wingspan of , a length of and a gross weight of . It had a usable speed range of 25–62 mph (40–100 km/h). In the UK in 1935 and 1936, many aerodynamic and engine developments took place, notably by Stephen Appleby, John Carden and L.E. Baynes.
Despite the initial popularity of the design, thanks in no small part to the passionate enthusiasm of Mignet himself, the original HM.14 revealed design flaws that could lead to an unrecoverable and often fatal dive under certain conditions; when the front wing was put in a high attack angle for climbing, the high-speed flow of air deflected by the front wing went to the rear wing upper surface, greatly increasing the rear wing's lift, and putting the nose down, the instinctive reaction of pilot being pulling even more the stick, this worsened the situation, as the way to go out of this 'vicious circle' was reducing the front wing incidence, as to command a nose down descent. Also some homebuilders attempted to simplify construction by modifying components such as the wings tips curving up, resulting in extremely dangerous airplanes and deadly accidents that forced the air authorities to ban building more of them. Studies in the UK and France revealed the problem (the HM.14 was small enough to fit in wind tunnels in both countries usually used for scale models of larger aircraft) and corrections were made to the design. Unfortunately, the wave of bad publicity created by the crashes dogged Mignet for the rest of his life and continues to be associated with the design today despite the fact that the basic Mignet configuration has proven to be safe in hundreds of successful homebuilt aircraft and factory built microlights.
Design
Mignet made the aircraft intentionally simple. The Flying Flea is a tandem wing aircraft, built of wood and fabric. The original design was a single-seater, and had two-axis flying controls. The aircraft had a standard control stick. Fore-and-aft movement controlled the front wing's angle of attack, increasing and decreasing the lift of the wing. Because the front wing was located forward of the center of gravity, that would pitch the nose up and down.
Side-to-side movement of the stick controlled the large rudder. This produced a rolling motion because the wings both had substantial dihedral, through yaw-roll coupling. The rudder had to be quite large not only to produce adequate roll but also because the fuselage was very short, reducing the leverage of the rudder. The Flying Flea, being a two axis aircraft, could not be landed or taken off in substantial crosswinds. This was not a big issue when the aircraft was designed because at that time aircraft were usually flown from large open fields allowing all take-offs and landings into wind.
The result was an aircraft that was substantially simpler to build (just two wings and a rudder, two of which moved, with no ailerons or other control surfaces) and easier to fly (just a control stick, no rudder pedals at all) than a conventional aircraft. Mignet claimed, only half jokingly, that anyone who could build a packing crate and drive a car could fly a Flying Flea.
Variants
The HM.14 led to more than 300 different models of the Flying Flea. Some of these are:
HM.18 – 1937, single-seat, enclosed cockpit, 35 hp Mengin engine.
HM.16 Pou-Bébé (Baby Pou) – 1936, single-seat lightweight Pou, 25 hp Ava engine
HM.18 – 1937, single-seat, enclosed cockpit, 35 hp Mengin engine.
HM.19 – 1937, two-seat, enclosed cockpit, 45 hp Salmson engine.
HM.210 – 1937, single-seat, enclosed cockpit, airworthiness certificated.
HM.280 Pou-Maquis – 1944, single-seat, folding wings, designed as a "command parachute" for a Free French paratrooper commander.
HM.290 – 1945, single-seat, enclosed cockpit. Became popular for amateur construction from plans, with optional enclosed cockpit, various types of engine to . Plans are available from Falconar Avia.
HM.293 – 1946, single-seat variant for larger pilots, typically powered by 50–60 hp Volkswagen air-cooled engine. Plans are available from Falconar Avia and also from Rodolphe Grunberg of Rocquefort, France.
HM.310 Estafette – 1952, two-seat, enclosed cockpit, 67 kW (90 hp) Continental C90-12F engine.
HM.320 – 1955, single-seat, enclosed cockpit.
HM.330 Cerisier en Fleurs – 1954, two-seat, enclosed cockpit.
HM.350 – 1957, two-seat, enclosed cockpit.
HM.351 – 1955, two-seat, enclosed cockpit. Also known as Tachikawa R-HM
HM.360 – 1957, single-seat, enclosed cockpit, improved wing geometry. Plans still available from Falconar Avia.
HM.380 – 1957, two-seat, enclosed cockpit, 1100 lb gross weight, typically powered by 60–100 hp engine. Plans still available from Falconar Avia.
HM.390 – 1981, two-seat(?), enclosed cockpit.
HM.1000 Balerit – 1986, two-seat factory-built microlight, pusher propeller, rear-mounted 64 hp Rotax engine, designed by Mignet's son and nephew and used by the French Army.
HM.1100 Cordouan – 1996, two-seat factory-built microlight, front-mounted 80 hp Rotax engine.
Safety concerns
In the 1930s, many Fleas crashed when pilots could not recover from shallow dives, resulting in some deaths. As a result, Flying Fleas were grounded and even banned from flight permanently in some countries. In the United Kingdom, restrictions were placed on Flying Fleas, following a fatal crash on 4 May 1936 at an air display at Penshurst Airfield, Kent.
When on approach to land, the pilot would push the stick forward to gain speed for the flare and landing. As speed built up, the rear wing, operating at a greater angle of attack would gain lift and pitch the aircraft's nose further downward. The pilot's normal reaction would be to pull back on the stick. This action would increase the angle of attack on the front wing by lowering the trailing edge of the wing. Because the trailing edge of the front wing was close to the leading edge of the rear wing, the front wing's downwash would accelerate the air over the rear wing and cause it to gain lift more quickly than the front wing, resulting in an ever-increasing nose pitch-down and flight directly into the ground.
Mignet had not encountered this problem during his testing of his prototype, because he could not afford a large horsepower engine. When builders started putting larger engines on them and expanding the flight envelope, the wing interference problem surfaced.
Following a fatal accident involving G-ADXY the Air League, aware of a number of similar fatal crashes in France, sent G-AEFV to the Royal Aircraft Establishment for full-scale wind tunnel tests. These tests, together with those conducted by the French Air Ministry, discovered if the angle of attack of the front wing fell below −15° insufficient pitching moment was generated to raise the nose.
Changes to the airfoil section and wing spacing prevented aerodynamic interference and later Mignet Flea designs incorporated these changes.
By 1939, there were many improved Flying Fleas in the air, but the aircraft never completely overcame its dangerous reputation.
Amateur construction
Shortly after the plans appeared in 1934, many enthusiasts in Europe and the USA began to build their own aircraft. In 1936 it was estimated the cost of construction was approximately £75 and that some five hundred examples were under construction in Britain.
Modern aircraft enthusiasts have continued to build their own aircraft, and vary the original HM.14 design and its derivatives over the years, and outside the UK, they are successfully flown in countries like Australia. French enthusiasts, for example, hold an annual meeting every June. Modern HM.14 builders generally adapt the airfoil and rigging or even the entire wings from later Mignet models, such as the HM.360, to the fuselage of the HM.14 to create a safe and reliable aircraft with the retro look of the original.
In 2011 Rodolphe Grunberg of Roquefort, France was still offering plans for the HM.293 single-seater for sale.
Aircraft on display
Ballarat Aviation Museum, Ballarat, Victoria, Australia – HM.293
Canadian Museum of Flight, Langley, BC, Canada – HM.290 (CF-RFH)
Lane Motor Museum, Nashville, Tennessee - Multiple on exhibit
Musée Régional de l'Air, Angers-Marcé, France – HM.360 (F-PKFV)
Royal Museum of the Armed Forces and Military History, Brussels – HM.293 (OO-11)
Royal Museum of the Armed Forces and Military History, Brussels – HM.293 (OO-33)
Volandia, Malpensa Airport – HM.290 (I-4906)
Vapriikki Museum Centre, Tampere, Finland – HM.14 (OH-KAA)
Specifications (HM.293 Flying Flea)
See also
APEV Pouchel II
APEV Pouchel Classic
APEV Pouchelec
APEV Pouchel Light
Croses EC-1 Pouplume
Croses EC-6 Criquet
Croses EC-8 Tourisme
Croses EC-9 Para-Cargo
Lederlin 380L
Pouchel
Universal American Flea Ship
References
Bibliography
Bowers, Peter M. (1984) Guide to Homebuilts – Ninth Edition. TAB Books
Ellis, Ken; Jones, Geoff. 1990. Henri Mignet and his Flying Fleas. Haynes Publishing
Mignet, Henri. Le Sport D'Air (French, 661 pages)
Mignet, Henri. The Flying Flea: How to Build and Fly It
Ogden, Bob (2007). Aviation Museums and Collections of North America. Air-Britain
Ogden, Bob (2008). Aviation Museums and Collections of The Rest of the World. Air-Britain
Ogden, Bob (2009). Aviation Museums and Collections of Mainland Europe. Air-Britain
Ord-Hume, Arthur W.J.G. Britain's Flea craze, Aeroplane Monthly, May 1973
Ord-Hume, Arthur W. J. G. (2011) Flying Flea, Henri Mignet's Pout-du-Ciel Catrine:Stenlake Publishing.
Ord-Hume, Arthur W.J.G. The First Home-Built Aeroplanes (Paperback) (Re-print of Practical Mechanics article on building the HM.14)
Plane and Pilot (1977). 1978 Aircraft Directory. Werner & Werner Corp
Simpson, Rod (2001). Airlife's World Aircraft. Airlife Publishing
External links
"Flying Flea Costs Little To Build and Run" Popular Mechanics, November 1935
Flying Flea resource collection including complete series of "Pou Renew" newsletter and downloadable plans
Pouguide.org – The definitive Mignet Pou du Ciel resource collection (in French) including downloadable plans
Tandem-wing aircraft
1930s French sport aircraft
Single-engined tractor aircraft
High-wing aircraft
Homebuilt aircraft
Aircraft first flown in 1933 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mignet%20Pou-du-Ciel |
The following are the association football events of the year 2000 throughout the world.
Events
January 1 – Ronald Koeman starts as manager at Dutch club Vitesse.
UEFA Euro 2000: France won 2–1 in extra time over Italy, with a golden goal by David Trezeguet. This was France's second European Championship title.
2006 FIFA World Cup: Germany wins the right to host for second time the event.
UEFA Champions League: Spanish giants Real Madrid and Valencia faced off in the first ever all-country European cup final with Madrid winning 3–0. This was Real Madrid's eighth European Cup title.
Copa Libertadores 2000: Won by Boca Juniors after defeating Palmeiras 4–3 on a penalty shootout after a final aggregate score of 2–2.
2000 FIFA Club World Championship: Corinthians beat Vasco da Gama 4–3 on penalties after a 0–0 draw.
UEFA Cup: Galatasaray wins 4–1 on penalties in the final against Arsenal after a 0–0 draw at the end of the match. This was the first European title won by a Turkish team.
UEFA Super Cup: Galatasaray beats Real Madrid 2–1 after extra time with a golden goal by Mário Jardel.
March 21 – Ajax appoints Hans Westerhof as caretaker-manager after the resignation of Jan Wouters.
March 31 – Gerard van der Lem resigns as manager of AZ
May 20 – Chelsea wins the FA Cup by a 1–0 win over Aston Villa.
July 24 – Real Madrid signs Barcelona's Portuguese star Luís Figo for a then world record transfer fee of €60 million.
August 13 – PSV wins the Johan Cruyff Shield, the annual opening of the new season in the Eredivisie, by a 2–0 win over Roda JC at the Amsterdam Arena.
August 15 – The Parkstad Limburg Stadion is officially opened with a friendly between home club Roda JC and Spanish side Real Zaragoza (2–2).
September 2 – Louis van Gaal makes his debut as the manager of Netherlands national team with a draw (2–2) in the World Cup qualifier against the Republic of Ireland. Two PSV players make their debut as well: striker Arnold Bruggink and defender Wilfred Bouma.
November 28 – Boca Juniors wins the Intercontinental Cup in Tokyo for the second time, defeating Spain's Real Madrid 2–1; Martín Palermo scores both goals for the Argentinian club.
Winner national club championship
Asia
– Anyang LG
– Kashima Antlers
– Al-Sadd
– Anyang LG Cheetahs
– BEC Tero Sasana
Europe
– Dinamo Zagreb
– Herfølge BK
– Manchester United
– Monaco
– Bayern Munich
– Olympiacos
– KR
– Shelbourne
– Lazio
– PSV
– Linfield
– Polonia Warsaw
– Sporting CP
– Celtic
– Deportivo La Coruña
– Galatasaray
– The New Saints
– Red Star Belgrade
North America
– Toronto Croatia (CPSL)
Verano – Toluca
Invierno – Morelia
– Kansas City Wizards (MLS)
South America
Clausura – River Plate
Apertura – Boca Juniors
– Jorge Wilstermann
– Vasco da Gama (Copa João Havelange)
– Universidad de Chile
– Olmedo
– Olimpia Asunción
– Universitario de Deportes
International tournaments
African Cup of Nations in Ghana and Nigeria (January 22 – February 13, 2000)
2000 CONCACAF Gold Cup in United States (February 12 – February 27, 2000)
—
UEFA European Football Championship in Belgium and the Netherlands (June 10 – July 2, 2000)
—
Olympic Games in Sydney, Australia (September 13 – 30 2000)
Men's Tournament
Women's Tournament
Norway
United States
Germany
2000 AFC Asian Cup in Lebanon (October 12 – October 29, 2000)
National team results
Europe
South America
Movies
Air Bud: World Pup (US)
Purely Belter (UK)
There's Only One Jimmy Grimble (UK)
Births
January 14 – Jonathan David, Canadian soccer player
January 26 – Abel Ruiz, Spanish footballer
January 27 – Aurélien Tchouaméni, French footballer
February 15 – Jakub Kiwior, Polish footballer
February 20 – Josh Sargent, American soccer player
February 22 – Timothy Weah, American soccer player
February 24 – Antony, Brazilian footballer
February 28 – Moise Kean, Italian footballer
February 29 – Ferran Torres, Spanish international
March 21 – Matty Longstaff, English footballer
March 25
Ozan Kabak, Turkish footballer
Jadon Sancho, English footballer
April 2 – Josip Stanišić, Croatian footballer
April 6 – Maxence Lacroix, French youth international
April 19 – Azzedine Ounahi, Moroccan footballer
April 25 – Dejan Kulusevski, Swedish footballer
May 8 – Sandro Tonali, Italian footballer
May 18 – Ryan Sessegnon, English youth international
May 24 – Noah Okafor, Swiss footballer
May 28 – Phil Foden, English footballer
May 30 – Fábio Vieira, Portuguese footballer
June 9 – Diego Lainez, Mexican footballer
June 28 – Yukinari Sugawara, Japanese footballer
July 6 – Michael Obafemi, Irish footballer
July 12 – Vinícius Júnior, Brazilian footballer
July 28
Keito Nakamura, Japanese youth international
Lee O'Connor, Irish youth international
Emile Smith Rowe, English youth international
August 29 – Julia Grosso, Canadian international
August 31 – Angel Gomes, English footballer
September 3 – Lyle Foster, South African footballer
September 27 – Liberato Cacace, New Zealand international
September 29 – Giorgi Mamardashvili, Georgian international
October 20 – Dominik Szoboszlai, Hungarian footballer
November 2 – Alphonso Davies, Canadian international
November 3 – Sergiño Dest, American soccer player
November 7 – Callum Hudson-Odoi, English international
Deaths
January
January 27 – Lucas Sebastião da Fonseca (72), Mozambican-born Portuguese footballer
January 29 – Heinz Flotho, German international footballer (born 1915)
January 29 – Harry Thompson, English footballer (born 1915)
February
February 23 – Sir Stanley Matthews (85), English footballer
February 23 – Dennis Evans (69), English footballer
March
March 24 - George Kirby (66), English footballer
April
April 4 – Brandãozinho, Brazilian defender, Brazilian squad member at the 1954 FIFA World Cup. (74)
April 8 – Moacir Barbosa Nascimento, Brazilian goalkeeper, runner-up at the 1950 FIFA World Cup. (79)
April 14 – Wilf Mannion (81), English footballer
April 24 - Chic Brodie (63), Scottish footballer
May
May 1 – Cláudio Christovam de Pinho, Brazilian striker, the biggest scorer of all time for Sport Club Corinthians Paulista. (77)
May 18 – Domingos da Guia, Brazilian defender, semi-finalist at the 1938 FIFA World Cup. (87)
May 31 – Rodolfo Pini, Uruguayan midfielder, winner of the 1950 FIFA World Cup. (74)
July
July 15 – Kalle Svensson (74), Swedish footballer
July 24 – Peter Dubovský (28), Slovak footballer
July 29 – Benny Fenton (81), English footballer
August
August 15 – Eduardo Luján Manera (55), Argentine footballer and manager
August 18 – Maurice Evans (63), English footballer
August 24 – Bob McPhail (94), Scottish footballer
October
October 2 – Elek Schwartz (91), Romanian footballer
October 5 – Cătălin Hâldan (24), Romanian footballer
November
November 1 – George Armstrong (56), English footballer and coach
November 2 – Simeon Simeonov (54), Bulgarian football goalkeeper
November 15 – Pietro Pasinati, Italian striker, winner of the 1938 FIFA World Cup. (90)
November 25 – Canito (44), Spanish footballer
November 27 - Willie Cunnigham (75), Scottish footballer
December
December 21 – Décio Esteves, Brazilian midfielder, runner up at the 1959 South American Championship (Argentina). (73)
References
Association football by year | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000%20in%20association%20football |
Ala kachuu () is a form of bride kidnapping still practiced in Kyrgyzstan. The term can apply to a variety of actions, ranging from a consensual elopement to a non-consensual kidnapping, and to what extent it actually happens is controversial. Some sources suggest that currently at least a third of Kyrgyzstan's brides are taken against their will.
Kyz ala kachuu () means "to take a young woman and run away". The typical non-consensual variety involves the young man abducting a woman either by force or by guile, often accompanied by friends or male relatives. They take her to his family home, where she is kept in a room until the man's female relatives convince her to put on the scarf of a married woman as a sign of acceptance. Sometimes, if the woman resists the persuasion and maintains her wish to return home, her relatives try to convince her to agree to the marriage.
The practice was suppressed during the Soviet period, but, after the collapse of the Soviet Union, ala kachuu began to resurface. There are conflicting reports on whether it continues in the original way or not. Some sources state that the practice was originally a form of elopement, not a bride theft. Sometimes the kidnapping may be just a wedding formality, where the woman comes along willingly. Some people even consider it an honour to be kidnapped because it demonstrates that the woman is worthy of being a wife.
Although bride-kidnapping is illegal in Kyrgyzstan, the government has been accused of not taking proper steps to protect women from this practice.
History
The history of bride kidnapping in Kyrgyzstan is under dispute. The Russian Empire and later USSR made the ancient practice of the nomads illegal, and so with the fall of the Soviet Union and the subsequent independence of the Central Asian nations, many have revived old customs as a way of asserting cultural identity. Rejecting a kidnapping is often culturally unacceptable for women, and perceived as a rejection of the Kyrgyz cultural identity. The practice is also associated with asserting masculinity. Recent studies challenge the claims that bride kidnapping used to be prevalent. According to Kyrgyz historians, and Fulbright scholar Russell Kleinbach, whereas kidnappings were rare until Soviet times, the bride kidnapping tradition has dramatically increased in the 20th century. The rise in bride kidnappings may be connected with difficulty in paying the required bride price (kalym).
Prevalence
A major issue is of course the question how often this happens. A recent victimization survey in Kyrgyzstan (2015) included the crime of kidnapping of young women for marriage. 14% of married women answered that they were kidnapped at the time and that two thirds of these cases were consensual, the woman knew the man and had agreed with it up front. This means that about 5% of current marriages in Kyrgyzstan are cases of 'Ala Kachuu'. Using the same methodology, a 2018 study in Kazakhstan resulted in an estimated 1-1.5% of current marriages in Kazakhstan are the result of 'Ala Kachuu'.
Studies by researcher Russell Kleinbach have found much larger numbers, namely that approximately half of all Kyrgyz marriages include bride kidnapping; of those kidnappings, two thirds are non-consensual.
Bride-money
According to a 1992 study, the bride-money for Dungan brides fluctuated between 240 and 400 rubles. Poor Dungans find Kirghiz brides, or marry Tatar or Sart women. Dungans also secretly abduct Kirghiz girls as brides.
Legality
Despite its illegality, in many primarily rural areas, bride kidnapping is an accepted and common way of taking a wife.
The matter is somewhat confused by the local use of the term "bride kidnap" to reflect practices along a continuum, from forcible abduction and rape (and then, almost unavoidably, marriage), to something akin to an elopement arranged between the two young people, to which both sets of parents have to consent after the fact.
Although the practice is illegal in Kyrgyzstan, bride kidnappers are rarely prosecuted. This reluctance to enforce the code is in part caused by the pluralistic legal system in Kyrgyszstan where many villages are de facto ruled by councils of elders and aqsaqal courts following customary law, away from the eyes of the state legal system. Aqsaqal courts, tasked with adjudicating family law, property and torts, often fail to take bride kidnapping seriously. In many cases, aqsaqal members are invited to the kidnapped bride's wedding and encourage the family of the bride to accept the marriage.
Examples
In one model of bride kidnapping present in Kyrgyzstan, the young man decides he wishes to marry and asks his parents to pick him out a suitable bride, or is told by his parents that it is time he settled down and that they have found someone of the right background and attributes. (In this sense, it may be similar to an arranged marriage, although the arranging is all on one side.) The prospective groom and his male relatives or friends or both abduct the girl (in the old nomadic days, on horseback; now often by car) and take her to the family home. Once there, the man's relatives may attempt to convince the woman to accept the marriage, and to place a white wedding scarf (jooluk) on her head to symbolize her agreement. They may do this by pointing out the advantages of the union, such as the wealth of their smallholding, to show her what she would gain by joining their family. Families may use force or threaten to curse the woman if she leaves, an effective threat in a superstitious country. Some families will keep the girl hostage for several days to break her will. Others will let her go if she remains defiant; she may, for example, refuse to sit down or to eat, as a sign that she is refusing the proffered hospitality. During this period, the groom typically does not see the bride until she has agreed to marry or at least has agreed to stay. The kidnapped woman's family may also become involved, either urging the woman to stay (particularly if the marriage is believed socially acceptable or advantageous for the prospective bride and her family), or opposing the marriage on various grounds and helping to liberate the woman.
In other models of bride kidnapping in Kyrgyzstan and other areas of Central Asia, the woman may be a complete stranger to the man prior to the abduction. Sometimes the groom and his family, rather than selecting a particular young woman to kidnap, decide on a household; that way they can still kidnap one of the sisters if the woman they desire is not home. As in other societies, often the men who resort to bride kidnapping are socially undesirable for a variety of reasons; they may be more likely to be violent, have a criminal history, or to be substance abusers.
The bride kidnapping process sometimes includes rape. Even when sex does not take place, once a woman has been kept overnight, even for a single night, her virginity is put in doubt. With her honor disgraced, she will have very few other options for marriage. Thus, after one night of capture, the woman is culturally compelled to marry the man. Such immense social stigma is attached to a refusal to marry after a kidnap that the kidnapped woman usually feels that she has no choice but to agree, and some of those who refuse even commit suicide after the kidnapping.
According to the United States Embassy, two American women were bride-kidnapped in rural Kyrgyzstan in 2007. As soon as the boys discovered that the women were not Kyrgyzs but foreign (American with a Central Asian appearance) they were returned to the place they were taken from.
See also
Raptus, for a comparison of how the Catholic Church handled bride capture
Sex trafficking in Kyrgyzstan
Bride kidnapping
Vani (custom)
References
Bibliography
.
External links
Ala Kachuu. Take and Run. A film by Maria Brendle (CH), 2020
Article on Ala Kachuu with photographs
Documentary by Petr Lom
Captured Hearts: An epidemic of bride kidnappings may at last be waning in Kyrgyzstan - National Geographic, Paul Salopek
Marriage, unions and partnerships in Kyrgyzstan
Crime in Kyrgyzstan
Kidnapping
Human rights abuses in Kyrgyzstan
Violence against women in Kyrgyzstan | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ala%20kachuu |
Per Olof Sundman (4 September 1922, Vaxholm – 9 October 1992, Stockholm) was a Swedish writer and politician.
Sundman was born in Vaxholm. After World War II, Sundman joined the Centre Party and was elected to the Riksdag.
Per Olof Sundman released his first book in 1957 and soon became a successful writer, even internationally. His writing has been compared to that of Ernest Hemingway. In 1968, Sundman received the Nordic Council's Literature Prize for his 1967 novel Ingenjör Andrées luftfärd (The Flight of the Eagle) and in 1975, he became a member of the Swedish Academy, seat 6. His seat is now held by Tomas Riad.
References
Sources
Hinchliffe, Ian (1995). The documentary novel: fact, fiction, or fraud? : an examination of three Scandinavian examples of the documentary novels from the 1960s and 1970s. Boston Spa: British Library Document Supply Centre. Libris 1966896.
McGregor, Rick (1994). Per Olof Sundman and the Icelandic sagas: a study of narrative method. Skrifter utgivna av Litteraturvetenskapliga institutionen vid Göteborgs universitet, 0348-4653 ; 26. Göteborg: Litteraturvetenskapliga institutionen, Univ. Libris 7756431. .
Warme, Lars G. (1984). Per Olof Sundman: writer of the North. Contributions to the study of world literature, 0738-9345 ; 7. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press. Libris 4802505. .
1922 births
1992 deaths
People from Vaxholm Municipality
Swedish-language writers
Members of the Riksdag from the Centre Party (Sweden)
Members of the Swedish Academy
Nordic Council Literature Prize winners | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Per%20Olof%20Sundman |
Shahbaz Nadeem (born 12 August 1989) is an Indian international cricketer who is a slow left-arm orthodox bowler. He made his first-class cricket debut in December 2004. He has played for Bihar Under-14 side and Indian U-19s and currently plays for Jharkhand and Lucknow Super Giants.
In September 2018, he set a new record for the best bowling figures in a List A cricket match by taking eight wickets for 10 runs against Rajasthan whilst playing for Jharkhand.
Domestic career
Even before he made his first-class debut, Nadeem was seen as the next big left-arm slow bowler. He has a classical, flowing lefty's action, is naturally inclined to bowl round the wicket to right-hand batsmen, and has the boldness to experiment with varying degrees of loop. In addition, he is an athletic fielder and a fixture at point for his state and the East Zone side. He came into the reckoning with a nine-wicket haul against Sikkim in an Under-15 game in 2002. His first-class debut earlier this season was impressive, but he found himself under the hammer against Australia in the Under-19 one-dayers, and played only one match in the Under-19 World Cup.
In the 2012 IPL season Nadeem made a breakthrough in the Delhi Daredevils team with impressive performances. He was also one of the seven players nominated for IPL Rising Star of the year award.
He finished consecutive years - The 2015–16 Ranji Trophy and 2016–17 Ranji Trophy seasons with the most wickets in the competition, with a total of 51 and 56 dismissals respectively. He was also the leading wicket-taker for Jharkhand in the 2017–18 Ranji Trophy, with 18 dismissals in four matches.
In January 2018, he was bought by the Delhi Daredevils in the 2018 IPL auction. In July 2018, he was named in the squad for India Red for the 2018–19 Duleep Trophy.
In September 2018, in the 2018–19 Vijay Hazare Trophy fixture between Rajasthan and Jharkhand, Nadeem set a new List A cricket record, taking eight wickets for ten runs from 10 overs. He also took hatrick wickets while achieving that feat. He was the leading wicket-taker in the tournament, with twenty-four dismissals in nine matches.
In October 2018, he was named in India B's squad for the 2018–19 Deodhar Trophy. In October 2019, he was named in India B's squad for the 2019–20 Deodhar Trophy. In February 2022, he was bought by the Lucknow Super Giants in the auction for the 2022 Indian Premier League tournament. During the 2021-22 Ranji Trophy preliminary quarter final against Nagaland cricket team, Nadeem registered his highest first class score, scoring 177 runs.
International career
In October 2018, he was named in India's Twenty20 International (T20I) squad for their series against the West indies, but he did not play. In October 2019, he was added to India's squad for the third Test match against South Africa, as cover for Kuldeep Yadav. He made his Test debut for India, against South Africa, on 19 October 2019.
In January 2021, he was named as one of five standby players in India's Test squad for their series against England. Owing to a knee injury to Axar Patel, Nadeem was added to the squad and also selected in the playing XI for the first Test.
References
External links
1989 births
Living people
Indian cricketers
India Test cricketers
Delhi Capitals cricketers
Jharkhand cricketers
East Zone cricketers
People from Muzaffarpur
India Green cricketers
India Red cricketers
Sunrisers Hyderabad cricketers
Cricketers from Bihar
Indian A cricketers
Cricketers from Jharkhand | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shahbaz%20Nadeem |
Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855) was a German mathematician and physicist.
Gauss may also refer to:
Science and technology
Gauss (unit), a unit of magnetic flux density or magnetic induction
Gauss (crater), a crater on the Moon
GAUSS (software), a matrix programming language for mathematics
Other uses
Gauss (ship), a German research ship
Gauss Speaker Company an American company that made loudspeakers
Gauss (surname)
See also
Gauss rifle, a type of magnetic gun
Gauss's law of electric fields
List of things named after Carl Friedrich Gauss | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gauss%20%28disambiguation%29 |
Castle Vale F.C. was a football club based in the Castle Vale area of Birmingham, England. The club was previously known as King's Heath and Castle Vale King's Heath before adopting its final name in 2005. The club resigned as members of the Midland Combination Premier Division in July 2012 and folded.
History
The club was founded in 1964 as the pub team of the Horseshoe pub in the King's Heath area of Birmingham. The team played in the South Birmingham League and Mercian League for a number of years. In 1977 they changed their name to Kings Heath F.C. and joined the Midland Football Combination, initially in Division Two, and in 1982–83 were promoted to the top division, which was renamed the Premier Division in the same year.
By this stage the club, although still named Kings Heath, was based at The Glen in Solihull but were forced to leave the ground when, midway through an extensive programme of ground improvements, their financial backer abruptly pulled out, leaving them unable to complete the work. The team was able to groundshare with Knowle and later Shirley Town but the facilities at these grounds did not meet Premier Division requirements, forcing the club to step down to Division One. In the 1992–93 season Kings Heath finished as runners-up in Division One and were able to step back up to the Premier Division, having helped Shirley Town to get their ground up to the required standard. In 1999-2000 they achieved their best ever finish when they came second in the Premier Division.
They moved on to groundshare with first Alvechurch before moving into Vale Stadium, the former home of the previously defunct Paget Rangers in Castle Vale. They accordingly changed their name to Castle Vale Kings Heath, although they were usually known as Castle Vale KH. In 2005 they dropped their last link to Kings Heath when they changed their name to simply Castle Vale F.C. The club remained in the Midland Combination Premier Division until folding in 2012. They achieved a second runners-up finish in the 2006–07 season.
Records
Best league performance: 2nd in Midland Combination Premier Division, 1999–2000, 2006–07
Best FA Cup performance: Preliminary Round 2007–08
Best FA Vase performance: 3rd round proper, 2006–07
References
External links
Association football clubs established in 1964
Sport in Birmingham, West Midlands
1964 establishments in England
Defunct football clubs in the West Midlands (county)
Defunct football clubs in England
Association football clubs disestablished in 2012 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castle%20Vale%20F.C. |
Durlston is an area of Swanage, in Dorset, England. The area was developed by George Burt as a residential suburb, and includes many large Victorian villas as well as modern developments.
Durlston Country Park
Durlston has a country park overlooking Durlston Bay, with a mock castle built in 1887. The castle (a restaurant when built, and still in use as a cafe) is surrounded by stone ornaments, including the Great Globe, three metres in diameter. The area is now owned and managed by Dorset County Council. There is a modern visitors' centre on the hillside above the castle.
References
External links
Swanage
National nature reserves in England
Villages in Dorset | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Durlston |
Dartmouth South is a provincial electoral district in Nova Scotia, Canada, that elects one member of the Nova Scotia House of Assembly. The riding is currently represented by Claudia Chender of the NDP.
The district was created in 1966, under the name Dartmouth City South, when Halifax County Dartmouth was divided into two electoral districts. In 1967, the district was renamed Dartmouth South. In 2003, the district was renamed Dartmouth South – Portland Valley. In 2013 following the Nova Scotia Electoral Boundaries Commission review, the district returned to its earlier name of Dartmouth South and lost the area south of Russell Lake and east of Highway 111 to Cole Harbour-Eastern Passage.
Geography
The electoral district of Dartmouth South is about in landmass.
Members of the Legislative Assembly
This riding has elected the following Members of the Legislative Assembly:
Election results
1967 general election
1970 general election
1974 general election
1978 general election
1981 general election
1984 general election
1988 general election
1993 general election
1998 general election
1999 general election
2003 general election
2006 general election
2009 general election
2013 general election
|-
|align="right"| 4,049
|align="right"| 46.24
|align="right"| +18.34
|-
|New Democratic Party
|Mary Vingoe
|align="right"| 2,918
|align="right"| 33.32
|align="right"| -22.24
|-
|Progressive Conservative
|Gord Gamble
|align="right"| 1,612
|align="right"| 18.41
|align="right"| +5.16
|-
|align="right"| 178
|align="right"| 2.03
|align="right"|
|}
2015 by-election
2017 general election
2021 general election
References
External links
2006 riding profile
2003 riding profile
June 13, 2006 Nova Scotia Provincial General Election Poll By Poll Results
Nova Scotia provincial electoral districts
Dartmouth, Nova Scotia
Politics of Halifax, Nova Scotia | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dartmouth%20South |
Mohnish Bipinbhai Parmar (born 12 April 1988 in Baroda, Gujarat) and presently living in Gandhinagar, Gujarat is a right-arm off-break spinner bowler from India. He played for India Under-19s [cricket] team and played for the Gujarat cricket team. He was picked by the Kolkata Knight Riders franchise in 2009. He has modelled his action on the great Sri Lankan off-spinner Muttiah Muralitharan.
Achievements (National & International Cricket):
Selected and Played Following International Cricket Tournaments.
KOLKATTA KNIGHT RIDERS in IPL Session – 3 (April 2009-10)
INDIA-A against AUSTRALIA-A in September 2008-09.
INDIA-A against NEW ZEALAND-A in September 2008-09
INDIA-A against ISRAEL in July 2008-09
INDIA U-19 in ICC CRICKET WORLD CUP 2005-06
Represented Gujarat Cricket Association in BCCI‘s following First Class Test Cricket Tournaments..
Ranji Trophy Test Matches (4 Days) from 2007 to 2011 (Total 17 Test Matches)
Represented Gujarat Cricket Association in BCCI‘s following List A One Day Cricket Tournaments..
NKP Salve Challenger Trophy from INDIA RED in 2008-09 ( 3 Matches)
Deodhar Trophy in 2007-08
Vijay Hazare Trophy from 2005 to 2012 ( 8 Matches)
Represented Gujarat Cricket Association in BCCI‘s following Twenty-20 Matches..
Syed Mushtaq Ali Trophy from 2006 to 2012 ( 6 Matches)
Attended following BCCI’s Cricket Camps..
National Cricket Academy Camp (N.C.A) in 2006-07
Zonal Cricket Academy Camp (Z.C.A) from 2003 to 2007 ( 4 times)
Represented Gujarat Cricket Association in BCCI‘s following State Level around 87 Matches...
Under – 14 (Polly Umrigar Trophy)
Under -15 (Polly Umrigar Trophy)
Under – 17 (Vijay Merchant Trophy)
Under - 19 ( Cooch Behar Trophy, Vinoo Makad Trophy)
Under – 22 (CK Nayudu Trophy)
KSCA All India Invitation Tournament
Buchi Babu Invitation Tournament
G1 Reliance One Day Cricket Tournament
Kenya Tri-Series Tournament
References
Sportspeople from Vadodara
1988 births
Living people
Indian cricketers
Gujarat cricketers
West Zone cricketers
India Red cricketers
Kolkata Knight Riders cricketers | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monish%20Parmar |
Pilkington XXX Football Club was a football club based in Birmingham, England. They joined the Midland Combination Division Three in 1998. In 2002, they changed their name from Burman Hi-Ton. They resigned from the Midland League Division One at the end of the 2015-16 season.
History
It is unclear exactly when the club was formed – the club itself notes that the present name was adopted in 2002 but does not state when the earlier incarnation had actually been formed. It is known that the club, under its previous name of Burman Hi-Ton F.C., won the Birmingham Works League Division One in the 1996–97 season and joined the Midland Combination in 1998, where the team won the Division Three championship at the first attempt.
In 2001–02 the team won the Division Two title to gain promotion to Division One, whereupon the club adopted its present name. Success again came quickly in Division One, with a runners-up spot in 2003–04 gaining the team promotion to the Premier Division.
Club records
Best league performance: 5th in Midland Combination Premier Division, 2006–07
Best FA Cup performance: First Qualifying Round 2010–11
Best FA Vase performance: Second Round Proper, 2008–09
References
History page of official club website
External links
Pilkington XXX Football Club
Football clubs in England
Midland Football Combination
Sport in Birmingham, West Midlands
Football clubs in Birmingham, West Midlands
Defunct football clubs in the West Midlands (county)
Midland Football League
Association football clubs disestablished in 2016
Association football clubs established in 1931
2016 disestablishments in England
Works association football teams in England | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilkington%20XXX%20F.C. |
Helvecia is a town (comuna) in the center-east of the , on the San Javier River (which empties promptly into the Paraná River). It had about 8,500 inhabitants at the and it is the head town of the Garay Department.
Helvecia lies north-northeast from the provincial capital, to which it is linked by Provincial Route 1 and National Route 11. It is also located only 15 km from the ruins of the old provincial capital, Cayastá.
The town was founded in 1865 by Dr. Teófilo Romang, who had signed a contract with the provincial government, receiving 50 km2 of land for free on the condition of founding an agricultural colony with 125 immigrant families. Romang first came accompanied by 12 Swiss people in order to inspect the site, on 1865-01-01. Helvecia attained the status of comuna (commune) on 1886-07-14.
Helvecia is a prime spot for fishing of the amarillo (Banded Pimelodid, Pimelodus clarias clarias), and hosts the National and Provincial Amarillo Fishing Festival in July, which includes fishing contests and folkloric celebrations.
References
Bienvenidos a Santa Fe - Touristic website.
Populated places in Santa Fe Province
Paraná River | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helvecia |
Roosevelt was a Vintage era marque of an American automobile that was manufactured by the Marmon Motor Car Company of Indianapolis, Indiana, during the 1929 and 1930 model years.
History
The Roosevelt was named after President Theodore Roosevelt and designed to be priced as an "affordable" automobile, and advertising used the tag line Smart Transportation for the Thrifty. The Roosevelt was the first automobile in America with a straight-eight engine to be priced under $1,000, with the sedan and coupe selling for $995, .
Although the Roosevelt name did not appear for the 1931 range of Marmon models, the car was refined into the new Model 70 Marmon.
Sales in 1929 approached 24,500 automobiles, considered an excellent first year for a new marque. One of the unique features of the Roosevelt was the horn button. It served 3 purposes. Push down and it would honk, pull up and it was the starter, and turn it, to turn the head lights on and off. It also had a cameo of Theodore Roosevelt, black and white, on the front top middle of the radiator.
References
External links
1929 Roosevelt Victoria coupe
1930 Roosevelt coupe
Roosevelt 8 at ConceptCarz
Companies based in Indianapolis
Defunct manufacturing companies based in Indiana
Defunct motor vehicle manufacturers of the United States
Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1929
Vehicle manufacturing companies disestablished in 1930
Motor vehicle manufacturers based in Indiana
Vintage vehicles
Pre-war vehicles
1920s cars
1930s cars
Cars introduced in 1929 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roosevelt%20%28automobile%29 |
A (, "community of communes") is a federation of municipalities (communes) in France. It forms a framework within which local tasks are carried out together. It is the least-integrated form of intercommunalité (intercommunality).
As of 1 January 2007, there were 2,400 communautés de communes in France (2,391 in metropolitan France and 9 in the overseas departments), with 26.48 million people living in them. Since then many communautés de communes have been merged or have joined a communauté d'agglomération, a communauté urbaine or a . Whereas there were 2,408 communautés de communes in January 2010 and 1,842 in January 2016, there were only 1,009 communautés de communes left on 1 April 2018. The population of the communautés de communes (2019 population data, 2022 borders) ranged from 105,383 inhabitants (Communauté de communes Le Grésivaudan, covering the area between Grenoble and Chambéry), to 3,983 inhabitants (Communauté de communes du Causse de Labastide-Murat, Lot department).
Legal status
The was created by a statute of the French Parliament enacted on 6 February 1992. The statute was modified by the Chevènement law of 1999.
Unlike the communautés d'agglomération and the communautés urbaines, communautés de communes are not subject to a minimum threshold of population to come into existence. The only constraint is geographical continuity.
According to the Code général des collectivités territoriales (CGCT; general law over regional administrative structures), a is an établissement public de coopération intercommunale (EPCI; public establishment of inter-communal cooperation) formed by several French municipalities that cover a connected territory without enclave.
When the Chevènement law regulatory modifications came into force in 1999 communautés de communes already in existence that did not meet the criterion of geographical continuity were left untouched.
The communes involved build a space of solidarity with a joint project for development, infrastructure building, etc.
Constitutional
The communautés de communes are currently funded by local taxes:
tax on housing: taxe d'habitation
taxes on buildings and lands: taxe foncière
tax on businesses: taxe professionnelle
The taxe professionnelle unique is a modified version of the tax whereby a proportion of the monies levied by the communautés des communes is paid back to the individual communes. The taxe professionnelle is sometimes presented as an unfair burden on the economy or even as a device for exporting jobs outside France, and it has been subject to a series of reforms over the years but central government undertakings to abolish it (and presumably to replace it) have yet to come to fruition. If they do, funding of the communautés de communes will change fundamentally.
A is administered by a council (conseil communautaire) made up of delegates from the municipal councils of each member commune. The number of seats allocated to each commune reflects the size of the commune. A member commune must have at least one seat on the council and no individual commune may have more than half of the seats on the conseil communautaire.
Objectives
Article 5214-16 of the CGCT requires the to exercise its responsibilities in the following policy areas:
promotion of economic development across its entire territory
management and maintenance of public spaces
The may also choose to exercise its responsibilities in at least one of the following six policy areas:
environmental protection and improvement
housing and 'quality-of-life' policies
road construction, management and maintenance
construction, maintenance and operation of buildings and other infrastructure for recreational (cultural and sports related) and educational (primary schooling and preschooling) purposes
social actions for the common good
general improvements (assainissement)
The may define its own personnel requirements and appoint appropriately qualified employees. In addition, and subject to départemental agreement, it may exercise direct powers and responsibilities in certain social policy areas that are more normally handled at the départemental level.
Subject to these requirements, it is for the communes themselves to determine precisely which responsibilities they will delegate to the based on their view of the individual commune's best interests. Once powers and responsibilities have been delegated to the , they shall be exercised collectively through the and may no longer be exercised independently by individual member communes.
In 2008 there were 2,393 communautés de communes in France. Of these, roughly 1,000 had been in existence for less than a year. New communautés are currently being created at a more rapid rate than in the early years. Nevertheless there are still many rural communes that have not joined one of these groupings.
Communautés de communes with more than 60,000 inhabitants
References
External links
https://web.archive.org/web/20050601001354/http://www.intercommunalites.com/
Fifth-level administrative divisions by country | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communaut%C3%A9%20de%20communes |
Sadhana Sargam (née Ghanekar, born 7 March 1969) is an Indian singer known for her playback career in Indian cinema predominantly in Hindi, Bengali and Tamil language films. She is a recipient of the National Film Award and Filmfare Awards South. She has also won five Maharashtra State Film Awards, four Gujarat State Film Awards, and one Orissa State Film.
Early life
Sargam was born in a Marathi family of musicians at Dabhol, the seaport town in Ratnagiri District of Maharashtra. Her mother Neela Ghanekar was a classical singer and music teacher and knew arranger–composer Anil Mohile, who then arranged music for Kalyanji-Anandji. He introduced Sargam to them, and she was in the children's chorus in "Pam Pararampam, Bole Jeevan Ki Sargam" sung by Kishore Kumar in G. P. Sippy's Trishna (1978). Sargam performed at music festival Sawai Gandharva at the age of 4.
She sang the popular song Ek Anek Aur Ekta for Doordarshan at the age 6. The song was composed by Vasant Desai. Speaking about her memory of singing the song, Sargam said, "My parents took me for that recording. I don't remember much of it. It feels quite surreal when I hear it now." Sargam studied at the A. B. Goregaonkar English School in Goregaon, Mumbai.
She won a Central Government scholarship at the age 10 and this led to a 7-year learning stint under Pandit Jasraj. From childhood she was also learning and performing with Vasant Desai for his documentaries, children's films and stage shows. Desai advised her mother that Sargam was competent enough to handle both classical and light music and should remain in touch with both, as her mother wanted her to take up light singing. In fact, it was Desai who recommended that she learn under Pandit Jasraj.
Career
1982–1990: Early career
Sargam made her playback debut in Kanku Pagli, a Gujarati film. Her first Hindi song was the solo "Door Nahin Rehna" from the film Rustom. However, Rustom was delayed and was released only in 1985, and Sargam ’s first released film was Subhash Ghai's Vidhaata (1982) in which she sang the song "Saat Saheliyan" for actress Padmini Kolhapure. The song, composed by Kalyanji-Anandji, also had the voices of Kishore Kumar and Alka Yagnik.
Sargam continued to sing in films like Taqdeer, Pighalta Aasmaan, Raj Tilak, Karishma Kudrat Ka (in which she was the only female singer), but it was only with "Har Kisiko Nahin Milta" (Janbaaz 1986) that she was noticed.
Khudgarz was followed by Khoon Bhari Maang (1988) and Sargam also began to sing for other composers like Anu Malik, R. D. Burman, Anand Milind and sparingly under Laxmikant–Pyarelal. Her main hits continued to be with Rajesh Roshan, which included 'Jab Koi Baat Bigad Jaaye' / Jurm, 'Radha Bina Hai' / Kishan Kanhaiya, and songs in Dariya Dil, Aasmaan Se Ooncha and Jaisi Karni Waisi Bharni. She also sung several songs in B.R. Chopra's popular television series Mahabharat (1988).
She got a boost from Tridev (Kalyanji – Anandji – Viju Shah) in 1989 in which she worked on "Main Teri Mohabbat Mein" and "Gajar Ne Kiya Hai Ishara".
1990–2010: Fame and migration to South Indian music industries
In the early 1990s, Sargam emerged as one of the most sought-after female singers, along with Kavita Krishnamurthy, Alka Yagnik, Anuradha Paudwal and Poornima. She sang for composers like Nadeem–Shravan, Anand–Milind, Anu Malik, Jatin – Lalit, Bappi Lahiri, Viju Shah and Dilip Sen – Sameer Sen.
For the 1992 film Vishwatma, she sang "Saat Samundar Paar" for debutant Divya Bharti which became a chartbuster. The same year she sang "Teri Umeed Tera Intezar", "Teri Isi Ada Pe Sanam" in Deewana and "Aashiqui Mein Har Aashiq" in Dil Ka Kya Kasoor. The songs were superhits. Sargam would have become the voice of Divya Bharti were it not for the latter's untimely demise. Also in 1992, she sang the enduring duet “Pehla Nasha” by Jatin-Lalit with Udit Narayan in the film Jo Jeeta Wohi Sikander.
Her most critically acclaimed Hindi songs from the 2000s are in the film Water, composed by A. R. Rahman, in which she sang three songs: "Aayo Re Sakhi", "Piya Ho" and "Naina Neer". Her other notable songs in Hindi with the same composer include "Aahista Aahista" from Swades, "Chupke Se" and "Naina Milaike" from Saathiya, "Chanda Re" from Sapney, "O Palanhare" from Lagaan, "Jhulaa Bahon Ka" from Doli Saja Ke Rakhna, and "Banno Rani" from 1947: Earth. Her other notable rhapsodic Hindi hits are "Neele Neele Ambar Par" from Kalakaar, "Jab Koi Baat Bigad Jaye" from Jurm, "Pehla Nasha" from Jo Jeeta Wohi Sikandar, "Na Kajre Ki Dhar" from Mohra, "Tere Dar Pe Sanam" from Phir Teri Kahani Yaad Aayee, "Jhinimini" from Maqbool and "Aao Na" from Kyun! Ho Gaya Na....
Sargam has sung more than 200 songs in Tamil, almost all of them having been well received. Her hits include, but not limited to, "Vennilave" from Minsara Kanavu, "Nenje Nenje" from Ratchagan, "Snehithane" from Alaipayuthey, "Swasame" from Thenali, "Konjum Mainakkale" from Kandukondain Kandukondain, "Anbae Sugama" from Paarthale Paravasam, "Deewana Deewana" from Gemini, "Vaanaville Vaanaville" from Ramanaa, "Chanakya Chanakya" from Dum, "Manmadhane Nee" from Manmadhan, "Thaiyyatha Thaiyyatha" from Thiruttu Payale, "Akkam Pakkam" from Kireedam, Enadhuyirae from Bheemaa, "Mukundha Mukundha" from Dasavathaaram, "Om Zaarare" from Kuselan, and "Kaiya Pudi" from Mynaa.
With nearly 100 tracks to her credit in Telugu, her hits include "Vennelave" from Merupu Kalalu, "Snehithuda" from Sakhi, "Palike Gorinkaa Chudave" from Priyuralu Pilichindi, "Sathamaanaa Mannadile" from Mrugaraju, "Baba Neeku Mokkutha" from Baba, "Jaajimalli Thota" and "Kommallo Koyila" from 'Ninu Chusaka Nenundalenu', "Pedave Palikina Matallone" from Naani, "Ela Vacchenamma" from Sankranti, "Manasa" from Munna, "Mooga Manase" from Nava Vasantham, "Ninnena" from Salute, "Panchirey" from Konchem Ishtam Konchem Kashtam, "Kanu Paapalloo Prema" from Shambo Shiva Shambo, "Anthapuramloo" and "Avuna Neevena" from Rudhramadevi.
Sargam won her first Star Screen award for "Chupke Se Lag Ja Gale" from Saathiya. She also won Filmfare, IIFA, Star Screen, GIFA, Apsara awards, Zee Cine Award, Star Screen Award and Stardust Best Playback Singer Female award nomination for "Aao Na" from " Kyon Ho Gaya Na..!" She received prestigious Zee Cine Award at Dubai for "Halki Halki Mulaqate Thi" from Kuch Na Kaho in 2003. She is the only playback singer from India who currently sings in 27 Indian languages. She won the National Film Award for Best Female Playback Singer for the song "Pattu Solli" from Thankar Bachan's cult classic movie Azhagi; the music was by maestro Ilaiyaraaja, whom she has praised, time and again, for "giving her such a wonderful song, and making her eligible for the National Award".
2010–Recent works
Sargam sang several songs in Hindi and Odia for music director Kajol-Saroj. She has also sung the Tamil version of "Mann Mohana" from the Hindi film Jodhaa Akbar. Another foot-tapping recent solo Tamil song is "Sutri Varum Bhoomi" from the Vidhyasagar-composed Jeyamkondaan and "En Nenjil" from Baana Kaathadi. She also sang the track "Rara Are Tu Aaja.." for the Hindi-dubbed version of Chandramukhi in 2008. Sargam's Kannada song Marali Mareyagi from the movie Savaari in 2009 was well-received and won several accolades. The recent Ilaiyaraaja-composed Tamil film Naan Kadavul has a song titled "Amma Un Pillai" featuring her voice. In 2014, Sargam sang for A. R. Rahman in India's first-ever photorealisitc motion capture film, Kochadaiiyaan, which was lip-synced by Deepika Padukone on screen. The same year, Sargam recorded two other hit tracks, "Kannukkul Pothivaippen" in Thirumanam Enum Nikkah and "Sonnathu Sonnathu" in Aranmanai. In 2015, she sang two songs for Ilaiyaraaja in the historical drama, Rudhramadevi (soundtrack).
In 2011, Sargam made a contribution to the spiritual music world by singing an album: Mahalaxmi Mukti Samvad, MMS i.e. Mahalaxmi's Dialogues of Salvation. The lyrics are written by Dr. Pradeep Wagh. This album was released at the hands of spiritual Guru Vidyavachaspati Dr. Shankar Abhyankar.
In 2013, Sadhana Sargam sang a romantic duet with Udit Narayan, "Ek Dil Hai Toota Idhar Bhi" penned by Raghvendra Singh in the music direction of Navin Manish for Rajshri Production's TV show Jhilmil Sitaaron Ka Aangan Hoga on Sahara One channel.
In 2014, Sargam recorded a bhajan, "O Kaanha Kaa Tohe Arpan Karun" penned by Raghvendra Singh in the music direction of Navin Manish for Rajshri productions TV show Mere rang mein rangne waali on Life Ok channel.
In 2015, Sargam, along with Kumar Sanu, recorded the runaway hit track, "Dard Karaara", from Dum Laga Ke Haisha in Anu Malik music. In 2017, the duo joined once again, but to record the title track for a TV serial, Yeh Un Dinon Ki Baat Hai; the song became an instant hit.
In 2018, Sargam sang an energetic and inspiring song Houn Jau Dya in Madhuri Dixit's Marathi film debut, Bucket List. The song also has the voices of Shreya Ghosal and Shaan.
In 2019, Sargam, along with Jonita Gandhi recorded a song, "Nee Sirichalum" from the Vishal-starrer, Action. The same year to commemorate the 500th episode of the hit serial Sembaruthi, Sargam and Vijay Prakash dueted a song in the music direction of Sekar Sai Barath.
In June 2021, Sargam collaborated with A R Rahman and Gulzar to record the song "Meri Pukaar Suno." The emotionally gravid track has an ensemble of six other singers: Alka Yagnik, K.S. Chithra, Shreya Ghoshal, Shashaa Tirupati, Armaan Malik and Asees Kaur. Described as a "heartfelt song of healing" by Rolling Stone India, the video for the song, featuring all the singers, was directed by Nazeef Mohammed.
Bengali career
Sargam sang her first song in the year 1992 film called Daan Pratidan, music composed by Ajoy Das. The following year Bappi Lahiri approached her to sing in the film Tomar Rakte Amar Sohag. She sang in films like Sagar Kinare, Kotha Chilo, Phiriye Dao and Dhushar Godhuli. She has sung the song "Holo Dhonno Jibon" along with Sonu Nigam in the film Bandhan (2004) which has been remade in Hindi as superhit "Hum Mar Jaayenge", sung by Arijit Singh and Tulsi Kumar. Further, she also sang "Akashe Batase Chal Sathi Ure Jai" with Kavita Krishnamurthy in Moner Majhe Tumi (2003), but the film's title track, her duet with Udit Narayan, "Premi O Premi" became an enormous hit.
Legacy
Beginning her career in the early 1980s, Sargam has sung over 15,000 film and non-film songs in 36 Indian languages including Hindi, Marathi, Tamil, Telugu, Assamese, Bengali, Gujarati, Nepali, Meitei, Odia, Kannada, Malayalam and many others. In 2002, she became the first non-South Indian singer to win the National Award for a South Indian song. She is also the first non-South Indian singer to receive two Filmfare South Awards in the same year.
She is the only playback singer who actively participates and sings devotional and meditation songs for spiritual foundations like Prajapita Brahmkumari Vishwavidyalaya and Satya Saibaba. Her 2015 bhajan Sai Ram Sai Shyam Sai Bhagwan has crossed more than 100 million views on YouTube, and is immensely popular throughout India. Sargam has recorded hundreds of devotional albums in various languages, especially in Hindi, Gujarati, and Bengali.
Having achieved all prestigious awards in India, she is surprisingly yet to receive a Filmfare Award. In fact, she has neither won a Filmfare nor National Award for a Hindi song. Though she has numerous tracks to her credit (more than 2000 songs in Hindi alone), she had only been nominated twice for Filmfare Awards; once in 1989, for Main Teri Hoon Janam and sixteen years later, in 2005, for Aao Na. Coincidentally, her contemporary, Alka Yagnik bagged the coveted trophies, both times.
Sargam's work in the international films Earth (1998 film) and Water are not happenstance, explains Deepa Mehta, the films' director. Mehta says, "I'm not fond of high pitched Indian women's voices. So there's this wonderful singer Sadhana Sargam, whose voice is low and we used her voice." On her frequent collaborations with Sargam, Rahman says, "I am surprised every time I work with her." Her other notable international collaboration was with Bally Sagoo, with whom she recorded Sometimes, Sometimes, a remixed version of the well known Kabhie Kabhie Mere Dil.
Sargam's voice is the favorite of artists like Lata Mangeshkar, Asha Bhosle, K.S.Chithra, Sunidhi Chauhan A R Rahman, Ilaiyaraaja, Amitabh Bachchan, Shashaa Tirupati and others.
Awards and nominations
National Film Awards
2002 – National Film Award for Best Female Playback Singer – "Paattu Cholli" (Azhagi), Tamil film.
Filmfare Awards
1988 – Nominated – Filmfare Award for Best Female Playback Singer – "Main Teri Hu Janam" ("Khoon Bhari Maang ")
2000 – Nominated – Filmfare Award for Best Female Playback Singer – Tamil – "Snehidhane" ("Alaipayuthey")
2001 – Nominated – Filmfare Award for Best Female Playback Singer – Tamil – "Swasame" ("Thenali")
2002 – Nominated – Filmfare Award for Best Female Playback Singer – Tamil – "Kadhal Vandhadhum" ("Poovellam Un Vaasam")
2002 – Nominated – Filmfare Award for Best Female Playback Singer – Tamil – "Paattu Cholli" ("Azhagi")
2004 – Nominated – Filmfare Award for Best Female Playback Singer – "Aao Na" ("Kyun! Ho Gaya Na...")
2007 – Winner – Best Female Playback Singer (Tamil) – "Akkam Pakkam" (Kireedam)
2007 – Winner – Best Female Playback Singer (Telugu) – "Manasa" (Munna)
2008 – Nominated – Filmfare Award for Best Female Playback Singer – Tamil – "Mukundha Mukundha" ("Dasavathaaram")
2008 – Nominated – Filmfare Award for Best Female Playback Singer – Telugu – "Ninnena" ("Salute")
2009 – Nominated – Filmfare Award for Best Female Playback Singer – Kannada – "Mareli Mareyagi" ("Savaari")
Zee Cine Awards
2004 – Zee Cine Award for Best Playback Singer – Female – "Kuch Naa Kaho" (Kuch Naa Kaho)
Maharashtra State Film Awards
1993 – State Award for Best Singer – Female – Saarech Sajjan
1994 – State Award for Best Singer – Female – Mayechi Sawli
2000 – State Award for Best Singer – Female – "Kshitijavaril Tara" (Jodidar)
2002 – State Award for Best Singer – Female – Aadhar
2005 – State Award for Best Singer – Female – "Saanjh Jhali Tari" (Sarivar Sari)
Orissa State Film Awards
1994 – Best Playback Singer (Female) – Sagar Ganga
Zee Gaurav Puraskar
2000 – Award for Best Female Singer – Jodidar
2002 – Award for Best Female Singer – Aadhar
2004 – Award for Best Female Singer – Ek Hoti Wadi
2005 – Award for Best Female Singer – Sarivar Sari
2006 – Award for Best Female Singer – Aaishappath
2007 – Award for Best Female Singer – Aevdhasa Aabhal
Star Screen Awards
2003 – Star Screen Award for Best Female Playback – "Chupke Se" (Saathiya)
Uninor South Radio Mirchi Awards
2009 – Song of the Year – "Marali Mareyaagi" (Savaari; along with Composer Manikanth Kadri)
2009 – Best Kannada Song Listener's Choice – "Marali Mareeyaagi" (Savaari)
Other awards and recognitions
'Lata Mangeshkar Award' from the Government of Madhya Pradesh.
Konkan Sahyadri Swar Ratna Award for Invaluable contribution in Indian Music
2000 – Dinakaran Award for Best Female Singer – "Snegithane" (Alaipayuthey)
2002 – Dinakaran Award for Best Female Singer – "Paattu Cholli" (Azhagi)
2004 – Kalakar Award for Best Female Playback
2005 – Vitusco Award for Best Female singer – "Oru Vaarthai" (Ayya)
2005 & 2008 – Bhojpuri Film Award for Best Singer – Female
2005, 2006 & 2007 – Sanskruthi Kaladarpan Awards
2006 – Gujarath State Film Award for Best Singer – Female
2008 – Chitrapathi V. Shantaram Award for Best Female singer – "Tu Aevdhasa Aabhal" (Aevdhasa Aabhal)
Discography
References
External links
Unofficial Website
1969 births
Living people
Tamil playback singers
Telugu playback singers
Bollywood playback singers
Malayalam playback singers
Kannada playback singers
Hindustani singers
Indian women classical singers
Indian women playback singers
Marathi people
Mewati gharana
Marathi playback singers
Marathi-language singers
Nepali-language singers from India
Filmfare Awards South winners
20th-century Indian singers
21st-century Indian singers
Women Hindustani musicians
Singers from Maharashtra
20th-century Indian women singers
21st-century Indian women singers
Women musicians from Maharashtra
Screen Awards winners
Zee Cine Awards winners
Best Female Playback Singer National Film Award winners | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sadhana%20Sargam |
Alan Norman Bold (1943–1998) was a Scottish poet, biographer, journalist and saxophonist. He was born in Edinburgh.
He edited Hugh MacDiarmid's Letters and wrote the influential biography MacDiarmid. Bold had acquainted himself with MacDiarmid in 1963 while still an English Literature student at Edinburgh University. His debut work, Society Inebrious, with a lengthy introduction by MacDiarmid, was published in 1965, during Bold's final university year. This early publication kick-started a prolific poetic career with Bold publishing another three books of verse before the end of the decade, including the ambitious book-length poem The State of the Nation. He also edited The Penguin Book of Socialist Verse (1970) and published a 1973 biography of Robert Burns.
Alan Bold married an art teacher, Alice. Their daughter Valentina is a Robert Burns scholar like her father, who teaches at the University of Glasgow. A lifelong heavy drinker who dealt with the boozy life of the poet in such collections as A Pint of Bitter, Bold died after a short illness in a hospital in Kirkcaldy at the age of 54.
Publications
Poetry
Penguin Modern Poets 15, 1969.
Society Inebrious, Mowat Hamilton, Edinburgh 1965
The Voyage, 1966
To Find the New, Chatto and Windus, London, 1967
A Perpetual Motion Machine, Chatto and Windus, London, 1969
The State of the Nation, Chatto and Windus, London, 1969
A Pint of Bitter, Chatto and Windus, 1971
The Malfeasance, Alan Bold 1974
This Fine Day, Borderline Press, 1979
Other
The Penguin Book of Socialist Verse Penguin, 1970
Biography of Robert Burns, Pitkin Pictorials Ltd, 1973
Letters of Hugh MacDiarmid (edited), 1983
East is West a novel, Keith Murray Publishing, 1991
Making Love: The Picador Book of Erotic Verse, 1978
The Bawdy Beautiful: The Sphere Book of Improper Verse, Editor, 1979
Mounts of Venus: The Picador Book if Erotic Prose, 1980
The Sensual Scot, Paul Harris Publishing, Editor, 1982
Reviews
Murray, Glen (1980), review of This Fine Day, in Cencrastus No. 2, Spring 1980, pp. 43 – 45,
Czerkawska, Catherine Lucy (1980), review of The Bawdy Beautiful: The Sphere Book of Improper Verse, Cencrastus No. 2, Spring 1980, p. 45
Anderson, Carol (1983), The Bold Type, review of The Sensual Scot, in Hearn, Sheila G. (ed.), Cencrastus No. 13, Summer 1983, p. 56
External links
Alan Bold at The Scottish Poetry Library biography and appreciation by Richie McCaffery.
References
1943 births
1998 deaths
Scottish Renaissance
20th-century Scottish poets
Scottish male poets
Alumni of the University of Edinburgh
20th-century British male writers
20th-century Scottish writers | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan%20Bold |
Cossato is a municipality in the province of Biella, Italy, in the northwest part of Piedmont, east of Biella. It has a population of about 14,804 and it spreads over an area of 27,74 km², which makes it the second largest town in the Province of Biella. It is crossed by the Strona di Mosso stream.
Geography
The city is the second largest town in the province of Biella by population and economic importance. It has an urban development that follows the direction of the major roads: the center is along the Biella-Gattinara former state road, while numerous frazioni are scattered along the road to Mottalciata baraggivo plateau and the hills towards Quaregna, Lessona and Valle Mosso.
Main sights
Parish dedicated to the Assumption, built before 1000. It was rebuilt in 1614 after the collapse, which occurred two years before.
Castle Castellengo, on the edge of the Baragge of Candelo.
Church of SS. Peter and Paul, near the Castellengo Castle. medieval building restored over the years with the addition of different styles.
Villa Ranzoni, eighteenth-century building houses the Municipal Library.
Villa Fecia, building belonging to Fecia accounts of Cossato including a large park and a church, the Oratory of Santa Margherita (in medieval style).
Villa Berlanghino, in the neoclassical style. It is a large building with a wooden staircase and a public park outside.
Natural reserve of Baragge
Government
List of mayors
Twin towns
Neve Shalom, Israel
References
Cities and towns in Piedmont | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cossato |
The New Holland honeyeater (Phylidonyris novaehollandiae) is a honeyeater species found throughout southern Australia. It was among the first birds to be scientifically described in Australia, and was initially named Certhia novaehollandiae.
Taxonomy
There are currently five described subspecies of Phylidonyris novaehollandiae:
P. novaehollandiae novaehollandiae (South-eastern mainland Australia; Latham, 1790)
P. novaehollandiae canescens (Tasmania; Latham, 1790),
P. novaehollandiae campbelli (Kangaroo Island, South Australia; Matthews, 1923)
P. novaehollandiae longirostris (Western Australia; Gould, 1846)
P. novaehollandiae caudatus (Bass Strait islands; Salomonsen, 1966).
Description
The bird is around long and is mainly black, with a white iris, white facial tufts and yellow margins on its wing and tail feathers. It is a very active bird and rarely sits long enough to give an extended view. When danger approaches a New Holland honeyeater, such as a bird of prey, a group of honeyeaters will form together and give a warning call. Sexes are similar in looks with the exception that females are, on average, slightly smaller. Young New Holland honeyeaters (<1 year old) have similar colouring but have grey eyes and a yellow gape and 'whiskers' near the nares. They appear to be a socially monogamous bird with no sign of co-operative breeding, but this observation is yet to be examined.
Breeding
The breeding behaviour of the New Holland honeyeater has been relatively well documented. In southern and eastern Australia, breeding commonly occurs during autumn and spring, although certain coastal populations may breed at any time of the year given suitable conditions, including sufficient food and absence of adverse weather. In Western Australia, New Holland honeyeaters have been observed to breed once annually from July to November, when nectar is abundant.
In breeding territories, males spend a large proportion of their time defending the nest and food resources, while the females invest a large proportion of their time in reproductive labour including nest construction, incubation, and a majority of the nestling care. However, these roles are not completely strict (Lambert and Oorebeek, observation). It is also common for females to utilise food resources that are in close proximity to the nest, while males venture further afield, toward the outskirts of the territory.
Diet
New Holland honeyeaters obtain most of their carbohydrate requirements from the nectar of flowers. Consequently, they are key pollinators of many flowering plant species, many of which are endemic to Australia, such as Banksia, Hakea, Xanthorrhoea, and Acacia. New Holland honeyeaters may also consume honeydew, a sugary secretion produced by members of the family Psyllidae. Despite feeding primarily on nectar, New Holland honeyeaters are not strictly nectarivorous. Nectar does not contain protein, so New Holland honeyeaters must supplement their diet with invertebrates, such as spiders and insects that are rich in protein. They sometimes feed alone but usually gather in groups.
Gallery
References
External links
Call of New Holland honeyeaters
New Holland honeyeater
Endemic birds of Australia
Birds of Western Australia
Birds of South Australia
Birds of New South Wales
Birds of Victoria (state)
Birds of Tasmania
New Holland honeyeater
Taxa named by John Latham (ornithologist) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Holland%20honeyeater |
Southam United Football Club is a football club based in Southam, Warwickshire. They are members of the and play at Bobby Hancocks Park.
History
Known as the “Saints”, they celebrated their centenary in 2005, having been founded in 1905 following the amalgamation of two village teams. From 1947 to 1956 the club dominated the Coventry and North Warwickshire League. They took the step up to the Midland Combination in 1980–81 and immediately won the Division Three title. When the League was reorganised in 1983–84, United were placed in the Premier Division, but after several seasons of struggle they were downgraded to Division Two when it was discovered that their pitch was now too short owing to the construction of a bowling green next to it. Finally in 1995–96 United made it back to the Premier Division after two promotions in seven years.
The 1997–98 season was the Saints' most successful as they finished as Premier Division runners up and also won the Birmingham County FA Vase with a 3–0 victory over Shirley Town, but league form since then has been disappointing, with four successive finishes in the bottom two between 2001 and 2004 seeing relegation only staved off each time by a lack of teams with acceptable facilities to be promoted.
In 2001, Saints merged with Southam Town Junior Sports Club, a progressive junior club formed in 1972, which amongst other achievements, pioneered ladies and girls football in Warwickshire.
Although finishing in 15th place in the 2009–10 seasons, Saints had finished 3rd in each of the previous two seasons and, in addition, won the Birmingham County FA Midweek Floodlit Cup in 2008–09 with a 3–1 win over Darlaston Town and won the Coventry Evening Telegraph Cup in 2010-11 with victory at the Ricoh Arena over Alvis.
The club finished bottom of Division One of the Midland Football League in 2016–17, after which the adult team ceased to exist. The team was reformed to join Division Two North of the Hellenic League for the 2019–20 season. As part of their reformation they moved to a new built ground not far from the old one. The old ground was purchased by Bloor Homes who are looking to develop properties on the site.
In 2019–20 season, they were top of the league after 17 games when the season was abandoned due to Covid-19. Following the abandoned 2020-21 season they were transferred to the Oxfordshire Senior Football League Premier Division were they finished second, gaining promotion for the 2022-23 season back to Step 6 in Division One of the Hellenic League.
Club records
Most goals: Bob Hancocks, over 1,200
Most appearances: Bob Hancocks
Best league performance: Midland Combination Premier Division runners-up, 1997–98
Best FA Cup performance: Second qualifying round, 2008–09
Best FA Vase performance: Second qualifying round, 2000–01 and 2007–08
Sources
External links
Official website
Football clubs in England
Midland Football Combination
Association football clubs established in 1905
Football clubs in Warwickshire
1905 establishments in England
Midland Football League
Hellenic Football League
Southam | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southam%20United%20F.C. |
Tostado is a city in the northwest of the province of Santa Fe, Argentina, north-west from the provincial capital. It had about 14,000 inhabitants at the and it is the head town of the Nueve de Julio Department.
The town was founded in 1891 and attained the status of comuna (commune) on 8 August 1904. It became a city on 31 December 1970.
Notable People
Lucas Alario, footballer
References
Populated places in Santa Fe Province | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tostado%2C%20Santa%20Fe |
Vijaykumar Yo Mahesh (born 21 December 1987), is a former Indian cricketer who played for Tamil Nadu. He is a right-hand batsman and bowls with his right hand. He studied in St. Bede's Anglo Indian Higher Secondary School in Chennai.
He broke into the Indian U19 one-day squad for the series against Australia in September 2005 and played sufficiently well to retain his squad place for both the Afro-Asian Cup and the 2006 Under-19 Cricket World Cup in Sri Lanka.
In his ten U19 ODIs to date, he has taken 15 wickets with a strike rate of one wicket every 32 balls. Previously, from 2008 to 2010, he played for Delhi Daredevils in the IPL. He was then signed up by the Chennai Super Kings in 2011 and released after the end of IPL 2012. He took most wickets in the 2009–10 Vijay Hazare Trophy, India's domestic 50 over tournament. He can swing the ball both ways.
On 20 December 2020, Mahesh announced his retirement from all forms of cricket.
References
External links
1987 births
Chennai Super Kings cricketers
Delhi Capitals cricketers
Indian cricketers
Tamil Nadu cricketers
South Zone cricketers
India Blue cricketers
Living people | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yo%20Mahesh |
Hillcrest School, also known as Hillcrest International Schools, is a British private international day and boarding school located in Nairobi, Kenya. Established in 1965 as a pre-school, the school has grown to now encompass Hillcrest Early Years (HEY), Hillcrest Preparatory School and Hillcrest Secondary School.
History
The origins of Hillcrest International Schools started with Hillcrest Preparatory School which was founded in 1965 by educationalist Dorothy Noad and long-serving government employee Frank Thompson. Hillcrest Preparatory secured its international school status in 1972, when it became a member of the Independent Association of Prep Schools; joining a conglomerate of British curriculum schools across the world. In 1975 Kenneth Matiba, Stephen Smith, and Frank Thompson partnered to start the Hillcrest Secondary School.
Campus
It is situated on a site in the Nairobi suburb of Karen. The school caters for the international, professional, and local business communities.
Hillcrest Early Years
The school has; Nursery 1 (18 months – 3 years), Nursery 2 (3 – 4 years), Reception (4 – 5 years) and Year 1 (5 – 6 years).
Hillcrest Preparatory School
The preparatory school's facilities include 32 general classrooms, two laboratories, a library, two art rooms, a multipurpose hall, a swimming pool, a music centre with four practice rooms and a teaching/rehearsal space, an open-air amphitheatre, two computer laboratories, and a learning-support Center, Design and Technology center and an art room.
Hillcrest Secondary School
The secondary and preparatory school share facilities such as a twenty five metre pool, canoes, basketball courts and netball courts.
There is a conserved area commonly known as 'The Nature Trail' which mainly consists of indigenous trees and hosts animals such as jackals, snakes, birds and hares.
The sixth form has 60 to 70 students in each year, most of whom continue to university, mainly in the UK, but also in the United States, Canada, Europe and South Africa.
Boarding
There is also a boarding house, Toad Hall, which sits on the school site, capable of housing 16 girls and 16 boys.
Academics
The school year runs from September to July and IGCSE/'O' and 'A' level exams are set and marked by CIE (Cambridge International Examinations), AQA and Edexcel. The school has also recently introduced BTEC programmes in Performing arts, Sports, Business, Travel & Tourism and Art & Design (Photography).
The school, of about 440 students, has its largest groups coming from Kenya and Britain. The staff are recruited from Britain and Kenya.
Notable alumni
Jo Theones, a DJ at Fox FM in Oxford
Zain Verjee, anchor woman at CNN international
References
External links
Hillcrest International Schools official website
International schools in Kenya
Cambridge schools in Kenya
Schools in Nairobi
Educational institutions established in 1975
1975 establishments in Kenya | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hillcrest%20School%20%28Nairobi%2C%20Kenya%29 |
SANSA Space Science, previously the Hermanus Magnetic Observatory (HMO) is South Africa's national geomagnetic research facility. The observatory is situated in the town of Hermanus (Overstrand Local Municipality) in the Western Cape Province and forms part of the South African National Space Agency.
The observatory is an active participant in the International Real-time Magnetic Observatory Network, one of a large number magnetic observatories which monitor and model variations of the Earth's magnetic field.
The HMO consists of four operational groups:
Space Physics
Geomagnetism
Technology
Science Outreach
Since 1957 the observatory has been operating neutron monitors. Currently this is being done on behalf of the North-West University and consists of 12 Chalk River neutron counter tubes.
See also
Earth's magnetic field
References
External links
SANSA Space Science Website
Space science organizations
Space program of South Africa
Overstrand Local Municipality | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SANSA%20Space%20Science |
Air sacs are spaces within an organism where there is the constant presence of air. Among modern animals, birds possess the most air sacs (9–11), with their extinct dinosaurian relatives showing a great increase in the pneumatization (presence of air) in their bones. Birds use air sacs for respiration as well as a number of other things. Theropods, like Aerosteon, have many air sacs in the body that are not just in bones, and they can be identified as the more primitive form of modern bird airways. Sauropods are well known for the large number of air pockets in their bones (especially vertebra), although one theropod, Deinocheirus, shows a rivalling number of air pockets.
Air sacs in birds
Air sacs in respiration
Birds have a system of air sacs in their ventilation system. The air sacs work to produce a unidirectional flow where air enters and exits the lung at the same rate, contrasting the lungs of other tetrapods such as mammals where air enters and exits the lung in a tidal ventilation.
Avian lungs have a bronchial system in which the air flows through dorsobronchi into the parabronchi before exiting via the ventrobronchi. Gas exchange occurs at the parabronchi.
Avian pulmonary air sacs are lined with simple epithelial and secretory cells supported by elastin connective tissues. The air sacs themselves are either poorly vascularized or entirely avascular. No gas exchange occurs within them. There are five main air sacs in birds, three of which branch from the ventrobronchi, and two of which branch from the intrapulomonary bronchus connecting the dorsobronchi and ventrobronchi. The air sacs are usually paired, except for the clavicular air sac, creating a total of 9 air sacs. However, this morphology varies among bird species. Birds such as parrots have different air sac arrangements. The morphologies of the individual air sacs also vary among bird taxa.
In birds, gas exchange and volume change do not occur in the same place. While gas exchange occurs in the parabronchi in the lungs, the lungs do not change volume much during respiration. Instead, voluminous expansion occurs in the air sacs. These volume changes cause pressure gradients between air sacs, with higher gradients causing more air to flow over the parabronchi during inhalation and lower gradients casing more air to flow over the parabronchi during exhalation. Different air sacs alternate contraction and expansion, causing air motion, the fundamental mechanism of avian respiration. The compliance of the air sacs is related to the timing of all of the moving parts involved in respiration.
Birds have hollow pneumatic bones. The hollow air spaces in bird bones outside of the head are connected to the air sacs in a way that a bird with a blocked windpipe and a bone broken in a manner where the inside of the bone was connected to the outside world could still breathe. These pneumatic bones are less vascularized than non-pneumatic bones and many pneumatic bones have pneumatic foramina (openings for air passage). Skeletal pneumaticity often originates developmentally as offshoots of the air sacs, especially in the synsacrum. Bone pneumaticity is generally found in the appendicular skeleton. Some birds, such as penguins or loons, have solid bones.
Other uses for air sacs
Water loss
In birds, some temperature control occurs in the respiratory system. Water vapor heats cool air during inhalation in the trachea, and increases its humidity. The resulting evaporative water loss varies greatly and depends on several factors including air sac pressure and the subsequent rate of air flow through the trachea.
Diving
In diving birds, the air sacs can aid in helping birds with respiration. Movement of the muscles involved in diving can cause a pressure differential between the air sacs which would cause more air to move through the parabronchi. This would then increase the uptake of oxygen stored in the respiratory system. In penguins, air sac volumes are constricted in deep dives to protect from the effects of water pressure. Penguins have been found inflating their air sacs before dives and exhale much of the air during the deepest point of their dives to change buoyancy while descending and ascending during the dive.
Song production
Air sacs play a role in song production in songbirds and related birds, with some studies hypothesizing that the air sac may be involved as a resonating chamber. The pressure of air in the air sac is also heavily involved in song production, as different males singing the same song have similar modulations in air sac pressure. Changes in air pressure patterns are indicative of respiratory muscle activity and the airflow around the syrinx, the primary vocalization organ of songbirds. The portion of the neural pathways which control respiration during vocalization changes air sac pressure to control vocal intensity. The pressure in the interclavicular air sac is highly correlated with the fundamental frequency of birdsong in doves. Birdsong primarily occurs in expiration and therefore syllables and fundamental frequency are highly correlated with increased interclavicular air sac pressure. Changes in air sac pressure also affect the length of the trachea which can also affect the fundamental frequency. The pressure can change midpoint of the folds of the syrinx, an action which converts the higher pressure into higher frequencies. In a species of tyrannid (the sister group to true songbirds), birds have two different sources of sound around the trachea. At high air sac pressures, the two sound sources have different frequencies, while at low pressure they have the same frequency. The generation of bird trills involves modulation of the pressure in air sacs. Since so many aspects of birdsong depend on air sac pressure, there is a trade off between trill rate and the duration of each call, though this has not been studied in depth.
Function
From about 1870 onwards scientists have generally agreed that the post-cranial skeletons of many dinosaurs contained many air-filled cavities (postcranial skeletal pneumaticity), especially in the vertebrae. Pneumatization of the skull (such as paranasal sinuses) is found in both synapsids and archosaurs, but postcranial pneumatization is found only in birds, non-avian saurischian dinosaurs, and pterosaurs.
For a long time these cavities were regarded simply as weight-saving devices, but Bakker proposed that they were connected to air sacs like those that make birds' respiratory systems the most efficient of all animals'.
John Ruben et al. (1997, 1999, 2003, 2004) disputed this and suggested that dinosaurs had a "tidal" respiratory system (in and out) powered by a crocodile-like hepatic piston mechanism – muscles attached mainly to the pubis pull the liver backwards, which makes the lungs expand to inhale; when these muscles relax, the lungs return to their previous size and shape, and the animal exhales. They also presented this as a reason for doubting that birds descended from dinosaurs.
Critics have claimed that, without avian air sacs, modest improvements in a few aspects of a modern reptile's circulatory and respiratory systems would enable the reptile to achieve 50% to 70% of the oxygen flow of a mammal of similar size, and that lack of avian air sacs would not prevent the development of endothermy. Very few formal rebuttals have been published in scientific journals of Ruben et al.’s claim that dinosaurs could not have had avian-style air sacs; but one points out that the Sinosauropteryx fossil on which they based much of their argument was severely flattened and therefore it was impossible to tell whether the liver was the right shape to act as part of a hepatic piston mechanism. Some recent papers simply note without further comment that Ruben et al. argued against the presence of air sacs in dinosaurs.
Evidence
Researchers have presented evidence and arguments for air sacs in sauropods, "prosauropods", coelurosaurs, ceratosaurs, and the theropods Aerosteon and Coelophysis.
In advanced sauropods ("neosauropods") the vertebrae of the lower back and hip regions show signs of air sacs. In early sauropods only the cervical (neck) vertebrae show these features. If the developmental sequence found in bird embryos is a guide, air sacs actually evolved before the channels in the skeleton that accommodate them in later forms.
Evidence of air sacs has also been found in theropods. Studies indicate that fossils of coelurosaurs, ceratosaurs, and the theropods Coelophysis and Aerosteon exhibit evidence of air sacs. Coelophysis, from the late Triassic, is one of the earliest dinosaurs whose fossils show evidence of channels for air sacs. Aerosteon, a Late Cretaceous allosaur, had the most bird-like air sacs found so far.
Early sauropodomorphs, including the group traditionally called "prosauropods", may also have had air sacs. Although possible pneumatic indentations have been found in Plateosaurus and Thecodontosaurus, the indentations are very small. One study in 2007 concluded that prosauropods likely had abdominal and cervical air sacs, based on the evidence for them in sister taxa (theropods and sauropods). The study concluded that it was impossible to determine whether prosauropods had a bird-like flow-through lung, but that the air sacs were almost certainly present. A further indication for the presence of air sacs and their use in lung ventilation comes from a reconstruction of the air exchange volume (the volume of air exchanged with each breath) of Plateosaurus, which when expressed as a ratio of air volume per body weight at 29 ml/kg is similar to values of geese and other birds, and much higher than typical mammalian values.
So far no evidence of air sacs has been found in ornithischian dinosaurs. But this does not imply that ornithischians could not have had metabolic rates comparable to those of mammals, since mammals also do not have air sacs.
Development
Three explanations have been suggested for the development of air sacs in dinosaurs:
Increase in respiratory capacity. This is probably the most common hypothesis, and fits well with the idea that many dinosaurs had fairly high metabolic rates.
Improving balance and maneuvrability by lowering the center of gravity and reducing rotational inertia. However this does not explain the expansion of air sacs in the quadrupedal sauropods.
As a cooling mechanism. It seems that air sacs and feathers evolved at about the same time in coelurosaurs. If feathers retained heat, their owners would have required a means of dissipating excess heat. This idea is plausible but needs further empirical support.
Dinosaur respiratory systems with bird-like air sacs may have been capable of sustaining higher activity levels than mammals of similar size and build can sustain. In addition to providing a very efficient supply of oxygen, the rapid airflow would have been an effective cooling mechanism, which is essential for animals that are active but too large to get rid of all the excess heat through their skins.
Calculations of the volumes of various parts of the sauropod Apatosaurus’ respiratory system support the evidence of bird-like air sacs in sauropods:
Assuming that Apatosaurus, like dinosaurs' nearest surviving relatives crocodilians and birds, did not have a diaphragm, the dead-space volume of a 30-ton specimen would be about 184 liters. This is the total volume of the mouth, trachea and air tubes. If the animal exhales less than this, stale air is not expelled and is sucked back into the lungs on the following inhalation.
Estimates of its tidal volume – the amount of air moved into or out of the lungs in a single breath – depend on the type of respiratory system the animal had: 904 liters if avian; 225 liters if mammalian; 19 liters if reptilian.
On this basis, Apatosaurus could not have had a reptilian respiratory system, as its tidal volume would have been less than its dead-space volume, so that stale air was not expelled but was sucked back into the lungs. Likewise, a mammalian system would only provide to the lungs about 225 − 184 = 41 liters of fresh, oxygenated air on each breath. Apatosaurus must therefore have had either a system unknown in the modern world or one like birds', with multiple air sacs and a flow-through lung. Furthermore, an avian system would only need a lung volume of about 600 liters while a mammalian one would have required about 2,950 liters, which would exceed the estimated 1,700 liters of space available in a 30-ton Apatosaurus′ chest.
The palaeontologist Peter Ward has argued that the evolution of the air sac system, which first appears in the very earliest dinosaurs, may have been in response to the very low (11%) atmospheric oxygen of the Carnian and Norian ages of the Triassic Period.
References
Lung anatomy | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air%20sac |
Tostado is a Spanish word meaning "toasted". In Ecuador, tostado refers to a fried type of corn grains.
Related concepts include:
Alonso Tostado, Spanish erudite
Almudena Cid Tostado, Spanish gymnast
Edmundo Martínez Tostado, better known as Don Tosti, American musician
Tostado, Santa Fe, Argentina
Tostado, sandwiches in Argentina
See also
Tostada (disambiguation), several kinds of food | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tostado |
In computing, data transformation is the process of converting data from one format or structure into another format or structure. It is a fundamental aspect of most data integration and data management tasks such as data wrangling, data warehousing, data integration and application integration.
Data transformation can be simple or complex based on the required changes to the data between the source (initial) data and the target (final) data. Data transformation is typically performed via a mixture of manual and automated steps. Tools and technologies used for data transformation can vary widely based on the format, structure, complexity, and volume of the data being transformed.
A master data recast is another form of data transformation where the entire database of data values is transformed or recast without extracting the data from the database. All data in a well designed database is directly or indirectly related to a limited set of master database tables by a network of foreign key constraints. Each foreign key constraint is dependent upon a unique database index from the parent database table. Therefore, when the proper master database table is recast with a different unique index, the directly and indirectly related data are also recast or restated. The directly and indirectly related data may also still be viewed in the original form since the original unique index still exists with the master data. Also, the database recast must be done in such a way as to not impact the applications architecture software.
When the data mapping is indirect via a mediating data model, the process is also called data mediation.
Data transformation process
Data transformation can be divided into the following steps, each applicable as needed based on the complexity of the transformation required.
Data discovery
Data mapping
Code generation
Code execution
Data review
These steps are often the focus of developers or technical data analysts who may use multiple specialized tools to perform their tasks.
The steps can be described as follows:
Data discovery is the first step in the data transformation process. Typically the data is profiled using profiling tools or sometimes using manually written profiling scripts to better understand the structure and characteristics of the data and decide how it needs to be transformed.
Data mapping is the process of defining how individual fields are mapped, modified, joined, filtered, aggregated etc. to produce the final desired output. Developers or technical data analysts traditionally perform data mapping since they work in the specific technologies to define the transformation rules (e.g. visual ETL tools, transformation languages).
Code generation is the process of generating executable code (e.g. SQL, Python, R, or other executable instructions) that will transform the data based on the desired and defined data mapping rules. Typically, the data transformation technologies generate this code based on the definitions or metadata defined by the developers.
Code execution is the step whereby the generated code is executed against the data to create the desired output. The executed code may be tightly integrated into the transformation tool, or it may require separate steps by the developer to manually execute the generated code.
Data review is the final step in the process, which focuses on ensuring the output data meets the transformation requirements. It is typically the business user or final end-user of the data that performs this step. Any anomalies or errors in the data that are found and communicated back to the developer or data analyst as new requirements to be implemented in the transformation process.
Types of data transformation
Batch data transformation
Traditionally, data transformation has been a bulk or batch process, whereby developers write code or implement transformation rules in a data integration tool, and then execute that code or those rules on large volumes of data. This process can follow the linear set of steps as described in the data transformation process above.
Batch data transformation is the cornerstone of virtually all data integration technologies such as data warehousing, data migration and application integration.
When data must be transformed and delivered with low latency, the term "microbatch" is often used. This refers to small batches of data (e.g. a small number of rows or small set of data objects) that can be processed very quickly and delivered to the target system when needed.
Benefits of batch data transformation
Traditional data transformation processes have served companies well for decades. The various tools and technologies (data profiling, data visualization, data cleansing, data integration etc.) have matured and most (if not all) enterprises transform enormous volumes of data that feed internal and external applications, data warehouses and other data stores.
Limitations of traditional data transformation
This traditional process also has limitations that hamper its overall efficiency and effectiveness.
The people who need to use the data (e.g. business users) do not play a direct role in the data transformation process. Typically, users hand over the data transformation task to developers who have the necessary coding or technical skills to define the transformations and execute them on the data.
This process leaves the bulk of the work of defining the required transformations to the developer, which often in turn do not have the same domain knowledge as the business user. The developer interprets the business user requirements and implements the related code/logic. This has the potential of introducing errors into the process (through misinterpreted requirements), and also increases the time to arrive at a solution.
This problem has given rise to the need for agility and self-service in data integration (i.e. empowering the user of the data and enabling them to transform the data themselves interactively).
There are companies that provide self-service data transformation tools. They are aiming to efficiently analyze, map and transform large volumes of data without the technical knowledge and process complexity that currently exists. While these companies use traditional batch transformation, their tools enable more interactivity for users through visual platforms and easily repeated scripts.
Still, there might be some compatibility issues (e.g. new data sources like IoT may not work correctly with older tools) and compliance limitations due to the difference in data governance, preparation and audit practices.
Interactive data transformation
Interactive data transformation (IDT) is an emerging capability that allows business analysts and business users the ability to directly interact with large datasets through a visual interface, understand the characteristics of the data (via automated data profiling or visualization), and change or correct the data through simple interactions such as clicking or selecting certain elements of the data.
Although interactive data transformation follows the same data integration process steps as batch data integration, the key difference is that the steps are not necessarily followed in a linear fashion and typically don't require significant technical skills for completion.
There are a number of companies that provide interactive data transformation tools, including Trifacta, Alteryx and Paxata. They are aiming to efficiently analyze, map and transform large volumes of data while at the same time abstracting away some of the technical complexity and processes which take place under the hood.
Interactive data transformation solutions provide an integrated visual interface that combines the previously disparate steps of data analysis, data mapping and code generation/execution and data inspection. That is, if changes are made at one step (like for example renaming), the software automatically updates the preceding or following steps accordingly. Interfaces for interactive data transformation incorporate visualizations to show the user patterns and anomalies in the data so they can identify erroneous or outlying values.
Once they've finished transforming the data, the system can generate executable code/logic, which can be executed or applied to subsequent similar data sets.
By removing the developer from the process, interactive data transformation systems shorten the time needed to prepare and transform the data, eliminate costly errors in interpretation of user requirements and empower business users and analysts to control their data and interact with it as needed.
Transformational languages
There are numerous languages available for performing data transformation. Many transformation languages require a grammar to be provided. In many cases, the grammar is structured using something closely resembling Backus–Naur form (BNF). There are numerous languages available for such purposes varying in their accessibility (cost) and general usefulness. Examples of such languages include:
AWK - one of the oldest and popular textual data transformation language;
Perl - a high-level language with both procedural and object-oriented syntax capable of powerful operations on binary or text data.
Template languages - specialized to transform data into documents (see also template processor);
TXL - prototyping language-based descriptions, used for source code or data transformation.
XSLT - the standard XML data transformation language (suitable by XQuery in many applications);
Additionally, companies such as Trifacta and Paxata have developed domain-specific transformational languages (DSL) for servicing and transforming datasets. The development of domain-specific languages has been linked to increased productivity and accessibility for non-technical users. Trifacta's “Wrangle” is an example of such a domain specific language.
Another advantage of the recent domain-specific transformational languages trend is that a domain-specific transformational language can abstract the underlying execution of the logic defined in the domain-specific transformational language. They can also utilize that same logic in various processing engines, such as Spark, MapReduce, and Dataflow. In other words, with a domain-specific transformational language, the transformation language is not tied to the underlying engine.
Although transformational languages are typically best suited for transformation, something as simple as regular expressions can be used to achieve useful transformation. A text editor like vim, emacs or TextPad supports the use of regular expressions with arguments. This would allow all instances of a particular pattern to be replaced with another pattern using parts of the original pattern. For example:
foo ("some string", 42, gCommon);
bar (someObj, anotherObj);
foo ("another string", 24, gCommon);
bar (myObj, myOtherObj);
could both be transformed into a more compact form like:
foobar("some string", 42, someObj, anotherObj);
foobar("another string", 24, myObj, myOtherObj);
In other words, all instances of a function invocation of foo with three arguments, followed by a function invocation with two arguments would be replaced with a single function invocation using some or all of the original set of arguments.
Another advantage to using regular expressions is that they will not fail the null transform test. That is, using your transformational language of choice, run a sample program through a transformation that doesn't perform any transformations. Many transformational languages will fail this test.
See also
Data cleansing
Data mapping
Data integration
Data preparation
Data wrangling
Extract, transform, load
Information integration
References
External links
File Formats, Transformation, and Migration, a related Wikiversity article
Metadata
Articles with example C++ code
Data management
Data warehousing | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data%20transformation%20%28computing%29 |
The Westcott was an automobile produced in Richmond, Indiana and Springfield, Ohio in the United States between 1909 and 1925 by the Westcott Motor Car Company. The car company was named for its founder, John Westcott.
Westcott Motor Car Company
The company originated from John Westcott's Westcott Carriage Company which was founded in Richmond, Indiana in 1896. It was reorganized as the Westcott Motor Car Company in 1909. John Westcott sold his interest to Burton J. Westcott in 1916 and production moved to Springfield. In 1917 output reached 2,000 cars with it peaking in 1920.
The last known advertisement for Westcott cars was April 5, 1925 and the same day a newspaper reported that the company had been sold the previous day to J. B. Cartmell, Arthur Hill, and George Cugley for $81,000. Production had stopped as the company was unable to pay debts of $825,000 owed to suppliers of parts used in the cars. Burton Westcott had been unable to save the company and died a year later in January 1926. Westcotts were hand built and the company had not adapted to the cost saving production line techniques being used by other manufacturers.
Burton Westcott was known as a client of architect Frank Lloyd Wright, who designed a Prairie School style house for the Westcott Family in Springfield, Ohio in 1904. Restoration of the Westcott House began in 2004.
Westcott motor cars
The Westcott was advertised as "the car with the longer life". Westcotts were powered by Continental engines, and rode at least two wheelbases, and . In 1923, the company released a model named the Closure, which was a touring car with hard panels that could be removed from the sides of the car during the summer months. According to the company, the average lifespan of a Westcott car was 10 years, which was three and a half years higher than the national average.
Models
1909 14 hp water-cooled engine buggy that rode on 38 inch solid rubber tires
1913 coupe
1914 Model 4-48 four-cylinder engine 48 hp five-passenger touring car, four-passenger touring car, two-passenger roadster all costing $1,985
1914 Model 6-50 six-cylinder engine 67 hp seven-passenger touring car $2,535, five-passenger touring car $2,485, two-passenger roadster $2,485
1916 Model 42
1917 Popular
1917 roadster four-seat
1919 A-48
1920 Lighter six - 118 inch wheelbase - two-seat roadster, three-seat coupe, five-passenger touring car, and a five-passenger sedan
1920 Larger six - 125 inch wheelbase a five- or seven-seat touring car, and a seven-seat limousine
1923 five-passenger standard touring, sport touring, and sedan priced from $1,690 to $2,690
1923 seven-passenger standard touring, sedan, and limousine priced from $1,890 to $3,090
Motor racing
Westcotts competed in the Glidden Tour of 1910 from Cincinnati to Chicago via Dallas and the first Indy 500 of 1911. The Westcott, driven by Harry Knight was running in third place in the Indy race when on lap 90 it crashed while avoiding a mechanic who had fallen from Joe Jagersberger's car. Knight's mechanic was injured in the crash.
References
External links
7-passenger Westcott Auto
1914 Westcott Specifications
Frank Lloyd Wright's Westcott House
1921 Model C-38 touring model specifications
Westcott Hotel and early Auto in Richmond, Indiana
Photos of Westcott's Wright-designed home and a Westcott Auto
1900s cars
1910s cars
1920s cars
Richmond, Indiana | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westcott%20%28automobile%29 |
Spinebill is the name given to two members of the honeyeater family, both in the genus Acanthorhynchus, which is Latin for "spine bill". They are around 15 centimetres in length, and are coloured black, white and chestnut, with a long, downcurved bill. They are native to Australia, with one species in the east and one in the west. They feed on nectar as well as insects, and live mainly in forests, gardens, and other shrubbery habitats.
A 2004 molecular study has shown that the two spinebills are a sister grouping to all other honeyeaters, that is, they diverged earlier than all other species.
Species and distribution
The genus contains two species.
References
External links
Basic information, eastern spinebill - Birds in Backyards
Photos, eastern spinebill - Australian Birds Image Database
Taxa named by John Gould | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinebill |
The Nazi Party adopted and developed several pseudoscientific racial classifications as part of its ideology (Nazism) in order to justify the genocide of groups of people which it deemed racially inferior. The Nazis considered the putative "Aryan race" a superior "master race", and they considered black people, mixed-race people, Slavs, Roma, Jews and other ethnicities racially inferior "sub-humans", whose members were only suitable for slave labor and extermination. These beliefs stemmed from a mixture of 19th-century anthropology, scientific racism, and anti-Semitism. The term "Aryan" belongs in general to the discourses of Volk (the people as a lineage group sharing a territory, language, and culture).
Racial hierarchy
The Nazis claimed to observe a strict and scientific hierarchy of the human race. Adolf Hitler's views on race and people are found throughout his autobiographical manifesto book Mein Kampf but more specifically, they are found in chapter 11, the title of which is "Nation and Race". The standard-issue propaganda text which was issued to members of the Hitler Youth contained a chapter on "The German Races" that heavily cited the works of Hans F. K. Günther. The text seems to address the European races in descending orders in the Nazi racial hierarchy: the Nordic (including the Phalic sub-race), Mediterranean, Dinaric, Alpine, and East Baltic races. In 1937, Hitler spoke in the Reichstag and declared, "I speak prophetically. Just as the discovery that the earth moved around the sun led to a complete transformation of the way people looked at the world, so too the blood and racial teachings of National Socialism will change our understanding of mankind's past and its future."
Aryan: Germanic and Nordic
In his speeches and writings, Hitler referred to the supposed existence of an "Aryan race", a race that he believed founded a superior type of humanity. According to Nazi ideology, the purest stock of Aryans were the Nordic people of Germany, England, the Netherlands, and Scandinavia. The Nazis defined Nordics as being identified by their tall stature (average ), their long faces, their prominent chins, their narrow and straight or aquiline noses with a high base, their lean builds, their doliocephalic skulls, their straight and light hair, their light eyes, and their fair skin. The Nazis regarded the Germans as well as the English, Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish as the most racially pure in Europe. Indeed, members of the Schutzstaffel (SS) considered Aryans not to be of a single ethnic group, and did not have to be exclusively German, but instead could be selected from populations across Europe to create the "master race". The normative German term for them was that existed an arisches Volk, not arische Rasse.
The Nazis believed that the Germanic peoples of Europe belonged to a racially superior Nordic subset of the larger Aryan race, who were regarded as the only true culture-bearers in civilized society. Hitler's conception of the 'Aryan migration' followed a common pattern of historical development: since antiquity, the Nordic 'Aryan' race conquered foreign peoples and territories, founded great civilizations (like ancient Egypt, ancient Greece, Roman Empire, Persian Empire, etc.) and finally perished because of a lack of racial hygiene, specially because the toleration shown to Semitic people. 'Aryan' world history became the link between East and West, also between the Old World and New World. The principal dogma, in this Nazi historiography, was that the glories of all human civilizations were creations of the 'Aryan' master race, a culture-bearing race. The northern European (Germanic) Aryans did not develop into great civilizations in ancient history because they lived in the cold, damp, and harsh environment for a long time. However, they kept their purity intact and later only the Germanic Aryans at the end of history would eventually conquer and dominate the world because of their purity was maintained, being proved during the Germanic domain of Industrial Revolution (the Slavs later mixed with Asiatic peoples during the Middle Ages and lost their racial purity and superior talent as well).
The Nazis claimed that the Germanic peoples specifically represented a southern branch of the Aryan-Nordic population. The Nazis considered that the Nordic race was the most prominent race of the German people, but that there were other sub-races that were commonly found amongst the German people such as the Alpine race population who were identified by, among other features, their lower stature, their stocky builds, their flatter noses, and their higher incidences of darker hair and eyes. Hitler and the Nazi racial theorist Hans F. K. Günther framed this as an issue which would be corrected through the selective breeding of "Nordic" traits. In general terms, Hans F. K. Günther diagnosed combinations of the following elements in the German Volk: Nordic (nordisch); Mediterranean (westisch, mediterran, mitelländisch); Dinaric (dinarisch); Alpine (ostisch, alpin); East Baltic (ostbaltisch); Phalian (fälisch, dalisch). These theories generated some fear in southern Germans, as they thought that Nazism was a form of "Nordic colonialism" and that non-Nordics would be treated as second-class citizens.
The Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler in the 1920s became under the influence of Richard Walther Darré who was a leading proponent of the blood and soil concept. Darré held a strong belief that the Nordic race was racially superior to other races and that the German peasants would play a fundamental role in securing Germany's future and German expansion in Eastern Europe. Darré believed that the German peasant played a key role in the racial strength of the German people.
Himmler made all SS candidates to undergo a racial screening and forbid any German who had Slavic, Negroid or Jewish racial features from the joining the Schutzstaffel (SS). Applicants had to provide proof that they had only Aryan ancestors back to 1800 (1750 for officers).
Although Himmler endorsed occultism with his racial theories, Hitler did not and on 6 September 1938 at Nuremberg he declared:
Himmler in February 1940 spoke during a secret meeting to Gauleiters and said, "We are firmly convinced, I believe it, just as I believe in a God, I believe that our blood, the Nordic blood, is actually the best blood on this earth... In a thousand centuries this Nordic blood will still be the best. There is no other. We are superior to everything and everyone. Once we are liberated from inhibitions and restraints, there is no one who can surpass us in quality and strength."
Hitler in private in 1942 said, "I shall have no peace of mind until I have planted a seed of Nordic blood wherever the population stand in need of regeneration. If at the time of the migrations, while the great racial currents were exercising their influence, our people received so varied a share of attributes, these latter blossomed to their full value only because of the presence of the Nordic racial nucleus."
Nazi propaganda aimed at the members of the Hitler Youth emphasized the "Nordic" nature of Germans, with the text issued to all Hitler Youth members stating: "the principal ingredient of our people is the Nordic race (55%). That is not to say that half our people are pure Nordics. All of the aforementioned races appear in mixtures in all parts of our fatherland. The circumstance, however, that the great part of our people is of Nordic descent justifies us taking a Nordic standpoint when evaluating our character and spirit, bodily structure, and physical beauty." Nazi propaganda stated that the Nordic must dominate Germany, although it didn't matter if they were Germans who did not have the physical appearance of the Nordic race as long as they shared the traits of being a "German" which were considered to be "courage, loyalty and honor".
The matter of satisfactorily defining who precisely was an "Aryan" remained problematic for the duration of Nazi rule. In 1933, a definition of "Aryan" according to the Nazi official Albert Gorter for the Civil Service Law stated:
That definition of "Aryan" was deemed unacceptable by the Nazis because it included members of some non-Europeans ethnic groups; therefore, the Expert Advisor for Population and Racial Policy redefined an "Aryan" as someone who was "tribally" related to "German blood". It was generally agreed amongst Nazi racial theorists that the term "Aryan" was not a racial term and strictly only a linguistic term. Nevertheless, the term "Aryan" was still used in Nazi propaganda in a racial sense.
In June 1935, Nazi politician and Reich Minister of the Interior Wilhelm Frick argued that "non-Aryan" should have been replaced with "Jewish" and "of foreign origin". His recommendation was rejected. Frock then commented, "'Aryan' and 'non-Aryan' are sometimes not entirely tenable... From a racial political point, it is Judaism that interests us more than anything else."
After the Nuremberg Laws (Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honour and The Reich Citizenship Law) were passed in September 1935, Nazi Party lawyer and State Secretary in the Reich Interior Ministry Wilhelm Stuckart defined "related blood" (artverwandtes Blut) as:
Dr. Ernst Brandis, a legal bureaucrat, who made an official comment about the Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honour and the Law for the Protection of the Hereditary Health of the German people on 18 October 1935, defined "German blood" as:
Frick on 3 January 1936 commented about the Nuremberg Laws and defined "related blood" as:
Stuckart and Hans Globke in 1936 published the Civil Rights and the Natural Inequality of Man and wrote about the Nuremberg Laws and Reich citizenship:
The Nuremberg Laws criminalized sexual relations and marriages between people of "German or related blood" and Jews, blacks and Gypsies as Rassenschande (race defilement).
In 1938, a brochure for the Nuremberg Party Rally included all Indo-European peoples as being of "related blood" to the Germans:
However, soon after the invasion of Poland in 1939, the Nazis decided to relegate the Slavs to a non-European status:
In 1942, Himmler redefined the term "related" which until that year had referred to non-German European nations as follows: "that the racial structure of all European nations is so closely related to that of the German nation that if interbreeding occurs there is no danger that the German nation's blood will be racially contaminated". The term "related" was defined as "German blood and blood of related Germanic races" (to which members of "non-Germanic" nations who were capable of being Germanised and secondly, "related blood but not from related races", by which Himmler meant all the non-Germanic European nations (Slavs, Latins, Celts and Balts).
Jews, Romani, black people, and Slavs (including Poles, Serbs, and Russians) were not considered Aryans by Nazi Germany. Instead, they were considered subhuman and inferior races.
East Asians
The Nazi government began to enact racial laws after Hitler came to power in 1933, and during that year, the Japanese government protested against several racial incidents which involved Japanese or Japanese-Germans. Later, the disputes were resolved when the Nazi high command treated its Japanese allies leniently. This was especially the case after the collapse of Sino-German cooperation and the formation of the official alliance between Germany and Japan.
Chinese and Japanese were subjected to discrimination under Germany's racial laws, however, which—with the exception of the 1935 Nuremberg Laws, which specifically mentioned Jews—were generally applied to all "non-Aryans" but the Eastern Asian peoples (excluding Koreans) were considered "Honorary Aryans".
After China declared war on Germany and joined the Allies, Chinese nationals were persecuted in Germany. The influential Nazi anti-Semite Johann von Leers favored the exclusion of Japanese people from the laws because he believed in the existence of the alleged Japanese-Aryan racial link and because he sought to improve Germany's diplomatic relations with Japan. The Foreign Ministry supported von Leers and on several occasions between 1934 and 1937, it sought to change the laws, but other government agencies, including the Racial Policy Office, opposed the change.
Hitler invited Chinese soldiers to study in German military academies and serve in the Nazi German Wehrmacht as part of their combat training. Since 1926, Germany had supported the Republic of China militarily and industrially. Germany had also sent advisers such as Alexander von Falkenhausen and Hans von Seeckt to assist the Chinese, most notably in the Chinese Civil War and China's anti-communist campaigns. Max Bauer was sent to China and served as one of Chiang Kai-shek's advisers. Around this time, Hsiang-hsi Kung (H. H. Kung), the Republic of China Minister of Finance, visited Nazi Germany and was warmly welcomed by Adolf Hitler on 13 June 1937. During this meeting, Adolf Hitler, Hermann Göring and Hjalmar Schacht bestowed upon Hsiang-hsi Kung an honorary doctorate degree, and attempted to open China's market to German exports. And in order to attract more Han Chinese students to study in Germany, Adolf Hitler, Hermann Göring and Hjalmar Schacht earmarked 100,000 reichsmarks for Han Chinese students who were studying in the universities and military academies of Nazi Germany after they persuaded a German industrialist to set aside the money for that purpose. Additionally, Hsiang-hsi Kung, who favored commercial credits, politely refused a generous international loan which was offered by Adolf Hitler. As a result of this exchange a very small number of Chinese nationals served in the German armed forces. The most famous of these Han Chinese Nazi soldiers was Chiang Wei-kuo, the son of Republic of China President Chiang Kai-shek, who studied military strategy and tactics at a Nazi German Kriegsschule in Munich, and subsequently acquired the rank of lieutenant and served as a soldier in the Wehrmacht on active combat duty in Europe until his return to the Republic of China during the later years of World War II.
Hitler in Mein Kampf wrote that he had supported the Empire of Japan as early as 1904 when he stated that, "When the Russo-Japanese War came I was older and better able to judge for myself. For national reasons I then took the side of the Japanese in our discussions. I looked upon the defeat of the Russians as a blow to Austrian Slavism". He made a number of other statements in the book expressing his respect and admiration for the Japanese people.
Although they belonged to a different evolutionary race than the Germans did, the Japanese were considered to have sufficiently superior qualities as were people with German-Nordic blood to warrant an alliance by Nazi ideologists such as Himmler, who possessed a great interest in, and was also influenced by, the anthropology, philosophies and pantheistic religions of East Asia, mentioned how his friend Hiroshi Ōshima, the Japanese Ambassador to Germany, believed that the noble castes in Japan, the daimyo and the samurai, were descended from gods of celestial origin, which was similar to Himmler's own belief that "the Nordic race did not evolve, but came directly down from heaven to settle on the Atlantic continent."
Karl Haushofer, a German general, geographer, and geopolitician, whose ideas may have influenced the development of Hitler's expansionist strategies, saw Japan as the brother nation of Germany. In 1908, he was sent to Tokyo by the German Army "to study the Japanese Army and advise it as an artillery instructor. The assignment changed the course of his life and it also marked the beginning of his love affair with the Orient. During the next four years, he traveled extensively in East Asia, adding Korean, Japanese, and Mandarin to his repertoire of languages, he also knew how to speak Russian, French, and English. Karl Haushofer had been a devout student of Arthur Schopenhauer, and during his stay in the Far East, he was introduced to Oriental esoteric teachings." It was based on such teachings that he came to make similar bestowals of his own upon the Japanese people, calling them the "Aryans of the East", and even calling them the "Herrenvolk of the Orient" (i.e. the "Master race of the Orient").
An October 1933 statement by Foreign Minister Konstantin von Neurath which was published in response to the Japanese protests falsely claimed that Japanese were exempt. The wide publication of this statement caused many in Germany, Japan, and elsewhere to believe that such an exemption actually existed. Instead of granting Japanese a broad exemption from the laws, an April 1935 decree stated that any racial discrimination cases that might jeopardize German diplomatic relations because they involved non-Aryans—i.e., Japanese—would be dealt with individually. Decisions on such cases often took years to make, and those people who were affected by them were unable to obtain jobs or interracially marry, primarily because the German government preferred to avoid exempting people from the laws as much as possible. The German government often exempted more German-Japanese than it preferred to because it wanted to avoid a repeat of the 1933 controversies. And in 1934, it prohibited the German press from discussing the race laws with regard to Japanese. During World War II, Hitler privately expressed fears concerning the replacement of "white rule" in Asia (that of European colonial powers) with "yellow" supremacy as a result of Japanese conquests.
Uralic Aryans
The Nazis in an attempt to find a satisfactory definition of "Aryan" were faced with a dilemma with regard to the European peoples who did not speak an Indo-European language or Indo-Aryan language, namely Estonians, Finns and Hungarians.
The first legal attempt was in 1933 for the Civil Service Law, when a definition of "Aryan" was given by Albert Gorter for the Civil Service Law that included the Uralic peoples as Aryans. However, that definition was deemed unacceptable because it included some non-European peoples. Gorter changed the definition of 'Aryan' to the definition that was given by the Expert Advisor for Population and Racial Policy (Sachverständigenbeirat für Bevölkerungs- und Rassenpolitik) which was, "An Aryan is one who is tribally related (stammverwandt) to German blood. An Aryan is the descendant of a Volk domiciled in Europe in a closed tribal settlement (Volkstumssiedlung) since recorded history". That definition of 'Aryan' included Estonians, Finns and Hungarians. In 1938 a commentary was made about the Nuremberg Laws that proclaimed that "the overwhelming majority" of Finns and Hungarians were of Aryan blood.
Estonians
In 1941, Nazi Germany established the Reichskommissariat Ostland in order to administer the conquered territory of Estonia. The colonial department in Berlin under Minister Alfred Rosenberg (born in Tallinn in 1893) favorably looked upon Estonians as Finno-Ugrics and thus, it looked upon them as "Aryans", Generalkommissar Karl-Siegmund Litzmann authorized the establishment of a Landeseigene Verwaltung, or a local national administration.
During the war, Hitler remarked that Estonians contained a lot of "Germanic blood".
Finns
The Finns had a debatable position in the Nazi racial theories, as they were considered a part of the "Eastern Mongol race" with the Sámi people in traditional racial hierarchies. Finland did not have Lebensborn centres, unlike Norway, although Finland had tens of thousands of German soldiers in the country. Archival research however has found out that 26 Finnish women were in contact with the Lebensborn program for unspecified reasons.
After Germany invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941, the Finnish army, alongside German units in Lapland, invaded the USSR following Soviet air attacks on Finnish cities. Finland fought the USSR primarily in order to recover the territories which it was forced to cede to the USSR after the Moscow Peace Treaty which ended the Winter War between the Finns and the Soviets. In November 1942, owing to Finland's substantial military contribution to the German war effort on the northern flank of the Eastern Front of World War II, Hitler decreed that "from now on Finland and the Finnish people be treated and designated as a Nordic state and a Nordic people", which he considered one of the highest compliments that the Nazi government could bestow upon another country. Hitler stated in private conversation that:
Hungarians
According to the Interior Ministry, Hungarians were "tribally alien" (fremdstämmig) but were not necessarily "blood alien", which added to even more confusion with regard to defining Hungarians on a racial basis. In 1934, a brochure from the series Family, Race, Volk in the National Socialist State simply stated that Hungarians (which it did not define) were Aryans. But, the following year an article in the Journal for Racial Science on the "Racial Diagnosis of the Hungarians", remarked that "opinions on the racial condition of the Hungarians are still very divided". As late as 1943, the question of whether a Hungarian woman was to be allowed to marry a German man was disputed; she was determined to be of 'related blood' and they were allowed to get married.
Western Aryans
Although Günther and Hitler viewed Western nations as Aryans, they held dismissive racial views about the lower classes in Britain and France.
British
According to Günther, the purest Nordic regions were Scandinavia and northern Germany, particularly Norway and Sweden, specifying: "We may, perhaps, take the Swedish blood to be over 80 per cent Nordic, the Norwegian blood about 80 per cent." Britain and southern Germany by contrast were not considered entirely Nordic. Germany was said to be 55% Nordic, and the rest Alpine (particularly southern Germany), Dinaric, or East Baltic (particularly eastern Germany). On the British Isles, Günther stated: "we may adopt the following racial proportions for these islands: Nordic blood, 60 percent; Mediterranean, 30 percent; Alpine, 10 percent." He added that "The Nordic strain in Germany seems to be rather more distributed over the whole people than in England, where it seems to belong far more to the upper classes." Hitler echoed this sentiment, referring to the British lower classes as "racially inferior".
Günther claimed that the Anglo-Saxons had been more successful than the Germans in maintaining racial purity and had been infused with additional Nordic blood through Norse raids and colonization during the Viking Age, Günther referred to this process as Aufnordung ("additional nordification"), which finally culminated in the Norman Conquest. Britain was thus a nation created by struggle and the survival of the fittest among the various Aryan peoples of the isles, and Britain's global conquest and empire-building was a result of its superior racial heredity. Hitler's admiration of the British empire was on the same track. For the Nazis, the ruthless British attitude in the English people was an example of what was needed for a master race to rule over large, inferior, masses of people. Britain's role as a world power, colonial empire, and an agent of international politics was admired by Nazis as a quality of their superiority. Hitler and many others in Germany were convinced that brutality in the colonies and in war was a key feature of the British national character.
Hitler seems to have lumped all the peoples (English, Scots, and Irish) of the British Isles in together, unlike mid 19th century English race theorists, who believed they were superior to the Catholic Irish and tried to claim that Celts were less evolved as subhuman nonwhite others (some of these tropes were repeated by the Imperial Fascist League), or indeed some Irish nationalist types who turned this theory around to claim that Celts had greater spiritual and cultural capacity than the plodding Anglo-Saxon shopkeepers. A big plus, in Nazi eyes, about the Celts was that, living in the far west of Europe in Ireland, Brittany etc., they were less 'contaminated' by 'inferior' East European or Jewish blood than people in the middle of Europe. However, some nazi theories claimed that the Irish were close to the Mediterranean peoples, which made them inferior to the more Nordic English.
Up until November 1938 when Anglo-German relations started to deteriorate, Hitler had viewed the British on the whole as fellow Aryans and saw the British Empire as a potential German ally. However, the subsequent deterioration of relations and the outbreak of World War II led Nazi propaganda to portray the British establishment as a racially degenerate for supposedly allowing thousands of Jews to immigrate to the United Kingdom, intermarry with the upper class and dominate British foreign policy. A 1944 article described Winston Churchill as a "slave of the Jews and of alcohol". Nazi propaganda also vilified the British as oppressive and hating plutocrats with materialistic tendences who were an existential threat to the world, as they were the creators of "international high finance" and the degeneracy of Capitalism.
French
Hitler viewed the French as close to the Germans racially, but not quite their peers. He said of their racial character: "France remains hostile to us. She contains, in addition to her Nordic blood, a blood that will always be foreign to us." Günther echoed this sentiment, saying that the French were predominantly Alpine and Mediterranean rather than Nordic, but that a heavy Nordic strain was still present. He characterized the French as possessing the following racial proportions: Nordic, 25%; Alpine or Dinaric, 50%; Mediterranean, 25%. These types were said to be most prevalent in north, central, and southern France respectively.
Hitler planned to remove a large portion of the French population to make way for German settlement. The zone interdite of eastern France was set aside and planned to be made part of the German Reich after the rest of France was fully subdued. The French residents of the zone, some 7 million people accounting for nearly 20% of the French population at the time, were to be deported, and the land then occupied by at least a million German settlers. The plan was either postponed or abandoned after Operation Barbarossa in favor of expediting the settlement of the east instead and was never put into place owing to the German defeat in the Second World War.
Mediterranean Aryans
Nazi propaganda described the Mediterranean race as brown-haired, brown-eyed, light skinned but slightly darker than their Northern European counterparts, and short (average ), with dolichocephalic or mesocephalic skulls, and lean builds. People who fit this category were described as "lively, even loquacious" and "excitable, even passionate", but they were also described as being "prone to act more on feeling than on reason", and as a result, "this race has produced only a few outstanding men".
For the Nazis, in the beginning there were two types of Aryans: one was predominantly red or blonde haired and blue-eyed (Germanic Aryans); while the other was predominantly dark eyed and dark haired (Mediterranean Aryans). Blond, red hair, and dark hair were common among both kind of Aryans but one predominated over the other. The dark-haired (Mediterranean) Aryans migrated to Southern Europe and in that environment released their superior talent in the arts, philosophy, and government. This was due primarily to the favorable conditions of the Mediterranean. This is why the Greeks and Romans created the greatest civilizations known to man. Also, nazis believed that the ancient Greeks and Romans were the racial ancestors of the Germans, and the first torchbearers of "Nordic–Greek" art and culture. Later the Mediterraneans Aryans in Spain, France and Italy also committed the great sin of mixing with the other populations (mainly Semitic, Celtic, and North African) who were brought by the Greeks and Romans into their empires and during the Moorish invasions.
Italians
Nazi racial theorists questioned the amount of Aryan blood Italians had . Hitler himself viewed northern Italians as strongly Aryan, but not southern Italians. The Nazis viewed the downfall of the Roman Empire as being caused by racial intermixing, claiming that Italians were a hybrid of races, including black African races. When Hitler met Italian fascist leader Benito Mussolini in June 1934 he told him that all Mediterranean peoples were "tainted" by Negro blood.
According to Hitler, Germans are more closely linked with the Italians than with any other people:
Greeks
During a speech in 1920, Hitler claimed that Greek civilization descended from Aryans. In his unpublished Second Book in 1928, he wrote that Sparta must be regarded as the first Völkisch state. Similarly, during a speech in August 1929 he reiterated the same thought by stating that Sparta was the "purest racial state" in history. Alfred Rosenberg believed that the civilisation of ancient Greece was the result of an "Aryan-Greek race soul". Himmler instructed the people carrying out Ahnenerbe think tank to study the "Indo-Germanic and Aryan" origins of Greece.
A 1939 article by Tito Körner in the Nazi magazine Volk Und Rasse compared the Greeks of Laconia, with the Greeks of Attica. According to the article, "in the land of the old Indo-Germanic Sparta", "blond hair, blue eyes, and tall height are common", while the Athenians were just a "people of mixed race". Körner believed that the former were directly the "descendants of the ancient Greeks". A 1941 article by Roland Hampe in the same magazine, stated that "nothing could be more false than to say that the Greek people as a whole have been Balkanized. Curiously, we tend to hold the Greek people to a higher racial standard than we do other people", arguing that the Greeks displayed a mental disposition that tended to indicate a common racial descent with those from northern Europe: "An unconscious recollection of their Nordic roots from deepest antiquity seems to reverberate through the veins of the Greek people". According to historian Johann Chapoutot:
During the Italian invasion of Greece in 1940, Hitler "rather admired the Greeks, and expected them to resist successfully". After the German invasion of Greece in 1941, Alfred Rosenberg noted in his diary that Hitler "is very sorry that he has to fight with the Greeks".
Spaniards
For Nazis, the psychology of the Spaniards deemed incompatible with the ideal Nazi Germans, particularly regarding their Catholicism. Also, Ottavio de Peppo noted that Spaniards' religious sentiments were useful to weaken Germany's position because of that contempt of the Nazis to the Spanish psychology. Hitler himself said that "All of Spain is contained in Don Quixote—-a decrepit society unaware the world has passed it by", because Spain was a stagnant nation dominated by three elements that Nazis detested; the aristocracy, the Church and the monarchy, past and future, since Franco had promised a royal restoration. Also, Hitler referred to Spaniards as "lazy", of "moorish blood" and in love with "the greatest whore in history", referencing Catholic Queen Isabel. Wilhelm Faupel, Nazi director of the Ibero-American Institute, conceived his cultural foreign policy as a tool to restore the German presence on the world stage ("Weltgeltung"). Faupel then putting all his care to prevent the racism inherent to the regime from scaring away its "multipliers". Thus he sought, through the Ministry of Propaganda, to have certain libels of black legend removed from circulation, such as those of Arnold Noldens (pseudonym of Wilhelm Pferdekamp), one of whom p. ex. it bore the title Afrika beginnt hinter den Pyrenäen ("Africa begins behind the Pyrenees").
About the crisis in Spanish society during the Civil War (and the Carlist Wars), several authors presented adherence to Marxism as a degenerative psychosis, and attempted to offer descriptions of the physiological terrain conducive to this illness. The answer was to be found in the mixed racial inheritance of Spain's long history. Antonio Vallejo-Nájera, a Spanish Nazi sympathizer, thought that Hispanic-Roman-Gothic people (Mediterranean Aryans) struggle against the Judeo-Moors (untermensch) since the Reconquista. So, the Marxist Spanish racial core had to be linked with Judeo-Moorish, and this degeneration of the Spanish race would be the cause of Spanish decadence since the fall of Spanish Empire. Also, the Spanish population, though seemingly unified, was in reality divided into two irreconcilable camps because the assimilation of Jews and Muslims had been fraudulent in ther false conversions to Catholicism.
However, Hitler's opinion of Spaniards changed after that Spanish proved themselves superior to the Italians and French, because they defeated the communists in the Civil War, and mostly after the Blue Division fought very well against the Red Army, demonstrating that the gallantry of the Spanish was a manifestation of it Volkgeist through history (like the Tercio). Although, emphasizing that his Latin character was a real drag.
Basques
The SS-Obergruppenführer, Werner Best, and his lieutenant, Manchen, were enchanted by the fascinating "Basquenfrage", because Basques kept their racial purity by prohibiting Jews from entering the Basque country. They were also convinced that Basque tradition based its conception of the people on their blood. As this was the same racial principles as Germans, they took this as a sign that their theories of race were a natural truth. However, there was a "Basque question", because there was not a clear answer about where Basques come from, preoccupying nazi specialists on race if they were Aryans or not. There were theories that they could be descendants of Untermensch like the Phoenicians, Finns, or the Mongols. There were also other mythical theories, influenced by Esoteric Nazism, that they could be descendants of legendary races like Atlanteans or from those who built the Tower of Babel. However, the most popular theory said that they came from the Iberians, so, they had to be Mediterranean Aryans. Some Basques, like Jon Mirande, had sympathy for those theories.
Eastern Aryans
During the mid-1930s, foreign diplomats from Iran and Turkey who visited Germany wanted to know what the Nazis regarded them as, since Iranians in particular spoke an Indo-European language. The Nazis concluded that the Indo-European speakers, including Anatolian languages, Turks and Iranians were Aryans. The Nazis regarded the Turks to be Europeans.
Iranians
Alfred Rosenberg, in The Myth of the Twentieth Century, spoke about an ancient migration of a "Nordic race", in which he described the ancient Persians as "Aryans with northern blood", who had finally degenerated because of mixing with "lower races". Nazi scholars, of Deutsche Judenforschung discipline, used their linguistic, historical and racial research to propose the thesis of an Aryan race that originated in Northern Europe, and in ancient times spread over the globe, founding ancient civilisations, like the Persian Empire (which had been a "world power"—"an Aryan power"), but eventually intermingled and mixed with native races, it degenerated and fell by "denordification" (Entnordnung). German orientalists and historians during the Nazi era, like Heinrich Schaeder, Heinrich Lüders, Helmut Berve, Fritz Schachermeyr, Walther Wüst, and Wilhelm Weber, adopted the racial thesis of a northern migration to Asia, believing that northern European "Aryans" once colonized the Middle East and Inner Asia to defend their Nordic homeland against Asiatic hordes. Even the ancient wars between Greeks and Persians in this Nazi historiography were relativised as 'quarrels among brother people'. Even some Nazi racial scientists, like Gerhard Heberer, referred to the idea of an ancient Indo-Germanic "Aryan" race in central Germany who start a migration.
Beginning in 1933, Nazi leadership made efforts to increase their influence in Iran, and they financed and managed a racist journal, Iran-e Bastan, co-edited by a pro-Nazi Iranian, Abdulrahman Saif Azad. This and other chauvinistic publications in the 1930s were popular among Iranian elites; they "highlighted the past and the pre-Islamic glories of the Persian nation and blamed the supposedly 'savage Arabs and Turks' for the backwardness of Iran." In Iran:
Nazi ideology was most common among Persian officials, elites, and intellectuals, but "even some members of non-Persian groups were eager to identify themselves with the Nazis" and a supposed Aryan race. On 1934, the Nazis celebrated the Ferdowsi millennial celebration in Berlin, in which the Nazi government declared that the German and Persian people share membership in a common Indo-Germanic race. Hitler declared Iran to be an "Aryan state"; the changing of Persia's international name to Iran in 1935 was done by the Shah at the suggestion of the German ambassador to Iran as an act of "Aryan solidarity". Also, Hitler personally promised that if he defeated the Soviet Union, he would return all of the Persian land taken by Russians during the Russo-Persian Wars. Even in 1939, Germany provided Iran with the so-called German Scientific Library. The library contained over 7,500 books selected "to convince Iranian readers... of the kinship between the National Socialist Reich and the Aryan culture of Iran".
In 1936, the Nazi Office of Racial Politics, in response to a question from the German Foreign Ministry, classified non-Jewish Turks as Europeans, but "left unanswered the question of how to think about the obviously non-European Arabs, Persians, and Muslims." Later that year, ahead of the Summer Olympic Games in Berlin, the Nazis responded to questions from the Egyptians by saying that the Nuremberg racial laws did not apply to them, and after the Iranian ambassador to Berlin "assured German officials that 'there was no doubt that the Iranian, as an Aryan,' was 'racially kindred (artverwandt) with the Germans," the German Foreign Ministry "assured the Iranian Embassy in Berlin that the correct distinction between was not between "Aryans and non-Aryans" but rather between "persons of German and related blood on one hand and Jews as well as racially alien on the other." Iranians were classified as "pure-blooded Aryans" and thus were excluded from the Nuremberg Laws.
Indians and Indo-Aryans
During the Nazi regime, India was still ruled by the British Raj. Because of this, Hitler's views on Indians were generally disparaging, and his plans for the region were heavily influenced by his racial views, especially related to India's subdued colonized status. Hitler was an Anglophile and considered the Indian independence movement was carried out by the "lower Indian race against the superior English Nordic race", and referred to participants in the movement as "Asiatic jugglers".
Alfred Rosenberg claimed that although Vedic culture was Aryan in origin, especially since the word "Aryan", and related expressions like "Arya", appeared in ancient Indian inscriptions and texts, any Nordic blood in India had long since dissipated due to racial miscegenation. Even Gunther proposed that Indian cultural sphere was produced by Nordic immigrants which in his view were tall and fair and brought with them the elite of ancient India, the art of building in wood, and body-burning, and had a comparatively highly developed social system that was placed in the caste system (as by having the lightest skin that the highest caste Hindus are still recognized, being a sign of the dislike towards the Hither Asiatic race that is to-day fairly clearly to be seen there). Gunther believed that there were many parallels between Hindu Vedas and Zoroastrian Avesta with the Germanic paganism and Nordic mythology that could only be explained by a North European origin, specially because Hindus and Romans alike set the abode of the gods in the north. Only infiltration by the native non-Indo-European peoples (which were mostly dark skinned and shorter) had led to its decline of Indo-Aryan peoples and the fall of the Indian civilization. Similarly, Heinrich Lüders made the case for the "Aryan" migration, focusing mostly on India.
However, the appearance of Buddha and of Buddhism (which, in its essence, had lost all Nordic inspiration), that first wholly and irretrievably broke down the racial discipline and forethought of the "wonderful gifted people" of Indo-Aryan, being a religion spread mainly by non-Nordic missionaries. Buddhism sapped the courageous soul of the early Hindu wisdom, and in its stead preached the spirit of resignation. For the religious aspects of Nazism, Buddhism shows no really constructive thought that only led to the abnegation of the will to beget life with its hostility to the individual rooting himself at all within his people (tore him out of his historical framework), distorting and put a different value on what Brahminism had created in early Hindu times, being against that harmony with all life because its demand for the renunciation of the sexual life, through its discouragement of marriage and all property (helping in the disappearance of Nordic blood). Also, the Indian climate played a very important part in the disappearing of this Aryan elite, as they were not adapted to a tropical region and having a deep effect in a negatively selective direction on the Nordic element in the people. However, the invasion of Indo-Scythian tribes by the Greeks (after Alexander the Great's Indian campaign) seemed to have brought a Nordic revival after establishing Greco-Bactrian Kingdom and Indo-Greek Kingdom. But, racial mixture were bound to lead to the decay of the Hindu culture. With the rise of the Mongol dominion (which lasted from the eighth century until 1536), the victory of the Asiatic racial elements in India was complete, and the Hindu mind ever drifting farther and farther away from the old Aryans, being proved.
Turks
In 1935, a half-Turkish half-German man named "Johannes Ruppert" was forced to leave the Hitler Youth, due to the belief that as the son of a Turkish man he was not a full Aryan as required by the Reich Citizenship Law. Ruppert sought assistance from the Turkish Embassy in Berlin to clarify how “the Aryan question” affected his case. The Turkish Embassy brought the matter to the attention of the German Foreign Ministry. In a note of December 20, 1935, a Foreign Ministry official wrote that "opening up the Aryan question in relation to Turkey is extraordinarily undesirable as well as dangerous for our relations with Turkey". However, in January 1936, Foreign Ministry wrote a memo to the Nazi Party Office of Racial Policy, writing that it was "essential that determination of whether the Turks are Aryan be decided as soon as possible", so that the Foreign Ministry could give "a satisfactory answer" to the Turkish Embassy’s repeated questions about the issue, since there had been individual cases, that is, others in addition to Ruppert, in which "German citizens with Turkish mixed-blood had run into difficulties with the state and the [Nazi] Party due to their origins". The classification of Turks as "non-Aryans", in keeping with Nazi racial theories, led to foreign policy complications, because the Nazis considered the Turkish government as a potential ally. Consequently, the racial theories had to be "modified" to some degree in accordance with foreign policy requirements. In April 30, 1936 Nazi Office for Racial Policy released a circular which stated that the Turks were "Europeans" while explaining that Turkish citizens of Jewish background would still be considered Jews and Turks of "colored origin" would be considered non-European. Some Turkish and international newspapers, such as the Swiss Le Temps and the Turkish Republique, reported at the time that the Turks had been recognized as an "Aryan nation" and that they were exempt from the Nuremberg laws. Turkish newspaper Akşam published an article with the headline "The Turks are Aryans!". Such reports were picked up by other international newspapers, as well as by some modern scholarship, however the claim that that the Turks had been recognized as an "Aryan nation" and that they were exempt from the Nuremberg laws was a hoax. Nazi officials themselves disputed these reports by publishing a press release which stated that they were unfounded and that this should have been immediately obvious given the fact that the Nuremberg laws do not refer to the term "Aryan" at all. The Nazis classified Turks as "European" and not as "Aryans" and the decision had no practical consequences. In addition, this decision was designed to appease Turkey from a foreign policy standpoint, although, from a racial standpoint, Nazi officials did not believe that the Turks were neither European nor Aryan.
In May 1942, a writer in the official journal of the Nazi Office for Racial Policy, Neues Volk, replied to a father's question caused by his daughter's relationship with a Turkish man, about whether racial differences between Germans and Turks meant that a marriage should not take place. The reply read:
Although the Nazi leadership agreed with the content of the reply, they criticized the journal for publishing it, because, in a foreign policy point of view, it was really clumsy ("denkbar ungeschickt") to publish before defeating the British in Middle East. For example, Franz von Papen, the German ambassador to Turkey, informed the German Foreign Ministry that the publication of this text "has serious foreign policy considerations". He noted that such statements could aid "our Anglo-Saxon opponents" in their "propaganda against us" and asked the Office of Racial Politics not to publish such things in the future. On May 16, 1942, Franz Rademacher, director of the Office of Jewish Affairs in the German Foreign Ministry, wrote to Walter Gross, the founder and editor of the magazine, that he "had no objection to the content of the information from a racial-political viewpoint but that it was "from a foreign policy standpoint, really clumsy” and "a political blunder" that would have "embarrassing and awkward foreign policy implications". Nazi officials sought to prevent miscegenation between Turks and Germans and, if necessary, sought to imprison or deport the "offending" Turkish man.
Georgians
Hitler remarked about the Georgians during one of his table talks:
Compared to other Soviet nationalities, Georgians were given preferential treatment and there was even a Georgian Legion. Hitler also theorized that Joseph Stalin's Georgian ethnicity, as well as the fact that the Georgian SSR was nominally autonomous, would eventually draw the Georgians closer to the USSR than to Germany. Several Georgian scholars such as Alexander Nikuradze and Michael Achmeteli served as advisors for Nazis such as Alfred Rosenberg.
On 24 August 1939, during the meeting of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, Hitler asked his personal photographer Heinrich Hoffmann to photograph Georgian-born Soviet leader Stalin's earlobes to determine whether or not he was an "Aryan" or a "Jew". Hitler concluded that he was an "Aryan". Himmler regarded Stalin as being descended from lost "Nordic-Germanic-Aryan blood".
Armenians
Armenians were considered an Aryan people, both by the Nazi state and Alfred Rosenberg's racial theory. However, Adolf Hitler personally did not trust them. Due to this, the Armenian Legion was mainly stationed in the Netherlands. Speaking about military units from Soviet peoples, Hitler said: "I don't know about these Georgians. They do not belong to the Turkic peoples...I consider only the Muslims to be reliable...All others I deem unreliable. For the time being I consider the formation of these battalions of purely Caucasian peoples very risky, while I don't see any danger in the establishment of purely Muslim units...In spite of all declarations from Rosenberg and the military, I don't trust the Armenians either."
Alfred Rosenberg declared that the Armenians were Indo-European, or Aryans, and thus they were immediately subject to conscription. According to Versteeg, however, "Although Armenians officially were considered 'Aryans', the notion of them being 'Levantine traders', similar to the Jews, was deep-seated in Nazi circles, and racial 'purists' along with Hitler himself were prone to look upon the Armenians as 'non-Aryans.'"
Arabs
Albert Speer, in his best-selling memoir Inside the Third Reich, mentions many famous anecdotes told about Adolf Hitler's views on Islam and Arabs. Hitler was transcribed as saying: "Had Charles Martel not been victorious at Poitiers [...] then we should in all probability have been converted to Mohammedanism, that cult which glorifies the heroism and which opens up the seventh Heaven to the bold warrior alone. Then the Germanic races would have conquered the world." Nazis intellectuals thought that the Germans would have become heirs "of a religion that believes in spreading the faith by means of the sword and subjecting all nations to this faith" and that this doctrine suited well with the German temperament (tracked from Germanic paganism), and better than the passivity of the Catholicism who dominated the Holy Roman Empire (Nazis viewed Catholicism as a meekness and weakness religion for peasants, and a Jewish ideological plague in equal danger like Marxism or Masonic liberalism, who were making a common cause against Nazi racial thought), concluying that was a misfortune to be in the wrong religion and that Arabs had developed a religion for master races. Also, Nazis admired the legacy of Al-Andalus in Spain, considering it as the most glorious period of Spanish history.
About the possibility that Germans, who had converted to Islam, wanted to become or remain members of the Nazi Party, Martin Bormann, the head of the Nazi Party Reichskanzlei, sent Hitler's decision:
In 1936, in response to questions from the Turkish, Persian, and Arab diplomats in Berlin, officials in the Foreign Ministry, the Nazi Party's Rassenpolitisches Amt, and the Propaganda Ministry discussed the matter of whether Arab were Aryans. Reports from "Jewish-French newspapers" (according to Eberhard von Stohrer, German ambassador in Cairo) saying that the German race legislation would have classified Egyptians (Arabs), Iranians, and Turks as non-Aryans caused considerable controversy in Muslim world; even the chairman of Egypt's Olympic Committee expressed "great disquiet and concern" in a telegram to German officials organizing the Berlin Olympic committee. Walter Gross wrote to the Foreign Ministry to assure it that neither he nor anyone else in the Rassenpolitisches Amt had made such claims (of declare Egyptians and Arabs as non-Aryans) to the press. The German government reassured that the Nuremberg Laws do not, in fact, label Arabs as non-Aryans. Also, the German government explained that German law had no objections to marriages between Arabs, on the one hand, and Germans, on the other, treating those marriages like a German marriage with Europeans. These confused and utilitarian discussions about the meaning of blood and race at the 1936 Summer Olympics offered a legal and theoretical basis for reconciling German racial laws with closely related peoples of interest such as non-Jewish Semites (Arabs and Muslims) before and during the World War II.
However, love affairs, sexual relations and marriages between Arab men and German women (with the intention of procreating mixed-race children) in Nazi Germany aroused the hostile attention of the Rassenpolitisches Amt, whose officials sought to prevent such bonds and, if necessary to imprison or deport the "offending" Arab and Muslim man. Hitler had told his military commanders in 1939, shortly before the start of World War II:
Then, in the summer of 1940 and again in February 1941, during Anglo-Iraqi War, Amin al-Husseini submitted to the Nazi German government a draft declaration of German-Arab cooperation, containing a clause about their thoughts of the Arabs as having a volkisch superior to the Jews, even if both were Semitic.
Hitler, recalling Husseini, remarked that he "has more than one Aryan among his ancestors and one who may be descended from the best Roman stock." On October 23, 1942, Nazi Germany's Arabic language station, "Berlin in Arabic," sent the following broadcast to Egypt, in which presented Gross's reply to "H.E. [His Excellency] The Prime Minister of Iraq", after Raschid Ali al-Gaylani solicit an answer from an official source regarding the German consideration of the Arab race.
Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany's propaganda efforts fell were receptive in a minority of Arab and Islamic political and intellectual elites, but was not great enough to tip the scales of the war in North Africa in 1942. If axis powers would have won the campaign, that minority would likely have been collaborators in a German occupation of Egypt and perhaps Palestine.
At times a racial fanatic from the Rassenpolitisches Amt made a public matter the crusade against miscegenation between Germans and Arabs (as they were Semites). If and when that happened, it caused problems for German diplomats and soldiers in his propaganda campaigns to convince Arabs and Muslims that Nazi Germany and the Axis Powers were their friends and natural allies against international communism, British colonialism and the "judenfrage". Demanding their officers to have discretion until they won the war. This being the case, the Foreign Office Archives indicate that, at the same time as Nazi radio broadcasts and pamphlets were being distributed by the North African corps proclaiming Germany's sympathy and support for Arab independence and freedom, the Nazi officials at the Rassenpolitisches Amt and various university officials were determined to prevent "foreign" (artfremder) students from Arab countries from continuing personal relationships with German women by withdrawing their permission to study at German universities. Fritz Grobba, the official in the Foreign Ministry who was responsible for liaison with the former Iraqi politician, Raschid Ali al-Gailani (pro-Axis), agreed that expelling Arab students during the war was also out of the question. Deportation would have to be to a neutral country where the students "would fall into the hands of hostile intelligence services". Nazi propaganda was a pragmatic case, namely that the regime's racial hatred was limited to that of the Jews, while non-Jewish Semites, like Arabs in general, were simply different but not for that reason necessarily inferior.
Slavs
As early as World War 1, Hitler had viewed Slavs as primitive subhumans and for this reason detested German alliance with Austria-Hungary. In his works such as the Mein Kampf and Zweites Buch, Hitler accused the Slavs of lacking any capability to form a working government. In addition, Hitler believed that Slavs like Poles didn't deserve education. With the formation of Soviet Union, Hitler's hostilities against Russia increased drastically, viewing the country as a base for a global Jewish conspiracy. As early as 1934, Joseph Stalin had suspected Nazi Germany of organizing a racial war against Slavic populations and informed this publicly during the 17th Communist Party Congress. Hitler's beliefs in the racial inferiority of Russians personally convinced him that German invasion of Soviet Union will succeed. During the execution of General Plan Ost, Nazis implemented numerous discriminatory laws against Slavic populations. Furthermore, Hitler issued numerous directives banning Slavs from access to education, healthcare and hygiene.
While anti-Slavism had precedent in German society before Hitler's rule, Nazi racism against Slavs was also based on the doctrines of scientific racism. Historian John Connelly argues that the Nazi policies carried out against the Slavs during World War II cannot be fully explained by the racist theories endorsed by the Nazis because of the contradictions and opportunism that occurred during the war.
Prior to the outbreak of the war in 1939, there was only a vague notion of Slavs as an inferior group in the minds of the leading Nazis. How inferior would be determined later on during the war. The Nazis thought that Eastern Europe, namely the areas whose inhabitants speak Slavic languages, was the most racially inferior part of Europe, and very distinct from the rest of Europe. In addition to deeming them inferior, Nazis also viewed Slavs as the agents of Judeo-Bolshevism. In a 1941 article titled "Zur Psychologie des Ostraumes" ("On the psychology of the Eastern Realm") published in Zeitschrift für Geopolitik journal, Nazi psychologist Gustav Richard Heyer characterized Slavs as "natural slaves" predisposed to servitude, inhabiting Eastern Europe in a primitive state akin to wildlife. Heyer further depicted Germans as a "Prometheus"-like figure for Eastern Europe.
Günther in his book The Racial Science of Europe wrote that the Slavs were originally Nordic but over the centuries had mixed with other races. In The Racial Elements of European History he wrote: "The east of Europe shows a gradual transition of the racial mixtures of Central Europe into predominantly East Baltic and Inner Asiatic regions... Owing to the likeness between East Baltic and Inner Asiatic bodily characters it will often be hard to fix a sharp boundary between these two races". He noted that the Nordic race was prominently found along the Vistula, the Neva, the Dwina and in southern Volhynia, but the further south and east, the East Baltic race became more common and finally in some regions there was "a strong Inner Asiatic admixture". In the Russian-speaking regions he estimated were between at 25 per cent and 30 per cent Nordic. In the Polish regions there was an increase in the East Baltic race, Alpine race, and Inner Asiatic the further east.
Günther, who greatly influenced Hitler and Nazi ideology, studied and wrote about the supposed racial origins of the Slavs. He concluded that Slavs were originally Nordic, but after mixing with other races over the centuries they eventually came to be predominantly of the East Baltic race. However, some Poles and other Slavs were considered to have enough Nordic admixture to be Germanized, because they were supposedly descended from the Nordic ruling class of the early Slavs. He wrote that the further East the more the "Inner Asiatic" racial ancestry was prominent. He wrote that of the Poles and other Slavs who were predominantly of the East Baltic race that they were mentally slow, dirty and incapable of long term planning. He also claimed that the East Baltic race was the reason why some German districts had "a heavy proportion of crime".
Himmler in the 1920s was a member of the anti-Slavic Artaman League and wrote:
Hitler in Mein Kampf wrote that Germany's Lebensraum (living space) was going to be in Eastern Europe:
Hitler in his unpublished second book Zweites Buch wrote that the Nazi Party's foreign policy was going to be based on securing Lebensraum for the German people:
In the same book, he wrote that the peoples in the annexed territories would not be Germanized:
To justify their acquisition of Lebensraum (living space) for Germans, the Nazis later classified Slavs as a racially inferior "Asiatic-Bolshevik" horde.
During the war, the Gestapo persecuted sexual relations between Germans and the peoples of Eastern Europe because of the "risk for the racial integrity of the German nation".
Himmler in a secret memorandum titled Reflections on the Treatment of Peoples of Alien Races in the East commented about the forceful Germanisation of children of German blood in Eastern Europe:
In the same memorandum, Himmler remarked that the future of the non-German population in the East would be:
Himmler classified Slavs as "bestial untermenschen" and regarded Jews as the "decisive leader of the untermenschen". In 1941, Himmler advocated that in the annexed territories a bulwark "be created against the Slav nations through the settlement of German farmers and farmers of German descent". Himmler declared that the Germanisation of Eastern Europe would be fully completed when "in the East dwell only men with truly German, Germanic blood".
Himmler in his Posen speeches in 1943 said:
Bulgarians
Joseph Goebbels wrote in his diary on 14 December 1938 that the Bulgarians were a "courageous people and also our friends". During the war, Hitler remarked "to label the Bulgarians as Slavs is pure nonsense; originally they were Turkomans".
Croats
Hitler remarked about the Croats during a table talk:
The Croatian fascist Ustaše government rejected the idea that the Croats were descended from Slavic tribes and endorsed to the idea that they were descended from Germanic Gothic tribes. On 30 April 1941, the government passed three racial laws: the "Legal Decree on Racial Origins", the "Legal Decree on the Protection of Aryan Blood and the Honor of the Croatian People" and the "Legal Provision on Citizenship".
Bosniaks
The romantic notions that Himmler had about the Bosniaks were probably significant in the genesis of the 13th Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Handschar (1st Croatian) and 23rd Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Kama (2nd Croatian). Nonetheless, a memorandum dated 1 November 1942 also indicates that leading Muslim autonomists had already suggested the creation of a volunteer Waffen-SS unit under German command. Himmler was personally fascinated by the Islamic faith and believed that Islam created fearless soldiers. He found their ferocity preferable to the gentility of Christians and believed their martial qualities should be further developed and put to use. He thought that Muslim men would make perfect SS soldiers as Islam "promises them Heaven if they fight and are killed in action."
Czechs
After the Nazis' proclamation of the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia on 16 March 1939, Karl Frank defined a 'German' as:
The Nazis aimed to Germanize the Bohemian and Moravian areas. The issue of sexual relations and marriages between Czechs and Germans was problematic. The Nazis did not prohibit marriages between Czechs and Germans and no law prohibited Jews from marrying Czechs. German women who married Czech men lost their Reich citizenship whereas Czech women who married German men were allowed to become part of the German Volk.
Although Hitler considered Czechs to be of Mongolian origin, in accordance with the idea of completely Germanising the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia in 1940 he agreed with racial anthropologists that up to 50% of Czechs contained enough Nordic blood that they could be Germanized, while the "Mongoloid types" and the Czech intelligentsia were not to be Germanized and were to be "deprived of their power, eliminated, and shipped out of the country by all sorts of methods".
In 1941 Hitler praised the "hard work and inventiveness of the Czechs" to his Propaganda Minister Goebbels and a year later he remarked that the Czechs were "industrious and intelligent workers".
Poles
Hitler thought of Poles as a foreign race and in Mein Kampf he criticised earlier attempts to Germanise ethnic Poles because he argued that the racial inferiority of the Poles would weaken the German nation.
Günther regarded Northern Poland as being predominantly Nordic and that the Nordic race was to be found amongst the upper classes.
An influential figure among German racist theorists was Otto Reche, who became director of the Institute for Racial and Ethnic Sciences in Lipsk and advocated the genocide of the Polish nation. In this position he wrote that ethnic Poles were "an unfortunate mixture" consisting among others of Slavs, Balts and Mongolians, and that they should be eliminated to avoid possible mixing with the German race. When Germany invaded Poland he wrote "We need Raum (space), but no Polish lice on our fur".
After the invasion of Poland, Nazi propaganda began to depict Poles as subhumans. On 24 October 1939, after a meeting in the Propaganda Ministry, the Directive No.1306 of Nazi Germany's Propaganda Ministry was issued and stated: "It must be made clear even to the German milkmaid that Polishness equals subhumanity. Poles, Jews and Gypsies are on the same inferior level... This should be brought home as a leitmotiv, and from time to time, in the form of existing concepts such as 'Polish economy', 'Polish ruin' and so on, until everyone in Germany sees every Pole, whether farm worker or intellectual, as vermin." Goebbels and Hitler believed that Asia began in Poland.
Goebbels in his diary on 10 October 1939 wrote what Hitler thought of the Poles:
In December 1939, Himmler declared that racial assessments were essential to avoid "mongrel types from emerging in the territories that are to be newly settled. I want to create a blond province."
The Polish decrees that were about forced Polish workers working in Germany and were enacted on 8 May 1940 stated that any Polish man or woman for having sexual intercourse with a German man or woman. Nazi propaganda issued leaflets for farmhouses where Polish workers resided and informed Germans:
German women who had sexual intercourse with Polish workers had their heads shaved and were then forced to have a placard around her neck detailing her crime and paraded around the place where she lived. After 1940, Poles were regularly hanged without trials for accusations of sexual intercourse with German women.
During the war Hitler stated that Germans should not mix with Poles in order to prevent any "Germanic blood" being transmitted to the Polish ruling class.
The Germanization of Poles in Nazi-occupied Poland was troublesome since different Nazis had different beliefs about who could be Germanized. Although Gauleiter and Reichsstatthalter of Danzig-West Prussia Albert Forster advocated for the extermination of Poles, he was more than happy to accept Poles who claimed to have "German blood" to be Germans. Attempting to find out if those Poles were of German ancestry was almost an impossibility and Poles who were interviewed by Nazi Party workers were taken at face value without requiring any documents to prove their claims. However, this policy was at odds with Himmler and the Gauleiter and Reichsstatthalter of the German-occupied territory of Wartheland Arthur Greiser. Himmler and Greiser both advocated for an ethnic cleansing policy of the Poles in the Wartheland so the territory could be resettled by Germans. Hitler left each Gauleiter to Germanise his own territory to how he saw fit with "no questions asked". Under the classifications set out by the Deutsche Volksliste (German Peoples' List), approximately two-thirds of the Polish population in Forster's occupation were classified as Germans.
Russians
Hitler in Mein Kampf wrote that, "The organization of a Russian state formation was not the result of the political abilities of the Slavs in Russia, but only a wonderful example of the state-forming efficacity of the German element in an inferior race".
Influenced by the Guidelines for the Conduct of the Troops in Russia that were issued by the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (OKW) on 19 May 1941, in a directive sent out to the troops under his command, General Erich Hoepner of the Panzer Group 4 stated:
After the invasion of the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941, the Nazis aimed to exterminate the peoples of the Soviet Union. An order by Hitler ordered that the Einsatzgruppen were to execute all Soviet functionaries who were "less valuable Asiatics, Gypsies and Jews". Nazi propaganda depicted the war against the Soviet Union as a racial war between Germans and the Jewish, Romani and Slavic sub-humans. Similarly, it depicted Russians as "Asiatic hordes", "Mongol storm", and "subhumans".
Himmler gave a speech in Stettin to Waffen SS soldiers of the Eastern Front Battle Group "Nord" and said that the war was a battle of "ideologies and struggle races". He argued that it was between Nazism that was based on "the values of our Germanic, Nordic blood" against "the 180 millionth people, a mixture of races and peoples, whose names are unpronounceable" which soldiers should "shoot without pity or mercy" and reminded the soldiers who were fighting in the war that they were fighting against "the same subhumans, against the same inferior races" that had appeared under different names 1,000 years ago, but reminded them that they were now called "Russian under the political banner of Bolshevism".
Goebbels wrote an essay on 19 July 1942 titled "The So-Called Russian Soul" in which he argued that the Russians' stubborn manner was down to their national character being "animalistic".
Ukrainians
Initially after the invasion of the Soviet Union some Ukrainians viewed the German soldiers as "liberators" from the Soviets and some Nazis toyed with the idea of setting up an independent Ukrainian state, but those views were short-lived after the German army began to murder Ukrainians en masse. Hitler and other leading Nazis forbade any Ukrainian independence. The Reichskommissar in Reichskommissariat Ukraine Erich Koch publicly declared the Ukrainians to be racially inferior and forbade subordinates from having any social contact with Ukrainians. Koch also publicly referred to the Ukrainians as "niggers".
Hitler remarked during the war that the Ukrainians were "every bit as idle, disorganized, and nihilistically Asiatic as the Greater Russians". He also speculated that blue-eyed Ukrainians were descended from ancient German tribes.
Koch on 5 March 1943 said:
In 1943, Himmler foresaw the publication of a pamphlet which showed photographs illustrating the alleged racial superiority of the Germans and the racial inferiority of the Ukrainians.
Jews
Hitler shifted the blame for Germany's loss in the First World War upon the "enemies from within". In the face of economic hardship as triggered by the Treaty of Versailles (1919), Jews who resided in Germany were blamed for sabotaging the country. The Nazis, therefore, classified them as the most inferior race and used derogatory terms such as Untermensch (sub-human) and Schwein (pig). Nazi propaganda endorsed the anti-Semitic Stab-in-the-back conspiracy theory which claimed that the Germans did not lose the First World War, but instead were betrayed by German citizens, especially Jews.
On 24 February 1920, Hitler announced the 25-point Program of the Nazi Party. Point 4 stated, "None but members of the nation may be citizens of the state. None but those of German blood, whatever their creed may be. No Jew, therefore, may be a member of the nation."
In his works, for instance, in Rassenkunde des jüdischen Volkes ("Ethnology of the Jewish people"), Günther wrote that Jews predominantly belonged to the "Near Eastern race" (often known as the "Armenoid race"). He thought that Jews had become so racially mixed that they could possibly be regarded as a "race of the second-order". He described Ashkenazi Jews as being a mixture of Near Easterners, Orientals, East Baltic peoples, Inner-Asians, Nordic peoples, Hamites and Negroes, and he described Sephardi Jews as being a mixture of Orientals, Near Easterners, Mediterranean peoples, Hamites, Nordic peoples, and Negroes. He also believed that Jews had physical characteristics which were different from the physical characteristics of Europeans. After concluding the racial origins of Jews, Günther began to develop theories about why Jews were so distinguishable as a people and different to European peoples; he wrote that it was because of the way they looked, spoke, gestured and smelled.
In 1934, the Nazis published a pamphlet titled "Why the Aryan Law?" in which they attempted to justify their segregation of non-Jewish Germans from Jewish Germans.
In 1935, the Nazis announced the passage of the Nuremberg Laws which forbade sexual relations and marriages between non-Jewish Germans and Jewish Germans. The laws also stated that Jews were not allowed to employ non-Jewish Germans who were under 45 years old in their households and they also stated that Jews were not allowed to fly the Reich or national flag nor were Jews allowed to display the colors of the Reich.
Romani people
The Nazis believed that the Romani were originally Aryans, but over the centuries due to their nomadic lifestyle they had mixed with non-Aryans and therefore regarded them as an "alien race". Romani were subjected to the Nuremberg Laws and were forbidden from having sexual relations and marriages with people of "German or related blood" and were stripped of their citizenship.
The Nazis established the Racial Hygiene and Demographic Biology Research Unit in 1936. It was headed by Robert Ritter and his assistant Eva Justin, this Unit was mandated to conduct an in-depth study of the "Gypsy question (Zigeunerfrage)" and to provide data required for formulating a "Gypsy law".
After extensive fieldwork in the spring of 1936, consisting of interviews and medical examinations to determine the racial classification of the Roma, the Unit decided that most Romani, whom they had concluded were not of "pure Gypsy blood", posed a danger to German racial purity and should be deported or eliminated. No decision was made regarding the remainder (about 10 percent of the total Romani population of Europe), primarily Sinti and Lalleri tribes living in Germany. Several suggestions were made. Himmler suggested deporting the Romani to a remote reservation, as had been done by the United States for its Native Americans, where "pure Gypsies" could continue their nomadic lifestyle unhindered. According to him:
Although the law Himmler wanted never was enacted, in 1938 he advised that to solve the "Gypsy question" it could be done "on the basis of race".
Sub-Saharan Africans
In Mein Kampf, Hitler described the children who resulted from relationships between European women and French occupation soldiers of African origin as a contamination of the Aryan race "by Negro blood on the Rhine in the heart of Europe." He blamed the Jews for these so-called Rhineland Bastards, writing that "[Jews] were responsible for bringing Negroes into the Rhineland, with the ultimate idea of bastardizing the white race which they hate and thus lowering its cultural and political level so that the Jew might dominate." He also implied that this was a plot on the part of the French, saying the population of France was being increasingly "negrified".
The Nazis banned jazz music because they considered it "corrupt Negro music". The Nazis believed that the existence of jazz in Germany was a Jewish plot to dominate Germany and the non-Jewish German people and destroy German culture.
Nazi eugenicist Eugen Fischer, who was also a professor of anthropology and eugenics, thought that Germany's small black population should be sterilised in order to protect the German people. In 1938, at least 400 black children were forcibly sterilised in the Rhineland.
Black people were subjected to discrimination under the Nuremberg Laws and as a result, they were not allowed to be Reich citizens and they were also forbidden from having sexual relations or marriages with people who were of "German or related blood" (Aryans).
Native Americans
Nazi Germany was inspired to develop its Lebensraum doctrine by the American doctrine of manifest destiny, Hitler and Himmler were both admirers of the conquest of the Old West and they tried to imitate it in their plans of Drang nach Osten, likening their projects of Generalplan Ost on the Eastern Front to the American Indian Wars, seeking to reconfigure the demography of Eastern Europe (against the Slavs so it would become favorable to Germanics) in the same way that the US reconfigured the demography of North America (against Native Americans so it could become favorable to Anglo-Saxons), Nazi leaders routinely referred to Eastern Europe as "East Germany" or they referred to it as the "Wild East," and sometimes, they referred to its inhabitants as "Indians." In his book Mein Kampf, Hitler discussed U.S. laws and policies and noted that the United States was a racial model for Europe and that it was "the one state" in the world that was creating the kind of racist society that nacionalsocialists wanted, praising the way the "Aryan" US conquered "its own continent" by clearing the "soil" of "natives" to make way for more "racially pure" occupiers and laying the foundation of their economic self-sufficiency and growing global power. Himmler even believed Eastern Europe "could be a paradise, a California of Europe" and Nazi plans called for the removal of tens of millions of German Jews and Poles to Eastern "reservations", that were the Nazi ghettos. According to Holocaust historian, Timothy Snyder, the US was "the exemplary land empire" on which the Nazis based their colonizing vision of Eastern Europe. Also, Hitler spoke of his intention to similarly "Germanize" the east "by the immigration of Germans, and to look upon the natives [slavs] as Redskins." For example, in a 1928 speech, Hitler stated that Americans had "gunned down the millions of Redskins to a few hundred thousand, and now keep the modest remnant under observation in a cage...". Also, the anti-miscegenation spirit of US Indian law were an inspiration to the 1935 Nuremberg Laws, specially in Heinrich Rieger, Roland Freisler, Herbert Kier, and Johann von Leers. The Nazis frequently referred to "the bloody conquest of the American West [as] the historical warrant [they] needed to justify the clearance of the Slav population." This analogy was used by the Nazis to compare their conquest to the conquest of the Wild West, and it informed their strategies for handling Jews, Polish, Russians, Slavs, and other peoples who were viewed as inferior and, thus, comparable to American Indians as untersmenchen.
However and paradoxically, Nazis pragmatically utilized popular tropes of Indian imagery (Indianthusiasm) to portray Germans as the Indians of Europe, in a sense of asserting the image of Germans as an original indigenous people who were distinct from other Europeans, and to present National Socialism as the political and spiritual manifestation of natural law. So, the imagery of Native Americans was appropriated in Nazi propaganda and used both against the US and to promote a "holistic understanding of Nature" among Germans, which gained widespread support from various segments of the political spectrum in Germany. The connection between anti-American sentiment and sympathetic feelings toward the underprivileged but authentic Indians was common in Germany, and it was to be found among both Nazi propagandists such as Goebbels and left-leaning writers such as Nikolaus Lenau as well. The pro-Nazi German American Bund tried to persuade Indians not to register for the draft, for example using the swastika with some Native Americans as a symbol depicting good luck in order to gain sympathy. In 1938 the first outdoor Karl May festivals took place at the Rathen Open Air Stage. The influence of Karl May's writing in Hitler youth and German society generate the believe that native people somehow possessed a quasi-Aryan nature. The open-air theater was laid out in 1936, inspired by the ideas of the Thingspiele movement, which was active in the early stages of the Nazi period. The Thingspiele movement failed in staging neopagan and Nordic mythical aspects of the völkisch movement, while May's all-Christian legends found more approval with the mainstream. In general, tried to use May's popularity and his work for their purposes. Also, in the late 1930s, Nazis even attempted to enlist American Indian support, mostly from Sioux and Lakota peoples, for Nazi Germany, also they were interested in exploiting the plight of indigenous peoples, hoping to incite an uprising by the "hemispheric Indian" against their brutal treatment, creating allies and instability to undermine American arguments for the moral superiority of democracy. Certain Native American advocate groups, such as the fascist-leaning American Indian Federation, were to be used to undermine the Roosevelt administration from within by means of propaganda. Fictitious reports about Berlin declaring the Sioux as Aryans were circulated by the German-American Bund with the aim of increasing tensions between Native Americans and the government of the United States, impelling Native Americans to resist being drafted or registered by the Bureau of Indian Affairs, Nazi propagandists went as far as declaring that Germany would return expropriated land to the Indians, while Goebbels predicted they possessed little loyalty to America and would rather rebel than to fight against Germany; such rumours were reported by John Collier, commissioner of Indian Affairs, to the Congress as true, thus not merely spreading them further but also legitimating them in the eyes of many. However, Native American authorities, like the Iroquois Confederacy, declared war to Axis powers, based that the racial policy of Nazi Germany and fascism ideology were against their traditional values, also as a protest against Indian New Deal (reclaiming their authority to declare war, independent from US government). Also, the declaration, about Sioux being apparently Aryans, resulted from a request by a German immigrant, descended from a Sioux grandmother, for German citizenship. Ruling that the immigrant fell within the pale for citizenship, this declaration stated that Indians were Aryans. However, this was a propaganda move in order to foment unrest among Native American groups in the US, but the Nazis did not actually believe this.
About the pre-hispanic Indigenous peoples of the Americas, the Nazis thought that Andean civilizations (like Tiwanaku Empire, Wari Empire, Chimu Empire, or Inca Empire) were founded by an elite of Aryans who were lost of the historical record, and believing without a doubt that the ancestors of Lake Titicaca's local peoples, the Aymaras and Quechuas, because his rural 'uncivilized' condition, would have been incapable of accomplishing such a magnificent feat. The amateur archeologist and SS commander, Edmund Kiss, proposed that Tiwanaku ruins were built a million years ago by his Aryan ancestors—an ancient Nordic race—who had migrated from the Lost City of Atlantis. Nazi officials seized on Kiss's work and featured the ancient Nordic city of Tiwanaku in party newspapers and Hitler Youth publications. Even Heinrich Himmler wanted to send Kiss, as representative of Ahnenerbe, to lead a trip to Bolivia and demonstrate that Tiwanaku were an ancient Nordic civilization in the Andes that revealed the presence of the Aryan Master Race in prehistoric South America, but that wasn't possible due to the war.
The exiled French Nazi and archaeologist, Jacques de Mahieu (member of Charlemagne Division), after settling in Argentina, started to analyze the pre-Hispanic cultures and concluded, throughout his works La Agonía del Dios Sol [The Great Voyage of the Sun-God] and El Rey Vikingo del Paraguay [The Viking King of Paraguay], that a certain Nordic named Ullman (from Siesvig, the southern province of Denmark, and related to the god of hunters, Ull) arrived in Ancient Mexico, around the year 1067 AD in Panuco, and after making contacts with the Aztecs (which adored him as Quetzalcoatl), gradually descended from Mesoamerica across the American continent, to go to found, on South America, the Cara culture, until he settled in present-day Tiahuanaco (in Bolivia), where he established another kingdom (thus denying Aymara legends), the Tiahuanaku civilization, around the middle of the 10th century, which was a "Viking empire" and that was proved by the similarity of Nordic religion and pre-Inca religion, in addition to supposed inscriptions and figures about animals typical of European fauna. Then, after the whites lost their capital by Diaguita invaders in 1290, this Aryan elite fled along the coast to present-day Puerto View on Ecuador, built rafts, and headed for the Oceanian islands. Other Aryans managed to take refuge in the mountains where they rebuilt their forces with the help of loyal tribes and, later, they went down to Cusco where they founded the Tahuantinsuyo. Other Aryans hid in the eastern jungles (Amazon rainforest and Gran Chaco) where they would slowly degenerate, but founding Chachapoya culture and Guaraní culture. So, Inca civilization also had to be a Viking empire because of some coincidences in Quechuan languages and Nordic languages, especially because he believed that Inca folklore contained stories (especially those stories which were documented by Inca Garcilaso de la Vega) about viracochas, which he believed were stories about white and bearded men, he also believed that in Paracas (Peru) there was a mummy of a blonde Inca child. All of these pieces of evidence had to be proof of the existence of an Aryan elite of white and bearded Incas who were pure Nordics and constituted a minority with royal blood that ruled over the Indian rabble and constructed great volkisch empires, a claim which could be proven true because the Quechua and Aymara languages supposedly contain proto-German traces [The word Viracocha (the Andean civilizing god) has its alleged roots in the German words wirth (white) and goth (god); and the name Inca comes from the German ing (descendant)]. Mahieu also stated, with the help of Hermann Munk (German runologist) and Paraguayan historian Vicente Pistilli, that in Paraguay existed a lost Viking empire, saying that they were in the Cuenca del Plata and settled in the 14th century (at least a century before Columbus) and they left traces like; the countless of runes he perceived in cerro guazú, seeing the Guaraní village as a copy from the Viking fortress, concluding that the Guaraní language was having (apparently) numerous words from the Norse spoken by the Vikings, and appealing that the names collected by the Jesuits -Weibingo, Storting, Tocanguzir, etc.- undoubtedly have to had Viking origins, and being confirmed with the legend of the white apostle.
Other Nazi racial theorists believed that the elites of pre-Hispanic empires may have been Phoenicians, Egyptians, Chinese, Aramaic, Celts, Mediterranean, Semite or Etruscans, nations of merchants and intrepid navigators which had a superior volk than Native Americans mass of people, this elite (mostly Aryans) gave laws to the Indians, converted them to their religion, taught them agriculture and metallurgy and gave them works of art and architectural, while the mass of Native Americans were untersmensch that were incapable of replicate those prehistoric cities and empires developed by Aryan men who arrived in their lands as representatives of a special civilization from the other side of the sea. That status of the indigenous people as untersmensch was proved after the European colonization of the Americas and the existence of Criollo elites (related to aryans because their Iberian heritage) controllings Latin Americans countries. About mestizo people in Spanish America, neither Hitler nor any other major Nazi leader showed much interest in them, except to warn the German population that they were a clear example of the negative consequences of "racial mixing".
Racialist ideology
Ideology
Different Nazis offered a range of pseudo-religious or pseudoscientific arguments to prove that the Aryan race was superior to all other races. The central dogma of Aryan superiority was espoused throughout the party by officials who used scientific racist propaganda.
A person deemed to be a "subhuman" would be stripped of all of his/her rights, he or she would be treated like an animal, his or her life would be considered a Lebensunwertes Leben (life unworthy of living) and he or she would only be considered fit for enslavement and extermination.
In schools, Nazi ideology taught German youths to understand the differences which supposedly existed between the Nordic German "Übermenschen" and the "ignoble" Jewish and Slavic "subhumans". An illustration of this ideology was described in the 1990s by a German-Jewish woman, who vividly recalled hearing Nazis march by her home in central Germany in the mid-1930s while they were singing, "When Jewish blood squirts from my knife." A biography of Lise Meitner says "In the Reichstag the NSDAP deputies stretched their arms in the Nazi salute and sang their party anthem, the Horst Wessellied: "SA marching... Jew blood in the streets".'
Richard Walther Darré, Reich Minister of Food and Agriculture from 1933 to 1942, popularized the expression "Blut und Boden" ("Blood and Soil"), one of the many terms in the Nazi glossary ideologically used to enforce popular racism in the German population. There were many academic and administrative scholars of race who all had somewhat divergent views of racism, including Alfred Rosenberg and Hans F. K. Günther.
Fischer and Lenz were appointed to senior positions overseeing the policy of racial hygiene. The Nazi state used such ideas about the differences between European races as part of their various discriminatory and coercive policies which culminated in the Holocaust.
The first (1916) edition of the American eugenicist Madison Grant's popular book The Passing of the Great Race classified Germans as being primarily Nordic, but the second edition, published after the US had entered WWI, reclassified the now-enemy power as being dominated by "inferior" Alpines, a tradition which was echoed in Harvard Professor of Anthropology Carleton Coon's book The Races of Europe (1939).
Günther's book stated that the Germans are definitely not a fully Nordic people, and it also divided them into Western (Mediterranean), Nordic, Eastern (Alpine), East Baltic and Dinaric races. Hitler himself was later to downplay the importance of Nordicism in public for this very reason. The simplistic tripartite model of Grant which divided Europeans into only Alpine, Mediterranean, and Nordic, Günther did not use, and erroneously placed most of the population of Hitler's Germany in the Alpine category, especially after the Anschluss. This has been used to downplay the Nordic presence in Germany. Gunther considered Jews an "Asiatic race inferior to all European races".
J. Kaup led a movement opposed to Günther. Kaup took the view that a German nation, all of whose citizens belonged to a "German race" in a populationist sense, offered a more convenient sociotechnical tool than Günther's concept of an ideal Nordic type to which only a very few Germans could belong. Nazi legislation identifying the ethnic and "racial" affinities of the Jews reflects the populationist concept of race. Discrimination was not restricted to Jews who belonged to the "Semitic-Oriental-Armenoid" and/or "Nubian-African/Negroid" races, but was directed against all members of the Jewish ethnic population.
The German Jewish journalist Kurt Caro, who emigrated to Paris in 1933 and served in the French and British armies, published a book under the pseudonym Manuel Humbert unmasking Hitler's Mein Kampf in which he stated the following racial composition of the Jewish population of Central Europe: 23.8% Lapponoid race, 21.5% Nordic race, 20.3% Armenoid race, 18.4% Mediterranean race, 16.0% Oriental race.
By 1939, Hitler had abandoned Nordicist rhetoric in favor of the idea that the German people as a whole were united by distinct "spiritual" qualities. Nevertheless, Nazi eugenics policies continued to favor Nordics over Alpines and other racial groups, particularly during the war when decisions were being made about the incorporation of conquered peoples into the Reich. The Lebensborn program sought to extend the Nordic race.
In 1942, Hitler stated in private:
Hitler and Himmler planned to use the SS as the basis for the racial "regeneration" of Europe following the final victory of Nazism. The SS was to be a racial elite chosen on the basis of "pure" Nordic qualities.
Addressing officers of the SS-Leibstandarte "Adolf Hitler" Himmler stated:
The ultimate aim for those 11 years during which I have been the Reichsfuehrer SS has been invariably the same: to create an order of good blood which is able to serve Germany; which unfailingly and without sparing itself can be made use of because the greatest losses can do no harm to the vitality of this order, the vitality of these men, because they will always be replaced; to create an order which will spread the idea of Nordic blood so far that we will attract all Nordic blood in the world, take away the blood from our adversaries, absorb it so that never again, looking at it from the viewpoint of grand policy, Nordic blood, in great quantities and to an extent worth mentioning, will fight against us.
Philosophy
Philosophers and other theoreticians participated in the elaboration of Nazi ideology. The relationship between the German philosopher Martin Heidegger and Nazism has remained a controversial subject in the history of philosophy, even today. According to the philosopher Emmanuel Faye, Heidegger said of Baruch Spinoza that he was "ein Fremdkörper in der Philosophie", a "foreign body in philosophy"—Faye notes that Fremdkörper was a term which belonged to the Nazi glossary, and not to classical German. However, Heidegger did to a certain extent criticize racial science, particularly in his Friedrich Nietzsche lectures, which reject biologism in general, while generally speaking even Heidegger's most German nationalist and pro-Nazi works of the early 30s, such as his infamous Rectorial address, lack any overtly racialized language. Thus it is problematic to connect Heidegger with any racial theory. Carl Schmitt elaborated a philosophy of law praising the Führerprinzip and the German people, while Alfred Baeumler instrumentalized Nietzsche's thought, in particular his concept of the "Will to Power", in an attempt to justify Nazism.
Propaganda and implementation of racial theories
The Nazis developed an elaborate system of propaganda which they used to diffuse their racial theories. Nazi architecture, for example, was used to create the "new order" and improve the "Aryan race". The Nazis also believed that they could use Sports to "regenerate the race" by exposing supposedly inferior peoples, namely the Jews, as slovenly, sedentary and out-of-shape. One of the basic motivations of the Hitler Youth, founded in 1922, was the training of future "Aryan supermen" and future soldiers who would faithfully fight for Nazi Germany.
In 1920, the Nazi Party announced that only Germans of "pure Aryan descent" could become party members and if the person had a partner then he or she also had to be a "racially pure" Aryan. Party members could not be related either directly or indirectly to a so-called "non-Aryan". Nazi Party members and members of other Nazi organisations had to ask permission from their regional party official (Gauleiter) if they wanted to marry people who had two grandparents who were members of the "Czech, Polish, or Magyar Volk groups". German farmers who were Nazi Party members were prohibited from marrying Czechs and Poles in order to "preserve the purity" of their "own racial and ethnic foundations" to prevent the latter from marrying into German farmsteads.
German cinema was used to promote racist theories, under the direction of Goebbels' Propagandaministerium. The German Hygiene Museum in Dresden diffused racial theories. A 1934 poster of the museum shows a man with distinctly African features and reads, "If this man had been sterilized there would not have been born ... 12 hereditarily diseased."(sic). According to the current director Klaus Voegel, "The Hygiene Museum was not a criminal institute in the sense that people were killed here," but "it helped to shape the idea of which lives were worthy and which were worthless".
Nazi racial theories were soon translated into legislation, the most notable pieces of legislation were the July 1933 Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring and the 1935 Nuremberg Laws. The Aktion T4 euthanasia program, in which the Kraft durch Freude (KdF, literally "Strength Through Joy") youth organization participated, targeted people accused of representing a danger of "degeneration" towards the "Deutsches Volk". Under the race laws, sexual relations between Aryans (cf. Aryan certificate) and non-Aryans known as Rassenschande ("race defilement") became punishable by law.
To preserve the "racial purity" of the German blood, after the beginning of the war the Nazis extended the race defilement law to include all foreigners (non-Germans).
Despite the laws against Rassenschanden, German soldiers raped Jewish women during the Holocaust.
The Nazi regime called for all German people who wanted to be citizens of the Reich to produce proof of Aryan ancestry. Certain exceptions were made when Hitler issued the "German Blood Certificate" for those people who were classified to be of partial Aryan and Jewish ancestry by the race laws.
During World War II, Germanization efforts were carried out in Central and Eastern Europe in order to cull those people of "German blood" who lived there. This started with the classification of people into the Volksliste. Those people who were considered German and selected for inclusion in the Volksliste were either kidnapped and sent to Germany to undergo Germanization, or they were killed in order to prevent "German blood" from being used against the Nazis. In regions of Poland, many Poles were either murdered or deported in order to make room for Baltic Germans induced to emigrate after the pact with the USSR. Efforts were made to identify people of German descent with Nordic traits from pre-war citizens of Poland. If these individuals passed the screening process test and were considered "racially valuable", they were abducted from their parents to be Germanized and then sent to Germany to be raised as Germans. Those children who failed such tests might be used as subjects in medical experiments or as slave laborers in German industry.
Western countries, such as France, were treated less harshly because they were viewed as racially superior to the "subhuman" Poles who were to be enslaved and exterminated, though they were not considered as good as full Germans were; a complex of racial categories was boiled down by the average German to mean that "East is bad and West is acceptable." Still, extensive racial classification was practiced in France, for future uses.
Notes
References
Bibliography
Carl Müller Frøland (2023) Nazi Universe (Hindi, Rajmangal Publishers, India)
1930s introductions
Anti-Armenianism in Europe
Antisemitism in Germany
Anti-Slavic sentiment
Antiziganism in Europe
Racism in Germany
Society of Nazi Germany | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi%20racial%20theories |
Roberto Calderoli (born 18 April 1956) is an Italian politician and a member of the Senate of the Republic. He was a Minister without portfolio for Legislative Simplification in the Berlusconi IV Cabinet. He previously served as Minister without portfolio for Reforms and Devolution in the Berlusconi II Cabinet (since 20 June 2004) and in the Berlusconi III Cabinet (until 18 February 2006, when he resigned following a controversy). A leading member of Lega Nord, he is regarded as representing the right wing of the political spectrum. He is serving as minister of Regional Affairs and Autonomies in the Meloni Cabinet since 2022.
Calderoli is often the centre of public controversies, usually because of racist, xenophobic, or offensive public remarks.In July 2013, Calderoli insulted Italy's first black Minister, Italo-Congolese Cécile Kyenge, saying: "Whenever I see Minister Kyenge, I cannot help but think of an orangutan."
Career
A native of Bergamo and a dentist like many of his relatives, Calderoli started his political experience with the Lega Lombarda, a precursor of the federated Northern League, of which he was the president in 1993 and national secretary between 1995 and 2002.
Between 1990 and 1995, he sat in the town council in Bergamo, and since 2002 he has been the coordinator of the
national secretariat of the Northern League. He was an MP in the Chamber of Deputies between 1992 and 2001, as a representative of the Northern League-Padania, and for a while he was president of the Commission for Social Affairs.
In the 2001 Italian general election, he was elected to the Senate of Italy in the first-past-the-post constituency of Albino. He then became the vice-president of the Senate until July 2004, when he was appointed Minister for Institutional Reforms in the place of Umberto Bossi, the longtime leader of the Northern League who had suffered a serious stroke and could not perform his duties. During his mandate, he also wrote a new electoral law based on proportional representation with a strong majority premium rather than plurality voting system, which was first introduced in Italy in 1994 by a referendum. Successively, Calderoli himself criticized the electoral law he wrote by defining it una porcata (literally, "a piggish stuff").
Calderoli is currently serving as secretary of Lega per Salvini Premier.
New electoral law (2005)
A new electoral law was established in 2005 under Calderoli's rapporteurship, and then dubbed Calderoli Law, and it is a form of semi-proportional representation. A party presents its own closed list and it can join other parties in alliances. The coalition which receives a plurality automatically wins at least 26 seats. Respecting this condition, seats are divided between coalitions, and subsequently to party lists, using the largest remainder method with a Hare quota. To receive seats, a party must overcome the barrier of 8% of the vote if it contests a single race, or of 3% of the vote if it runs in alliance. The change in the electoral law was strongly requested by the Union of Christian and Centre Democrats, and finally agreed by Berlusconi, although criticised (including by political scientist Giovanni Sartori) for its comeback to proportionalism and its timing, less than one year before general elections.
Calderoli himself defined the electoral law as a porcata – a pork affair.
Cartoon crisis
During the international crisis sparked by the publishing of the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons, Calderoli made statements on 8 February 2006 that were favourable to usage of force against Muslims and asked for the intervention of Pope Benedict XVI to form a "coalition", referencing the battles of Lepanto and Vienna.
On 15 February 2006, he announced he would wear a T-shirt with the Muhammad cartoons. Later that evening, just after the news broadcast on state flagship television station Rai Uno, during a live interview he said: "I am wearing one of those T-shirts even now", and promptly unbuttoned his shirt, revealing a T-shirt with a caricature emblazoned on it. Though the press reported it to be one of the Jyllands-Posten cartoons, it was actually the cartoon published on the France Soir's front page in the 1 February 2006 issue, the very day the same newspaper published the Jyllands-Posten cartoons. Actually, Calderoli did not show one of the cartoons that caused the international crisis.
The event was widely published in Libya (a former colony of Italy), and about 1,000 people gathered for a protest and began throwing rocks and bottles toward the Italian consulate in Benghazi which they set ablaze. In clashes with the police, at least eleven people died and twenty-five were wounded.
Subsequently, Silvio Berlusconi asked Calderoli to resign because his act was against the government's political line; in an interview given to Italian newspaper La Repubblica, Calderoli declared that he would not resign. He eventually gave in to the massive pressure coming from all parties (and lack of support in his own), and resigned on 18 February 2006.
Controversy
Responding to criticism about a controversial electoral law that he penned in 2006, Calderoli affirmed: "I wrote [the law], but honestly it is a pig-sty."
Following Italy's win against France in the 2006 FIFA World Cup Final, Calderoli criticized France for having "sacrificed its identity for results by fielding negroes, Muslims and Communists". These comments drew many protests from the French embassy, the Italian Green Party who said that Calderoli is "no better than the Ku Klux Klan", and the Party of Italian Communists, among others. Moreover, Calderoli said the centre-left government "would very probably have supported this France with no identity and the headbutts of Zidane".
In June 2008 Calderoli said in a TV interview: "It is obvious that there are ethnic groups and populations that are more inclined to work and others not. And there is greater predisposition for crime by someone over others."
On 13 July 2013, Calderoli told a Lega Nord rally in Treviglio that Integration minister Cécile Kyenge, who was born in the Democratic Republic of the Congo but has Italian citizenship, would be better off working as a minister "in her country." According to the Corriere della Sera, which reported the event, he added: "I love animals – bears and wolves, as is known – but when I see the pictures of Kyenge I cannot but think of the features of an orangutan, even if I'm not saying she is one."
Comments on the Swiss vote to ban minarets
In November 2009, after a national referendum resulted in the changing the Swiss Federal Constitution so that it prohibited the construction of minarets, Calderoli told Agenzia Nazionale Stampa Associata that Switzerland had sent a clear signal: "Yes to church towers, no to minarets." He further stated that he wished Switzerland would act as a model for Italy in this regard.
References
|-
1956 births
Government ministers of Italy
Italian dentists
Lega Nord politicians
Living people
Politicians from Bergamo
Vice presidents of the Senate (Italy)
Deputies of Legislature XI of Italy
Deputies of Legislature XII of Italy
Deputies of Legislature XIII of Italy
Senators of Legislature XIV of Italy
Senators of Legislature XV of Italy
Senators of Legislature XVI of Italy
Senators of Legislature XVII of Italy
Senators of Legislature XVIII of Italy
20th-century Italian politicians
21st-century Italian politicians
Meloni Cabinet | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roberto%20Calderoli |
Mrkonjić Grad (, ) is a town and municipality located in the western part of Republika Srpska, an entity of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is located in the region of Bosanska Krajina, between Banja Luka and Jajce. As of 2013, the municipality has a population of 16,671 inhabitants, while the town of Mrkonjić Grad has a population of 7,915 inhabitants.
Name
The town changed its name several times in history: Gornje Kloke, Novo Jajce, Varcarev Vakuf, Varcar Vakuf, and ultimately the present one. The last renaming took place in 1924 after King Peter I of Serbia, who had taken the nom de guerre "Mrkonjić" while fighting in the uprising (1875–78) against the Ottoman Empire.
History
From 1929 to 1941, Mrkonjić Grad was part of the Vrbas Banovina of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia.
In World War II, the town became renowned by the first meeting of ZAVNOBiH on 25 November 1943, when Bosnia and Herzegovina was proclaimed as a common republic of Serbs, Croats and Muslims.
During the Bosnian War from 1992 to 1995, the town was within the territory controlled by ethnic Serbs. The town is also known for the Mrkonjić Grad incident where the USAF lost one F-16 in June 1995. The pilot of the jet, Scott O'Grady, was stranded in the area for six days before being rescued by US Marines. In 8–12 October 1995, Mrkonjić Grad was in the hands of the Croatian Army (HV) and the Croatian Defence Council (HVO).
After the Dayton peace agreement the town was assigned to the entity of Republika Srpska. In 1996, a mass grave containing the bodies of 181 Serbs—mostly civilians—was uncovered in Mrkonjić Grad. Almost all were killed by Croat forces in late 1995.
Demographics
Population
Ethnic composition
Economy
The following table gives a preview of total number of registered employed people per their core activity (as of 2016):
Tourism
The Balkana Lake lies near the town and presents a small, but beautiful tourist resort including the nearby Skakavac Waterfall.
See also
Mrkonjić Grad incident
References
External links
Municipality of Mrkonjić Grad
Mrkonjić Grad Guide
Mrkonjić Grad - Internet - Live & Exclusive from MG
Mrkonjić Grad Portal
Zelenkovac Art gallery
Populated places in Mrkonjić Grad
Cities and towns in Republika Srpska | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mrkonji%C4%87%20Grad |
The 1971–72 season was the 92nd season of competitive football in England.
Honours
Notes = Number in parentheses is the times that club has won that honour. * indicates new record for competition
FA Cup
Leeds United won the FA Cup for the first time in their history by beating the previous year's winners, Arsenal, 1–0 in the final at Wembley. Allan Clarke scored the winning goal.
1971–72 marked the centenary of the FA Cup. Non-League club Hereford United of the Southern League provided one of the shocks of the season by knocking out Newcastle United 2–1 after extra time in the 3rd Round Replay.
League Cup
Stoke City won the 1972 Football League Cup Final to claim the only major trophy in their history.
Football League
First Division
Brian Clough, 37, won the first major trophy of his managerial career by guiding Derby County to their first league championship. They overcame Leeds United, Liverpool and Manchester City to win a four-horse race, with only a single point separating them. It was so close that when Manchester City won their last game of the season – against Derby on 22 April 1972 – they were top of the league by a point but had no chance of being champions, as Derby and Liverpool both had games in hand, were still to play each other, and both boasted a superior goal average to City's.
Although Derby beat Liverpool to pass Manchester City at the top of the table, Liverpool (two points back) and Leeds (one point back) each still had a game left. Leeds, who had won the FA Cup for the first time of their history, could have completed the double by avoiding defeat against Wolverhampton Wanderers, but instead lost 2–1. Liverpool could also have overtaken Derby by defeating Arsenal, but could muster only a 0–0 draw. This assured Derby the title by a single point.
There were bribery allegations from The Sun newspaper regarding Leeds's manager Don Revie, who stood accused of attempting to bribe Wolves on the final day of the season. Their captain Billy Bremner won a high court battle to clear his name of the allegations, with evidence provided by the Wolves striker Derek Dougan.
Stoke City won the League Cup, their first major trophy.
Nottingham Forest and Huddersfield Town lost their First Division status. 1971–72 was Huddersfield's last season in the top flight until 2017, and within a few seasons they fell into the Fourth Division.
Second Division
Norwich City won the Second Division and were promoted along with Birmingham City. This marked the first time that Norwich City reached the top flight in their history, less than 70 years after the club was founded. Charlton Athletic and Watford were relegated.
Third Division
Aston Villa ended their two-year spell in the Third Division by gaining promotion as champions, and by the end of the decade would be firmly re-established as a First Division club. Brighton & Hove Albion followed Villa into the Second Division. Mansfield Town, Barnsley, Torquay United and Bradford City were relegated.
Fourth Division
Grimsby Town, Southend United, Brentford and Scunthorpe United were promoted from the Fourth Division. Barrow were voted out of the Football League and replaced by Hereford United, who a short time earlier had achieved a shock FA Cup victory over Newcastle United.
Ernie Tagg sacked himself as manager of Crewe Alexandra because he felt that a younger manager should take charge of the club.
Top goalscorers
First Division
Francis Lee (Manchester City) – 33 goals
Second Division
Bob Latchford (Birmingham City) – 23 goals
Third Division
Ted MacDougall (AFC Bournemouth) – 35 goals
Fourth Division
Peter Price (Peterborough United) – 28 goals
European competitions
The 1972 UEFA Cup Final was the final of the first ever UEFA Cup and was contested by two English teams, Wolverhampton Wanderers and Tottenham Hotspur. Spurs won 2–1 in the first leg at the Molineux on 3 May. The second leg, played on 17 May at White Hart Lane, ended 1–1. The 3–2 aggregate win by Tottenham Hotspur gave them the second European trophy in their history
Diary of the season
8 July 1971: Bill Shankly signs a three-year contract as Liverpool manager which will keep him in charge until the end of the 1973–74 season.
7 August 1971: The 1971 FA Charity Shield is held, but without reigning League and Cup winners Arsenal, who are on a pre-season tour abroad. The Shield was won by Second Division champions Leicester City, who beat 1971 FA Cup Final runners-up Liverpool with a Steve Whitworth goal; Arsenal were beaten 1–0 by Feyenoord.
20 August 1971: Manchester United beat Arsenal 3–1 in a "home" tie, played at Anfield in Liverpool as a result of a ban from hosting their first two home games in Manchester, the second would be held at the Victoria Ground in Stoke-on-Trent.
13 October 1971: England earn a vital European Championship qualifying win in Switzerland. Anton Weibel scores a late own goal as England win 3-2 in Basel to go top of Group 3.
6 November 1971: The Manchester derby at Maine Road ends in a 3–3 thriller, with debutant 17-year-old winger Sammy McIlroy on the scoresheet for United.
10 November 1971: England draw 1-1 with Switzerland at Wembley to leave them in pole position to qualify for the European Championship quarter finals. Mike Summerbee scores early, with Karl Odermatt equalizing for the Swiss.
27 November 1971: Alan Woodward scores four of the seven Sheffield United put past Ipswich Town without reply, while elsewhere, George Best is the hat-trick hero as Manchester United beat Southampton 5–2, and Wolverhampton Wanderers beat West Bromwich Albion 3–2 in the Black Country derby.
1 December 1971: England win their European Championship qualifying group with a 2-0 win in Greece. Geoff Hurst and Martin Peters score the goals.
15 December 1971: John Ritchie's goal and a penalty save from Gordon Banks gives Stoke City a replay in the Football League Cup semi-final against West Ham United.
31 December 1971: At the end of the year, Manchester United are top of the First Division, three points ahead of Manchester City and four ahead of Leeds United. West Bromwich Albion and Nottingham Forest occupy the relegation places.
29 January 1972: In the second League Cup semi-final replay, at Old Trafford, Stoke overcome a West Ham side forced to make Bobby Moore their stand-in goalkeeper, putting them through to the League Cup Final for the first time.
19 February 1972: Leeds United thrash Manchester United 5–1 at Elland Road and are two points behind Manchester City at the top of the table. Manchester United have now lost five League matches in a row.
23 February 1972: Second division Sheffield Wednesday host touring Brazilians Santos at Hillsborough stadium in a match played on a weekday afternoon due to the miners' strike. 37,000 spectators witness a 2-0 win for the Brazilian side who have Pelé in their line-up.
4 March 1972: Leeds United beat Southampton 7–0 and will overtake Manchester City at the top of the table if they win their two games in hand. Manchester United are beaten for the sixth consecutive match in the League when they lose 2–0 to Tottenham Hotspur.
6, 7 Match 1972: Derby County manager Brian Clough announces the signing of Nottingham Forest striker Ian Storey-Moore; this is disputed by the selling club and the player is in fact sold to Manchester United for £200,000.
8 March 1972: Rodney Marsh moves from Queens Park Rangers to Manchester City for £200,000.
31 March 1972: Brian Clough dismisses reports that he is to be Noel Cantwell's successor as Coventry City manager. Meanwhile, on the pitch, in the First Division, Leeds' failure to beat West Ham sees them miss the opportunity to top the table, victory for Millwall allows them to ascend to the summit of the Second Division ahead of Norwich City and Birmingham City, Third Division table-toppers Aston Villa pull away from AFC Bournemouth, and Grimsby Town move into second in the bottom tier (behind rivals Scunthorpe United) with a win over Reading, becoming the first League side to score 50 this season.
1 April 1972: Derby County beat Leeds United 2–0 and take over at the top of the First Division.
26 April 1972: Derby County win the Texaco Cup by beating Airdrieonians 2–1 on aggregate. Crystal Palace's 2–0 win over Stoke City relegates both Nottingham Forest and Huddersfield Town from the First Division.
1 May 1972: Derby County, in their last League game of the season, beat Liverpool 1–0. Leeds United beat Chelsea 2–0 and will win the title if they can beat Wolverhampton Wanderers in their final fixture.
6 May 1972: Leeds United win the FA Cup for the first time in their history by beating Arsenal 1–0 in the final at Wembley, with Allan Clarke heading the only goal in the second half.
8 May 1972: Derby County win the League Championship as neither Leeds United nor Liverpool manage to win their final league games. Leeds would have overtaken Derby on goal average had they drawn with Wolverhampton Wanderers at Molineux, but lose 2-1, while Liverpool draw 0-0 with Arsenal at Highbury.
11 May 1972: The First Division season ends when Tottenham Hotspur beat Arsenal 2–0 in the North London derby at Highbury.
Star players
Gordon Banks was voted FWA Footballer of the Year to add to his League Cup winners medal.
Norman Hunter and Billy Bremner helped Leeds win the FA Cup.
Roy McFarland and Colin Todd helped Derby win the League Championship.
Star managers
Brian Clough guided Derby to their first-ever league championship triumph.
Don Revie helped Leeds lift the FA Cup for the first time.
Tony Waddington ended Stoke City's trophyless history by winning the League Cup.
National team
England were eliminated from the 1972 European Championships in the quarter-finals after losing 3–1 on aggregate over two legs (1–3 at Wembley and 0–0 in West Berlin) to West Germany, who went on to win the tournament.
References
English Football, 1971-72 In
English Football, 1971-72 In | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1971%E2%80%9372%20in%20English%20football |
Cyprus competed at the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta, United States.
Results by event
Athletics
Men's 100 metres:
Anninos Marcoullides
Round 1: 10.26
Round 2: 10.13
Round 3: 10.23
Semifinal: 10.36
Yannis Zisimidis
Round 1: 10.32
Round 2: 10.47
Men's 200 metres:
Anninos Marcoullides
Final: 20.57 s (→ 11th place)
Men's 400 metres:
Evripedes Demosthenous
Round 1: 46.76 s (→ 43rd place)
Men's 110 metres hurdles:
Prodromos Katsantonis
Round 1: 14.34 (→ 57th place)
Men's 4x100 metres Relay:
Anninos Marcoullides, Loukas Spyrou, Prodromos Katsantonis, Yannis Zisimidis
Round 1: 40.06
Men's Shot Put:
Elias Louca
18.48m (→ 24th place)
Michalis Louca
18.23m (→ 28th place)
Women's 200 metres:
Theodora Kyriakou
23.85 (→ 39th place)
Women's 400 metres:
Theodora Kyriakou
52.09 (→ 29th place)
Swimming
Men's 50 metres Freestyle:
Stavros Michaelides
Heat — 23.77 (→ did not advance, 31st place)
Men's 100 metres Freestyle:
Stavros Michaelides
Heat — 52.65 (→ did not advance)
Women's 200 metres Freestyle:
Marina Zarma
Heat — 2:10.85 (→ did not advance)
Women's 400 metres Freestyle:
Marina Zarma
Heat — 4:32.15 (→ did not advance)
Shooting
Men's Skeet:
Antonis Andeou — 121 points (→ 9th place)
Antonis Nicolaides — 119 (→ 21st place)
Christos Kourtellas — 127 (→ 32nd place)
Sailing
Men's Double-Handed Dinghy (470)
Petros Elton and Nikolas Epifaniou — 211 (→ 31st place)
Men's Board (Mistral)
Dimitrios Lappas — 195 (32nd place)
Wrestling
Men's Featherweight (Freestyle)
Arout Parsekian — 10th place
References
sports-reference
Nations at the 1996 Summer Olympics
1996
Summer Olympics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyprus%20at%20the%201996%20Summer%20Olympics |
K252a is an alkaloid isolated from Nocardiopsis bacteria. This staurosporine analog is a highly potent cell permeable inhibitor of CaM kinase and phosphorylase kinase (IC50 = 1.8 and 1.7 nmol/L, respectively). At higher concentrations it is also an efficient inhibitor of serine/threonine protein kinases (IC50 of 10 to 30 nmol/L).
K252a is reported to promote myogenic differentiation in C2 mouse myoblasts and has been shown to block the neuronal differentiation of rat pheochromocytoma PC12 cells by inhibition of trk tyrosine kinase activity.
K252a has been reported in preclinical research as a potential treatment for psoriasis<ref>Promising New Treatments for Psoriasis,</p> Sarah Dubois Declercq and Roxane Pouliot >.The Scientific World Journal; Volume 2013, Article ID 980419; https://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/980419</ref>
K252a inhibits tyrosine phosphorylation of Trk A induced by NGF. PC12 cells were incubated in the presence or absence of 10 ng/ml NGF with or without various concentrations of K252a.
See also
Lestaurtinib
ANA-12
Cyclotraxin B
References
Further reading
Indole alkaloids
Indolocarbazoles
Lactams
Protein kinase inhibitors
TrkB antagonists
Tertiary alcohols
Methyl esters | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K252a |
Nazi Germany was an overwhelmingly Christian nation with similarly overwhelmingly self-identified Christian leadership. A census in May 1939, six years into the Nazi era and after the annexation of mostly Catholic Austria and mostly Catholic Czechoslovakia into Germany, indicates that 54% of the population considered itself Protestant, 41% considered itself Catholic, 3.5% self-identified as Gottgläubig (lit. "believing in God"), and 1.5% as "atheist". Protestants were over-represented in the Nazi Party's membership and electorate, and Catholics were under-represented.
Smaller religious minorities such as the Jehovah's Witnesses and the Baháʼí Faith were banned in Germany, while the eradication of Judaism was attempted along with the genocide of its adherents. The Salvation Army and the Seventh-day Adventist Church both disappeared from Germany, while astrologers, healers, fortune tellers, and witchcraft were all banned. Some religious minority groups had a more complicated relationship with the new state, for example the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS) withdrew its missionaries from Germany and Czechoslovakia in 1938, but German LDS church branches were permitted to continue to operate throughout the war, however, they were forced to make some changes in their structure and teachings. The Nazi Party was frequently at odds with the Pope, who denounced the party by claiming that it had an anti-Catholic veneer.
There were differing views among the Nazi leaders as to the future of religion in Germany. Anti-Church radicals included Hitler's personal secretary Martin Bormann, the propagandist Alfred Rosenberg, and Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler. Some Nazis, such as Hans Kerrl, who served as Hitler's Minister for Church Affairs, advocated "Positive Christianity", a uniquely Nazi form of Christianity which rejected Christianity's Jewish origins and the Old Testament, and portrayed "true" Christianity as a fight against Jews, with Jesus depicted as an Aryan.
Nazism wanted to transform the subjective consciousness of the German peopleits attitudes, values and mentalitiesinto a single-minded, obedient "national community". The Nazis believed that they would therefore have to replace class, religious and regional allegiances. Under the Gleichschaltung (Nazification) process, Hitler attempted to create a unified Protestant Reich Church from Germany's 28 existing Protestant churches. The plan failed, and was resisted by the Confessing Church. Persecution of the Catholic Church in Germany followed the Nazi takeover. Hitler moved quickly to eliminate political Catholicism. Amid harassment of the Church, the Reich concordat treaty with the Vatican was signed in 1933, and promised to respect Church autonomy. Hitler routinely disregarded the Concordat, closing all Catholic institutions whose functions were not strictly religious. Clergy, nuns, and lay leaders were targeted, with thousands of arrests over the ensuing years. The Catholic Church accused the regime of "fundamental hostility to Christ and his Church". Many historians believe that the Nazis intended to eradicate traditional forms of Christianity in Germany after victory in the war.
Background
Christianity has ancient roots among Germanic peoples dating to the missionary work of Columbanus and St. Boniface in the 6th–8th centuries. The Reformation, initiated by Martin Luther in 1517, divided the German population between a two-thirds majority of Protestants and a one-third minority of Roman Catholics. The south and west remained mainly Catholic, while north and east became mainly Protestant. The Catholic Church enjoyed a degree of privilege in the Bavarian region, the Rhineland and Westphalia as well as parts in south-west Germany, while in the Protestant north, Catholics suffered some discrimination.
Bismarck's Kulturkampf ("Culture Struggle") of 1871–1878 had seen an attempt to assert a Protestant vision of German nationalism over Germany, and fused anticlericalism and suspicion of the Catholic population, whose loyalty was presumed to lie with Austria and France, rather than the new German Empire. The Centre Party had formed in 1870, initially to represent the religious interests of Catholics and Protestants, but was transformed by the Kulturkampf into the "political voice of Catholics". Bismarck's "Culture Struggle" failed in its attempt to eliminate Catholic institutions in Germany, or their strong connections outside of Germany, particularly various international missions and Rome.
In the course of the 19th century, both the rise of historical-critical scholarship of the Bible and Jesus by David Strauss, Ernest Renan and others, progress in the natural sciences, especially the field of evolutionary biology by Charles Darwin, Ernst Haeckel and others, and opposition to oppressive socioeconomic circumstances by Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels and others, and a rise in more liberal and progressive churches, resulted in increasing criticism of the traditional churches' dogmas, and moved numerous German citizens into rejecting traditional theological concepts and either following liberal forms of religion or discarded it altogether. By 1859, they had established the (literally "Union of Free Religious Communities of Germany"), an association of persons who consider themselves to be religious without adhering to any established and institutionalized church or sacerdotal cult. In 1881 in Frankfurt am Main, Ludwig Büchner established the German Freethinkers League (Deutscher Freidenkerbund) as the first German organisation for atheists and agnostics. In 1892 the Freidenker-Gesellschaft and in 1906 the were formed.
In 1933, 5 years prior to the annexation of Austria into Germany, the population of Germany was approximately 67% Protestant and 33% Catholic, while the Jewish population was less than 1%.
Denominational trends during the Nazi period
Christianity in Germany has, since the Protestant Reformation in 1517, been divided into Roman Catholicism and Protestantism. As a specific outcome of the Reformation in Germany, the large Protestant denominations are organized into Landeskirchen (roughly: State Churches). The German word for denomination is Konfession. For the large churches in Germany (Catholic and Evangelical, i.e. Protestant) the German government collects the church tax, which is then given to these churches. For this reason, membership in the Catholic or the Evangelical Church is officially registered. It is apparent they were politically motivated. For this reason historian Richard Steigmann-Gall argues that "nominal church membership is a very unreliable gauge of actual piety in this context" and determining someone's actual religious convictions should be based on other criteria. It is important to keep this 'official aspect' in mind when turning to such questions as the religious beliefs of Adolf Hitler or those of Joseph Goebbels. Both men had ceased to attend Catholic mass or to go to confession long before 1933, but neither had officially left the Church and neither of them refused to pay their church taxes.
Historians have taken a look at the number of people who left their church in Germany during the 1933–1945 period. There was "no substantial decline in religious practice and church membership between 1933 and 1939". The option to be taken off the church rolls (Kirchenaustritt) has existed in Germany since 1873, when Otto von Bismarck had introduced it as part of the Kulturkampf aimed against Catholicism. For parity this was also made possible for Protestants, and for the next 40 years it was mostly them who took advantage of it. Statistics exist since 1884 for the Protestant churches and since 1917 for the Catholic Church.
An analysis of this data for the era of the Nazis' rule is available in a paper by Sven Granzow et al., published in a collection edited by Götz Aly. Altogether more Protestants than Catholics left their church, however, overall Protestants and Catholics decided similarly. One has to keep in mind that German Protestants were twice the number of Catholics. The spike in the numbers from 1937 to 1938 is the result of the annexation of Austria in 1938 and other territories. The number of Kirchenaustritte reached its "historical high" in 1939 when it peaked at 480,000. Granzow et al. see the numbers not only in relation to the Nazi policy towards the churches, (which changed drastically from 1935 onwards) but also as indicator of the trust in the Führer and the Nazi leadership. The decline in the number of people who left the church after 1942 is explained as resulting from a loss of confidence in the future of Nazi Germany. People tended to keep their ties to the church, because they feared an uncertain future.
According to Evans, those members of the affiliation gottgläubig (lit. "believers in god", a non-denominational nazified outlook on god beliefs, often described as predominately based on creationist and deistic views), "were convinced Nazis who had left their Church at the behest of the Party, which had been trying since the mid 1930s to reduce the influence of Christianity in society". Heinrich Himmler was a strong promoter of the gottgläubig movement and did not allow atheists into the SS, arguing that their "refusal to acknowledge higher powers" would be a "potential source of indiscipline". The majority of the three million Nazi Party members continued to pay their church taxes and register as either Roman Catholic or Protestants. The Salvation Army, Christian Saints and Seventh-day Adventist Church all disappeared from Germany during the Nazi era.
Sicherheitsdienst des Reichsführers-SS (or SD) members withdrew from their Christian denominations, changing their religious affiliation to gottgläubig, while nearly 70% of the officers of the Schutzstaffel (SS) did the same.
Nazi attitudes towards Christianity
Nazi ideology could not accept an autonomous establishment whose legitimacy did not spring from the government. It desired the subordination of the church to the state. Although the broader membership of the Nazi Party after 1933 came to include many Catholics and Protestants, aggressive anti-Church radicals like Joseph Goebbels, Alfred Rosenberg, Martin Bormann, and Heinrich Himmler saw the Kirchenkampf campaign against the Churches as a priority concern, and anti-Church and anticlerical sentiments were strong among grassroots party activists.
Hitler's Propaganda Minister, Joseph Goebbels, saw an "insoluble opposition" between the Christian and Nazi world views. The Führer angered the churches by appointing Alfred Rosenberg as official Nazi ideologist in 1934. Heinrich Himmler saw the main task of his SS organization to be that of acting as the vanguard in overcoming Christianity and restoring a "Germanic" way of living. Hitler's chosen deputy, Martin Bormann, advised Nazi officials in 1941 that "National Socialism and Christianity are irreconcilable."
Hitler himself possessed radical instincts in relation to the conflict with the Churches in Germany. Though he occasionally spoke of wanting to delay the Church struggle and was prepared to restrain his anti-clericalism out of political considerations, his "own inflammatory comments gave his immediate underlings all the license they needed to turn up the heat in the Church Struggle, confident that they were 'working towards the Fuhrer, according to Kershaw. In public speeches, he portrayed himself and the Nazi movement as faithful Christians. In 1928 Hitler said in a speech: "We tolerate no one in our ranks who attacks the ideas of Christianity... in fact our movement is Christian." But, according to the Goebbels Diaries, Hitler hated Christianity. In an 8 April 1941 entry, Goebbels wrote "He hates Christianity, because it has crippled all that is noble in humanity." In Bullock's assessment, though raised a Catholic, Hitler "believed neither in God nor in conscience", retained some regard for the organisational power of Catholicism, but had contempt for its central teachings, which he said, if taken to their conclusion, "would mean the systematic cultivation of the human failure". Bullock wrote: "In Hitler's eyes, Christianity was a religion fit only for slaves; he detested its ethics in particular. Its teaching, he declared, was a rebellion against the natural law of selection by struggle and the survival of the fittest."
As a measure in the struggle for power against the influence of the churches (Kirchenkampf) the Nazis tried to establish a "third denomination" called "Positive Christianity", aiming to replace the established churches to reduce their influence. Historians have suspected this was an attempt to start a cult which worshipped Hitler as the new Messiah. However, in a diary entry of 28 December 1939, Joseph Goebbels wrote that "the Fuhrer passionately rejects any thought of founding a religion. He has no intention of becoming a priest. His sole exclusive role is that of a politician." In Hitler's political relations dealing with religion he readily adopted a strategy "that suited his immediate political purposes."
Many Nazi leaders, including Adolf Hitler, subscribed either to a mixture of pseudoscientific theories, and also Social Darwinism as well as mysticism and occultism, which was especially strong in the SS. Central to both groupings was the belief in Germanic (white Nordic) racial superiority. The existence of a Ministry of Church Affairs, instituted in 1935 and headed by Hanns Kerrl, was hardly recognized by ideologists such as Alfred Rosenberg or by other political decision-makers. A relative moderate, Kerrl accused dissident churchmen of failing to appreciate the Nazi doctrine of "Race, blood and soil" and gave the following explanation of the Nazi conception of "Positive Christianity," telling a group of submissive clergy in 1937:
During the war Alfred Rosenberg formulated a thirty-point program for the National Reich Church, which included:
The National Reich Church claims exclusive right and control over all Churches.
The National Church is determined to exterminate foreign Christian faiths imported into Germany in the ill-omened year 800.
The National Church demands immediate cessation of the publishing and dissemination of the Bible.
The National Church will clear away from its altars all Crucifixes, Bibles, and pictures of Saints.
On the altars there must be nothing but "Mein Kampf" and to the left of the altar a sword.
When exploring the Nazi Party's public speeches and writings, Steigmann-Gall notes that they can provide insight into their "untempered" ideas.
Prior to the Reichstag vote for the Enabling Act under which Hitler gained legislative powers with which he went on to permanently dismantle the Weimar Republic, Hitler promised the Reichstag on 23 March 1933, that he would not interfere with the rights of the churches. However, with power secured in Germany, Hitler quickly broke this promise. Various historians have written that the goal of the Nazi Kirchenkampf ("Church Struggle") entailed not only ideological struggle, but ultimately the eradication of the Churches. However, leading Nazis varied in the importance they attached to the Church Struggle.
William Shirer wrote that "under the leadership of Rosenberg, Bormann and Himmler, who were backed by Hitler, the Nazi regime intended to destroy Christianity in Germany, if it could, and substitute the old paganism of the early tribal Germanic gods and the new paganism of the Nazi extremists." During a speech on 27 October 1941, President Franklin D. Roosevelt revealed evidence of Hitler's plan to abolish all religions in Germany, declaring:
Your Government has in its possession another document, made in Germany by Hitler's Government... It is a plan to abolish all existing religions –Catholic, Protestant, Mohammedan, Hindu, Buddhist, and Jewish alike. The property of all churches will be seized by the Reich and its puppets. The cross and all other symbols of religion are to be forbidden. The clergy are to be forever liquidated, silenced under penalty of the concentration camps, where even now so many fearless men are being tortured because they have placed God above Hitler.
But according to Steigman-Gall, some Nazis, like Dietrich Eckart (died 1923) and Walter Buch, saw Nazism and Christianity as part of the same movement. Aggressive anti-Church radicals like Joseph Goebbels and Martin Bormann saw the conflict with the Churches as a priority concern, and anti-church and anti-clerical sentiments were strong among grassroots party activists.
Writing for Yad Vashem, the historian Michael Phayer wrote that by the latter 1930s, church officials knew that the long-term aim of Hitler was the "total elimination of Catholicism and of the Christian religion", but that given the prominence of Christianity in Germany, this was necessarily a long-term goal. According to Bullock, Hitler intended to destroy the influence of the Christian churches in Germany after the war. In his memoirs, Hitler's chief architect Albert Speer recalled that when drafting his plans for the "new Berlin", he consulted Protestant and Catholic authorities, but was "curtly informed" by Hitler's private secretary Martin Bormann that churches were not to receive building sites. Kershaw wrote that, in Hitler's scheme for the Germanization of Eastern Europe, he made clear that there would be "no place in this utopia for the Christian Churches".
Geoffrey Blainey wrote that Hitler and his fascist ally Mussolini were atheists, but that Hitler courted and benefited from fear among German Christians of militant communist atheism. (Other historians have characterised Hitler's mature religious position as a form of deism.) "The aggressive spread of atheism in the Soviet Union alarmed many German Christians", wrote Blainey, and with the Nazis becoming the main opponent of communism in Germany: "[Hitler] himself saw Christianity as a temporary ally, for in his opinion 'one is either a Christian or a German'. To be both was impossible. Nazism itself was a religion, a pagan religion, and Hitler was its high priest... Its high altar [was] Germany itself and the German people, their soil and forests and language and traditions". Nonetheless, a number of early confidants of Hitler detailed the Führer complete lack of religious belief. One close confidant, Otto Strasser, disclosed in his 1940 book, Hitler and I, that Hitler was a true disbeliever, succinctly stating: "Hitler is an atheist."
According to Kershaw, following the Nazi takeover, race policy and the church struggle were among the most important ideological spheres: "In both areas, the party had no difficulty in mobilizing its activists, whose radicalism in turn forced the government into legislative action. In fact the party leadership often found itself compelled to respond to pressures from below, stirred up by the Gauleiter playing their own game, or emanating sometimes from radical activists at a local level". As time went on, anti-clericalism and anti-church sentiment among grass roots party activists "simply couldn't be eradicated", wrote Kershaw and they could "draw on the verbal violence of party leaders towards the churches for their encouragement." Unlike some other fascist movements of the era, Nazi ideology was essentially hostile to Christianity and clashed with Christian beliefs in many respects. The Nazis seized hundreds of monasteries in Germany and Austria and removed clergymen and laymen alike. In other cases, religious journals and newspapers were censored or banned. The Nazi regime attempted to shut down the Catholic press, which declined "from 435 periodicals in 1934 to just seven in 1943." From the beginning in 1935, the Gestapo arrested and jailed over 2720 clerics who were interned at Germany's Dachau concentration camp, leading to over 1,000 deaths. Nazism saw the Christian ideals of meekness and conscience as obstacles to the violent instincts required to defeat other races. From the mid-1930s anti-Christian elements within the Nazi Party became more prominent; however, they were restrained by Hitler because of the negative press their actions were receiving, and by 1934 the Nazi Party pretended a neutral position in regard to the Protestant Churches.
Alfred Rosenberg held among offices the title of "the Fuehrer's Delegate for the Entire Intellectual and Philosophical Education and Instruction for the National Socialist Party". In his Myth of the Twentieth Century (1930), Rosenberg wrote that the main enemies of the Germans were the "Russian Tartars" and "Semites" – with "Semites" including Christians, especially the Catholic Church: Joseph Goebbels, the Nazi Minister for Propaganda, was among the most aggressive anti-Church Nazi radicals. Goebbels led the Nazi persecution of the German clergy and, as the war progressed, on the "Church Question", he wrote "after the war it has to be generally solved... There is, namely, an insoluble opposition between the Christian and a heroic-German world view". Martin Bormann became Hitler's private secretary and de facto "deputy" führer from 1941. He was a leading advocate of the Kirchenkampf, a project which Hitler for the most part wished to keep until after the war. Bormann was a rigid guardian of Nazi orthodoxy and saw Christianity and Nazism as "incompatible". He said publicly in 1941 that "National Socialism and Christianity are irreconcilable". In a confidential message to the Gauleiter on 9 June 1941, Martin Bormann, had declared that "National Socialism and Christianity are irreconcilable." He also declared that the Churches' influence in the leadership of the people "must absolutely and finally be broken." Bormann believed Nazism was based on a "scientific" world-view, and was completely incompatible with Christianity. Bormann stated:
When we National Socialists speak of belief in God, we do not mean, like the naive Christians and their spiritual exploiters, a man-like being sitting around somewhere in the universe. The force governed by natural law by which all these countless planets move in the universe, we call omnipotence or God. The assertion that this universal force can trouble itself about the destiny of each individual being, every smallest earthly bacillus, can be influenced by so-called prayers or other surprising things, depends upon a requisite dose of naivety or else upon shameless professional self-interest.
Nazi anti-Semitism
Instead of focusing on religious differentiation, Hitler maintained that it was important to promote "an antisemitism of reason", one that acknowledged the racial basis of Jewry. Interviews with Nazis by other historians show that the Nazis thought that their views were rooted in biology, not in historical prejudices. For example, "S. became a missionary for this biomedical vision... As for anti-Semitic attitudes and actions, he insisted that "the racial question... [and] resentment of the Jewish race... had nothing to do with medieval anti-Semitism...That is, it was all a matter of scientific biology and of community."
In his book about the history of Christianity, Geoffrey Blainey wrote that "Christianity could not escape some indirect blame for the terrible Holocaust. The Jews and Christians had been rivals and sometimes enemies for a long period of history. Furthermore, it was traditional for Christians to blame Jewish leaders for the crucifixion of Christ...", but, Blainey noted, "At the same time, Christians showed devotion and respect. They were conscious of their debt to the Jews. Jesus and all the disciples and all the authors of his Gospels were of the Jewish race. Christians viewed the Old Testament, the holy book of the synagogues as equally a holy book for them...".
Laurence Rees noted that "emphasis on Christianity" was absent from the vision expressed by Hitler in Mein Kampf and his "bleak and violent vision" and visceral hatred of the Jews had been influenced by quite different sources: the notion of life as struggle he drew from Social Darwinism, the notion of the superiority of the "Aryan race" he drew from Arthur de Gobineau's The Inequality of the Human Races; and from Alfred Rosenberg he took the idea of a link between Judaism and Bolshevism. Hitler espoused a ruthless policy of "negative eugenic selection", believing that world history consisted of a struggle for survival between races, in which the Jews plotted to undermine the Germans, and inferior groups like Slavs and defective individuals in the German gene pool, threatened the Aryan "master race". Richard J. Evans wrote that his views on these subjects have often been called "social Darwinist", but that there is little agreement among historians as to what this term may mean. According to Evans, Hitler "used his own version of the language of social Darwinism as a central element in the discursive practice of extermination...", and the language of Social Darwinism, in its Nazi variant, helped to remove all restraint from the directors of the "terroristic and exterminatory" policies of the regime, by "persuading them that what they were doing was justified by history, science and nature".
Kirchenkampf (church struggle)
As the Nazi Party began its takeover of power in Germany in 1933 the struggling, but still nominally functioning Weimar government, led by its president, Paul von Hindenburg, and represented by his appointed Vice-Chancellor, Franz von Papen, initiated talks with the Holy See concerning the establishment of a concordat. The talks lasted three and half months while Hitler consolidated his hold on power. This attempt achieved the signing of the Reichskonkordat on 20 July 1933, which protected the freedom of the Catholic Church and restricted priests and bishops from political activity.
Like the idea of the Reichskonkordat, the notion of a Protestant Reich Church, which would unify the Protestant Churches, also had been considered previously. Hitler had discussed the matter as early as 1927 with Ludwig Müller, who was at that time the military chaplain of Königsberg.
Christianity remained the dominant religion in Germany through the Nazi period, and its influence over Germans displeased the Nazi hierarchy. Evans wrote that Hitler believed that in the long run Nazism and religion would not be able to coexist, and stressed repeatedly that it was a secular ideology, founded on modern science. According to Evans: "Science, he declared, would easily destroy the last remaining vestiges of superstition." Germany could not tolerate the intervention of foreign influences such as the Pope, and "Priests, he said, were 'black bugs,' abortions in black cassocks.
During Hitler's dictatorship, more than 6,000 clergymen, on the charge of treasonable activity, were imprisoned or executed. The same measures were taken in the occupied territories; in French Lorraine, the Nazis forbade religious youth movements, parish meetings, and scout meetings. Church assets were taken, Church schools were closed, and teachers in religious institutes were dismissed. The Episcopal seminary was closed, and the SA and SS desecrated churches and religious statues and pictures. Three hundred clergy were expelled from the Lorraine region; monks and nuns were deported or forced to renounce their vows.
The Catholic Church was particularly suppressed in Poland: between 1939 and 1945, an estimated 3,000 members (18%) of the Polish clergy, were murdered; of these, 1,992 died in concentration camps. In the annexed territory of Reichsgau Wartheland it was even more harsh: churches were systematically closed and most priests were either killed, imprisoned, or deported to the General Government. Eighty per cent of the Catholic clergy and five bishops of Warthegau were sent to concentration camps in 1939; 108 of them are regarded as blessed martyrs. Religious persecution was not confined to Poland: in Dachau concentration camp alone, 2,600 Catholic priests from 24 countries were killed.
A number of historians maintain that the Nazis had a general covert plan, which some argue existed before the Nazis' rose to power, to destroy Christianity within the Reich. To what extent a plan to subordinate the churches and limit their role in the country's life existed before the Nazi rise to power, and exactly who among the Nazi leadership supported such a move remains contested. However, a minority of historians maintain, against consensus, that no such plan existed. Summarizing a 1945 Office of Strategic Services report, The New York Times columnist Joe Sharkey, stated that the Nazis had a plan to "subvert and destroy German Christianity," which was to be accomplished through control and subversion of the churches and to be completed after the war. However, the report stated this goal was limited to a "sector of the National Socialist party," namely Alfred Rosenberg and Baldur von Schirach. Historian Roger Griffin maintains: "There is no doubt that in the long run Nazi leaders such as Hitler and Himmler intended to eradicate Christianity just as ruthlessly as any other rival ideology, even if in the short term they had to be content to make compromises with it." In his study The Holy Reich, the historian Richard Steigmann-Gall comes to the opposite conclusion, "Totally absent, besides Hitler's vague ranting, is any firm evidence that Hitler or the Nazis were going to 'destroy' or 'eliminate' the churches once the war was over." Regarding his wider thesis that, "leading Nazis in fact considered themselves Christian" or at least understood their movement "within a Christian frame of reference", Steigmann-Gall admits he "argues against the consensus that Nazism as a whole was either unrelated to Christianity or actively opposed to it."
Although there are high-profile cases of individual Lutherans and Catholics who died in prison or in concentration camps, the largest number of Christians who died would have been Jewish Christians or mischlinge who were sent to death camps for their race rather than their religion. Kahane (1999) cites an estimate that there were approximately 200,000 Christians of Jewish descent in Nazi Germany. Among the Gentile Christians 11,300 Jehovah's Witnesses were placed in camps, and about 1,490 died, of whom 270 were executed as conscientious objectors. Dachau had a special "priest block." Of the 2,720 priests (among them 2,579 Catholic) held in Dachau, 1,034 did not survive the camp. The majority of these priests were Polish (1,780), of whom 868 died in Dachau.
Specific groups
Catholicism
The attitude of the Nazi Party towards the Catholic Church ranged from tolerance to near-total renunciation and outright aggression. Bullock wrote that Hitler had some regard for the organisational power of Catholicism, but he had utter contempt for its central teachings, which he said, if taken to their conclusion, "would mean the systematic cultivation of the human failure". Many Nazis were anti-clerical in both private and public life. The Nazi Party had decidedly pagan elements. One position is that the Church and fascism could never have a lasting connection because both are a "holistic Weltanschauung" claiming the whole of the person.
Adolf Hitler himself has been described as a "spiritualist" by Laqueur; but he has been described by Bullock as a "rationalist" and a "materialist" with no appreciation for the spiritual side of humanity; and a simple "atheist" by Blainey. His fascist comrade Benito Mussolini was an atheist. Both were anticlerical, but they understood that it would be rash to begin their Kulturkampfs against Catholicism prematurely. Such a clash, possibly inevitable in the future, was put off while they dealt with other enemies.
The nature of the Nazi Party's relationship with the Catholic Church was also complicated. In early 1931, the German bishops issued an edict excommunicating all leaders of the Nazi Party and banning all Catholics from membership. The ban was conditionally modified in 1933 when State law mandated that all trade union workers and civil servants must be members of the Nazi Party. In July 1933 a Concord Reichskonkordat was signed with the Vatican which prevented the Church in Germany from engaging in political activities; however, the Vatican continued to speak out on issues of faith and morals and it opposed Nazi philosophy.
In 1937 Pope Pius XI issued the encyclical Mit brennender Sorge condemning Nazi ideology, notably the Gleichschaltung policy directed against religious influences upon education, as well as Nazi racism and antisemitism. His death prevented the issuing of a planned encyclical Humani generis unitas, but the similar Summi Pontificatus was the first encyclical released by his successor (Pius XII), in October 1939. This encyclical strongly condemned both racism and totalitarianism, without the anti-Judaism present in the draft presented to Pope Pius XI for Humani generis unitas. The massive Catholic opposition to the Nazi euthanasia programs led them to be quieted on 28 August 1941. Catholics, on occasion, actively and openly protested against Nazi antisemitism through several bishops and priests such as Bishop Clemens von Galen of Münster.
In Nazi Germany, political dissenters were imprisoned, and some German priests were sent to the concentration camps for their opposition, including the pastor of Berlin's Catholic Cathedral Bernhard Lichtenberg and the seminarian Karl Leisner.
In 1941 the Nazi authorities decreed the dissolution of all monasteries and abbeys in the German Reich, many of them effectively being occupied and secularized by the Allgemeine SS under Himmler. However, on 30 July 1941 the Aktion Klostersturm (Operation Monastery Storm) was put to an end by a decree from Hitler, who feared that the increasing protests by the Catholic segment of the German population might result in passive rebellions and thereby harm the Nazi war effort on the eastern front.
Plans for the Roman Catholic Church
Historian Heinz Hürten (professor emeritus at the Catholic University of Eichstaett) noted that the Nazi Party had plans for the Roman Catholic Church, according to which the Church was supposed to "eat from the hands of the government." Hürten states the sequence of these plans: an abolition of the priestly celibacy and a nationalisation of all Church property, the dissolution of monastic religious institutes, and an end to the influence of the Catholic Church upon education. Hürten states that Hitler proposed to reduce vocations to the priesthood by forbidding seminaries from receiving applicants before their 25th birthdays, and thus he had hoped that these men would marry beforehand, during the time (18–25 years) in which they were obliged to work in military or labour service. Also, along with this process, the Church's sacraments would be revised and changed to so-called "Lebensfeiern", the non-Christian celebrations of different periods of life.
There existed some considerable differences among officials within the Nazi Party on the question of Christianity. Goebbels is purported to have feared the creation of a third front of Catholics against their regime in Germany itself. In his diary, Goebbels wrote about the "traitors of the Black International who again stabbed our glorious government in the back by their criticism", by which Hürten states he meant the indirectly or actively resisting Catholic clergymen (who wore black cassocks).
Protestantism
According to Peter Stachura, the backbone of Nazi electoral support was rural and small-town Protestant middle class, whereas German Catholics rejected the party and overwhelmingly voted for the confessional Catholic Centre Party and Bavarian People's Party instead. Both Protestant clergy and laymen were generally supportive of National Socialism, with Paul Althaus writing that "our Protestant churches have greeted the turning point of 1933 as a gift and miracle from God". According to Robert Ericksen, sermons in Protestant churches were full of praise for the new regime, with a Protestant church in Bavaria announcing that the Nazi party "may expect not just the applause but the joyous cooperation of the church." Lutherans were particularly supportive of the Nazi regime, with a Lutheran diocesan magazine Allgemeine Evangelisch-Lutherische Kirchenzeitung welcoming the rise of Hitler as a "great thing [that] God has done for our Volk" in April 1933. Ericksen also notes that the "most thoroughly Protestant regions of Germany gave the Nazi Party its strongest support". Protestants were overrepresented within the Nazi Party, and according to Jürgen W. Falter, 83 % of recruits to the NSDAP between 1925 and 1932 were Protestant. Falter observes that the Nazi Party found it challenging to build up any support amongst Catholics, and fared considerably worse in terms of both electoral support and new recruits in Catholic areas.
Richard Steigmann-Gall remarks that "scholarship since the 1980s has quite clearly demonstrated that nominal Protestant confessional membership was a better indicator of who voted for the National Socialist Party (NSDAP) than any other single category like class, region, geography or gender." Analysing the results of the July 1932 German federal election, Steigmann-Gall concludes that religious piety among German Protestants, rather than apostasy, was the defining factor in regards to supporting National Socialism, with most religious Protestants being most likely to vote for NSDAP. He also observes a stark contrast between Catholic and Protestant voters in mixed areas; regarding Baden, Steigmann-Gall observes that "in contrast to the Catholic south, which saw near total opposition to the Nazis, the Protestant north saw a clear ascendancy of the Nazi party", while "in Bonn, the Protestant Mittelstand made up the bulk of the party's
success, while the Catholic population almost entirely stayed away". Steigmann-Gall concludes that "Nazi party's share of a region's vote was inversely proportional to the Catholic percentage of its population".
According to Ericksen, the reason for Protestant support for Nationalism Socialism was the reactionary and nationalist nature of Political Protestantism, noting that "the German Protestant church was a place where hyper-nationalism, overt militarism, and hostility toward modern culture were in full flower". Despite the generally supportive attitude towards National Socialism amongst German Protestants, there was also resistance. Some Protestant theologians such as Dietrich Bonhoeffer were outspoken opponents of the new regime since the beginning, while others such as Martin Niemöller came to oppose the NSDAP once the extremist nature of its rule manifested itself. Richard Steigmann-Gall believes that the apparent swing towards the right of German Protestants can be attributed to the nationalist and reactionary character that the Protestant churches have assumed in the imperial and Kulturkampf era. It was believed that "the true German is a Protestant", and as such, "the narrative of national identity in Germany was written in a distinctly Protestant language". Protestant theology focused on German nationalism and showed Germany as a nation favoured by God itself, which Steigmann-Gall calls "war theology". The first known instance of the Dolchstoßlegende came from a Protestant court chaplain Bruno Doehring, and following the end of World War I, the political and social influence that the Protestant churches have amassed was used to attack the Weimar Republic, portraying it as a "metaphor for cultural and social degeneracy".
Martin Luther
During the First and Second World Wars, German Protestant leaders used the writings of Luther to support the cause of German nationalism. On the 450th anniversary of Luther's birth, which fell only a few months after the Nazi Party began its seizure of power in 1933, celebrations were conducted on a large scale by both the Protestant Churches and the Nazi Party. At a celebration in Königsberg, Erich Koch, at that time the Gauleiter of East Prussia, made a speech in which he, among other things, compared Adolf Hitler to Martin Luther and claimed that the Nazis fought with Luther's spirit. Such a speech might be dismissed as mere propaganda, but, as Steigmann-Gall points out: "Contemporaries regarded Koch as a bona fide Christian who had attained his position [as the elected president of a provincial Church synod] through a genuine commitment to Protestantism and its institutions." Even so, Steigmann-Gall states that the Nazis were not a Christian movement.
The prominent Protestant theologian Karl Barth, of the Swiss Reformed Church, opposed this appropriation of Luther in both the German Empire and Nazi Germany, when he stated in 1939 that the writings of Martin Luther were used by the Nazis to glorify both the State and state absolutism: "The German people suffer under his error of the relationship between the law and the Bible, between secular and spiritual power", in which Luther divided the temporal State from the inward state, focusing instead on spiritual matters, thus limiting the ability of the individual or the church to question the actions of the State, which was seen as a God ordained instrument.
In February 1940, Barth specifically accused German Lutherans of separating biblical teachings from the teachings of the State and thus legitimizing the Nazi state ideology. He was not alone with his view. A few years earlier on 5 October 1933, Pastor Wilhelm Rehm from Reutlingen declared publicly that "Hitler would not have been possible without Martin Luther", though many have also made this same statement about other influences on Hitler's rise to power. Anti-communist historian Paul Johnson has said that "without Lenin, Hitler would not have been possible".
Protestant groups
Different German states possessed regional social variations as to class densities and religious denomination. Richard Steigmann-Gall alleges a linkage between several Protestant churches and Nazism. The German Christians (Deutsche Christen) were a movement within the Protestant Church of Germany with the aim of changing traditional Christian teachings to align with the ideology of Nazism and its anti-Jewish policies. The Deutsche Christen factions were united in the goal of establishing a Nazi Protestantism and abolishing what they considered to be Jewish traditions in Christianity, and some but not all rejected the Old Testament and the teaching of the Apostle Paul. In November 1933, a Protestant mass rally of the Deutsche Christen, which brought together a record 20,000 people, passed three resolutions:
Adolf Hitler is the completion of the Reformation,
Baptized Jews are to be dismissed from the Church
The Old Testament is to be excluded from Sacred Scriptures.
The German Christians selected Ludwig Müller (1883–1945) as their candidate for in 1933. In response to Hitler's campaigning, two-thirds of those Protestants who voted elected Lutheran minister Ludwig Müller to govern the Protestant Churches. Müller was convinced that he had a divine responsibility to promote Hitler and his ideals, and together with Hitler, he favoured a unified Reichskirche of Protestants and Catholics. This Reichskirche was to be a loose federation in the form of a council, but it would be subordinated to the Nazi regime.
The level of ties between Nazism and the Protestant churches has been a contentious issue for decades. One difficulty is that Protestantism includes a number of religious bodies and many of them had little relation to each other. Added to that, Protestantism tends to allow more variation among individual congregations than Catholicism or Eastern Orthodox Christianity, which makes statements about the official positions of denominations problematic. The German Christians were a minority within the Protestant population, numbering one fourth to one third of the 40 million Protestants in Germany. With Bishop Müller's efforts and Hitler's support, the German Evangelical Church was formed and recognized by the state as a legal entity on 14 July 1933, with the aim of melding the State, the people and the Church into one body. Dissenters were silenced by expulsion or violence.
The support of the German Christian movement within the churches was opposed by many adherents of traditional Christian teachings. Other groups within the Protestant church included members of the Bekennende Kirche, Confessing Church, which included such prominent members as Martin Niemöller and Dietrich Bonhoeffer; both rejected the Nazi efforts to meld volkisch principles with traditional Lutheran doctrine. Martin Niemöller organized the Pfarrernotbund (Pastors' Emergency League) which was supported by nearly 40 percent of the Evangelical pastors. They were, however, (as of 1932) a minority within the Protestant church bodies in Germany. But in 1933, a number of Deutsche Christen left the movement after a November speech by Reinhold Krause urged, among other things, the rejection of the Old Testament as Jewish superstition. So when Ludwig Müller could not deliver on conforming all Christians to Nazism, and after some of the German Christian rallies and more radical ideas generated a backlash, Hitler's condescending attitudes towards Protestants increased and he lost all interest in Protestant church affairs.
The resistance within the churches to Nazi ideology was the longest lasting and most bitter of any German institution. The Nazis weakened the churches' resistance from within but the Nazis had not yet succeeded in taking full control of the churches, which was evidenced by the thousands of clergy who were sent to concentration camps. Rev. Martin Niemöller was imprisoned in 1937, charged with "misuse of the pulpit to vilify the State and the Party and attack the authority of the Government." After a failed assassination on Hitler's life in 1943 by members of the military and members of the German Resistance movement, to which Dietrich Bonhoeffer and others in the Confessing Church movement belonged, Hitler ordered the arrest of Protestant, mainly Lutheran clergy. However, even the "Confessing Church made frequent declarations of loyalty to Hitler". Later, many Protestants were solidly opposed to Nazism after the nature of the movement was better understood. However, a number also maintained until the end of the war the view that Nazism was compatible with the teachings of the church.
The small Methodist population was deemed foreign at times; this stemmed from the fact that Methodism began in England, and did not develop in Germany until the nineteenth century under the leadership of Christoph Gottlob Müller and Louis Jacoby. Because of this history they felt the urge to be "more German than the Germans" in order to avoid coming under suspicion. Methodist Bishop John L. Nelsen toured the U.S. on Hitler's behalf in order to protect his church, but in private letters he indicated that he feared and hated Nazism, and he eventually retired and fled to Switzerland. Methodist Bishop F. H. Otto Melle took a far more collaborationist position that included his apparently sincere support for Nazism. He was also committed to an asylum near the war's end. To show his gratitude to the latter bishop, Hitler made a gift of 10,000 marks in 1939 to a Methodist congregation so it could pay for the purchase of an organ. The money was never used.
Outside Germany, Melle's views were overwhelmingly rejected by most Methodists.
The leader of the pro-Nazi segment of the Baptists was Paul Schmidt. The idea of a "national church" was possible in the history of mainstream German Protestantism, but generally forbidden among the Anabaptists, the Jehovah's Witnesses, and the Catholic Church. The forms or offshoots of Protestantism that advocated pacifism, anti-nationalism, or racial equality tended to oppose the Nazi state in the strongest possible terms. Other Christian groups known for their efforts against Nazism include the Jehovah's Witnesses.
Jehovah's Witnesses
In 1934, the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society published a letter entitled "Declaration of Facts". In this personal letter to then Reich Chancellor Hitler, J. F. Rutherford stated that "the Bible Researchers of Germany are fighting for the very same high ethical goals and ideals which also the national government of the German Reich proclaimed respecting the relationship of humans to God, namely: honesty of the created being towards its creator". However, while the Jehovah's Witnesses sought to reassure the Nazi government that their goals were purely religious and non-political and they expressed the hope that the government would allow them to continue their preaching, Hitler still restricted their work in Nazi Germany. After this, Rutherford began denouncing Hitler in articles through his publications, potentially making the plight of Jehovah's Witnesses in Nazi Germany worse.
Jehovah's Witnesses or "Bible Researchers" () as they were known in Germany, comprised 25,000 members and they were among those persecuted by the Nazi government. All incarcerated members were identified by a unique purple triangle. Some members of the religious group refused to serve in the German military or give allegiance to the Nazi government, for which 250 were executed. An estimated 10,000 were arrested for various crimes, and 2,000 were sent to Nazi concentration camps, where approximately 1,200 were killed. Unlike Jews and Romani, who were persecuted on the basis of their ethnicity, Jehovah's Witnesses could escape persecution and personal harm by renouncing their religious beliefs by signing a document indicating renunciation of their faith, submission to state authority, and support of the German military.
Atheists
On 13 October 1933, Deputy Führer Rudolf Hess issued a decree stating: "No National Socialist may suffer any detriment on the ground that he does not profess any particular faith or confession or on the ground that he does not make any religious profession at all." However, the regime strongly opposed "Godless Communism" and all of Germany's freethinking (freigeist), atheist, and largely left-wing organizations were banned the same year.
In a speech made during the negotiations for the Nazi-Vatican Concordant of 1933, Hitler argued against secular schools, stating: "Secular schools can never be tolerated because such schools have no religious instruction, and a general moral instruction without a religious foundation is built on air; consequently, all character training and religion must be derived from faith." One of the groups closed down by the Nazi regime was the German Freethinkers League. Christians appealed to Hitler to end anti-religious and anti-Church propaganda promulgated by Free Thinkers, and within Hitler's Nazi Party some atheists were quite vocal in their anti-Christian views, especially Martin Bormann. Heinrich Himmler, who himself was fascinated with Germanic paganism, was a strong promoter of the gottgläubig movement and he did not allow atheists into the SS, arguing that their "refusal to acknowledge higher powers" would be a "potential source of indiscipline". In the SS, Himmler announced: "We believe in a God Almighty who stands above us; he has created the earth, the Fatherland, and the Volk, and he has sent us the Führer. Any human being who does not believe in God should be considered arrogant, megalomaniacal, and stupid and thus not suited for the SS." He also declared: "As National Socialists, we believe in a Godly worldview."
Esoteric groups
In the 1930s there already existed an esoteric scene in Germany and Austria. The organisations within this spectrum were suppressed, but, unlike Freemasonry in Nazi Germany, they were not persecuted. The only known case in which an occultist might have been sent to a concentration camp for his beliefs is that of Friedrich Bernhard Marby.
Also, some Nazi leaders had an interest in esotericism. Rudolf Hess had an interest in Anthroposophy. Heinrich Himmler showed a strong interest in esoteric matters.
The esoteric Thule Society lent support to the German Workers' Party, which was eventually transformed into the Nazi Party in 1920. Dietrich Eckart, a remote associate of the Thule Society, actually coached Hitler on his public speaking skills, and while Hitler has not been shown to have been a member of Thule, he received support from the group. Hitler later dedicated the second volume of Mein Kampf to Eckart. The racist-occult doctrines of Ariosophy contributed to the atmosphere of the völkisch movement in the Weimar Republic that eventually led to the rise of Nazism.
Other beliefs
In the Appendix of The Nazi Persecution of the Churches, Conway has included a document: "List of sects prohibited by the Gestapo up to December 1938." It mentions the "International Jehovah's Witness" under No.1, but also includes a so-called "Study group for Psychic Research" and even the "Bahai Sect."
Astrologers, healers and fortune tellers were banned under the Nazis, while the small pagan "German Faith Movement", which worshipped the sun and the seasons, supported the Nazis.
Churches and the war effort
Hitler called a truce to the Church conflict with the outbreak of war, wanting to back away from policies which were likely to cause internal friction inside Germany. He decreed at the outset of war that "no further action should be taken against the Evangelical and Catholic Churches for the duration of the war". According to John Conway, "The Nazis had to reckon with the fact that, despite all of Rosenberg's efforts, only 5 percent of the population registered themselves at the 1930 census as no longer connected with Christian Churches." The support of millions of German Christians was needed in order for Hitler's plans to come to fruition. It was Hitler's belief that if religion is a help, "it can only be an advantage". Most of the 3 million Nazi Party members "still paid the Church taxes" and considered themselves Christians. Regardless, a number of Nazi radicals in the party hierarchy determined that the Church Struggle should be continued. Following the Nazi victory in Poland, the repression of the Churches was extended, despite their early protestations of loyalty to the cause.
Goebbels' Ministry of Propaganda issued threats and applied intense pressure on the Churches to voice support for the war, and the Gestapo banned Church meetings for a few weeks. In the first few months of the war, the German Churches complied. No denunciations of the invasion of Poland, or the Blitzkrieg were issued. On the contrary, Bishop Marahrens gave thanks to God that the Polish conflict was over, and "that He has granted our armies a quick victory." The Ministry for Church Affairs suggested that Church bells across Germany ring for a week in celebration, and that pastors and priests "flocked to volunteer as chaplains" for the German forces. The Catholic bishops asked their followers to support the war effort: "We appeal to the faithful to join in ardent prayer that God's providence may lead this war to blessed success for Fatherland and people." Likewise, the Evangelicals proclaimed: "We unite in this hour with our people in intercession for our Fuhrer and Reich, for all the armed forces, and for all who do their duty for the fatherland."
Even in the face of evidence of Nazi atrocities against Catholic priests and lay people in Poland, which were broadcast on Vatican Radio, German Catholic religious leaders continued to express their support for the Nazi war effort. They urged their Catholic followers to "fulfill their duty to the Fuhrer". Nazi war actions in 1940 and 1941 similarly prompted the Church to voice its support. The bishops declared that the Church "assents to the just war, especially one designed for the safeguarding of the state and the people" and wants a "peace beneficial to Germany and Europe" and calls the faithful to "fulfill their civil and military virtues." But the Nazis strongly disapproved of the sentiments against war expressed by the Pope through his first encyclical, Summi Pontificatus and his 1939 Christmas message, and they were angered by his support for Poland and the "provocative" use of Vatican Radio by Cardinal Hlond of Poland. Distribution of the encyclical was banned.
Conway wrote that anti-church radical Reinhard Heydrich estimated in a report to Hitler dated October 1939, that the majority of Church people were supporting the war effort – although a few "well known agitators among the pastors needed to be dealt with". Heydrich determined that support from church leaders could not be expected because of the nature of their doctrines and their internationalism, so he devised measures to restrict the operation of the Churches under cover of war time exigencies, such as reducing the resources available to Church presses on the basis of rationing, and prohibiting pilgrimages and large church gatherings on the basis of transportation difficulties. Churches were closed for being "too far from bomb shelters". Bells were melted down. Presses were closed.
With the expansion of the war in the east from 1941, there also came an expansion of the regime's attack on the churches. Monasteries and convents were targeted and expropriations of Church properties surged. The Nazi authorities claimed that the properties were needed for wartime necessities such as hospitals, or accommodations for refugees or children, but they instead used them for their own purposes. "Hostility to the state" was another common cause given for the confiscations, and the actions of a single member of a monastery could result in the seizure of the whole. The Jesuits were especially targeted. The Papal Nuncio Cesare Orsenigo and Cardinal Bertram complained constantly to the authorities but they were told to expect more requisitions owing to war-time needs.
Religious aspects of Nazism
Several elements of Nazism were quasi-religious in nature. The cult of Hitler as the Führer, the "huge congregations, banners, sacred flames, processions, a style of popular and radical preaching, prayers-and-responses, memorials and funeral marches" have all been described by historians of esotericism such as Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke as "essential props for the cult of race and nation, the mission of Aryan Germany and her victory over her enemies." These different religious aspects of Nazism have led some scholars to consider Nazism, like communism, to be a kind of political religion.
Hitler's plan, for example, to erect a magnificent new capital in Berlin (Welthauptstadt Germania), has been described as his attempt to build a version of the New Jerusalem. Since Fritz Stern's classical study The Politics of Cultural Despair, most historians have viewed the relationship between Nazism and religion in this way. Some historians see the Nazi movement and Adolf Hitler as fundamentally hostile to Christianity, though not irreligious. In the first chapter of The Nazi Persecution of the Churches, historian John S. Conway elaborates that Christian Churches had lost their appeal in Germany during the era of the Weimar Republic, and Hitler responded to it by offering "what appeared to be a vital secular faith in place of the discredited creeds of Christianity."
Hitler's chief architect, Albert Speer, wrote in his memoirs that Hitler himself had a negative view of the mystical notions which were pushed by Himmler and Alfred Rosenberg. Speer quotes Hitler as having said of Himmler's attempt to mythologize the SS:
Relationship between religion and fascism
Stanley Payne, a scholar of fascism, notes that fundamental to fascism was the foundation of a purely materialistic "civic religion" that would "displace preceding structures of belief and relegate supernatural religion to a secondary role, or relegate it to none at all", and "though there were specific examples of religious or would-be 'Christian fascists,' fascism presupposed a post-Christian, post-religious, secular, and immanent frame of reference." One theory is that religion and fascism could never have a lasting connection because both are a "holistic Weltanschauung" claiming the whole of the person. Along these lines, Yale political scientist Juan Linz and others have noted that secularization had created a void which could be filled by another total ideology, making secular totalitarianism possible, and Roger Griffin has characterized fascism as a type of anti-religious political religion.
However, Robert Paxton finds that "Fascists often cursed ... materialist secularism" and he adds that the circumstances of past fascisms do not mean that future fascisms can not "build upon a religion in place of a nation, or serve as the expression of national identity. Even in Europe, religion-based fascisms were not unknown: the Falange Española, the Belgian Rexism, the Finnish Lapua Movement, and the Romanian Legion of the Archangel Michael are all good examples". Separately, Richard L. Rubenstein maintains that the religious dimensions of the Holocaust and Nazi fascism were decidedly unique.
Messianic aspects of Nazism
A significant amount of literature about the potential religious aspects of Nazism has been published. Wilfried Daim suggests that Hitler and the Nazi leadership planned to replace Christianity in Germany with a new religion in which Hitler would be considered the messiah. In his book on the connection between Lanz von Liebenfels and Hitler, Daim published a reprint of an alleged document of a session on "the unconditional abolishment of all religious commitments (Religionsbekenntnisse) after the final victory (Endsieg) ... with a simultaneous proclamation of Adolf Hitler as the new messiah." This session report came from a private collection.
Thuringian German Christian Prayer for Hitler
Schütze, Herr, mit starker Hand
unser Volk und Vaterland!
Laß' auf unsres Führers Pfade
leuchten Deine Huld und Gnade!
Weck' in unserem Herz aufs neue
deutscher Ahnen Kraft und Treue!
Und so laß' uns stark und rein
Deine deutschen Kinder sein!
This translates roughly as:
Protect, O Lord, with strength of hand,
Our people and our fatherland!
Allow upon our leader's course
To shine your mercy and your grace!
Awaken in our hearts anew
Our German bloodline, loyalty, and strength!
And so allow us, strong and pure,
To be your German youth!
See also
Antisemitism in Christianity
Catholic resistance to Nazi Germany
Christmas in Nazi Germany
Christofascism
Clerical fascism
Criticism of Christianity
Savitri Devi
Esoteric Nazism
Marcionism
Nazi eugenics
Occultism in Nazism
Relations between Nazi Germany and the Arab world
Religion and politics
Notes and references
Bibliography
John S. Conway 1968: The Nazi Persecution of the Churches 1933–45, Weidenfeld and Nicolson
Sven Granzow, Bettina Müller-Sidibé, Andrea Simml 2006: Gottvertrauen und Führerglaube, in: Götz Aly (ed.): Volkes Stimme. Skepsis und Führervertrauen im Nationalsozialismus, Fischer TB , pp. 38–58
Kolnai, Aurel The War Against the West, New York, 1938: Viking Press
.
External links
The German Churches and the Nazi State in the Holocaust Encyclopedia
Review of Richard Steigmann-Gall's Holy Reich - by John S. Conway
Christianity and the Nazi Movement - by Richard Steigmann-Gall
Faith And Thought - Kolnai, Aurel, The War Against the West
Messianism | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion%20in%20Nazi%20Germany |
Phylidonyris is a genus of birds in the honeyeater family that are endemic to Australia.
It contains the following species:
References
Bird genera
Taxa named by René Lesson
Higher-level bird taxa restricted to Australia | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phylidonyris |
Sheikh Hamad bin Mohammed Al Sharqi (; born 22 February 1949) is an Emirati royal and politician who currently serves as the ruler of the Emirate of Fujairah, and served as the first minister of agriculture and fisheries in the United Arab Emirates between 1971 and 1974.
Early life
Hamad Al Sharqi was born in 1949, the son of Sheikh Mohammed bin Hamad Al Sharqi, former ruler of the Emirate of Fujairah, one of the principalities which make up the United Arab Emirates. His mother, Sheikha Fatima bint Rashid Al Nuaimi, was a princess of the neighbouring Emirate of Ajman; she was the sister of the present ruler of Ajman, Sheikh Humaid bin Rashid Al Nuaimi.
Hamad Mohammed Al Sharqi studied Arabic at Eastbourne School of English in East Sussex, United Kingdom, from 1969 to 1970. He attended the Mons Officer Cadet School in 1970. From 1971 to 1974, he served as Minister for Agriculture and Fisheries of the UAE.
In 1974, Sheikh Hamad succeeded his father to the throne of Fujairah after his father's passing. Sheikh Hamad is fluent in both English and Arabic, due to his education in a British school. He frequently acts as representative of the UAE in international seminars and conferences due to his language skills and good standing with the ruling families of Abu Dhabi, Dubai, and Ajman. Sheikh Hamad has represented the president of the United Arab Emirates the most in international seminars and conferences.
The Sharqi family have good relations with the Al Nahyan family, which rules Abu Dhabi, a relationship affirmed through marriage alliances. They also have similar relations with the Dubai ruling family. These are very old relations, rooted in history and forged over hundreds of years, dating back to the time when they were all part of the Al Hinawi tribal alliance, ranged against the Al Ghuwafir alliance. The family's relationship with Ajman is evident in the fact that the Sheikh's mother was a sister of the ruler of Ajman. Sheikh Hamad was bereaved by the death of his mother in 2014.
Sheikh Hamad is married to Sheikha Fatima bint Thani Al Maktoum, a member of the Al-Makhtoum family, which rules Dubai. They have the following children:
Sara bint Hamad bin Mohammed Al Sharqi (1985) Graduate of the American University of Sharjah.
Mohammed bin Hamad bin Mohammed Al Sharqi (born 1986), Crown Prince of Fujairah.
Rashid bin Hamad bin Mohammed Al Sharqi (1987), head of media department of Fujairah. PhD in economics from London .
Shamsa bint Hamad bin Mohammed Al Sharqi (1988), a graduate of Zayed University, Dubai. Head of various charities in Fujairah.
Madiyah bint Hamad bin Mohammed Al Sharqi (1989), fashion designer.
Maktoum bin Hamad bin Mohammed Al Sharqi (1991), a graduate of Royal Military Academy Sandhurst.
Ancestry
See also
Arab International Media Services
References
Living people
1949 births
Graduates of the Mons Officer Cadet School
Sheikhs of the Emirate of Fujairah | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamad%20bin%20Mohammed%20Al%20Sharqi |
The 1970–71 season was the 91st season of competitive football in England.
Honours
Notes = Number in parentheses is the times that club has won that honour. * indicates new record for competition
FA Cup
The 1971 FA Cup Final saw Arsenal beat Liverpool 2–1 to become only the fourth club in history and the second club this century to have won the league championship and FA Cup double.
Stoke City beat Everton 3–2 at Selhurst Park in a third-place playoff, held the day before the final. The biggest FA Cup shock, however, was Fourth Division Colchester United's 3–2 victory over Don Revie's Leeds United at Layer Road in the fifth round.
Barnet equalled the record for the biggest win by a non-league team over a Football League team by beating Newport County 6–1 in the First Round.
League Cup
The final was held at Wembley Stadium, London. Tottenham Hotspur beat Aston Villa to win the 1971 Football League Cup Final and add to their list of trophies won under the management of Bill Nicholson.
Football League
First Division
Arsenal won the league championship at the end of a season which would soon be followed by their FA Cup final tie with Liverpool. Arsenal secured the league title at White Hart Lane, the home of bitter rivals Tottenham. They narrowly overcame Leeds to win the league, with a 12-point gap separating Leeds from third-placed Tottenham. Wolves and Liverpool joined these two teams in the UEFA Cup. Chelsea missed out on the top five on goal average but compensated for this shortcoming by achieving European Cup Winners' Cup glory over Real Madrid.
Burnley and Blackpool (who won this year's Anglo-Italian Cup) were relegated to the Second Division. Burnley returned from 1973–74 to 1975–76 but Blackpool had to wait 39 years to regain their top flight status for the 2010–11 season.
Wilf McGuinness was sacked at the end of 1970 after 18 unsuccessful months as manager of Manchester United. Sir Matt Busby was re-appointed as manager on a temporary basis, but never considered returning to his old job on a permanent basis. Leicester City manager Frank O'Farrell was appointed at the end of the season, ahead of more reputable candidates including Jock Stein and Don Revie.
Second Division
Leicester City and Sheffield United were promoted to the First Division. Blackburn Rovers and Bolton Wanderers, two of the most famous and historic names in English football, were relegated to the Third Division.
Third Division
Preston North End and Fulham finally had something to shout about by getting promoted to the Second Division. Reading, Bury, Doncaster Rovers and Gillingham slid into the Fourth Division.
Fourth Division
Notts County, Bournemouth & Boscombe Athletic, Oldham Athletic and York City were promoted to the Third Division. Newport County set a new Football League record by not winning any of their first 25 matches. The Football League voted for the league's four bottom clubs to maintain their status.
Top goalscorers
First Division
Tony Brown (West Bromwich Albion) – 28 goals
Second Division
John Hickton (Middlesbrough) – 25 goals
Third Division
Gerry Ingram (Preston North End) and Dudley Roberts (Mansfield Town) – 22 goals
Fourth Division
Ted MacDougall (Bournemouth & Boscombe Athletic) – 42 goals
European football
Leeds United won the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup against Juventus in the two leg Final and also took part in the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup Trophy Play-Off which they lost 2–1 to Barcelona.
There was also success in London for Chelsea, who beat Real Madrid in the European Cup Winners Cup final to win their first ever European trophy.
Deaths
5 June 1971 – Kevin Baron, 44, former Liverpool forward who collected a runners-up medal in the 1950 FA Cup Final.
Ford Sporting League
The Ford Sporting League was a short-lived reward scheme sponsored by the Ford Motor Company. Its only season was that of 1970–71. Clubs were awarded a point for every goal scored at home and two points for every goal scored away, but lost 5 points if a player was booked and 10 points if a player was sent off.
Points could be earned over the first 42 league games (it did not apply to cup ties) only, so that the First and Second divisions were on an equal footing with the Third and Fourth.
Oldham Athletic won the competition, winning a pot of £70,000. League rules stipulated the prize money be used on stadium improvements, so the money went to build a stand in the stadium.
The £70,000 prize fund was made up of 8 monthly prizes of £2,500 and then a final prize of £50,000. The points total was cumulative, which resulted in Oldham winning each prize available, as they picked up only four bookings and no red cards over the 42 game period.
Ford's sponsorship of the competition is notable, with the 1970–71 season marking a watershed for sponsorship in English football. In addition to the Ford Sporting League, the season saw the first Watney Cup and first Texaco Cup, although The Football League itself turned down an offer of £600,000 to sponsor the Football League Cup.
Star players
Frank McLintock was credited for his key role in Arsenal's double triumph with the FWA Footballer of the Year award.
Star managers
Bertie Mee firmly re-established Arsenal as one of England's top clubs by guiding them to the double.
Dave Sexton guided Chelsea to Cup Winners' Cup glory over Real Madrid to bring the Londoners their first ever European trophy.
Bill Nicholson added a League Cup triumph to his long list of honours at Tottenham.
Events of the season
15 August 1970 – The Football League season begins.
31 August 1970: The first month of the First Division campaign ends with Leeds United, champions two seasons ago, top of the league, having won their first five matches. Manchester City are second, with Liverpool, Derby County, Nottingham Forest and Chelsea just behind them and level on points. Wolverhampton Wanderers, Burnley and Ipswich Town are level on points at the bottom of the division.
26 September 1970: Arsenal slip to fourth place in the First Division after they are thrashed 5–0 by Stoke City.
30 September 1970: September ends with Leeds United still top of the First Division, two points ahead of their nearest rivals Manchester City. The challenge at the top remains a close one, with Tottenham Hotspur, Arsenal and Chelsea all level on points. Burnley are bottom of the table with no wins from their opening ten games.
31 October 1970: Leeds United remain top of the First Division as October draws to a close, with Arsenal – two points behind them – now their closest challengers, as Manchester City have slipped to fourth place and the third place is now occupied by Tottenham Hotspur. Crystal Palace, in only their second season in the top flight, are sixth in the league and emerging as surprise outsiders for a possible title challenge. Blackpool and Burnley continue to prop up the rest of the First Division.
30 November 1970: November ends with Leeds United still First Division leaders. They now have a four-point lead over Arsenal. Blackpool and Burnley continue their barren run and are still occupying the relegation places.
26 December 1970: A thrilling league game at the Baseball Ground sees Derby County and Manchester United fight out a thrilling 4–4 draw. Derby occupy 17th place in the First Division in their second season since promotion, while United stand 18th just over two years after European Cup glory and just over three years since their last league title win. Blackpool and Burnley's dismal form has yet to improve and they still occupy the two relegation places. At the top end of the table, Leeds United remain top, three points ahead of Arsenal.
29 December 1970: Wilf McGuinness is sacked after 18 months as manager of Manchester United. Legendary former manager and current director Sir Matt Busby is placed in charge of the first team until the end of the season.
2 January 1971: Ten ties fall victim to the cold weather on FA Cup third round day. On the upset front, York City of the Fourth Division topple second-tier Bolton Wanderers while West Bromwich Albion of the top flight fail to beat Division Four club Scunthorpe United at home. In an all-Welsh clash, Swansea City beat Rhyl 6–1, and Jimmy Husband marks his return to the Everton ranks after an injury-enforced absence with a brace in his club's 2–0 win against Blackburn Rovers. In the capital, Crystal Palace and Chelsea draw while Wolverhampton Wanderers' four goals in the second half help them defeat Norwich City 5–1.
31 January 1971: Leeds United now have a five-point lead over Arsenal, who have a game in hand, at the top of the First Division. The challenge from Tottenham Hotspur, Chelsea and Wolverhampton Wanderers is becoming increasingly distant, while Manchester City's title hopes are fading even quicker as they now occupy seventh place. Last season's champions Everton stand 13th, level on points with Manchester United, with Blackpool and Burnley still unable to form a good run and climb out of the relegation zone.
27 February 1971: Tottenham Hotspur beat Aston Villa 2–0 in the Football League Cup final. In the league, Leeds United now have a seven-point lead over Arsenal, although the North Londoners have two games in hand. Manchester City have fallen away to eighth place, while Manchester United are enjoying something of a resurgence under the temporary leadership of Sir Matt Busby and have climbed from 18th place to 11th in the last two months. However, Burnley and Blackpool both remain in the relegation zone as their dismal form has continued.
31 March 1971: With the league season now in its final quarter, Leeds United are six points ahead of Arsenal at the top of the First Division table, but Arsenal have three games in hand. At the bottom end of the table, Burnley and Blackpool's dismal season continues to show no sign of improvement as they still occupy the drop zone.
17 April 1971: Arsenal overhaul Leeds United at the top of the First Division as they beat Newcastle United 1–0 and Leeds are controversially beaten 2–1 at home by struggling West Bromwich Albion. Arsenal and Leeds are now level on points, but the Gunners have a superior goal average and two games in hand.
24 April 1971: Arsenal are held to a 2–2 draw by West Bromwich Albion, but are a point ahead of Leeds United, with the Gunners having three games remaining and the Yorkshire side only two. Burnley have their relegation confirmed when they lose 2–1 at home to Derby County. They join Blackpool in the Second Division next season.
26 April 1971: Leeds United keep their slender title hopes alive by beating Arsenal 1–0 at Elland Road. Arsenal need to win their last two fixtures to be sure of the title.
3 May 1971: A Ray Kennedy goal gives Arsenal a 1–0 away win over North London rivals Tottenham Hotspur at White Hart Lane and confirms them as First Division champions.
8 May 1971: Arsenal become only the second club this century – and the fourth in history – to complete the double of the league title and FA Cup with a 2–1 win over Liverpool in the Wembley final in extra time, with substitute Eddie Kelly (the first to score in an FA Cup final) scoring their first goal and young forward Charlie George scoring a late winner.
10 May 1971: Liverpool sign 20-year-old striker Kevin Keegan from Scunthorpe United for £33,000.
19 May 1971: Chelsea draw 1–1 with Real Madrid of Spain in the European Cup Winners' Cup final in Athens.
21 May 1971: Chelsea win the European Cup Winners' Cup final replay 2–1 with goals from John Dempsey and Peter Osgood.
28 May 1971: Leeds United draw 2–2 with Juventus in Turin as they contest the first leg of the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup final. The original match had been abandoned two days before, due to heavy rain.
3 June 1971: Leeds United lift the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup on away goals after drawing the second leg of the final 1–1 at Elland Road.
8 June 1971: Manchester United appoint Leicester City's Frank O'Farrell as their new manager.
References
English Football, 1970-71 In
English Football, 1970-71 In | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1970%E2%80%9371%20in%20English%20football |
Igor Fyodorovich Maslennikov (; 26 October 1931 – 17 September 2022) was a Soviet and Russian film director.
Biography
Maslennikov was born in Nizhny Novgorod. In 1954 he completed his education in the department of journalism of the Leningrad University and worked as an editor, script writer, and cameraman on Leningrad television. In 1965 he entered the Higher Directors' Courses of Lenfilm (Grigori Kozintsev's workshop), at end of which he became the director of this motion picture studio.
In the cinema, Maslennikov made his debut at the end of the 1960s with a film about a senior pupil: the Personal Life of Kuzyaev Valentin. He directed children's films (Tomorrow and 3 April), movies about sports (Racers), historical costume-dramas (Yaroslavna, the Queen of France). He worked on the joint Soviet-Norwegian picture Under a Stone Sky, which narrates the sad events which occurred in one of the Norwegian towns during the Nazi occupation. He filmed Vera Panova's autobiographical Sentimental novel.
Enormous success came to Maslennikov when he directed a cycle of films about Sherlock Holmes and Doctor Watson. The successful selection of the actors, among whom there were Vasily Livanov, Vitaly Solomin, Boryslav Brondukov, Rina Zelyonaya, Nikita Mikhalkov and the outstanding talent of the director ensured audience's love of the film.
In 1985 Maslennikov presented the melodrama Winter Cherry. The movie became one of the greatest blockbusters of the decade and gained Yelena Safonova a wide reputation. The special feature of this everyday melodrama was that for the first time the spectator saw on the screen a strong but misunderstood woman played by Safonova. The popularity of this film inspired Maslennikov to create sequels in 1990 and 1995 and the same-name TV-series in 1997.
In 1989 Maslennikov filmed the television adventure picture Philipp Traum, based on the unfinished Mark Twain novel The Mysterious Stranger. The cinema version was named Chronicle of Satan Jr.. He made a co-production with French partners, filming the story of Leonid Andreyev (The Dark), where the main roles were played by Oleg Yankovsky and Kseniya Kachalina.
Maslennikov became People's Artist of the RSFSR in 1988. In 2001 he received the State Prize of the Russian Federation.
The year 2000 saw the release of the 10 series of Chto skazal pokoynik (What Has the Deceased Said) (2000) after the popular Polish writer Ioanna Khmelevskaya, and start of the filming of Vospominaniya o Sherloke Kholmse (The Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes), which united all the five famous Sherlock Holmes films with a single plotline. In 2001 he was a member of the jury at the 23rd Moscow International Film Festival.
By his 75th birthday in 2006 Igor Maslennikov finished his book of memoirs under the title The Baker Street in Petrogradskaya.
Filmography
Timur and His Commando, 2004
Letters to Elsa, 2002: the Golden Peacock of the India International Film Festival
Memories of Sherlock Holmes (TV series), 2000
What the Dead Man Said (TV series), 1999
Chekhonte Theater, 1996
Winter Cherry (TV series), 1995
Winter Cherry 3, 1995
Darkness, 1991
Winter Cherry 2, 1990
Philip Traum (TV movie), 1989
Genus Extension, 1988
Adventures of Sherlock Holmes and Dr. Watson: The Twentieth Century Approaches (Приключения Шерлока Холмса и доктора Ватсона. Двадцатый век начинается, 1986)
Winter Cherry, 1985
The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes and Dr. Watson: The Treasures of Agra (Приключения Шерлока Холмса и доктора Ватсона. Сокровища Агры), 1983
The Queen of Spades (Пиковая дама, 1982)
Adventures of Sherlock Holmes and Dr. Watson: The Hound of the Baskervilles (Приключения Шерлока Холмса и доктора Ватсона. Собака Баскервилей, 1981
The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes and Dr. Watson (Приключения Шерлока Холмса и доктора Ватсона), 1980
Sherlock Holmes and Dr. Watson (Шерлок Холмс и доктор Ватсон), 1979
Yaroslavna, Queen of France, 1978
Sentimentalnyy roman, 1976
Under the Stone Sky, 1974
Racers, 1972
Summer in Berezhki, 1970
Tomorrow, on April 3rd... (Завтра, третьего апреля), 1969
Private Life of Kuzyayev Valentin (Личная жизнь Кузяева Валентина), 1967
References
External links
Biography
Biography
1931 births
2022 deaths
Soviet film directors
Academicians of the National Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences of Russia
Academic staff of the Gerasimov Institute of Cinematography
Russian film directors
People from Nizhny Novgorod
Recipients of the Order "For Merit to the Fatherland", 4th class
Recipients of the Order of Honour (Russia)
People's Artists of Russia
People's Artists of the RSFSR | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Igor%20Maslennikov |
Jacinta Patrice Stapleton (born 6 June 1979) is an Australian actress. Known for her role as Amy Greenwood in the Australian television soap opera Neighbours from 1997–2000, 2005 and 2020–2022). Her most notable role was playing an undercover detective in the primetime network television series Stingers. Her performance garnered an Australian Film Institute nomination for Best Supporting Actress in a Television Drama. She is the sister of Blindspot actor Sullivan Stapleton.
Career
Joining an acting agency at the age of six years old, along with her brother Sullivan Stapleton, she appeared in TV commercials, film and TV series. Jacinta studied drama, theatre and dance at Sandringham Secondary College before appearing in her first long running television series as Amy Greenwood in Neighbours from 1997 to 2000, making a cameo return in 2005 during the 20th anniversary of the series. In November 2020 it was announced that Stapleton would be reprising the role of Amy for a guest stint.
From 2002 to 2004 she played Christina Dichiera in the TV drama Stingers, for which she was nominated for an Australian Film Institute award for Best Supporting Actress in a Television Drama.
She also appeared in hit dramas MDA, Blue Heelers, All Saints, Dirt Game, Out of the Blue and Packed to the Rafters.
In October 1999 she posed nude for Black+White magazine.
She played Reen Nalli in the INXS: Never Tear Us Apart biopic, Mercedes Corby in the story of Schapelle and Madonna in the Molly Meldrum biopic Molly. She was won an award for her role as Bambi Steele in the film Musclecar.
She studied under the tutelage of acting coach Ivana Chubbuck.
Film
Television
References
External links
Jacinta Stapleton - Zimbio
Jacinta Stapleton's own site
Jacinta Stapleton's voice agent
1979 births
Living people
Actresses from Melbourne
Australian soap opera actresses
Australian child actresses
21st-century Australian actresses
20th-century Australian actresses | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacinta%20Stapleton |
Johann Friedrich Anton Fleischmann (19 July 1766 – 30 November 1798) was a German composer.
Life and career
Born at Marktheidenfeld, Fleischmann studied at Mannheim with Ignaz Holzbauer and Georg Joseph Vogler before going to the University of Würzburg. He then became private secretary and tutor to the Regierungs-präsident at Regensburg in 1786, before going on to be cabinet secretary to Georg I, Duke of Saxe-Meiningen. In 1792, he married Johanna Christiane Louise von Schulthes (1771–1856, daughter of Johann Adolf von Schultes), in Themar, Thüringen. They had several children.
He composed orchestral and chamber works, songs and singspiele. His main work was the singspiel Die Geisterinsel after Shakespeare's The Tempest, that premiered in 1798 in Weimar.
According to Goretzki/Krickenberg (see sources below), the song "Schlafe mein Prinzchen Schlaf ein", often attributed to Mozart (KV 350) or Bernhard Flies, was composed by Fleischmann.
He died in Meiningen.
Successors
His son W. Th. Fleischmann (1794–1886), had a son F. C. W. Alexander J. Fleischmann (1826–1891). Alexander J. Fleischmann translated the book Looking Backward by Edward Bellamy into German. („Ein Rückblick aus dem Jahre 2000 auf das Jahr 1887“, Wiegand, Leipzig 1890). During one year, seven editions were printed.
B. A. Johanna Müller (artist name: Müller-Koburg, 1860–1947), daughter of Alexander Fleischmann, was a writer, painter and translator; she painted landscapes (Baltic Sea, Berlin, Coburg and the artist colony Ahrenshoop).
Bibliography
Rönnau, Klaus: "Fleischmann, Friedrich", in The New Grove Dictionary of Opera, ed. Stanley Sadie (London, 1992),
E. Goretzki and D. Krickenberg: "Das Wiegenlied 'von Mozart'", in Mitteilungen der Internationalen Stiftung Mozarteum (Salzburg, July 1988), p. 114ff.
References
External links
Marktheidenfeld honors its composers (German)
1766 births
1798 deaths
18th-century classical composers
18th-century German composers
18th-century German male musicians
German classical composers
German male classical composers
People from Main-Spessart | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich%20Fleischmann |
Edealina is a municipality in central-south Goiás state, Brazil.
Location
Edealina has municipal boundaries with Edéia, Pontalina, Indiara, and Cezarina The important Rio dos Bois forms part of the municipal boundary.
Highway communications with Goiânia are made by BR-060 / Guapó / Cezarina / Indiara / GO-320 / Edéia / GO-215. Sepin
Political Data
Eligible voters: 3,162 (12/2007)
Mayor (prefeito): Vantuir Alves de Oliveira (2005)
Vice-mayor (vice-prefeito):
Councilmembers (vereadores): 09
Demographic Data
Population density: 6.16 inhabitants/km2 (2007)
Population growth rate 2000/2007: -0.32.%
Population in 1991: 4,039
Urban population: 2,557 (2007)
Rural population: 1,161 (2007)
Economy
The economy is based on soybeans, corn, rice, beans, tomatoes and on cattle raising. In some areas pivot sprinklers are being used. In the industrial sector there is a dairy, and several brickworks.
Economic Data
Industrial units: 05 ( 06/2007)
Retail units: 35 (08/2007)
Banking institutions: none (2007)
Dairies: Coop. M. dos Prod. de Leite de Morrinhos Ltda. (22/05/2006)
Cattle: 56,350 (2006)
Modest production of cotton—rice (700 hectares)
Corn: 3,900 hectares (2006)
Soybeans: 13,500 hectares planted
Motor vehicles: 374 automobiles in 2007
Agricultural Data for 2006
Number of farms: 410
Total area: 56,584
Planted area: 11,600
Area of natural pasture: 33,025
Workers in agriculture: 1,300
Education and Health
Literacy rate: 83.5% (2000)
Infant mortality rate: 12.88 in 1,000 live births (2000)
Schools: 03 with 1,055 students in 2006
Hospitals: 0
Public health clinics (SUS): 04
Ranking on the Municipal Human Development Index
MHDI: 0.768
State ranking: 43 (out of 242 municipalities in 2000)
National ranking: 1,393 (out of 5,507 municipalities in 2000)
For the complete list see Frigoletto.com
History
Edealina was first created as a district in 1976 in the municipality of Edéia. In 1988 it was dismembered from Edéia and made a municipality. The origin of the name is unknown.
See also
List of municipalities in Goiás
Microregions of Goiás
References
Frigoletto
Municipalities in Goiás | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edealina |
"Coma White" is a song by American rock band Marilyn Manson and the last track from the album Mechanical Animals. It is a hard rock ballad written by Manson, Twiggy Ramirez, Madonna Wayne Gacy, Zim Zum and produced by Manson and Michael Beinhorn. It was inspired by Manson's relationship with Rose McGowan and the numbness that his drug use caused him to feel. The track features a snare drum, cymbals, guitar, piano and keyboard bass in its instrumentation. Critics offered varied interpretations of its meaning, ranging from a song about a drug-addicted woman to a critique of celebrity culture. The song garnered a mostly positive response from music critics, with some critics deeming it one of the greatest songs of the band's career.
The song's music video was directed by Samuel Bayer. It recreates the assassination of John F. Kennedy with Manson as President Kennedy, McGowan as Jacqueline Kennedy, and the other members of the band as Secret Service agents; it also features Manson on a cross. Manson explained that it was intended as a tribute to men like Kennedy and Jesus who "died at the hands of mankind's unquenchable thirst for violence." It garnered significant controversy, and its premiere on MTV was delayed due to both the Columbine High School massacre and the death of John F. Kennedy Jr. Critical response to the clip was mixed; some critics found it touching while others felt it was unsuited to the song.
Background
After the release of Antichrist Superstar (1996), an album which sparked controversy among Christian fundamentalists, Marilyn Manson didn't want to resume playing the role of a bogeyman. He feared that this would cause him to be "consigned to the one-note rock theatricality" of Kiss and Alice Cooper. He desired to convince casual rock and pop fans who had previously dismissed him that he was "more than a cartoon". For his next album, Mechanical Animals (1998), he took inspiration from the glam rock music that David Bowie made in the 1970s, and adopted a wardrobe and hairstyle similar to Bowie's.
Discussing Mechanical Animals with Lorraine Ali, Manson said: "There is a bit of a love story that exists on this record. The name I gave to the thing I was in love with was Coma White. It starts as the name of a girl I'm in love with, then ends up to really be a drug I've been taking. So I'm not really sure what I'm in love with." In 1999, Manson said that the song "Coma White" was inspired by his relationship with Rose McGowan, elaborating: "A lot of the pain she's gone through, I started to feel, and the record kind of documents me coming to terms with emotions and caring about somebody for the first time. And I guess I still express the fear of doing that as well."
Manson was asked about the use of the word "white" in the song's title in a 2017 interview with Consequence of Sound. He replied: "A lot of people thought that it was a race thing, and it was more of the idea that white is the composition of all colors." Manson has also said that "The color white comes up a lot. It kind of represents to me the numbness that I had. The numbness is manifested in drugs...in all the people who want to suck the life out of you when you become a rock star."
Composition and lyrical interpretation
"Coma White" is a hard rock ballad that features elements of heavy metal music. It was written by Madonna Wayne Gacy, Marilyn Manson, Twiggy Ramirez and Zim Zum, and produced by Manson and Michael Beinhorn. Its instrumentation features a snare drum, cymbals, guitar, piano, mellotron and keyboard bass. It serves as the final song on Mechanical Animals. Chad Childers of Noisecreep described the song as one of the album's "more stripped back efforts". Manson does not scream in "Coma White" and other songs from Mechanical Animals as he did in some of his earlier work. Rather, according to Entertainment Weeklys David Browne, he apes the vocal stylings of Marc Bolan and David Bowie.
Ramirez plays the song's guitar solos. Stereogums Joseph Schafer found the lead guitar riff of "Coma White" "cruel, frigid, and glitchy" and similar to Adrian Belew's work for Trent Reznor. Schafer felt that the drums in the song sound like the collaborations between Robert John "Mutt" Lange and Def Leppard on the album Hysteria (1987). He also wrote that the tracks' "snare and cymbals seem a bit damp, ringing and warbling just intermittently enough to suggest the laws of audio physics fraying at the edges." The song has the chorus "A pill to make you numb/ A pill to make you dumb/ A pill to make you anybody else/ But all the drugs in this world/ won't save her from herself." Manson puts pauses before the words "numb" and "dumb" in the chorus which are reminiscent of Pinter pauses. The track has a "sibling" song from Holy Wood (In the Shadow of the Valley of Death) (2000) entitled "Coma Black", which is also a ballad.
Critics offered different interpretations of the song's meaning. The Globe and Mail Robert Everett-Green called it a "song about a druggy doomed woman". According to Ann Powers of Rolling Stone, the song, like several tracks on Mechanical Animals, focuses on a person's final moments before death and suggests themes of betrayal. Bob Waliszewski of PluggedIn deemed "Coma White" anti-drug and contrasted it with other songs on the album like "I Don't Like the Drugs (But the Drugs Like Me)" and "The Dope Show" which he felt glamorized drug use. Schafer wrote that "Coma White" displays "all of Manson's favorite themes — the seductive evil of prescription medication, lost love, [and] the paralyzing effect of celebrity culture". Craig Hlavaty wrote in the Houston Press that the song is about the assassination of John F. Kennedy.
Critical reception
Joseph Schafer of Stereogum ranked "Coma White" the best Marilyn Manson song, writing "Manson always walks the line between entertainer and artist; the best musicians and pop stars are both, but it's a difficult balance to strike, and Manson often fell more on the entertainer side. The difference between the two, however, is a matter of fine tuning, and on 'Coma White,' he nailed it." Loudwire Graham Hartman deemed "Coma White" the second-best Marilyn Manson song, behind only "The Beautiful People" (1996). He said that "There are few songs that dedicated Mansonites hold closer to their warm bodies than 'Coma White.'" Eddie Trunk wrote in his book Eddie Trunk's Essential Hard Rock and Heavy Metal, Volume 2 that "Coma White" and another Mechanical Animals track, "Rock Is Dead", are some of his favorite songs in the band's catalog.
Alec Chillingworth of Metal Hammer opined that "'The Last Day On Earth' and 'Coma White' as a couplet could arguably be the band's most emotional output to date." Chillingworth added that "Coma White" displays a "calibre of musicianship" comparable to David Bowie's. Merritt Martin of the Dallas Observer praised the song and found it superior to the band's album The Golden Age of Grotesque (2003). Rolling Stone Ann Powers wrote that "Coma White" "suggest[s] a banishment from the garden, a betrayal so fundamental that it can barely be remembered. The chemical abuse, the coldly functional sex and the bitter cynicism Manson describes elsewhere are all motivated by this loss." Writing for Loudwire, Chad Childers deemed "Coma White" a "standout track" and a "favorite". Neil Z. Yeung of AllMusic called the track a "peak-era favorite".
diffuser.fm's Tim Karan said that the song is "easily among the most beautiful entries in Manson's catalog" while Clint Hale of the Houston Press called it "arguably the best track Manson ever recorded". Hale elaborated: "'Coma White' is not an exception, but rather, the rule. Manson may not record a ton of balladry, but what little balladry he does record ranks among his finest musical output." Brad Miska wrote for Bloody Disgusting that "There's nothing in [Marilyn Manson's] entire collective career that compares to songs such as 'Great Big White World', 'The Last Day on Earth' and 'Coma White', all of which are available as alternate acoustic takes that are even more impressive than what's on the album." Joshua Klein of The A.V. Club wrote in a review of Mechanical Animals that "What [the album] lacks, sadly, is any sense of wit, as songs like 'Great Big White World,' 'The Dope Show,' and 'Coma White' doggedly hammer at safe taboos like drugs, sex, drugs, stardom, drugs, and death. And drugs." Entertainment Weeklys David Browne panned the title of the song for attempting to be shocking.
Music video
The music video for "Coma White" was directed by Samuel Bayer and shot on February 20 and 21, 1999, in Los Angeles. It was inspired by a film script that Manson had written entitled Holywood. Manson said that the unproduced script featured "the idea that there were two previous Christs. There was Jesus and there was JFK, and the whole idea on Holy Wood was that they're waiting for the third and final savior, and that's what the president says he's going to be. President White." Via MarilynManson.com, Manson told his fans that the video was "the most beautiful and disturbing video we have ever done."
The video recreates the assassination of President John F. Kennedy in a nighttime setting and features Manson as the president, Rose McGowan as First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy, and the other members of the band as Secret Service agents in the convertible with the Kennedys. Manson wears a suit while McGowan wears a pillbox hat and a pink Chanel-style suit. Twiggy Ramirez wears striped tights in the video. Manson appears to be struck in the neck with a bullet. Afterward, McGowan cradles his head and weeps. The video recreates Jacqueline Kennedy scrambling on the trunk of a car, a moment from the Zapruder film. At one point, Manson climbs onto a cross and is paraded through the streets. No blood is shown in the recreation of the assassination; a representative for Bayer said that "We didn't feel like it was appropriate to actually act out the assassination." The video also features an appearance by actor Matthew McGrory, a man on stilts, transvestites wearing G-strings, heavily tattooed individuals, and women wearing revealing clothing.
Controversy
The "Coma White" music video garnered considerable controversy. The MTV premiere of the video was delayed in the spring of 1999 due to the Columbine High School massacre, which the band was falsely accused of inspiring. The premiere was delayed again in the summer of that year due to the death of John F. Kennedy Jr. Manson issued a statement about the video through his publicist which MTV's Rob Mancini said was an "attempt to nip any potential controversy in the bud." In the statement, Manson said that the clip "enact[s] the 'Journey of Death.' [It] was always intended to make people think of how they view and sometimes participate in these events. Little did I know that the tragedy at Columbine and the accidental death of JFK Jr. would follow. But it was telling to see the media shamelessly gorge itself on these events, which ultimately made my observations in the video even truer than I had originally imagined." He added that the video was "in no way mockery" and "a tribute to men like Jesus Christ and JFK who have died at the hands of mankind's unquenchable thirst for violence."
MTV's senior vice president of programming and talent Tom Calderone said that he was comfortable airing the video alongside Manson's statement, and the video premiered on the network on September 13, 1999, after Total Request Live Carson Daly read the statement on air. It became one of the network's most requested videos. NBC News' Ree Hines and Anna Chan compared the controversy engendered by the clip to the controversy surrounding "Reverence" (1992) by The Jesus and Mary Chain, which featured the lyrics "I wanna die just like JFK / I wanna die on a sunny day / I wanna die just like JFK/ I wanna die in the USA"; "Reverence" became a top-ten hit in Britain despite being banned by a British television show. According to I Love Rock 'n' Roll (Except When I Hate It): Extremely Important Stuff About the Songs and Bands You Love, Hate, Love to Hate, and Hate to Love by Brian Boone, by the time that the "Coma White" video was shown on MTV, "Mechanical Animals was no longer a top album that needed promotion."
Critical reception and analysis
Matthew Jacobs of HuffPost, in an article analyzing various cultural portrayals of Kennedy, deemed the video "tame" and "a touching tribute to a fallen legend". Jonathan Barkan of Bloody Disgusting called the clip "a wonderful video that actually follows through with telling a full story. The addition of Rose McGowan (Scream) and Matthew McGrory (House of 1000 Corpses) is a very cool treat for horror fans". The Dallas Observer Laura Mann ranked the "Coma White" clip fifth on her list of "The Ten Best Videos Banned By MTV". She praised Twiggy Ramirez's fashion in the video. Alona Wartofsky of The Washington Post said that the video was released "at a time when music videos seem to be looking beyond thrusting pelvises and jiggling booties for ways to be provocative," noting the violence in the video for Limp Bizkit's "Re-Arranged" (1999), which was released around the same time as the clip for "Coma White".
TeamRock called the video "arty" and said that it stood alongside Nine Inch Nails's video for "Happiness in Slavery" (1992) as one of the most controversial videos in the history of heavy metal music. TeamRock also said that the video was "essentially the twilight of [Manson's] career as America's favourite boogeyman; the world was getting scary enough without him at that point." Brian Boone wrote in his book I Love Rock 'n' Roll (Except When I Hate It): Extremely Important Stuff About the Songs and Bands You Love, Hate, Love to Hate, and Hate to Love that the video is "tasteless". Robert Everett-Green of The Globe and Mail said "Lord knows why Manson yoked his song about a druggy doomed woman to a video that resets the assassination". Everett-Green noted that the Kennedy assassination had previously been turned into a "prop" in Ministry's video for "Reload" (1996) and would be similarly reframed in the videos for Erykah Badu's "Window Seat" (2010) and Lana Del Rey's "National Anthem" (2012).
Track listings
US promotional CD single
"Coma White" – 4:21
EU promotional CD single
"Coma White" – 5:38
"Coma White" – 5:33
German promotional CD single
"Coma White" – 5:38
"Astonishing Panorama of the Endtimes" – 3:58
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Mechanical Animals.
Marilyn Manson – lyrics, vocals, piano
Twiggy Ramirez – lead and rhythm guitars and bass
Madonna Wayne Gacy – keyboards and mellotron
Zim Zum – acoustic and lead guitar
See also
Assassination of John F. Kennedy in popular culture
List of songs recorded by Marilyn Manson
References
External links
comawhite.com - THE COMA INDEX Promotional site, now defunct.
1999 singles
1990s ballads
American hard rock songs
Works about the assassination of John F. Kennedy
Marilyn Manson (band) songs
Songs about drugs
Hard rock ballads
Music videos directed by Samuel Bayer
1998 songs
Songs written by Jeordie White
Songs written by Marilyn Manson
Interscope Records singles
Song recordings produced by Michael Beinhorn
Songs written by Madonna Wayne Gacy
Music video controversies
Cultural depictions of John F. Kennedy
Cultural depictions of Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis
Songs about fame | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coma%20White |
Milford () is a small village in County Cork, Ireland. It is in the townland of Kilbolane on regional road R515, close to, but on the Cork side of, the border with County Limerick. Milford is within the Cork North-West Dáil constituency.
Milford has two pubs, a local church, an ancient castle, a primary school, a creamery, a Garda station, and a tennis court. It has scored very highly in the National Tidy Towns competition in recent years. It is located half a kilometre from Kilbolane Castle, historically the local seat of power. The local church is the Church of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary.
See also
List of towns and villages in Ireland
References
Towns and villages in County Cork | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milford%2C%20County%20Cork |
Sean M. Berkowitz (born 1967) is a former director of the Department of Justice's Enron Task Force. He prosecuted former employees of Enron who were accused of white collar crimes, principally accounting fraud. Most significantly, he was the lead prosecutor in the joint trial of Kenneth Lay and Jeffrey Skilling. In 2006, shortly after securing guilty verdicts against both, Berkowitz left the Department of Justice to become a partner at Latham & Watkins LLP in Chicago.
Berkowitz was assigned to the Task Force in December 2003 from the U.S. Attorney's Office for the Northern District of Illinois, where he led many high-profile prosecutions of white collar crime and corporate fraud. Prior to his five years at the United States Department of Justice, Berkowitz worked for the law firm Katten Muchin Zavis, now Katten Muchin Rosenman LLP, in Chicago, Illinois.
Lay and Skilling trial
Berkowitz cross-examined Jeffrey K. Skilling (Enron President and COO), sending the former CEO into a temper tantrum on the stand. He was also the ending voice for the prosecution as he concluded the government’s closing arguments to the jury by urging them to send a message to Lay and Skilling that "you can’t buy justice, you have to earn it."
In his closing arguments, Berkowitz used a large black and white cardboard display with the word "truth" emblazoned on one side and "lies" on other side. "You get to decide whether they told truth or lies, black and white," he told the jury. "Don't let the defendants, with their high-paid experts and their lawyers, buy their way out of this," he said. "I'm asking you to send them a message that it's not all right. You can't buy justice; you have to earn it."
On May 25, 2006, after the jury found both Skilling and Lay guilty, Berkowitz scolded the Enron executives, saying that "you can't lie to shareholders, you can't put yourselves in front of your employees' interests. No matter how rich and powerful you are, you have to play by the rules." Berkowitz noted the FBI spent five years investigating the Enron case and that his team spent many long nights working on the trial, warning other executives who think about committing fraud that "no matter how complicated or sophisticated a case may be, people like that stand ready to investigate."
Berkowitz also successfully defended Michael Sussman in the only prosecution brought by John Durham to have gone to trial. Sussman was accused of lying to the FBI that he represented the Hillary Clinton for President Campaign. The jury acquitted him in its second day of deliberation. Sussman had reported about potential connections between the Trump Organization and Russia.
Education
Berkowitz received his B.A. degree summa cum laude from Tulane University (with a Dean's Honor Scholarship) in 1989 and received his J.D. degree cum laude from Harvard Law School in 1992.
He was an avid and skilled high school debater at Glenbrook North High School (class of 1985). He won the Glenbrook North Distinguished Alumnus Award on May 25, 2007.
Personal
Berkowitz married Bethany McLean, a Vanity Fair magazine editor and one of the authors of the book Enron: The Smartest Guys in the Room, in May 2008.
References
External links
Washington Post article on the Task Force
The Enron homepage
American prosecutors
Enron scandal
Tulane University alumni
Harvard Law School alumni
Living people
1967 births
People associated with Latham & Watkins
Glenbrook North High School alumni | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sean%20M.%20Berkowitz |
Santa Prisca is a titular church of Rome, on the Aventine Hill, for Cardinal-priests. It is recorded as the Titulus Priscae in the acts of the 499 synod.
Church
It is devoted to Saint Prisca, a 1st-century martyr, whose relics are contained in the altar in the crypt. It was built in the 4th or 5th century over a temple of Mithras. Damaged in the Norman Sack of Rome, the church was restored several times. The current aspect is due to the 1660 restoration, which included a new facade by Carlo Lombardi. In the interior, the columns are the only visible remains of the ancient church. Also a baptismal font allegedly used by Saint Peter is conserved. The frescoes in the crypt, where an altar contains the relics of Saint Prisca, are by Antonio Tempesta. Anastasio Fontebuoni frescoed the walls of the nave with Saints and angels with the instruments of passion. In the sacristy hangs a painting of the Immaculate conception with angels by Giovanni Odazzi, and on the main altar a Baptism of Santa Prisca by Domenico Passignano.
Mithraeum
The Discovery of the Mithraeum
The Mithraeum under Santa Prisca was first discovered in 1934, having been excavated by Augustinian Catholic Fathers who had been in charge of the monastery. Excavations by the Dutch began in 1952–59. The original building was erected in ca. 95 CE and was originally a plot of land purchased by Trajan, who at the time was not yet emperor of Rome. This had also served as Trajan's town house until his death in 117 A.D. One hundred years later, a member of the imperial family took over the building and built a Mithraeum in one part of the basement, while a Christian meeting place was established in the other section.
Upon beginning the excavations in 1952, the Dutch cleared away mounds of earth which were thought to have been a sort of trench. During this period, many artifacts were discovered by the Dutch who made a careful record. Some of these discoveries included frescoes, mosaics, remains of various vases, stucco, as well as fragments of mosaic and brick. The original Mithrauem had a central aisle, a niche, and side benches. Fine frescoes were found on the walls of the ancient Mithraeum as well as a stucco sculpture of Mithras the Bull Slayer, one of the main images of the Mithras cult. During the Dutch excavations in the 1950s, pieces of mosaic were found within the newly discovered rooms underneath Santa Prisca. Renovations in 220 yielded a larger central cult room and the addition of new ones while the frescoes were covered with new, more elaborate paintings. The frescoes often included writing underneath or around the work, which would describe what that fresco showed. This is something very unique to the Mithraic temple found at Santa Prisca. These paintings were also important to the development of understanding the Mithraic cult. Along with the typical bull slaying scene so commonly depicted amongst the cult, other paintings depicted different cult rituals. For example, one painting shows a procession of figures wearing masks and different colored tunics holding what has been presumed to be a piece of liturgical equipment. These paintings have been mentioned in the long-standing debate about the admittance of women into the cult. Around 400, the Christians took over the Mithraeum, destroyed it and built Santa Prisca on top of it.
Paintings and Iconography in the Mithraeum of Santa Prisca
The excavations of the Mithraeum by the Dutch in the mid 20th century proved to have found leftover fragments of frescoes. The Mithraeum had been embellished with paintings, and these frescoes, in particular, contain imagery and iconography which depict particular beliefs in the Mithraic cult as well as elements of initiation. One of the frescoes on the left wall within the Mithraeum of the Roman Church includes a depiction of a cult processional towards figures Mithra and Sol, with those participating in the cult holding various objects as they make their way to their deities. Both the left and right walls in the Mithraeum of Santa Prisca have remnants of paintings which depict different scenes and include several figures; however, due to destruction, some of the images are difficult to make out. The left wall of the temple shows several walking male figures, some youthful and full of energy. They are seen in brown and yellow color tunic holding objects like pans, terracotta and glass vessels, even animals like chickens. Another figure in the painting is seen standing, wearing a red tunic and is depicted with a raven face mask and proffering an oblong dish. Other depictions within the frescoes of the Mithraeum include soldiers holding their military bags. Within the Mithraic cult, there is an initiation of seven grades, which are also referred to as the seven planetary grades of salvation. It is thought that this fresco in Santa Prisca is a depiction of the seven grades of initiation, though it is hard to be certain with only the fragmentary evidence that remains. The right wall fresco in the Mithraeum features the seven grades arranged in the exact order (followed by their symbols):
Corax, Mercury: raven and magic staff.
Nymphus, Venus: bridal veil.
Miles, Mars: lance, helmet and bag.
Leo, Jupiter: shovel, sistrem (sacred rattle) and Jupiters thunderbolts.
Perses, Luna: crescent moon, scythe and falx.
Heliodromus, Sol: whip, torch and halo.
Pater, Saturn: symbols of the father, depicted by the clothes of Mithra, a ring and staff.
The Dutch excavations of M. J. Vermaseren and C. C. Essen in the mid 20th century also revealed there to be paintings in the temples underneath the church. The whole sanctuary was found to have been originally painted by the members of the cult. The Mithraeum's entrance had been stuccoed and painted red, also featuring a painted blue ceiling with stars. Both the temples within the Mithraeum have paintings of an initiate processional and Sol seen with pierced rays for illumination as well as painted remnants which are believed to be fruit baskets and flowers.
The findings of Vermaseren and Essen also found there to be similarities to another Mithreaum in Ostia Antica, a harbor city 19 miles (30 kilometers) from Rome. The architectural analysis suggests that the Mithraeum under the Santa Prisca Church in Rome had undergone construction and was enlarged around the year 220 A.D. Similarities between the two Mithraic temples also suggest that those in the cult who had worked on the Mithraeum in Ostia had helped in the construction and painting of the Mithraeum in Santa Prisca.
Cardinal-protectors
The Cardinal Priest of the Titulus S. Priscae is Justin Francis Rigali, Cardinal Archbishop Emeritus of Philadelphia (US).
Previous Cardinal-Priests include:
Jacques Fournier, O. Cist. (18 Dec 1327 - 20 Dec 1334) elected Pope Benedict XII
Zbigniew z Oleśnicy (8 Jan 1440 - 1 Apr 1455)
Juan de Mella (18 Dec 1456 - 12 Oct 1467)
Juan de Castro (24 Feb 1496 - 29 Sep 1506)
Niccolò Fieschi (5 Oct 1506 - 15 Jun 1524)
Andrea della Valle (27 Mar 1525 - 3 Aug 1534)
Gianvincenzo Carafa (23 Jul 1537 - 28 Nov 1537)
Rodolfo Pio (28 Nov 1537 - 24 Sep 1543)
Bartolomeo Guidiccioni (24 Sep 1543 - 4 Nov 1549)
Federico Cesi (28 Feb 1550 - 20 Sep 1557)
Giovanni Angelo de’ Medici (20 Sep 1557 - 25 Dec 1559) elected Pope Pius IV
Jean de Bertrand (16 Jan 1560 - 13 Mar 1560)
Jean Suau (26 Apr 1560 - 29 Apr 1566)
Bernardo Salviati (15 May 1566 - 6 May 1568)
Antoine Perrenot de Granvella (14 May 1568 - 10 Feb 1570)
Stanislaw Hosius (Hozjusz) (10 Feb 1570 - 9 Jun 1570)
Girolamo di Corregio (9 Jun 1570 - 3 Jul 1570)
Giovanni Francesco Gàmbara (3 Jul 1570 - 17 Oct 1572)
Alfonso Gesualdo di Conza (Gonza) (17 Oct 1572 - 9 Jul 1578)
Flavio Orsini (9 Jul 1578 - 16 May 1581)
Pedro de Deza (9 Jan 1584 - 20 Apr 1587)
Girolamo Simoncelli (15 Jan 1588 - 30 Mar 1598)
Benedetto Giustiniani (17 Mar 1599 - 17 Aug 1611)
Bonifazio Bevilacqua Aldobrandini (31 Aug 1611 - 7 Jan 1613)
Carlo Conti (7 Jan 1613 - 3 Dec 1615)
Tiberio Muti (11 Jan 1616 - 14 Apr 1636)
Francesco Adriano Ceva (31 Aug 1643 - 12 Oct 1655)
Giulio Gabrielli (6 Mar 1656 - 18 Jul 1667)
Carlo Pio di Savoia (14 Nov 1667 - 28 Jan 1675)
Alessandro Crescenzi, C.R.S. (15 Jul 1675 - 8 May 1688)
Marcello Durazzo (14 Nov 1689 - 21 Feb 1701)
Giuseppe Archinto (14 Mar 1701 - 9 Apr 1712)
Francesco Maria Casini, O.F.M. Cap. (11 Jul 1712 - 14 Feb 1719)
Giovanni Battista Salerni, S.J. (16 Sep 1720 - 20 Feb 1726)
Luis Antonio Belluga y Moncada, C.O. (20 Feb 1726 - 16 Dec 1737)
Pierluigi Carafa (Jr.) (16 Dec 1737 - 16 Sep 1740)
Silvio Valenti Gonzaga (16 Sep 1740 - 15 May 1747)
Mario Mellini (15 May 1747 - 1 Apr 1748)
Ludovico Merlini (21 Jul 1760 - 12 Apr 1762)
Francesco Mantica (23 Feb 1801 - 13 Apr 1802)
Francesco Maria Pandolfi Alberici (2 Jul 1832 - 3 Jun 1835)
Giuseppe Alberghini (6 Apr 1835 - 30 Sep 1847)
Miguel García Cuesta (21 May 1862 - 14 Apr 1873)
Tommaso Maria Martinelli, O.E.S.A. (17 Sep 1875 - 24 Mar 1884)
Michelangelo Celesia, O.S.B. (13 Nov 1884 - 25 Nov 1887)
Luigi Sepiacci, O.E.S.A. (17 Dec 1891 - 26 Apr 1893)
Domenico Ferrata (3 Dec 1896 - 10 Oct 1914)
Vittorio Ranuzzi de' Bianchi (7 Dec 1916 - 16 Feb 1927)
Charles-Henri-Joseph Binet (22 Dec 1927 - 15 Jul 1936)
Adeodato Giovanni Piazza, O.C.D. (13 Dec 1937 - 14 Mar 1949)
Angelo Giuseppe Roncalli (12 Jan 1953 - 28 Oct 1958) elected Pope John XXIII
Giovanni Urbani (15 Dec 1958 - 19 Mar 1962)
José da Costa Nunes (19 Mar 1962 - 29 Nov 1976)
Giovanni Benelli (27 Jun 1977 - 26 Oct 1982)
Alfonso López Trujillo (2 Feb 1983 - 17 Nov 2001)
Footnotes
References
David, Jonathan (2000). "The Exclusion of Women in the Mithraic Mysteries: Ancient or Modern?". Numen 47 (2): 121–141. doi:10.1163/156852700511469
External links
Prisca
Mithraea
5th-century churches
Prisca | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa%20Prisca%2C%20Rome |
Knochenfabrik (lit. Bone Factory) is a German punk band that existed between 1994 and 1998 and reunited in 2008.
Knochenfabrik formed in its earliest lineup in Cologne, Germany in early 1994 with Claus Lüer (guitar, vocals), Achim Lauber (drums) and Gagi Ilic (bass, vocals).
Later in 1996 Gagi left the band and was replaced by Hasan Onay. During the period between 1996 and the ultimate disbanding in 1998, the released two LPs, Ameisenstaat and Cooler Parkplatz and two EPs Elvis & Kaufehlermessung. In 2001 a German punk label released a compilation with the best-known Knochenfabrik songs and some live songs, the compilation was titled Deutschmark muss sterben.
In 2008, the band reunited after 10 years, 3 years later, the band's first album since Cooler Parkplatz was released, it was titled Grüne Haare 2.0 (lit. Green Hair 2.0).
Related projects: Casanovas Schwule Seite (Claus, Hasan), Supernichts (Achim), Chefdenker (Claus)
Albums and EPs
Tag Der Deutschen Einheit (Tape, 1995; Day of German Unity)
Elvis (EP, 1996)
Die Anthropologin Adrienne Zihlman (Tape, 1996; The anthropologist Adrienne Zihlman)
Ameisenstaat (CD/LP 1997; Ant state)
Kaufehlermessung (Tape 1997; Chewing error measurement)
Split mit Supernichts (EP 1998)
Cooler Parkplatz (CD/LP 1998; Cool parking lot)
Deutschmark muss sterben (2001; Deutschmark must die)
Grüne Haare 2.0 (2011; Green Hair 2.0)
External links
Knochenfabrik fan-website (dead)
German musical groups | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knochenfabrik |
Daventry International Rail Freight Terminal (DIRFT) is a rail-road intermodal freight terminal with an associated warehousing estate in Northamptonshire, England. The facility is located at the junctions between the M1 motorway, A5 and A428 roads, east of Rugby and north of Daventry; it has a rail connection from the Northampton loop of the West Coast Main Line.
The original development of approximately was built during the 1990s. of which only DIRFT South (DIRFT Railport) had a direct rail connection. An extension, often referred to as DIRFTII, of about received planning permission in 2005, and is designed to have all facilities rail connected – the first occupier of DIRFT2 was Tesco, whose distribution centre reached completion in late 2011.
A second extension DIRFTIII, also rail connected, is now underway.
History
DIRFT
Daventry International Rail Freight Terminal is part of a land development project undertaken by Severn Trent Water on a site near Crick in Northamptonshire. The location, at junction 18 of the M1 motorway in close proximity to the A5, A14 and M6 roads had been identified as early as 1978 as a "motorway orientated growth point". The ground area of the original DIRFT development is divided into three sections: DIRFT Central , DIRFT East , and DIRFT South by the A5 and A428 roads.
The site first became operational on 27 May 1997, and was officially opened in November 1997 by Anne, Princess Royal, at inception the facility included a warehouse operated for road haulage operator Eddie Stobart Logistics. The rail connected terminal was operated by Tibbett and Britten; construction of a rail connected warehouse was started in 1998, a second facility was constructed in 2000.
DIRFT was one of the earliest post-Channel Tunnel road-rail intermodal terminals – the site includes rail connected terminals and traditional warehousing was designed to act as a regional node for rail freight flows to and from the Port of Felixstowe and the Channel Tunnel, it forms part of the UK network of the Trans-European Combined Transport network.
The site was primarily developed by Severn Trent Property, part of Severn Trent Water. Early occupiers included Royal Mail, Tesco ('Fastway RDC' operated by DHL) (closed 2009), and Mothercare. In 2004, of undeveloped land on the site with a capacity for of warehousing was sold to a joint venture between British Land and Rosemund; British Land subsequently let its holding to several customers including a warehouse let to Tesco in 2005.
Severn Trent plc sold its holding in DIRFT, as well as the DIRFTII site to Prologis in 2006. In 2008 Malcolm Rail became the operator of the railport at DIRFT.
DIRFTII
In 2005 planning permission was granted for a rail connected westward expansion of the original site with a built ground area of over . The DIRFTII expansion was designed for rail connected warehousing allowing transfer between sea or channel tunnel born rail-freight and road transport or warehouse storage. Plans included facilities for containerised and side-loaded palletised rail freight.
Tesco acquired a grocery distribution centre in 2011, constructed by VolkerFitzpatrick (main contractor), construction work was completed in September 2011. As part of the development, a rail tunnel was built under the A5 road to connect DIRFTII to the rail network via the original DIRFT railport.
DIRFTIII
A further 7.5 million sq.ft. extension, DIRFTIII, was proposed for construction on the former Rugby radio station site to the northwest of the current development. The proposal also included a large area of green space, named Lilbourne Meadows. The development is a joint venture between ProLogis and Rugby Radio Station Limited Partnership (RRSLP) (BT and Aviva). The DIRFTIII site would also be rail connected, with over of warehousing over of land plus a HGV parking site. A related development is the Sustainable Urban Extension (SUE) built to the west of DIRFT as a suburb of Rugby – with over 6,000 homes planned. The development took on the name of Houlton and the first homeowners moved in during December 2017.
A planning application to the Infrastructure Planning Commission (IPC) was submitted in 2011, and was approved in July 2014.
See also
Kilsby and Crick railway station – Former railway station on the site of the rail freight terminal.
References
External links
, official site
, DIRFT official site
Railway freight terminals in the United Kingdom
Rail transport in Warwickshire
Rail transport in Northamptonshire
Buildings and structures in Northamptonshire | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daventry%20International%20Rail%20Freight%20Terminal |
Religion in Australia is diverse. In the 2021 national census, 43.9% of Australians identified with Christianity and 38.9% declared "no religion".
Australia has no official religion. Section 116 of the Constitution of Australia states: "The Commonwealth shall not make any law for establishing any religion, or for imposing any religious observance, or for prohibiting the free exercise of any religion, and no religious test shall be required as a qualification for any office or public trust under the Commonwealth."
The Christian festivals of Easter and Christmas are public holidays.
History
The Aboriginal peoples of Australia traditionally followed a set of beliefs known as The Dreaming; some of the earliest evidence on earth for religious practices among humans has been found in the archaeological record of their ancestors. Torres Strait Islander religion bore similarities to broader Melanesian spirituality.
Christianity came to Australia in 1788 with British colonial settlement. Of the convicts and free settlers, most were members of the established Church of England with lesser numbers of Nonconformist Protestants, Catholics and other faiths. The first religious census in 1828 divided the early colony into four groups: Protestants, Catholics, Jews and Pagans.
Other smaller groups also arrived and established their churches. Jews started arriving in the early 19th century. The Australian gold rushes brought in workers from China and the Pacific islands, as well as specialised workers from British India, such as the mainly Muslim "Afghan Cameleers".
Indigenous Australian religion
Dreaming (spirituality) has been practised for tens of thousands of years. It is at once a collection of stories of an ancient view of creation and present day spirituality. It places significant emphasis on belonging to the land. It shaped and continues to shape Aboriginal law and customs; and Aboriginal art, story and dance continue to draw on these spiritual traditions.
There is evidence of contact between indigenous Australians with colonisers, fishermen, and survivors of numerous shipwrecks from peoples of various non-Indigenous cultures and faiths prior to British colonisation. Indigenous Australians of (Arnhem Land) (in Northern Australia) retain stories, songs and paintings of trade and cultural interaction with sea-faring peoples from the north, generally regarded as being from the east Indonesian archipelago. There is some evidence of Islamic terms and concepts entering northern Aboriginal cultures via these interactions. (See: Macassan contact with Australia.)
Christianity
While the Church of England originally held a position of privilege in early colonial Australia, a legal framework guaranteeing religious equality evolved within a few decades, especially when the Church of England was disestablished in the colony of New South Wales by the Church Act of 1836. Drafted by the reformist attorney-general John Plunkett, the act established legal equality for Anglicans, Catholics and Presbyterians, and was later extended to Methodists. British Nonconformist Methodist, Presbyterians, Congregationalists and Baptists set up their own churches in the 19th century, as did Lutherans from Germany.
Large numbers of Irish Catholics were transported to Australia through the British criminal justice system. Religious tensions, largely fuelled by historical grievances between Catholics and other Christians, continued into the 20th century.
The gold rush of the 1850s led to significantly increased immigration and diversity of religious traditions, such as Irish Catholicism, Scottish Presbyterianism, and more English Anglicanism, among other religious traditions.
Australian Aboriginal peoples suffered a decline during this period as they were dispossessed of their lands; and diseases spread among their populations. Christian churches organised missions during this period, intended to "civilise" Aboriginal communities and spread Christianity. The overall consequences of this activity contributed to the decline of indigenous languages and beliefs, the extent to which are still being determined and recorded.
By 1901, apart from the indigenous population and descendants of gold rush migrants, Australian society was predominantly Anglo-Celtic, with 40% of the population being Anglican, 23% Catholic, 34% other Christian and about 1% professing non-Christian religions. There was a Lutheran population of German descent in South Australia.
Freedom of Religion was enshrined in Section 116 of the Constitution of Australia of 1901.
Other religions
There were at least 15 Jews in the First Fleet, 14 convicts and one "free" child.
The Tolpuddle Martyrs were sentenced to penal transportation to Australia because friendly societies had strong elements of what are now considered to be the predominant role of trade unions.
As noted above, the Australian gold rushes brought in workers from China and the Pacific islands, as well as specialised workers from British India such as, from the 1860s onwards, the mainly Muslim "Afghan Cameleers". From the 1870s Malay divers were recruited (with most subsequently repatriated). Before 1901, some Muslim sailors and prisoners came to Australia on convict ships.
In 1901, the government passed an act limiting immigration to those of European descent in what came to be known as the White Australia Policy. By effectively limiting the immigration of practitioners of different faiths, this policy ensured that Christianity remained the religion of the overwhelming majority of Australians for the foreseeable future and, indeed, to the present day. The first census in 1911 showed 96% identified themselves as Christian. Sectarian tensions continued into the 1960s; e.g. job vacancy advertisements sometimes stated "Protestant preferred" or that "Catholics need not apply". Nevertheless, Australia elected its first Catholic prime minister, James Scullin, in 1929, and in 1930 Sir Isaac Isaacs, an Australian-born Jew, was appointed Governor-General.
Demographics
A question on religion has been asked in every census taken in Australia, with the voluntary nature of this question having been specifically stated since 1933. In 1971, the instruction "if no religion, write none" was introduced. This saw a sevenfold increase from the previous census year in the percentage of Australians stating they had no religion. Since 1971, this percentage has progressively increased to 38.9% in 2021.
The Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) 2006 Census Dictionary statement on religious affiliation states the purpose for gathering such information:
Data on religious affiliation are used for such purposes as planning educational facilities, aged persons' care and other social services provided by religion-based organisations; the location of church buildings; the assigning of chaplains to hospitals, prisons, armed services and universities; the allocation of time on public radio and other media; and sociological research.
The census question about religion is optional, and asks "What is the person's religion?", giving respondents a choice of nine religions, "Other" and "No religion". At the 2016 census 9.6% of people declined to answer, or they did not give a response adequate for interpretation. This figure dropped to 7.2% in 2021.
The 2021 Australian census data showed that 43.9% of Australians classify themselves Christian, 8.2% less in real terms than five years prior, The second-largest classification was the 38.9% who identified as "no religion".
As in many Western countries, the level of active participation in church worship is much lower than this; weekly attendance at church services is likely to be under 1 million, about 4% of the population.
The fastest growing religious classifications over the fifteen years between 2006 and 2021 were:
No religion – up from 18.7% to 38.9%
Islam – up from 1.7% to 3.2%
Hinduism – up from 0.7% to 2.7%
Sikhism – up from 0.1% to 0.8%
Buddhism - from 2.1% to 2.4%
Meanwhile, all Christian denominations combined decreased from 63.9% to 43.9%.
Census data
1: Includes relatively small numbers declaring "secular beliefs", such as atheism, agnosticism, humanism and rationalism, and spiritual beliefs such as New Age, "own spiritual beliefs", theism(!), etc. See 7
2: Includes "inadequately described"
3: Due to rounding, figures may not add up to the totals shown.
Line and bar charts
"Over the past 50 years, there has been a steady decline in the proportion of Australians who reported an affiliation with Christianity. The same period has seen a consistent rise in Other religions and No religion, particularly in the last 20 years".
Total fertility rates
, Buddhists (1.68), Hindus (1.81) and the non-religious (1.84) had the lowest fertility rates. Christians (2.11) and Jews (2.17) had moderate fertility rates, and Muslims had the highest rate at 3.03.
Indigenous Australian traditions
Dreaming (spirituality)—the Dreaming or Dreaming—places significant emphasis on belonging to the land. It is at once a collection of stories of an ancient view of creation and present day Dreaming (spirituality). It shaped and continues to shape Aboriginal law and customs; and Aboriginal art, story and dance continue to draw on these spiritual traditions.
There were a great many different nations, each with their own individual culture, belief structure, and language. The Rainbow Serpent is a major dream spirit for Aboriginal people across Australia. The Yowie and Bunyip are other well known dream spirits. At the time of the British settlement, traditional religions were animist and tended to have elements of ancestor worship.
Aboriginal beliefs and spirituality, even among those Aboriginal peoples who identify themselves as members of a traditional organised religion, are intrinsically linked to the land generally and to certain sites of significance in particular. As Mircea Eliade put it, "There is a general belief among the [indigenous] Australians that the world, man, and the various animals and plants were created by certain Supernatural beings who afterwards disappeared, either ascending to the sky or entering the earth." There were and still are ritual systems, with an emphasis on life transitions such as adulthood and death.
The spirituality and customs of Torres Strait Islanders, who inhabit the islands between Australia and New Guinea, reflected their Melanesian origins and dependence on the sea.
Since British settlement
European culture and Christianity have had a significant impact on Indigenous Australians. As in many colonial situations the churches both facilitated the loss of Indigenous Australian culture and religion and also facilitated its maintenance. The involvement of Christians in Aboriginal affairs has evolved significantly since 1788. Around the year 2000, many churches and church organisations officially apologised for past failures to adequately respect indigenous cultures and address the injustices of the dispossession of indigenous people.
In the Torres Strait Islands, the Coming of the Light Festival marks the day the Christian missionaries first arrived on the islands on 1 July 1871 and introduced Christianity to the region. This is a significant festival for Torres Strait Islanders, who are predominantly Christian. Religious and cultural ceremonies are held across Torres Strait and mainland Australia.
Prominent Aboriginal activist Noel Pearson, himself raised at a Lutheran mission in Cape York, has written that missions throughout Australia's colonial history "provided a haven from the hell of life on the Australian frontier while at the same time facilitating colonisation". Prominent Aboriginal Christians have included Pastor David Unaipon, the first Aboriginal author; Pastor Sir Douglas Nicholls, athlete, activist and former Governor of South Australia; Mum (Shirl) Smith, a celebrated Redfern community worker who, assisted by the Sisters of Charity, work to assist Aboriginal peoples.; and former Senator Aden Ridgeway, the first Chairman of the Aboriginal Catholic Ministry. In recent times, Christians such as Fr Ted Kennedy of Redfern, Jesuit human rights lawyer Fr Frank Brennan and the Josephite Sisters have been prominent in working for Aboriginal rights and improvements to standards of living.
Abrahamic religions
Christianity
After the arrival of the first Christian settlers on the First Fleet of British ships in 1788, Christianity quickly became the major religion in Australia. Consequently, the Christian festivals of Christmas and Easter are public holidays, the skylines of Australian cities and towns are marked by church and cathedral spires. Christian churches played a significant role in the development of early education, health and welfare services in Australia.
The churches with the largest number of members are the Catholic Church, the Anglican Church of Australia and the Uniting Church in Australia. The National Council of Churches in Australia has been the main Christian ecumenical body.
The Christian churches played an integral role in the development and provision of welfare services in Australia. The first chaplain, Richard Johnson, a Church of England cleric, was charged by Governor Arthur Phillip with improving "public morality" in the colony, and he was also heavily involved in health and education.
For much of Australian history, the Church of England in Australia, now known as the Anglican Church of Australia, was the largest religious affiliation. However its relative position has declined, with the Catholic Church, benefiting from post-war Australia multicultural immigration, among other factors, to become the largest single religious group. The Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of Australia and other congregations associated with non-British cultures have also expanded.
Today, the Catholic education system is the second biggest sector after government schools, with more than 750,000 students in 2018 (and around 21 per cent of all secondary school enrolments). The Anglican Church educates around 105,000 students and the Uniting Church has around 48 schools. Smaller denominations, including the Lutheran Church also have a number of schools in Australia. The Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of Australia also has 8 schools across the country. There are two Catholic universities in Australia: the Australian Catholic University which opened in 1991 following the amalgamation of four Catholic tertiary institutions in eastern Australia, and the University of Notre Dame Australia based in Perth.
Catholic Social Services Australia's 63 member organisations help more than a million Australians every year. Anglican organisations work in health, missionary work, social welfare and communications; and the Uniting Church does extensive community work, in aged care, hospitals, nursing, family support services, youth services and with the homeless, and especially throughout inland Australia. Christian charities such as the Saint Vincent de Paul Society, the Salvation Army, Anglicare, and Youth Off the Streets receive considerable national support. Religious orders founded many of Australia's hospitals, such as St Vincent's Hospital, Sydney, which was opened as a free hospital in 1857 by the Sisters of Charity and is now Australia's largest not-for-profit health provider and has trained prominent Australian surgeons such as Victor Chang.
Notable Australian Christians have included: Mary MacKillop – educator, founder of the Sisters of St Joseph of the Sacred Heart and the first Australian to be recognised as a saint by the Catholic Church; David Unaipon – an Aboriginal writer, inventor and Christian preacher currently featured on the Australian $50 note; Archbishop Daniel Mannix of Melbourne – a controversial voice against Conscription during World War I and against British policy in Ireland; the Reverend John Flynn – founder of the Royal Flying Doctor Service, currently featured on the Australian $20 note; Sir Douglas Nicholls – Aboriginal rights activist, athlete, pastor and former Governor of South Australia; Archbishop Stylianos Harkianakis – Archbishop and primate of the Greek Orthodox church in Australia from 1975 to 2019
Sectarianism in Australia tended to reflect the political inheritance of Britain and Ireland. Until 1945, the vast majority of Catholics in Australia were of Irish descent, causing the British majority to question their loyalty to the British Empire. The first Catholic priests arrived in Australia as convicts in 1800, but the Castle Hill Rebellion of 1804 alarmed the British authorities and no further priests were allowed in the colony until 1820, when London sent John Joseph Therry and Philip Connolly. In 1901, the Australian Constitution guaranteed Separation of Church and State. A notable period of sectarianism re-emerged during the First World War and the 1916 Easter Uprising in Ireland, but sectarian division declined after World War II. There was a diversification of Christian churches (especially with the growth of Greek, Macedonian, Serbian and Russian Orthodox churches), together with an increase in ecumenism among Christians through organisations such as the National Council of Churches in Australia, as well as an increase in non-religious adherence.
One of the most visible signs of the historical importance of Christianity to Australia is the prominence of churches in most Australian towns and cities. Among Australia's oldest are Ebenezer Chapel and the Anglican St Matthew's, Windsor, St Luke's, Liverpool, St Peter's, Campbelltown and St James Church, Sydney, built between 1819 and 1824 by Governor Macquarie's architect, Francis Greenway. St Mary's Cathedral, Sydney, was built to a design by William Wardell from a foundation stone laid in 1868; the spires of the cathedral were not finally added until the year 2000. Wardell also worked on the design of St Patrick's Cathedral, Melbourne – among the finest examples of ecclesiastical architecture in Australia. The Anglican St Paul's Cathedral, Melbourne, in the iconic hub of the city opposite Flinders Street station. Adelaide is known as the "City of Churches", but churches extend far into the Australian Outback, as at the historic Lutheran Mission Chapel at Hermannsburg, Northern Territory. Along with community attitudes to religion, church architecture changed significantly during the 20th century. Urban churches, such as the Wayside Chapel (1964) in Sydney, differed markedly from traditional ecclesiastical designs. In the later 20th century, distinctly Australian approaches were applied at places such as Jambaroo Benedictine Abbey, where natural materials were chosen to "harmonise with the local environment" and the chapel sanctuary is of glass overlooking rainforest. Similar design principles were applied at Thredbo Ecumenical Chapel built in the Snowy Mountains in 1996.
The Christian festivals of Christmas and Easter are national public holidays in Australia. Christmas, which recalls the birth of Jesus Christ, is celebrated on 25 December during the Australian summer (although on 7 January by some Eastern Orthodox) and is an important cultural festival even for many non-religious Australians. The European traditions of Christmas trees, roast dinners, carols and gift giving are all continued in Australia, but they might be conducted between visits to the beach.
Here are some Christian denominations with Australian articles:
Anglican Church of Australia (formerly the Church of England in Australia)
Antiochian Orthodox Archdiocese of Australia
Australian Christian Churches (formerly the Assemblies of God in Australia)
Australian Union Conference of Seventh-day Adventists
Baptist Union of Australia
Christian City Churches, started in Australia
Churches of Christ in Australia
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in Australia
Fellowship of Congregational Churches, Australian only
Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of Australia
CRC Churches International
Lutheran Church of Australia
Presbyterian Church of Australia
Presbyterian Church of Eastern Australia
Presbyterian Reformed Church (Australia)
Catholic Church in Australia
Uniting Church in Australia
Two by Twos
A 2023 IPSOS survey found that 22% of the population was Protestant or Evangelical while 18% was Catholic.
Islam
The first contacts that Islam had with Australia was when Muslim fishermen native to Makassar, which is today a part of Indonesia, visited North-Western Australia long before British settlement in 1788. This contact of South East Asian ethnic groups of Islamic faith can be identified from the graves they dug for their comrades who died on the journey, being that they face Mecca (in Arabia), in accordance with Islamic regulations concerning burial, as well as evidence from Aboriginal cave paintings and religious ceremonies which depict and incorporate the adoption of Makassan canoe designs and words.
In later history, throughout the 19th century following British settlement, other Muslims came to Australia including the Muslim 'Afghan' cameleers, who used their camels to transport goods and people through the otherwise unnavigable desert and pioneered a network of camel tracks that later became roads across the Outback. Australia's first mosque was built for them at Marree, South Australia in 1861. Between the 1860s and 1920s around 2000 cameleers were brought from Afghanistan and the north west of British India (now Pakistan) and perhaps 100 families remained in Australia. Other outback mosques were established at places like Coolgardie, Cloncurry, and Broken Hill – and more permanent mosques in Adelaide, Perth and later Brisbane. A legacy of this pioneer era is the presence of wild camels in Outback and the oldest Islamic structure in the southern hemisphere, at Central Adelaide Mosque. Nonetheless, despite their significant role in Australia prior to the establishment of rail and road networks, the formulation of the White Australia policy at the time of Federation made immigration difficult for the 'Afghans' and their memory slowly faded during the 20th century, until a revival of interest began in the 1980s.
Successive Australian governments dismantled the White Australia Policy in the Post-WW2 period. From the 1970s onwards, under the leadership of Gough Whitlam and Malcolm Fraser, Australia began to pursue multiculturalism. Australia in the later 20th century became a refuge for many Muslims fleeing conflicts including those in Lebanon, Bosnia, Iraq, Iran, Sudan and Afghanistan. General immigration, combined with religious conversion to Islam by Christians and other Australians, as well as Australia's participation in UN refugee efforts has increased the overall Muslim population. Around 36% of Muslims are Australian born. Overseas born Muslims come from a great variety of nations and ethnic groups – with large Lebanese and Turkish communities.
Following the 11 September attacks in the USA, attempts to associate the ideology/ies of Osama bin Laden and the religion of Islam stirred some debate in some quarters in Australia about Islam's relationship with the wider community. The deaths of Australians in bombings by militant Islamic fundamentalists in New York in 2001, Bali in 2002–5 and London in 2005; as well as the sending of Australian troops to East Timor in 1999, Afghanistan in 2001 and Iraq in 2003; the arrest of bomb plotters in Australia; and concerns about certain cultural practices such as the wearing of the Burkha all contributed to a degree of tension. A series of comments by a senior Sydney cleric, Sheikh Taj El-Din Hilaly also stirred controversy, particularly his remarks regarding "female modesty" following an incident of gang rape in Sydney. Australians were among the targets of Islamic Fundamentalists in the Bali bombings in Indonesia and an attack on the Australian Embassy in Jakarta; and the South East Asian militant group Jemaah Islamiyah has been of particular concern to Australians.
The Australian government's mandatory detention processing system for asylum seekers became increasingly controversial after the 11 September attacks. A significant proportion of recent Asylum seekers arriving by boat have been Muslims fleeing the conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan and elsewhere. Some Islamic leaders and social commentators claim that Islam has suffered from unfair stereotyping Violence and intimidation was directed against Muslims and people of Middle Eastern appearance during southern Sydney's Cronulla riots in 2005. In 2005, the Howard government established the Muslim Community Reference Group to advise on Muslim community issues for one year, chaired by Ameer Ali. Inter-faith dialogues were also established by Christian and Muslim groups such as The Australian Federation of Islamic Councils and the National Council of Churches in Australia. Australia and Indonesia co-operated closely following the Bali-bombings, not only in law-enforcement but in improving education and cross-cultural understanding, leading to a marked improvement in relations. After a series of controversies, Sheikh Taj El-Din Hilaly retired as Grand mufti of Australia in 2007 and was replaced by Fehmi Naji El-Imam AM.
Today, over 604,000 people in Australia identify as Muslim, with diverse communities concentrated mainly in Sydney and Melbourne. More than half are non-practising cultural Muslims. Since the 1970s Islamic schools have been established as well as more than 100 mosques and prayer centres. Many notable Muslim places of worship are to be found in large Australian cities, including the Central Adelaide Mosque, which was constructed during the 1880s; and Sydney's Classical Ottoman style Auburn Gallipoli Mosque, which was largely funded by the Turkish community and the name of which recalls the shared heritage of the foundation of modern Turkey and the story of the ANZACs. 1,140 people identified as Aboriginal Muslims in the 2011 census, almost double the number recorded in the 2001 census. Notable Australian Muslims include boxer Anthony Mundine; community worker and rugby league star Hazem El Masri; cricketer Usman Khawaja and academic Waleed Aly. In 2013, Labor MP Ed Husic became Australia's first Muslim member of Cabinet, briefly serving as Parliamentary Secretary to the Prime Minister and for Broadband in the short lived Second Rudd government.
Judaism
At least eight Jewish convicts are believed to have been transported to Sydney aboard the First Fleet in 1788, when the first British settlement was established on the continent. An estimated 110,000 Jews currently live in Australia, the majority being Ashkenazi Jews of Eastern European descent, with many being refugees and Holocaust survivors who arrived during and after World War II.
The Jewish population has increased slightly in recent times due to immigration from South Africa and the former Soviet Union. The largest Jewish community in Australia is in Melbourne, with about 60,000, followed by Sydney with about 45,000 members. Smaller communities are dispersed among the other state capitals.
Following the conclusion of the British colonial period, Jews have enjoyed formal equality before the law in Australia and have not been subject to civil disabilities or other forms of state-sponsored anti-Semitism which exclude them from full participation in public life.
Sydney's gothic design Great Synagogue, consecrated in 1878, is a notable place of Jewish worship in Australia. Notable Australian Jews have included the Sir John Monash, the notable World War I general who opened the Maccabean Hall in Sydney in 1923 to commemorate Jews who fought and died in the First World War and who is currently featured on the Australian $100 note; and Sir Isaac Isaacs who became the first Australian born governor general in 1930. Sir Zelman Cowen also served as Governor-General, between 1977 and 1982. The Sydney Jewish Museum opened in 1992 to commemorate The Holocaust "challenge visitors' perceptions of democracy, morality, social justice and human rights".
Until the 1930s, all synagogues in Australia were nominally Orthodox, with most acknowledging leadership of the Chief Rabbi of the United Kingdom. To this day the vast majority of synagogues in Australia are Orthodox. However, there is a wide range of Orthodox congregations, including Mizrachi, Chabad and Adass Israel congregations. There are also Sephardi congregations.
There had been short-lived efforts to establish Reform congregations as early as the 1890s. However, under the leadership of Ada Phillips, a sustained liberal congregation, Temple Beth Israel, was established in Melbourne. Subsequently, another synagogue linked to the United States Reform Movement, Temple Emanuel, was established in Sydney. Following these two congregations, a number of other Liberal synagogues have been founded in other cities.
Since 1992 Conservative (Masorti) services have been held as an alternative service usually in the Neuweg, the smaller second synagogue within Temple Emanuel, Woollahra, Sydney. In 1999, Kehilat Nitzan, Melbourne's first Conservative (Masorti) congregation was established, with foundation president John Rosenberg. The congregation appointed its first rabbi, Ehud Bandel in 2006. In 2010 Beit Knesset Shalom became Brisbane's first Conservative (Masorti) synagogue.
In 2012, the first humanistic Jewish congregation, known as Kehilat Kolenu, was established in Melbourne with links to the cultural Jewish youth movement Habonim Dror. Later in 2012, a similar congregation was established in Sydney, known as Ayelet HaShachar. The services are loosely based on the Humanistic Jewish movement in the United States and the musical-prayer group Nava Tehila in Israel.
Baháʼí Faith
The Baháʼí Faith first arrived in Australia in 1922, and at less than 0.1% of the total population, is one of the smaller religious minorities. The Sydney Baháʼí Temple is situated in Ingleside, a northern suburb of Sydney. According to Jennifer Taylor, a historian at Sydney University, it is among Sydney's four most significant religious buildings constructed in the twentieth century. Dedicated in 1961, it was also the world's fourth Baháʼí House of Worship to be completed.
The 1996 Australian Census lists Baháʼí membership at just under 9,000. In 2001, the second edition of A Practical Reference to Religious Diversity for Operational Police and Emergency Services added the Baháʼí Faith to its coverage of religions in Australia and noted that the community had grown to over 11,000. The Association of Religion Data Archives (relying on World Christian Encyclopedia) estimated some 17,700 Baháʼís in 2005, and over 19,300 in 2010. However, census data from 2016 reported a much lower population of only 13,988.
Indian/Dharmic religions
Hinduism
Hindus numbered 684,000 in the 2021 census, making Hinduism the fourth largest religious or non-religious affiliation. It is one of the fastest growing religions in Australia (12.0% per year since 2011). In the 19th century, Hindus first came to Australia to work on cotton and sugar plantations. Many who remained worked in small business, as camel drivers, merchants and hawkers, selling goods between small rural communities. Their population increased dramatically from the 1960s and 1970s and more than doubled between the 1996 and 2006 census to around 148,000 people. Most were migrants from countries such as Fiji, India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Singapore and South Africa. At present many Hindus are well-educated professionals in fields such as medicine, engineering, commerce and information technology. Among Australia's best-known Hindus is the singer Kamahl. There are around forty-three Hindu temples in Australia, the Sri Mandir Temple in Auburn, Sydney being the first established in 1977.
Buddhism
Buddhists began arriving in Australia in significant numbers during the goldrush of the 1850s with an influx of Chinese miners. However, the population remained low until the 1960s. Buddhism is now one of the fastest growing religions in Australia. Immigration from Asia has contributed to this, but some people of non-Asian origin have also converted. The three main traditions of Buddhism—Theravada, East Asian and Tibetan—are now represented in Australia. According to the 2021 census, Buddhism has 615,800 adherents: 2.4% of the total population.
Buddhist temples can be very active. Quang Minh Temple in Braybrook, Melbourne, Victoria gets about 2,000 people through every Sunday and gives a free vegetarian meal to about 600 people. For important events, more than 20,000 people come. Even more come to the Nan Tien Temple, or "Southern Paradise Temple", in Wollongong, New South Wales, began construction in the early 1990s, adopting the Chinese palace building style and is now the largest Buddhist temple in the Southern Hemisphere. This temple follows the Venerable Master Hsing Yun of the Fo Guang Shan Buddhist order. Bodhinyana Monastery is a Theravadin Buddhist monastery in the Thai Forest Tradition located in Serpentine, Western Australia.
Sikhism
Sikhism has been one of the fastest growing religions in Australia in recent years. According to census data, Australia's Sikh population grew from 72,000 to 210,400 between 2011 and 2021, an average growth rate of 14.8% per year. Around 42% of Australia's Sikhs live in the state of Victoria.
Jainism
Jainism is currently the fourth fastest growing religion in Australia, recording 4,050 adherents in 2016 and growing an average of 7.7% per year. The overwhelming majority (94.7%) of Jains live inside the state capitals, primarily Sydney, Melbourne and Perth.
Irreligion
Non-religious
Australia is one of the least religious nations in the developed world, with religion not described as a central part in many people's lives. This view is prominent among Australia's youth, who were ranked as the least religious worldwide in a 2008 survey conducted by The Christian Science Monitor. In the 2021 census, the ABS categorised ~9,887,000 Australians (38.9%) as having no religion, up 16.6% in real terms from 4,796,800 (22.3%) in 2011. This category includes agnosticism, atheism, humanism, rationalism, and people who are unaffiliated with any particular religion.
Atheism
While people with no religion are more than 30% of the Australian population, the Australian Bureau of Statistics does not provide information in the annual "1301.0 – Year Book Australia" on religious affiliation as to how many people fall into each sub-category. Data on religious affiliation is only collected by the ABS at the five yearly population census. Atheist interests in Australia are represented nationally by the Atheist Foundation of Australia. Humanist interests in Australia are represented nationally by the Council of Australian Humanist Societies. Rationalist interests in Australia are represented nationally by the Rationalist Society of Australia. The Global Atheist Convention, a prominent atheist event, has been held in Melbourne.
Other religions
The 2006 census shows 53 listed groups down to 5000 members, most of them Christian denominations, many of them national versions such as Greek, Serbian Orthodox and Assyrian Orthodox. Of the smaller religions, Pagan religions 29,328, the Baháʼí Faith at 12,000, Humanism about 7000. Between 1000 and 5000 are: Taoism, Druse, Satanism, Zoroastrian, Rationalism, Creativity, Theosophy, Jainism. There are also adherents of Tenrikyo, Shinto, Unitarian Universalism, Eckankar, Cao Dai, Rastafari, Pantheism, Scientology and Raelianism.
In general, non-Christian religions and those with no religion have been growing in proportion to the overall population. With fewer classifications, data from 1996 and 2001 showed Aboriginal religion decreasing from 7000 to 5000 while Baháʼí grew from just under 9,000 to over 11,000 and the rest of the "Other" category growing from about 69,000 to about 92,000.
Paganism
Alexandrian Wiccans and Gardnerian Wiccans arrived in Australia from England and the United States around the late 1960s.
In the 2011 census, 32,083 Australians identified their religion as a Pagan religion including 8,413 people who identified their religion as Wicca or Neopagan witchcraft.
Religion and the law
Constitutional status
Section 116 of the Constitution of Australia provides that:
The Commonwealth shall not make any law for establishing any religion, or for imposing any religious observance, or for prohibiting the free exercise of any religion, and no religious test shall be required as a qualification for any office or public trust under the Commonwealth.
Technically, this does not affect the states' authority to legislate on religion. Nor would it block federal legislation on religion, aside from that establishing an official religion of Australia. In practice, though, federal governments have respected Section 116 and generally allowed the free practice of religions. Australia does not have explicit "separation of church and state"—the essence of a "secular state"—in the sense that countries like the USA do. In view of Section 116 of Australia's constitution ("The Commonwealth shall not make any law for establishing any religion, or for imposing any religious observance ..."), it is commonly believed that Australia is already a "secular state". This is a misconception: in 1981, the High Court determined that there is in fact no constitutional separation of church and state in Australia. However, there is no general "mood" to legislate establishment of religions.
Other interactions
In 1983, the High Court of Australia defined religion as "a complex of beliefs and practices which point to a set of values and an understanding of the meaning of existence". The Australian Bureau of Statistics 2001 Census Dictionary defines "no religion" as a category of religion which includes subcategories such as agnosticism, atheism, Humanism and rationalism (but the ABS also categorises these as "secular beliefs").
The Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission (HREOC) is able to inquire into allegations of discrimination on religious grounds.
In 1998 the HREOC addressed the right to freedom of religion and belief in Australia against article 18 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, stating that "despite the legal protections that apply in different jurisdictions, many Australians suffer discrimination on the basis of religious belief or non-belief, including members of both mainstream and non-mainstream religions, and those of no religious persuasion." An example of an HREOC response to such views is the IsmaU project, which examines possible prejudice against Muslims in Australia since the 11 September 2001 attacks in the US and the Bali bombings.
Interfaith efforts
Interfaith efforts between various religious institutions occur. Since the early 2000s, the Abraham Conference convenes as an annual interfaith event between Christians, Muslims, and Jews.
See also
A Practical Reference to Religious Diversity for Operational Police and Emergency Services
Australian Association for Jewish Studies
Broken Rites & Catholic Church sexual abuse cases in Australia
Freedom of religion in Australia
National Church Life Survey
Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse
Separation of church and state in Australia
Stolen Generations
References
Further reading
Berndt, R. M. Australian Aboriginal Religion, E. J. Brill, Leiden, 1974
Bouma, Gary, ed. Many Religions All Australian: Religious Settlement, Identity and Cultural Diversity. Melbourne: Christian Research Association, 1997.
Carey, Hilary M. Believing in Australia. Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1992.
Eliade, M., Australian Religions: An Introduction, Oxford University Press, London, 1973
Hilliard, David. "Popular Religion in Australia in the 1950s: A Study of Adelaide and Brisbane." Journal of religious history 15.2 (1988): 219–235.
Hilliard, David. "The religious crisis of the 1960s: the experience of the Australian churches." Journal of religious history 21.2 (1997): 209–227.
Humphreys, Robert, and Rowland S. Ward. Religious bodies in Australia: a comprehensive guide (New Melbourne Press, 1995).
Hunt, A. D. "For God, King, and country": A study of the attitudes of the Methodist and Catholic press in South Australia (1979)
Jupp, James, ed. The Encyclopedia of Religion in Australia, Melbourne: Cambridge University Press, 2009.
Lovat, Terence. New Studies in Religion. Social Science Press pg 148 (2002)
O'Brien, Anne. God's Willing Workers: Women and Religion in Australia (University of New South Wales Press, 2005)
O'Brien, Anne. "Historical overview spirituality and work Sydney women, 1920–1960." Australian Historical Studies 33.120 (2002): 373–388.
Thompson, Roger C. Religion in Australia: A history (Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1994), a standard scholarly survey
Anglicans
B. Kaye, ed., Anglicanism in Australia: a History (Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 2002)
T. Frame, A Church for the Nation: a History of the Anglican Diocese of Canberra and Goulburn (Sydney: Hale & Iremonger, 2000).
D. Hilliard, Godliness and Good Order: A History of the Anglican Church in South Australia (Adelaide: Wakefield Press, 1986)
S. Judd and K. J. Cable, Sydney Anglicans: A History of the Diocese (Sydney: Anglican Information Office, 1987)
B. Porter, ed., Melbourne Anglicans: The Diocese of Melbourne 1847–1978 (Melbourne: Mitre Books, 1997)
Catholics
Campion, Edmund. Rockchoppers: Growing Up Catholic in Australia (1983)
Dixon, Robert E. The Catholics in Australia (1996)
Hamilton, Celia. "Irish-Catholics of New South Wales and the Labor Party, 1890–1910," Historical Studies: Australia & New Zealand (1958) 8(31): 254–267
Laffin, Josephine. "'Sailing in Stormy Waters': Archbishop Matthew Beovich and the Catholic Archdiocese of Adelaide in the 1960s." Journal of Religious History 34.3 (2010): 289–311.
McGrath, Sophie. "Women Religious in the History of Australia 1888–1950: a Case Study – the Sisters of Mercy Parramatta," Journal of the Royal Australian Historical Society (1995) 81(2): 195–212
Murtagh, James G. Australia: The Catholic Chapter (1959)
O'Donoghue, Thomas A. Upholding the Faith: The Process of Education in Catholic Schools in Australia, 1922–1965 (2001)
O'Farrell, Patrick. The Irish in Australia: 1798 to the Present Day (3rd ed. Cork University Press, 2001)
Protestants
Brauer, Alfred. Under the Southern Cross: History of the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Australia (Lutheran Publishing House, 1985)
Ellis, Julie-Ann. "'Cross-Firing over the Gulf': The Rift between Methodism and the Labour Movement in South Australia in the 1890s" Labour History (1993): 89–102. in JSTOR
Hardgrave, Donald W. For Such a Time: A History of the Wesleyan Methodist Church of Australia (1988)
Harrison, John. Baptism of Fire: The first ten years of the Uniting Church in Australia (1986)
Hunt, Arnold Dudley. This Side of Heaven: A History of Methodism in South Australia (Lutheran Publishing House, 1985)
External links
Australian Standard Classification of Religious Groups (ASCRG), 1266.0, 1996
1996 Census Dictionary – Religion category
2001 Census Dictionary – Religion category
Year Book Australia, 2006. Religious Affiliation section
Australia in USA Department of State International Religious Freedom Report
(History of Religion in Sydney) [CC-By-SA]
Demographics of Australia
Religion in the British Empire | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion%20in%20Australia |
Echinodorus trialatus is a type of plant. In Rataj's taxonomy, E. trialatus is in Section Paniculati, Subgenus Echinodorus.
Description
Leaves with blades about as long as the winged petioles and tapering into them, long tapered at the tip, with the upper pair of veins parallel to the midrib and leaving it at some distance from the base, 30 – 45 cm long. Blades longly oval, on both ends regularly narrowed, or lanceolate with 3 - 5 veins, without pellucid markings, 17 – 25 cm long x 2.5 – 5 cm wide.
Stem erect, along the whole length distinctly alate (3 - winged), 30 – 70 cm long. Inflorescence usually racemose, rarely branched in the lower whorl, having 6 - 13 whorls. Bracts longer than the pedicels with flowers, 1.5 – 2 cm long having 19 - 21 distinct ribs. Flowers sessile or subsessile on pedicels 2 – 4 mm long. Sepals about 5 mm long, with usually 18 ribs, corolla white. Aggregate fruit globular, 5 – 7 mm in diameter. Stamens usually 18, anthers 1.5 mm long, as long as the filaments. Achenes 2.5 – 3 mm long x 1 - 1.2mm wide, distinctly ribbed only in the lower part of the body, the upper third without ribs, lateral glands absent.
Distribution
Panama, Colombia & Venezuela normally growing submersed.
External links
Echinodorus site - German text but useful photograph
trialatus | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echinodorus%20trialatus |
New York State Route 9R (NY 9R) is a north–south state highway in northeastern Albany County, New York, in the United States. The route is a eastern loop of U.S. Route 9 (US 9), connecting that route to the city of Cohoes to the east. It leaves US 9 in the hamlet of Latham and rejoins its parent in the hamlet of Boght Corners, both located in the town of Colonie. Most of NY 9R is a two-lane highway that passes through residential areas; however, the southwesternmost portion of the route is four lanes wide and serves a commercial district. The route was assigned and has remained largely unchanged since that time, save for a brief period during the 1970s where NY 9R was partially replaced by NY 470.
Route description
NY 9R begins opposite the entrance to the on-ramp for Interstate 87 (I-87) exit 7 at an intersection with US 9 (Loudon Road) in the Colonie hamlet of Latham, located north of the city of Albany. The junction is also the termination of the off-ramp from the limited-access NY 7 west onto US 9. NY 9R heads east as the four-lane Columbia Street Extension, initially passing through a commercialized area centered around the route's intersections with US 9 and the nearby Old Loudon Road. The commercial strip ends at Johnson Road, where the route turns northeastward and narrows to two lanes as it heads into a lightly populated area of Colonie. This section of Columbia Street Extension passes by some commercial buildings; however, most of the development along the highway is residential, with most of the homes located in cul-de-sacs leading away from NY 9R.
Roughly west of an intersection with NY 470 on the western edge of the city of Cohoes, the area surrounding the highway changes drastically as the route becomes lined with residential dwellings. The string of homes continue to the junction with NY 470 on the Cohoes city line, where NY 9R turns north onto Baker Avenue, a two-lane street that runs along the border between the town of Colonie and the city of Cohoes. Columbia Street, meanwhile, continues east into downtown Cohoes as NY 470, which begins at NY 9R. Heading north, NY 9R passes through both residential neighborhoods and lightly populated areas. The homes along the Colonie (west) side of the route give way to woods after just ; however, the Cohoes (east) side remains lined with fully populated and developed neighborhoods for another .
The north–south stretch ends at a junction with Boght Road, known as Manor Avenue within Cohoes. Both highways sit on the northern boundary of what was once the Manor of Rensselaerswyck. NY 9R turns left at this intersection, leaving the city boundary and proceeding westward along Boght Road. The complexion of the roadway is similar to that of the first 0.3 miles of Baker Avenue, as the two-lane road is lined with a steady stream of houses. After , NY 9R enters a lightly populated hamlet named Boght Corners, where it ends at an intersection with US 9. While the state route ends here, Boght Road continues westward as a town road to Dunsbach Ferry Road, a north–south town highway paralleling I-87 through northern Colonie.
History
NY 9R was assigned to most of its current alignment. Originally, the southern half of the route followed Johnson Road and St. Agnes Highway through Colonie; however, it was realigned in the early 1940s to follow an extension of Columbia Street between US 9 and the Cohoes city line. In the mid-1970s, NY 9R was removed and partially replaced with the new NY 470, an east–west route extending from the current southern terminus of NY 9R east through Cohoes to Troy. The NY 9R designation was reinstated in the late 1970s, resulting in the truncation of NY 470 to its present length.
Major intersections
See also
References
External links
009R
U.S. Route 9
Transportation in Albany County, New York | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20York%20State%20Route%209R |
These are the results for the 2005 edition of the Tour de Pologne cycling race. Despite getting four cyclists in the decisive break, didn't manage to take the overall win from Kim Kirchen.
Stages
12-09-2005: Gdańsk-Elbląg, 149.6 km.
13-09-2005: Tczew-Olsztyn, 226.5 km.
14-09-2005: Ostróda-Bydgoszcz, 212 km.
15-09-2005: Inowrocław-Leszno, 213 km.
16-09-2005: Wrocław-Szklarska Poręba, 212 km.
17-09-2005: Piechowice-Karpacz, 153 km.
18-09-2005: Jelenia Góra-Karpacz, 61 km.
18-09-2005: Jelenia Góra-Karpacz, 19 km. (ITT)
General Standings
KOM Classification
Points Classification
Sprints Classification
The sprints classification jersey is awarded to the rider with the most points awarded in the intermediate sprints.
Best Team
External links
Race website
Tour de Pologne
2005
Tour de Pologne
September 2005 sports events in Europe | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2005%20Tour%20de%20Pologne |
Zvi Magen (born 1945) is the former deputy head of Nativ, Israeli ambassador to Ukraine in 1993, ambassador to Russia in 1998, and Head of Nativ from 1999 to 2005. Magen wished to retire from his post during the Sharon government, but was convinced to stay until a replacement was found. This search was delayed because of Sharon's coma and Ehud Olmert's ascension, but was finally completed in November 2006 when ambassador to Ukraine Naomi Ben-Ami was chosen.
References
Israeli military personnel
Living people
1945 births
Ambassadors of Israel to Russia
Ambassadors of Israel to Ukraine | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zvi%20Magen |
The Canol Heritage Trail is a trail running from Norman Wells, Northwest Territories, through the Mackenzie Mountains, to the Yukon border. Because of its remoteness, length and river crossings it is considered one of the most challenging trails in Canada. The trail is in the process of becoming a territorial park.
History
The trail follows the route of the Canol Road lying within the Northwest Territories where it is no longer maintained beyond the Yukon border. The road was constructed during the Second World War by the United States Army Corps of Engineers to build and service a pipeline bringing oil from Norman Wells to a refinery in Whitehorse, Yukon. Though built at huge expense, it was abandoned after only thirteen months of operation.
Logistics
The eastern end of the trail is at Milepost 4, across the Mackenzie River from Norman Wells, requiring arrangements to be made to cross the river by either air or boat. The western end can be reached by plane from either Norman Wells or Whitehorse. In summer, it can also be reached by road along Yukon Highway 6/North Canol Road. The road receives minimal maintenance and can be a rough ride up to the Yukon-NWT border where it is no longer maintained and quickly becomes impassable to most vehicles. The western end of the trail is officially the airstrip at Milepost 222 in the NWT. The small airstrip at Macmillan Pass near the Yukon border is also used, which brings the total distance to the Mackenzie River to .
Due to its length and difficulty, it should only be undertaken by experienced and fit hikers. Most hikers will take between 14 and 22 days to complete the trail. There are no services along the trail and, though it has been hiked with no resupply, most people arrange for one to three food drops to be made by aircraft. The fastest known time to hike the trail is just over 5 days.
Major river crossings include the third and fourth crossings of the Ekwi, the Twitya, the Little Keele and the second crossing of the Carcajou. Depending on water levels these can be difficult or impossible to cross on foot. There are also many smaller creek and river crossings that may be difficult at high water. A hiker died in 2016 after being swept away crossing the Little Keele. In 2016 a seasonal cable ferry system was tested to provide a safer crossing of the Twitya, however it has not been reinstalled.
In 2018 the Government of the Northwest Territories began building emergency shelters on the trail. As of 2020 five shelters have been completed with plans to add up to 15 more.
The trail crosses grizzly bear and black bear habitat, so precautions should be taken.
Environmental clean-up and park status
After the Americans decided the Canol project was a failure, it was abandoned and sold for scrap to Imperial Oil.
Some valuable equipment was salvaged but a great deal of pipeline, wire, vehicles and buildings remained as well as various contaminants.
Clean-up of telegraph wire began in 2015 and at the end of 2016 over 70% of wire on the trail had been cut and stockpiled for future removal. Work to remove contaminants, collect bundles of wire, secure standing buildings and address physical hazards was completed between 2017 and 2019 and long-term monitoring is now underway. Remediation of the trail will allow the creation of a territorial park to proceed as set out in the Sahtu Dene and Metis Comprehensive Land Claim Agreement.
In 2021, the trail was designated as part of the Trans Canada Trail network.
Other modes of travel
The first successful summer motorized expedition, crossing from Ross River, YT to Norman Wells, NWT, occurred in July 1973. Unassisted, seven Honda ATC90 trikes and riders traveled 589 km (366 mi) in 10 days.
The entire trail was first completed by bicycle in 1991. In 2012 the trail was completed in eight days, with no food drops, from Macmillan Pass to the Mackenzie River using mountain bikes and packrafts and since that time cycling attempts have become more common.
The trail has been traversed by snowmobile and dog team in the winter and by All-terrain vehicle in the summer.
Attempts to travel it by off road vehicles in 2009 and 2011 sparked controversy in the Northwest Territories over motorized use of the trail.
Images
References
External links
Hiking and biking the Canol Heritage Trail includes a trail guide and list of trip reports
Canol trail on trailpeak.com
Canol Trail Information and trip reports (Warning pop ups, menu with trail map etc. is in top window)
Hiking trails in the Northwest Territories
Heritage trails | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canol%20Heritage%20Trail |
Championship Manager is the first game in the Championship Manager series as well as the Football Manager series of association football management simulation games. The game was released on the Amiga and Atari ST in September, 1992 and ported to MS-DOS soon after. The game was written by Paul and Oliver Collyer, the co-founders of Sports Interactive.
Gameplay
The game featured four playable English divisions (First through to Fourth; the newly formed FA Premier League did not appear until CM 93/94). In the game, each division contained only 20 teams, whereas in real life they contained 22 or 24 teams at that time.
Also included were all of the major domestic cups of the time (including the Anglo-Italian Cup) and the 3 major European trophies (including the now defunct Cup Winners' Cup).
Any teams outside of the four playable divisions and all foreign teams had no player names at all. Instead, players were simply called "No.3" or "No.10" depending on which position they played.
One of the most innovative things about the game was the introduction of "average ratings" for players - after each match the performance of every player was graded from 0-10 and as the season went on the player's average rating would allow the manager to easily see how each player was performing.
Other versions
In 1993, Intelek and Ubisoft used the Collyers' game code to produce a version for the French market, known as Guy Roux Manager (named after the legendary AJ Auxerre manager). It was fully localised for France and included the French first and second divisions as playable leagues, and all text and commentary in French. The Guy Roux Manager franchise has since become a very popular and long running franchise in France with games on many platforms.
Also in 1993, the first Norwegian version was released; a year later, an Italian version. While the Norwegian version was very much similar to the English one, in the Italian version it was possible to substitute up to 4 players in any game and the transfer deadline occurred much earlier in the season. Both the Norwegian and Italian versions featured real named players though, adding to the popularity of the game.
Development
Paul, the older of the Collyer brothers, created a precursor to the game on a BBC Micro computer from their childhood home in rural Shropshire in 1983. “We didn’t even have Teletext back then as we had such a terrible TV signal...“I would listen to the radio to get the results, then type them in to the computer and it would update the league tables on the screen. That was my first venture into football programming".
Electronic Arts reportedly turned down the chance to publish Championship Manager in 1992, as it did not feature enough "live action", with match commentary provided via a text interface.
Reception
The release of this first version of the game was not an outstanding success with sales at a reported 20,000.
Reviews ranged from the encouraging to the dismissive. Even by early 1990s standards, the graphics of Championship Manager were primitive and there were many other management games available that were much more visually pleasing, such as Premier Manager and The Manager. Critics berated the lack of any real graphics, other than coloured text on top of a background image and the complete lack of any sound effects. Also, what became known as the "match engine" was very basic, consisting of a clock, 3 small meters showing each team's possession and lines of text commentary describing the match action. Rival game, The Manager, included a small screen showing TV-style clips of match action. Another drawback was the absence of real player names, as each team was populated with players generated at random by the computer.
See also
Football Manager (1982 series)
References
External links
Reviews at classicgaming.com- A website containing several old magazine reviews of Championship Manager
Official game info- Championship Manager 1 section on the official Sports Interactive website
1992 video games
Amiga games
Atari ST games
Domark games
DOS games
Video games scored by Barry Leitch
Association football management video games
Video games developed in the United Kingdom | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Championship%20Manager%20%28video%20game%29 |
Owen Gerard Carron (born 9 February 1953) is an Irish republican activist who was Member of Parliament (MP) for Fermanagh and South Tyrone from 1981 to 1983.
Early life
Carron was born in Enniskillen, County Fermanagh. He qualified as a teacher in the 1970s. He is a nephew of Nationalist Party politician John Carron.
Political career
He became involved in Irish republican politics in the late 1970s through the Fermanagh Anti H-Block committee.
Election agent for Bobby Sands
Carron was Bobby Sands' election agent for the April 1981 Fermanagh and South Tyrone by-election. Sands, a Republican prisoner on hunger strike, won the election, but died soon afterward. Changes in election law with the passing of the Representation of the People Act 1981 made it impossible to nominate another prisoner, so Carron stood as the "Anti H-Block/Proxy Political Prisoner".
Election as MP
Carron was elected in the August by-election with an increased majority but with fewer votes, becoming the youngest MP at the time. Like most other Irish republicans elected to the British Parliament, he was an abstentionist. He never made a secret of his support for Sinn Féin; confirmation of this came when he was elected to the Northern Ireland Assembly in October 1982 as a Sinn Féin candidate. At the 1983 general election he stood again, this time officially for Sinn Féin, but owing to the nomination of a candidate by the Social Democratic and Labour Party, the nationalist vote in the constituency was seriously split, and Carron lost the seat to Ken Maginnis of the Ulster Unionist Party.
Arrests in the United States and later life
Carron, along with Danny Morrison, was arrested on 21 January 1982 whilst attempting to enter the United States illegally from Canada by car. Two Canadian supporters also faced charges for trying to smuggle the men in. Carron was deported, and later both men were convicted on a charge of making false and fictitious statements to American immigration officials.
In 1986, an AK47 rifle was found in a car in which Carron was travelling. He was charged, but granted bail to contest the 1986 Fermanagh and South Tyrone by-election. He lost the election, skipped bail and moved to County Leitrim in the Republic of Ireland. He was arrested in 1988 in the Republic, and held in custody for two-and-a-half years while extradition procedures initiated by the British government took place. These procedures were unsuccessful when it was found by the Irish Supreme Court that possession of an automatic rifle constituted a 'political offence', thus prohibiting his extradition under Irish law. Following Carron's release he worked as a builder before returning to teaching in 1995, and later became the principal of the national school in Carrigallen.
In 2002, his name was reported as having been submitted to the British government by Sinn Féin on a list of IRA members to be granted amnesties.
He was director of elections for Councillor Martin Kenny, the Sinn Féin candidate in the Roscommon–South Leitrim constituency during the 2007 Irish general election.
References
1953 births
Anti H-Block MPs
Irish republicans
Living people
Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for Fermanagh and South Tyrone (since 1950)
Northern Ireland MPAs 1982–1986
Northern Ireland politicians convicted of crimes
People convicted of making false statements
People deported from the United States
Provisional Irish Republican Army members
Sinn Féin MPs (post-1921)
UK MPs 1979–1983
People from Enniskillen
Politicians from County Fermanagh | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Owen%20Carron |
The first government of Iraq led by Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki took office on May 20, 2006 following approval by the members of the Iraqi National Assembly. This followed the general election in December 2005. The government succeeded the Iraqi Transitional Government which had continued in office in a caretaker capacity until the new government was formed and confirmed.
This Al Maliki I Government governed Iraq until 2010, to be succeeded by the Al Maliki II Government (Dec. 2010 - Sept 2014).
Process of formation
After some disputes over the election results, the members of the new Council of Representatives were sworn in on March 16, 2006. In the meantime, negotiations over the forming of a government had begun. Leaders of the four largest political groupings called for a government of national unity. Although it was decided in advance that the largest grouping (the United Iraqi Alliance) would name the Prime Minister, this decision would prove to be hot matter, both within the Alliance and in the negotiations with other groupings, who rejected the first nominee, incumbent Prime Minister Ibrahim al-Jaafari. Finally the Alliance reached a decision to nominate Nouri al-Maliki to the post.
No-confidence moves
In December 2006, media reported a plot to oust Maliki in a no-confidence vote and to create a new governmental alliance between SCIRI, UIA independents, the Kurdistani Alliance and Iraqi Islamic Party. Adil Abdul Mahdi had been proposed as the new Prime Minister, but SCIRI MP Hameed Maalah was quoted saying the groups hadn't yet agreed on a new leader. A Maliki aide confirmed the plot but said they intended to sabotage it. A no-confidence vote would require a simple majority but a new Prime Minister would require a two-thirds majority.
Agenda
The following matters were expected to be the most important issues for the new government to deal with:
The relationship with the United States and coalition forces
Containing the insurgency and inter-communal violence
Implementing and possibly amending the constitution, particularly with regards federalism.*
Federalism and the Constitution
One of the main areas faced by the new government was the issue of federalism, which includes the formation of one or more Shi'ite regions, the status of Kirkuk and any possible amendment to the Constitution of Iraq
Constitutional amendments
Under a compromise agreed in September 2005 between the United Iraqi Alliance, Democratic Patriotic Alliance of Kurdistan and Iraqi Islamic Party, the new Assembly would consider amendments to the constitution in its first four months. Following this compromise the Iraqi Islamic Party agreed to back the constitution in the referendum. A constitutional revision committee was eventually formed under the new parliament, which issued an incomplete report in 2007. Despite widespread agreement amongst a majority of parties in Iraq that the text is in need of revision, partly in order to clarify some technical issues but also in part in order to bring the constitution more closely in line with the Iraqi mainstream, the constitutional revision process has not made any progress through parliament since 2007.
Federalism
Article 114 of the constitution of Iraq provided that no new region may be created before the Iraqi National Assembly has passed a law which provides the procedures for forming the region. This law was passed on 11 October after an agreement was reached with the Iraqi Accord Front to form the constitutional review committee and to defer implementation of the law for 18 months. Legislators from the Iraqi Accord Front, Sadrist Movement and Islamic Virtue Party all opposed the bill.
Governorate elections
Interim councils were elected in each of the Governorates of Iraq in the Iraqi Governorate elections of 2005. One of the tasks of the government was to pass a law to regulate the powers of the governorates and the process of elections. The law was finally passed by the Council of Representatives of Iraq in February 2008. It was vetoed by the Presidency Council at first, on the grounds that giving the Prime Minister the power to dismiss Governors would contravene the constitution. However, the Council reversed its position following protests from the Sadrist Movement, saying they would seek changes to the law before it came into force.
Kirkuk
Meanwhile, the Kurdistan Alliance wants Kurds who were expelled from Kirkuk to be allowed to return to the city and for the Kurdistan Region to be expanded. This currently includes the governorates of As-Sulaymāniyyah, Arbīl and Dahūk, and the Kurds would like this expanded to include Kirkuk and parts or all of Diyala and Ninawa. However, this move is opposed by Turkmen and Arabs in Kirkuk and by neighbouring Turkey. The Iraqi newspaper, 'Al-Furat, reported 2006-03-05 that this is also opposed by Jaafari, and one of the reasons why the Kurds opposed his nomination. The al-Maliki government announced in its programme that the referendum to determine Kirkuk's status would be held on 15 November 2007.
The Kurds would also like to increase the proportion of oil revenues retained by the regions from 17% to 24%.
In August 2006 Maliki appointed a committee to "examine the status" of Kirkuk "in light of Iraq's federalist system", headed by the Sunni Arab Justice Minister Hashim al-Shibli. The committee also including the Shi'ite Independent Interior Minister Jawad Bulani, the Turkoman Youth Minister Jasim Mohammed Jaafar and four representatives from Kirkuk.
Issues faced by the government
Basra violence
As soon as the government was formed members of the Basrah-based Islamic Virtue Party started a "go-slow", annoyed that they had lost their control over the oil ministry. A state of emergency was imposed on June 2 and the Iraqi Army stationed at key positions. A provincial security council was appointed by Prime Minister Maliki, consisting of:
Safa al-Safi, Ministry of State for Parliamentary Affairs
Salam al-Maliki, Sadr Movement
Hadi Al-Amiri, Badr Organization
Islamic Virtue Party representative
Iraqi Accord Front representative
three other United Iraqi Alliance members
Prison Abuse
D+Z, a development magazine based in Germany, reports the current administration reverting to Saddam-era police tactics, including torture and extrajudicial executions. It is reported that Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki knew of these acts, but he claims "the stories are 'lies.'" Reports of secret prisons exist as well.
Key legislation passed
The government passed the following key items of legislation:
The Federalism Law (October 2006), which provided for the formation of new regions of Iraq
The Unified Retirement Law (October 2007), restored pensions to former Baathists
The Accountability and Justice Law (January 2008), also known as the de-Baathification reforms, reinstated jobs and pensions to low-ranking Baath Party members, made the De-Baathification Commission permanent and extended de-Baathification to the judiciary. The law was passed by a majority vote by the Presidency Council after Vice President Tariq al-Hashimi refused to sign.
The General Amnesty Law (February 2008) allowed for the pardoning and release of all prisoners detained for more than 6 months without charge or 12 months without trial, unless suspected of the most serious crimes.
The Provincial Powers Act (February 2008) was passed by a majority of only 1 and detailed the division of powers between Governorates of Iraq and the federal government. The law gave the Prime Minister the power to dismiss governors. However, the Presidency Council vetoed this law, saying it violated the constitutions provisions on the powers of the governorates. It also provided for a Provincial Elections Law, to be passed within 90 days and new elections to be held by October 2008.
References
External links
Official site (Arabic)
Republic of Iraq Ministry of Foreign Affairs
Kurdistan Regional Government
Biographies of members of Iraq's government (20 July 2006)
Cabinets of Iraq
2006 establishments in Iraq
2010 disestablishments in Iraq | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al%20Maliki%20I%20Government |
The identity transform is a data transformation that copies the source data into the destination data without change.
The identity transformation is considered an essential process in creating a reusable transformation library. By creating a library of variations of the base identity transformation, a variety of data transformation filters can be easily maintained. These filters can be chained together in a format similar to UNIX shell pipes.
Examples of recursive transforms
The "copy with recursion" permits, changing little portions of code, produce entire new and different output, filtering or updating the input. Understanding the "identity by recursion" we can understand the filters.
Using XSLT
The most frequently cited example of the identity transform (for XSLT version 1.0) is the "copy.xsl" transform as expressed in XSLT. This transformation uses the xsl:copy command to perform the identity transformation:
<xsl:stylesheet version="1.0" xmlns:xsl="http://www.w3.org/1999/XSL/Transform">
<xsl:template match="@*|node()">
<xsl:copy>
<xsl:apply-templates select="@*|node()"/>
</xsl:copy>
</xsl:template>
</xsl:stylesheet>
This template works by matching all attributes (@*) and other nodes (node()), copying each node matched, then applying the identity transformation to all attributes and child nodes of the context node. This recursively descends the element tree and outputs all structures in the same structure they were found in the original file, within the limitations of what information is considered significant in the XPath data model. Since node() matches text, processing instructions, root, and comments, as well as elements, all XML nodes are copied.
A more explicit version of the identity transform is:
<xsl:stylesheet version="1.0" xmlns:xsl="http://www.w3.org/1999/XSL/Transform">
<xsl:template match="@*|*|processing-instruction()|comment()">
<xsl:copy>
<xsl:apply-templates select="*|@*|text()|processing-instruction()|comment()"/>
</xsl:copy>
</xsl:template>
</xsl:stylesheet>
This version is equivalent to the first, but explicitly enumerates the types of XML nodes that it will copy. Both versions copy data that is unnecessary for most XML usage (e.g., comments).
XSLT 3.0
XSLT 3.0 specifies an on-no-match attribute of the xsl:mode instruction that allows the identity transform to be declared rather than implemented as an explicit template rule. Specifically:
<xsl:stylesheet version="3.0" xmlns:xsl="http://www.w3.org/1999/XSL/Transform">
<xsl:mode on-no-match="shallow-copy" />
</xsl:stylesheet>
is essentially equivalent to the earlier template rules. See the XSLT 3.0 standard's description of shallow-copy for details.
Finally, note that markup details, such as the use of CDATA sections or the order of attributes, are not necessarily preserved in the output, since this information is not part of the XPath data model. To show CDATA markup in the output, the XSLT stylesheet that contains the identity transform template (not the identity transform template itself) should make use of the xsl:output attribute called cdata-section-elements.
cdata-section-elements specifies a list of the names of elements whose text node children should be output using CDATA sections.
For example:
<xsl:output method="xml" encoding="utf-8" cdata-section-elements="element-name-1 element-name-2"/>
Using XQuery
XQuery can define recursive functions. The following example XQuery function copies the input directly to the output without modification.
declare function local:copy($element as element()) {
element {node-name($element)}
{$element/@*,
for $child in $element/node()
return if ($child instance of element())
then local:copy($child)
else $child
}
};
The same function can also be achieved using a typeswitch-style transform.
xquery version "1.0";
(: copy the input to the output without modification :)
declare function local:copy($input as item()*) as item()* {
for $node in $input
return
typeswitch($node)
case document-node()
return
document {
local:copy($node/node())
}
case element()
return
element {name($node)} {
(: output each attribute in this element :)
for $att in $node/@*
return
attribute {name($att)} {$att}
,
(: output all the sub-elements of this element recursively :)
for $child in $node
return local:copy($child/node())
}
(: otherwise pass it through. Used for text(), comments, and PIs :)
default return $node
};
The typeswitch transform is sometime preferable since it can easily be modified by simply adding a case statement for any element that needs special processing.
Non-recursive transforms
Two simple and illustrative "copy all" transforms.
Using XSLT
<xsl:stylesheet version="1.0" xmlns:xsl="http://www.w3.org/1999/XSL/Transform">
<xsl:template match="/">
<xsl:copy-of select="."/>
</xsl:template>
</xsl:stylesheet>
Using XProc
<p:pipeline name="pipeline" xmlns:p="http://www.w3.org/ns/xproc">
<p:identity/>
</p:pipeline>
Here one important note about the XProc identity, is that it can take either one document like this example or a sequence of document as input.
More complex examples
Generally the identity transform is used as a base on which one can make local modifications.
Remove named element transform
Using XSLT
The identity transformation can be modified to copy everything from an input tree to an output tree except a given node. For example, the following will copy everything from the input to the output except the social security number:
<xsl:template match="@*|node()">
<xsl:copy>
<xsl:apply-templates select="@*|node()"/>
</xsl:copy>
</xsl:template>
<!-- remove all social security numbers -->
<xsl:template match="PersonSSNID"/>
Using XQuery
declare function local:copy-filter-elements($element as element(),
$element-name as xs:string*) as element() {
element {node-name($element) }
{ $element/@*,
for $child in $element/node()[not(name(.)=$element-name)]
return if ($child instance of element())
then local:copy-filter-elements($child,$element-name)
else $child
}
};
To call this one would add:
$filtered-output := local:copy-filter-elements($input, 'PersonSSNID')
Using XProc
<p:pipeline name="pipeline" xmlns:p="http://www.w3.org/ns/xproc">
<p:identity/>
<p:delete match="PersonSSNID"/>
</p:pipeline>
See also
Data mapping
XML pipeline
Further reading
XSLT Cookbook, O'Reilly Media, Inc., December 1, 2002, by Sal Mangano,
Priscilla Walmsley, XQuery, O'Reilly Media, Inc., Chapter 8 Functions – Recursive Functions – page 109
References
Computer programming
Transforms | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity%20transform |
Marcel Berlins (30 October 1941 – 31 July 2019) was a French-born lawyer, legal commentator, author, broadcaster and columnist. He was best known for his work in the United Kingdom, writing for British national newspapers The Times and The Guardian, presenting BBC Radio 4's legal programme Law in Action for 16 years, and teaching Media Law at City, University of London.
Biography
Berlins was born in Marseille, France, on 30 October 1941, the only child of Jacques Berlins and his wife, Pearl, who were of Latvian Jewish origin. The couple had migrated to France before the war and ran a small hotel. When the country was occupied by the Nazis in 1940, Jacques became active in the Resistance; the family moved to a remote village in the hills near Luberon. He moved with his parents to South Africa in 1951 and stayed there until his early adulthood. Berlins completed his schooling in South Africa and only then started to learn English; he claimed to have perfected the language by reading Agatha Christie novels. He remained a French citizen, however, and voted in the 2007 French presidential election. Berlins studied law at the University of the Witwatersrand and spent his early career in the lower criminal courts of Johannesburg.
The deteriorating political situation in South Africa prompted a return to Europe, and Berlins moved to Paris. He considered enrolling as a student at the Sorbonne, but the possibility of French military service, led him to move again, to London. In London he studied for his master of laws degree at the London School of Economics.
Berlins wrote a weekly column for The Guardian, and regularly reviewed crime fiction for The Times. Berlins began presenting BBC Radio 4's legal affairs programme Law in Action in 1988, and won two awards for Legal Broadcaster of the Year, before retiring from the programme in 2004. He was a contestant for the South of England team in the 2007 series of Radio 4's Round Britain Quiz and continued in the series until 2014. He devised and presented, for London Weekend Television, the first television drama-documentary to feature real lawyers and judges doing their job and created and edited the award-winning publication The Law Magazine.
Berlins was a visiting professor at City, University of London, in the Department of Journalism. He taught Media Law to students on the Postgraduate Diplomas in Broadcast Journalism, Magazine Journalism, Newspaper Journalism and Television Current Affairs Journalism, as well as the BA in Journalism and a Social Science.
Berlins was a fine pianist throughout his life and for a time played in a club in Lourenço Marques in Mozambique. He occasionally played on the public piano in St Pancras railway station. In one of his final articles for The Guardian, Berlins wrote that it had been Orson Welles’s onscreen depiction of Clarence Darrow, the prominent American lawyer who defended two high-profile murderers facing the death penalty in 1924, which had encouraged his early fascination with the law and justice.
Personal life
In 2005, Berlins married Lisa Forrell, a corporate lawyer and theatre director. Together they wrote the play Best of Motives (2002), examining how antiterrorism laws, passed following the September 11 attacks, could be used to subvert the values they were supposed to protect. The couple owned several properties, including a flat in Paris, a spacious mansion-block apartment in Bloomsbury (West End of London), and an old house in Provence, close to where Berlins had spent his childhood.
Death
Berlins died on 31 July 2019, following a brain haemorrhage.
Dr Paul Lashmar of the Department of Journalism at City, University of London, said: "Marcel really was a brilliant commentator on the law. He made it accessible to the ordinary reader. And what’s more, he did so with a sense of humanity. His wonderful writing will be missed."
Berlins is survived by his widow and a stepson and a stepdaughter.
Books
Caught in the Act (1974), (with Geoffrey Wansell), a study of young offenders and their treatment
Ramesh Maharaj, Barrister Behind Bars (1979), the true story of a Trinidadian lawyer’s detention
Living Together (1982), (with Clare Dyer), on the legal pitfalls of cohabitation
The Law Machine (1982), (with Clare Dyer), the evolution of the justice system evolved and how it operates
The Law and You (1986), for the Consumers’ Association, examining aspects of consumer law
Plays
Best of Motives (2002), (with Lisa Forrell), about antiterrorism laws after the September 11 attacks
References
External links
Marcel Berlins' columns at The Guardian
"Marcel Berlins introduces The 50 Greatest Crime Writers list", at The Times, 23 December 2008
"Marcel Berlins reviews the latest crime fiction ", The Times, 16 October 2004
1941 births
2019 deaths
Academics of City, University of London
French emigrants to England
British columnists
Mass media people from Marseille
French emigrants to South Africa
French people of Latvian-Jewish descent | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcel%20Berlins |
Spiro Bernard Zavos (born 1937 in Wellington of Greek immigrant parents) is a New Zealand historian, philosopher, journalist and writer.
Life and career
After gaining a Bachelor of Arts from the Victoria University of Wellington, Zavos taught history at St Patrick's College, Silverstream, in Wellington. An opening batsman, he played one first-class cricket match for Wellington in the 1958–59 season.
In 1967, Zavos gained a Master of Arts (Education) from The Catholic University of America in Washington, D.C. He then moved into journalism, working as a reporter at The Dominion newspaper in Wellington (now amalgamated into The Dominion Post). In 1976 he shared the New Zealand Feature Writer of the Year award with fellow journalist Warwick Roger, won for a series on New Zealand under Prime Minister Rob Muldoon.
The following year Zavos moved to Australia. In 1978 he was awarded the Katherine Mansfield Fellowship and spent a year in Menton, France, writing a collection of autobiographical short stories, which he later published under the title Faith of Our Fathers.
In 1979 he became an editorial writer on the Sydney Morning Herald, where he would remain until 2000. At the Herald, he also moved into rugby writing. Zavos has written more than 1000 articles for www.TheRoar.com.au, an Australian sports opinion website founded by his two sons.
He has written several books on rugby, and has contributed to Radio New Zealand as a sports analyst.
Bibliography
The Real Muldoon, Fourth Estate Books, 1978
After the Final Whistle: Mourie's "Grand-Slam" All Blacks, and the Controversies, Personalities and Tactics of Post-war New Zealand Rugby, 1979
Crusade: Social Credit's Drive for Power, 1981
Faith of Our Fathers, 1982
The Gold and the Black: The Rugby Battles for the Bledisloe Cup: New Zealand vs Australia, 1903-94, 1995
Winters of Revenge: The Bitter Rivalry between the All Blacks and the Springboks, 1997
Ka Mate! Ka Mate!: New Zealand's Conquest of British Rugby, 1998
The Golden Wallabies: The Story of Australia's Rugby World Champions, 2000
Two Mighty Tribes: The Story of the All Blacks vs the Wallabies 2003 (with Gordon Bray)
Watching the Rugby World Cup, 2007
How to Watch the Rugby World Cup 2011, 2011
How to Watch a Game of Rugby, 2012
References
External links
Spiro Zavos articles at The Roar
Author page at Awa Press
1937 births
Australian people of Greek descent
New Zealand people of Greek descent
Living people
New Zealand cricketers
New Zealand journalists
Australian sportswriters
Catholic University of America alumni
Victoria University of Wellington alumni
Wellington cricketers
New Zealand sportswriters
The Sydney Morning Herald people | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiro%20Zavos |
These are the results for the 2005 UCI Road World Championships bicycle race road race. The men's elite race was held on Sunday September 25, 2005 in Madrid, Spain, over a total distance of 273 kilometres. Despite several rumours before the race that some Belgian cyclists would ride for teammate Robbie McEwen, the Belgian squad did work together and their leader Tom Boonen (of the opposing team) won the race.
Final classification
5 riders did not start the race although on the official list of participants, while 52 riders started but did not finish the race.
External links
Race website
Men's Road Race
UCI Road World Championships – Men's road race
UCI Road World Championships
de:Straßen-Radweltmeisterschaft 2005 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2005%20UCI%20Road%20World%20Championships%20%E2%80%93%20Men%27s%20road%20race |
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